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data/part_3/0084839b4d2ece9a90f0348e28f073a2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0084839b4d2ece9a90f0348e28f073a2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ce7e012e-a430-4812-b010-50e9fd947743/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Feeds and feeding practices","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The East Africa Dairy Development (EADD) project is a regional industry development program implemented by a consortium of partners led by Heifer International. It is currently being piloted in 18 sites in Kenya, 8 in Rwanda and 27 in Uganda. The overall goal of the project is to transform the lives of 179,000 families, or about 1 million people, by doubling household dairy income in 10 years through integrated interventions in dairy production, market access and knowledge application. This brief highlights key results of a baseline survey that was carried out with the objective of providing information on cattle production systems and the current feeding practices in smallholder households in selected sites in Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda. Details are available in the baseline survey report No. 3."}]},{"head":"Baseline survey methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Why: To assess the baseline situation of dairy farmers and their communities at the start of the project, and to identify key constraints dairy farmers and market agents face and opportunities for overcoming them through targeted project interventions."}]},{"head":"When: July to October 2008","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Where: Three survey sites in Rwanda and five each in Kenya and Uganda; two control sites in Kenya and one each in Rwanda and Uganda What: Community, household and market agent surveys How: 75 households and 20 market agents sampled per site. Focus group discussions for the community survey; structured questionnaire for the household and market agent surveys."}]},{"head":"Feed systems","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Feed systems for both exotic and local cattle breeds are changing over time. This shift presents opportunities to supplement fodder through provision of high-quality forages and concentrates. "}]},{"head":"Forages used","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"A large diversity was observed in the types of feed resources used by dairy households; these included Napier grass, crop by-products, hay, maize stover, weeds and cut grass. Napier grass and other crop by-products were the most commonly used forages in Rwanda and Uganda, while in Kenya, Napier grass and maize stover were most commonly used. Across all three countries, the greatest proportion of farmers (over 90%) sourced fodder from their own farms, though in Uganda, growing of fodder on state land was an important source of fodder for about half (53%) of farmers. Breeding services preferred Overall in all three countries, households preferred to use bull service over AI. However, there were a few hubs where a greater proportion of households preferred AI; these were Mukono in Uganda, Bwisanga in Rwanda and Kabiyet in Kenya."}]},{"head":"Conservation of feed","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Very few dairy farmers were observed to conserve feed across all three countries. The non-silage based methods of traditional stacking under a shade and stacking in a store were used by the highest number of cattle-keepers."}]},{"head":"Use of concentrate feed","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Use of concentrate feed was very low across all countries, especially in Uganda, but was generally higher than 10 years ago. Concentrates were reportedly used by 33% and 12% of cattle-keeping households in Kenya and Rwanda, respectively. In Uganda, only 4% of cattle-keepers used concentrate feed. This result suggests low supplementation to dairy cows which may be one of the reasons for low milk production."}]},{"head":"B. Lukuyu, A.J. Duncan, K. Kariuki and I. Baltenweck","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Disclaimer: This material was funded by and is the absolute property of the East Africa Dairy Development (EADD) Project. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the EADD Project. The mention of specific organizations or their services, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by EADD in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"For more information, contact Ben Lukuyu ([email protected]) or visit the EADD project website at http://eadairy.wordpress.com"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"1f246a4d-d7b9-4505-bade-31ce4f408ed8","abstract":"ILRI is supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)This document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License ILRI works with partners worldwide to help poor people keep their farm animals alive and productive, increase and sustain their livestock and farm productivity, and find profitable markets for their animal products. ILRI's headquarters are in Nairobi, Kenya; we have a principal campus in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and 14 offices in other regions of Africa and Asia. ILRI is part of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (www.cgiar.org), which works to reduce hunger, poverty and environmental degradation in developing countries by generating and sharing relevant agricultural knowledge, technologies and policies."}

data/part_3/00bc8fd814a3eb53c29bbd6cdb1a9b0f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00bc8fd814a3eb53c29bbd6cdb1a9b0f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/99e75f77-dcb8-4c9e-83e3-d71302ef3a2c/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"What is the cause of bovine mastitis?","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Bovine mastitis could be caused by: ♦ Infectious agents ♦ Physical trauma (injury) to udder and teats What are the effects of bovine mastitis? What are the symptoms of bovine mastitis?"},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"♦ Abnormal milk with flakes, different colour (blood or pus), watery appearance and a foul smell ♦ The area of the affected udder will be painful and hard, sometimes swollen and reddish and the cow will be difficult to milk ♦ Its milk production decreases ♦ Body temperature of the animal increases ♦ Lack of appetite, hindrance in mobility due to swollen udder and pain ♦ Fibrosis and occlusion of the teat canal (blind teat)"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"How can I prevent and control bovine mastitis in my herd? In partnership with"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"♦ Economic effect ♦ Realized and unrealized reduced milk production ♦ Milk discarded because of contamination with antibiotics ♦ Cost of veterinary services and drugs to treat acute and chronic mastitis ♦ Public health effect ♦ The bacterial contamination of milk from affected cows may cause food poisoning: e.g. Streptcoccal sore throat and brucellosis ♦ Residue of antibiotic used in mastitis treatment of mastitis cause sensitization and allergic reaction How is the disease transmitted? ♦ There are two main source of microorganism causing mastitis: ♦ Cow environment: this microbes usually present in the cow's environment from fecal contamination and reach the teat from the cow environment ♦ Milkers hand: this microbes are normally teat skin inhabitant spread from infected quarters to other quarters by unhygienic milking practices "},{"text":"1. Insuring proper and hygienic milking practice: ♦ Regular inspection and repair of milking machine ♦ Regular cleaning and disinfection of milking equipment ♦ Dipping teats before and after milking 2. Maintaining clean and dry cow environment: ♦ Regular cleaning of the barn and proper manure disposal 3. Correct treatment of clinical cases ♦ Consult veterinarian when you see clinically ill cows ♦ Milk and massage the affected part as often as possible (every two hours) 4. Dry cow therapy on all cows (the last 45-60 days of pregnancy) ♦ Using teat sealant during the period ♦ Administering intramammary infusions of long-acting antibiotics for dry cow if infection is identified 5. Culling chronically infected cows: ♦ Chronically sick animals should be regularly identified and culled from the farm ILRI, [email protected] with contribution from Solomon Gizaw and Theodore Knight-Jones "}],"sieverID":"12321041-b002-450a-a7f4-873896c12e58","abstract":"Mastitis is inflammation of the parenchyma of the mammary gland ♦ Bovine mastitis have two forms:♦ Clinical mastitis: manifested as swelling, heat, pain and oedema in the mammary gland ♦ Subclinical mastitis: not readily detectable by visual examination of the milk unless California Mastitis test (CMT) is conducted"}

data/part_3/00dda425eb72f0afddaf320c347d4fb6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00dda425eb72f0afddaf320c347d4fb6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub061/Report61.pdf"},"pageCount":36,"title":"Poverty Dimensions of Irrigation Management Transfer in Large-Scale Canal Irrigation in","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"iv v","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"The need for a pro-poor mode of irrigation management transfer (IMT) has arisen due to the observed tendency of IMT to aggravate rural poverty. This research, centered on large scale canal irrigation schemes in India, seeks to: a) examine ways to measure relative income poverty within large-scale irrigation schemes, b) examine the validity of the common assumption that both poor and non-poor farmers of the same irrigation scheme have equal access to canal water, and c) assess the differential impacts of IMT programs on poor and non-poor farmers in Andra Pradesh and Gujarat, India. Two different IMT programs-the state-wide program under the Andra Pradesh Farmers' Management of Irrigation Systems Act of 1999 (APFMIS) and the pilot program under the Participatory Irrigation Management Resolution in Gujarat of 1995 (PIM)-were selected for this study. Seven hundred land owning and tenant farmers from 7 water users' associations (WUAs) constituted the sample of \"small farmers\" and \"larger farmers\" with operational holdings of less than one hectare and one hectare or more, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Relative farm size was found to be a valid indicator of relative income, as many features characteristic of the farm size exert a determining influence on income. Moreover, the ready availability of data on farm size makes it a practical indicator. In Andra Pradesh a higher proportion of small farmers depend on canal water but the concentration of their plots, mainly in the tail ends, poses a disadvantage regarding canal water accessibility. In contrast, no differences in water accessibility exist between small farmers and larger farmers in Gujarat. Therefore, IMT that improves access to canal water is pro-poor per se in Andra Pradesh and equally beneficial to both small and larger farmers in Gujarat."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Farmer participation in WUA activities is rather low in both states and most small farmers are unaware of WUAs. While small farmers often participate in repair and rehabilitation work, the larger farmers involve themselves in meetings, committees, etc. Such inequity in participation undermines the equitable distribution of benefits from IMT and also the viability of WUAs that depend heavily on the labor contribution of small farmers. It is recommended that a one-farm onevote right, irrespective of farm size, stipulated by APFMIS, be concretized through awareness raising."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"The impacts observed are from 5 years of program implementation in Gujarat and 2 years in Andra Pradesh. The findings of this research underscore the necessity for monitoring farm-size related differences as a prerequisite for ensuring pro-poor IMT. vi 1"}]},{"head":"Poverty Dimensions of Irrigation Management Transfer in Large-Scale Canal Irrigation in Andra Pradesh and Gujarat, India","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Barbara van Koppen, R. Parthasarathy and Constantina Safiliou especially poor people are reached and gain from irrigation investments are also on the agenda at the earliest stages of scheme development. Targeting the poor by selecting their lands for improvement or land redistribution in the new command area and allocating new land primarily to the poor, are two possible measures and they are essentially arranged before construction (Chambers 1984;Jazairy et al. 1992). Prevention of poor people's loss of land and water rights without proper compensation is equally negotiated at the very beginning. Another regulation that determines poor people's relative benefits, and is typically decided upon in the early phases, is the allocation of water rights. Allocation of such rights in proportion to land size rather than, for example, on the basis of an equal quantity of water to every farm household, reproduces the inequities of land distribution in the distribution of water and water-created wealth. Allocation proportional to land size is widespread in countries like India, which is the focus of the present research."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1"}]},{"head":"Justification and Research Design","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Justification Poverty alleviation has always been an important aim of the governments of developing countries when investing in the construction and operation of large-scale canal irrigation infrastructure. Among the expected impacts are benefits for poor net food producers from more intensive cropping of higher-yielding varieties during a longer period of the year, including the lean period. Urban and rural poor net food buyers benefit from higher agricultural output and lower food prices. New wage employment in irrigated agriculture, construction work and the increase of local demand for goods and services as spin-off of irrigation development would further benefit the rural poor."},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":"These plausible, and partly verified, positive impacts of irrigation on the income-poor are realized when new schemes start functioning and effecting a shift from rain-fed agriculture to irrigated agriculture, one crop per year to more crops, a low-value crop to a high-value crop, etc. Therefore, targeted measures to ensure that 1 In India, the proportionality of water rights to land size (and crops) is strong in formal and local law, like warabandi (a system of rotational turns through which each shareholder in a watercourse obtains his or her water supply). This reproduces the skewed distribution of land in water use and the distribution of wealth created with water. This proportionality is rarely questioned except for a few often-cited micro-scale experiments in which the rightful quantity of water was disconnected from land size, for example in the Pani Panchayats in Pune (Chambers 1994), and sometimes even from landownership, as in Sukhomajri (Sarin 1996). In the present research, the quantity of water was disconnected from land size in Gujarat WUA1 during a short period of severe water scarcity, with support from an NGO."},{"index":3,"size":274,"text":"If the early phases of scheme development are most critical to realize poverty alleviation impacts, the question is, whether there are irrigation policy-related poverty issues in the use phase. Irrigation agencies concerned with poverty may, during the use phase, simply concentrate on ensuring that the scheme functions well and realizes its potential, while water is allocated equitably. It is true that localized measures during the use phase, such as rehabilitation or drainage and salinization management, may still be targeted at sites in the scheme where a high proportion of poor people depend upon irrigation. However, in general, the working hypothesis that once a scheme functions, the scheme operation and maintenance equally affects poor and non-poor farmers and that inequities related to farm size (and hence poverty) are a given which irrigation agencies cannot change anymore seems justified. An incidentally verified common assumption that the poor are concentrated in the tail ends as a consequence of poverty cannot easily be changed either. It only underlines the urgency to address the general, scheme-level head-tail inequities in water use in order to reduce water scarcity which, in turn, tends to become an additional cause of poverty in the tail ends. Even if sociopolitical and economic power relations among farmers are found to play a role in irrigation management at all levels (Mollinga 1998) including negotiations for water at farm level (Jairath 1999a;Raju 2000), they seem less relevant than general scheme problems, unless social inequities are huge, as in feudal societies. The lack of tools to monitor poverty dimensions in large-scale canal irrigation schemes during the use phase undoubtedly perpetuates the silence on poverty-once schemes have started functioning."},{"index":4,"size":245,"text":"The working hypothesis that the interests of the poor sufficiently overlap the general scheme interests may have been valid in the past. However, this could drastically change under irrigation reform and IMT. Since the mid-1980s, hand-over of managerial and financial responsibilities of the public schemes to newly established water users associations (WUAs) in return for stronger rights for farmers over water, and in some cases also ownership of infrastructure, has been intensified worldwide (Vermillion, 1997). Evaluations of the early experiences of IMT increasingly indicate that the current mode of IMT only works in respect of non-poor, market-oriented, large-scale and business-like agriculture (Shah et al. 2002). This is the case in countries like the USA and New Zealand or on large farms in South Africa, Mexico and Turkey. In schemes in the middleand low-income countries with a heterogeneous composition of farmers in the command areas, IMT succeeds only where farmers with the largest holdings become the \"champions,\" for example, in Colombia (Ramirez and Vargas 1999) or Sudan (Narayanamurthy et al. 1997). For poorer farmers in Sudan, and indeed in many smallholder irrigation schemes, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, withdrawal of state support led to partial or full collapse of the scheme, with negative consequences on both productivity and poverty. That pattern was similar in Kenya (Kabutha and Mutero 2001), Zimbabwe (Manzungu et al. 1999) and South Africa (Shah et al. 2002). Many current modes of IMT aggravate rural poverty and jeopardize original government goals of irrigation investments."},{"index":5,"size":100,"text":"Governments continue IMT in pursuit of the originally expected goals of removing the inefficiencies of costly state bureaucracies (or just saving state funds) and intentions of better tapping local farmer knowledge, entrepreneurial skills and their keen motivation to ensure adequate water services. This is also the policy and practice of the government of India (Brewer et al. 1999;Hooja and Joshi 2000). Hence, the question is how future irrigation management transfer can be done in a \"propoor\" mode resulting in benefits to poor farmers, while benefiting non-poor farmers equally or perhaps to a lesser degree. The present research addresses this issue."}]},{"head":"Research Questions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"First, the research aims to contribute to the development of a poverty indicator appropriate not only for use in the present research but also for use by the government staff, WUAs and researchers for routine monitoring of poverty dimensions in large-scale canal irrigation schemes under IMT. An indicator should facilitate the comparison of differential impacts on poor and non-poor farmers within a particular scheme at a certain moment and identification of trends overtime. Existing data and registers should be used optimally. Farm size fits these criteria best. This research further examines the relationship between farm size and other intra-scheme variables that affect farm incomes and income-poverty in order to validate and improve an indicator based on farm size. These are the location of plots at head or tail ends, crop choice, cropping intensity and the role of other income sources in farm households."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Second, the research empirically tests the above-mentioned hypothesis that irrigation affairs in functioning large-scale canal irrigation schemes, in particular access to water, affect poor and non-poor farmers in the same scheme alike, given land distribution, plot locations in head or tail, and water allocation proportional to farm size. Both canal water and water from other irrigation sources, such as wells and mechanized pumps, are considered. Where systematic differences between poor and nonpoor farmers in their access to water are found to exist, plausible implications for IMT are traced."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Last, as the core of the research, differential impacts of irrigation management transfer programs in Andra Pradesh and Gujarat on poor and non-poor farmers are examined. Impacts of IMT with regard to access to water, crop choice, newly irrigated area production and incomes are analyzed and equities and inequities of participation in the new WUAs are assessed."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"The research questions are addressed for schemes under two different IMT programs, the Andra Pradesh Farmers Management of Irrigation Systems Act of 1997 (APFMIS) and the Government of Gujarat Resolution on Participatory Irrigation Management 1995(PIM). Worldwide, the innovative \"big-bang\" approach of APFMIS is seen as the most effective mode of IMT. The approach taken in Gujarat represents the more conventional, step-by-step pilot method, which has also been applied elsewhere in India and other countries (Parthasarathy 2000;Brewer et al. 1999). Both programs are still young , only 2 years in Andra Pradesh and 5 years in Gujarat. Hence, effects have not crystallized as yet, especially in Andra Pradesh and the findings at this stage serve rather as a baseline for continued impact monitoring. More importantly, the assessment of early impacts informs policy makers on time about poverty impacts so that recommendations to render the mode of IMT more 'pro-poor', if needed, can still be implemented."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Seven newly established WUAs were selected from the main agro-ecological regions in Andra Pradesh and Gujarat. The three WUAs in Andra Pradesh (Andra Pradesh WUA1, Andra Pradesh WUA2 and Andra Pradesh WUA3) are from the Telangana, Coastal and Rayalseema regions respectively, and were chosen randomly from the largest schemes in these regions. In Gujarat, two WUAs were selected randomly from the pilot PIM schemes in the dry north Gujarat region (Gujarat WUA1 and Gujarat WUA2) and two from the central south region (Gujarat WUA3 and Gujarat WUA4). NGOs are the implementing agencies of the two Northern WUAs while the governmental irrigation department (ID) supports the southern WUAs. The main characteristics of these WUAs are listed in the annex."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"The total sample consists of 700 farm households operating holdings in the command area of these WUAs during the year 1998-1999. Further, in each WUA, committee members totaling 67 were interviewed. The selection of the 700 farm households was stratified and included landowners of four size classes of operational holdings: less than 0.5 ha, from 0.5-1 ha, from 1-2.5 ha and above 2.5 ha. A fifth category consisted of owner-cum-tenants or tenants who cultivated leased-in land in the command area and whose operational landholding did not exceed one ha."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"2 Femaleheaded households were purposively included in the study. 3 This sample allows identifying farmsize-related patterns. As relevant, the findings are either presented for all farm classes or for two main classes: the smallest three classes of owners and tenants operating less than 1 ha each are regrouped as \"small farmers\" (totaling 490) and the two categories with operational holdings above 1 ha are regrouped into the category of \"larger farmers\" (totaling 210)."},{"index":5,"size":202,"text":"Farm-size-related differences in access to irrigation water were measured, first, by assessing access to canal water and other sources of irrigation by farm size. Second, the number of waterings received from canals or other irrigation sources for main crops in a scheme were compared. In Andra Pradesh, access to water was assessed for the kharif (summer season) 1998-1999. In this state, the irrigated area is generally the largest during this season. In one WUA in the sample, there is no irrigation at all in rabi (winter season). The major crops found in the study of WUAs were paddy and maize as predominant food crops and cotton, chili and groundnut as cash crops. In Gujarat, rabi (winter season) is the most important season for irrigation; so the rabi of 1998-1999 was analyzed. The major crops are wheat and the cash crops, mustard and tobacco. Access to water was studied for the 910 plots in both states with these eight main crops. For the assessment of effects of IMT on access to water, other aspects such as the quantities of water, timeliness and reliability of water services as well as perceived changes in productivity and incomes, for any of the plots, were also included."}]},{"head":"2","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"These farm sizes fall within the relatively small farm sizes, for example, in Andra Pradesh where 97% of all irrigated farms are below 5 ha (FAO-INPIM 2000)."}]},{"head":"3","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Results of the analysis of the gender aspects are reported elsewhere (van Koppen et al. 2000)."}]},{"head":"Poverty and Farm Size","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"rrigation schemes in India where land registers already exist. Farm size is especially a valid proxy for relative income and income poverty within localized irrigation schemes where relative farm size is a proxy for relative incomes and relative poverty. Farmers in the same scheme are more or less equally affected"},{"index":2,"size":182,"text":"The relationship between income poverty and lack of land is well established and continues to lead to poverty-focused land reforms (Sobhan 1993;Dev et al. 1994;World Bank 2000). Hence, in an agriculture-based rural economy, farm size is a valid proxy for income. It is also a proxy for which data are available in many by other important variables that determine incomes, such as access to markets, off-farm employment opportunities, climate, etc. So, farm size is the most appropriate and the only currently available indicator for routine monitoring of poverty dimensions in irrigation schemes. The question is whether and, if possible, how the indicator can be further improved. Therefore, we examined important factors that influence the relationship between farm size and income that may vary highly within WUAs, such as location of the plot in the head or tail and related land value, cropping intensity, value of crops grown, and last but not least, other household income sources than irrigated agriculture. The assessment of whether there is a positive, negative or neutral relationship between farm size and these variables led to the following conclusions."}]},{"head":"Plot Location","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"Plots of small and larger farmers are not scattered randomly throughout the command area. Larger farmers appear to be systematically more successful in occupying the head and middle reaches and in avoiding tail ends than small farmers. Tail ends are generally assumed to be more disadvantageous. Figure 1 shows that, out of all plots belonging to small farmers in Andra Pradesh, most (57%) are in the tail ends, while the corresponding value for larger farmers is 44 percent. A similar bias is observed in Gujarat where the plots of small and larger farmers in the tail end are 38 percent and 29 percent, respectively. This difference is even more relevant because small farmers more often depend only on one or two plots. As figure 2 indicates, in Andra Pradesh, the large majority of the smallest farmers, with holdings of less than 0.5 ha (86%) have only one plot each. In Gujarat, where plots are generally smaller, the risk of having only one plot in the tail end is less-half of even the smallest farmers with less than 0.5 ha, each have two plots or more. Thus, small farm size is related to location in the tail. This makes the relationship between farm size and income stronger and farm size more valid as a proxy. Head-tail inequities in Figure 1."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Proportion of plots by location and farm size."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Andra Pradesh: Significant at 0.005 level."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Gujarat: Significant at 0.005 level."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"water delivery are not just a general scheme problem but they are a problem that affects poorer farmers more than larger farmers. As a consequence, in the WUAs of both states, IMT that leads to better provision of canal water to the tails would be \"pro-poor\" in itself as it disproportionately benefits small farmers. Proportion of households by number of plots and farm size and tenancy status."}]},{"head":"Crop Choice 4","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Systematic farm-size related differences related to crop choice were found in Andra Pradesh. As figure 3 shows, a significantly higher proportion of plots operated by small farmers (54%) are cultivated with the low-value paddy crop, used for family consumption and for the market, than the plots cultivated by larger farmers (32%). As for high-value cash crops, larger farmers cultivate chili more often than small farmers (19% versus 8%, respectively). In Gujarat, no systematic relationships were found between holding size and crop choice (wheat, mustard, tobacco). This means that farm size is even more strongly related to income in Andra Pradesh but not in Gujarat."}]},{"head":"Other Income Sources","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Figure 4 highlights that the irrigated plots are rarely the only income source, especially among the smallest farmers. Even though the majority of the farmers with holdings above 2.5 ha also have more income sources, this finding implies that caution is needed in equaling differences in farm size to differences in income. Additional information on the relative and absolute contribution of these other income sources to total income and income poverty would improve the indicator."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Insight into the source of other incomes clarifies whether additional income is from irrigated agriculture and hence indirectly related to IMT, or not. Figure 5 shows that agriculture and allied activities such as agricultural wage labor and livestock, are the primary income source for 91 percent of the sample households in Andra Pradesh. In Gujarat, the rural economy is less agriculture-based and off-farm employment has become an important primary income source. Among the households operating holdings of less than 0.5 ha, 46 percent find their major income outside agriculture, in regular (non-agricultural) wage labor and selfemployment, and in trades such as diamondcutting in areas like Visnagar, Surat."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"The importance of agriculture in Andra Pradesh is also reflected in the finding that laborer is the main activity status of a significant proportion of all members of the poorest households in Andra Pradesh. Thus, 49 percent of all working women and 33 percent of the men in small tenants' households are reported to be active as casual agricultural wage laborers. Wage labor provides the primary source of household income in 33 per cent of all households and the secondary source of income of another 24 percent of all households in Andra Pradesh. In contrast, in farms up to one hectare in Gujarat, less than 14 percent of all male household members and less than 6 percent of all women are agricultural wage laborers."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"In Andra Pradesh, landlessness is widespread, which explains not only the high dependence on agricultural wage labor, but also high tenancy rates. In Andra Pradesh WUA3, for example, about 30 percent of the eligible members of the WUA are reportedly tenants. 5 In Gujarat, on the other hand, leasing in of land by poor people is rarely reported. On the contrary, the incidence of reverse tenancy is high, especially in the two WUAs where agriculture is least important as an income base for the small farmers. Farmers with very small smallholdings lease their lands to large landowners."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"In Andra Pradesh literacy rates are low. The average percentage of literate persons in the sample households is 49 percent for men and 25 percent for women. In Gujarat, this is much higher-69 percent for men and 43 percent for women."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"In both states, small farms are more often located in the tail ends compared to larger farms. In Andra Pradesh, small farm size is also related to the cultivation of low-value crops. These relationships reinforce the validity of farm size as a proxy for income poverty. However, farm size and income diversification are inversely related. Especially in very small holdings, there is more often more than just one income source. Thus, in interpreting the relationships between farm size and other variables that are presented below, one needs to realize that the smallest farms are not necessarily the most income-poor in Gujarat. More research is needed on the importance of other income sources, in respect of poverty (cattle, wage-employment, number of earning male/female household members, casual/ permanent employment, etc.)."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Farm size is recommended for the routine monitoring of income poverty dimensions in large-scale canal irrigation schemes. The proxy would improve if it was specified for variables like location, crop choice, cropping intensity, and, as elaborated in the next sections, access to water and the WUA. However, the indicator would especially improve as a proxy for income poverty if additional information on other income sources were included."}]},{"head":"Access to Water","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"It is commonly assumed that important features of functioning canal irrigation schemes such as access to water in the command area are similar for poor and non-poor farmers, once water allocation proportional to farm size and skewed land distribution are accepted as a given. The findings above already indicate that in the sample WUAs there are systematic differences in variables that indirectly affect access to water, namely the concentration of small farms in the tail ends and, in Andra Pradesh, preference of small farmers for paddy, a water-consuming crop. Other systematic differences in access to water were found as well, at least in Andra Pradesh."}]},{"head":"Alternative Irrigation Sources","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"Before looking into farm-size related differences in access to water, a general picture of the importance of conjunctive use of water from either canals or other sources is given. Of all the sample plots, 51 percent in Andra Pradesh and 62 percent in Gujarat are irrigated by alternative sources of water. However, the pattern strongly varies by WUA. Each state has one WUA that still largely depends on canal water only (figure 6). In Andra Pradesh, alternative sources are shallow large-diameter wells with mechanized pumps and tanks. In Gujarat, they are primarily shallow wells with pumps. Deep tubewells are used only in Gujarat WUA1, in the dry northern part of Gujarat, where as many as 66 percent of the plots surveyed are irrigated by tubewells or a combination of tubewells and canal water. Another 11 percent of plots in this WUA are irrigated by shallow wells alone or in combination with canals. In Gujarat WUA2, the other WUA in the dry north, water provision in 32 percent of the plots is done by both wells and canals (but very few tubewells). Remarkably, less than 7 percent of plots in all five other WUAs are irrigated by a combination of alternative sources and canals. Thus, most plots in the sample depend either on canal water or, more often, on alternative sources of water, but rarely on both."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"The location of alternative irrigation sources in the command area varies. In Andra Pradesh, alternative sources are significantly more prevalent in the head and middle reaches, where 64 per cent of the plots depend upon alternative sources. In the tail ends, this is 36 percent. In Gujarat, the alternative sources are more towards the tail ends, where 69 percent of the plots depend upon alternative sources. In the upstream reaches this is less-59 percent of the plots."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"For all crops, plots irrigated by alternative irrigation sources received a higher number of waterings than plots irrigated from canals. Therefore, alternative irrigation sources perform better (but tend to cost more). Expectedly, plots that depend only on canal irrigation face more problems in the tail. For seven out of the eight crops (except wheat in Gujarat) canal-irrigated plots in the tails received less waterings than those at the head. The picture is more mixed if one compares the number of waterings from alternative water sources either in the head, middle or tail. For five of the eight crops, tail enders get more waterings from alternative sources than head enders."}]},{"head":"Differential Access to Water","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The first aspect of possible systematic differences in access to water between small and larger farmers concerns their access to alternative irrigation sources. In Andra Pradesh a significant bias was found. In this state only 46 percent of the plots of small farmers were irrigated from alternative sources as against 56 percent of plots of larger farmers. In Gujarat, there was no such difference. Among the plots of small and larger farmers, 63 percent and 62 percent respectively were irrigated from alternative sources."}]},{"head":"6","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"The second aspect analyzed is the number of waterings received by small and larger farmers either from canals or from alternative sources. This highlighted important differences in Andra Pradesh, as shown in figure 7. Those small farmers with access to alternative sources received less waterings from them than larger farmers received for four of the five crops. Remarkably, not only a higher proportion of small farmers use canal water, but they also take more waterings than larger farmers especially for paddy, their preferred crop, and also for cotton. However, differences in the number of waterings for the other cash crops do not exist or point in the opposite direction. Thus, in Andra Pradesh canal irrigation, which is the cheapest water source, is in a sense, a \"small farmers' affair.\" Again, in Gujarat, there are no systematic differences. "}]},{"head":"Tenants","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"In order to answer the question of whether tenancy status of plots has an effect on access to water, the judgement of farmers on whether they received the number of waterings they had thought was required for their plots was examined-comparing leased-in plots and owned plots. As figure 8 shows, a higher proportion of respondents among small farms in both states are satisfied with water delivery for plots leased-in than for plots owned. This is the reverse for larger farmers. A lower proportion of larger farmers are satisfied for plots leased-in than for owned plots. This may indicate that small tenants are able to choose plots with a satisfactory water supply. Larger farmers, on the other hand, may have other reasons to choose plots, i.e., bordering on their own land."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Whether IMT will negatively affect the current satisfaction of small tenants needs to be monitored. In the Gujarati law, tenants who lack their own land in the command area have no legal status as members of the WUA. In Andra Pradesh the law recognizes them (see below)."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Here the issue is that tenants may decline to get registered as WUA members as this makes their legal claims under state tenancy laws so strong that owners may stop giving their lands on lease to them."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"In Andra Pradesh, canal irrigation tends to be a \"small farmers' affair\" in several respects. A slightly higher proportion of small farmers than larger farmers take water from canals, and they take a greater number of waterings than larger farmers, especially for paddy, a preferred crop. The access of small farmers to the generally better-performing alternative Note: \"N\" indicates the total number of small and larger farmers."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"irrigation sources is less frequent than that of larger farmers. Moreover, those small farmers who have access to alternative irrigation sources tend to get less waterings than the larger farmers for most crops. Moreover, small farmers in Andra Pradesh who are concentrated towards the tail ends, face the problem of a lower number of waterings than at the head reaches. Also, access to alternative sources of irrigation is less in the tail end, compared to that of the middle and head reaches. Small farmers probably rely on canal water because it is cheap. They usually lack the capital to invest in infrastructure or to purchase water, even though the net benefits would be higher."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"The important implication for IMT is that small farmers would benefit more than larger farmers from improved canal irrigation performance. Their motivation to contribute to this improvement is probably stronger as well, which compounds their already strong stakes in agriculture as a primary source of income. In Andra Pradesh, therefore, any improvement in access to canal water in general would be \"propoor\" in itself and can count on the active support of small farmers. As a corollary, modes of IMT that negatively affect the provision of canal water would particularly hit the poor."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"In Gujarat, access to alternative sources and the number of waterings received from alternative sources are generally equally spread among small and larger farmers. Only the irrigation costs from alternative sources may be higher for small farmers. Although small farmers are concentrated in the tail ends in Gujarat, they take equal advantages from alternative sources, which are widespread in the tails, even more than in the other reaches. Accordingly, for the Gujarati WUAs, the assumption that access to water in canal irrigation commands is farm-size neutral, appears valid. Proportion of plots without difficulties in access to water, by tenancy status and farm size."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Andra Pradesh,owned plots: Significant at 0.05 level. Plots leased-in, total: Not significant. Gujarat, plots leased-in: Significant at 0.025 level. Owned plots, total: Not significant."}]},{"head":"Impact of IMT on Access to Water","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Characteristics of IMT in the Two States","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"The two IMT programs selected for this study are the state-wide project under the Andra Pradesh Farmers Management of Irrigation Systems Act of 1997 (APFMIS) and the scheme under the Government of Gujarat Resolution on Participatory Irrigation Management 1995 (PIM) (Parthasarathy 2000). In Gujarat, either the Irrigation Department (ID) or an NGO acts as the implementing agency in the pilot projects functioning under the schemes. As table 1 summarizes, the populist reform of Andra As stipulated in the Amendment through Andhra Pradesh Legislative Bill no. 32 of November 1998: \"any person who is in lawful possession and enjoyment of the land under a water source, on proof of such possession and enjoyment in a crop year, may claim membership notwithstanding whether he is a recorded landholder or not\" (Rao et al. 1999)."},{"index":2,"size":339,"text":"Pradesh is unique in its massive scale. It encompasses all irrigation systems in the state and includes all tiers in the schemes. The legal framework has, in one stroke, accommodated all relevant aspects of farmers' empowerment, including quite strong rights for tenants. The organizational structure of the civil service, rather than NGOs or the ID, was and still is used for institution building. 9 Immediately after its adoption, district collectors arranged the election or appointment of committee members for 5 years, statewide. This was accompanied by large publicity campaigns and training programs, with strong political support from the highest levels. The World Bank co-funded a massive operation of repair and rehabilitation (R&R) that started 4 months after the elections (Raju 2000). Funds for construction were directly channeled to the new WUAs avoiding ID staff costs and the costs on contractors. This smart channeling raised the amounts available on the ground even more, and also fostered eagerness of farmers to repair \"their\" schemes (Raju 2000). Water fees are still set by the government (tripled just before adoption of the Act) and the revenue department continues fee collection, as part of the land tax. The ID continues to handle water distribution, which is by rotation in Andra Pradesh. In contrast, in the conventional approach in 13 pilot schemes in Gujarat, transfer of water management and cost recovery are already in progress. The new WUAs, formed under the guidance of either an NGO or the ID, are in the process of being empowered to set fees, for other purposes and to distribute water at the lowest tier of their WUA. The new obligations include filling and collecting demand forms, as required in the sejhpali system in Gujarat, and collection of fees and partial handover to the ID. The pilot schemes are scattered and federation with adjacent blocks into higher tiers is neither foreseen nor possible in the short term. In both states, the canals remain government property and major rehabilitation continues to be the responsibility of the IDs in the long run."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"Improved access to water was an important objective of the APFMIS Act and the Gujarat PIM Resolution. Up till now repair and rehabilitation (R&R) work constituted the most important means of reaching this objective in both states. R&R included earth work, removal of shrubs and weeds, desilting and lining of canals, pitching, repair and construction of various structures and placing of pipelines and, in some cases, closing of illegal outlets. Moreover, in Andra Pradesh, access to water could also be improved by the new option, at least in theory, for farmers to communicate with one another through the Distributary Committees and also with the higher ID staff at distributary level. In Gujarat, on the other hand, once irrigation management is handed over, WUAs themselves are entitled only to distribute water that the ID delivers at the intake. Formal handover had taken place in two WUAs of this study, Gujarat WUA1 and Gujarat WUA4."}]},{"head":"Access to Water","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Figure 9 presents the proportion of households that perceived improvements in access to canal water after IMT. Improved access to water since IMT was reported by both small and larger farmers in tail, middle and head reaches of the command areas. However, the variation between WUAs was strong. The highest proportion of households with a positive evaluation (46%) is in Gujarat WUA1, where the support by an NGO has been exceptionally intensive (Parthasarathy and Iyengar 1998). Mainly it is this exceptional result that renders the average of Gujarat (25%) higher than that of Andra Pradesh (15%). Apparently,"}]},{"head":"Extension of Irrigated Area","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Among all respondents in the sample, 2 percent in Andra Pradesh and 3 percent in Gujarat, reported an increase in the area under cultivation due to R&R work. The average size of land gained was 0.66 ha per farmer in Andra Pradesh and 1.1 ha per farmer in Gujarat. The few newly irrigated plots were both in the head and tail reaches and among both small and larger farmers."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"It was difficult to obtain scheme-level aggregate data of extended area in Andra Pradesh because, before APFMIS, the revenue department tended to underreport irrigated areas. When the grants for R&R became proportional to reported irrigated areas, farmers who have better knowledge, often suggested adaptations. For example, the official figure in Andra Pradesh WUA2, which is an increase of 2,000 ha, is probably so high because of these effects. According to the president of Andra Pradesh WUA2, 806 ha out of which 766 ha Proportion of households reporting better access to canal water due to WUA."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"implementation by an NGO is not a sufficient reason in itself, because the same NGO was the implementing agency in Gujarat WUA2, where the reported rate of improvement is one but the lowest."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"The low improvement in Andra Pradesh WUA1, by only 7 percent as reported, is partly because the main canal was still under construction. Andra Pradesh WUA3 is located in the tail end of a system, where water does not reach, even after R&R. Andra Pradesh WUA2, with the highest improvement reported (28%) lies in the coastal area, where improvements are generally considerable (Raju 2000)."}]},{"head":"Cropping Pattern, Yields, Incomes","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"When asked about changes since IMT, none of the respondents reported \"higher yields\" and \"improved incomes,\" nor reported changes in cropping patterns due to better water availability."},{"index":2,"size":195,"text":"belonging to a state agricultural experiment farm, have been added. In Andra Pradesh WUA1, 42 ha were added. 10 Aggregate data for the whole scheme in the Gujarat WUAs showed small extensions. In Gujarat WUA1, one group of farmers on about 9 ha who had never received water earlier, benefited from the repair of the underground tubewell pipeline. The first R&R work was undertaken in the lands of the high caste Patel community and the next effort involved a significant number of lower caste Thakore farmers. In Gujarat WUA3, earthen canals were cemented but this work was completed only in those parts of the canal where the WUA president and committee members had land. This added 21 ha of irrigable land. Farmers from another distributary strongly complained that they had been left out in the joint survey and that water still failed to reach their plots and also that there was no response to their complaints. These examples highlight inequities intrinsic in the adopted mode of IMT in which setting of priority for R&R work can easily be dominated by the stronger sections of society who secure leadership positions, apparently without much accountability to members."}]},{"head":"Higher-tier Negotiations in Andra Pradesh","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"A distinctive feature of APFMIS is that it facilitates higher-tier organization and information on, for example, irrigation schedules and, in the long run, on negotiations of water distribution between head enders and tail enders. However, it was only in one WUA distributary committee that the president had informed the presidents of the WUAs under his jurisdiction about water availability and rotation schedules."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"11"}]},{"head":"Cost Recovery and Water Distribution in Gujarat","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"As process documentation showed (Parthasarathy 1999), the collection of water charges from farmers has been difficult for the president of one of the two Gujarat WUAs to which management has been transferred in Gujarat WUA4. The command area of this WUA covers 12 villages. With little support from the committee members, the president and one employee of the WUA had made a number of visits to some of the villages to recover water charges. Since the WUA could not collect the water charges in time, the president, on several occasions had paid the amount with his own money to take advantage of the rebate (50% of the total water charges) given by the ID to the WUAs for timely payment. The new right of water distribution at the lowest tier requires considerable organization as well. The secretary of the Gujarat WUA4 is now authorized to remove the illegal \"headings\" by which farmers block the canal to lead water into their fields. Once a week, the WUA president makes himself available to the farmers for sorting out issues relating to water distribution and the WUA. This was appreciated and a high proportion of farmers (33%) reported improved access to water in this WUA, as shown in figure 9."},{"index":2,"size":237,"text":"The Gujarat WUA1, guided by the NGO, used its new water rights to introduce a new rotation during the first excessively dry year 10 As Jairath (1999a) noticed, changes in the records of the revenue department and ID are difficult to interpret because they do not clarify the \"quality of irrigation.\" Once water touched the tail-after 15 years-the amount of water and the irrigated area were found to be entered in the records but it is yet to be seen what this means for the user. 11 Raju (2000) reports effective communication in the case of a WUA in Andra Pradesh, which saved water during kharif and, for the first time, allocated water during rabi. Jairath (1999b) also observes better interaction between farmers and the ID to \"get the message through.\" when water scarcity was severe. Under this schedule, each farmer got water for one acre, irrespective of the total farm size. This ensured a minimum supply of water for all, before the remaining water was allocated to the larger water consumers. This, besides the R&R work, contributed to the high proportion of farmers reporting \"improved access to water\" as shown in figure 9. This WUA1 also used its new freedom to raise water charges by four times its original fee. However, protests among the committee members and farmers led to a reduction again to 150 percent of the government water rates (for details see Parthasarathy 1999;2000)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"In sum, IMT in Andra Pradesh and Gujarat, respectively, led to:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• improved access to water for 15 percent and 25 percent of the respondents, and"},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"• extension of irrigated area for 2 percent (average 0.66 ha) and 3 percent (1.1 ha) of the respondents. These early gains reported by the respondents were independent of farm size. However, qualitative scheme-level information highlighted that WUA leaders imposed their personal choice with regard to the priority of sites for R&R."},{"index":4,"size":128,"text":"In interpreting the above, it should be borne in mind that the reported impact in Andra Pradesh, if extrapolated, would apply to more than 10, 000 other WUAs. In this light, changes in Andra Pradesh become significant indeed. Moreover, these achievements are only the first step and further transfer of financial and water management from the ID to water users from the lowest to the highest level is still to come, as stipulated in APFMIS. On the other hand, the benefits from the execution of long over-due repairs and maintenance are \"easy gains.\" The pace of improvements risks slowing down. Moreover, it is uncertain whether the heavy subsidies will remain available, and if not, what farmers' own labor and cash contributions for R&R work will be (Jairath 1999a)."},{"index":5,"size":141,"text":"In Gujarat, slightly better average results are concentrated in one WUA where drought and water scarcity problems were serious and where the NGO had made considerable efforts. The overall results took 4-5 years and can only be extrapolated for 13 pilot projects. Replication at a larger scale will require considerable human and other resources. Moreover, the design of PIM in Gujarat does not foresee federation into higher levels. Thus, the transfer of critical tasks, such as head-tail inequities, is not on the agenda. In the Gujarat WUAs, farmers more or less welcome the new rights to manage water autonomously below the outlet. However, the new obligations to collect demand forms and fees represent a serious extra burden for the irrigation committee members. Whether WUAs are willing, and equipped, to carry out the revenue functions is a question yet to be answered."},{"index":6,"size":91,"text":"To conclude, in both states, IMT has improved access to water to a lesser or greater extent and in a manner that was fairly neutral of farm size, despite incidental signs of selfinterests of elite committee members. In both states it is still an open question whether and how self-management at the lowest levels will become sustainable. Much will depend on the viability of the new institutional arrangements of the WUAs, an issue that will be examined in the next section. Proportion of households unaware of the WUA, by farm size."}]},{"head":"Participation in WUAs","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Notes: Significance χ 2 Andra Pradesh: WUA1, WUA2, total: Significant at 0.005 level. WUA3: Not significant, Gujarat: WUA2: Significant at 0.05 level, WUA3, WUA4: Not significant. Total: Significant at 0.025 level."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"In Andra Pradesh, the creation of WUAs started with the statewide elections or appointments by consensus of committee members, who then took the process forward. In Gujarat, the local NGO or the ID staff got the involvement of some active farmers, to convince fellow farmers in the command area to join as shareholders."}]},{"head":"Awareness","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"The evident minimal condition for participation is awareness about the very existence of a WUA. It is evident from figure 10 that many respondents are still completely unaware of the existence of a WUA. Lack of awareness among respondents is higher in Andra Pradesh (52%) than in Gujarat (22%). As expected, awareness was highest in Gujarat WUA1 (93%), where the NGO had strongly intervened. However, the shorter time span in Andra Pradesh played a role here. Moreover, the average area covered by one WUA in Andra Pradesh (1,342 ha) is much larger than that in Gujarat (180 ha) (see annex). However, extrapolated to the whole state of Andra Pradesh, the creation of awareness among half of the irrigating farmers about completely new forms of management is a noteworthy achievement. The generally stronger stakes of farmers in agriculture in Andra Pradesh than in Gujarat may also have contributed to the spreading of the news."},{"index":2,"size":274,"text":"Significantly, throughout the WUAs and states, a high proportion of small farmers are unaware of the WUAs. Small farmers who have never heard of the WUA are 58 percent in Andra Pradesh, about double the proportion of larger farmers which is 31 percent. The proportion of small farmers unaware of the WUA is lower in Gujarat, (26% ) , but this is also about double the percentage of larger farmers still uninformed (14%). In some WUAs of each state the difference is small. For example, almost all the farmers are aware of the WUA in Gujarat WUA1, but in Andra Pradesh WUA3, farmers (whether small or larger) are not aware of the WUA. The president of this WUA which is situated at the tail of the large scheme, does not ask the farmers in the tail reaches further downstream to contribute to R&R or other WUA activities as water would still not reach them. In other cases, there is a considerable gap in awareness between small and larger farmers within the same WUA. In the Andra Pradesh WUAs, the gap is largest in WUA1, where 51 percent of the small farmers have not heard of the WUA, while the corresponding figure for larger farmers is only 6 percent. This WUA has a female president. 12 The gap in Gujarat is widest in WUA4 which covers over 12 villages-67 percent of the small farmers versus 17 percent of the larger farmers are unaware of the WUA. The gap in Gujarat WUA2, the other WUAs with NGO support, shows that NGOs per se can neither create higher awareness in general, nor necessarily reach poor farmers better."}]},{"head":"Member Participation in WUA Activities","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Figure 11 summarizes the proportion of respondents actively involved in the various activities of the WUA. In spite of the higher 12 There are female presidents in 98 WUAs in the whole state (Shyamala and Rao 1999). Proportion of households participating in WUA activities, by farm size."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Notes: n.a. = not applicable."},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"Significance χ 2"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Andra Pradesh: Meetings: Significant at 0.005 level. Labor input: Significant at 0.025 level. Gujarat: Meetings: Significant at 0.005 level. Joint survey, supervision of labor: Not significant."},{"index":5,"size":142,"text":"Attendance at meetings by different categories of larger farmers. Gujarat : farm size 1-2.5 ha = 28% farm size > 2.5 ha = 40% Andra Pradesh: farm size 1-2.5 ha = 31% farm size > 2.5 ha = 18% rates of awareness in Gujarat, the overall rates of active participation in institution building, R&R, water distribution and fee collection are generally similar in both states. The highest rate of participation in annual meetings is found in Gujarat, which is 22 percent of the sample households. The findings are differentiated for activities with high participation rates. In all WUAs, larger farmers dominate in meetings. However, in both states, small farmers participate relatively more often than larger farmers in the R&R work, including the joint survey. Thus, most small farmers aware of the WUA also participate in the WUA work but not in decision-making."},{"index":6,"size":130,"text":"A very active involvement of tenants in Andra Pradesh is noticeable. The proportion of tenants contributing labor to R&R work is the highest of all (27%), whereas only 16 percent of small landowning farmers and 9 percent of larger farmers do so. Their attendance at meetings is similar to that of the farmers with equally small holdings (9%). In contrast, tenants in Gujarat are virtually inactive in the WUA. Even in Gujarat WUA1, only two tenants participated in R&R work but they did not attend meetings. So, although the formal position of tenants in the new Andra Pradesh WUAs may be slightly weaker than that of landowners, their involvement in meetings and especially in R&R, is relatively strong. Tenant participation is weak in Gujarat where they have no formal status."},{"index":7,"size":107,"text":"These findings underscore the essential contribution of small farmers and, in Andra Pradesh, especially of small tenants to the upkeep of infrastructure. Their strong stakes in irrigated agriculture and higher dependency on canals are probable reasons. This implies that their continued support is important for sustainable self-management. In that light, the much more limited participation of small farmers in meetings is likely to become a major obstacle against their continued support. Their limited participation denies them many benefits like information sharing, for example, on water schedules upstream and within the scheme. Furthermore, their voices are not heard in decision making, which ultimately shapes the gains they receive."}]},{"head":"Committees","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Committee members are virtually always larger farmers. 13 It was learnt that in the first elections in Andra Pradesh in 1997, for president and representative positions of the different territories within the WUAs, candidates sometimes spent up to Rs 50,000, an amount only affordable to better-off households. These positions may be attractive because they enhance conspicuousness and help in a political career, although many farmers claimed that party politics did not play any role. Finally, given that substantial amounts are available for R&R, these positions make it possible to propose oneself or one's relatives and friends to replace the contractors appointed by the ID. A new generation of \"president-contractors\" may have been created (Raju 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"14"},{"index":3,"size":278,"text":"Under the PIM program in Gujarat, the implementing agencies largely controlled the composition of committees through their motivation efforts. After 4 to 5 years of implementation, these efforts were still found to be confined to the wealthier sections of society. This pattern was sharply discernible in Gujarat WUA1 and Gujarat WUA3 where the motivation process was limited to better-off Patel 13 Jairath (1999b) found that out of 28 WUA presidents 14% have less than 1 ha each, 22% between 1 and 2.5 ha while 64% have more than 2.5 ha. Given the average irrigated holding size of 0.88 ha in Andra Pradesh, the domination of large farmers is evident. community members, ignoring other castes. The formal rule is that command area farmers elect committee members and that they, in turn, elect among themselves the office bearers consisting of a chairman, a secretary and a treasurer. Usually, constituent villages are also represented. However, in reality, genuine elections are rarely held. An overview of the committee members' participation in the various WUA activities is given in figure 12. The degree of participation in Andra Pradesh is generally higher than in Gujarat, especially in R&R. The involvement of committee members in Andra Pradesh in water distribution is high (58%). This may reflect a partial overlap between the new WUA committee and the existing local water distribution arrangements in Andra Pradesh where, below the outlet, a Neeruganti (a paid local person) distributes water under the supervision of a Calava Pedda (an elected, unpaid authority). In fact in Andra Pradesh WUA3, some traditional local office bearers observing that funds were flowing to the WUA, started demanding remuneration from the government for their work."}]},{"head":"15","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"What is called a \"WUA\" in reality is first and foremost a handful of local elite who facilitate the beneficial implementation of state-initiated and funded R&R work. In Gujarat, these leaders are also in the process of undertaking water allocation, distribution and fee collection, which are cumbersome tasks the government would like to hand over. A half of the supposed constituencies of the WUAs in Andra Pradesh and a quarter in Gujarat are unaware of the existence and the purpose of WUAs. Being informed is definitely related to larger farm size. In spite of the higher level of unawareness in Andra Pradesh, actual participation rates are comparable and equally low in both states. Relatively higher levels of participation in R&R work and the joint survey were found among small farmers-this is even more true for tenants than for landowning small farmers. However, in all WUAs small farmers participate considerably less in meetings than larger farmers, while they rarely become committee members. This domination of the new 'WUAs' by local elite is also reported elsewhere (Jairath 1999b;Raju 2000)."}]},{"head":"Recommendations for Pro-Poor IMT","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"of IMT that benefits small farmers is the key to the viability and sustainability of the WUA, in addition to being a measure for poverty alleviation."},{"index":2,"size":429,"text":"The major weakness of APFMIS from both viability and equity perspectives, is small farmers' serious lack of information about the WUA and their relative absence from committees and general meetings, where crucial benefits are to be realized. Thus, small farmers are excluded from information, decision-making and negotiation with leaders regarding spending of government grants or site selection for R&R and future self-management of water and costrecovery. By law, APFMIS contains all elements of a pro-poor mode of IMT. It vests well-defined rights in members for electing leaders and to hold them accountable. Small farmers have strong formal voting rights because rights are irrespective of farm size. Moreover, APFMIS stipulates potentially effective election procedures. Therefore, the most important and globally unique chance to substantially improve small farmers' inclusion in the WUAs, in order to concretize these rights better than in the past, will be the elections for new presidents and territorial committee members. In the forthcoming publicity campaigns, state policy makers and the civil service should better inform poor farmers about their rights than The present research shows that there are systematic poverty-related differences in functioning large-scale canal irrigation schemes in the WUAs in Andra Pradesh. In this state, canal irrigation tends to be a \"poor man's affair.\" Small farmers use more water because they cultivate paddy more often than larger farmers. They face more problems in accessing water, as their plots are concentrated in the tail ends, unlike those of larger farmers. Small farmers have less access to generally better-performing alternative irrigation sources, receive less waterings and, as buyers, tend to pay a higher price for water from alternative sources. As a result, they rely more often on cheap canal water than larger farmers and take more waterings per crop from canals than larger farmers. Lastly, in the virtual absence of nonagricultural employment in Andra Pradesh, small farmers depend heavily on irrigated agriculture for the production on their own plots, leasing-in land and agricultural wage employment. Therefore, APFMIS, which in its first two years of implementation led to general improved access to water, is in itself pro-poor. The labor contribution made by small farmers and tenants to R&R to realize the benefits are considerably higher than those of better-off farmers. This implies that if R&R is to continue, possibly without the current subsidies, a pro-poor mode during the hasty elections in 1997. Moreover, rather than rewarding for consensus, 16 the promotion of contest between several candidates and the election of the most favored renders the elections more transparent. This benefits those who are still least aware of WUAs-small farmers."},{"index":3,"size":192,"text":"In contrast, in Gujarat, the hypothesis was confirmed that there are no systematic differences between small and larger farmers in a) the choice for cash and food crops, b) access to alternative irrigation sources, except water costs and c) in the number of waterings from either canals or other sources. Although small farmers were found to be concentrated in the tail ends, their dependency on canal water is mitigated because alternative sources abound in Gujarat, especially in the tail reaches. Lastly, irrigated agriculture is less central for the incomes of almost half of the smallest farmers who are engaged in off-farm employment. So, PIM would serve all farmers' interests alike. However, while it was found that both small and larger farmers benefited from the impacts of R&R, PIM also introduced new inequities in awareness and decision-making in the WUAs. As in Andra Pradesh, this may have long-term negative impacts on equity, and perhaps also on the viability of PIM. In the pilot WUAs the already crystallized inequities are probably difficult to redress. If PIM is newly introduced elsewhere, information provision and inclusion of all farmers need strong attention from the start onwards."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"Another important issue in assessing the impact of IMT on poverty alleviation concerns the scale. To what extent can the findings of the sample WUAs be extrapolated in space and in time? APFMIS is clearly superior in both respects. APFMIS is state-wide from the start onwards. The past implementation of the first steps at the lowest tiers created massive momentum, which forms a sound basis for the planned next steps: the organization of farmers at higher tiers and complete handover. In contrast, a program focusing only on the lowest tiers such as PIM in Gujarat (which, moreover, in its pilot-phase only selected few scattered schemes) is limited by design in its potential for vertical upscaling overtime."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"In sum, irrigation management transfer, or more precisely its R&R component has shortterm benefits for all farmers in a scheme, including, if not especially, poor farmers. However, long-term benefits of irrigation management transfer for poor farmers and the viability of hand-over itself are at risk because of serious inequities in the new WUAs. Better inclusion of the poor in information and decision-making flows for sustainable poverty alleviation requires, in any case, systematic monitoring of key scheme variables and IMT variables by farm size, which is rather easy, or by income, which is more accurate but also more time consuming."}]},{"head":"16","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"In 1997, Rs 50,000 was awarded to presidents who were unanimously appointed, without elections, and only Rs 30,000 when there was a contest between several candidates."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" FIGURE 2. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3. Proportion of plots by major crop and farm size. "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 . FIGURE 4. Proportion of households with only one income source by farm size. "},{"text":"FIGURE 5 . FIGURE 5.Proportion of households with major income from agriculture. "},{"text":"FIGURE 6 . FIGURE 6.Proportion of plots by WUA and source of irrigation. "},{"text":"FIGURE 7 . FIGURE 7. Number of waterings received per plot by crop, source of irrigation, and farm size. "},{"text":" FIGURE 8. "},{"text":" FIGURE 9. "},{"text":" FIGURE 10. "},{"text":" FIGURE 11. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Main characteristics of IMT programs in Andra Pradesh and Gujarat.  APFMIS PIM APFMISPIM Scale All systems 12,292 WUAs 13 pilot WUAs ScaleAll systems 12,292 WUAs13 pilot WUAs Tiers WUA at lowest tier, Distributary Committees WUA at lowest tier only TiersWUA at lowest tier, Distributary CommitteesWUA at lowest tier only  (DCs) at next level, and Project Committee (PC)  (DCs) at next level, and Project Committee (PC)  at main system level  at main system level Implementer ID and District Administration ID or NGO ImplementerID and District AdministrationID or NGO Membership in Stipulated in APFMIS Act-all land users and Voluntary-landowners as 'shareholders'; Membership inStipulated in APFMIS Act-all land users andVoluntary-landowners as 'shareholders'; command areas owners, if title is recorded or can be shown 7 shares at nominal rates command areasowners, if title is recorded or can be shown 7shares at nominal rates Members' rights Stipulated in APFMIS Act: one vote per farmer Cooperative law: if committee Members' rightsStipulated in APFMIS Act: one vote per farmerCooperative law: if committee  to elect president and one vote to elect elections are held, usually to elect president and one vote to electelections are held, usually  territorial committee member; right one vote per farmer territorial committee member; rightone vote per farmer  of recall of president  of recall of president Formation of WUAs Statewide by District Collectors in April 1997, Voluntary, upon registration as cooperative Formation of WUAsStatewide by District Collectors in April 1997,Voluntary, upon registration as cooperative  either by election or by consensus-based  either by election or by consensus-based  appointment of presidents and territorial committee,  appointment of presidents and territorial committee,  WUA presidents elected DCs Committees  WUA presidents elected DCs Committees  in November 1997, PCs not formed yet  in November 1997, PCs not formed yet R&R Statewide, all tiers 13 pilot WUAs R&RStatewide, all tiers13 pilot WUAs Subsidies R&R Fixed grants/ha, fivefold increase with IMT to Need-based grants up to Subsidies R&RFixed grants/ha, fivefold increase with IMT toNeed-based grants up to  Rs 250/ha, 8 financed by the World Bank Rs 500/ha financed by the state Rs 250/ha, 8 financed by the World BankRs 500/ha financed by the state Identification and WUA participates in joint survey, ID authorizes WUA participates in joint survey, Identification andWUA participates in joint survey, ID authorizesWUA participates in joint survey, implementation of R&R and disburses funds to WUA, WUA ID approves, WUA implements implementation of R&Rand disburses funds to WUA, WUAID approves, WUA implements  implements (no contractor)  implements (no contractor) Setting of rates and Rates tripled, revenue department still collects WUA sets rates, collects fees, Setting of rates andRates tripled, revenue department still collectsWUA sets rates, collects fees, collection of fees fees as part of land tax, fee recovery and R&R and hands 50% of fees over to ID, collection of feesfees as part of land tax, fee recovery and R&Rand hands 50% of fees over to ID,  grants will be connected, land tax will be delinked if paid in time grants will be connected, land tax will be delinkedif paid in time  from water fees, so WUA will set, collect and partly  from water fees, so WUA will set, collect and partly  manage fees  manage fees Water distribution ID, as before IMT (rotation, below outlet locally), Higher tiers: ID and WUA to fill/collect forms Water distributionID, as before IMT (rotation, below outlet locally),Higher tiers: ID and WUA to fill/collect forms  in future stronger accountability of ID staff (sejhpali). Lowest tier-WUA. in future stronger accountability of ID staff(sejhpali). Lowest tier-WUA.  for water distribution to WUA, DC and PC  for water distribution to WUA, DC and PC 7   7  "}],"sieverID":"ce417141-d09b-442a-a7b9-eaa329be6150","abstract":"In serving this mission, IWMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water and land resources.The publications in this series cover a wide range of subjects-from computer modeling to experience with water user associations-and vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical and detailed empirical studies; others are wide-ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI's own staff and Fellows, and by external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00de37adc82de1868bbeb60ec02a8830","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dbc152bb-e029-4bca-9a1d-dd529bfc6848/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"de la Recherche Agronomique de Tunisie, 43 Avenue Hedi Karray, 2049 Tunis, Tunisie."},{"index":2,"size":199,"text":"The Tunisian citrus certification program for sanitary improvement and production of healthy plants free from virus and virus like diseases started in 1994 and has the following objectives: a) virus sanitation of the local varieties by shoot-tip grafting in vitro (STG); b) introduction of foreign varieties from the San Giuliano Agricultural Research Station (INRA-IRFA, Corsica); c) introduction of new rootstocks tolerant to Tristeza such as Citrus volkameriana, Citrumelo swingle and Citrange carrizo. The organization and the steps of this program were established according to the Tunisian law of plant certification. This law has put the rules of sanitation controls that guarantee production of virus free certified plants mainly from Citrus tristeza virus, Citrus psorosis virus, virus like diseases (Impietratura, concave gum, blind pocket), Citrus stubborn disease caused by spiroplasma citri and viroids (mainly Citrus exocortis viroid and Cahexia citrus viroid). Healthy mother plants are conserved under screen-house and multiplied in order to obtain pre-basic and basic materiel that is delivred to nurseries. Since its establishment, this certification program allowed the sanitation of 18 local and 17 imported varieties. Nurseries are assisted and supplied with about 4000 basic plants grafted on tristeza tolerant rootstocks for the production of certified seedlings."}]},{"head":"V17 THE SILENCING VECTOR BEAN POD MOTTLE VIRUS BREAKS RSV3-MEDIATED EXTREME RESISTANCE AGAINST SOYBEAN MOSAIC VIRUS.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":629,"text":"Mazen Alazem, Kristin Widyasari, John Bwalya and Kook-Hyung Kim, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea, Email: [email protected] Studies on functional genomics necessitate the use of silencing vectors such as Bean pod mottle virus (BPMV) vector. Soybean cultivar L29, which carries the resistance gene Rsv3, exhibits extreme resistance (ER) against the G5H avirulent strain of Soybean mosaic virus (SMV), but not against the virulent G7H strain. This resistance is attributed to the induction of abscisic acid (ABA), the antiviral RNA silencing pathway, and callose deposition. In attempt to silence few genes important for ER in L29 plants, BPMV vector was employed. BPMV vector, however, highly induced the expression of many genes in the salicylic acid (SA) and the RNA silencing pathways in the control plants compared with the healthy untreated plants. Rsv3 expression was reduced after BPMV infection, whereas genes involved in the ABA pathway remained unregulated in all soybean lines. Inductions of SA and RNA silencing genes were moderate in lines carrying Rsv1 and Rsv4 plants, and weak in rsv-null soybean plants. BPMV renders L29 plants more susceptible to G7H infection compared to untreated plants, but more interestingly, BPMV breaks the Rsv3-mediated ER of L29 against G5H allowing the latter to accumulate locally but not systemically. The coat protein large unit (CPL) of BPMV exhibited VSR activity in Nicotiana plants, and when CPL was expressed within the G5H genome, the latter accumulated locally but not systemically. Our findings suggest that the BPMV silencing vector breaks part of the Rsv3-mediated ER against the SMV avirulent strain by impairing the antiviral RNA silencing pathway, and triggers SA-related defence in plants with antiviral R-genes. It can be also suggested that BPMV silencing vector might not be a useful tool to study plant-virus interactions, and that such observation might also occur for other similar viral vectors. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) ranks third among the pulse crops that attribute to global food security. Viruses that cause yellowing and stunting symptoms are considered a main threat to chickpea production worldwide. Currently, there is a great interest in applying eco-friendly smart technologies to achieve best control results. Results of serological [Tissue blot immunoassay (TBIA)] and molecular assays [Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)] used in fieled surveys carried out during four growing seasons (2006, 2007, 2017 and 2018) in chickpea fields, revealed that the polerovirus Chickpea chlorotic stunt virus (CpCSV) was dominant in all seasons. Thus, the objective of this study was to identify practices to reduce the effect of viruses causing yellowing and stunting of chickpea under Syrian ecology. This approach included screening 80 chickpea genotypes for virus resistance (obtained from ICARDA Gene Bank under open filed conditions. To reduce virus incidence in the field several practices such as planting date, plant density, locations, cultivars (Ghab-3, Ghab-4, Ghab-5, promising variety FLIP95-65C and susceptible variety JG62), as well as intercropping between chickpea and other crops like flax (Linum usitatissimum), black cumin (Nigella sativa) and coriander (Coriandrum sativum) were evaluated. Results revealed that few chickpea genotypes (such as IG9000, IG69434, IG69656, IG69693, IG71832 and IG128651) were found resistant/tolerant for CpCSV and it could be used as a resistance source in chickpea breeding programs. Virus infection was decreased around 50-80% and crop yield was increased by 5-35% with high significant differences when chickpea was planted during the first half of December with plant density of 20-30 plants/m 2 . In addition, yield was improved with low virus infection when chickpea was intercropped with flax in alternate lines or with coriander (1 line of coriander each 5-6 chickpea lines). Generally, the results confirmed the importance of the interaction between a number of practices which together formed an integrated system that influenced virus spread and can be considered a potential approach for sustainable virus diseases management."}]},{"head":"V18","index":3,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"b5af99ff-8138-418d-8efc-49fef1d4670f","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0111581f4b69cc8f30beb5235ffc338d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3cb76476-0393-4bd7-9030-ae077e68885d/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Tailored Forecasts Can Predict Extreme Climate Informing Proactive Interventions in East Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Main","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":277,"text":"In this commentary, an interdisciplinary, international set of authors describes how climate attribution studies have led to new advances in the predictability of Eastern Horn of Africa (EHoA) rains, and then explores how these forecasts might better guide humanitarian relief and proactive agricultural decisions in the future, leading to increased resilience (Figure 1a). The team includes scientists from the IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Center (ICPAC), the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET), the Ethiopian and Kenyan Meteorological Departments, and scientists engaged in agricultural development, advisory services, and humanitarian relief efforts. Updating previously published climate attribution studies (Funk et al., 2008(Funk et al., , 2014(Funk et al., , 2018(Funk et al., , 2019;;Hoell & Funk, 2013a, 2013b;Williams & Funk, 2011), we show that sequential EHoA droughts are tied to strong east-west sea surface temperature (SST) gradients, which arise through an interaction of human-caused climate change (hereafter referred to simply as climate change) and La Niña (Figure 1). We then describe, for the first time in print, how the latest generation of climate models can predict these gradients and very warm west Pacific SSTs, and consequently EHoA droughts, at surprisingly long (8-month) lead-times (Figure 2). Finally, given that climate change is likely to increase the frequency of these events (Figure 3), we conclude with a discussion of the long-term implications of a potential increase in drought frequency. While many countries in East Africa have, in theory, policies supporting increased agricultural productivity and disaster risk management (Tadesse, 2016), in practice, millions of poor households remain vulnerable to climate shocks (Hansen et al., 2019). Could improved forecasts, EWS and advisory services be useful to agricultural and food security decision-makers?"},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"The schema in Figure 1a lays out the logic of this Commentary. We first describe how climate change attribution leads to a tailored forecast process that produces more accurate long lead time forecasts. We then discuss how these forecasts might improve agricultural outcomes, humanitarian relief planning, and food security if decision-makers are able to translate predictions into effective practice. For many smallholder farmers, uncertainty and risk aversion lead to low adoption rates for innovations. Accurate forecasts, communicated effectively via localized and trusted advisories, might decrease the uncertainty associated with trade-offs. For example, the fact that seasonal rains are not likely to be below-normal might reduce farmer's reasonable aversion to risk and innovation. Conversely, forecasts for regional drought, and increased cereal prices, might motivate farmers in climatically-secure areas or countries to increase production by investing more capital or labor. Such production increases might reduce regional price shocks. Hence, tailored forecasts, in conjunction with trusted and localized advisory systems, can motivate feasible cost-effective responses that address limited resources. Social and individual inertia potentially is reduced through localized, relevant information. We conclude by discussing how trust, urgency, and accuracy may help overcome barriers created by limited funding, uncertain tradeoffs, and inertia, and provide a set of recommendations related to effective EWS development and implementation in the context of climate change."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"While focused on the EHoA, the techniques, opportunities, and barriers discussed here may be widely applicable to many areas exposed to risks associated with La Niñas. Human-induced warming in the west Pacific is interacting with natural El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability, but tailored forecasting approaches can translate the influence of climate change into expanded opportunities for prediction."}]},{"head":"Background-Volatile Climate, Humanitarian Crises, But Opportunities for Predictions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Since late 2016, the EHoA (Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia to the east and south of 38°E and 8°N) has experienced a high degree of climate volatility, with recurrent shocks due to frequent droughts and floods. During this period, nine seasons were dry, three were wet, and only two had normal rains (Figure 1b). Below-normal rains are inadequate to support productive crops and rangeland (Funk, Turner, et al., 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":240,"text":"Seven of the eight dry seasons in Figure 1b were anticipated with operational \"tailored\" forecasts (CHC/FEWS-NET, 2022), based on climate-change-enhanced west Pacific SST, La Niña, and strong Pacific SST gradients (with one false alarm in March-April-May, or MAM, 2018[CHC/FEWSNET, 2022]). Hits, that is, droughts that were accurately forecasted, included the back-to-back drought sequence in 2016/2017 (Voosen, 2020) and the five sequential below-normal seasons stretching from October-November-December (OND) 2020 through OND 2022. These tailored forecasts benefitted from a two-step approach that (a) attributes droughts to extreme SST states, which arise through the interaction of natural variability and climate change (Figure 1), then (b) predicts these states using the latest state-of-the-science climate forecast ensembles (Figure 2). EHoA's position makes it uniquely exposed to climatic hazards driven by Indo-Pacific SSTs. When SST gradients increase rains above the eastern Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean, rains decrease over EHoA. This links EHoA precipitation to La Niña and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) events. During OND, these connections are well-established. There is less consensus for MAM. Some research suggests MAM rains are weakly linked to SSTs (Lyon, 2014;Lyon & DeWitt, 2012;Yang et al., 2014), and hence, largely unpredictable. However, many FEWS NET studies (Funk et al., 2008(Funk et al., , 2014(Funk et al., , 2018(Funk et al., , 2019;;Hoell andFunk, 2013a, 2013b;Williams & Funk, 2011) have attributed sequential OND/MAM dry seasons to Pacific SST gradients which arise through an interaction between La Niña and climate change."},{"index":3,"size":258,"text":"These insights, combined with increasingly sophisticated climate forecast systems, supported five successful longlead forecasts in a row (CHC/FEWSNET, 2022). Eight months before the end of OND and MAM, strong Pacific SST gradients can often be accurately predicted. In May (ICPAC et al., 2022a) and November (ICPAC et al., 2022b) of 2022, these inputs helped motivate exceptional multi-agency drought alerts. Never before had such a broad coalition of EHoA early warning experts acted so successfully so far in advance of the next rainy season. Yet, by late 2022, the interaction of five sequential droughts, COVID-19, conflict, inflation, and pre-existing vulnerabilities placed 23 million people in food security crises (ICPAC et al., 2022b). In Somalia, despite massive humanitarian responses reaching more than 7 million people, experts anticipated the outbreak of famine in 2023. Despite repeated, accurate predictions of drought (Figure 1b), the magnitude of this crisis continued to grow. An EWS may begin with climate information, but requires effective transformation into actions which can increase resilience (Figure 1a). This requires a shared understanding of how climate change and ENSO, together, offer opportunities for long lead predictions. Hence, we describe here the potential of these forecasts, and then discuss the opportunities and barriers associated with using such information within participatory agricultural advisory systems and humanitarian EWS for incentivizing adaption and reducing food insecurity. With more research and dialog, the incorporation of such forecasts into operational forecast systems and policy-relevant decision-making processes may help our communities cope with increasing climate volatility, both in EHoA and in other areas linked to Indo-Pacific SSTs."}]},{"head":"Data and Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":307,"text":"This study relies on widely used Climate Hazard Center rainfall data sets (Funk et al., 2015a(Funk et al., , 2015b) ) and NOAA Extended Reconstruction SST data (Huang et al., 2017). The terms dry, normal, and wet correspond to bottom, middle, and top-tercile rainy season outcomes. To reduce repetition, we also use \"drought\" to refer to below-normal rainy seasons. Seasonal SST forecasts are based on the North American Multi-Model Ensemble (NMME) (Becker et al., 2022). A 152-member, 25 model ensemble from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) is used to examine projected human-induced SST increases, based on a moderate emissions scenario (Shared Socioeconomic Pathway 2-4.5, SSP2-4.5) (Eyring et al., 2016). The attribution analyses, detailed in our first results section and presented in Figure 1, are updates of climate attribution studies focused on the 2016/2017 droughts (Funk et al., 2018(Funk et al., , 2019)). These results (Funk et al., 2018(Funk et al., , 2019) ) informed accurate tailored forecasts (CHC/FEWSNET, 2022) (Figure 2), which we describe in our second results section. We then describe increasing risks associated with CMIP6 projections of stronger future Pacific SST gradients, new spatially-explicit forecast results, and biochar-based farming practices in a third results section (Figure 3). We then discuss how improved \"climate-smart\" decision-making might help regions cope with more frequent climate extremes. This discussion is guided by existing literature, ongoing policy-relevant activities in East Africa, the authors' experience, and the recently announced World Meteorological Organization (WMO) \"Early Warning for All\" project (WMO, 2022). Inclusion and Ethics: By design, this Commentary includes numerous authors from East Africa, as well as numerous collaborators in the US or Europe. The authors also represent several different communities of practice: climate, agricultural development, and food security. Effective dialog across these communities will be needed to guide effective adaptation. The collaboration supporting this article furthers that objective."}]},{"head":"Results 1-Linking Recent Droughts to Extremely Warm Pacific SSTs and Climate Change","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":327,"text":"Scientists have long emphasized the societal dangers (Diaz, 2000;Glantz, 2001)     that climate change is expected to increase the frequency of strong ENSO and IOD events (Cai et al., 2014a(Cai et al., , 2014b(Cai et al., , 2015a(Cai et al., , 2022)). What is less appreciated is that the interaction of climate change and ENSO is creating opportunities for prediction-now. As climate change rapidly warms (Cheng et al., 2019) dynamically important regions in the Indian (Abram et al., 2008;Cai et al., 2021;Ihara et al., 2008) and Pacific Oceans (Cravatte et al., 2009;Roxy et al., 2019), exceptionally warm ocean conditions can produce potentially predictable droughts and wet seasons (Funk et al., 2018(Funk et al., , 2019;;Nicholson et al., 2022). For EHoA, this may be especially important for MAM, due to a strengthening connection to La Niña (Park et al., 2020). Figures 1c-1f updates attribution studies that identified how extremely warm west Pacific SST contributed to droughts in 2016/2017 (Funk et al., 2018(Funk et al., , 2019)). Composites of standardized contemporaneous SSTs during recent OND and MAM dry seasons (Figures 1c and 1d) can help identify predictor zones. OND rains are influenced by IOD (Behera et al., 2005;N. H. Saji et al., 1999;N. Saji & Yamagata, 2003), ENSO/Niño 3.4 SSTs (Indeje et al., 2000), and the SSTs in the equatorial west Pacific (Funk et al., 2018;Hoell andFunk, 2013a, 2013b). The MAM rains are linked to SSTs in the southern Indian Ocean (Wainwright et al., 2019), and the Pacific \"Western V\" and equatorial eastern Pacific regions (Funk et al., 2018(Funk et al., , 2019)). When the equatorial west Pacific and \"Western V\" regions are exceptionally warm, the area around Indonesia sees increases in rainfall, while the EHoA often experiences sequential dry conditions in OND and MAM (Funk et al., 2014(Funk et al., , 2018(Funk et al., , 2019;;Hoell andFunk, 2013a, 2013b). While the OND teleconnections (Figure 1c) are well-appreciated, the strong MAM \"teleconnections\" implicit in Figure 1d are not as well-appreciated."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Gradient indices provide a convenient short-hand to describe Indian and Pacific Basin SST patterns. While gradients are commonly used in the Indian Ocean (N. H. Saji et al., 1999), there remains a tendency to only describe the Pacific with equatorial eastern Pacific SSTs (Trenberth, 1997), often summarized exclusively with the Niño 3.4 region (5°N-5°S, 170°-120°W). Such a focus can miss important interactions with climate change and lead to missed opportunities for skillful predictions (Funk et al., 2014(Funk et al., , 2018))."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"We define two gradients useful for such predictions. For OND, we describe the Pacific via the \"West Pacific Gradient\" (WPG) (Hoell & Funk, 2013a): the difference between standardized equatorial western and eastern Pacific SSTs (Pacific boxes in Figure 1c). For MAM, we use a similar \"Western V Gradient\" (WVG), based on the difference between Niño 3.4 and Western V temperatures (boxes in Figure 1d). During MAM, there are important extratropical interactions with the northern and southern hemisphere subtropical westerly jets over the Pacific Ocean, which link warm extra-tropical northern and southern Pacific SST to La Niña-like climate impacts (Funk et al., 2018(Funk et al., , 2019))."},{"index":4,"size":368,"text":"Following the 1997/1998 El Niño, the western Pacific warmed substantially, and WPG and WVG values decreased dramatically (Figure 1e). This set the stage for numerous, often sequential, EHoA dry seasons (noted with short vertical lines). This trend toward more frequent strong gradient events has been attributed to a combination of natural ENSO variability and human-induced warming in the western Pacific (Funk et al., 2018(Funk et al., , 2019;;Seager et al., 2019Seager et al., , 2022)). Strong upward SST trends in the equatorial west Pacific (Hoell & Funk, 2013a), the western North Pacific (Funk et al., 2018), and the \"Western V\" region (Funk et al., 2019) have been formally linked to human-induced warming (Funk et al., 2018(Funk et al., , 2019)). Warming in the already very warm west Pacific has enhanced observed La Niñas (Funk et al., 2018;Hoell & Funk, 2013a) in ways similar to climate change projections (Cai et al., 2015b(Cai et al., , 2018)). These exceptional Pacific gradient events have arisen alongside an exceptional number of 1998-2022 La Niña events-13 events in 25 years since 1998. Historically, La Niña events occur every 3-to-5 years (Diaz, 2000;Glantz, 2001). Hence, very frequent La Niñas, a lack of a warming trend in the eastern Pacific (Seager et al., 2019(Seager et al., , 2022)), and rapid warming in the west Pacific have created a large increase in Pacific SST gradients (Figure 1e), setting the stage for sequential droughts, especially during multi-year La Niñas  1a and 1b, respectively. Extreme negative OND WPG and MAM WVG events are associated with values less than −1Z. Change in extreme event frequencies (# of events per 100 years) were calculated by taking the frequency differences between 2020-2030 and 1920-1979, and   (Anderson et al., 2022). However, wet EHoA rainy seasons, associated with exceptionally warm western Indian Ocean and eastern Pacific conditions, are also expected (Abram et al., 2008;Cai et al., 2014aCai et al., , 2014bCai et al., , 2015aCai et al., , 2021Cai et al., , 2022;;Cheng et al., 2019;Ihara et al., 2008). Modes of intraseasonal variability, such as the Madden-Julian oscillation, will also continue to produce impactful rainfall extremes, but the time scales these operate on make these anomalies hard to predict at long lead times."},{"index":5,"size":265,"text":"We briefly assess the role of climate change in recent extremely warm SST hot spots (Figure 1f). The extremity of SST hot spots during recent extreme EHoA rainfall seasons is clear when compared to the past ∼70 years, while climate model SST simulations highlight the very likely role of climate change. During the droughts in OND 2016/2020/2021 and MAM 2017/2021/2022, and the flooding in OND 2019 (Nicholson et al., 2022), either the western Pacific or the western Indian Ocean was exceptionally warm. In Figure 1f, the observed SST anomalies for these seasons, represented as vertical black lines, are compared with CMIP6 ensemble PDFs for 1950-1979 and 2016-2022. The observed hot spots were +0.5-1°C above the 1950-2021 baseline. In a cooler world with less climate change , climate models indicate that the observed anomalies during these seasons were virtually impossible in such a world without climate change (Figure 1f). The large offset between modeled SST in the recent period and historically much cooler conditions reflects a strong climate change signature in these areas. Diagnostic studies link EHoA rainfall extremes to these very warm SSTs (Funk et al., 2018(Funk et al., , 2019;;Hoell andFunk, 2013a, 2013b;Nicholson et al., 2022). Climate change helped produce these extreme WPG, WVG, and IOD values, and associated EHoA rainfall extremes. Can these warm ocean conditions be predicted well, offering opportunities for improved decision-making?  (Magadzire et al., 2017). These plots convey information about the predictability (high R 2 ) of the SSTs, as well as the potential association between extreme SST states and observed EHoA dry and wet rainy season outcomes (circle color)."}]},{"head":"Results 2. The Latest Generation of Climate Models Can Predict These Extreme Ocean States Well at Eight-Month Lead Times","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"At long leads, the WPG and WVG are predicted well (Figure 2a), with R 2 values of greater than 70%. The uncertainty surrounding these forecasts are shown with 80% confidence intervals. These 80% confidence intervals can be used to assess the probability of being within a strong gradient season. In May, the models robustly anticipated strong negative WPG values associated with eight OND La Niña events. When such forecasts were made, there were below-normal EHoA seasons seven times out of eight. These dry seasons are shown with orange circles in the left of 2A. When forecast MAM WVG values have been less than −0.4Z, as was anticipated in September 2023, dry seasons occurred nine times out of thirteen (orange circles, right side Figure 2a). In late 2016, 2020, and 2021, WVG forecasts helped anticipate dry outcomes the following MAM (CHC/FEWSNET, 2022; Voosen, 2020). Used in concert, WPG/WVG forecasts can potentially anticipate sequential droughts (Figure 1b)."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Extreme West Pacific SST predictions, alone, are also useful drought indicators. Forecasts of exceptionally warm west Pacific SST clearly indicate strong tendencies for dry EHoA outcomes (Figure 2b), and diagnostic studies have explained how these warm conditions modify winds in ways that reduce EHoA rains (Funk et al., 2018(Funk et al., , 2019)). This information builds on the information contained in more traditional predictors, such as equatorial eastern Pacific (Niño 3.4) SST forecasts. Knowing, with a high degree of certainty at long leads, that the western Pacific will be extremely warm allows us to bracket future drought events with higher confidence. These extreme SSTs are associated with climate change (Figure 1f)."}]},{"head":"Results 3. Climate Change Simulations Anticipate More 2020-2050 Strong Gradient La Niñas","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"Should we anticipate more WPG and WVG events in the future? To address this question, we examine the 1920-2050 OND and MAM Pacific SST gradients, derived from 152 CMIP6 SSP2-4.5 SST simulations (Eyring et al., 2016). For each year, for all of the simulations, we count the number of strong gradient events (WPG or WVG values less than −1Z) and translate those counts into a summary time-series (Figure 3a). Due to warming in the west Pacific, all of the models indicate substantial (>30%) event frequency increases between 2020-2030 and 1920-1979. There is very consistent agreement on these changes across all the models (inset in Figure 3a). The simulations (Figure 3a), like the observations (Figure 1e), suggest a strong tendency toward more frequent strong gradient events, such that in the 2020s, we expect strong gradient La Niña-like conditions about 50% of the time. This tendency is related to a strong anthropogenic ENSO-residual trend mode (Funk & Hoell, 2015) that is closely related to the west Pacific warming, and will almost certainly increase over the next several decades (Figure 3a) as the west Pacific continues to warm. This creates both an opportunity and a need for improved forecast information."}]},{"head":"Results 4. Exploring Spatially-Explicit WVG-BASED MAM Forecasts","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"If WPG/WVG events do become even more frequent, then enhanced forecast systems will be a critical tool for managing risk. One challenge associated with improving forecasts is the difficulty in linking research-based attribution studies (Anderson et al., 2022;Funk et al., 2018Funk et al., , 2019) ) with the operational \"consolidated\" forecast system used by groups such as ICPAC (https://www.icpac.net/seasonal-forecast/). These forecasts use spatially explicit maps and are presented at seasonal Climate Outlook Fora in East Africa. The OND and MAM seasons differ in that MAM rains are not predicted well by climate models (Shukla et al., 2016), because these rains are less spatially homogeneous (Nicholson, 2017) and can have non-linear relationships to SSTs, with more coherent links during droughts (e.g., Figure 1d). ICPAC scientists, however, are now exploring the use of logistic regression, in conjunction with WVG forecasts, to produce experimental MAM forecast maps at long-leads (Figure 3b), and such predictions are being used to support long-lead alerts (ICPAC et al., 2022b). Preliminary results from such approaches appear promising. Unlike Figure 3b, the scatter plot-based forecasts shown in Figure 2 lack the spatial dimension required to fit into ICPAC's map-based forecast streams. If gradient events become more frequent (Figure 3a), these novel forecasting techniques may help capture the predictability inherent in extremely warm SST (Figure 2a)."}]},{"head":"Discussion 1. Increased Trust, Urgency and Accuracy Can Help Overcome Barriers Associated With Limited Funding, Uncertain Tradeoffs, and Inertia by Supporting Improved Advisory Services","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Improving food security outcomes in Africa is challenging, given that costly and momentous decisions must be made in a setting of uncertain tradeoffs (Lentz & Maxwell, 2022;D. G. Maxwell, 2016;D. Maxwell & Hailey, 2020;Sarkar et al., 2021) Most east Africans are risk-averse (Hansen et al., 2019) small-scale farmers with little mechanization and often nutrient-depleted soils (Giller et al., 2021). Uptake of innovative farming practices, crop insurance, and advisory services is limited (Hansen et al., 2019) and food insecurity is increasing (Funk & Shukla, 2020;ICPAC et al., 2022c). While acting earlier can save money, lives and livelihoods (Venton et al., 2012), decision making under uncertainty is difficult (Dosi et al., 2020;Luan et al., 2019). However, developing a shared appreciation of the urgency associated with climate change impacts (Figure 3a) and the accuracy of climate forecasts (Figure 2) can open the door for forecast utilization. But, achieving that goal requires the development of trusted advisory services linking stakeholders with climate forecast services."},{"index":2,"size":211,"text":"Building trust is challenging. Despite some encouraging signs, there remain inconsistent findings in research examining associations between farmers' perceptions of climate variability and the likelihood of them using weather and climate information services (Diouf et al., 2019;Djido et al., 2021;Owusu Danquah et al., 2020). Decisions involve tradeoffs. Forecasts provide information on the probability of an adverse event, but they are silent on the risk of moving from the status quo. Yet, moving from the status quo also involves risk: adopting a new practice, crop, technology, or livelihood mix that may increase short-term resilience but prove to be maladaptive, resulting in negative impacts on crop yields, ecological health, or socioeconomic systems in the long run. For example, switching from a water-demanding crop like maize to drought-tolerant cassava often involves a tradeoff between lower risk and lower returns. Better predictions do not always translate into better decisions, as individuals tend to favor the known over the unknown, including known risks over unknown risks (Ellsberg, 1961). The risk-perception literature finds that individuals systematically overestimate the size of risks that are small, unfamiliar, involuntary, and uncertain, and contrastingly underestimate the size of risks that are larger, more certain, more familiar, or, over which they have some control (Cullen et al., 2018;Fischhoff et al., 1978;Slovic, 1987)."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"As the risks associated with predictable extreme SST gradients grow more urgent, trusted EWS advisories may be a cost-effective means of reducing poverty (Global Commission on Adaptation, 2019)."},{"index":4,"size":130,"text":"Increased farmer innovation, combined with public investment in large-scale insurance schemes and rural infrastructure, can help manage climate risk. Unfortunately, the availability and influence of agricultural advisories remains very low in Africa (Hansen et al., 2019). Furthermore, unless co-developed, such advisories may not respond to the local needs of farmers (Born et al., 2021). It is important, however, to acknowledge examples of effective services. Table 1 provides some good examples of co-developed participatory agricultural advisory systems in Ghana, Rwanda (Ingabire, 2021), and Senegal (Chiputwa et al., 2020(Chiputwa et al., , 2022)). In some non-African La Niña-impacted countries like Colombia, agro-advisories have helped maize farmers (Jimenez et al., 2019) and rice farmers (CCAFS, 2014;Delerce et al., 2016) increase profits. Modest expenditures on improved advisories can improve yields by 30% or more."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"In Ethiopia, multi-agency collaborators have developed the Ethiopian Digital AgroClimate Advisory Platform (Seid et al., 2020) (EDACaP, advisory.ethioagroclimate.net). EDACaP uses climate and weather forecasts in conjunction with soil and crop data to develop local language advisories that are distributed to development agents and farmers via text messages and radio."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"In Kenya, collaboration between the Kenya Meteorological Department, PlantVillage, Shamba Shape Up, and the Climate Hazards Center is providing text and television-based advisories to more than 9 million Kenyans. These advisories incorporate high-resolution rainfall observations (Funk 2015b), weather forecasts (Harrison et al., 2022), longer sub-seasonal weather predictions and WPG/WVG-based climate outlooks (Figure 2)."},{"index":7,"size":248,"text":"Trusted advisories can motivate innovations that help manage climate shocks. For example, PlantVillage is piloting innovative strategies that promote drought resilience via labor-intensive cultivation practices that involve the digging of moisture retaining \"Zai\" pits and the introduction of biochar. Zai pits can hold up to nine seeds of maize and can be filled with organic manure, biochar, or dry plant biomass. Derived from local organic waste, biochar attracts and maintains nutrients and water in the soil. Despite the dry MAM 2022 rains, a pilot project based in Kilifi county in eastern Kenya (Figure 3c) demonstrated the potential benefits. While control plots exhibited very low maize yields (<one ton per hectare), harvests in the test plots ranged from three-to-four tons per hectare. While more research and evaluation are required, spatially-explicit WVG-based forecasts (Figure 3b) hold the promise of supporting increased resilience, even in the face of severe droughts, as suggested by the pilot from Kilifi (Figure 3c). These advisory services are not costless, but are relatively inexpensive when compared to post-impact, response-based alternatives such as humanitarian assistance and/or funding safety-net programs. In Kenya, the cost of getting a single SMS-advisory into the hands of a farmer is $0.006, and a farmer might typically receive 15 advisories per season. To reach 6-8 million farmers per week on TV is approximately $3,000. Reaching 50 million farmers each year via SMS might cost $4.5 million dollars. Localizing climate information, however, to agro-ecological and social contexts will require a considerable increase in resources."},{"index":8,"size":61,"text":"From a policy perspective, the potential costs of EWS-empowered advisory systems might be compared to the >$2 billion USD in humanitarian relief being provided in 2022 to Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia. Investments in advisory systems might save millions of dollars a year in east Africa alone, if they reduced the need for very expensive emergency relief while supporting resilience and autonomy."},{"index":9,"size":82,"text":"Pilot studies (Table 1) suggest that ∼30% increases in yields are plausible. In terms of historical variations, a 30% increase is a substantial increase. For example, in Kenya, poor MAM rains typically appear in association with a ∼15% reduction in national maize yields. A 30% increase in national maize production (∼1 MT), represents a large sum of money, when valued at 2022 wholesale Kenyan maize prices (∼US $320 million). In addition to increased economic outcomes, increased crop production can reduce price volatility."}]},{"head":"Discussion 2. Can Long-Lead Forecasts Be Used to Improve Decision-Making and Increase Resilience?","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"As sequential droughts become more common during La Niña events, responding to the first drought, which consistently arises in OND, may be a low-regret intervention, especially since MAM dry seasons often follow. Social protection via safety nets and insurance programs can support more effective resilience building at scale  by integrating early action and preparedness (Costella et al., 2017). Guaranteed funding before a shock can enhance the scalability, timeliness, predictability, and adequacy of social protection benefits. In 1998In , 2010In , 2016In , 2020In , 2021In , and 2022, June forecasts of extremely warm west Pacific SSTs correctly indicated OND droughts (Figure 2b) that led to widespread livestock loss and plummeting livestock prices. Index-Based Livestock Insurance is another promising intervention strategy that targets pastoralists and agro-pastoralists who face some of the most-extreme risks from drought (Syll, 2021). Climate forecasts (Figure 3b) might be combined with Predictive Livestock Early Warning Systems (Matere et al., 2020) to improve predictions of forage conditions. More extreme precipitation may be recharging deep aquifers (Adloff et al., 2022). Accessing this water via boreholes might help buffer rainfall deficits."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"There "}]},{"head":"Conclusion: Recommendations vis-à-vis Calls for Improved Early Warning Systems","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"In November 2022, at COP27, the UN Secretary-General unveiled the \"Early Warnings for All Plan\" (WMO, 2022) which provides $3.1 billion USD to support EWS in developing countries. The plan supports four disaster-risk reduction (Syll, 2021) pillars: (a) Disaster-risk knowledge, (b) Observations and Forecasting, (c) Preparedness and response, and (d) Dissemination and communication. EWS \"are a proven, effective, and feasible climate adaptation measure, that save lives, and provide a tenfold return on investment,\" (Global Commission on Adaptation, 2019) which have been recognized by the IPCC as a key adaptation strategy (Pörtner et al., 2022). Within Africa, ICPAC, FEWS NET and the Kenyan and Ethiopian Meteorological Departments provide some of the most sophisticated EWS. This sophistication, the long-standing climate volatility and food insecurity in the Horn, in addition to the many years of collective research and practical experience represented by the authors, provide us a vantage point from which to provide 10 recommendations related to effective EWS development and implementation in the context of climate change. These recommendations are relevant for many regions linked via teleconnections to Indo-Pacific SSTs:"},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"1. Realize that climate change is happening now and offers opportunities for prediction. 2. Realize that climate change contributed to recent extreme SSTs and associated EHoA droughts and floods, and that many of these extremes were predictable. 3. Realize that extreme SST gradients provide opportunities for forecasts. 4. Pay attention to extremely warm SSTs, these can drive predictable droughts and floods. 5. Be concerned about increasing aridity and declining per capita resources. 6. Work toward integrated observation/forecast systems. 7. Invest in building capacity. Utilize local expertise. 8. Look for places or seasons where conditions will likely be clement. Teleconnections will produce droughts, but also areas with bountiful rains. 9. Leverage agricultural adaptation resources to build resilience. Link EWS to the latest agricultural adaptation science. 10. Pay attention to barriers to climate information use, and learn from them."},{"index":3,"size":258,"text":"Trust, urgency, and accuracy can enable action, helping overcome barriers associated with funding, uncertain tradeoffs, and inertia. Trust and urgency involve a shared understanding of how climate change is interacting with natural variability to produce frequent climate extremes, now. Trust also involves developing (and investing in) co-developed participatory advisory services: localized, culturally appropriate flows of information. Accuracy arises when we carefully combine domain-specific insights with the best-available information. For example, satellite observations and numerical model predictions are tremendous sources of information, but transforming this information into accurate rainfall estimates (Funk et al., 2015b) or forecasts (Figures 2 and 3b) demands local expertise, capacity building, and tailored communication systems (cf. Table 1). Predictions of exceptionally warm west Pacific SSTs (Figure 2b) help anticipate the influence of climate change. While still evolving, inter-disciplinary collaboration is leading to first-in-kind long-lead alerts (ICPAC et al., 2022a(ICPAC et al., , 2022b)). But the development of effective EWS in developing countries will require large investments in human capacity. \"Loading dock\" approaches to climate services can fail to provide locally appropriate advisory services (Born et al., 2021) just as \"raw\" climate model forecasts may miss important teleconnections and opportunities for prediction, such as those shown in Figure 2. Especially for MAM, long-lead drought outlooks would be substantially less skillful if they were just based on climate model rainfall forecasts (Shukla et al., 2016) or equatorial east Pacific SST predictions. Skill matters. For OND La Niña-related droughts, which the models capture well, effective actions based early alerts can build resilience in the face of sequential droughts."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"Urgency arises from the long-term implications of extreme SST gradients (Figure 3a), warming air temperatures, population growth, income gaps, and other socioeconomic and political stressors. Strong negative WPG/WVG gradients have become common (Figure 1e). Climate change contributed to extreme gradients in 2016/2017 and 2020/2022 (Figure 1f). These gradients helped produce an unprecedented five-season drought in the Horn. Given that the serial correlation of EHoA MAM and OND rains is very close to zero, the chance of a five-season drought sequence happening randomly is extremely low (0.333^5 ≈ 0.4%)."},{"index":5,"size":250,"text":"The frequency of strong gradient events is expected to increase dramatically (by >50%) by mid-century (Figure 3a), which will likely increase in the frequency of poor EHoA rainy seasons. More frequent dry seasons may also be accompanied by more frequent El Niños and positive IOD events and extreme precipitation (Cai et al., 2014b(Cai et al., , 2018(Cai et al., , 2022)). Increasing air temperatures contribute to both droughts and floods. Under dry conditions, warmer air draws more moisture from plants. Under wet conditions, warmer air holds more water vapor, leading to more extreme precipitation. Such influences contribute to \"wet-getting-wetter\" and \"dry-getting-drier\" tendencies in the Horn (Haile et al., 2020). Observed EHoA crop water requirements are also trending upward during dry seasons, and these influences appear preferentially in hot-arid lowland areas (Funk, Turner, et al., 2021;Funk, Way-Henthorne, et al., 2021). Importantly, the spatial signature of these impacts largely aligns with the footprint of WPG/WVG-related drought tendencies. Finally, increases in population and water scarcity are also likely to expand insecurity. UN projections suggest that between 2022 and 2050, the population of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia, will increase by 70%. Holding other factors constant, population-driven per capita water availability projections for 2050 indicate the potential for severe water stress and scarcity (Funk & Shukla, 2020). Population-driven projections of Kenyan per capita maize production also indicate 40% reductions by 2050 (Funk, Way-Henthorne, et al., 2021). Planning for more frequent and severe extremes by enhancing EWS and advisory services can help mitigate these climate shocks."},{"index":6,"size":118,"text":"The long-term implications of these compound stresses are very concerning, especially for the hot, dry EHoA lowlands. Yet, there is also hope that crop productivity can be increased in humid areas. Many areas of Ethiopia, and substantial portions of Kenya, are climatically secure. Some of these areas (most of Ethiopia) tend to experience rainfall increases during La Niña-like seasons. Closing yield gaps in humid regions would create wealth and lower food prices, and there is growing evidence that climate-enhanced advisories can contribute (Table 1). But achieving this promise will require much greater investments in African experts, experts who can improve and interpret forecasts, link to agricultural ministries, extension programs, and agricultural research centers, and, ultimately, farmers and pastoralists."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. (a) Schematic diagram describing the links between climate attribution, prediction and improved interventions. (b) Barplot showing 2016-2023 regionally averaged Eastern Horn of Africa (EHoA) March-April-May (MAM) and October-November-December (OND) Standardized Precipitation Index values. West Pacific Gradient (WPG) and Western \"V\"-Gradient (WVG)-based drought forecast dates are noted for La Niña-related dry seasons, along with hit or false alarm outcomes. MAM 2023 result is a forecast, shown with 80% confidence intervals. (c) Standardized OND sea surface temperature (SST) composites for post-1996 dry EHoA OND seasons. Screened for significance at p = 0.1. Boxes denote the western and eastern Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) regions, the equatorial west Pacific (110°E−140°E, 15°S-15°N), and the Niño 3.4 region. (d) Same for MAM EHoA dry seasons. Boxes denote the Western V (blue) (110°E−140°E, 15°S-15°N, 160°E−160°W, 20°N-35°N, 155°E−160°W, 15°S-30°S) and Niño 3.4 (yellow) regions. (e) SST index values for the observed MAM WVG and OND WPG. Anomalies calculated using a 1950-2020 baseline. The Pacific gradients associated with droughts (c, d) are becoming more frequent (e). Recent below-normal EHoA rainy seasons are marked with short vertical lines. The 2023 MAM WVG values are based on forecasts in Figure 2. The black circles denote the associated 80% confidence intervals. The associated question mark conveys our concerns for a sixth dry season, based on the 2023 WVG forecast in Figure 2. (f) Equatorial OND western Pacific, MAM Western V, and OND western Indian Ocean Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 SSP245 SST anomalies for 1950-1979 and 2016-2022, along with observed SST anomalies for selected drought seasons. Anomalies based on a 1950-2020 baseline. "},{"text":" associated with predictable (Becker et al., 2022; Barnston et al., 2019; L'Heureux et al., 2017; Tippett et al., 2017) El Niños and La Niñas and "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. (a) Scatterplots of forecast and observed West Pacific Gradient (WPG) and Western V Gradient (WVG) values. Left panels show 1982-2022 October-November-December (OND) forecasts made in May. Right panels show 1983-2023 March-April-May (MAM) forecasts made in September. OND 2022 and MAM 2023 \"observations\" are assumed to equal the forecasts. Vertical bars indicate 80% confidence intervals. Blue, gray and red circles denote the Eastern Horn of Africa (EHoA) rainfall outcomes for each OND or MAM season. (b) Same but for regionally averaged sea surface temperature (SST) in equatorial western Pacific and Western V regions. Regions described in Figures 1c and 1d. "},{"text":" Figure 2. (a) Scatterplots of forecast and observed West Pacific Gradient (WPG) and Western V Gradient (WVG) values. Left panels show 1982-2022 October-November-December (OND) forecasts made in May. Right panels show 1983-2023 March-April-May (MAM) forecasts made in September. OND 2022 and MAM 2023 \"observations\" are assumed to equal the forecasts. Vertical bars indicate 80% confidence intervals. Blue, gray and red circles denote the Eastern Horn of Africa (EHoA) rainfall outcomes for each OND or MAM season. (b) Same but for regionally averaged sea surface temperature (SST) in equatorial western Pacific and Western V regions. Regions described in Figures 1c and 1d. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. (a) Time-series showing the median frequency of extreme October-November-December (OND) West Pacific Gradient (WPG) and March-April-May (MAM) WVG events, based on standardized time-series from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) SSP245 climate change ensemble, along with 95% confidence intervals. The WPG and WVG are calculated using SSTs from the Pacific boxes in Figures 1a and 1b, respectively. Extreme negative OND WPG and MAM WVG events are associated with values less than −1Z. Change in extreme event frequencies (# of events per 100 years) were calculated by taking the frequency differences between 2020-2030 and 1920-1979, and are reported in the inset table for each model with at least three simulations. The 20th, 50th and 80th percentile values of the per-model changes are shown in the last three columns. Time series were standardized using a 1950-2020 baseline. Human-induced warming in the western Pacific results in strong inter-model agreement on more frequent WPG and WVG events, in line with the observed gradient values shown in Figure 1c. (b) Experimental IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Center forecasts for MAM 2023, based on localized logistic regressions and WVG forecasts. (c) Test plot results in eastern Kenya from MAM 2022. Upper-left and right panels show adjacent control and test plots. Bottom panel shows field preparation using Zai pits and biochar. "},{"text":" Figure 3. (a) Time-series showing the median frequency of extreme October-November-December (OND) West Pacific Gradient (WPG) and March-April-May (MAM) WVG events, based on standardized time-series from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) SSP245 climate change ensemble, along with 95% confidence intervals. The WPG and WVG are calculated using SSTs from the Pacific boxes in Figures 1a and 1b, respectively. Extreme negative OND WPG and MAM WVG events are associated with values less than −1Z. Change in extreme event frequencies (# of events per 100 years) were calculated by taking the frequency differences between 2020-2030 and 1920-1979, and are reported in the inset table for each model with at least three simulations. The 20th, 50th and 80th percentile values of the per-model changes are shown in the last three columns. Time series were standardized using a 1950-2020 baseline. Human-induced warming in the western Pacific results in strong inter-model agreement on more frequent WPG and WVG events, in line with the observed gradient values shown in Figure 1c. (b) Experimental IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Center forecasts for MAM 2023, based on localized logistic regressions and WVG forecasts. (c) Test plot results in eastern Kenya from MAM 2022. Upper-left and right panels show adjacent control and test plots. Bottom panel shows field preparation using Zai pits and biochar. "},{"text":"Figure 2 Figure 2 presents exciting new examples of how climate change is interacting with natural variability to produce opportunities for long lead prediction. Each scatterplot shows NMME 8-month lead forecasts and actual outcomes: OND forecasts (left panels) were made in May, while MAM forecasts (right panels) were made in September. The first row presents the WPG and WVG indices, the western region component of the WPG and WVG indices. The second row displays equatorial west Pacific and Western V SSTs. Since mid-2020, such scatter plots have been used operationally (CHC/FEWSNET, 2022) to inform FEWS NET's Food Security Outlook process(Magadzire et al., 2017). These plots convey information about the predictability (high R 2 ) of the SSTs, as well as the potential association between extreme SST states and observed EHoA dry and wet rainy season outcomes (circle color). "},{"text":" 23284277, 2023, 7, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023EF003524 by CochraneItalia, Wiley Online Library on [29/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Earth's Future FUNK ET AL. "},{"text":"Table 1 Exemplar Case Studies Demonstrating the Benefits of Co-Production and Social Networks in Scaling Climate-Informed Advisories 23284277, 2023, 7, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023EF003524 by CochraneItalia, Wiley Online Library on [29/11/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 10.1029/2023EF003524 10.1029/2023EF003524  "},{"text":" are opportunities to better link EWS with adaptation research. For example, the Evidence for Resilient Agriculture (ERA, https://era.ccafs.cgiar.org/) project provides data and tools that pinpoint what agricultural technologies work where. Resources like the Adaptation Atlas (http://adaptationatlas.cgiar.org/riskmap) allow decision-makers to examine climate change-related risks alongside potential solutions. Agroforestry, micro-credit, insurance, digital advisories, improved breeds, crops, forages and diets, fertilizer, intercropping, irrigation, mulch, trees, planting decisions, stress-adapted varietals, and water harvesting-the list of potential adaptations is long. African-led efforts that link EWS to appropriate local solutions can help us anticipate and adapt to more extreme climate.  "}],"sieverID":"39c8fd2b-222e-4c0f-8c68-79d3f7b77bac","abstract":"This commentary discusses new advances in the predictability of east African rains and highlights the potential for improved early warning systems (EWS), humanitarian relief efforts, and agricultural decision-making. Following an unprecedented sequence of five droughts, 23 million east Africans faced starvation in 2022, requiring >$2 billion in aid. Here, we update climate attribution studies showing that these droughts resulted from an interaction of climate change and La Niña. Then we describe, for the first time, how attribution-based insights can be combined with the latest dynamical models to predict droughts at 8-month lead-times. We then discuss behavioral and social barriers to forecast use, and review literature examining how EWS might (or might not) enhance agro-pastoral advisories and humanitarian interventions. Finally, in reference to the new World Meteorological Organization \"Early Warning for All\" Executive Action Plan, we conclude with a set of recommendations supporting actionable and authoritative climate services. Trust, urgency, and accuracy can help overcome barriers created by limited funding, uncertain tradeoffs, and inertia. Understanding how climate change is producing predictable climate extremes now, investing in African-led EWS, and building better links between EWS and agricultural development efforts can support long-term adaptation, reducing chronic needs for billions of dollars in reactive assistance. In Africa and beyond, climate change brings increasingly extreme sea surface temperature (SST) gradients. Using climate models, we can often see these extremes coming. Prediction, therefore, offers opportunities for proactive risk management and improved advisory services, if we can create effective societal linkages via cross-silo collaborations.Plain Language Summary Eastern East Africa is extremely food insecure. Millions of farmers and pastoralists rely on two meager rainy seasons that arrive twice a year. In the 13 seasons since late 2016, the region experienced eight droughts and three exceptionally wet seasons. Seven droughts were linked to very strong Pacific sea surface temperature (SST) gradients, which arose through an interaction between climate change and La Niña. Climate change will bring more extreme Pacific and Indian Ocean SST gradients. Here, for the first time, we show that these gradients can be very well predicted by the current generation of climate models. We then discuss how such information might be used to inform risk management, agriculture, and livestock management practices. The IGAD Climate Predictions and Applications Center, Ethiopian and Kenyan meteorological agencies, and other groups are providing increasingly accurate climate information. This creates opportunities for more proactive and effective agricultural and pastoral advisory services. Trust, urgency and accuracy can lower uncertainty, reduce risk aversion, and empower poor households and cash-strapped institutions to act and innovate. Investing now in collaborative African climate systems, participatory advisory services and proactive risk management will help counter these threatening climate extremes."}

data/part_3/01168ea187621e698d151eda50370a33.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01168ea187621e698d151eda50370a33","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/efbdeff4-441c-4aae-bc42-f71ec2902afe/retrieve"},"pageCount":45,"title":"Sistemas Silvopastoriles: Un enfoque alternativo de manejo de áreas de pastoreo para adaptación y mitigación de sistemas ganaderos ante el cambio","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"• Intensificación sostenible a través de la integración de forrajes mejorados -Mayor productividad -Reducción de la huella ecológica de la producción pecuaria -Diversidad de servicios eco sistémicos "}]},{"head":"Reducción de estrés calórico y mejora calidad de forraje","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Diversidad de especies leñosas: aportan forraje y frutos en momentos críticos de sequía"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Diseño de SPS para tener la sincronía entre producción con escasez de alimentos Ganancia diaria de Peso"}]},{"head":"Ensayo Silvopastoril","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Propósito: Determinar la ganancia de peso (gr/Animal/día) de novillos bajo pastoreo en parcelas con gramíneas solas y asociadas con leguminosas herbáceas y arbustivas y arboles."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"1. T1: Gramínea sola (B. brizantha cv. Toledo/ Brachiaria Hibrido cv. Cayman) 2. T2: Gramínea + Leguminosa herbáceas (Canavalia brasiliensis)"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"3. T3: Gramínea + Leguminosa herbáceas + Leguminosa arbustiva (Leucaena diversifolia)"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Arboles: Guácimo, Nacedero, Matarraton Mediciones de GEI, gases, C en suelo, macrofauna Física y química de suelos."}]},{"head":"Introducción -GHG-Forrajes y Silvopastoreo","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Proyecto Silvopastoril:"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Aumento en ganancias Estrategias para promover el establecimiento de árboles en potreros • Siembra en hileras y protección con cercas eléctricas • Siembra altas densidades con semillas y luego raleo • En caso de altas coberturas, regular sombra y selección especies de pastos tolerantes"}]},{"head":"Cercas Vivas","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"• Cercas vivas simples • Cercas vivas multiestratos • Uso de prendones de buen diámetro y altura • Uso de plantas de repique y viveros • Combinación de especies con diferentes propósitos • Especies con capacidad prenderiza y rebrote"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Disminuye la presión que ejercen fincas ganaderas sobre los bosques, por demanda de madera para división de potreros."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Costos de instalación y de mantenimiento son muy inferiores."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"•Postes de madera son costosos •Deben ser reemplazados cada 2 -5 años •Postes de cemento duran mucho más pero son más costosos."}]},{"head":"Ventajas de las cercas vivas","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• En regiones de vientos fuertes cumplen una importante función como barreras rompevientos."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Fuente de postes requeridos para otras cercas o construcciones (p. ej. corrales) de la finca."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• Fuente de leña para el autoconsumo o para la venta y en algunos casos pueden producir madera de alta calidad (roble, pochote, coyote)."}]},{"head":"Ventajas de las cercas vivas","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ventajas de las cercas vivas","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Servicios ambientales:"},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"• Albergue y alimentación de animales silvestres: Ardillas, pájaros, pizotes, venados, murciélagos, mariposas, abejas. • Además de sombra y dependiendo de la especie utilizada pueden producir forraje o frutos para la alimentación del ganado (y de la fauna silvestre y de los seres humanos). • Fijación de carbono • Contribuyen a fertilidad de suelos • Rondas corta fuegos ¿ Qué características vamos a tener en cuenta para seleccionar las especies de árboles a plantar en cercas vivas?"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"■ Utilizar especies nativas o adaptadas a la zona ■ Seleccionar la especies de acuerdo al interés: sombra, forrajes, leña, madera? ■ Que sean preferiblemente de uso múltiple (forraje, madera, leña,sombra)"},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"Que no sean especies tóxicas para los animales domésticos y silvestres ■ Que no sean afectadas por las grapas utilizadas para pegar el alambre de púas ■ Disponibilidad del material a utilizar para la propagación (semilla sexual, plántulas o estacas). Cratylia argeneta"}]},{"head":"Especies más recomendadas para cercas vivas","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Guácimo de ternero Madero negro","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Bancos forrajeros como opción de producción de alimento en la época seca "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Intensificación "},{"text":"• SSP Leucaena más pastos • 1.3-1.5 m entre surcos de Leucaena y pastos en callejones, y 0.7-1 entre plantas • Siembra directa o en viveros • Podas de formación c/7-8 meses • Acceso permanente al agua Beneficios • Potencial hasta 8 l/vaca/d • Cargas 4-5 vacas/Ha • Reducción de uso de urea • 12.9 meses IIP • GDP 750 g/día ¡Gracias! "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Guazuma ulmifolia 26.4 7.5 62.8 Samanea saman 36.1 15.6 71.5 Enterolobium cyclocarpum 86.0 13.2 67.8 Brachiaria brizantha (grass) 4.9 46.2 CON SOY PM BHM Bh16888 Bh679 Stock of C (Ton C ha-1) 2013 2014 Acumulación de Carbono en suelos Longitud de raíz Secuestro de Carbono  80cm de    80cm de profundidad    profundidad Especie kg arbol -1 % PC % DIVMS Especiekg arbol -1 % PC% DIVMS Acrocomia aculeata 8.6 5.5 66.4 Acrocomia aculeata8.65.566.4 Arango et al. unpublished    Arango et al. unpublished  "},{"text":"humidicola 16888 Reducción de emisiones de GEI Biodiversidad Aumento de la productividad animal Promedio de 5.62 Lts./leche Promedio de 9.75 Lts. / leche 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Cayman Cayman + Canavalia Cayman + Canavalia + Leucaena Toledo Toledo + Canavalia Toledo + Canavalia + Leucaena g/animál/día   "},{"text":"¿Qué es un Banco Forrajero? Es un Sistema de Cultivo en el cual las Leñosas Perennes o las Forrajeras Herbáceas crecen en Bloque Compacto y con Alta Densidad, con miras a MAXIMIZAR la Producción de Fitomasa de Alta Calidad Nutritiva Si la forrajera sembrada tiene más de 15% PC, el bloque constituirá un BANCO DE PROTEINA (Leguminosas y otras especies arbóreas o arbustivas)  Nombre comùn Usos Propagación Nombre comùnUsosPropagación Jiñocuabo Forraje, medicinal Estacones JiñocuaboForraje, medicinalEstacones Madero negro Uso múltiple Estacones y plántulas Madero negroUso múltipleEstacones y plántulas Pochote Maderable Plántulas y estacones PochoteMaderablePlántulas y estacones Aguacate Frutal Plántulas AguacateFrutalPlántulas Caoba Maderable Plántulas CaobaMaderablePlántulas Cedro Maderable Plántulas y seudo estacas CedroMaderablePlántulas y seudo estacas Laurel Maderable Plántulas y seudo-estacas LaurelMaderablePlántulas y seudo-estacas Acacia Mangium Maderable, apícola Plántulas Acacia MangiumMaderable, apícolaPlántulas Roble Maderable Plántulas, estacones RobleMaderablePlántulas, estacones Acacia amarilla Maderable, apícola, Estacones y plántulas Acacia amarillaMaderable, apícola,Estacones y plántulas Elequeme. Poró Forraje Estacones Elequeme. PoróForrajeEstacones  "}],"sieverID":"03cb2ba5-a09e-40b1-91e5-143a220dcf63","abstract":""}

data/part_3/01d0cdf0daa4febdd6c094d036159e37.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01d0cdf0daa4febdd6c094d036159e37","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f7c81362-efef-4d81-9b5f-122cd615998b/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Cali y el Valle del Cauca se preparan para enfrentar el cambio climático","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":" Son 13 publicaciones útiles para la planificación y el ordenamiento ambiental de territorios, que incluyen ocho portafolios de medidas de adaptación, tres inventarios municipales de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI), un análisis de vulnerabilidad del sector cafetero y una evaluación del potencial de generación eléctrica con fuentes alternativas de energía."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":" Un dato preocupante: el 50% de los GEI en Cali son resultado de la quema de combustibles fósiles en fuentes móviles, es decir, automotores. Esto unido al alto grado de deforestación que presenta la ciudad y a la incidencia de los municipios aledaños a ella, incrementa la pérdida de calidad ambiental y confort que se experimenta en las islas de calor urbano identificadas en las comunas 3, 4, 5, 8 y 13."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"Santiago de Cali, 16 de marzo de 2016. Buenaventura, Dagua, Restrepo, La Cumbre, Cali, Jamundí, Alcalá y Cartago son los municipios del Valle del Cauca que, gracias a dos convenios entre la Corporación Autónoma Regional del Valle del Cauca (CVC) y el CIAT, el Departamento Administrativo de Gestión del Medio Ambiente (DAGMA) y el Centro, respectivamente, cuentan ya con una hoja de ruta con acciones concretas y estratégicas para la mitigación y adaptación al cambio climático. Así lo anunciaron hoy estas tres instituciones en rueda de prensa realizada en la sede de la CVC en Cali."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"Se trata de un conjunto de 13 publicaciones, útiles para la planificación y el ordenamiento ambiental de territorios, que incluyen ocho portafolios de medidas de adaptación, tres inventarios municipales de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI), un análisis de vulnerabilidad del sector cafetero y una evaluación del potencial de generación eléctrica con fuentes alternativas de energía."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"\"Este es un importante avance de planificación que permite reconocer mejor el territorio vallecaucano frente a los posibles efectos que la variabilidad y el cambio climático puedan generar. Además, establece una ruta de pasos a seguir de manera concertada con los entes territoriales y otros actores relevantes a escala municipal y departamental. Son acciones que aportan a que nuestra región sea un territorio resiliente y comprometido con la adaptación y la mitigación al cambio climático\", afirma Andrés Carmona, Profesional Especializado de la Dirección Técnica Ambiental de CVC."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"Más de 20 acciones fueron establecidas para cada municipio en los portafolios de medidas de adaptación."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"Por ejemplo, establecimiento de nuevas áreas de reserva natural; restauración y recuperación de suelos degradados en La Cumbre y Restrepo; desarrollo de un plan de zonificación ambiental en la reserva forestal del pacífico; reforestación con especies nativas en La Cumbre; desarrollo de sistemas silvopastoriles en Dagua; e institucionalización de espacios educativos en escuelas y universidades."},{"index":8,"size":81,"text":"Esto constituye un intento concreto para aterrizar a nivel de municipio, acciones a corto y mediano plazo que permitan hacer realidad el cumplimiento de compromisos como el adquirido por Colombia en la pasada cumbre COP21, para reducir en un 20% las emisiones de CO2 que el país lanza a la atmósfera cada año. Contar con hojas de ruta como estas, construidas en equipo con instituciones de cada municipio, facilita también apoyar la labor del recientemente creado Sistema Nacional de Cambio Climático."},{"index":9,"size":78,"text":"\"Es vital facilitar un mejor entendimiento de qué es el cambio climático; en qué se diferencia frente a fenómenos como El Niño; y qué están haciendo diferentes instituciones en materia de adaptación y mitigación. Todo esto para facilitar que una mejor gestión ambiental esté incluida en la planeación para el desarrollo de cada municipio\", enfatiza Jeimar Tapasco, PhD en Economía ambiental del Área de Investigación del CIAT en Análisis de Políticas (DAPA), y coordinador de estos dos convenios."},{"index":10,"size":52,"text":"Para alcanzar este objetivo el paso intermedio es fortalecer la capacidad regional para la gestión de proyectos relacionados con cambio climático y la incorporación de esta temática en el ordenamiento territorial de los municipios. Hoy, tras un año de trabajo en la implementación de estos dos convenios, las acciones están enfocadas en:"},{"index":11,"size":123,"text":" Fortalecimiento de capacidades, mediante talleres participativos, de los nodos Pacífico y Eje Cafetero, dos de los nueve nodos de cambio climático que existen a nivel nacional. ��� Facilitación de la recientemente creada Red Interinstitucional del Cambio Climático para el Valle del Cauca, para lograr que las instituciones se conozcan entre sí y se creen espacios para analizar y discutir normatividades y políticas de cambio Climático.  Uso de los portafolios de medidas para reconocer e identificar acciones que permitan enfrentar los impactos y afectaciones que traerá el cambio climático.  Elaboración de los inventarios de Gases de Efecto Invernadero de cada municipio resaltando las acciones propuestas para reducirlas.  Identificación del potencial de fuentes o alternativas de energía limpia en el departamento."},{"index":12,"size":70,"text":"Esto a nivel del Valle del Cauca. En el caso específico de Cali se realizaron cinco acciones para comenzar a responder al cambio climático: inventario de GEI; estructuración de la estrategia municipal de desarrollo bajo en carbono; microzonificación climática de la ciudad; identificación de islas de calor urbano y formulación de propuestas para su tratamiento; y diseño del plan interinstitucional de adaptación y mitigación al cambio climático para el municipio."},{"index":13,"size":80,"text":"Cabe resaltar que el inventario de GEI en Cali arrojó un dato preocupante: el 50% de estos gases son resultado de la quema de combustibles fósiles en fuentes móviles, es decir, automotores. Esto unido al alto grado de deforestación que presenta la ciudad y a la incidencia de los municipios aledaños a ella, incrementa la pérdida de calidad ambiental y confort que se experimenta en las islas de calor urbano identificadas en las comunas 3, 4, 5, 8 y 13."}]},{"head":"\"El objetivo es cubrir todos los municipios del Valle\"","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Así lo explica Jeimar Tapasco para quien el objetivo es dar continuidad a los resultados de estos convenios e invertir los próximos cuatro años en brindar acompañamiento para la implementación de las medidas de adaptación en los 8 municipios; replicar esta experiencia exitosa en los 32 municipios restantes del Valle; al tiempo que seguir contribuyendo a construir una visión compartida de cambio climático que facilite hacer que las intervenciones sean más efectivas y articuladas."}]},{"head":"Contacto de prensa","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Adriana Varón M. Oficina de Comunicaciones CIAT Correo: [email protected] Celular: 311 300 6300"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"ffd6d39d-e615-41b8-bd8c-1600bb3a0e47","abstract":"son los municipios del Valle del Cauca que, gracias a dos convenios entre la Corporación Autónoma Regional del Valle del Cauca (CVC) y el CIAT, el Departamento Administrativo de Gestión del Medio Ambiente (DAGMA) y el Centro, respectivamente, cuentan ya con una hoja de ruta con acciones concretas y estratégicas para la mitigación y adaptación al cambio climático."}

data/part_3/022754f5652d929ef96801bd3d89eb50.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"022754f5652d929ef96801bd3d89eb50","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a6d5c808-b292-426b-8a96-9c9d1c317887/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Potential of the small-granule starch mutation for the bioethanol industry","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"The industrial starch market is undergoing major expansion, but certain specific industrial uses cannot be satisfied by native starches and, therefore, chemical or physical modification is necessary. Mutations in the cassava starch biosynthesis pathways were discovered at CIAT (Cali, Colombia) few years ago. A starch mutation induced by gamma rays radiation resulted in a deeply modified branching pattern of amylopectin as well as other starch characteristics and properties. These modifications include changes in starch granule ultrastructure (e.g. decreased starch crystallinity), a weak organized structure, and increased susceptibility to mild acid and enzymatic raw starch hydrolysis (fastest and most efficient hydrolysis of all studied native starches). This mutation could offer interesting advantages for the production of bioethanol. Surprisingly this mutation also results in increased proportion of amylopectin. Hydrolysis was more dependent on granule morphology than on starch chemical composition. Recent crosses produced segregating progenies whose starch had the small-granule characteristics, but amylopectin content ranged from 19 to 42%. Rapid viscoamylograms of the latter starch showed very distinctive patterns."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"94297bb7-99fc-4769-b5e3-d735ed7957f5","abstract":""}

data/part_3/035129c8c65c91a0261803ab56593368.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"035129c8c65c91a0261803ab56593368","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/446cdbbf-c5a3-48b3-9fb3-b2cd049b5582/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Peste des petits ruminants post-vaccination seromonitoring in Uganda","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Following the adoption of the Global Strategy for the control and eradication of PPR, Uganda is set to procure over 8 million doses of vaccines for the eradication of PPR. 1.5 million doses of vaccines were utilized in 2020/2021 and a post vaccination seromonitoring exercise was conducted to assess the critical control points which determine the success of a mass vaccination campaign. This included identifying best practices, resource gaps and infrastructure status needed for successful mass vaccination campaigns."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"A longitudinal study was conducted in 6 purposively selected districts of Uganda , 16 randomly selected villages, and 17 purposively selected sheep and goats, to assess cold chain management, vaccine administration protocols and seroconversion. Questionnaires, key informant interviews and observation were used to collect data. 1602 blood samples were collected from small ruminants and analyzed for presence of antibodies against PPR before and in 1245 three months after vaccination using competitive ELISA."}]},{"head":"Pictures","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conclusions & limitations","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Mass vaccination programs are effective and can be relied upon for control and eradication of PPR. High stock replacement rate underscores the need for more frequent vaccination if eradication is to be achieved. Next steps: Logistic regression to determine the effect of vaccination practices and animal factors on seroconversion. "}]},{"head":"Findings","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"• Pre-vaccination sero-prevalence: 12% (n=1602)"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Post vaccination seroprevalence was 93% (n=1245)"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Drop out rate was 3% (of which 80% were goats sold)"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• 84% of districts have fridges dedicated to storage"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• 33% of districts had temperature monitors for fridges"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"• Prevaccination refresher trainings were not conducted in all districts"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• Farmers were educated about the importance of vaccination"},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• Cool boxes used in the field lack temperature monitors"},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• There were no adverse effects reported by farmers"},{"index":10,"size":6,"text":"• Vaccinators administered the recommended dose"},{"index":11,"size":32,"text":"• On average, a 100ml vaccine bottle was used to vaccinate 94 animals ILRI thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund."}]},{"head":"Contribution to Uganda's livestock development agenda","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"This study is useful for identifying the critical control points for improving the vaccination protocol that is being used for mass vaccination campaigns towards PPR eradication. "}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"8c40e164-fbc1-4002-b127-422ffc91a9b0","abstract":""}

data/part_3/03864f70fc9515cb28e0d39a0f611b2b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03864f70fc9515cb28e0d39a0f611b2b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da58ce6c-43e5-45ab-b8f7-53249803746c/retrieve"},"pageCount":109,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"primeras pruebas regionales de sorgo tolerantes a altos niveles de saturaci6n de Aluminio Con el ánimo de analizar la adaptabilidad de 25 genotipos dentro de los cuales se espera encontrar el mejor m¡¡terial que llegue a ser liberado como pionero en la producci6n comercial de sorgo para suelos acidos con tecnolog{a de bajos insumoa en esa regi6n"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Las pruebas regionales se vieron influenciadas por su ubicaci6n dentro de las diferentes zonas de la regi6n como lo demuestran los datos de producci6n y el análisis de suelo presentados en las Tablas 1, 2 y 3"},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Se incluyeron en estas pruebas localidades de sabana nativa (P R La Antioqueña) que se caracterizan por tener suelos ácidos y alta saturaci6n de Aluminio hasta suelos de vega como la P R de Raúl Ruiz y la grapja El Alcaravan Otras pruebas se encuentran en las cercanias de piedemonte de la cordillera Oriental (P R San Lorenzo) donde la fertilidad del suelo se hace mejor ya que la saturaci6n de Al     :rs-a577 KmAZINA KEID1ERG"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"2>=15 dlas de erergenc F:unbn.stJ.J.l.s DD] J  :2.=1.5 dlas de \"'\"' geJC Fllllbn...st:L. "},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"También se ebtablecieron 11 poblaciones en F 2 con el fin de aprovechar la máxima begregaLión en una forma muy segura, de progenitores tales    "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" fuente forrajeraSelecciones 88-A F 5Materiales F 2 Semicomerciales "},{"text":"disminuye Todo lo anterior permite que se exprese al máximo el potencial genético de rendimiento de los materiales evaluados, Se evaluaron los siguientes Genotipos 156-P5-Serere-1, IS-3071, IS-9042, IS-9938, IS-7132, IS-10336, IS-7151, IS-8933, IS-2765, lS-8577, IS-3522, JS-8959 0 JS-9826, MN4508 "},{"text":" !.TA1 DE CULTIVARES DE SORGO EN COLOMBIA\" ANTECEDENTES Y ESTADO ACTUAL DEL PROBLEMA La desc~ipción va~ietal del so~go es impo~tante no sólo pa~a ga~antizar la pureza genética y física de su semilla duTante las etapas de producción de ésta, y pa~a establecer la credibilidad en la promoción y el meTcado de los diferentes híbridos y variedades disponibles Puesto que algunos de los progenitores que forman los híbridos de sorgo son de un mismo origen genético, es común encont~a~ g~andes similitudes ent~e los h!bTidos que se comercializan POT lo tanto, conviene disponer de una descripción va~ietal que facilite la identificación ~ápida de los caracteres fenotípicos no sólo pa~a evitar conflictos en el ~egist~o de va~iedades, sino pa~a confirma~ la identidad de una va~iedad o híbrido (Metodología Semillas Calidad CIAT 1983) La utilidad de una descripción varietal puede aer determinada de acuerdo con la precisión que requieran los objetivos de cada usua~io Para los estudios genéticos y evolutivos que se realizan básicamente en los bancos de germoplasDl8, se necesitan datos tomados con precisión de muchas caracterbticas botánicas, la descripción varietal que se utiliza en la industria de semillas, cuyo objetivo es ebtablecer un control adecuado de las purezas genéticas y físicas de cada variedad, as{ como la credibilidad en el comercio de semillas La descripción varietal empleada por fitomejoradores y con fines de promoción comercial, sólo requiere resaltar las características de interés agron6mico y comercial de importancia para el agricultor (Muñoz, 1983) La descripción varietal que se usa en la industria de semillas, establece ciertos objetivos controlar la pureza genética y física de cada variedad y además, establecer la confianza en el mercado de semillas (García, 1984) La descripción varietal es importante en cualquier tipo de cultivo ya que permite identificar las características propias de cada cultivar Por esta razón los mejoradores, productores, inspectores y consumidores de semilla requieren de una descripción varietal que asegure la identificación objetiva de las variedades, aunque éstas cambien por razones ambientales \\ JU&1IFICACION Y OBJETIVOS 1 Justificación Para producción y comercialización de los diferentes materiales de sorgo es importante contar con una descripción varietal adecuada que sirva como una guía para lograr una buena calidad de las semillas así como para garantizar su pureza genética y física durante la etapa de producción de semillas y para establecer credibilidad en el mercado 2 Objetivos Estimar la interacción genético-ambiental de los descriptores varietales Evaluar los criterios morfológicos y estadísticos utilizados en este estudio para lograr una descripción varietal adecuada PROCEDIMIENTO Manejo y tratamiento El material se evaluará de acuerdo a lo recomendado por la publicación \"Metodología para obtener semillas de calidad\"Tales variedades son Serere-1, IS-10336, IS-8577, MN-4508, PPQ-2, IS9084, IS-3071, IS-7151, IS-3522, IS-6944, SDX, IS-9636, IS-9042, IS-8933, IS-8959, IS-8996, IS-9945, IS-9938, IS-2765, IS-9826, IS-9646, IS-9109, IS-12152, IS-7132, IS-8931 lOCALlZAClON DE lAS PRUEBAS REGIONALES Para el trabajo de descripci6n varietal se utilizarán 4 pruebas regionales localizadas en la Intendencia Nacional de Arauca, espectficamente en los municipios de Arauca y Arauqutta, sembrada durante el primer semestre de 1988 Para más detalle los lotes utilizados se hallan situados así Lote La Antioqueña vereda Chaparrito del Municipio de Arauca Lote Raúl Ruiz, vereda Las Bancas del Municipio de Arauquita Lote Granja el Alcaravan, Vereda Campo Alegre, Municipio de Arauquita Lote San Lorenzo, Municipio de Arauquita Resultados de análisis de suelos realizados tm los lotes de pruebas regionales se detallan a continuaci6n (Tabla 12) Tabla 12 Valores de pll y contenido de aluminio a varias profundidades en dos zonas de vega y una de suelos "},{"text":" Presencia de una o más ramificaciones en el nudo ciliar 1 diseño experimental a utilizar es el de bloquea completamente al azar con cuatro repeticiones la unidad experimental ser~ plantas individuales ESTABLECIMIFNTO DE 1000 LINEA~ SEGREGANTES El establecimiento de 1000 líneas segregantes en el lote de La Antioqueña y con el ánimo de encontrar a trav~s del método de selección por pedigree un material perfectamente adaptado a la región de suelos ácidos y presencia de capas arcillosa y baja infiltración sembraron 1000 líneas en F 4 , para seleccionar (surco por material) Como criterios de seleccion se tomaron caract~res deseables tales como altura de planta, vigor, tamaño de panoja, excersión, precocidad De ésta labor resultaron aproximadamente 108 selecciones para sembrarse inmeditamente en el 88-B, continuando surco por selección para posteriormente seleccionar en F 5 Pruebas regionales de híbridos comerciales Bajo el criterio de evaluación y con fines de comparación se realizaron en Arauca dichas pruebas regionales con los mejores híbridos de las casas comerciales y los materiales del ICA Dichas pruebas estuvieron establecidas en dos localidades (Ismael Nuñez y San Lorenzo) con condiciones de vega y cercania a bas se analizaron en BCA con 4 repeticiones utilizando el mismo tamaño de parcela de las pruebás regionales de variedades (5 surcos x 3 mt) basicamente la única variable a medir fué rendimiento, observándose además características tales como sanidad de grano que generalmente se vieron bastante afectados comparativamente con las variedades que sí permanecieron sanas (Tabla 13) Es de anotar que estds pruebas fueron establecidas en las dos mejores loLalidadeb 1.11 cuanto d fertilidad Tabla 13 Cowparac16u de RLndiwiento de HíbrJdos comercislLb en las dos localidades empleadas "},{"text":" dlas de E!IErgeJC Fllllbn...st:L.b rm l J aceae 25% =m 2>=15 dlas de \"'\"' geJC-Fllllbn...st:L.b 1m l l\"\"~ 2>=15 dlas de \"'\"' geJC Fllllbn...st:L.b DD l J aceae 2>=15 dlas de 6i2L geJC FliDbn.st::ll.l. DD] l Al\"'~ "},{"text":" como llo-71731, TS-8577 MN-4508 TS-9084, TS-3071 e IS-2765 entre OtlOS los cuales han clasiticado como tolerantes y de buen rendimiento en suelos ácidos SENlLOMtR<.lA11 S DE SORGO Con el ánimo de Lunocer materiales promisorios a una escala mayor se ruontó estt: bLmestre una prueba semicomercial con dos materiales PPQ-2 2 e IS-3071 en una área de 5 UOO mts (2 500 y 2 500) en dos sistemas de siembra en surcos mecanizados y al voleo sin fertilización 1 a razón para escoger PPQ-2 fué su porte bajo y rendimiento por lo tanto resiste fertilización, mientras que IS-3071 es una variedad más alta pero rendidora tn lo que fué sembrado en la forma mecanizada (al surco) se aplicó la mezcla en preemergencia (Gramoxone + Atrazina) mientras que el lote al alta población de malezas, este sistema al voleo se empleó porque se supone que el inicio del cultivo en la zona será mediante ésta práctica en caso de la falta de sembradora Las densidades empleadas fueron de aproximadamente 17 kgs hectárea en "},{"text":" Datos de la media de núme~o de granoa po~ panoja en la p R   16 16  Tabla 3  Tabla 3 Tabla 2 Cal Esto Iraca SIAL E Fer 30 cm 50-100 100-50 50-50 100-100 60 cm 50-100 100-50 50-50 100-100 Resultados y Discus16n Convenio ICA-CIAT-INTSORMIL -Producci6n 1987 B Comparaci6n en cuánto rendimiento de 5 variedades a travEs de localidades Al Se re re 158577 MN4508 153071 PPQ2 157151 55 % 1590 1574 1461 1320 1316 1255 1660 1070 1040 1425 1300 1410 705 920 1010 990 890 1020 83 4 420 310 190 380 265 300 83 4 83 67 483 461 387 411 84 53 645 477 521 395 83 99 400 404 393 335 83 67 522 680 436 423 83 15 392 485 393 374 82 46 244 379 748 575 83 06 331 603 257 372 82 82 293 554 365 377 Elemento Prof MO p pH Al Ca Mg K Sat Al p F2 p F2 Chaparrito Chaparrito 20 cm lO cm 20 cm 40 cm % 3 9 3.4 l 5 l o PPM 18 4 21 o 5 l 25 5 4 4 4.6 5 o 4 8 meq/lOOgr 4 7 2 8 l 3 3 3 4 79 3 44 o 23 o 37 2 34 l 34 o 05 O lO o 34 o 17 o 07 O lO % 38 6 36 2 78 8 85 3 PPM o 53 o 29 o 24 o 27 29 4 13 3 l 5 o 61 306 o 219 o 17 o 11 o 7 16 6 29 o 80 o 95 728 o 1102 141 80 Los valorea promedio de rendimiento y de las variables medidas se pueden apreciar en las tablas presentadas De acuerdo a lo observado durante este semestre se pueden mencionar datos interesantes tales como 1 El comportamiento diferente de loa genotipos respecto a ambientes tales como La Libertad (Tabla 01) 2 La respuesta marcada de loa materiales ante diferente Epoca de siembra en una misma localidad Tabla 4 VARIEDADES CON PRODUCCION SOBRESALIENTE EN MAS DE DOS LOCALIDADES Suelos Acidoa IS-6944 IS-9042 Suelos Normales IS-8959 IS-2765 IS-3071 IS-8577 MN-4508 Se presenta a continuaci6n los análisis de varianza para cada prueba regional Como discusi6n de cada uno de ellos se puede ~ecir que en la prueba regional de San Lorenzo hubo diferencia significativa entre bloques, as{ como también entre tratamientos (25 genotipos) Para la prueba fegional del Alcaravan los resultados dan ~ comprender que hubo diferencia significativa entre bloques más no entre tratamientos El análisis de varianza que presenta la prueba regional de la REGIONAL SAN LORENZ0-88-A ANALISIS DE VARIANZA PARA PRODUCCION DE LA PRUEBA REGIONAL LA ANTIOQUERA Discusi6n por Localidad 1 La Antioqueña (2 pruebas separadas 19 días a la siembra) Suelo de sabana mal drenada, con una capa de 50 cm Tabla 6 Comparaci6n de Rendimiento y tres caractéres Agr6nomicos en Tabla 1 La Antioqueña 2 Raul Ruiz Esta prueba estuvo localizada en suelos aparentemente mejores Tabla 8 Comparación de Rendimiento y Tres Caracteres Agronómicos en las 25 Variedades de la Prueba Regional de Raúl &uiz 3 4 San Lorenzo Tabla 10 Comparaci6n de Rendimiento y Tres Caract §res Agron6micos en DATOS OBTENIDO~ LN PRULBAS REGIONALES DE SORGO 88-A El Alcaravan Esta prueba se estableci6 con un suelo de Vega con muy buena Tabla 9 Comparaci6n de Rendimiento y Tres Caract~res Agron6micos en las 25 Variedades de la prueba regional El Alcaravan En la via que de Arauquita conduce a Sarabena, cerca a San las 25 Variedades de la prueba regional de San Lorenzo P R SAN LORENZO OBSERVACIONES GENERALES CON BASE EN DATOS OBTENIDOS EN LAS VARIEOOl RAl.IL mnz MI:ARAVAN SN LCREN2D Antioqueña 20 40 4 9 4 2 7 2 o 87 o l 37 l 52 7 54 ANI'10WlA las 25 variedades en la prueba regional La Antioqueña encuanto a drenaje y talves con niveles más bajos de aaturaci6n fertilidad dada la exuberancia de las variedades excepto p R El Alcaravan Lorenzo se ubic6 esta prueba, en un suelo que a pesar de estar REN P R 88-A IS-6944 8 1 S ADP EXC DAF IS-2765 16 8 2 FC = FV GL se CM FC Bloques 3 12012140 4004046 666 573 Tratamientos 24 84678282 3528261 75 5.05 Error 72 50251579 697938 5972 Total 99 146942001 ANALISIS DE VARIANZA PARA PRODUCCION DE LA PRU~BA REGIONAL EL ALCARAVAN -88-A FC = 631220199 8 FV GL se CM FC Bloque 3 19219179 72 6406393 24 4 14 Tratamientos 24 39712624 35 1654692 681 1 0716 Error 72 1111695191 1544021 099 Total 99 170101323.2 FV Bloques Tratamiento Enor Total G l 3 24 72 99 se 1071534 128 16260516 35 20004570 3 36372239 82 CM 357178 042 677521 51 277841 25 FC 1 285 2 438 ANALISIS DE VARIANZA PARA PRODUCCION DE LA PRUEBA REGIONAL RAUL RUIZ FC a 441156459 6 fV G L Bloques 3 Tratamientos 24 Error 72 se 11305596 283505875 36369181 CM 3768532 1181274 47 505127,5138 FC 7 460 2 338 aproximadamente de arcilla en el horizonte superior de características impermeables que impide el drenaje de aguas superfi<.isles lo que dificuHa el laboreo y establecimiento de los ensayos Sumado a lo anterior los suelos presentan altos niveles de saturaci6n de Aluminio Como pr4ctica de uniformidad floración, excesión básicamente (Tablas No, 2, 6, 7) Variedad REN ADP EC DAF kg/ha cms cms dbs IS-6944 1858 05 191,8 8,5 5 IS-3522 1646 75 189 6 10 9 7 IS-9042 1570 47 159 4 9 1 3 IS-10336 1370 180 7 10 8 5 IS-8931 1279 44 177 2 9 3 25 5DX 1184 55 177 10 3 PPQ-2 1088 46 138 6 9 7 7 IS-2765 1024 74 160 8 11 1 IS-8577 969 42 189 7 10 6 2 IS-8996 945 5 148 2 11 1 2 IS 9084 925 2 200 6 9,1 2 Serere-1 761 03 146 9 6 6 2 IS-9636 700 45 145 2 13 9 MN-4508 700 16 171 7 9 5 8 IS-9938 674 55 182 2 14 1 5 IS-9826 651 61 146 9 13 4 5 IS-7151 630 43 171 1 10 5 7 IS-3071 614 47 182 7 8 9 IS-8933 595 1 166 2 12 2 7 IS-9646 588 1 169 6 8 6 91 IS-9945 582 64 162 6 13 7 2 IS-7132 441 27 141 11 5 2 IS-12152 432 62 157 8 13 5 IS-8959 430 55 173 1 10 2 IS-9109 317 27 165 3 9 REN a Media de Rendimiento EC a Excersi6n ADP a Altura de Planta DAF a Díaa a floraci6n Variedad X lS-1ll52 388 24 IS-9938 353,08 IS-9646 328 41 IS-9636 303 91 IS-7151 293 33 IS-7231 265,49 IS-8931 242,82 IS-9042 234 08 IS-3522 233,16 IS-9109 221,49 PPQ-2 219 16 IS-8996 217,24 IS-9945 214 74 IS-3071 194 74 IS-9084 184,91 MN-4508 179,66 IS-9826 177 24 IS-6944 176 66 IS-2765 170 16 lS-8577 Se¡:e¡:jl-1 161 16 de los otros ensayos establecidos EXC a Excersi6n excersi6n, longitud de panoja y área foliar mediante el método de DAF • Diaa a floraci6n 164,41 de Aluminio dada la expresi6n de los materiales, comparativamente Un problema presente con estos suelos es referente al microrelieve que origina espacios de encharcamiento que para este caso dificultaron un poco las condiciones de uniformidad del ensayo, aunque se favorece un poco ya que la textura del suelo es más liviana, mejorando un poco el drenaje comparado con la Antioqueña Como prácticas de manejo se hizo una fertilizeci6n de NPK en forma de 15-15-15 y dosis de 30 kg/ha, a los 3Q días de emergencia El control de malezas se hizo en forma manual, no hubo problemas mayores de plagas ni enfermedades de incidencia econ6mica Es de anotar la altura de los materiales que a pesar de ser grande no se present6 volcamiento en ninguno de ellos Los datos de rendimiento aparecen en el lndice (Tabla 8) En esta prueba se realiz6 un muestreo de suelo parcela a parcela el cual se esta analizando en la actualidad junto con las muestras REN ADP EXC DAF Variedad kg/ha eme cma días IS-9042 3216 3 224 4 11 6 2 MN-4508 3019 8 218 5 10 4 IS-9636 3001 4 197 2 15 4 2 IS-10336-1 2820 5 134 2 16 7 7 IS-8577 2656 6 218 11 6 7 IS-3071 2540 4 237 2 11 5 2 IS-7151 2464 6 215 5 12 2 7 IS-6944 2431 2 242 8 8 o 5 IS-12152 2277 1 236 4 11 6 IS-9084 2192 6 223,4 11 5 7 IS-3522 2161 2 208 4 10 1 2 IS-9826 2093 6 196 5 13 6 2 IS-9945 1918,9 203 6 15 5 IS-8996 1865 9 204 3 12 5 2 5DX 1838 2 227 3 11 7 5 IS-2765 1831 6 218 4 11 2 l'PQ-2 1706 5 162 1 2 IS-9938 1700 4 221 3 14 5 IS-9109 1677 8 239 7 9 4 7 IS-9646 1647 5 232 8 7 5 83,5 IS-8933 1644 2 219 5 IS0-8959 1586 9 223 6 IS-8931 1500 1 210 10 8 IS-7132 1455 4 215 8 1 5 Serere-1 1270 5 168 7 11 l 7 REN m Media de rendimiento ADP • Altura de planta IS-9646 436 3 263 5 5 2 REN = Media de Rendimiento ADP = Altura de Planta EXC = Excersi6n parcela util de 3 6 m ' altura de planta, d{as a floraci6n, 2 DAF = Días a floraci6n Como objetivo directo del proyecto se tomaron rendimiento en una ADP = Altura de Planta EXC = Excersi6n DAF = Días a Florsci6n REN = Media de Rendimiento 89 10 l IS-12152 783 8 257 5 14 2 68 11 4 IS-9826 2154 6 220 6 11 2 69 2 IS-7132 2136 7 237 2 11 8 IS-9938 928 7 241 2 13 3 68 2 campo y laboratorio IS-10336-1 374 7 146 8 19 5 3) Variedades como IS-10336, PPQ-2, Serere-1 se ven favorecidas en IS-9109 1628 6 259 4 10 1 72 7 IS-9938 2453 6 14 7 239 5 IS-9945 1995 13 230 5 13 5 737 localidades que comprendieron la evaluaci6n de 48 descriptores en IS-9109 3209 9 8 2 2 250 73 5 estudiante Mario Chac6n y para lo cual se utilizaron todas las IS-9042 IS-8931 3396 5 3287 3 233 4 230 2 10 8 9 3 estable 9 o materiales como PPQ-2, Serere-1, que conservaron portes bajos a pesar de este ambiente, aunque no presentaron las mejores producciones (Tabla 9) La ubicaci6n corresponde a la granja El Alcaravan, municipio de Arauquita, vega del rio Arauca, con texturas más livianas y mejor drenaje Cabe mencionar que a pesar de 1¡¡ exubeTancia no se present6 volcamiento de los materiales 11 maduTéz fisiol6gica también se debe anotar la sanidad de gTano a pesar de ser pTimeT semestre, y poT el contTaTio los .-endimiento son muy satisfactoTioa • Variedad REN ADP EXC DAF kg/ha cms cms d{as IS-8996 3680 7 246 2 8 1 70 5 IS-2765 3522 3 255 7 9 4 722 MN-4508 3365 1 234 8 8 725 Serere-1 3186 8 230 5 o 70 IS-6944 3183 7 263 8 10 3 71 2 IS-8959 2998 8 256 1 8 1 71 5 IS-8577 2943 7 252 8 11 70 2 IS-8933 2834 4 258 3 13 3 72 7 IS-9084 2801 9 234 17 9,3 7l 5 IS-10336 2748 4 228 7 11 2 735 IS-8931 2747 6 247 7 9 9 ~? PPQ-2 2693 6 191 6 7 o 7 IS-3522 2585 7 267 4 12 2 5 IS-9042 2560 6 249 6 ll 1 74 2 IS-7151 2559 1 244 32 12,4 73 5 IS-9636 2511 2 261 4 14 1 70 2 5DX 2486 5 241 4 11 7 70 IS-3071 2294 4 240 3 12 02 74 Variedad kg/ha cms cma días IS-8577 S 9 7 cerca del rio el comportamiento fué un poco diferente a el de El Alcaravan observándose las producciones m §s altas (Tabla 10) Un aspecto de manejo bastante utilizado aqui consisti6 en el control de plagas especialmente cogollero Spodoptera spp que resisti6 la rotaci6n de productos disponibles tales como Lorsban, Furadan, Lannate y que al final hubo que realizar en forma enteramente manual Evaluaciones t.stas pruebas fueron objeto de evaluaci6n en un IS-9646 3581 5 3 8 5 232 2 trabajo de descripci6n varietal, como trabajo de grado del IS 8959 IS-8933 IS-2765 IS-3071 IS-7151 IS-9084 5DX IS-9945 IS-9636 IS-6944 Serere-1 IS-3522 IS-8577 IS-8996 IS-9826 IS-7132 PPQ-2 IS-12152 MN-4508 4950 6 4936 9 4882 9 4880 4 4559 4 4418 4 4316 8 4428 3 4178 9 4118 2 4089 1 4061 1 4012 4 4012 3 3965 7 3958 6 3818 3 3682 7 3602 4 236 8 242 8 248 7 248 7 255 3 236 249 5 223 3 237 3 224 6 199 6 227 6 201 1 220 226 1 232 159 233 222 6 7 10 3 8 o 9 5 8 7 7 2 5 1) Tomando como respuesta la fertilidad de los suelos ácidos de sabana, vega y cercanos a piedemonte se puede conclu!r que ISJ.nl4 10 11 9 IS-3522 11 2 13 ltl-451! 2 14 3 ]5...00'.2 1 3 14 IS-8}36 14 10 1 7 2 variedades tales como IS-10336, IS-6944, IS-8677, IS-7151, 3 13 16 IS-9636 IS-1<mi 4 4 10 25 8 9 10 3 14 1 15 4 8 5 5 o 13 1 11 3 9 2 9 6 10 o 7 1 12 7 9 5 2 5 7 5 IS-7151 7 17 15 S MN-4508, IS-2765, mantuvieron un promedio estable de rendimiento alto en 4 localidades (Cuadro 11) SDX 15 6 17 IS-D71 6 18 18 21 19 8 :rs-am SERM-1 25 12 4 11 PIQ-2 17 7 12 2 2) ~ 22 'lA 6 Variedades como PPQ-2, Serere-1, que aunque su rendimiento en :IS-$1 23 6 11 5 2 estas pruebas no fue muy satisfactorio pero que con una adecuada lS-'ll26 12 16 19 IS-9945 13 21 21 7 5 IS-12152 9 23 'lA fertiltzaci6n se podría aumentar son materiales deseables, ya que lS-9938 18 15 23 'lA 7 7 su porte bajo a través de los diferentes ambientes permanece IS-7132 -X 6 725 8S 9 9S 9S 975 975 10 25 10 75 11 1125 11S 12S 13 1325 1325 15S 155 1575 185 :D Tabla 2 Cal Esto Iraca SIAL E Fer 30 cm 50-100 100-50 50-50 100-100 60 cm 50-100 100-50 50-50 100-100 Resultados y Discus16n Convenio ICA-CIAT-INTSORMIL -Producci6n 1987 B Comparaci6n en cuánto rendimiento de 5 variedades a travEs de localidades Al Se re re 158577 MN4508 153071 PPQ2 157151 55 % 1590 1574 1461 1320 1316 1255 1660 1070 1040 1425 1300 1410 705 920 1010 990 890 1020 83 4 420 310 190 380 265 300 83 4 83 67 483 461 387 411 84 53 645 477 521 395 83 99 400 404 393 335 83 67 522 680 436 423 83 15 392 485 393 374 82 46 244 379 748 575 83 06 331 603 257 372 82 82 293 554 365 377 Elemento Prof MO p pH Al Ca Mg K Sat Al p F2 p F2 Chaparrito Chaparrito 20 cm lO cm 20 cm 40 cm % 3 9 3.4 l 5 l o PPM 18 4 21 o 5 l 25 5 4 4 4.6 5 o 4 8 meq/lOOgr 4 7 2 8 l 3 3 3 4 79 3 44 o 23 o 37 2 34 l 34 o 05 O lO o 34 o 17 o 07 O lO % 38 6 36 2 78 8 85 3 PPM o 53 o 29 o 24 o 27 29 4 13 3 l 5 o 61 306 o 219 o 17 o 11 o 7 16 6 29 o 80 o 95 728 o 1102 141 80 Los valorea promedio de rendimiento y de las variables medidas se pueden apreciar en las tablas presentadas De acuerdo a lo observado durante este semestre se pueden mencionar datos interesantes tales como 1 El comportamiento diferente de loa genotipos respecto a ambientes tales como La Libertad (Tabla 01) 2 La respuesta marcada de loa materiales ante diferente Epoca de siembra en una misma localidad Tabla 4 VARIEDADES CON PRODUCCION SOBRESALIENTE EN MAS DE DOS LOCALIDADES Suelos Acidoa IS-6944 IS-9042 Suelos Normales IS-8959 IS-2765 IS-3071 IS-8577 MN-4508 Se presenta a continuaci6n los análisis de varianza para cada prueba regional Como discusi6n de cada uno de ellos se puede ~ecir que en la prueba regional de San Lorenzo hubo diferencia significativa entre bloques, as{ como también entre tratamientos (25 genotipos) Para la prueba fegional del Alcaravan los resultados dan ~ comprender que hubo diferencia significativa entre bloques más no entre tratamientos El análisis de varianza que presenta la prueba regional de la REGIONAL SAN LORENZ0-88-A ANALISIS DE VARIANZA PARA PRODUCCION DE LA PRUEBA REGIONAL LA ANTIOQUERA Discusi6n por Localidad 1 La Antioqueña (2 pruebas separadas 19 días a la siembra) Suelo de sabana mal drenada, con una capa de 50 cm Tabla 6 Comparaci6n de Rendimiento y tres caractéres Agr6nomicos en Tabla 1 La Antioqueña 2 Raul Ruiz Esta prueba estuvo localizada en suelos aparentemente mejores Tabla 8 Comparación de Rendimiento y Tres Caracteres Agronómicos en las 25 Variedades de la Prueba Regional de Raúl &uiz 3 4 San Lorenzo Tabla 10 Comparaci6n de Rendimiento y Tres Caract §res Agron6micos en DATOS OBTENIDO~ LN PRULBAS REGIONALES DE SORGO 88-A El Alcaravan Esta prueba se estableci6 con un suelo de Vega con muy buena Tabla 9 Comparaci6n de Rendimiento y Tres Caract~res Agron6micos en las 25 Variedades de la prueba regional El Alcaravan En la via que de Arauquita conduce a Sarabena, cerca a San las 25 Variedades de la prueba regional de San Lorenzo P R SAN LORENZO OBSERVACIONES GENERALES CON BASE EN DATOS OBTENIDOS EN LAS VARIEOOl RAl.IL mnz MI:ARAVAN SN LCREN2D Antioqueña 20 40 4 9 4 2 7 2 o 87 o l 37 l 52 7 54 ANI'10WlA las 25 variedades en la prueba regional La Antioqueña encuanto a drenaje y talves con niveles más bajos de aaturaci6n fertilidad dada la exuberancia de las variedades excepto p R El Alcaravan Lorenzo se ubic6 esta prueba, en un suelo que a pesar de estar REN P R 88-A IS-6944 8 1 S ADP EXC DAF IS-2765 16 8 2 FC = FV GL se CM FC Bloques 3 12012140 4004046 666 573 Tratamientos 24 84678282 3528261 75 5.05 Error 72 50251579 697938 5972 Total 99 146942001 ANALISIS DE VARIANZA PARA PRODUCCION DE LA PRU~BA REGIONAL EL ALCARAVAN -88-A FC = 631220199 8 FV GL se CM FC Bloque 3 19219179 72 6406393 24 4 14 Tratamientos 24 39712624 35 1654692 681 1 0716 Error 72 1111695191 1544021 099 Total 99 170101323.2 FV Bloques Tratamiento Enor Total G l 3 24 72 99 se 1071534 128 16260516 35 20004570 3 36372239 82 CM 357178 042 677521 51 277841 25 FC 1 285 2 438 ANALISIS DE VARIANZA PARA PRODUCCION DE LA PRUEBA REGIONAL RAUL RUIZ FC a 441156459 6 fV G L Bloques 3 Tratamientos 24 Error 72 se 11305596 283505875 36369181 CM 3768532 1181274 47 505127,5138 FC 7 460 2 338 aproximadamente de arcilla en el horizonte superior de características impermeables que impide el drenaje de aguas superfi<.isles lo que dificuHa el laboreo y establecimiento de los ensayos Sumado a lo anterior los suelos presentan altos niveles de saturaci6n de Aluminio Como pr4ctica de uniformidad floración, excesión básicamente (Tablas No, 2, 6, 7) Variedad REN ADP EC DAF kg/ha cms cms dbs IS-6944 1858 05 191,8 8,5 5 IS-3522 1646 75 189 6 10 9 7 IS-9042 1570 47 159 4 9 1 3 IS-10336 1370 180 7 10 8 5 IS-8931 1279 44 177 2 9 3 25 5DX 1184 55 177 10 3 PPQ-2 1088 46 138 6 9 7 7 IS-2765 1024 74 160 8 11 1 IS-8577 969 42 189 7 10 6 2 IS-8996 945 5 148 2 11 1 2 IS 9084 925 2 200 6 9,1 2 Serere-1 761 03 146 9 6 6 2 IS-9636 700 45 145 2 13 9 MN-4508 700 16 171 7 9 5 8 IS-9938 674 55 182 2 14 1 5 IS-9826 651 61 146 9 13 4 5 IS-7151 630 43 171 1 10 5 7 IS-3071 614 47 182 7 8 9 IS-8933 595 1 166 2 12 2 7 IS-9646 588 1 169 6 8 6 91 IS-9945 582 64 162 6 13 7 2 IS-7132 441 27 141 11 5 2 IS-12152 432 62 157 8 13 5 IS-8959 430 55 173 1 10 2 IS-9109 317 27 165 3 9 REN a Media de Rendimiento EC a Excersi6n ADP a Altura de Planta DAF a Díaa a floraci6n Variedad X lS-1ll52 388 24 IS-9938 353,08 IS-9646 328 41 IS-9636 303 91 IS-7151 293 33 IS-7231 265,49 IS-8931 242,82 IS-9042 234 08 IS-3522 233,16 IS-9109 221,49 PPQ-2 219 16 IS-8996 217,24 IS-9945 214 74 IS-3071 194 74 IS-9084 184,91 MN-4508 179,66 IS-9826 177 24 IS-6944 176 66 IS-2765 170 16 lS-8577 Se¡:e¡:jl-1 161 16 de los otros ensayos establecidos EXC a Excersi6n excersi6n, longitud de panoja y área foliar mediante el método de DAF • Diaa a floraci6n 164,41 de Aluminio dada la expresi6n de los materiales, comparativamente Un problema presente con estos suelos es referente al microrelieve que origina espacios de encharcamiento que para este caso dificultaron un poco las condiciones de uniformidad del ensayo, aunque se favorece un poco ya que la textura del suelo es más liviana, mejorando un poco el drenaje comparado con la Antioqueña Como prácticas de manejo se hizo una fertilizeci6n de NPK en forma de 15-15-15 y dosis de 30 kg/ha, a los 3Q días de emergencia El control de malezas se hizo en forma manual, no hubo problemas mayores de plagas ni enfermedades de incidencia econ6mica Es de anotar la altura de los materiales que a pesar de ser grande no se present6 volcamiento en ninguno de ellos Los datos de rendimiento aparecen en el lndice (Tabla 8) En esta prueba se realiz6 un muestreo de suelo parcela a parcela el cual se esta analizando en la actualidad junto con las muestras REN ADP EXC DAF Variedad kg/ha eme cma días IS-9042 3216 3 224 4 11 6 2 MN-4508 3019 8 218 5 10 4 IS-9636 3001 4 197 2 15 4 2 IS-10336-1 2820 5 134 2 16 7 7 IS-8577 2656 6 218 11 6 7 IS-3071 2540 4 237 2 11 5 2 IS-7151 2464 6 215 5 12 2 7 IS-6944 2431 2 242 8 8 o 5 IS-12152 2277 1 236 4 11 6 IS-9084 2192 6 223,4 11 5 7 IS-3522 2161 2 208 4 10 1 2 IS-9826 2093 6 196 5 13 6 2 IS-9945 1918,9 203 6 15 5 IS-8996 1865 9 204 3 12 5 2 5DX 1838 2 227 3 11 7 5 IS-2765 1831 6 218 4 11 2 l'PQ-2 1706 5 162 1 2 IS-9938 1700 4 221 3 14 5 IS-9109 1677 8 239 7 9 4 7 IS-9646 1647 5 232 8 7 5 83,5 IS-8933 1644 2 219 5 IS0-8959 1586 9 223 6 IS-8931 1500 1 210 10 8 IS-7132 1455 4 215 8 1 5 Serere-1 1270 5 168 7 11 l 7 REN m Media de rendimiento ADP • Altura de planta IS-9646 436 3 263 5 5 2 REN = Media de Rendimiento ADP = Altura de Planta EXC = Excersi6n parcela util de 3 6 m ' altura de planta, d{as a floraci6n, 2 DAF = Días a floraci6n Como objetivo directo del proyecto se tomaron rendimiento en una ADP = Altura de Planta EXC = Excersi6n DAF = Días a Florsci6n REN = Media de Rendimiento 89 10 l IS-12152 783 8 257 5 14 2 68 11 4 IS-9826 2154 6 220 6 11 2 69 2 IS-7132 2136 7 237 2 11 8 IS-9938 928 7 241 2 13 3 68 2 campo y laboratorio IS-10336-1 374 7 146 8 19 5 3) Variedades como IS-10336, PPQ-2, Serere-1 se ven favorecidas en IS-9109 1628 6 259 4 10 1 72 7 IS-9938 2453 6 14 7 239 5 IS-9945 1995 13 230 5 13 5 737 localidades que comprendieron la evaluaci6n de 48 descriptores en IS-9109 3209 9 8 2 2 250 73 5 estudiante Mario Chac6n y para lo cual se utilizaron todas las IS-9042 IS-8931 3396 5 3287 3 233 4 230 2 10 8 9 3 estable 9 o materiales como PPQ-2, Serere-1, que conservaron portes bajos a pesar de este ambiente, aunque no presentaron las mejores producciones (Tabla 9) La ubicaci6n corresponde a la granja El Alcaravan, municipio de Arauquita, vega del rio Arauca, con texturas más livianas y mejor drenaje Cabe mencionar que a pesar de 1¡¡ exubeTancia no se present6 volcamiento de los materiales 11 maduTéz fisiol6gica también se debe anotar la sanidad de gTano a pesar de ser pTimeT semestre, y poT el contTaTio los .-endimiento son muy satisfactoTioa • Variedad REN ADP EXC DAF kg/ha cms cms d{as IS-8996 3680 7 246 2 8 1 70 5 IS-2765 3522 3 255 7 9 4 722 MN-4508 3365 1 234 8 8 725 Serere-1 3186 8 230 5 o 70 IS-6944 3183 7 263 8 10 3 71 2 IS-8959 2998 8 256 1 8 1 71 5 IS-8577 2943 7 252 8 11 70 2 IS-8933 2834 4 258 3 13 3 72 7 IS-9084 2801 9 234 17 9,3 7l 5 IS-10336 2748 4 228 7 11 2 735 IS-8931 2747 6 247 7 9 9 ~? PPQ-2 2693 6 191 6 7 o 7 IS-3522 2585 7 267 4 12 2 5 IS-9042 2560 6 249 6 ll 1 74 2 IS-7151 2559 1 244 32 12,4 73 5 IS-9636 2511 2 261 4 14 1 70 2 5DX 2486 5 241 4 11 7 70 IS-3071 2294 4 240 3 12 02 74 Variedad kg/ha cms cma días IS-8577 S 9 7 cerca del rio el comportamiento fué un poco diferente a el de El Alcaravan observándose las producciones m §s altas (Tabla 10) Un aspecto de manejo bastante utilizado aqui consisti6 en el control de plagas especialmente cogollero Spodoptera spp que resisti6 la rotaci6n de productos disponibles tales como Lorsban, Furadan, Lannate y que al final hubo que realizar en forma enteramente manual Evaluaciones t.stas pruebas fueron objeto de evaluaci6n en un IS-9646 3581 5 3 8 5 232 2 trabajo de descripci6n varietal, como trabajo de grado del IS 8959 IS-8933 IS-2765 IS-3071 IS-7151 IS-9084 5DX IS-9945 IS-9636 IS-6944 Serere-1 IS-3522 IS-8577 IS-8996 IS-9826 IS-7132 PPQ-2 IS-12152 MN-4508 4950 6 4936 9 4882 9 4880 4 4559 4 4418 4 4316 8 4428 3 4178 9 4118 2 4089 1 4061 1 4012 4 4012 3 3965 7 3958 6 3818 3 3682 7 3602 4 236 8 242 8 248 7 248 7 255 3 236 249 5 223 3 237 3 224 6 199 6 227 6 201 1 220 226 1 232 159 233 222 6 7 10 3 8 o 9 5 8 7 7 2 5 1) Tomando como respuesta la fertilidad de los suelos ácidos de sabana, vega y cercanos a piedemonte se puede conclu!r que ISJ.nl4 10 11 9 IS-3522 11 2 13 ltl-451! 2 14 3 ]5...00'.2 1 3 14 IS-8}36 14 10 1 7 2 variedades tales como IS-10336, IS-6944, IS-8677, IS-7151, 3 13 16 IS-9636 IS-1<mi 4 4 10 25 8 9 10 3 14 1 15 4 8 5 5 o 13 1 11 3 9 2 9 6 10 o 7 1 12 7 9 5 2 5 7 5 IS-7151 7 17 15 S MN-4508, IS-2765, mantuvieron un promedio estable de rendimiento alto en 4 localidades (Cuadro 11) SDX 15 6 17 IS-D71 6 18 18 21 19 8 :rs-am SERM-1 25 12 4 11 PIQ-2 17 7 12 2 2) ~ 22 'lA 6 Variedades como PPQ-2, Serere-1, que aunque su rendimiento en :IS-$1 23 6 11 5 2 estas pruebas no fue muy satisfactorio pero que con una adecuada lS-'ll26 12 16 19 IS-9945 13 21 21 7 5 IS-12152 9 23 'lA fertiltzaci6n se podría aumentar son materiales deseables, ya que lS-9938 18 15 23 'lA 7 7 su porte bajo a través de los diferentes ambientes permanece IS-7132-X 6 725 8S 9 9S 9S 975 975 10 25 10 75 11 1125 11S 12S 13 1325 1325 15S 155 1575 185 :D Total IS-8933 largo por ancho 99 76025364 5 158,58 Total IS-8933 largo por ancho 9976025364 5158,58 3 5DX A pesar de ser el primer semestre da siembra en Arauca y dados 151,08 3 5DXA pesar de ser el primer semestre da siembra en Arauca y dados 151,08 IS-10336  137,58 IS-10336137,58 loa resultados de La Libertad se puede pensar en rendimiento muy IS-8959 99,83 El diseño utilizado fue BCA con 4 repeticiones, en parcelas loa resultados de La Libertad se puede pensar en rendimiento muy IS-8959 99,83 El diseño utilizado fue BCA con 4 repeticiones, en parcelas  aceptable para el primer semestre totales de 5 surcos x 3 mts aceptable para el primer semestre totales de 5 surcos x 3 mts    f.-111 f.-111  "},{"text":"aluminio pnrece eAtar murho mA'R nlto Aumndo a loA enchArcamientos    44 44  niveles de encelamiento Cada repetición consta de 6 bloques y carla niveles de encelamientoCada repetición consta de 6 bloques y carla  lN~OKML 1 KOYLLlO LOOl'LRA1lVO EVALUAClON UE ~ll~ VAKlEPMlF~ 101LKANllb A ALUMINIO Y sanitario Determln.u los niveles optimos d1.. encolamiento y fertilizaci6n bloque consta de 12 subparcelas lN~OKML 1 KOYLLlO LOOl'LRA1lVO EVALUAClON UE ~ll~ VAKlEPMlF~ 101LKANllb A ALUMINIO Y sanitario Determln.u los niveles optimos d1.. encolamiento y fertilizaci6n bloque consta de 12 subparcelas  CIA1-EL AICARAVAN-INSORMILL Localidades y Características control de la mezcla no fué muy duradero SU RESPUESTA A TRES NIVELES DE CAL Y CUATRO NIVELES DE para cada variedad CIA1-EL AICARAVAN-INSORMILL Localidades y Características control de la mezcla no fué muy duradero SU RESPUESTA A TRES NIVELES DE CAL Y CUATRO NIVELES DE para cada variedad  88-B 1) 5 Entre los d{as 18, 19 y 20 de Septiembre se realizaron las labores de La Antioqueña Alfonso Reyes FERTILIZAClON EN FOSFORO Y NITROGENO 88-B 1) 5 Entre los d{as 18, 19 y 20 de Septiembre se realizaron las labores de La Antioqueña Alfonso Reyes FERTILIZAClON EN FOSFORO Y NITROGENO  En esta loLalidad considerada con el más alto nivel de saturación Se sembraron los mismos materiales de La Antioqueña, hasta el En este semestre la prueba se tr1slado a otra finca en donde el Determinar el nivel de encolamiento y fertilizaci6n mínimos con aplicación de la primera dosis de fertilización y siembra En esta En esta loLalidad considerada con el más alto nivel de saturación Se sembraron los mismos materiales de La Antioqueña, hasta el En este semestre la prueba se tr1slado a otra finca en donde el Determinar el nivel de encolamiento y fertilizaci6n mínimos con aplicación de la primera dosis de fertilización y siembra En esta  SEGUNDO SEMESTRE Tomando como base las experiencias obtenidas en el semestre anterior, de alum1nio se estableció la mayoría de los ensayos t.s de momento hay algunos aspectos para resaltar tales como, la Por Guillermo Penilla L los cualeb las variedades son economicsmente viables para ser primera apliracón se incorpora la totalidad del fosforo mientraA que SEGUNDO SEMESTRE Tomando como base las experiencias obtenidas en el semestre anterior, de alum1nio se estableció la mayoría de los ensayos t.s de momento hay algunos aspectos para resaltar tales como, la Por Guillermo Penilla L los cualeb las variedades son economicsmente viables para ser primera apliracón se incorpora la totalidad del fosforo mientraA que  se continua desarrollando la idea inicial mediante una programación anotar las difiLultades para la siembra atribuibles a la falta de diferencia marcada que existe comparando las repeticiones en I, en zonas que afectaron espec{ficamente algunas parcelas lo cual latudiante Ultimo Año de Agronomía cultivadas de nitrogeno y de potasio se aplicaron cantidades menoreq con el fin se continua desarrollando la idea inicial mediante una programación anotar las difiLultades para la siembra atribuibles a la falta de diferencia marcada que existe comparando las repeticiones en I, en zonas que afectaron espec{ficamente algunas parcelas lo cual latudiante Ultimo Año de Agronomía cultivadas de nitrogeno y de potasio se aplicaron cantidades menoreq con el fin  ambiciosa y pese a las inclemencias ambientales, especialmente en la ptepdración del lote y a las lluvias torrenciales que se II contra Ill, IV En cuanto a altura de planta y apariencia de muestra una prueba más retrazada que la del semestre pasado de fraccionar la entrega ambiciosa y pese a las inclemencias ambientales, especialmente en la ptepdración del lote y a las lluvias torrenciales que se II contra Ill, IV En cuanto a altura de planta y apariencia de muestra una prueba más retrazada que la del semestre pasado de fraccionar la entrega  época de t.ieml>ra, st.. blgue adelantt.. con la inveatigacilin reprebent.Jlon en el período de siembra, situación que obligó a la los matetiale& Las variedades utilizadas son MN-4508 t.ncontrar qu1.. hldlerlal ofrece la mayor rtmtabilidad para el época de t.ieml>ra, st.. blgue adelantt.. con la inveatigacilin reprebent.Jlon en el período de siembra, situación que obligó a la los matetiale& Las variedades utilizadas son MN-4508 t.ncontrar qu1.. hldlerlal ofrece la mayor rtmtabilidad para el  construcción de surcos {Caballones) en una forma totalmente Fn este semestre predominaron los controles qu{micos ademiís de PPQ-2 agricultor en condiciones de cultivo comercial Fl d{a 21 de Septiembre se realizó la aplicacón del herbicida construcción de surcos {Caballones) en una forma totalmente Fn este semestre predominaron los controles qu{micos ademiís de PPQ-2 agricultor en condiciones de cultivo comercial Fl d{a 21 de Septiembre se realizó la aplicacón del herbicida  1988-ll programa contempla pruebas manual lo cual lo hizo todavía más difícil A grandes rasgos el Otro aspecto de re sal tdr radica en la identificación de algunos regionales, que los manuales se tornaron dif{~iles por las lluvias exceAivas SERERE-1 preemergente (Atrazina + gramoxone) La germinartón empieza desde Pl 1988-ll programa contempla pruebas manual lo cual lo hizo todavía más difícil A grandes rasgos el Otro aspecto de re sal tdr radica en la identificación de algunos regionales, que los manuales se tornaron dif{~iles por las lluvias exceAivas SERERE-1 preemergente (Atrazina + gramoxone) La germinartón empieza desde Pl  239 mejoramiento genétit..o genotipos susceptibleb a aplicaciones de insecticida Dipterex, 4763 3648 Lowparac16n de variedades e híbridos en en la zona lb-10336 Variables de respueslu a medir 23 del mismo mes, siendo muy buena en los bloques JI, !JI y IV y 239 mejoramiento genétit..o genotipos susceptibleb a aplicaciones de insecticida Dipterex, 4763 3648 Lowparac16n de variedades e híbridos en en la zona lb-10336 Variables de respueslu a medir 23 del mismo mes, siendo muy buena en los bloques JI, !JI y IV y iii !!!!! P-8187 diferentes localidades En ésta ocdsión se ebtablecieron dos pruebas regionales usando 23 4221 3247 y la formación de un paquete tecnológico (IS-12152, IS-9938) el cual fué empleado en el control de gusano IS-8577 siendo muy regular en el primer bloque iii !!!!!P-8187 diferentes localidades En ésta ocdsión se ebtablecieron dos pruebas regionales usando 23 4221 3247 y la formación de un paquete tecnológico (IS-12152, IS-9938) el cual fué empleado en el control de gusano IS-8577 siendo muy regular en el primer bloque  HSE-228 de cogollero los materiales del semestre anterior 2123 Valga la ocasi6n para mencionar la buena colaboraci6n y 2377 Estas pruebas IS-3071 Altura de planta HSE-228 de cogollero los materiales del semestre anterior 2123 Valga la ocasi6n para mencionar la buena colaboraci6n y 2377 Estas pruebas IS-3071 Altura de planta  DK-38 regionales fueron separadas un mes en fecha de siembra 3343 4170 aceptaci6n de agricultores para con lAR pruebas y el futuro que Dos de El raleo se llevó a cabo entre los d!as 18 y 19 de Octubre Cabe DK-38 regionales fueron separadas un mes en fecha de siembra 3343 4170 aceptaci6n de agricultores para con lAR pruebas y el futuro que Dos de El raleo se llevó a cabo entre los d!as 18 y 19 de Octubre Cabe  VSE-22 los materiales, IS-9636 y IS-9646 fueron sustituídos por ICA 1602 SECCION l i 3 Ismael Nuñez Esta idea representa para la Intendencia y en general los Llanos Los niveles de cal son O kg/ha Días a floraci6n anotar que la acción del herbicida hasta ese momento hab1a sido muy 2263 D-61 4266 4245 Nataima y DK-38 el segundo, tuvo buena germinación sobre ' bata prueba parece ser la más uniforme comparada con las demás Orientales de Colombia 500 kg/ha buena ya que el lote se encontraba libre de malezas VSE-22 los materiales, IS-9636 y IS-9646 fueron sustituídos por ICA 1602 SECCION l i 3 Ismael Nuñez Esta idea representa para la Intendencia y en general los Llanos Los niveles de cal son O kg/ha Días a floraci6n anotar que la acción del herbicida hasta ese momento hab1a sido muy 2263 D-61 4266 4245 Nataima y DK-38 el segundo, tuvo buena germinación sobre ' bata prueba parece ser la más uniforme comparada con las demás Orientales de Colombia 500 kg/ha buena ya que el lote se encontraba libre de malezas  cabdllou, m! entras que !CA-Na taima tuvo muy Aquí también se aplicó la mezcla en preemergencia y funcionó mala germinación y 1000 kg/ha Excerci6n cabdllou, m! entras que !CA-Na taima tuvo muy Aquí también se aplicó la mezcla en preemergencia y funcionó mala germinación y 1000 kg/ha Excerci6n  establecimiento mucho mejo1 que en Raúl Ruiz El control de male¿as se ha venido reali\"'ando A ésta época los materiale& se La segunda dósis de fertilizante se aplicó el 2 de No\\ iemhre más o establecimiento mucho mejo1 que en Raúl Ruiz El control de male¿as se ha venido reali\"'ando A ésta época los materiale& se La segunda dósis de fertilizante se aplicó el 2 de No\\ iemhre más o  en forma química (Attazina post emergencia) encuentran en el período de llenado de grano y aún no se observan Jos niveles de fertilización son 50N-50P (kg/ha) Longitud de Panoja menos A los 40 dfna de haber PmPr~1rlo el qorRo Aqu1 se aplicó el en forma química (Attazina post emergencia) encuentran en el período de llenado de grano y aún no se observan Jos niveles de fertilización son 50N-50P (kg/ha) Longitud de Panoja menos A los 40 dfna de haber PmPr~1rlo el qorRo Aqu1 se aplicó el  diferencias respecto al semestre de 88-A exceptuando la SON-100 P (kg/ha) nitrogeno y el potasio que faltaban para completar los niveles diferencias respecto al semestre de 88-A exceptuando la SON-100 P (kg/ha) nitrogeno y el potasio que faltaban para completar los niveles  Como aspectos 1esaltantes se tienen altura de plantas menores disminución en altura de los materiales éste semestre J JOON-50 l' (kg/ha) Número de hojas establecido Como aspectos 1esaltantes se tienen altura de plantas menores disminución en altura de los materiales éste semestre J JOON-50 l' (kg/ha) Número de hojas establecido  éste semestre comparado con el pasado, también ha habido una Comportandose más o menos similar a El Alcaravan, ya que es una lOON-50 P (kg/ha) éste semestre comparado con el pasado, también ha habido una Comportandose más o menos similar a El Alcaravan, ya que es una lOON-50 P (kg/ha)  disminución en la población atribuíble posiblemente a la localidad que el semestre pasado no se incluyó Are<t foliar Como se empezó a notar la presencia de malezas en sitios aislados del disminución en la población atribuíble posiblemente a la localidad que el semestre pasado no se incluyó Are<t foliar Como se empezó a notar la presencia de malezas en sitios aislados del  interacción o efectos individuales de toxicidad por aluminio, mal La necesidad de ampliar la frontera agrícola colombiana ha llevado a lote, se decidió aplicar el d{a 18 de Noviembre el herbicida Atrazina interacción o efectos individuales de toxicidad por aluminio, mal La necesidad de ampliar la frontera agrícola colombiana ha llevado a lote, se decidió aplicar el d{a 18 de Noviembre el herbicida Atrazina  drenaje o toxicidad por herbicida El Alcaravan los investigadores a fijar sus ojos en los Llanos Orientales, tratando 4 Peso de 100 semillas en dósis de l 5 kg/ha drenaje o toxicidad por herbicida El Alcaravan los investigadores a fijar sus ojos en los Llanos Orientales, tratando 4 Peso de 100 semillas en dósis de l 5 kg/ha  En éste semestre la prueba se localizó en los predios de la nueva de encontrar variedades que se adapten a las condiciones que ofrece el En éste semestre la prueba se localizó en los predios de la nueva de encontrar variedades que se adapten a las condiciones que ofrece el  Estab pruebdb fueron fertilizadas con una formula de 60-60-20 sede con suelos que aparentemente presentan más Aluminio que la clima, los suelos, etc de esta región, las cuales con la utilización Rendimiento Es de resaltar que hasta el momento no se ha presentado ningun ataque Estab pruebdb fueron fertilizadas con una formula de 60-60-20 sede con suelos que aparentemente presentan más Aluminio que la clima, los suelos, etc de esta región, las cuales con la utilización Rendimiento Es de resaltar que hasta el momento no se ha presentado ningun ataque  kgs por hectárea de NPK respectivamente del semestre pasado, así lo indica la menor altura que a ésta de un paquete tecnológico adecuado y sobre todo de bajos costos, de plagas, ni de enfermedades que ameriten la apltcación de kgs por hectárea de NPK respectivamente del semestre pasado, así lo indica la menor altura que a ésta de un paquete tecnológico adecuado y sobre todo de bajos costos, de plagas, ni de enfermedades que ameriten la apltcación de  fecha presentan las variedades en comparación con el semestre ofrezcan a los agricultores de esta region una alternativa agroqnfmicos fecha presentan las variedades en comparación con el semestre ofrezcan a los agricultores de esta region una alternativa agroqnfmicos  2 economicamente viable Raúl Ruiz anterior, característica ideal que se espera expresan los Diseño Experimental 2 economicamente viable Raúl Ruiz anterior, característica ideal que se espera expresan los Diseño Experimental  En esta localidad se estableció una prueba regional en la parte materiales a través de ambientes de las diferentes pruebas Hasta el momento se notan algunas diferencias sobre todo en los En esta localidad se estableció una prueba regional en la parte materiales a través de ambientes de las diferentes pruebas Hasta el momento se notan algunas diferencias sobre todo en los  siguiente de la prueba 88-A Por lo anterior los objetivos principales de esta tesis son Con un suelo que presentaba los El diseño es bloques completos al azar, el arreglo experimental es en niveles de cal Los tratamientos que tienen 1000 l<g/ha de cal se ven siguiente de la prueba 88-A Por lo anterior los objetivos principales de esta tesis son Con un suelo que presentaba los El diseño es bloques completos al azar, el arreglo experimental es en niveles de cal Los tratamientos que tienen 1000 l<g/ha de cal se ven  parcelas subdivididas con 4 repeticiones más verdes y con mayor desarrollo vegetativo Fn los tratamientos con parcelas subdivididas con 4 repeticiones más verdes y con mayor desarrollo vegetativoFn los tratamientos con  Encontrar la variedad que mejor responda al encalamiento y a la Encontrar la variedad que mejor responda al encalamiento y a la  fertilización fertilización  "},{"text":"ias entre tratamientos no son muy claras probablemente causada por el exceso de agua a que se vieron sometidas en sus estados iniciales IN fi:WOUCL ION   IN fi:WOUCL ION humedad, igualmente en la pureza (%de malezas) humedad, igualmente en la pureza (%de malezas) Se entiende por malezas plantas perjudiciales, generalmente sin valor Se entiende por malezas plantas perjudiciales, generalmente sin valor comercial, ya seau matas arbustos, arboles, etc que crecen fuera de Según Burnside y Wicks el hecho de que los primeros estados del comercial, ya seau matas arbustos, arboles, etc que crecen fuera de Según Burnside y Wicks el hecho de que los primeros estados del lugar, establecidas por sí mismas (2) cultivo sean lob más susceptibles está fundamentado en que el sorgo es las malezas compiten con los lugar, establecidas por sí mismas (2) cultivo sean lob más susceptibles está fundamentado en que el sorgo es las malezas compiten con los cultivos de muy lento crecimiento inicial bajo fndice de area foliar, lo que aumentando su& costos, reduciendo su rendimiento y la cultivos de muy lento crecimiento inicial bajo fndice de area foliar, lo que aumentando su& costos, reduciendo su rendimiento y la calidad de lu <.osechd le permitiría a las malezas establecerse y competir con el cultivo calidad de lu <.osechd le permitiría a las malezas establecerse y competir con el cultivo ventajosamente  ventajosamente Las malezas tienen varios efectos adversos sobre las plantas Las malezas tienen varios efectos adversos sobre las plantas cultivddas de los cuales el más común es la disminución del G Riveros afirma que en observaciones hechas experimentalmente la cultivddas de los cuales el más común es la disminución del G Riveros afirma que en observaciones hechas experimentalmente la rendimiento ocasionado por la competencia por factores de produc<.ión 1 competencia de las rudlezas reduce los rendimientos de sorgo entre 10 y rendimiento ocasionado por la competencia por factores de produc<.ión 1 competencia de las rudlezas reduce los rendimientos de sorgo entre 10 y tales como el agua, los elementos nutritivos (incluyendo el bioxido de 85% El grddo de teducci6n del rendimiento depende de la duraci6n de tales como el agua, los elementos nutritivos (incluyendo el bioxido de 85% El grddo de teducci6n del rendimiento depende de la duraci6n de carbono), la luz y espacio la competencia de la etapa del ciclo de vida del cultivo en que carbono), la luz y espacio la competencia de la etapa del ciclo de vida del cultivo en que ocurre, y de las condiciones de crecimiento de las especies de ocurre, y de las condiciones de crecimiento de las especies de La competencia de las malezas afecta el rendimiento del sorgo malezas, y su poblaci6n Las mayores p~rdidas ocurren donde se La competencia de las malezas afecta el rendimiento del sorgo malezas, y su poblaci6n Las mayores p~rdidas ocurren donde se dependiendo de la etapa del cultivo en que ella ocurra el tiempo de presentan altas poblaciones de malezas de crecimiento vigoroso y con dependiendo de la etapa del cultivo en que ella ocurra el tiempo de presentan altas poblaciones de malezas de crecimiento vigoroso y con durdción de la competencia, las condiciones de crecimiento de las ~aracLerfsticas siwildres al cultivo Las especies que tienen durdción de la competencia, las condiciones de crecimiento de las ~aracLerfsticas siwildres al cultivo Las especies que tienen malezas y su población dentro del lote (5) requisitos de crecimiento similares al sorgo son más competidoras, las malezas y su población dentro del lote (5) requisitos de crecimiento similares al sorgo son más competidoras, las mayores p~rdidas se registran cuando la poblaci6n de malezas es mayores p~rdidas se registran cuando la poblaci6n de malezas es R numerosa y cuando las condiciones de humedad y fertilidad son 6ptimas Arango dfirma que independientemente de los demás factores R numerosa y cuando las condiciones de humedad y fertilidad son 6ptimas Arango dfirma que independientemente de los demás factores ambientales, mantener al cultivo de sorgo libre de malezas durante los para el crecimiento tn \"stas condiciones el manejo de las malezas ambientales, mantener al cultivo de sorgo libre de malezas durante los para el crecimiento tn \"stas condiciones el manejo de las malezas primeros 30 días después de emergido es casi asegurar un 85% de la debe ser especialmente riguroso primeros 30 días después de emergido es casi asegurar un 85% de la debe ser especialmente riguroso producción (1) Pues el período comprendido entre los 20 y los 30 producción(1)Pues el período comprendido entre los 20 y los 30 días después de la emergencia del cultivo es el momento en el cual el Algunos autores señalan la importancia de identificar las malezas días después de la emergencia del cultivo es el momento en el cual el Algunos autores señalan la importancia de identificar las malezas sorgo es más susceptible 11 la competencia de las malezas o a cualquier presentes en el cultivo en virtud de las diferentes habilidades sorgo es más susceptible 11 la competencia de las malezas o a cualquier presentes en el cultivo en virtud de las diferentes habilidades otro tipo de estrés competitivas que presentan cada una de ellas (Burnside y Wicks, Dicho periodo es de gran importancia debido a otro tipo de estrés competitivas que presentan cada una de ellas (Burnside y Wicks, Dicho periodo es de gran importancia debido a que durante él ocurre la diferenciación de los primordios florales o lllack) que durante él ocurre la diferenciación de los primordios florales o lllack) sea, las panículas de las tuturas panojas se empiezan a formar y por sea, las panículas de las tuturas panojas se empiezan a formar y por lo tanto, su desarrollo puede ser afectado permanentemente Por su parte Black ~ !! ha enfocado el tema desde el punto de vista lo tanto, su desarrollo puede ser afectado permanentemente Por su parte Black ~ !! ha enfocado el tema desde el punto de vista de las caracteristicas bioquímicas de las plantas, diciendo que de las caracteristicas bioquímicas de las plantas, diciendo que La Intendencia de Arauca se caracteriza por poseer una vegetación que aquellos que poseen el sistema totosint~tico C4 son más eficientes que La Intendencia de Arauca se caracteriza por poseer una vegetación que aquellos que poseen el sistema totosint~tico C4 son más eficientes que contiene un alto índice de especies (gramíneas, cyperaceas y las de C3, sobre todo en la captaci6n del co 2 disponible Destacan la contiene un alto índice de especies (gramíneas, cyperaceas y las de C3, sobre todo en la captaci6n del co 2 disponible Destacan la  "},{"text":"Al LLfLriLdL u luti LfL~to~ dL lu LuWpLLLnL!a de las ma}u¿aa sobtL el Ol be da una efectividad del 75% en adelante sobre las Jna mu<..tilCd que la efe<..tividad dt.l tratamiento a esta época esta por debajo del 75% sobre todas las especies  60 60 OI!JL11VO~ l.INLI!Alt~ labla 15 LdractLlL~ de AplicaLi6n de Tratamientoa en Ensayo dL MAI~KIALL~ Y MtiOUO~ (labia O 15) IU.&ULfAUO!> Y lll&<.US 1011 Lbludo 03 llay d. OI!JL11VO~ l.INLI!Alt~ labla 15 LdractLlL~ de AplicaLi6n de Tratamientoa en Ensayo dL MAI~KIALL~ Y MtiOUO~ (labia O 15) IU.&ULfAUO!> Y lll&<.US 1011 Lbludo 03 llay d. cultivo de sorgo, Engi señaló que estas producen un descenso en la altura de las pldntas en el peso del rastrujo atribuible a dicha competencia (Burnside y 1 de sorgo en suelos de sabana, en la intendencia de Arauca En el desarrollo de este trdbajo se dispuso de cuatro genotipos de cantidad de espacio que ocupa en el área evaluada Durante el estado 01 o primet tiempo de evaluaciñ tuvo una efectividad Identificar y clabificar las malezas que inciden en los cultivos Otros autores registraron además una reducción MATEIUALES Control de Malezas 4 Se calcula la agresividad de la maleza, determinada por la mayor Tratamiento Atrazina Preemergente especies que se presentan cultivo de sorgo, Engi señaló que estas producen un descenso en la altura de las pldntas en el peso del rastrujo atribuible a dicha competencia (Burnside y 1 de sorgo en suelos de sabana, en la intendencia de Arauca En el desarrollo de este trdbajo se dispuso de cuatro genotipos de cantidad de espacio que ocupa en el área evaluada Durante el estado 01 o primet tiempo de evaluaciñ tuvo una efectividad Identificar y clabificar las malezas que inciden en los cultivos Otros autores registraron además una reducción MATEIUALES Control de Malezas 4 Se calcula la agresividad de la maleza, determinada por la mayor Tratamiento Atrazina Preemergente especies que se presentan Wicks) sorgo del banco de germoplasma del Proyecto INTSORMIL/HSU/CIAT como 5 Se determina el porcentaje de área afectada de malezas sobre la mayot al 75% prebLntandose en la variedad IS-3071 el predominio en un En el estado 03 sigue una efectividad sobre el 75% en el tratamiento Wicks) sorgo del banco de germoplasma del Proyecto INTSORMIL/HSU/CIAT como 5 Se determina el porcentaje de área afectada de malezas sobre la mayot al 75% prebLntandose en la variedad IS-3071 el predominio en un En el estado 03 sigue una efectividad sobre el 75% en el tratamiento periodo en quL las mal .. za& ejercen mayor competencia hierbas en cultivos de sorgo en suelos de sabana de la lnlendencia de Arauca últiruob berue~LCLB por el proyLclo en suelos scidos b ~e toma el dato de peso de la materia seca de la maleza Secado control de 100% excepto en la variedad MN-4508 que presenta un 37 5% comportamieuto en los estudios de adaptabilidad realizados en los Pard dirigir un control adecuado y económico es necesario conocer el 2 Determinar una metodología para el manejo y control de malas llldterial experimental los cuales se han elegido por su excelente TRATAMTfNTO DOSI!> APIICACION medida tomada (labia U 15) 25% de Aneilema terminglis En el estado 02 se presenta un buen sobre las commelinaceas periodo en quL las mal .. za& ejercen mayor competencia hierbas en cultivos de sorgo en suelos de sabana de la lnlendencia de Arauca últiruob berue~LCLB por el proyLclo en suelos scidos b ~e toma el dato de peso de la materia seca de la maleza Secado control de 100% excepto en la variedad MN-4508 que presenta un 37 5% comportamieuto en los estudios de adaptabilidad realizados en los Pard dirigir un control adecuado y económico es necesario conocer el 2 Determinar una metodología para el manejo y control de malas llldterial experimental los cuales se han elegido por su excelente TRATAMTfNTO DOSI!> APIICACION medida tomada (labia U 15) 25% de Aneilema terminglis En el estado 02 se presenta un buen sobre las commelinaceas en el horno de Hmbtistllis miliaceae Tratamiento Manual En el estado 113 se sigue presentando en el horno de Hmbtistllis miliaceae Tratamiento ManualEn el estado 113 se sigue presentando Un buen si&tema de contrul debe evitar la predominancia de especies, OBJt1IVOS ESPECIFICOS Variedades a probar 1 Atrazina pre-emergente 1 5 kg/ha a Las 48 horas de siembra Estas evaluaciones se hiLieron a los 8 d{as de emergencia a loa control efeLtivo bobre las comaelinaceas y las jussiae de un 100% pero En el estado 01 se da la presencia de las cyperaceaes, commelinaceas y Un buen si&tema de contrul debe evitar la predominancia de especies, OBJt1IVOS ESPECIFICOS Variedades a probar 1 Atrazina pre-emergente 1 5 kg/ha a Las 48 horas de siembra Estas evaluaciones se hiLieron a los 8 d{as de emergencia a loa control efeLtivo bobre las comaelinaceas y las jussiae de un 100% pero En el estado 01 se da la presencia de las cyperaceaes, commelinaceas y 1 SERt!U.-1 Evaluar el número de malezas en cada parcela MN-4508 2 Atrazina postemergente 1 5 kg/ha a Los 23 días de emergencia 15 días y a los 30 días de emergencia, y en la última evaluaci6n de lab cyperaceas tan solo entre un 75 y 87 5% de efectividad jussiae en un 25, 50 y 75% sobre las variedades Presentandose una 1 SERt!U.-1 Evaluar el número de malezas en cada parcela MN-4508 2 Atrazina postemergente 1 5 kg/ha a Los 23 días de emergencia 15 días y a los 30 días de emergencia, y en la última evaluaci6n de lab cyperaceas tan solo entre un 75 y 87 5% de efectividad jussiae en un 25, 50 y 75% sobre las variedades Presentandose una IS-8577 3 GLdmoxone + Atrazina se incluye el grado de toxicidad que presenta el cultivo e 1 5 y 1 5 kg/ha a Las 48 horas de siembra eficacia del tratamiento por debajo del 25% IS-8577 3 GLdmoxone + Atrazina se incluye el grado de toxicidad que presenta el cultivo e 1 5 y 1 5 kg/ha a Las 48 horas de siembra eficacia del tratamiento por debajo del 25% 2 IS-3071 ~valuat la incidencia de malezas en todo un lote 4 Desyerba manual a Los 23 días de emergencia igualmente el número de poblaci6n de cultivo hasta ese momento Tratamiento Atra¿ina Postemergente 2 IS-3071 ~valuat la incidencia de malezas en todo un lote 4 Desyerba manual a Los 23 días de emergencia igualmente el número de poblaci6n de cultivo hasta ese momento Tratamiento Atra¿ina Postemergente 3 Suelos Fstabl ecer metodologias de control manua 1 y químico de malezas Se utilizó un lote de 1 200 m 2 en la finca La Antioqueña en 5 Roundup 1 5 kg/ha a Las 48 horas de siembra (1abla DI~) 1m el estado O 1 be nota un control de 62 5% sobre las cyperaceas 3 Suelos Fstabl ecer metodologias de control manua 1 y químico de malezas Se utilizó un lote de 1 200 m 2 en la finca La Antioqueña en 5 Roundup 1 5 kg/ha a Las 48 horas de siembra (1abla DI~) 1m el estado O 1 be nota un control de 62 5% sobre las cyperaceas por patcela y/o lote donde se LllLUentran las condiciones necesarias para el ensayo 6 Attadn<~ pre y post 1 5 kg/ha a Las 48 horas de siembra y 7 rLbO de 100 semillas pre~Lntes en dos vurledades Serere-1 y MN-4508, pero ya no es tan por patcela y/o lote donde se LllLUentran las condiciones necesarias para el ensayo 6 Attadn<~ pre y post 1 5 kg/ha a Las 48 horas de siembra y 7 rLbO de 100 semillas pre~Lntes en dos vurledades Serere-1 y MN-4508, pero ya no es tan 23 días de emergencia Peso tomado sobre dos muestreos del total cosechado de la efectivo y disminuye en un l5% para las variedades restantes habiendo 23 días de emergencia Peso tomado sobre dos muestreos del total cosechado de la efectivo y disminuye en un l5% para las variedades restantes habiendo vitales, siendo los procesos vitales sintesis de proteínas (en¿imas) y acidos nuclefcos, crecimiento respiración, fotosíntesis, 4 Precisar información sobre relación costo-productividad en la aplicación del control químico en comparación con el control HETODOI OGJA parcela un predominio mayor de cyperaceas y commelinaceae vitales, siendo los procesos vitales sintesis de proteínas (en¿imas) y acidos nuclefcos, crecimiento respiración, fotosíntesis, 4 Precisar información sobre relación costo-productividad en la aplicación del control químico en comparación con el control HETODOI OGJA parcela un predominio mayor de cyperaceas y commelinaceae otganizado, db&orción de nutrientes, divi&ión celular por generación IIUinual t.l ensayo se montó bajo el diseño de parcelas divididas, dentro del 8 kendimiento otganizado, db&orción de nutrientes, divi&ión celular por generación IIUinual t.l ensayo se montó bajo el diseño de parcelas divididas, dentro del 8 kendimiento de ATP y el estado de reducción -oxidación de la planta cual se evaluaron las cuatro variedades con los 6 tratamiento (3) La unidad experimental en una parcela de 5 surcos de 4 metros de largo Total cosechado en parcela util y luego transformado a kg/ha y a En el estado 02 predomina igual poblaciñ de malezas sin haber un 37 5% de ATP y el estado de reducción -oxidación de la planta cual se evaluaron las cuatro variedades con los 6 tratamiento (3) La unidad experimental en una parcela de 5 surcos de 4 metros de largo Total cosechado en parcela util y luego transformado a kg/ha y a En el estado 02 predomina igual poblaciñ de malezas sin haber un 37 5% aplicados y 60 cm de surcos un porcentaje de humedad inLremento considerable de estas aplicados y 60 cm de surcos un porcentaje de humedad inLremento considerable de estas Para la evaluación de la parcela útil se eliminaron los dos surcos Tratamiento Roundup Para la evaluación de la parcela útil se eliminaron los dos surcos Tratamiento Roundup bordes y O 5 m de cabecera Variableb evaluadas Ln el eslddo UJ ditlwiuuye notoriawLnt\" la poblaci6n de Lyperaceaa y Estado 01 ~1 tratamiento es efectivo para commelinsceas y jussiaes bordes y O 5 m de cabecera Variableb evaluadas Ln el eslddo UJ ditlwiuuye notoriawLnt\" la poblaci6n de Lyperaceaa y Estado 01 ~1 tratamiento es efectivo para commelinsceas y jussiaes DISEAO EXPERIMENfAL las siguienteb fueron las variables medidas commelinaceas y se elimina la jubsiaes dano una efectividad del 62 5% un 100%, y en un 50% para cypLraceaea DISEAO EXPERIMENfAL las siguienteb fueron las variables medidas commelinaceas y se elimina la jubsiaes dano una efectividad del 62 5% un 100%, y en un 50% para cypLraceaea 1 de efectividad Se realiz6 el conteo de malezas en área infestada, en una medida 1 de efectividad Se realiz6 el conteo de malezas en área infestada, en una medida Se utilizó un diseño de parcelas divididas con cuatro repeticiones los de 20 cm x 20 cm totalizandose la cantidad de maleza presente en Estado 02 <;Jgue siendo efectivo para commelinaceaes y jusaiaes sobre Se utilizó un diseño de parcelas divididas con cuatro repeticiones los de 20 cm x 20 cm totalizandose la cantidad de maleza presente en Estado 02 <;Jgue siendo efectivo para commelinaceaes y jusaiaes sobre tratamientos utilizados fueron 4 variedades por 6 tratamientos que fueron esta medida (Tabla U 16) TratamiLnto Gramoxone + Atrazina un 87 5%, pero sobre cyperaceaes no ha sido tan efectivo, pues tratamientos utilizados fueron 4 variedades por 6 tratamientos que fueron esta medida (Tabla U 16) TratamiLnto Gramoxone + Atrazina un 87 5%, pero sobre cyperaceaes no ha sido tan efectivo, pues presenta un control inferior de 75% presenta un control inferior de 75%  "},{"text":"representativas Tr ttam!ento Pn .. y postLmcrgentc  VARmlAD VARIElAD VARIID\\D 'lRATAMl:ENIO 'IRATAMIENIO '1RATAMIENIO ESI'AOO ESl'AIX) T=EV Ali.IACicti ESrAJX) T=EVAlllACICtl !oW1ZA PRBXMINANIE 1-W.m PREIXMINANllE M\\ilLA PREIXMJNANI'R Rl<QNI'AJE RKEIDJE IE lA MAL ll.A la 'IRATAMIENIO EFEJ::I'IVID\\1) Em:riVID\\1) RimiD.JE EHCITVID\\D IE u mm m 1RATAMirNID VARmlAD VARIElAD VARIID\\D'lRATAMl:ENIO 'IRATAMIENIO '1RATAMIENIOESI'AOO ESl'AIX) T=EV Ali.IACicti ESrAJX) T=EVAlllACICtl!oW1ZA PRBXMINANIE 1-W.m PREIXMINANllE M\\ilLA PREIXMJNANI'RRl<QNI'AJE RKEIDJE IE lA MAL ll.A la 'IRATAMIENIO EFEJ::I'IVID\\1) Em:riVID\\1) RimiD.JE EHCITVID\\D IE u mm m 1RATAMirNID SERERE-1 SOORE-1 MANUAL KmAZINA~ T=E.VAllJACICl.. 1=8 dJ.as de tnel gelC.I.8 F:unbn.st:.l.ll. DD ] J ar.:aao 2>=15 dlas de SJErgenc KJi.J\\ IE LA !oW1ZA !EL 'IRATAMIENIO 25% SJ% o ¡¡m SERERE-1 SOORE-1MANUAL KmAZINA~T=E.VAllJACICl.. 1=8 dJ.as de tnel gelC.I.8 F:unbn.st:.l.ll. DD ] J ar.:aao 2>=15 dlas de SJErgenc KJi.J\\IE LA !oW1ZA !EL 'IRATAMIENIO 25% SJ% o ¡¡m l'N-4.:al KmAZINA~ Anal.lam~ 2>=15 dlas de erergenc F:unbn..stJ.J.ls nn l J aceae 25% :¡¡:; 62~ l'N-4.:alKmAZINA~Anal.lam~ 2>=15 dlas de erergenc F:unbn..stJ.J.ls nn l J aceae25% :¡¡:;62~ Estado 01 commelinaceas familias pero presentes en las varit.dades restantes ~e da un control sobre el 50% de cyperaceas y tn la variedad IS-8577, y de un 100% sobre las mismas Estado 02 especies Estado Ol Se establece un control por encima del 62 5% sobre las El control se incrementa y queda por encima de un 87 5% SERERE-1 ~ JS-85Tl JS-:Jl71 SERERE-1 ~ JS-85Tl JS-:Jl71 A'ffiAZ!NA ~ 1=8 dJas de EDErgenclB J'{Jl.A A'ffiAZ!NA ~ 1=8 dJas de enargenclB J'{Jl.A m-4500 MANUAL 1=8 dJ.as de Em!I\"gSlCl.8 F:unbn.st:.l.ll. rm J J aceee :rs-a577 KmAZINA mmm; 2>=15 dlas de E!1El gene KJi.J\\ J11SSJ acea suffruo.cosa IS-:Jl71 KmAZINA~•• 2>=15 dlas de erergenc KJi.J\\ IS-3J71 MANUAL 1=8 dJ.as de tm:l\"gE!lCla F:unbn.st:.l.ll. JTD haceae AnelJ.era ~ Sl:l!FRE-1 JUMl.1P 1=8 dJ.as de .,,.,, gena l{]!.D m-4500 JUMl.1P 1=8 dJ.as de .,,.,,gen a F:unbn.st:.l.ll. nnllaceae lS-8577 JUMl.1P 1=8 dJ.as de.,,.,, gen a l{]!.D IS-3J71 JUMl.1P 1=8 dJ.as de tne1 gana l{]!.D A'ffiAZ!NA Arel J E!!B ternnnahs lS-8577 MANUAL 1=8 dJ.as de Em!I\"gSlCl.8 F:unbn.st:.l.ll. rm 1, aceae SOORE-1 KmAZINA KEID1ERG 2>=15 dlas de \"'\"'gene F:unbn..stJ.J.ls DD ]J \"\"\"\"\" AnelJ.era ~ l'N-4.:í8 KmAZINA KEID1ERG o o o o SJ% o 25% 37 :;;; 37 ~ 25% ;at ;at 25% SJ% 25% o SJ% o o 25}' 7S1. 37 St 25% 1CXlZ 1<XlZ ¡¡m 25% ¡¡m 1<XlZ 62~ 62~ 25}' 25% 25% 1~ SJ% 1~ 100:: 75% 62St o Estado 01 commelinaceas familias pero presentes en las varit.dades restantes ~e da un control sobre el 50% de cyperaceas y tn la variedad IS-8577, y de un 100% sobre las mismas Estado 02 especies Estado Ol Se establece un control por encima del 62 5% sobre las El control se incrementa y queda por encima de un 87 5% SERERE-1 ~ JS-85Tl JS-:Jl71 SERERE-1 ~ JS-85Tl JS-:Jl71 A'ffiAZ!NA ~ 1=8 dJas de EDErgenclB J'{Jl.A A'ffiAZ!NA ~ 1=8 dJas de enargenclB J'{Jl.A m-4500 MANUAL 1=8 dJ.as de Em!I\"gSlCl.8 F:unbn.st:.l.ll. rm J J aceee :rs-a577 KmAZINA mmm; 2>=15 dlas de E!1El gene KJi.J\\ J11SSJ acea suffruo.cosa IS-:Jl71 KmAZINA~•• 2>=15 dlas de erergenc KJi.J\\ IS-3J71 MANUAL 1=8 dJ.as de tm:l\"gE!lCla F:unbn.st:.l.ll. JTD haceae AnelJ.era ~ Sl:l!FRE-1 JUMl.1P 1=8 dJ.as de .,,.,, gena l{]!.D m-4500 JUMl.1P 1=8 dJ.as de .,,.,,gen a F:unbn.st:.l.ll. nnllaceae lS-8577 JUMl.1P 1=8 dJ.as de.,,.,, gen a l{]!.D IS-3J71 JUMl.1P 1=8 dJ.as de tne1 gana l{]!.D A'ffiAZ!NA Arel J E!!B ternnnahs lS-8577 MANUAL 1=8 dJ.as de Em!I\"gSlCl.8 F:unbn.st:.l.ll. rm 1, aceae SOORE-1 KmAZINA KEID1ERG 2>=15 dlas de \"'\"'gene F:unbn..stJ.J.ls DD ]J \"\"\"\"\" AnelJ.era ~ l'N-4.:í8 KmAZINA KEID1ERGo o o o SJ% o 25% 37 :;;; 37 ~ 25% ;at ;at 25% SJ% 25% o SJ% o o 25}' 7S1. 37 St 25%1CXlZ 1<XlZ ¡¡m 25% ¡¡m 1<XlZ 62~ 62~ 25}' 25% 25% 1~ SJ% 1~ 100:: 75% 62St o sobre las especies prebentes    sobre las especies prebentes Sl:l!FRE-1 A1llAZINA PRE l RE' 1=8 dJ.as de .,,.,,gen a l{]!.D o 1~ Sl:l!FRE-1A1llAZINA PRE l RE'1=8 dJ.as de .,,.,,gen a l{]!.Do1~ SERERE-1 m-4500 ~ A1llAZINA PRE l RE' 1=8 dJas de tm:IReiC18 J'{Jl.A 1=8 dJ.as de eJergena F:unbn.st:.l.ll. nnllaceae o 25% 1<XlZ 7S1. SERERE-1 m-4500~ A1llAZINA PRE l RE'1=8 dJas de tm:IReiC18 J'{Jl.A 1=8 dJ.as de eJergena F:unbn.st:.l.ll. nnllaceaeo 25%1<XlZ 7S1. lS-8577 ~ A1llAINA PRE l RE' 1=8 dJas de tm:IRe:IC18 J'{Jl.A 1=8 dJ.as de tneii<EIIClB F:unbn.st:.l.ll. nnllaceae o 25% 1CXlZ SJ% lS-8577~ A1llAINA PRE l RE'1=8 dJas de tm:IRe:IC18 J'{Jl.A 1=8 dJ.as de tneii<EIIClB F:unbn.st:.l.ll. nnllaceaeo 25%1CXlZ SJ%     25% 75% 25%75% \\S-:Jl71    o 1<XlZ 1~ \\S-:Jl71o1<XlZ 1~  "},{"text":" b DD]Jar~ 12st :O.IAlllU IHIINIO UL 1000 LINLAf> f>t.C.RICANIE!> ~4 Tabla 16 Datos de ensavo Control de Malezas  Tabla 16Datos de ensavo Control de Malezas ~ IS-8577 Variedad Serere-1 MN-4508 IS-8575 IS-3071 Serere-1 MN-4597 IS 8577 IS-3071 Serere-1 UN-4508 IS-8577 IS-3071 Serere-1 MN-4508 \" \" \" \" \" \" 11 \" \" 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 11 .. .. 11 11 IS-3071 .. .. .. .. .. .. 11 493 \" 286 11 proceso de adquisición del material para la zona (Tabla 18) ATIAZINA mE \\ REI' 2.=15 dlas de \"'\"' geJC .llJSSJ aee suffrut:l.cosa F llJlbn...st:L.b 1m l l \"' \"\"\"' ATIAZINA mE Y REI' Estado Maleza Tratamiento t a evaluaci6n Predominante Atrazina preemerg 3 e 30 d1as emergente Nula ti ti ti ti ti Fimbsistilis miliaceae 25% 125': o ti ti ti ti ti Fimbiistilis miliaceae ti 1 ti 1 ti Fimbiistilis miliaceae Atrazina postemerg ti ti ti Aneitema terminalis ti ti ti ti ti Nula ti ti ti ti ti Fimbiisthlis miliacea Ane1lema terminalis ti ti ti ti ti Nula Gramoxon+Atrazina ti ti ti Nula ti ti ti ti ti Nula ti ti ti ti ti Anerlema terminalis ti ti ti ti ti Nula Manual ti ti ti Fimbiistilis meliaceae Manual ti ti 1 Fimbiistilis miliaceae \" \" \" \" 3=30 días de emergencia \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 11 11 11 11 \" \" \" \" 11 11 11 11 Roundup \" 11 \" 11 11 16 11 11 24 11 3=30 días de emergencia 172 11 11 116 11 11 48 11 11 128 11 32 11 56 11 11 4!1 11 11 48 Roundup 1=8 días de emergencia 108 11 96 11 11 104 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 11 \" \" 3=30 dlas gerwinaci6n 24 11 11 11 11 11 \" \" l.ramoxone+Alrazina 1=8 dlas de emergencia \" 11 \" \" \" 2=15 días de germinac i6n \" 11 11 11 11 3=30 días de germinaci6n \" Manual 1=8 dlas de germinaci6n \" 4S 11 Atra¿ina Pre y post l=S d{as de emergencia 11 .. 11 .. .. 11 11 S4 11 .. 2=15 d{as emergencia 11 11 11 11 .. 3a30 d{as emergencia S Atrazina postemergen laS días emergencia 11 11 11 11 .. .. \" \" \" 1 11 871 1 11 .. \" \" 11 1 11 492 1-2 11 .. \" \" 280 1 11 477 1 11 .. 11 11 \" \" sdLisfactoriamente lo que muestra el acierto en la selección en el 279 1 11 476 1 11 .. 11 \" \" \" por selección, en la actualidad germinaron bien y se comportan 253 1 11 475 1 11 Atrazina preemergen laS d{as emergencia \" 11 \" \" \" 11 3=30 días de emergencia \" semestre 108 seleciones para F 5 las cuales fueron establecidas surco 219 1 11 474 1-2-3 11 llespul!b de ld selección de las 1 4 el semestre pasado se sembró este 217 1 11 473 1-2 11 .. \" Roundup 2=15 días emergenci \" 11 11 \" \" SEL¡,.CCIONES 88-A F 215 11 471 1-2 11 5 210 1 11 469 1 11 .. 11 \" \" \" per plant competiton Weed Ser 17)3) 338-344 203 1 11 467 1 11 .. \" 11 \" 124 Black, C C , Chen, T and Brawn, R H 1969 Biochemical baBia 197 1-l 11 465 1 11 11 MN-4508 Manual \" \" \" Ancilema terminalis IS-8577 Manual \" \" \" Timb11st111~ m~l~aceae IS-3071 Manual \" ' Fimbiistilis miliacea rabia 17 control de lbalezas HN-450!1 11 11 11 4 11 11 11 4 HN-4~011 \" 1-11 dlas de em\"rl!t..llcla ow lto.tas/w 2 \" \" 2=15 dlas de emergencia \" \" \" 11 \" Manual 1~8 d{aa de emergencia .. .. .. .. BIUilOLKAHA Tabla 111 ~LLLLl lON ~N t 4 118-A labla 18 ~IIL~LION ~N ~4 88-A .. .. .. 11 11 \" 12 \" .. \" \" 2=15 días de emergencia \" Nuevaru<.nte este semebtre se establecieron las 1000 líneas segregsntea Surco Selecci6n (es) Surco Selecci6n (es) Surco Selecci6n (es) Surco Selecci6n (es) \" Ane~lema terminalis Serere-1 Roundup \" \" \" Fimbiistilis mil~aceae MN-4508 \" ' \" \" Fimbiistilis miliaceae Aneilema terminalis IS-8577 \" \" \" \" Fimbiistilis ~liaceae Jussiaea suffiuticosa IS-3071 \" \" \" \" Fimbiistilis miliaceae Serere-1 Atrazina pre ) post \" \" ' Nula MN-4508 \" \" \" \" \" ' Aneilema terminalis IS-8577 \" \" \" \" \" \" Nula IS-3071 \" \" \" \" \" \" Nula Varieddd !u ... rer~-1 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" Número de Malezas 1 rdlamieuto ~atado t=evaluación 2 en m Altd¿Ílld pObll.Uit .. lb 1=8 <lhs d\" emLtg(..nciu malezas/m 2 \" \" 80 \" \" \" \" l=l5 días de emergl.ucia J6 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 3=30 días de emergencia \" Manual 1=8 días de emergencia \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 2=15 días de emergencia \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 11 \" 11 11 J=30 días de emergencia 108 11 11 11 84 MN-450/ 11 1=8 días de e moa gene la 76 11 11 41! 11 11 11 56 11 11 2=15 días de emergencia 68 11 11 11 56 ( r •. unuxom .. tALra¿;Jna 20 11 Manual 1=8 días de emergencia 24 11 11 11 40 11 11 11 20 11 11 11 32 11 11 11 76 11 11 11 44 11 11 2=15 días de emergenciu 4 11 11 11 48 \" 11 11 11 32 11 11 40 11 11 11 32 \" \" 3-30 dlas de emergencia \" \" 11 11 \" 11 11 11 12 \" \" AtrazJna pre y post 1=8 días de emergencia 1!8 \" \" \" 120 \" 11 \" 2=15 días de emergencia \" \" \" 11 \" J=JO dlas de emergencia JS-8577 Atra.tina preemergen 11 140 \" 11 \" 11 \" \" Atrazina postemerge 1-8 días de emergencia \" 11 11 \" \" \" \" 11 220 11 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 104 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 2=15 días emergencia 112 \" \" \" 108 \" 11 \" \" 11 11 11 11 \" \" \" 11 Riveros, G Manejo de Malezas en Sorgo Secci6n Fisiologla con fines de selección mediante el mismo método de surcos que las .. 11 \" \" \" Vegetal Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, ICA CIU, demás pruebab de La Antioqueña de este semestre procurando llevar los .. 11 11 11 .. .. .. .. .. 11 \" 11 12 11 11 Manual 1=8 días de emergencia \" NatdlDid 19116 mismob Lriterios en drubos semestres Para este semestre se aspira a S panoja 306 1 pano1a 1-2-J-4 \" 892 11 1 13 p (Mlmeograliado) seleccionar lo mejor de cada lfnea 1 <¡ue subsista a éstas condiciones 33 11 308 1-2-3 panoja ~o o 1-2 \" 895 1 \" .. 2al5 d{as de emergencia 11 .. 11 11 12S 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 \" 11 11 11 11 De la <:.ruz, lt Lstudio de Malezas, ecolog{a y manejo Lu la aLtudl !dad se real L.: o uou• ft.rtil L.oaci6u de 60-60-60 kgs por 47 11 309 1 11 1 \" 903 1 \" Curso ef~ctuado IrA -Univer&idad Nacional de Colombia Facultad heLtárea de NPK respectivdmente en la forma de 10-30-10 y Urea 411 1 11 312 1 11 1 \" 155 11 1 .. .. .. .. .. 11 11 11 11 .. 3a30 d{as de emergencia 11 .. 11 11 .. 11 11 11 11 11 .. .. .. .. Roundup 2=15 días de emergencia 11 11 11 .. 3a30 días de emergencia .. 11 11 11 \" \" 11 que ebtos materiales son tolerantes a sequía 151 1 11 447 1 11 .. \" 11 \" 11 Sección Haiologfa Vegetal CRI Nataima 1987 2p Noviembre con meuob agua y la germinación parece ser mejor ahora ya 1!>0 1 11 429 1 11 .. 11 \" \" 11 Arango R Las Malezas y su control en el cultivo del sorgo germinaron debído a lo cual se volvieron a sembrar en el mes de 133 1 11 372 1 11 .. 11 \" \" \" Pero posiblemente por el exceso de humedad no 132 1 11 371 1 11 .. 19l (Vigna dureus), J Agric Sci 81 440-453 Estob mdter ialeb fueron sembrddos inicia )mente en la misma época que 89 1 11 360 1 11 .. 11 \" 3=30 días de emergencia 128 \" vulgart!), cowpean (Vigna unguiculata) and green grain 77 1 11 356 1 11 .. 11 \" \" 12 \" cuwpeLJton in growth und yield in sorghum (~orghum en el átea pecuatia de Arauca 75 1 11 351 1 11 .. 11 11 \" 16 \" Enyi, B A 1 C 1973 An analysis of the effect of weed de millo, pero pensdndo en una fuente forrajera de utilización directa 61 1 11 346 1 11 .. \" 11 11 192 \" Como una introducción se considera el establecimiento de 7 materiales 58 1 11 345 1 11 .. 11 11 2=15 días de emergencia 232 \" removal tteatments on sorghum growth Weeds is 204-207 SS 1 11 337 1 11 .. \" \" \" 11 Burnside, O C and Wicks C LA 1867 The effect of weed EVALUACION OE MATt.RlAIES DE MilLO COMO POSIBLE FUENTES FORRAJERA 54 11 331 1 11 .. 11 \" \" 11 52 1 11 3l5 1-2 11 .. 11 11 \" 112 11 de rtencias Agropecuarias Palmira 1988 30p 51 11 321 1 11 1 11 958 1 f!lst 62S': 1<m PorcentaJe de la maleza o 25% 25% 12 5% 12 5% o 2'\"' JH 12 5% o o o 12 5% o 87 5% 62 5% 25% 62 5% 75% 75.-25% 50% L 5 37 5\" 12 5r 75% o 12 5:1. o o Efectividad del tratamiento 100% 75% 75;. 87 5; 87 5% 100% 62 5% 1001 100% 100% 87 5% 100% 12 5% 12 5% 37 5.-o 75% 37 s::; 50% 25% 100% 87 5% 100% 100% ~ IS-8577 Variedad Serere-1 MN-4508 IS-8575 IS-3071 Serere-1 MN-4597 IS 8577 IS-3071 Serere-1 UN-4508 IS-8577 IS-3071 Serere-1 MN-4508 \" \" \" \" \" \" 11 \" \" 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 11 .. .. 11 11 IS-3071 .. .. .. .. .. .. 11 493 \" 286 11 proceso de adquisición del material para la zona (Tabla 18) ATIAZINA mE \\ REI' 2.=15 dlas de \"'\"' geJC .llJSSJ aee suffrut:l.cosa F llJlbn...st:L.b 1m l l \"' \"\"\"' ATIAZINA mE Y REI' Estado Maleza Tratamiento t a evaluaci6n Predominante Atrazina preemerg 3 e 30 d1as emergente Nula ti ti ti ti ti Fimbsistilis miliaceae 25% 125': o ti ti ti ti ti Fimbiistilis miliaceae ti 1 ti 1 ti Fimbiistilis miliaceae Atrazina postemerg ti ti ti Aneitema terminalis ti ti ti ti ti Nula ti ti ti ti ti Fimbiisthlis miliacea Ane1lema terminalis ti ti ti ti ti Nula Gramoxon+Atrazina ti ti ti Nula ti ti ti ti ti Nula ti ti ti ti ti Anerlema terminalis ti ti ti ti ti Nula Manual ti ti ti Fimbiistilis meliaceae Manual ti ti 1 Fimbiistilis miliaceae \" \" \" \" 3=30 días de emergencia \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 11 11 11 11 \" \" \" \" 11 11 11 11 Roundup \" 11 \" 11 11 16 11 11 24 11 3=30 días de emergencia 172 11 11 116 11 11 48 11 11 128 11 32 11 56 11 11 4!1 11 11 48 Roundup 1=8 días de emergencia 108 11 96 11 11 104 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 11 \" \" 3=30 dlas gerwinaci6n 24 11 11 11 11 11 \" \" l.ramoxone+Alrazina 1=8 dlas de emergencia \" 11 \" \" \" 2=15 días de germinac i6n \" 11 11 11 11 3=30 días de germinaci6n \" Manual 1=8 dlas de germinaci6n \" 4S 11 Atra¿ina Pre y post l=S d{as de emergencia 11 .. 11 .. .. 11 11 S4 11 .. 2=15 d{as emergencia 11 11 11 11 .. 3a30 d{as emergencia S Atrazina postemergen laS días emergencia 11 11 11 11 .. .. \" \" \" 1 11 871 1 11 .. \" \" 11 1 11 492 1-2 11 .. \" \" 280 1 11 477 1 11 .. 11 11 \" \" sdLisfactoriamente lo que muestra el acierto en la selección en el 279 1 11 476 1 11 .. 11 \" \" \" por selección, en la actualidad germinaron bien y se comportan 253 1 11 475 1 11 Atrazina preemergen laS d{as emergencia \" 11 \" \" \" 11 3=30 días de emergencia \" semestre 108 seleciones para F 5 las cuales fueron establecidas surco 219 1 11 474 1-2-3 11 llespul!b de ld selección de las 1 4 el semestre pasado se sembró este 217 1 11 473 1-2 11 .. \" Roundup 2=15 días emergenci \" 11 11 \" \" SEL¡,.CCIONES 88-A F 215 11 471 1-2 11 5 210 1 11 469 1 11 .. 11 \" \" \" per plant competiton Weed Ser 17)3) 338-344 203 1 11 467 1 11 .. \" 11 \" 124 Black, C C , Chen, T and Brawn, R H 1969 Biochemical baBia 197 1-l 11 465 1 11 11 MN-4508 Manual \" \" \" Ancilema terminalis IS-8577 Manual \" \" \" Timb11st111~ m~l~aceae IS-3071 Manual \" ' Fimbiistilis miliacea rabia 17 control de lbalezas HN-450!1 11 11 11 4 11 11 11 4 HN-4~011 \" 1-11 dlas de em\"rl!t..llcla ow lto.tas/w 2 \" \" 2=15 dlas de emergencia \" \" \" 11 \" Manual 1~8 d{aa de emergencia .. .. .. .. BIUilOLKAHA Tabla 111 ~LLLLl lON ~N t 4 118-A labla 18 ~IIL~LION ~N ~4 88-A .. .. .. 11 11 \" 12 \" .. \" \" 2=15 días de emergencia \" Nuevaru<.nte este semebtre se establecieron las 1000 líneas segregsntea Surco Selecci6n (es) Surco Selecci6n (es) Surco Selecci6n (es) Surco Selecci6n (es) \" Ane~lema terminalis Serere-1 Roundup \" \" \" Fimbiistilis mil~aceae MN-4508 \" ' \" \" Fimbiistilis miliaceae Aneilema terminalis IS-8577 \" \" \" \" Fimbiistilis ~liaceae Jussiaea suffiuticosa IS-3071 \" \" \" \" Fimbiistilis miliaceae Serere-1 Atrazina pre ) post \" \" ' Nula MN-4508 \" \" \" \" \" ' Aneilema terminalis IS-8577 \" \" \" \" \" \" Nula IS-3071 \" \" \" \" \" \" Nula Varieddd !u ... rer~-1 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" Número de Malezas 1 rdlamieuto ~atado t=evaluación 2 en m Altd¿Ílld pObll.Uit .. lb 1=8 <lhs d\" emLtg(..nciu malezas/m 2 \" \" 80 \" \" \" \" l=l5 días de emergl.ucia J6 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 3=30 días de emergencia \" Manual 1=8 días de emergencia \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 2=15 días de emergencia \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 11 \" 11 11 J=30 días de emergencia 108 11 11 11 84 MN-450/ 11 1=8 días de e moa gene la 76 11 11 41! 11 11 11 56 11 11 2=15 días de emergencia 68 11 11 11 56 ( r •. unuxom .. tALra¿;Jna 20 11 Manual 1=8 días de emergencia 24 11 11 11 40 11 11 11 20 11 11 11 32 11 11 11 76 11 11 11 44 11 11 2=15 días de emergenciu 4 11 11 11 48 \" 11 11 11 32 11 11 40 11 11 11 32 \" \" 3-30 dlas de emergencia \" \" 11 11 \" 11 11 11 12 \" \" AtrazJna pre y post 1=8 días de emergencia 1!8 \" \" \" 120 \" 11 \" 2=15 días de emergencia \" \" \" 11 \" J=JO dlas de emergencia JS-8577 Atra.tina preemergen 11 140 \" 11 \" 11 \" \" Atrazina postemerge 1-8 días de emergencia \" 11 11 \" \" \" \" 11 220 11 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 104 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 2=15 días emergencia 112 \" \" \" 108 \" 11 \" \" 11 11 11 11 \" \" \" 11 Riveros, G Manejo de Malezas en Sorgo Secci6n Fisiologla con fines de selección mediante el mismo método de surcos que las .. 11 \" \" \" Vegetal Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, ICA CIU, demás pruebab de La Antioqueña de este semestre procurando llevar los .. 11 11 11 .. .. .. .. .. 11 \" 11 12 11 11 Manual 1=8 días de emergencia \" NatdlDid 19116 mismob Lriterios en drubos semestres Para este semestre se aspira a S panoja 306 1 pano1a 1-2-J-4 \" 892 11 1 13 p (Mlmeograliado) seleccionar lo mejor de cada lfnea 1 <¡ue subsista a éstas condiciones 33 11 308 1-2-3 panoja ~o o 1-2 \" 895 1 \" .. 2al5 d{as de emergencia 11 .. 11 11 12S 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 \" 11 11 11 11 De la <:.ruz, lt Lstudio de Malezas, ecolog{a y manejo Lu la aLtudl !dad se real L.: o uou• ft.rtil L.oaci6u de 60-60-60 kgs por 47 11 309 1 11 1 \" 903 1 \" Curso ef~ctuado IrA -Univer&idad Nacional de Colombia Facultad heLtárea de NPK respectivdmente en la forma de 10-30-10 y Urea 411 1 11 312 1 11 1 \" 155 11 1 .. .. .. .. .. 11 11 11 11 .. 3a30 d{as de emergencia 11 .. 11 11 .. 11 11 11 11 11 .. .. .. .. Roundup 2=15 días de emergencia 11 11 11 .. 3a30 días de emergencia .. 11 11 11 \" \" 11 que ebtos materiales son tolerantes a sequía 151 1 11 447 1 11 .. \" 11 \" 11 Sección Haiologfa Vegetal CRI Nataima 1987 2p Noviembre con meuob agua y la germinación parece ser mejor ahora ya 1!>0 1 11 429 1 11 .. 11 \" \" 11 Arango R Las Malezas y su control en el cultivo del sorgo germinaron debído a lo cual se volvieron a sembrar en el mes de 133 1 11 372 1 11 .. 11 \" \" \" Pero posiblemente por el exceso de humedad no 132 1 11 371 1 11 .. 19l (Vigna dureus), J Agric Sci 81 440-453 Estob mdter ialeb fueron sembrddos inicia )mente en la misma época que 89 1 11 360 1 11 .. 11 \" 3=30 días de emergencia 128 \" vulgart!), cowpean (Vigna unguiculata) and green grain 77 1 11 356 1 11 .. 11 \" \" 12 \" cuwpeLJton in growth und yield in sorghum (~orghum en el átea pecuatia de Arauca 75 1 11 351 1 11 .. 11 11 \" 16 \" Enyi, B A 1 C 1973 An analysis of the effect of weed de millo, pero pensdndo en una fuente forrajera de utilización directa 61 1 11 346 1 11 .. \" 11 11 192 \" Como una introducción se considera el establecimiento de 7 materiales 58 1 11 345 1 11 .. 11 11 2=15 días de emergencia 232 \" removal tteatments on sorghum growth Weeds is 204-207 SS 1 11 337 1 11 .. \" \" \" 11 Burnside, O C and Wicks C LA 1867 The effect of weed EVALUACION OE MATt.RlAIES DE MilLO COMO POSIBLE FUENTES FORRAJERA 54 11 331 1 11 .. 11 \" \" 11 52 1 11 3l5 1-2 11 .. 11 11 \" 112 11 de rtencias Agropecuarias Palmira 1988 30p 51 11 321 1 11 1 11 958 1f!lst 62S': 1<m PorcentaJe de la maleza o 25% 25% 12 5% 12 5% o 2'\"' JH 12 5% o o o 12 5% o 87 5% 62 5% 25% 62 5% 75% 75.-25% 50% L 5 37 5\" 12 5r 75% o 12 5:1. o oEfectividad del tratamiento 100% 75% 75;. 87 5; 87 5% 100% 62 5% 1001 100% 100% 87 5% 100% 12 5% 12 5% 37 5.-o 75% 37 s::; 50% 25% 100% 87 5% 100% 100%  "},{"text":"las cuales se Lspera encontrar la variedad qut.. PPQ-2 al vo1Lo y mecanizadoDL 17 kgt; hectárea en IS-3071 y una densidad mayor en Id forma mecani¿ada dado que es un material de grano HU IONAI 1 ' > IJL AKKOl 81!-A llE'lAKROJI ADA!> EN 1 A  lllULIIA!> INH.NDENCIA DE AllAUCA lllULIIA!> INH.NDENCIA DE AllAUCA más pesado lluralllt. este semestres se debarrollaron en Arauca (3 localidades) las 1 a germinaci6n fué buena en IS-3071 y muy regular en más pesado lluralllt. este semestres se debarrollaron en Arauca (3 localidades) las 1 a germinaci6n fué buena en IS-3071 y muy regular en PPQ-2 prim<.ras prueba.. regionales de arroz Probándose 9 variedades PPQ-2 prim<.ras prueba.. regionales de arrozProbándose 9 variedades comercialLb dentru Jt... Dl'-Jor se addpte a las condiciones que presenta cada uno de los comercialLb dentru Jt... Dl'-Jor se addpte a las condiciones que presenta cada uno de los ambientes en <¡ue estaban bODletidos  ambientes en <¡ue estaban bODletidos Variedades  PRULBAS RlGIONALES VariedadesPRULBAS RlGIONALES ORYtlLA-2 MJo.TICA-1 CILA-7 METICA-2 CICA-8 ORYtlLA-2MJo.TICA-1CILA-7METICA-2CICA-8 ORYllLA-1 riCA-9 ORYZICA-3 IR-22 ORYllLA-1riCA-9ORYZICA-3IR-22 loc..uli¿aci6\" y lara<.terlbticas  loc..uli¿aci6\" y lara<.terlbticas 1 El Alcar .. van ARROZ 88-A 1El Alcar .. vanARROZ 88-A  Esta prueba se ebtableci6 en un suelo con buenas características Esta prueba se ebtableci6 en un suelo con buenas características  de ieLLiliddd, prac..Li<.amenle vega con un diseño de liLA y cuatro de ieLLiliddd, prac..Li<.amenle vega con un diseño de liLA y cuatro  repeticiones, pdrcelas de 5 x 4 mts El control de malezas se repeticiones, pdrcelas de 5 x 4 mtsEl control de malezas se  realizó prillcipalmente a base de herbicidas Básicamente en realizó prillcipalmente a base de herbicidasBásicamente en  estos ensayob se observaron caracteres tales como, volcamiento, estos ensayob se observaron caracteres tales como, volcamiento,  Let.istencia a e11terwedadt.\" y rendimiento, dado que son variedades Let.istencia a e11terwedadt.\" y rendimiento, dado que son variedades  que \"\" c..ultivan en las principales zonas arroceras de Colombia que \"\" c..ultivan en las principales zonas arroceras de Colombia  para producci6n comercial A traves de todo el desarrollo del para producci6n comercialA traves de todo el desarrollo del  <.nsayo se 1e1li¿o una ft.LtilJzacJ6n a base de nitrogeno 30 kg/ha <.nsayo se 1e1li¿o una ft.LtilJzacJ6n a base de nitrogeno 30 kg/ha  Además de controles de barrenadores del tallo a base de furadan Además de controles de barrenadores del tallo a base de furadan  "},{"text":"alidad el ent~ayo LOO las  lote Raúl l!uf¿ I'KULilA~ 1<1 LIONALt.'> 1>1 AKROl hubo otro factor lote Raúl l!uf¿I'KULilA~ 1<1 LIONALt.'> 1>1 AKROlhubo otro factor mismas caracterfstiCdb, siendo suelo de vega, en donde no hubo (Chiguiros) del cual no se tenia control total dado que se !>F..MESTRE 88-B Para éste semestrL be reali¿ó la primera prueba regional de arroz en mismas caracterfstiCdb, siendo suelo de vega, en donde no hubo (Chiguiros) del cual no se tenia control total dado que se !>F..MESTRE 88-B Para éste semestrL be reali¿ó la primera prueba regional de arroz en ésta mayores problemas en <-1 manejo, excepto algunos ataques desconocía bU afinidad alimenticia y el daño que podr{a causar lo<.alldad Los material ea sembrados son las variedades éstamayores problemas en <-1 manejo, excepto algunos ataques desconocía bU afinidad alimenticia y el daño que podr{a causar lo<.alldad Los material ea sembrados son las variedades locali.tadob dt. Blissus ~ y población considerada de malezas Al final despuéb de hsbetse encontrado población en floración, De acuerdo <.on ld experiencia obtenida del semestre anterior y con la comerciales empleadas comer<.ialmente y algunas líneas promisorfas de locali.tadob dt. Blissus ~ y población considerada de malezas Al final despuéb de hsbetse encontrado población en floración, De acuerdo <.on ld experiencia obtenida del semestre anterior y con la comerciales empleadas comer<.ialmente y algunas líneas promisorfas de f'ontrol.tdu <.un d UbO de insectidda y en el ruane1o de malc.tas los chlbulrob arrdZdlOil de la prueba la pobla<.ión existente re<.upllación de lnfonud< Jan obtLnlda hast~ ahora se sigue con la idea HA f'ontrol.tdu <.un d UbO de insectidda y en el ruane1o de malc.tas los chlbulrob arrdZdlOil de la prueba la pobla<.ión existente re<.upllación de lnfonud< Jan obtLnlda hast~ ahora se sigue con la idea HA con la desy<-rba ruanudl, en la cual no se aplicó herbicida por la Imposibi 1 itando tolslmente su evaluación En el presente <lcl conocimiento más drupl lo de la región de acuerdo al comportamiento con la desy<-rba ruanudl, en la cual no se aplicó herbicida por la Imposibi 1 itando tolslmente su evaluación En el presente <lcl conocimiento más drupl lo de la región de acuerdo al comportamiento acción que al mismo tiempo estaba haciendo el insecticida sobre semestre se ha ebtsblecido cerca alrededor de las pruebas de lob mdtcriales evaluados, y poder sacar todo un paquete de La úni~..a labor que S'-hd redli¿ado en ésta prueba ha sido la de acción que al mismo tiempo estaba haciendo el insecticida sobre semestre se ha ebtsblecido cerca alrededor de las pruebas de lob mdtcriales evaluados, y poder sacar todo un paquete de La úni~..a labor que S'-hd redli¿ado en ésta prueba ha sido la de el ensayo montsdas con un mayor número de hilos a distancias cercanas en la información y de tecnología que be le pueda llegar a sugerir a los ccmlrol de mal1..¿as en forma química y se ejecutaron ferti}i¿aciones el ensayo montsdas con un mayor número de hilos a distancias cercanas en la información y de tecnología que be le pueda llegar a sugerir a los ccmlrol de mal1..¿as en forma química y se ejecutaron ferti}i¿aciones parte infe1ior pars <.ontrolar este problema dgiicultoreb nit rogenddas leves Además como parte infe1ior pars <.ontrolar este problema dgiicultoreb nit rogenddas levesAdemás como  ts importdnte anotar ld presencia excesiva de pajaros en la estrat~g1a a seguir se ha probado en espaciar siembras con el fin ts importdnte anotar ld presencia excesiva de pajaros en la estrat~g1a a seguir se ha probado en espaciar siembras con el fin mayotia de las localidades, las cuales sino se controla a tiempo de encoutrar la adecuada Las localidades que se utili¿aron para estas pruebas, se escogieron de Jote Ctanja tl Alcdravan mayotia de las localidades, las cuales sino se controla a tiempo de encoutrar la adecuada Las localidades que se utili¿aron para estas pruebas, se escogieron de Jote Ctanja tl Alcdravan podrían llegdr d Cdusar daños considerables en cuestion de horas acuerdo al <.ampallamlento presentado en Ll semestre anterior lbta prud>d be halla localJ¿ada en predios de la nueva sede de la podrían llegdr d Cdusar daños considerables en cuestion de horas acuerdo al <.ampallamlento presentado en Ll semestre anterior lbta prud>d be halla localJ¿ada en predios de la nueva sede de la Ln conclutlión b<-t.umplió el objetivo con el manejo del ensayo y gr.m]u junto d prud>ua reglonulLs de sorgo llasta el momento se han Ln conclutlión b<-t.umplió el objetivo con el manejo del ensayo y gr.m]u junto d prud>ua reglonulLs de sorgo llasta el momento se han superando lob diversos problemas 1 o te de 1 Puente realizado prácticas de conlrol de malezas con herbicida y superando lob diversos problemas 1 o te de 1 Puente realizado prácticas de conlroldemalezasconherbiciday Se establece la prueba correbpandtente a los ensayos de arroz, donde fertilización con N en formd de Urea en d6sis de 40 kg/ha Además se Se establece la prueba correbpandtente a los ensayos de arroz, donde fertilización con N en formd de Urea en d6sis de 40 kg/ha Además se J be tienen odao Vdriet.ludes comerciales que tu.,ron utilizado\" en el Lote P~-2 aewbtdLOII allí wLdldnte el mlbwo diseno las lfneab ptomitlDriub del J be tienen odao Vdriet.ludes comerciales que tu.,ron utilizado\" en el Lote P~-2 aewbtdLOII allí wLdldnte el mlbwo diseno las lfneab ptomitlDriub del Para esta localidad se empleó un suelo típico de la zona bewestre 88-A y algunos nuevos pdra la zona Dichas variedades son ICA Para esta localidad se empleó un suelo típico de la zona bewestre 88-A y algunos nuevos pdra la zona Dichas variedades son ICA inundable de Cañolimón Tes ligo J ClAT 9 Dicha siembra se estableció al inicio de S Orizica 1 7 Orizica 3 inundable de Cañolimón Tes ligo J ClAT 9Dicha siembra se estableció al inicio de S Orizica 1 7 Orizica 3 la subida de las dguas de la zona este factor impidió un empleo 2 IR-22 4 llAT 7 6 Orizica 2 8 Metica 2 1 ote ~an 1 oren¿o la subida de las dguas de la zona este factor impidió un empleo 2 IR-22 4 llAT 7 6 Orizica 2 8 Metica 2 1 ote ~an 1 oren¿o eficaz de pludu<.tOb qo!micos de control de ruale.tatl tenit.ndo que Al igual que en 1..l lole de l!aúl Ruiz He sembró por primera vez una eficaz de pludu<.tOb qo!micos de control de ruale.tatl tenit.ndo que Al igual que en 1..l lole de l!aúl Ruiz He sembró por primera vez una hacerse dtH.yerba manual t..u varias ocasiones, fuera de eso el Hasta ahora se han hecho labores de control de malezas con la prueba regional de arroz A esta prueba no se le ha realizado hasta hacerse dtH.yerba manual t..u varias ocasiones, fuera de eso el Hasta ahora se han hecho labores de control de malezas con la prueba regional de arroz A esta prueba no se le ha realizado hasta ensayo estuvo sometido a inundación durante casi la totalidad de aplica<.ión de herbicidas y la aplicación de nitrogeuo en forma de Urea el momento ninguna aplicación de ferlilizante limiLándose solamente ensayo estuvo sometido a inundación durante casi la totalidad de aplica<.ión de herbicidas y la aplicación de nitrogeuo en forma de Urea el momento ninguna aplicación de ferlilizante limiLándose solamente au perJodo vegL.ldLivo t..n dutds dt: t.O kg/ha Tamldéu se coustruy6 una cerca como estaba Casi podría decirse que todos estos las lahon. au perJodo vegL.ldLivo t..n dutds dt: t.O kg/ha Tamldéu se coustruy6 una cerca como estaba Casi podría decirse que todos estos las lahon. factores unidos incidieron mayormente para el establecimiento previsto, pr .. viniendo el ataque de chigtliro que se tuvo el semestre factores unidos incidieron mayormente para el establecimiento previsto, pr .. viniendo el ataque de chigtliro que se tuvo el semestre anterior Solucionandose así este problema Esta prueba constituye anteriorSolucionandose así este problemaEsta prueba constituye una muestra de la granja a los agricultores de Arauca una muestra de la granja a los agricultores de Arauca  "},{"text":"s al conlrol dt.. malezau Lll forma química    ANTIOQUEflA   EL TRONCAL  ARAUQUITA OTRAS CIAT TOTAL ANTIOQUEflAEL TRONCALARAUQUITAOTRASCIATTOTAL  Lunes-Domingo Lunes-Domingo Lunes-Domingo Alcaravan Pecrollanos PLANILLA DE JORNALES SEMESTRE 88A (Jornales Lunes-DomingoLunes-Domingo Lunes-Domingo Alcaravan Pecrollanos PLANILLA DE JORNALES SEMESTRE 88A(Jornales Fecha Sabadc S D T S abado S D '!' Sabado S D T trabajados) FechaSabadc S D T S abado S D '!' Sabado S D Ttrabajados)   ANTIOQUERA   EL TRONCAl  ARAUQUITA OTRAS ANTIOQUERAEL TRONCAlARAUQUITAOTRAS 16-22 Mayo Lunes-Domingo 2 Lunes-Domingo Lunes-Domingo Alcaravan Petrollanos 2 16-22 MayoLunes-Domingo2 Lunes-Domingo Lunes-Domingo Alcaravan Petrollanos2 23-29 Mayo Fecha 8 Sabado S D T Sabado S D T Sabado S D T 23-29 Mayo Fecha8 Sabado S D T Sabado S D T Sabado S D T 30 Mayo-S Junio         30 Mayo-S Junio 6-12 Junio 3   5 5    2 6-12 Junio3552 13-19 Junio 19-25 Sept 12 3 1  5 14  1 23  3 13-19 Junio 19-25 Sept12 315 141233 20-26 Junio 26 Sept -2 Oct 3 6 1  2 17 2 1 3  5 lO 20-26 Junio 26 Sept -2 Oct3 612 172135lO 27 Junio-3 Julio 3-9 Oct 5 7   7 9 ~ 1   27 Junio-3 Julio 3-9 Oct5 77 9~1 4-10 Julio 10-16 Oct 24 4  12 5   5  4-10 Julio 10-16 Oct24412 55 ll-17 Julio 17-23 Oct 18   12 5  2 2 1 X ll-17 Julio 17-23 Oct1812 5221X 18-24 Julio 24-30 Oct 7 1   7 2   3  18-24 Julio 24-30 Oct7 17 23 25-31 Julio 31 Oct -6 Nov 12 2  lO     25-31 Julio 31 Oct -6 Nov122lO l-7 Agosto 12 «;FCCTON T TI 2 14 l l   l-7 Agosto12«;FCCTON T TI 214l l 8-14 Agosto 4   11     8-14 Agosto411 15-21 Agosto 2   11  1   15-21 Agosto2111 22-28 Agosto 3   11  2   22-28 Agosto3112 29 Agosto-4 Sept 11 1  10  2   29 Agosto-4 Sept111102 5-ll Sept 5 1  9     5-ll Sept519 12-18 Sept    9 1 l 1  12-18 Sept91 l1  CON«;IDFRACTONFS ECONOMTCA«;    CON«;IDFRACTONFS ECONOMTCA«;       Su apariencia nn Su apariencia nn es la mejor en cuanto a población       es la mejor en cuanto a población  "}],"sieverID":"8451f1db-a822-455b-b11f-38ddf247dc55","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03a97f060016112fcda0ae3b39f524ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9c1a660b-9764-465e-b4b3-fa9aee72bbf7/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"ორგანიზმი","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"(შეუძლია გავლენა იქონიოს ცოცხალ ორგანიზმებზე და გამოიწვიოს დაავადებები)"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• ნუკლეინის მჟავა და ცილები (კომპონენტები იდენტიფიცირებისთვის)"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• რეპლიკაცია (საკუთარი ასლების წარმოება) ცოცხალ ორგანიზმებში კარტოფილის ვირუსები"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"• იწვევს მოსავლიანობის კლებას"},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"• ფართოდ ვრცელდება    "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ბუგრების მართვა უფრო ეფექტურია PLRV-ის შემთხვევაში, ვიდრე PVY- "},{"text":"The International Potato Center (known by its Spanish acronym CIP) is a research-for-development organization with a focus on potato, sweetpotato, and Andean roots and tubers. CIP is dedicated to delivering sustainable science-based solutions to the pressing world issues of hunger, poverty, gender equity, climate change and the preservation of our Earth's fragile biodiversity and natural resources. www.cipotato.org CIP is a member of CGIAR CGIAR is a global agriculture research partnership for a food secure future. Its science is carried out by the 15 research centers who are members of the CGIAR Consortium in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. www.cgiar.org The International Potato Center (known by its Spanish acronym CIP) is a research-for-development organization with a focus on potato, sweetpotato, and Andean roots and tubers. CIP is dedicated to delivering sustainable science-based solutions to the pressing world issues of hunger, poverty, gender equity, climate change and the preservation of our Earth's fragile biodiversity and natural resources. www.cipotato.org CIP is a member of CGIAR CGIAR is a global agriculture research partnership for a food secure future. Its science is carried out by the 15 research centers who are members of the CGIAR Consortium in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. www.cgiar.org გმადლობთ დასწრებისთვის მზად ვართ ვუპასუხოთ თქვენს შეკითხვებს CIP არის კვლევის განვითარების ორგანიზაცია, რომელიც ფოკუსირებულია კარტოფილის, ტკბილი კარტოფილის და ანდების სხვა ფესვევან და გორგლოვან მცენარეებზე. ის ჰქმნის ინოვაციურ მეცნიერებაზე დაფუძნებულ სტრატეგიებს საკვებზე ხელმისაწვდომობის გასაუმჯობესებლად, ინკლუზიური მდგრადი ბიზნესისა და დასაქმების ზრდის ხელშეწყობისთვის და ფესვოვანი და გორგლოვანი აგროსასურსათო სისტემების კლიმატის მდგრადობის გასაძლიერებლად. CIP-ის სათაო ოფისი მდებარეობს ლიმაში, პერუში, CIP-ს აქვს კვლევითი ცენტრები აფრიკის, აზიისა და ლათინური ამერიკის 20-ზე მეტ ქვეყანაში. www.cipotato.org CIP არის CGIAR კვლევითი ცენტრი, გლობალური კვლევითი პარტნიორობა საკვებით უსაფრთხო მომავლისთვის. CGIAR მიზნად ისახავს ხელი შეუწყოს საკვების, მიწის და წყლის სისტემების ტრანსფორმაციას კლიმატის კრიზისში. მის კვლევას ახორციელებს 15 CGIAR ცენტრი ასობით პარტნიორთან, მათ შორის ეროვნულ და რეგიონულ კვლევით ინსტიტუტებთან, სამოქალაქო საზოგადოების ორგანიზაციებთან, აკადემიურ წრეებთან, განვითარების ორგანიზაციებთან და კერძო სექტორთან მჭიდრო თანამშრომლობით. www.cgiar.org CIP thanks all donors and organizations that globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund:www.cgiar.org/funders © May 2022. This publication is copyrighted by the International Potato Center (CIP). It is licensed for use under the Creati ve Commons Attribution 4.0 International License USAID ხელმძღვანელობს საერთაშორისო განვითარებისა და ჰუმანიტარულ ძალისხმევას სიცოცხლის გადასარჩენად, სიღარიბის შესამცირებლად, დემოკრატიული მმართველობის გასაძლიერებლად და პროგრესის ზღვარს ქვემოთ მცხოვრები ხალხის დახმარებისთვის. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"54542327-5da3-44f5-b010-7145259b0015","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03fb11a31c49730154a5d7225e58ac9a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/98ed175f-9d99-4101-a3f1-dcd812a7c950/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Integrated system to produce updated-estimates of the cost of adaptation to climate change in agriculture","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"76985f83-0f7b-42b2-b3ab-07e95d5f9446","abstract":"P787 -Livestock and fish production, consumption of animal-sourced foods, and climate change to 2050 Description of the innovation: Decision-makers are increasingly concerned about the impacts of climate change on agriculture and the need to invest in adaptation. Estimates of adaptation costs exist but are now dated. This innovation created and used an integrated system of updated climate, water, crop and economic models to assess new estimates of the costs of key agricultural investment to support adaptation. Results shared with the gates foundation and the global commission on adaptation through a publication. New Innovation: No Innovation type: Research and Communication Methodologies and Tools Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Description of Stage reached: The innovation (the new models and their outputs) were used to share updated adaptation estimates with the Gates foundation and Global commission on adaptation for their use in planning funding for agricultural research and development."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04013c54289f27ccdd49faf8f9270dd3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/319650f5-1df9-4b3c-9b2e-d0d0a9201c73/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Lista de figuras","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Figura 1. Registro de germinación a los 14 días después de siembra (DDS). ............................... Figura 2. Plantas con uno (izq.) y dos (der.) brotes que crecieron de la estaca originalmente sembrada ..  "}]},{"head":"INTRODUCCIÓN","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Esta metodología no destructiva proporciona un medio de seguimiento del desarrollo del cultivo de la yuca bajo una gama de ambientes biofísicos, sin la necesidad de sembrar ensayos específicamente para este propósito. Las parcelas establecidas o lotes comerciales se pueden monitorizar de forma no destructiva: por lo tanto cualquier parcela puede ser monitoreada. La metodología recopila la información sobre el desarrollo del cultivo de la yuca pudiendo utilizar estos datos en la comprensión del desarrollo del cultivo, y también para generar, validar y mejorar la robustez de modelos de simulación de yuca. Esta es la primera aproximación de la metodología; alentamos a los usuarios a expresar cualquier inquietud y también sugerir formas de mejorar el sistema de monitoreo no destructivo."}]},{"head":"OBJETIVO","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Mejorar la comprensión de la evolución fisiológica de la yuca mediante el registro detallado del crecimiento de las plantas durante todas las etapas de su desarrollo bajo una serie de condiciones. La información generada y su comprensión puede ser utilizada para mejorar los modelos de simulación del crecimiento de la yuca. "}]},{"head":"MATERIALES","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MEDICIONES EN CAMPO","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"4.1 Tamaño de la muestra: En cada parcela deben ser monitoreadas cinco plantas representativas de cada tratamiento o variedad. Todas las plantas monitoreadas deben estar rodeadas por al menos una planta fronteriza."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"4.2 Frecuencia de las mediciones: Después del primer muestreo, las parcelas deben ser monitoreadas a intervalos fijos. Cuando el monitoreo es muy frecuente debe tener cuidado de no compactar el suelo, especialmente durante la temporada de lluvias. La frecuencia de muestreo puede ser variada con algunos monitoreos semanales, quincenales o hasta en intervalos mensuales y con determinadas variables a medir en cada uno de estos:"},{"index":3,"size":206,"text":"Primer muestreo: Para este monitoreo debe estar previamente definida la fecha de germinación y debe seleccionarse el brote a seguir durante el desarrollo de la planta; adicionalmente debe identificar la hoja más joven con peciolo separado del tallo para identificarla con un tiquete e iniciar la evaluación de la tasa de formación de hojas. Monitoreos semanales: Las variables que debe medir cada semana son la tasa de formación de hojas, la longevidad de las hojas por medio de la recolección de tiquetes y la altura de la planta. Estas variables se miden con esta frecuencia porque son las más dinámicas y las que más cambian con el desarrollo de la planta, de manera que se encuentra diferencias significativas entre una semana y la otra; además que no requieren tanto tiempo en campo para ser determinadas. Monitoreos quincenales: Las variables que debe medir cada dos semanas son el número de nudos, la longitud y diámetro de entrenudos, la identificación de la primera hoja completamente expandida y el área foliar de esta. Estas variables requieren más tiempo en campo para ser determinadas. Monitoreos mensuales: La variable que se recomienda sea medida mensualmente es el número total de ápices, teniendo en cuenta los ápices activos y los ápices muertos."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"Si una fecha de muestreo se perdió debido a problemas e imprevistos continúe con la toma de muestras tan pronto como sea posible, los datos se pueden seguir utilizando. En este caso, las variables que se miden semanalmente puede medirlas quincenalmente y estas a su vez de forma mensual."}]},{"head":"Procedimiento Registro de germinación","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"A. Fecha de germinación: Monitoree el cultivo cada 5 días después de la siembra para registrar la fecha en la cual se generan los primeros brotes en la estaca principal (Figura 1). Si es posible, evalúe como mínimo veinte plantas y cuando el 50% estas hayan germinado y tienen nuevos brotes verdes, registre y asigne la fecha de germinación."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Registre estos datos en el formato establecido para el primer muestro (ANEXO 1)."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Figura 1. Registro de germinación a los 14 días después de siembra (DDS)."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Primer muestreo: A. Selección de brotes a monitorear: Cuando el 50% de las plantas hayan germinado y las primeras hojas están totalmente expandidas, con el peciolo claramente visible y separadas del tallo, seleccionar cinco plantas representativas de cada tratamiento o variedad. Cuente el número de brotes en cada una de las plantas seleccionadas y regístrelo (ANEXO 1, columna D). Para cada planta monitoreada, seleccione al azar uno de los brotes (Figura 2)."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"B. Tiquetes: Rotule los tiquetes con la identificación de la parcela, la fecha, el nombre de la variedad y el número de planta (Figura 3). Estos tiquetes pueden ser codificados por color con un color diferente para cada fecha de monitoreo para facilitar la recolección e identificación de tiquetes caídos (Figura 4). En el brote anteriormente seleccionado identifique la hoja visible más joven con peciolo separado del tallo en la cual pueda ser colocado fácilmente el tiquete y póngalo; tenga en cuenta que esta hoja nunca está expandida (Figura 5). Cuente el número de hojas existentes hasta esta hoja."},{"index":6,"size":100,"text":"Figura 2. Plantas con uno (izq.) y dos (der.) brotes que crecieron de la estaca originalmente sembrada Figura 3. Ejemplo de un tiquete con el que se identifica la primera hoja visible con la fecha (dd/mm/yyyy), variedad, número de planta (3) y repetición (1) Figura 4. Codificación de colores. Tiquetes con un color diferente para cada fecha de monitoreo Figura 5. Tiquete nuevo en la hoja visible más joven con peciolo separado del tallo Cuando las plantas son muy pequeñas, es aconsejable utilizar tiquetes pequeños que no dañen la planta y no estén en contacto con el suelo (Figura 6)."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"Figura 6. Planta con tiquetes grandes en contacto con el suelo (izq.) y plantas con tiquetes pequeños (der.)"}]},{"head":"Monitoreos semanales","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"A. Recolección de tiquetes: Al ingresar a la parcela recoja las hojas o los tiquetes que hayan caído al suelo (Figura 7). Registre la fecha en la que fue colocado en la planta (ANEXO 1, columna E). Si no se puede verificar la información debido a que el tiquete esta ilegible y en mal estado, puede determinar la fecha faltante teniendo en cuenta las fechas en las que se han monitoreado las plantas y verificando en los tiquetes que aún se encuentran en el brote la fecha que falta. Como se mencionó anteriormente, la codificación por colores de los tiquetes también ayuda a identificar las fechas faltantes. C. Altura de la planta: Con un metro mida y registre la altura de la planta (ANEXO 1, Columna J), desde el suelo hasta la última hoja que se encuentre en la parte superior de la planta y mida la altura de la primera ramificación (ANEXO 1, Columna K), tomando la medida también desde el suelo (Figura 8)."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Figura 8. Medición de la altura de ramificación"}]},{"head":"Monitoreos quincenales","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"A. Conteo de nudos: Después del primer muestreo debe contar también el número de nudos nuevos partiendo del nudo que sostiene el tiquete puesto en la última visita. Debe contar hacia arriba y verificar si en el proceso encuentra un punto de ramificación o un ápice muerto. Si encuentra un punto de ramificación, identifique en qué nivel de ramificación se encuentra y registre el número de nudos hasta el punto de ramificación (ANEXO 1, Columna O) y el número de ramas que salen del punto de ramificación (ANEXO 1, Columna I) y posteriormente seleccione solo una rama al azar para continuar con el proceso. Si encuentra un ápice muerto (Figura 9), debe regístralo (ANEXO 1, Columna G) y volver al último punto de ramificación para seleccionar otra rama y continuar con el proceso. El conteo se detiene en el punto más alto de la planta donde nuevamente identifique la hoja visible más joven con peciolo separado del tallo en la cual pueda ser colocado fácilmente un tiquete."},{"index":2,"size":257,"text":"Figura 9. Ápice muerto B. Determinación de la longitud y diámetro de entrenudos: Inicialmente debe identificar los niveles de ramificación de la planta de acuerdo con la Figura 10, registrando el número de niveles de ramificación (ANEXO 1, columna H). Estos niveles deben coincidir con los identificados en el conteo de nudos y puntos de ramificación y pueden ser fácilmente vistos siguiendo hacia abajo el tallo desde el último tiquete que se colocó en la planta. En cada nivel de ramificación, divida cada uno de los brotes monitoreados en secciones, con cada sección correspondiente a una distancia distinta entre los nudos, o la longitud de los entrenudos (Figura 11). En general, los primeros entrenudos de cada nivel de ramificación tienen una longitud diferente a los demás y deben ser tratados como una sección separada. Para facilitar la identificación de las secciones, las que se encuentran lignificadas pueden ser marcadas con un marcador permanente. C. Identificación de la primera hoja completamente expandida: Trate de llegar al campo temprano en la mañana con el fin de evitar el exceso de sol y poder identificar con facilidad en el brote monitoreado la primera hoja completamente expandida. A medida que recorre el tallo de la planta desde la parte apical, se dará cuenta que cada hoja sucesiva es más grande que la hoja anterior, hasta llegar a un punto en el que varias hojas son más o menos del mismo tamaño. La primera de estas hojas de tamaño similar de arriba hacia abajo se toma como la primera hoja totalmente expandida."},{"index":3,"size":175,"text":"Esta hoja debe estar completa, no debe presentar ningún tipo de daño en la lámina y puede ser fácilmente identificada teniendo en cuenta factores tales como el ángulo entre el pecíolo y el tallo y entre la lámina de la hoja y el peciolo (Figura 14), el color entre el peciolo y la lámina de la hoja y el tamaño (Figura 15). Por lo general, cerca del punto de ramificación hay una o dos hojas pequeñas, pero totalmente expandidas: no utilice estas hojas para la medición de área foliar.  Una vez que la hoja está entre las láminas, tome una fotografía de la hoja con la cámara en posición vertical por encima del medidor (Figura 17). Debe colocar una etiqueta en el medidor para identificar la fotografía después. Hemos encontrado que una persona, con la práctica, puede colocar la hoja en el medidor y tomar la fotografía; sin embargo esto requiere práctica. Por lo tanto, le recomendamos la práctica de este procedimiento antes del monitoreo y de ser posible tener un ayudante en el campo."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Figura 17. Posición de la cámara para tomar la fotografía Las instrucciones para determinar el área foliar después de tener la fotografía se encuentran en el ANEXO 3."}]},{"head":"Monitoreos mensuales","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"A. Número total de ápices: Finalmente cuente el número total de ápices vivos y muertos en cada planta y regístrelo. Este es solo un ejemplo de la forma en que la se puede hacer una plantilla para la determinación del área foliar en campo, pero tanto los materiales como el procedimiento, puede variar de acuerdo a la disposición de materiales y tiempo que tenga."}]},{"head":"A. MATERIALES (Figura 18)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"1 Regla 1 Lámina de acrílico antirreflejo color cristal de 2mm de espesor en medidas de 35 x 35 cms 1 Lámina de poliestireno color negro o rojo de 2mm de espesor en medidas de 35 x 35 cms 2 Bisagras 1 Taladro 1 Marcador de punta delgada 1 Lápiz"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Figura 18. Materiales utilizados en la elaboración de la plantilla para medir área foliar"}]},{"head":"B. PROCEDIMIENTO","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Asegúrese que está utilizando las láminas por el lado correcto. Tanto la lámina de acrílico como la de poliestireno tienen un lado brillante y un lado opaco (Figura 19), de manera que debe ubicarse el lado brillante mirando hacia abajo y el lado opaco mirando hacia arriba, con el fin de evitar que se genere reflejo en el momento de tomar la fotografía Figura 19. Lado brillante (izq.) y lado opaco (der.) de las láminas de poliestireno y acrílico"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Las dos láminas deben quedar unidas por medio de dos bisagras. Ubique un lado de las bisagras en la lámina de acrílico en la posición que desee que queden finalmente y con un marcador pinte los puntos por los cuales deben pasar los tornillos de esta (Figura 20)."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Figura 20. Ubicación bisagras y marcación de láminas Posteriormente, con el taladro abra los huecos por los cuales pasan los tornillos en los dos lados de la lámina. Asegúrese de tener todas las herramientas y la seguridad necesaria para utilizar el taladro (Figura 21)."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Figura 21. Apertura de huecos con el taladro en las láminas Ubique la bisagra sobre los huecos hechos anteriormente e inserte los tornillos que vienen con la bisagra, asegurándolos con las tuercas de cada uno (Figura 22). El resultado final sobre la lámina de acrílico es un lado de las bisagras instalado y asegurado con los tornillos y tuercas (Figura 23)."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Figura 23. Aseguramiento de las bisagras en la lámina de acrílico Posteriormente, ubique el otro lado de las bisagras en la lámina roja de poliestireno pintando los puntos por los cuales deben pasar los tornillos con el marcador. En seguida, con el taladro abra los huecos y una las dos láminas (Figura 24)."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"Figura 24. Unión de la lámina de acrílico con la de poliestireno"},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"Por último, debe elaborar la escala real que van a tener las fotografías en cm en la lámina roja de poliestireno. Para esto, inicialmente, con ayuda de una regla debe dibujar una escala de aproximadamente 6 cm en dos esquinas de la lámina con lápiz. Después de tener seguridad de que este bien hecha, puede pasarla a un marcador no borrable. Debe diferenciar un cm de otro (Figura 25)."},{"index":8,"size":85,"text":"Figura 25. Marcación de la escala En el caso en que no haya disponibilidad de un computador con el software de análisis de imagen, puede generar una grilla en la lámina de acrílico con una distancia conocida entre cada línea, por ejemplo de 2cm de longitud. De esta manera, al colocar la hoja debajo de la grilla puede contarse con facilidad el número de cuadros que ocupa la hoja que está siendo medida para tener una idea del área que puede tener esta (Figura 26)."},{"index":9,"size":5,"text":"Figura 26. Definición de cuadrícula"},{"index":10,"size":93,"text":"El resultado final de todo el proceso es la unión de las dos láminas con una bisagra en cada esquina, la lámina de poliestireno con una escala y si es necesario, la lámina de acrílico con una grilla. Esta plantilla ofrece facilidades para la toma de las fotografías para la determinación del área foliar debido a que es de un tamaño adecuado para transportar, no genera reflejos en el momento de tomar la fotografía y puede abrirse y cerrarse las veces que sea necesario sin el riesgo de que se dañe (Figura 27)."},{"index":11,"size":8,"text":"Figura 27 . Plantilla para medir área foliar"}]},{"head":"ANEXO 3: PROCESAMIENTO DE IMÁGENES A TRAVÉS DEL SOFTWARE IMAGE J","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"ImageJ es un programa de procesamiento de imágenes digitales programado en Java, de dominio público y fácil de usar. Puede ejecutarse en línea o en cualquier computadora con Máquina virtual Java y puede descargarse para diferentes sistemas operativos. Muestra, edita, analiza, procesa y guarda imágenes de 8, 16 y 32 bits, además de leer muchos formatos de imagen. Permite al usuario hacer operaciones sencillas y multiproceso sobre las imágenes así como ejecutar el programa con cualquier propósito, estudiar cómo funciona y cambiarlo de acuerdo a su propósito, redistribuir copias y generar mejoras en el programa poniéndolas a disposición del público de modo que toda la comunidad se beneficie."}]},{"head":"A. INSTALACIÓN Y EJECUCIÓN DE IMAGE J","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Esta aplicación es de libre acceso y debe descargar y ejecutar el archivo correspondiente a su sistema operativo desde el siguiente link: http://imagej.nih.gov/ij/, seleccionando la opción Download. Cuando se abra el asistente de instalación únicamente debe seleccionar la ubicación de la carpeta donde quedarán los archivos del programa y los íconos adicionales que quiera instalar (Figura 28). "}]},{"head":"B. PROCESAMIENTO DE LAS IMÁGENES","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Para abrir una imagen debe seleccionar el menú File, la opción Open y en el cuadro de diálogo debe elegir la imagen que desea abrir. La imagen debe tener una escala con una distancia conocida de manera que sea más fácil definir la escala de la fotografía, es decir la distancia en pixeles de la distancia de la escala real (Figura 30)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Figura 30. Menú para abrir la imagen y ventana emergente."},{"index":3,"size":161,"text":"Para iniciar con el procesamiento, después de abierta la imagen, con el cursor debe seleccionar en la barra de trabajo el ícono 'Straight' que tiene una línea diagonal con una flecha de color rojo y debe marcar la distancia real de la escala que tiene la imagen (Figura 31). Posteriormente en el menú Analyze seleccione la opción Set scale de donde se despliega un cuadro que muestra la distancia en pixeles de la línea graficada anteriormente. Así, al conocer la longitud real de esta distancia se define la escala de la fotografía a través de la evaluación de la dimensión de un pixel en cm. En el recuadro Known distance escriba la longitud real de la línea seleccionada y en el recuadro Unit of length escriba las unidades de esta distancia. Marque la opción Global en la parte inferior del cuadro para después, en las demás imágenes, solo modificar la distancia en pixeles que representa una unidad de medida (Figura 32)."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Figura 32. Definición de la escala acorde con la imagen Posteriormente, debe convertir la imagen en color, a escala de grises, seleccionando en el menú Image la opción Type y la opción 8 bits (Figura 33).     "}]},{"head":"C. PROCESAMIENTO DE IMÁGENES CON SOMBRAS O REFLEJOS","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Al tomar la fotografía de la hoja, dependiendo de la cantidad y ubicación de la luz, es posible que la imagen quede con sombras o reflejos que dificulten el análisis, de manera que si esto sucede, se sigue otra metodología que permita el análisis. En este caso, después de definir la escala acorde a lo mencionado anteriormente, debe seleccionar en el menú Image la opción adjust y enseguida la opción Threshold (Figura 38).    "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"3 Figura 1. Registro de germinación a los 14 días después de siembra (DDS). ............................... Figura 2. Plantas con uno (izq.) y dos (der.) brotes que crecieron de la estaca originalmente sembrada ......................................................................................................................................... Figura 3. Ejemplo de un tiquete con el que se identifica la primera hoja visible con la fecha (dd/mm/yyyy), variedad, número de planta (3) y repetición (1)..................................................... Figura 4. Codificación de colores. Tiquetes con un color diferente para cada fecha de monitoreo ......................................................................................................................................................... Figura 5. Tiquete nuevo en la hoja visible más joven con peciolo separado del tallo ................... Figura 6. Planta con tiquetes grandes en contacto con el suelo (izq.) y plantas con tiquetes pequeños (der.) ................................................................................................................................ Figura 7. Recolección de tiquetes caídos al suelo .......................................................................... Figura 8. Medición de la altura de ramificación ............................................................................ Figura 9. Ápice muerto .................................................................................................................. Figura 10. Identificación de los niveles de ramificación ............................................................... Figura 11. Identificación de secciones de acuerdo a la longitud de entrenudos. Rama con dos secciones diferentes identificadas (Izq.) y rama con solo una sección identificada (Der.) ............ Figura 12. Determinación del cambio en la rama de verde a lignificado ...................................... Figura 13. Medición del diámetro del tallo .................................................................................... Figura 14. Ángulo entre el peciolo de la hoja completamente expandida y el tallo ...................... Figura 15. Diferencia de tamaño entre una hoja no expandida y una completamente expandida . Figura 16. Determinación del área foliar: Identificación de la hoja completamente expandida e introducción entre el aparato de área foliar ................................................................................... Figura 17. Posición de la cámara para tomar la fotografía .......................................................... "},{"text":" a) Pie de rey b) Metro y/o regla c) Plantillas para el registro de la información (ANEXO 1) d) Tiquetes o marbetes con una cuerda para el marcado de las hojas e) Lápiz f) Marcador permanente g) Instrumento para medir área foliar en campo (ANEXO 2 "},{"text":"Figura 7 . Figura 7. Recolección de tiquetes caídos al suelo "},{"text":"Figura 10 .Figura 12 . Figura 10. Identificación de los niveles de ramificación "},{"text":"Figura 14 . Figura 14. Ángulo entre el peciolo de la hoja completamente expandida y el tallo "},{"text":"Figura 16 . Figura 16. Determinación del área foliar: Identificación de la hoja completamente expandida e introducción entre el aparato de área foliar "},{"text":"Figura 22 . Figura 22. Ubicación de los tornillos en una bisagra y lámina "},{"text":"Figura 28 . Figura 28. Instalación ImageJUna vez se ha instalado, puede acceder al programa desde el ícono que se instaló en el escritorio o desde el inicio, seleccionando todos los programas y posteriormente Image J. Al abrirlo aparecerá la siguiente ventana (Figura 29) que es la barra de trabajo principal del programa y se compone de varios menús y algunos botones. "},{"text":"Figura 31 . Figura 31. Ícono Straight del menú principal de ImageJ "},{"text":"Figura 33 . Figura 33. Conversión de la imagen a 8 bits "},{"text":"Figura 34 . Figura 34. Conversión de la imagen a binarios "},{"text":"Figura 35 . Figura 35. Selección de la variable a medir, área "},{"text":"Figura 36 . Figura 36. Menú Analyze particles "},{"text":"Figura 37 . Figura 37. Visualización de resultados imágenes sin sombras o reflejos "},{"text":"Figura 38 . Figura 38. Menú de ThresholdEn esta sección se ajustan las propiedades de matiz, saturación y brillo y debe seleccionarse el umbral que se ajuste únicamente a la silueta o contorno de la imagen de la hoja que se quiere analizar (Figura 39). "},{"text":"Figura 39 . Figura 39. Menú para definir las propiedades de matiz, saturación y brillo "},{"text":"Figura 40 . Figura 40. Menú Analyze particlesAl observar la imagen, encontraremos una serie de polígonos, siendo el de principal interés, el que tenga la mayor área. Adicionalmente se abrirán varias ventanas de las cuales son de principal interés la ventana Results que muestra el área de los polígonos identificados en la imagen, y la ventana ROI Manager desde donde es posible seleccionar el número del polígono de interés (primeros 4 dígitos) y que este sea mostrado en la imagen. Cuando se selecciona el polígono correcto, la línea que define el contorno de este tomará un color azul diferente a las demás líneas. Finalmente, en la ventana Results, exporte como tabla de Excel los resultados (Figura 41). "},{"text":"Figura 41 . Figura 41. Visualización de resultados imágenes con sombras o reflejos "},{"text":" ..... Figura 37. Visualización de resultados imágenes sin sombras o reflejos .................................... Figura 38. Menú de Threshold ..................................................................................................... Figura 39. Menú para definir las propiedades de matiz, saturación y brillo ............................... Figura 40. Menú Analyze particles .............................................................................................. Figura 41. Visualización de resultados imágenes con sombras o reflejos ...................................  "}],"sieverID":"f2ecfddd-2d44-440a-8c46-4d05aa134b52","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0426e0ee386824f9e5d40b063549bc15","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1395/WF_2518.pdf"},"pageCount":42,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Preface","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The WorldFish Center and FAO are implementing a regional programme entitled \"Fisheries and HIV/AIDS in Africa; investing in sustainable solutions\", funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) and the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As part of this project, the Overseas Development Group/School of Development Studies was asked to produce a literature review on 'Fisheries and HIV/AIDS in Africa: evidence from social science, medical and policy research'. The task was to collate available data from socio-economic and medical research to identify trends in fishing communities in Sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"This paper is the third of three parts of the literature review, which covers:"},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"-Review of research on health service delivery and other HIV/AIDS related interventions in the fisheries sector in Sub-Saharan Africa; -Review of social science research on risk and vulnerability to HIV/AIDS in the fisheries sector in Sub-Saharan Africa; -Review of research on the relationship between food and nutrition security and HIV/AIDS, and how this applies to the fisheries sector in Sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"In each area, the Review describes the main research directions and summarizes key findings, identifying key knowledge gaps as well as areas of potential linkages with promising research in related sectors."},{"index":5,"size":144,"text":"Production for personal use is a key source of food for most rural African households. For these groups, food security is partially the outcome of: food production using mainly family labour, land and other resources; food purchase using household income (often gained through sales of other farm produce); and availability of assets and social claims -e.g. being able to borrow an implement or a worker at short notice (Barnett and Grellier, 2003). However, households' (and some of their members') food security may also be subject to food payments in kind, and the seasonality of production may imply that people need to tide over a 'hungry season'. Besides individual and household constraints (e.g. purchasing power), food security should be further understood within the context of state policy and institutions, market institutions and fluctuations and natural environments (Regional Centre for Quality of Health Care, 2003). 2"}]},{"head":"HIV/AIDS and malnutrition","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"HIV/AIDS, food insecurity, and malnutrition relate to overlapping and interacting sets of problems (Gillespie, 2006). Insecure livelihoods exacerbate the risk and vulnerability environment for HIV/AIDS, whereas similarly, HIV/AIDS can also be a cause of fragile livelihoods and food insecurity (Drimie, 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Poverty, which is widespread in rural areas, is often closely associated with poor nutrition and poor health. \"On a global scale, probably the leading cause of increased host susceptibility to infection is malnutrition\" (Morris and Potter, 1997;cited in Stillwaggon, 2002: 4). Hence, impoverished persons who have nutritional deficiencies, parasitic diseases, and poor health, and who have little access to health services, have greater susceptibility to infectious diseases whatever the mode of infection (Stillwaggon, 2002). Moreover, nutrient deficiencies result in infections lasting longer than in well-nourished individuals (Grellier and Omuru, 2008)."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"Accordingly, households and individuals that are food insecure, underfed and in poor health are more vulnerable to HIV infection and to the subsequent development of AIDS. Poor health and malnutrition weaken the immune system, which may shorten the incubation period of the virus, causing symptoms to appear sooner, particularly if no access can be obtained to health care -a situation all too common for the rural poor (Drimie, 2002;Drimie and Mullins, 2006) Certain environmental health conditions prevalent in Africa are also implicated in the poor nutritional status of food insecure individuals, and are important co-factors for increased HIV transmission (Stillwaggon, 2002). Malnutrition makes one more susceptible to endemic parasitic diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis, sleeping sickness and intestinal parasites. These, in turn, exhaust the body's immune system and further aggravate the weak nutritional and epidemiological status. People become increasingly susceptible to opportunist infections after HIV infection. Furthermore, malnutrition may also be implicated in increasing the particular virulence of the HIV/AIDS virus in Africa (Stillwaggon, 2002)."},{"index":4,"size":451,"text":"Three critical processes can lead to rapidly accelerated weight loss, malnutrition and wasting for People Living With HIV/AIDS (PLHIV), due to: reduced consumption of food; impaired nutrient absorption; and changes in metabolism (Regional Centre for Quality of Health Care, 2003;Greenblott, 2007). During the early asymptomatic stages of the infection, HIV often affects people's nutritional status before people know they have the disease, by reducing the body's ability to absorb nutrients and complex metabolic changes. Moreover, the disease affects people's appetite, due to nausea, mouth sores, diarrhea, or the side-effects of medication and other illnesses. At the same time, metabolic requirements for energy, protein and micronutrients increase in order to fight infection and compensate for reduced absorption of nutrients (Grellier and Omuru, 2008). Malnutrition resulting from food insecurity, and HIV/AIDS progression, thus sustain a vicious cycle, depicted in Figure 1. As PLHIV may take several medications, it is worth noting that drugs may interact with each other further to reduce food intake or affect nutrient absorption and metabolism (Regional Centre for Quality of Health Care, 2003). However, the impact of medications still needs to be better understood (FANTA, 2007), particularly with respect for long term recipients of Anti Retroviral Treatment (Grellier and Omuru, 2008). 3   When considering food security, it is useful to distinguish macronutrient (protein-energy) malnutrition from micronutrient (vitamins and minerals) malnutrition. Both are common in developing countries, but whereas the former is visible, for instance by wasting symptoms, the latter is often 'hidden'. Onset of HIV/AIDS however has quite different implications for the micro-and macro-nutrient requirements of affected individuals; in particular, energy rich starch and sugars are important to PLHIV (Table 1).  Grellier and Omuru, 2008: 26) However, there is still \"a great deal of uncertainty, existing evidence suggests that protein and micronutrient requirements for adults, adolescents, children, pregnant and lactating women living with HIV/AIDS are the same as for healthy individuals of the same age, gender, and physical activity level living without HIV\" (Grellier and Omuru, 2008: 18). Keeping this in mind and recognising that sufficient micro-nutrient intake remains important, 4 for PLHIV the key nutrient increase required to reduce the immediate effects of the disease concerns energy, particularly in the form of starch and sugars (Grellier and Omuru, 2008). More specifically, energy requirements differ between children and adults and during a) the asymptomatic phase, and b) the symptomatic phase (Table 2). 4 For instance, poor maternal micronutrient status increases the likelihood of transmission of HIV from mother to baby (vertical transmission), whereas vitamin A deficiency is associated with increased occurrence of sexually transmitted infections (STI) which, in turn, increase the likelihood of transmission of HIV during unprotected sexual intercourse (Grellier and Omuru, 2008).  Grellier and Omuru, 2008: 26."}]},{"head":"Food security and nutrition in fishing communities","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Unlike studies of agrarian populations, a very limited literature exists on the nutritional and food security status of African fishing communities and relatively little material addresses the presence, impacts and responses to HIV/AIDS in such communities. Most of the studies on fishing communities also focus on quite a limited area in East Africa: Lake Victoria, George, Kyoga and Edward. There is a dearth of material on food security in fishing communities in Francophone and Lusophone Africa Accordingly, where appropriate, references are made to studies of fishing communities in developing countries outside the continent, although this was not a major focus of the review. Keeping in mind these limitations, this section initially reviews findings concerning the nutritional status of fishing communities, before investigating three key aspects of food security: availability, access and utilisation."}]},{"head":"Nutritional status of fishing communities","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Evidence of malnutrition and food insecurity in fishing communities is relatively sparse. One study conducted at Tanzanian, Ugandan and Kenyan landing sites of Lake Victoria provides some insightful but also somewhat inconclusive material (Geheb et al., 2008). This study surveyed large numbers of women and children and measured body mass indexes for the former and weight, height and age for the latter."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"For mothers, body mass indices showed that on the lakeshores, an average of 5.7% were chronically malnourished. This was lower than national averages in Kenya (6.3%) and Tanzania (7.9%), but higher than in Uganda (3.0%)."},{"index":3,"size":217,"text":"Table 3 presents the data for nutritional status of children, presenting proportions that are stunted (assessed by height for age, indicating chronic malnutrition); wasted (assessed by weight for height, indicating acute malnutrition) and underweight, set against the national averages of the lake's riparian states. The data present a somewhat ambivalent picture, and no indication is given whether the differences found are statistically significant. Chronic (stunting) and acute malnutrition (wasting) in the surveyed population was both higher than national averages in Uganda and Tanzania, but lower in Kenya. However, the survey also reports that in all lakeside children, fewer children were underweight compared to national averages of the three states. Of additional interest, was further survey work in the hinterlands of the lake, approximately 25-35 km out, to find that in the agricultural hinterland of Lake Victoria, stunting and wasting of children was worse. Here, stunting occurred in 45.3%, compared to 40.2% at the landing sites (n=550) and wasting in 7.3% versus 3.9% (Geheb et al., 2008). However, the authors do not present the sample size for this second survey, nor do they disaggregate these additional findings by country. Hence, it is difficult to say whether disaggregation for Kenyan, Ugandan and Tanzanian lakeside communities would show quite a different picture: e.g. does Kenya provide a more optimistic picture?"}]},{"head":"Food availability in fishing communities","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"For fishing households, immediate availability of food depends on fish catches, and on cash earned through fish sales enabling food purchase in local markets. Supplementary livelihood activities also provide cash and inkind outputs which help with meeting food needs. Foremost amongst these supplementary activities is agricultural production, with a smaller role attributed to livestock production."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"These diverse sources all depend on access to and the abundance of natural resources (lake, land, etc.). Whilst fishermen often implicitly consider that fish will be available the next day (Geheb and Binns, 1997), unsustainable fishing practices can endanger the physical availability of fish stocks, with severe implications for the food security of fishing communities (e.g. Allison, 2003;Geheb and Binns, 1997;Geheb and Crean, 2003;Nunan, 2006). The WorldFish Center argues that African fish supplies are in crisis, with sub-Saharan Africa being the only part of the world where consumption is declining, from what is already the lowest per capita consumption of all regions. The main reason for this decline is reducing capture fish production and growing populations. WorldFish thus advocates aquaculture to mitigate this crisis (WorldFish Center, 2005)."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"The availability of particular species for local markets may be affected by exports, as is the case for Nile perch. However, such exports are not necessarily responsible for food insecurity in fishing communities. In Lake Victoria, increased cash gained from exports enables fishermen to buy other (food) commodities and services. However, when Lake Victoria fish products were temporarily banned by the EU, local markets were flooded with extra fish, depressing prices, which benefited local consumers, but also reduced income for fishing families (Geheb et al., 2008)."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":"Commercial fisheries are also linked to increased fish processing, and this may have important food security implications. About 40 percent of all processed fish is processed into fishmeal and fish oil, with the remaining 60 percent destined for human consumption. Dagaa (Rastrineobola argentea), a small fish consumed particularly by the poor, is increasingly used for fishmeal production, with estimations ranging from 50-60% of its harvest being processed this way. Previously only low quality dagaa was used for fishmeal production, but increasingly processing companies are demanding a higher quality product. The growing presence of industrial fish processing \"is a major competitor for artisanal processors of Nile perch by-products and dagaa, threatening employment and protein supply among the poorer parts of the local population\" (FAO, 2008: 58)."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"Industrial fish processing also competes with local artisanal processing. For instance, the rise of industrial processing at Lake Victoria was accompanied by reduced access for local women to buy Nile perch and tilapia for their own processing. Accordingly, they either left the processing sector, or turned to processing of Nile perch by-products, such as Nile perch frames bought from fish processing factories (FAO, 2008)."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"Availability of food in fishing communities is also significantly affected by supplementary livelihood activities that generate cash and food outputs."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"Although fishing takes place year-round, its importance varies seasonally. For instance, at Lake Kyoga (Uganda), strong winds constrain fishing in April/May and November, while most fish are scarce in June/July and mukene/dagaa is scarce in November. During such lean periods, other livelihood activities like farming are of particular importance (Allison, 2003)."},{"index":8,"size":213,"text":"Indeed, mixed fishing and farming livelihoods are a common phenomenon in Africa (Torell et al., 2007;Gordon, 2005). The majority of artisanal fisherfolk operate from production systems typified by both commercial and subsistence fishing, subsistence agriculture on the lake margins, and cattle grazing on seasonally flooded land (Allison, 2003). For example, Luo communities dominant at the Kenyan shores of Lake Victoria diversify their livelihood portfolios over fishing, farming and livestock herding. The importance of any component varies seasonally and between years, but also in accordance with sub-clan traditions, individual preferences, and changing environmental and market conditions. For instance, although livestock is seen as an important form of investment and wealth accumulation, rapid population growth around lakes has reduced available grazing, inhibiting livestock keeping (Geheb and Binns, 1997). Increased agricultural activity is driven by declining fishing yields and income, increased theft and insecurity, fishing gear price rises, or enhanced market prices for agricultural products (Geheb and Binns, 1997). Conversely, poor agricultural harvests may be compensated by a larger retaining of fishery outputs: in mixed fishing/farming systems in the Dominican Republic, drought periods made fishermen keep 20 to 25 percent of their catch for subsistence (Stoffle, 2001). Hence, for a range of reasons, flexibility to shift between livelihood sources supports the availability of food to households."},{"index":9,"size":112,"text":"It is difficult to make clear-cut distinctions between fishermen, fish traders (both men and women) and farmers. On the Kenyan shores of Lake Victoria, in 1994-95, fro example, 94% of 144 surveyed fishermen also farmed. Another survey of 166 fishermen discovered that for 40% of respondents farming did not affect the amount of time they spent on the lake. 5 The remaining 60% spent over a hundred days a year farming, and ceased fishing during this time, while 22% of fishermen spent at least half a year away from the lake (Geheb and Binns, 1997). Fishermen also diversify their sources of livelihood during the course of life, as illustrated by Box 1."},{"index":10,"size":57,"text":"The survey of Kenyan lakeshore communities further revealed that 31% of farmers grew for subsistence use only. Few of the areas surveyed yielded more than one main harvest a year. Staple crops like maize and millet were grown by most, chiefly retained for household consumption, and usually only sold when surplus to requirements (Geheb and Binns, 1997)."},{"index":11,"size":97,"text":"Several authors also remark on the integrated nature of local farming and fishing markets. Seasonal differences allow one to finance inputs to the other and reductions in fishing income may thus indirectly affect farming incomes (Gordon, 2005). Another study noted that when fishermen or farmers have good harvests, market prices of auxiliary goods increase (due to opportunistic retailers), but if the harvest/catch is meagre, demand for other produce drops. Accordingly, the temporary EU ban on Nile perch from Lake Victoria reduced fishing incomes and led to a demand slump for local agricultural crops (Geheb et al., 2008)."},{"index":12,"size":186,"text":"Inequalities in wealth prevalent in fishing, for example around ownership of fishing gear and boats, are also linked to divergent farming activity. Boat Box 1: Occupational diversification life history Difa (32), fisherman interviewed in Iyingo, Kamuli District, Uganda, February 2001 Difa started fishing in 1986, following the death of his father. His relatives gave him some start-up capital, with which he bought a 4.5\" gillnet. He hired a boat and went onto the lake himself. In 1988, after accumulating some money he began processing (smoking) fish which he later sold in Busia. He continued with this trade until 1996, when he stopped because he was not able to also monitor his crew back in Iyingo. To supplement his fishery income, he has diversified into carpentry, while his wife now dries and markets mukene fish. Source: (Allison, 2003: 30) owners earned higher incomes than fishermen without boats, and were therefore better able to hire casual farm labour, permitting further concentration on fishing. On the other hand, casual fishermen, with lower incomes, tended to rely much more heavily on family labour on their farms (Geheb and Binns, 1997)."},{"index":13,"size":40,"text":"Accordingly, if food security is to be achieved, understanding the impact of HIV/AIDS in fishing communities must consider the diversity of livelihood strategies, and the sustainability of both land and water based food production systems (cf. Geheb and Binns, 1997)."}]},{"head":"Food access: entitlements to fishery and land resources","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The previous section showed that agriculture plays a substantial role in supporting food security in fishing communities. However, the relative importance of farming depends on households' and household members' access to arable land, and research indicates significant diversity between villages. In Kenyan lakeshore villages populated by Luo ethnic groups, inheritance traditions divide land amongst sons, with the most fertile plots and land close to a water source divided separately. Consequently, fragmentation affects agricultural productivity. Here, farming outputs were at risk of uncertain rainfall patterns (in the absence of irrigation systems), damage from hippopotamus grazing the land during the night, flooding and erosion of farmland (Geheb and Binns, 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"A study of three villages on the lakeshore of Lake Kyoga (Kamuli District, Uganda) surveyed 108 fishing and non-fishing households and compared these with another 207 households in inland rural districts Mubende and Mbale. Diversity in non-fishing livelihoods in the three lakeshore villages principally resulted due to differing quality, availability and access rights to land for cultivation and livestock grazing. Mean landholdings were much lower than in the two inland districts, although no differences were found for fishing and non-fishing households. Fisherfolk were thus considered relatively landpoor and found to own few productive assets not connected with fishing (Allison, 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Village histories and the ethnic composition of their population also played a role in determining access to land for agricultural production. For instance, inhabitants of one village founded by immigrants lacked land ownership and depended on rented land. In other villages, land access rights reflected the divergent ethno-linguistic background of inhabitants. Hence, in one village, men own land and women have access only through their husbands or can rent land, with sons inheriting their father's land, whereas in another village, both sons and daughters inherit land (Allison, 2003)."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"Access to fishery resources has been the subject of several studies. Official narratives (Allison, 2003) often emphasise the open-access nature of fisheries. For instance, in Nigerian coastal villages, \"fishermen from many tribes and linguistic groups, were free to go fishing whenever they wished and wherever their canoes would carry them, and did not lend themselves to traditional management patterns\" (Ben-Yami, 2001). Many others however have pointed out that common property resources, such as fishery grounds, are rarely completely 'open access' (e.g. Allison, 2003;Geheb and Crean, 2003;Nunan, 2006;Stoffle, 2001), and are subject to a mix of formal government and informal arrangements informed by socio-cultural norms."},{"index":5,"size":141,"text":"Government regulations of fisheries typically control access and effort. At Lake Victoria, regulations include a licensing duty (for which an annual fee is payable and for which there are no limits on the number that can be issued) and adherence to a number of regulations on appropriate fishing gear (Geheb and Crean, 2003). However, whilst government authority over fishing is recognised, it is also widely ignored, misunderstood or deliberately flouted, whilst implementation is often arbitrary (Allison, 2003). 6   Limited state control is often accompanied by informal, socio-cultural norms which serve to minimise conflict between users and determine access entitlements, e.g. inheritance of rights of access, membership of a user group, gender, relationships, allegiances, or ethnicity (Geheb and Crean, 2003). Thus, in the Dominican Republic, access entitlements to coastal fishery resources are defined by customary use, limiting access of newcomers (Stoffle, 2001)."},{"index":6,"size":100,"text":"One key finding, confirmed by many studies, is that in many fishing cultures worldwide there is a taboo on women fishing, and few women are found on the water, although some fish in shallow waters from the shore for subsistence (Allison, 2003). African case studies regularly report that women lack direct access to, and decision making over, fisheries. This limits their ability to use this resource to tackle intra-household poverty and contribute to food security (Allison, 2003;Nunan, 2006;Tindall and Holvoet 2008). Indeed, \"a fishery that excludes half the potential participants, women, can hardly be termed open access!\" (Allison, 2003: 19)."},{"index":7,"size":174,"text":"Research studies have difficulty coming to clear conclusions about access entitlements for male newcomers (migrants). Hence, at Lake Victoria, \"access to the fishery, and how ownership is perceived, is not clear-cut by any means\" (Geheb and Crean, 2003: 105). Such entitlements may be location-specific, and temporally defined. Hence, a 1997 study noted that entry requirements to the Lake Victoria fishery were much less than in the past, particularly for boat crew, where lack of experience was not regarded as a barrier to employment (Geheb and Binns, 1997). However, a study of Lake Kyoga fishing villages reported that lack of experience is not a barrier to entry for skilled migrant fishermen, but effectively is for others (Allison, 2003). Fishing requires skills and experience, and this is also illustrated by Dominican Republic fishermen, who distinguish a hierarchy of apprentice, journeymen, craftsmen, and beached fishermen (Stoffle, 2001). Fishing skills are typically taught to adolescent boys in fishing villages by fathers and kinsmen (Allison, 2003;Stoffle, 2001), and newcomers may not have (had) access to such instruction (Allison, 2003)."},{"index":8,"size":100,"text":"Access of newcomers with fishing skills is further regulated by informal mechanisms. Outsiders at Lake Victoria (Uganda) are challenged for letters of introduction, access fees, etc. However, granting access claims depends on the community. Claims themselves are not strictly territorial: fishermen demand the right to be able to move freely about the lake, but were also willing to use violence to limit access to other fishermen (Geheb and Crean, 2003). Whilst the shape of such communities are poorly defined, some studies suggest that ethnic identity may not in itself pose a significant barrier to engage in fishing (Allison, 2003;Ben-Yami, 2001)."},{"index":9,"size":78,"text":"Traditional authorities also play an important mediating role when conflicts arise about access entitlements. At Lake Kyoga (Uganda), the head of the fishing community, the gabunga, settles disputes, advises on fishing places and methods, regulates new entrants to fishing, and liaises with other communities. The gabunga also enforces ritual prohibitions on fishing that appease lake spirits to ensure good catches and the safety of fishermen, and his example is important for fishing practices in a village (Allison, 2003)."},{"index":10,"size":294,"text":"The position of gabunga was hereditary, but is increasingly elected, albeit from amongst male boat owners. The Ugandan Government incorporated such traditional authority in new fishery management structures, as gabungas head landing site committees or task forces, which exercise similar functions regarding security, disputes and regulation of new entrants (Allison, 2003). However, the Government of Uganda has also issued a new policy for broadening access of marginalised groups, such as women and boat crew members, to the fisheries and to local decision-making bodies, enabling an improvement in their food security status. 7 Lake Management Organisations and Beach Management Units empower such stakeholders, for instance by allocating a number of committee places to them (Nunan, 2006). Moreover, 30% of licenses are now required to be allocated to women, and an evaluation at Lake George, showed that this had already helped to increase the representation of women to roughly 19% of licensees. However, entrance remained limited to owners of fishing boats and gear complying with fishing regulations. Other barriers to entry by women still persisted, including: the gender-insensitive implementation of guidelines; a lack of representation on committees; and lower awareness of opportunities and procedures due to inadequate sensitisation and limited participation in community meetings (Gooding, 2003). Despite such limitations, these initiatives suggest that institutionalised norms governing access entitlements to the fisheries are dynamic and allow for change (Nunan, 2006). 8  While it is important to recognise the diverse populations and sets of access rules found within a community, 9 other factors also influence access to fishery resources, affecting food security. For instance, fisheries are affected by how fishing communities perceive their rights to the resource, its ease of access, and its abundance, in relation to the technologies used, and local sociopolitical struggles (Geheb and Crean, 2003)."},{"index":11,"size":349,"text":"Moreover, the relationships between boat owners and boat crew define the division of the fish catch, the fishing methods and gears used, and are therefore another important institution that affects the access to and control over fishery resources (Nunan, 2006). At Lake Victoria, many boat-owners are tied into highly unequal commercial relationships with processing factory owners, who provide outboard engines and fuel which are slowly repaid, in exchange for exclusive access to the catch (Geheb et al., 2008). In remote areas of Tanzania, fishermen rely on factory owners and agents to provide them with fishing equipment in exchange for supplying fish at lower prices. Here, women were found to particularly lack access to credit (FAO, 2008), whilst in Ghana, women were reported to be important credit providers (Ben-Yami, 2001). At Lake Kyoga, entry as anything other than a wage labourer (boat crew member) requires significant capital outlay (whose opportunity costs are include alternative investment opportunities) (Allison, 2003). Similarly, coastal Nigerian fishermen depend on the availability and cost of informal credit to purchase fuel, equipment, or a boat to enable fishing in more distant fishing grounds, which indirectly affects the size and value of catches. However, in many cases fishermen are obliged to sell their catches to their creditors at predetermined prices (below market prices) and loans are given in the form of supplies or equipment at prices higher than prevailing market prices. Hence, traditional credit is expensive and tends to keep borrowers in a constant dependence on the creditor (Ben-Yami, 2001). Consequently, during periods of lack of cash, landings decrease by high percentages, and improved availability of capital may thus enhance local and regional fish supplies and food security (ibid.). A review of coastal fisheries in Viet Nam also noted that divergent access to capital affects the ability to purchase diverse fishing gear that could enable targeting different species, or motorised boats that could reach more distant fishing grounds or improve the ability to work year round (Lovendal, 2004). Accordingly, some consider limited access to capital as the \"most significant constraint on expansion of fishing effort\" (Allison, 2003: 20)."},{"index":12,"size":184,"text":"Government policies promoting access to produce and financial (i.e. formal credit) markets can thus have a major effect on the income generated by fisheries. At the Kenyan shores of Lake Victoria, the absence of proper roads meant that truck owners had a de facto monopoly on price setting (Geheb and Binns, 1997). Indeed, African artisanal fisheries face major constraints due to limited access roads, inappropriate landing facilities, and poor availability of adequate gear or other inputs. Improvements to market infrastructure, considerably, and effective interventions need to engage with their particular conditions (Nunan, 2006). 9 The literature on community based natural resource management highlights difficulties concerning the understanding of community as a homogenous entity (cf. Nunan, 2006). coupled with investments in connecting rural roads, would reduce transaction costs, with likely beneficial effects on both producer incomes (higher producer prices) and increased accessibility for the general population to fish and fish products, at lower prices (NEPAD, 2003). Moreover, Allison suggests that in the absence of access to land, produce and service markets, mobility may remain an important strategy for sustaining livelihoods of artisanal fisherfolk (Allison, 2003)."}]},{"head":"Labour divisions in fishing communities","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"With access to the fishery traditionally largely barred to women, fishing communities display distinct divisions of labour, with implications for household food security. Women are involved in a range of economic activities directly related to fishing, as well as managing resources like water, cooking fuel, and food for household consumption, in addition to child rearing and caring duties for the sick (Torell et al., 2007). Whilst men conduct the most dangerous (Allison, 2003), and possibly the most physically challenging jobs, women often conduct the most labour-intensive, poorest paid and least recognised jobs in the fish supply chains in developing countries (Choo et al., 2008). Their activities are however significant, considering that presently about 75 percent of all traded fish go through some form of processing before being consumed (FAO, 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":493,"text":"Hence, whilst marine fishing is mostly 10 out of bounds, West African women engage in subsistence fishing in rivers, estuaries, lagoons, or creeks. Their fishing operations, however, are separate from those of men, by specializing mostly in hand-lining, pots, baskets, small trap fishing, and small-scale dragnetting. Women also process and trade fish, and maintain and make traditional fishing equipment: for example, fish traps and fish baskets. They also act as shore gangs at fish beaches and wharfs, remove fish from fishing nets, clean and re-stack them (Ben-Yami, 2001). Similarly, in Thailand, India and Malaysia, women's participation in marine capture fisheries is mainly confined to shore-based activities such as fish marketing, fish handling, net making/mending and processing, i.e. sorting, grading, weighing, gutting and filleting of fish (FAO, 2008). In Senegal, 97 percent of artisanal fish processing and marketing is carried out by women. In Tanzania, women handle from 70 to 87 percent of all fish trade in the artisanal sector. Such roles are similarly important in Mozambique (ibid.). Also at inland fisheries in Uganda, women are involved in a range of fishing-related activities, while some own fishing boats (Allison, 2003;Westaway et al., 2007). Some women are engaged in providing services to fishermen such as brewing beer or sex work (Geheb et al., 2008). Other reports posit that in mixed fishing/farming communities, women are particularly engaged in farming (Gordon, 2005), and in some polygynous communities, fishermen reportedly married more than one wife to ensure that farm labour requirements are fulfilled (Geheb and Binns, 1997). Such divisions of labour additionally suggest that women and men possess different knowledge regarding fishing and farming techniques, sources and ways to collect natural resources, and sources and uses of medicinal plants and minerals (Torell et al., 2007: 6). Also at the Kenyan shores of Lake Victoria, the fishing trade is almost exclusively handled by women, with ratios of fishermen to traders as high as one to three (Geheb and Binns, 1997). A recent trend is that men who cannot gain access to fishing increasingly engage in trade and processing activity (Geheb et al., 2008), thus further increasing the already strong competition. Some authors also suggest that men who no longer have the strength necessary for fishing (for instance due to HIV/AIDS) may switch to fish processing (Gordon, 2005). Such competitive pressure could be a reason for women to offer sexual favours to access fish supplies (Geheb and Binns, 1997). However, other authors argue that \"at Lake Victoria, female fishmongers and processors are often related to boat owners and boat crew from whom they buy their fish. The relationships are therefore not purely market-oriented, but are influenced by domestic power-relations\" (Nunan, 2006(Nunan, : 1322)). Similarly, FAO notes that in Tanzania, with regard to dagaa, fishing and fish processing activities usually involve couples (FAO, 2008). This hence suggests that, in contrast to high-profile discourses on 'fish for sex', women employ a range of different means of obtaining preferential access to fish supplies."},{"index":3,"size":235,"text":"Similarly, women need not always be cast in the role of economically powerless and subject to the whims of fishermen. Studies of West Africa tell quite a different story from much of the work focusing on East Africa. For instance in Ghana, women, locally called 'fish mammies', are estimated to handle the distribution and sales of 90 percent of the artisanal fish production, as well as part of the catch of the commercial fishing companies. Most fish mammies operate as selling agents, paying fishermen on the basis of the revenues they receive from their sales. Besides involvement in processing tasks, these women provide informal credit to fishermen (FAO, 2008), and in these cases it is the women (rather than male boat owners or fishermen) who determine the terms under which fish is supplied. Similarly, in Nigerian coastal villages, \"as a rule the fisher-women are financially independent\". They can become debtors to fishermen, when they lack cash to pay for the fish, but \"more often they lend fishermen sums for working capital or even for investments in equipment, exacting in return the fishermen's obligations to deliver them their catches. This system leads to prolonged and increasing indebtedness of men to their wives and [to] other women, that sometimes ends with fishermen taking their canoes and crews and migrating to other communities, distant fishing camps, or provisional settlements, sometimes for good, to avoid their commitments\" (Ben-Yami, 2001)."}]},{"head":"Food utilisation: fish, cash, processing","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The utilisation of food is an important factor determining food security and nutrition outcomes. Three components deserve attention: fish processing, cash generation, and the actual use of fish in diets."}]},{"head":"Artisanal fish processing","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"In countries like India and Thailand, fresh fish sales dominate domestic markets (FAO, 2008). However, in sub-Saharan Africa, because of weak market infrastructure and facilities in rural areas, the majority of the fishespecially in inland fisheries -is marketed as dried and/or smoked products (WorldFish Center, 2005). For instance in coastal Nigeria, consumer preferences and prohibitive costs of installing, powering, and maintaining refrigeration make smoking the only feasible way to keep fish edible (Ben-Yami, 2001)."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"From a nutritional perspective, the widespread processing of fish using artisanal methods such as sun-drying, salting, and smoking deserves attention. Compared to fresh fish, processed fish often has lower nutritional values. For instance, dried and salted second grade Nile perch, known locally as kayabo, has a low nutritional value compared with fresh fish, as vitamins, proteins (amino acids) and lipids degrade during the course of processing and storage. The longer the product is stored (indicated by browning), the poorer it becomes nutritionally. Sun-drying is also used for preserving small Nile perch, caught illegally or as bycatch of dagaa/mukene fishing, and for Nile perch filleting by-products (which constitute up to 60 percent of the fish after removing the fillets). However, during the rainy season, drying becomes difficult and a good fraction gets insect-infested and spoiled (FAO, 2008). In many parts of Africa post-harvest losses exceed 30% of the catch (WorldFish Center, 2005)."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Smoked products from Nile perch are also mostly of poor quality because they are made from spoiled fish rejected by fish processing plants. Moreover, whilst the heating effect of smoking and frying potentially reduces microbial contamination, subsequent handling is often unhygienic, leading to poor quality fish, and often not more hygienic than dried and salted fish (FAO, 2008)."},{"index":4,"size":129,"text":"Regardless of such disadvantages, the ability to preserve large quantities of fish, even at lower nutritional value, remains important. For instance, small dried fish provide an important source of available and affordable protein in the traditional diet of poor and middle-income groups throughout East and Southern Africa and are a valuable food for children, particularly so during the dry months of July and August (FAO, 2008). Dried fish can also be a rich source of vitamin A. Dried dagaa/mukene has a high protein content and is used in Kenya, for example, to prepare a protein-rich baby food based on beans, soy and maize to protect against kwashiorkor disease. Access to only 10 grams of dried dagaa/mukene adequately addresses iron, zinc and vitamin A deficiencies common among children (ibid.) ."}]},{"head":"Income from fisheries","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"While fish in kind helps to support food security for fishing households, the generation of incomes derived from sales, trading or wages in the fisheries sector is often even more important as an indirect contribution to food security, as it allows for other food purchases (WorldFish Center, 2005). Fishing is hence often more than just a subsistence activity and access to fishing income is associated with greater wealth. A survey of income of 53 fishing households and 52 non-fishing households at Lake Kyoga (Uganda) shows that a higher proportion of fishing households appear in the upper income quartiles, while a higher proportion of non-fishing households appear in the lower quartiles. Moreover, fisherfolk earnings are often higher than those of other rural people. However, fishing is risky from both financial and safety perspectives (Allison, 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Declining incomes from fisheries, due to price fluctuation or reduced catches, thus could have a serious impact on households. These impacts may be felt more keenly by some members than others. Recent studies have shown that control over fishing income is highly contested by husbands and wives."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Men sell the daily catch in return for cash, and \"claimed to give sporadic support to the household, but did not actively engage in daily household maintenance\" (Geheb et al., 2008: 92). Rather, men were found to spend income on beer (ironically brewed by women), women and the fishery (ibid.). Similarly, another study found that \"while women perform a long list of tasks, from farming to child care, men basically spend their time fishing, drinking and sleeping\" (Allison, 2003: 20)."},{"index":4,"size":135,"text":"A male monopoly on access to the fishery resource, and traditional roles for women imply that women have much fewer but highly competitive income generating options (Geheb et al., 2008). Consequently, livelihood diversification was far more common amongst women than men. For men, fishing provided at least 90% of income and they did not diversify even when the fishery was closed. \"For women, incomes earned from a single sector alone were rarely sufficient to cover household, childcare and personal needs. Hence they spread their capital and activities over several businesses, one of which might, at any time, be profitable\" (ibid.: 93) . Often such businesses are conducted in close proximity to the home, enabling domestic duties. Moreover, women saved profits to contribute to household expenses, and these could hence not be reinvested in the business."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"Control over income from fishing is strongly contested. Women attempt to access a part of the income from fishing, while men attempt to protect their spending privileges. Accordingly, both men and women withhold economic information and attempt to hide incomes (Geheb et al., 2008). Whilst women in Geheb et al.'s study at least had some control over some of the household expenses, elsewhere in coastal Tanzania, male household heads were found to make most decisions concerning income expenditure, labour allocation, mobility of family members, health care provision, food production and food purchase (Torell et al., 2007)."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"Male control over much of the household income and expenditure has important implications for nutritional inequities within the household, as suggested by two authors (quoted in : Geheb et al., 2008: 94):"},{"index":7,"size":124,"text":"…during the hunger season, ''Poorer households buy what maize they can but otherwise eat bananas and root crops, while the men spend money on beer. Men say that beer is like food. It fills you up and stops hunger from hurting. From the perspective of the individual drinker this is, indeed, the case. Thick beer has a high calorific value and is quite nutritious. . .\" (Green, 1999: 414). Howard (1994: 248) reports on earnings generated by Chagga women in Tanzania from beer sales: ''. . .women's ability to raise income from commercial beer brewing offsets their insecure access to their husband's income from cash cropping and livestock sale, and their husband's over consumption of beer and meat at the expense of his dependents\"."}]},{"head":"Fish in diets","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The literature on artisanal fisheries often highlights its importance in terms of its contribution to exports, revenue generation and nutrition. It is posited that fish makes an important part of household diets (e.g. Grellier et al., 2004), and is a cheap source of protein and other nutrients compared to other sources (e.g., Gordon, 2005;NEPAD, 2003) especially important for infants, young children and pregnant women (WorldFish Center, 2005). Smaller fish species are especially important for poor consumers as they can be purchased in small quantities (RMAG Ltd, n.d.). 11 At a macro-level, poor nations are more dependent on fish for obtaining animal protein in their diets than rich nations (Kent, 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Protein deficiencies are likely to occur in African populations that are highly dependent on roots, tubers, and bananas/plantain (Williams and Ayemon, 1998). Such diets could be complemented by fish, providing important protein and essential nutrients that are not, or insufficiently present in these staples, for example: iron, iodine, zinc, calcium, vitamin A, vitamin B and fatty acids (WorldFish Center, 2005)."},{"index":3,"size":212,"text":"Whilst there is little doubt that fish is nutritious, this review could detect little published data discussing at a sufficiently detailed level fish's actual role in fishing households' diets. It is thus unclear to what extent fishing households retain fish for home consumption, or sell these for cash. Some reports posit that \"small-scale fishers usually satisfy their subsistence needs first, before selling the rest of their catch. The amount that is retained is fairly constant, independent of the size or value of the catch. This demonstrates that subsistence needs are their first priority, but that increasing catches enables them to gain benefits beyond this\" (RMAG Ltd, n.d.: 1). However, our discussion in the previous section regarding households' struggles over cash, rather than fish, suggests that a significant, if not a majority of the catch could be sold, rather than consumed in the household. For instance, Nile perch and 11 Some argue that consumers often cannot afford to buy other animal protein sources which have to be bought in larger quantities, such as chicken (RMAG Ltd, n.d.), but for instance informal meat markets in Burkina Faso are known to offer portions in different sizes [Hoffman, 2007 #194. Nile tilapia fishing is dominated by artisanal fishermen, but high prices incentivise sales of their catch."},{"index":4,"size":182,"text":"Taking into account differentials in control over fish sales, and the possibility that fishing households actually receive little fish in kind, one may consider the importance of elasticities of demand. Although fish may be cheap, it also tends to have strong price and income elasticities of demand. For consumers, fish often is a non-staple food, and subject to a high income elasticity of demand. Hence, unlike a fairly constant demand for staples like maize, demand for fish rapidly increases when incomes grow and decrease when incomes fall (Ahmed and Lorica, 2002). 12 Price fluctuations may also have distinct effects for the access of the poor to fish products. Whilst generally, high value fish products such as crustaceans have a higher price elasticity of demand than low-value products, these also differ for consumers from rural and urban areas and from different income groups (ibid.). For the same product, however, price-elasticity of demand is likely to be higher for the poor than for richer groups. Accordingly, \"when fish supplies deteriorate, fish tends to disappear first from the plates of the poor\" (Kent, 1997: 403)."},{"index":5,"size":333,"text":"While micro-level data on fish consumption in fishing communities is sparse, FAO publishes national production level data for countries around the world. 13  These present total fish supply per capita, and indicate the share of fish in total animal protein intake (Table 4). Such figures probably underreport supply for inland and coastal fishing communities (RMAG Ltd, n.d.), present averages (aggregating rich and poor groups) and are unable to account for intra-household allocation differences, if any. While some reports note that fish, unlike other high protein foods, is distributed more equally among household members in many parts of the world (WorldFish Center, 2005), it is unclear to what extent this is the case in African fishing communities. 14 12 This however does not necessarily lead to improved nutritional intake. 13 These data normally have already deducted wastage and fish used for non-human food (e.g. fishmeal). Figures represent fresh weights, are highly aggregated, and are drawn from national statistics which may contain gaps; therefore the contributions of artisanal fisheries may be under-estimated. 14 However, a study of Vietnamese coastal fishing villages reported that children and seafaring men have priority access to food, followed by the elderly and women [Lovendal, 2004 #198]. fish eaters, consumers in Namibia, South Africa and Botswana are considered to prefer red meat and chicken to fish (FAO, 2008). 20 Understandings of the properties of fish also relate to HIV/AIDS. One report noted that fishermen realise the nutritional and health benefits of fish consumption: a male boat owner at Lake George argued: \"If you stay in the village HIV/AIDS takes a high toll on your health quicker, but when you eat fish you live longer with the virus\". However, the diet of fish was also thought to increase men's sexual libido which, coupled with reluctance or inability to use condoms, in turn increased susceptibility to infection: \"The fish we eat, and especially the soup, gives people a lot of fluids (semen). When semen accumulates it disturbs you\" (Grellier et al., 2004: 56)."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"Moreover, another concern must be that if overall calorific intakes are deficient, which occurs to an appreciable extent in Africa, particularly for PLHIV, protein may be used not to best advantage. In these situations, protein may be used for energy rather than for building and repair of body tissues (Williams and Ayemon, 1998)."}]},{"head":"HIV/AIDS and food insecurity in agrarian household economies","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The literature on the impacts of HIV and AIDS has grown very rapidly in recent years (for a review, see: S.R. Gillespie and Kadiyala, 2005). The epidemic has a long-wave effect and affects the most productive population through multiple, interrelated, gendered and often highly contextual pathways (Gillespie, 2006;Jayne et al., 2006). Also, where HIV/AIDS is most prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa, it is often one among many concurrent stresses for people's livelihoods (Gillespie, 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"HIV/AIDS affects households' and communities' human, financial, social and physical capital, having direct or indirect bearing on access, availability and utilisation of food. Illness and death affect human capital, through psychosocial stresses, reduced labour productivity and destruction of education and intergenerational knowledge transfer, for instance regarding productive farming methods. Moreover, illness constrains options for productive activities, reduces participation in community activities, and increases time needed for caring activities. The burden of disease also depletes control over and access to financial and physical capital, whether in the form of food reserves, savings, investment, land and livestock assets, and the ability to earn income. Furthermore, social support systems are stretched, sometimes beyond recovery."},{"index":3,"size":381,"text":"Households respond to food insecurity in a variety of ways, using consumption, expenditure, income, and migration strategies (Senefeld and Polsky, 2006). Consumption strategies include buying food on credit, relying on less-preferred staple substitutes, forgoing or reducing the daily number of meals eaten, reducing nutritional diversity, eating unusual wild foods, restricting consumption by adults so children can eat normally, and feeding working members at the expense of nonworking members. However, nutrition foregone by virtue of a shift in dietary patterns and longer working days can affect health (Baylies, 2002). Expenditure strategies include avoiding health care or education costs in order to buy food. Income strategies include taking loans, depleting savings and investments, selling household and livelihood assets such as livestock, and diversification of income sources. These strategies can also include begging and transactional sex (i.e. selling sex in exchange for food or other resources). Where labour has been lost due to morbidity, labour tasks are reallocated within the household, extra hours are put in, labour might be hired or family members come to assist, whereas the cultivated area may also be reduced. Migration strategies include sending children to relatives' or friends' homes, or migrating to find work (UNAIDS, 1999;cited in Drimie, 2002;Senefeld and Polsky, 2006) Critically, many short-term coping responses discount longer term productivity, health and exposure risk to HIV/AIDS. Moreover, many strategies addressing food insecurity are applied and exacerbated in households afflicted by HIV/AIDS, accelerated by the vicious impoverishment-malnutrition-HIV/AIDS cycle. 21 Some studies have suggested stages through which households go, from initial use of welfare mechanisms, to the sale of assets and ultimately the dissolution of the household, but such approaches risk overlooking the complexity and depth of impacts of the epidemic (Baylies, 2002). Indeed, \"responsive strategies are often but not always and not necessarily 'one way streets' which may lead not to extended 'coping' and recovery but to destitution\" (Barnett and Grellier, 2003: 20). Hence, there is a need to learn more about how increasing numbers of HIV/AIDS affected households and communities are struggling to respond to multiple overlapping vulnerabilities and interacting processes of change (Gillespie, 2006). What is clear however is that at least three processes affect food security, malnutrition and impoverishment at the household as well as the community level: labour adjustment, diversification out of agriculture, and decapitalisation."}]},{"head":"Labour adjustment","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Household responses to HIV/AIDS involve farm and non-farm livelihood strategies. Morbidity has important implications for the food security status of poor households, as illness of productive adults reduces the labour supply. For farming livelihoods, this may be particularly problematic considering the seasonality of agricultural work. Hence, in case morbidity incapacitates a household member long enough to disrupt the farming cycle, it may affect food security (Barnett and Grellier, 2003). Indeed, in homes afflicted by HIV/AIDS, food consumption has been found to drop by 40 percent (Drimie, 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"It is often posited that with respect to farming activity, a farming household's first response is often to adopt \"downshifting\" measures -changing cropping patterns with respect to the number and range of crops grown, for instance, progressively sacrificing high value cash crops for food crops and leafy crops and fruits for starchy root crops (Barnett and Grellier, 2003). Loss of cash income may disable buying agricultural inputs like seeds, fertiliser and pesticides required for high value produce. As labour intensive crops are replaced with labour extensive produce (Drimie, 2002;Dorward and Mwale, 2006), reduced labour inputs may also affect the care of livestock. Both crops and livestock may thus suffer from weaker disease and pest control, thus reducing agricultural yields (Barnett and Grellier, 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"Micro level empirical data indicates that HIV/AIDS impacts household agricultural production (and thus availability of food) adversely (Jayne et al., 2006). However, these authors question the 'conventional wisdom': that AIDS drives a shift to less labour-intensive and less nutritious crops; reduces cultivated areas and weeding labour leading to lower yields; or reduces agricultural inputs such as fertiliser, resulting in declines in crop production, losses of off-farm income, and increased poverty. Criticising the often qualitative nature of methodologies observing such findings, they note that most quantitative household-level studies (while subject to some methodological weaknesses themselves) \"provide a less catastrophic assessment of the impact of rising AIDS-related mortality on the agricultural sector\" (ibid.: 155)."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Instead, the effects of death on the agricultural production of a household appears to be highly sensitive to the age, sex, and position of the deceased. This is particularly the case when the household head or spouse dies. Impacts also depend on the initial level of wealth of the household, its ability to attract new members, and the agricultural system in which it operates (Jayne et al., 2006)."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"It is argued that AIDS impacts are mitigated by the ability to attract new household members (or bringing back members residing away from home) to compensate for the lost labour and knowledge of the deceased. Zambia's census statistics thus for instance show a huge population (thus labour) shift from urban to rural areas (Jayne et al., 2006)."},{"index":6,"size":135,"text":"Moreover, analyses must be sensitive to the particularities of the agricultural system in which HIV/AIDS impacts occur. Agricultural systems in eastern and southern Africa exhibit considerable heterogeneity in terms of land, labour, and capital input ratios. Moreover, such heterogeneity is large between farmers, and even so within groups of smallholder farmers. Hence, for those farmers with the smallest landholdings, land rather than labour inputs appear to be the limiting factor in economic growth, whereas larger farms may attract non-resident family labour or hire farm labour through a process of reverse migration (Jayne et al., 2006). In such cases, one additional implication is that it is difficult to assess whether the major constraints being faced by agriculture-dependent households in the contexts of AIDS relate to labour, cash, or a combination of other resource deficits (Gillespie, 2006)."},{"index":7,"size":91,"text":"Furthermore, households incurring a shock to their own labour supply (for example, because of an AIDS-related death) can and will often vary the proportions of land, labour, and cash or adjust their cropping patterns based on the particular mix of resources that they possess after the death (Jayne et al., 2006). Finally, attribution is not without problems. No evidence exists that neatly separates the effect of AIDS on farmers' choices from other contributing factors affecting cropping pattern changes, such as policy changes affecting market access, input prices, and crop prices (ibid.)."}]},{"head":"Decapitalisation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"HIV/AIDS also leads to decapitalisation: the phenomenon of capital diverting out of agriculture, as the epidemic compromises the accumulation and maintenance of many asset types (e.g., Baylies, 2002;Drimie, 2002). The loss of savings, cattle assets, draft equipment, etc., may pose a significant hindrance to rural productivity and secure livelihoods for the poorest communities (Gillespie, 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Illustrative of this is the care and husbandry of livestock. Livestock is disposed of to generate cash for care and treatment of the sick, slaughtered for consumption during funerals, de-stocked because of shortage of labour, or may die because of poor management. Loss of livestock implies loss of manure for the farm and loss of products such as milk meat and eggs for the family, thus implies liquidation of important savings for many households (Barnett and Grellier, 2003). Lawson also provides some evidence using quantitative analysis that Ugandan households with a sick head are more likely to sell off enterprise livestock and other assets than households with a healthy head (Lawson, 2004)."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"It is also important to recognise that smallholder agriculture forms part of diversified livelihood portfolios, and is subjected to multiple environmental, economic and social pressures that drive diversification. For instance, younger generations are often unwilling to continue farming activity (Oxfam and New Economics Foundation, 2006). HIV/AIDS is hence an additional factor that can accelerate the de-agrarianisation through the disposal of productive assets; labour losses; disruption of traditional social security mechanisms; and draining of skills (Drimie, 2002)."}]},{"head":"Livelihood diversification","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":370,"text":"The poor also move to seek additional employment or self-employment to address the impacts of HIV/AIDS, and sometimes engage in activities that increase individual and household exposure risk (Barnett and Grellier, 2003). For instance, Bryceson and Fonseca (2006) report how, under conditions of food insecurity and disposal of assets, the common livelihood diversification strategy of ganyu in Malawi drives impoverishment and de-agrarianisation, heightens women's exposure to HIV/AIDS and entails a threat to the integrity of the household. Ganyu is a traditional practice, where households lacking adequate labour can access additional labour on a seasonal basis, typically through the sale of labour by people from poorer households in exchange for cash or goods. However, during peak agricultural seasons, ganyu often disadvantages casual wage labourers, who are driven by hunger and the need for immediate access to cash to buy food to divert work from their own fields. These peasants thus prioritise off-farm casual labour to address immediate food needs over longer-term staple food planting and harvesting cycles on their own landholdings, causing underutilisation of household land and labour. Consequently, a vicious cycle of impoverishment is in progress, undermining smallholders as viable agricultural producers. For households, ganyu entails a significant shift: \"(1) from self-sufficient unpaid labour performed within the household (especially by women and children) toward cash-earning labour outside; (2) from agriculture toward non-agriculture, with income earning turning increasingly to trade and services, including sexual services; and (3) from household toward individualised work, whereby every able-bodied person works\" (ibid.: 104). 22   Hence, some labour substituting/livelihood diversification measures addressing food insecurity, like ganyu, involve increasing the likelihood of exposure to HIV, through sexual exploitation and transactional sex (Greenblott, 2007). While studies like Bryceson and Fonseca's give qualitative evidence of the association between food insufficiency and HIV transmission behaviours, Weiser et al. (2007) provide quantitative evidence to substantiate these associations. Their study found that food insufficiency is associated with multiple (often interdependent) risky sexual practices among women in Botswana and Swaziland. Women who reported lacking sufficient food to eat had an 80% increased likelihood of selling sex for money or resources, a 70% increased likelihood of engaging in unprotected sex and reporting lack of sexual control, and a 50% increased likelihood of intergenerational sex."}]},{"head":"Gendered and demographic HIV/AIDS impacts","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"AIDS strikes prime age members of society (Gillespie, 2006). However, many children and the elderly, as well as women of all ages, are amongst the most marginalised groups, and are often hardest hit by the impacts of HIV/AIDS."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"As AIDS mostly afflicts people in the 15 to 50 age group, large numbers of orphans are left behind when people with die. By 1999, there were 13.2 million AIDS-orphans, 95 percent of them in sub-Saharan Africa. In 1997, in the most-affected countries, up to 11 percent of children were orphans. Orphans in the most-affected areas are exposed to severe food insecurity, compounded by the fact that many have lost their parents before learning basic agricultural skills and nutrition or health knowledge (Drimie, 2002). This implies that the elderly, who often take over orphans' care, have an important role to play in ensuring food security (ibid.). 22 The importance of context for coping strategies is highlighted by the authors. They compare ganyu with the strategies of Sudanese peasants, who facing similar circumstances, resort to starving to tide over lean periods rather than engage in distress strategies that endanger their long term survival (Bryceson and Fonseca, 2006). Such contextual factors include culture, but also (among others) the economic, agroecological, and political situations."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"AIDS affects women disproportionately, especially in youth and adolescence, as the epidemic worsens existing gender-based differences in access to land and other resources (Drimie, 2002;Baylies, 2002). This puts both men and women at risk, but leaves women less able to protect themselves (Baylies, 2002)."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"Biological as well as social factors play a role. Biological factors related to modes of transmission result in HIV infection rates that are three to five times higher in young women than in young men (Drimie, 2002). Social factors include limited control over sexuality and migration patterns, among others. Women whose husbands migrate for work are especially vulnerable to HIV/AIDS, as their spouses may have other sexual partners (ibid.). Additionally, adult men are often the first to be affected in a household, and the first to die, leaving women to head the household (Baylies, 2002)."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"Although the diversity of socio-cultural contexts make it hard to generalise, women within households in various parts of sub-Saharan Africa tend to be less food secure than men as a result of unequal intra-household food allocation. This can start from an early age, but the situation is exacerbated by their lack of control over decisions related to food production, consumption, and sale (Grellier and Omuru, 2008). Men are also often served both higher quantity as well as quality of food. The resulting malnutrition makes these women more vulnerable to HIV infection."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"Women are affected by discriminatory practices from both formal and informal institutions. Examples of this include women's reduced access to credit, information and agricultural extension services, among others (Grellier and Omuru, 2008;Jayne et al., 2006)."},{"index":7,"size":106,"text":"In households affected by AIDS mortality or morbidity, women often face a double burden: gaining income and caring for sick relatives (Drimie, 2002). Female-headed households often have a higher dependency ratio than maleheaded households (Baylies, 2002). Whether male-or female-headed, a household's labour availability is restricted by HIV/AIDS. Heavier workloads may induce women to plant less labour-intensive, and sometimes nutritionally inferior, crops. These shifts may increase food insecurity and malnutrition (Baylies, 2002;Regional Centre for Quality of Health Care, 2003). Hence, in places where women are in charge of food production, animal tending, crop planting and harvesting, illness and death of a woman particularly threatens household food security."},{"index":8,"size":118,"text":"A range of social factors and practices also impoverish women and weaken their food insecurity, enhancing their likelihood of resorting to transactional sex or other risky strategies to secure a livelihood. In HIV/AIDS affected households, in case the male head of household dies, stigmatisation may lead to social exclusion (Russell, 2003). Where inheritance rights are weakly formulated or poorly enforced, women's land tenure and access to their late husbands' property is threatened, exposing them to rapidly deepening poverty (Baylies, 2002;Jayne et al., 2006). In some cases, traditional mechanisms to ensure a widow's access to land can contribute to the further spread of HIV/AIDS, such as the custom obliging a widow to marry her late husband's brother (Drimie, 2002)."}]},{"head":"Impacts on the rural economy","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Thus far the discussion of food security, malnutrition and HIV/AIDS focused on the household level. Widening the analysis to the level of the community or the wider rural economy poses different questions and throws light on additional impacts."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"Decapitalisation of the poorest is likely to increase inequality within the community, as better-off households buy up land, livestock, tools and machinery and poorer households lose their productive capacity. However, while capital assets lost by afflicted households are generally redistributed within the rural economy rather than lost entirely, the loss of labour and knowledge represents a loss to entire communities (Jayne et al., 2006). A community's vulnerability arising from HIV/AIDS is intertwined with its vulnerability to environmental stress. Early research into the impacts of HIV/AIDS on rural livelihoods considered that the effects of the epidemic would be more acute and pronounced in environments constrained by poor soil or unfavourable climate (Barnett and Grellier, 2003). Conversely, the incidence of HIV/AIDS in a community may impact management of community owned natural resources (common property), as extraction rates accelerate to negatively affect sustainable use (Dwasi, 2002, cited in Drimie, 2002)."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Rural communities also often bear the burden of HIV/AIDS-affected urban and migrant labourers, who return to their villages when they become sick (Drimie, 2002), not only implying additional health care costs, but also reduced remittances (Dorward and Mwale, 2006). This strains social solidarity mechanisms, which are already under pressure of HIV/AIDS induced decapitalisation, and livelihood practices such as ganyu, as the epidemic reaches every home and neighbours become too overburdened to help each other with food, loans or a hand in the fields (Drimie, 2002). However, this issue may not directly affect migrant fishing communities in this way, where fisherfolk may return to their home communities for care when ill. This issue is discussed further in the accompanying review of health service delivery (McPherson, 2008)."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"Similarly, Barnett and Grellier (2003) note that in many cattle-keeping communities, people share the care of their animals with friends and relatives over a wide geographical area. This reduces risk of loss in the event of disease or theft. Reduction of the range of domestic animals kept or withdrawal from such risk pooling arrangements are all symptoms of the way that AIDS impact makes a household, cluster or community more vulnerable to the next traumatic event . Such erosion of social safety nets is also correlated with and need to be understood within the broader (neoliberal) contexts, where \"monetisation and privatisation serve to undermine traditional notions of reciprocity and to remove what might formerly be seen as kinbased entitlements\" (Baylies, 2002: 622)."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"Moreover, community relations may be under further tension over land inheritance disputes, and possible land concentration. As land rental markets are weakly developed, AIDS-affected households are not able to securely rent out land, thus risking underutilisation of their productive capacity. In particular, widows fear that renting out might affect their tenure rights (Jayne et al., 2006)."},{"index":6,"size":220,"text":"Regardless of decapitalisation and livelihood diversification processes, much remains unknown about the macro-effects of HIV/AIDS on the agricultural sector. While information at the household level provides a reasonable understanding of the impacts of HIV/AIDS, impacts on the structure of the agricultural sector, its cropping systems, relative costs of inputs and factors of production, technological and institutional changes, and supply and demand for agricultural products as a whole \"provides a very murky picture\" (Jayne et al., 2006: 140). Hence, even though many studies highlight the significant negative impacts experienced by individuals and households as a direct result of AIDS-related labour losses, there is as yet no conclusive support for the net decreases in agricultural output that might be expected as the impacts of HIV and AIDS increase (Larson et al., 2005, discussed in Gillespie, 2006) . One potential explanation is that land exchanges at the community level lead to larger, more efficient and more productive farms. However, land acquisition by better-off households from widows and orphans who fail to keep access and/or ownership rights to land after the death of the husband/father, increase inequality, poverty, and malnutrition (Gillespie, 2006). Relating these trends to fishing communities, it appears likely that intra-community inequalities could lead to a similar concentration of assets. This would negatively affect poverty and malnutrition of the most vulnerable households."},{"index":7,"size":72,"text":"HIV/AIDS has been estimated to reduce GDP growth per capita by an estimated one percent annually in Africa, affecting countries ability to import food, and therewith affecting food security (Drimie, 2002). Others argue that such estimates severely underestimate actual economic impacts, by neglecting to include the costs of reduced future productivity, due to heavily impeded intergenerational knowledge transfers (Bell et al., 2003). This latter issue is unexplored with respect to fishing communities."},{"index":8,"size":128,"text":"Alternatively, the sheer impact of the epidemic on countries' productive populations suggests how agricultural economies are affected. Drimie records that AIDS has killed around 7 million agricultural workers since 1985 in the 25 hardest-hit countries in Africa, and could kill 16 million more by 2020. Table 5 shows that the most-affected African countries could lose up to 26 percent of their agricultural labour force within two decades (Drimie, 2002). Given the high incidence within fishing communities (Kissling et al., 2005), the loss of fishing workers may be even more stark. Drimie thus wonders whether in 20-30 years, demographic changes will induce major changes in the division of labour in families or communities. Although this is an interesting question, some would argue it may not be a relevant one."},{"index":9,"size":117,"text":"The analysis of death tolls, however striking, might obscure other factors affecting labour availability. The net size of working populations in the African countries hit hardest by HIV/AIDS may not actually change significantly between now and 2025, because of the momentum of population growth (Jayne et al., 2006). 23 Moreover, any dramatic upward pressure on agricultural wages would likely induce reverse urban-rural migration from the underemployed informal sector and cross-border migration (ibid.) . This also implies that the catastrophic death toll may not enhance agricultural wages for the surviving rural labour force. The advent of Anti-Retroviral Therapy (ART), if the roll-out of the drugs reaches those in need for treatment, will also influence patterns of demographic change."},{"index":10,"size":131,"text":"Determining the nature and magnitude of HIV/AIDS impacts on labour markets and wages more generally is a treacherous task (Dorward and Mwale, 2006). Dorward and Mwale conduct a modelling exercise, which suggests that morbidity and mortality among skilled members of the community can lead to reduced demand for both on-farm labour and unskilled labour providing non-tradable goods and services within the local economy. They conclude that there is a \"very real\" possibility of HIV/AIDS leading to falling wages for unskilled labour (including those non-affected by HIV/AIDS) (2006: 92) . Accordingly, such a drop in unskilled and low skilled wages would drive further inequality within communities. Again, these types of dynamic factors would need to be accounted for in any comprehensive analysis of HIV/AIDS impact on labour force or wages within fishing."}]},{"head":"HIV/AIDS, food (in)security and malnutrition in African fishing communities","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"This section considers existing knowledge about HIV/AIDS, malnutrition and food insecurity in African fishery contexts. While artisanal activity is an important but often neglected part of African fisheries (FAO, 2008;Nunan, 2006), it is also increasingly recognised as having very high incidences of HIV/AIDS (Allison and Seeley, 2004;Kissling et al., 2005;Seeley and Allison, 2005). In the absence of detailed research, explanations concerning the 23 However, the quality of the labour force will suffer, as using (predicted) population figures tends to overestimate the available time for labour. These populations will be subjected to periods of sickness, care-giving for those afflicted with the disease, and mourning periods after a death (Jayne et al., 2006). spread of the disease and its relation to food insecurity and malnutrition in fishery contexts must draw upon lessons derived from agrarian studies. For instance, Gordon (2005: 4) posits that the \"generalised scenarios of the impacts of HIV/AIDS on rural households in Africa\", typified by loss of productive labour, asset depletion, reduced inputs, constrained access to credit, removal of children from education \"also applies to fishing households.\" . Similarly, Torell et al. (2007) conclude that HIV/AIDS poses four threats to coastal fishery resources and biodiversity :"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"-accelerated extraction rate for natural resources; -decreased labour availability ; -reduced management capacity; -loss of traditional/indigenous knowledge and skills."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Applying lessons from agrarian to fisheries contexts is intuitively attractive, and apparently plausible. However, empirical evidence to support such claims is often conspicuously absent. Thus, understanding HIV/AIDS, nutrition and food security in fishing communities requires a more critical approach. The remainder of this review takes stock of how the processes identified for agrarian contexts fit with current knowledge of fisheries, and suggests a tentative research agenda."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"The rather limited available data (mostly focusing on the Great Lakes Region) suggest that food insecurity may be prevalent for a small section of fishing communities, but possibly less prominently so than in nearby rural areas. Within fishing communities, limited access to the fishery and limited control over cash expenditure suggests that women and dependents are more vulnerable to food insecurity and malnutrition. Right now there are neither data on the nutrition status of men, nor on the nutrition status of PLHIV in fishing communities. Moreover, little is known about seasonal food insecurity, although livelihood diversification appears to have a buffer function in this respect."},{"index":5,"size":126,"text":"A note of caution is required generally when talking about fishing communities. Critiques of community based natural resource management point out the fallacy of assuming homogeneity in rural communities, with shared social norms (Nunan, 2006). Fishing communities hence differ from each other socially, culturally, economically, and ecologically, and members can well have conflicting interests (Ben-Yami, 2001) and varying influence, power and assets (Nunan, 2006). Ethnically, some communities were reported as homogenous, but others as highly diverse. For instance, villages on the Kenyan shore of Lake Victoria are dominated by the Luo ethnic group (Geheb and Binns, 1997), while Allison found that three villages on the Ugandan shore had distinct ethnic compositions (Allison, 2003). Similarly, considerable ethnic diversity was reported for Nigerian coastal fishing communities (Ben-Yami, 2001)."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Whilst keeping in mind the diversity of fishing communities and its members, currently no analytical schemas appear to help identify which types of communities may be more or less vulnerable to food insecurity and HIV/AIDS impacts."},{"index":7,"size":385,"text":"Migration is well-acknowledged, and linked to the spread of HIV/AIDS in and beyond fishing communities (Allison and Seeley, 2004;Kissling et al., 2005;Seeley and Allison, 2005). However, the background and modus operandi of the migrants may require further investigation: e.g. are these migrants itinerant or settling permanently? Some reports found that when catches decline in one place, casual boat crew migrate to other, hopefully more productive, fishing grounds (Geheb and Binns, 1997). For Tanzanian coastal villages, seasonal migration is a major recurring factor, as men -mostly between the ages of 15 and 39 -move between villages according to fishing and farming seasons. Here, most migrants come from neighbouring villages, in contrast to larger fishing centres handling lucrative fish trades which attract \"outsiders\" migrating from nearby islands and larger towns and cities (Torell et al., 2007). Accordingly, the composition of fishing communities may well vary in relation to their economic function, and their endowment of trading facilities and road networks. Moreover, this variation in types of migration patterns may also affect: the nature of access entitlements to the fishery; social cohesion and the shape and workings of social safety nets; or pathways spreading HIV/AIDS, among other factors. Some fishing locations themselves are temporary in nature. Ben-Yami (Ben-Yami, 2001) distinguishes fishing villages, temporary settlements closer to the fishery which are effectively almost permanently populated, and fishing camps (for instance on floodplains) which are only temporarily populated . The more temporary the location, the worse the environmental health infrastructure is likely to be, with poor provisioning of sanitation and potable water having clear implications for the food security of its inhabitants. Many Tanzanian fish marketing centres lack electricity or running water even where water pipes are installed (FAO, 2008). At Lake Victoria, commercial demand for fish drove population increases, and many shanties sprung up. A survey of over fourteen hundred landing sites in 2004 found that one in five had communal lavatory facilities, 4% had electricity and 6% were served by potable water supplies (LVFO, 2005, in Geheb et al.¸2008)). Such conditions enhance the chances of malnutrition, and are conducive to presence of and susceptibility to parasitic and infectious diseases, which risks increased levels of transmission of HIV/AIDS. In Uganda, schistosomiasis is for instance considered the largest threat to the health of remote fishing communities (Kabatereine et al., 2004)."},{"index":8,"size":235,"text":"Generally, there is very limited material discussing the occurrence or importance of labour adjustment, diversification and decapitalisation strategies used by PLHIV in fishing communities. It is unclear whether 'downshifting' occurs in fisheries, the extent to which this occurs, or the illness stage when HIV/AIDS might affect fishermen's involvement in fishing. Some reports suggest that such HIV/AIDS affected men shift to trading instead, increasing competition in this sector, and possibly pushing women out of work and into risky sexual practices (i.e. fish for sex) to retain access to fish. However, evidence of diversification by fishermen in farming, trade, or other selfemployment is very limited. Further questions remain around how women in fishing communities respond to illness. For instance, when women get ill, do their agricultural, processing or trading activities display signs of 'downshifting', with consequences for access to nutrition? It is unclear to what extent different configurations of fishing and farming livelihood systems are able to adjust labour/capital/resource inputs in order to deal with HIV/AIDS induced deaths/illness. Capital appears one of the strongest limits to productivity, although it remains unclear whether households affected by HIV/AIDS are able to retain access to expensive informal credit, or recruit new members to retain labour productivity. The availability of labour may consider background population growth trends, reverse and regional migration. Moreover, illness induced productivity loss needs to be considered against other threats, notably, reducing natural resources, such as fish stocks."},{"index":9,"size":61,"text":"Aquaculture has also been proposed as appropriate for PLHIV, as it has a low physical labour requirement, generates nutritional fish and cash to buy food and medication (WorldFish Center, 2005). However, its widespread expansion will require drawing lessons from previous experiences of aquaculture in Africa, a sector which has so far remained small-scale in most places (a notable exception being Egypt)."},{"index":10,"size":229,"text":"The strong divisions of labour in fishing also imply that HIV/AIDS could have differential impacts on men, women, and dependents. It is unclear who undertakes caring duties of sick people, and whether or not migrants return to their native communities. Similarly, it is not clear what happens to children orphaned by AIDS, and to what extent this is an issue in fishing communities. 24   Little is yet known about household consumption, the role of fresh and processed fish in consumption baskets, and the intra-household allocation of food to individual members. For PLHIV, who particularly require additional energy, fish may contribute indirectly when its protein is metabolised as energy when existent energy intake is deficient. For those PLHIV who do consume sufficient amounts of energy, fish is one of the sources that can provide important protein and micro-nutrients. Its promotion should be considered and compared against alternative food sources in terms of its availability, affordability (e.g. number of nutritional units as % of recommended daily intake per price unit) and cultural acceptability to poor communities. Are some foods considered particularly beneficial and/or detrimental, and how do such notions square with their nutritional content and PLHIV's need for specific nutrients? As PLHIV require particularly enhanced energy intake, and considering that fishing often goes hand in hand with farming, it should be considered to what extent the latter can provide more energy."},{"index":11,"size":89,"text":"Within fishing communities, more needs to be understood about the ways in which HIV/AIDS may induce ecologically unsustainable practices, or affect members' access entitlements to the fishery. Additionally, it is important to analyse whether such impacts arising from HIV/AIDS contribute to the further spread of HIV/AIDS by predisposing individuals to engage in risky sexual behaviour. Following on from this, social institutions and customs further warrant attention. For instance, are practices reported for some agrarian communities, such as re-marriage following deaths, or limited inheritance rights, also important in fishing communities?"},{"index":12,"size":160,"text":"In case of deaths, what effects does this have for the agricultural/fishery productivity of the household? In case of death of a spouse, what evidence do we have of stigmatisation affecting the ability of their surviving husband/wife to earn or engage in profitable economic activity that does not expose them to HIV/AIDS? Such diverse impacts need to be understood in relation to (inter alia): initial levels of wealth; households' ability to attract new members; identity of the deceased (i.e. head/spouse); the nature of fishing/agriculture system; and households' scope for adjusting land, labour, capital ratios (cf. Jayne et al., 2006). Considering evidence from Lake Victoria (Geheb et al., 2008), the ability of fishing communities to attract new members, and the rapid increases of boats and fishermen on the Lake does not support the argument that HIV/AIDS leads to production declines and \"threatens the ability of the fisheries sector to supply fish and fish products to the low-income groups\" (Gordon, 2005: 4)."},{"index":13,"size":149,"text":"Considering reports of male 'irresponsibility' in behaviour and spending patterns, does HIV/AIDS induced illness and deaths of the husband or spouse affect households' food security differently? An additional consideration is that men and women may have distinct knowledge of fishing and farming (Torell et al., 2007). Whilst a death results in some loss of specialised fisheries knowledge, the question remains whether systems of apprenticeships in fisheries can mitigate the loss of a father, or uncle due to HIV/AIDS. Moreover, could the death of the wife, often the manager of the household, leave children and other remaining members more strongly exposed to economic hardship and food insecurity than the death of the husband? As women are generally barred from fishing, the death of the husband or partner may suggest being cut off from whatever direct contributions the fishing made to the household (if items from the catch were brought home)."},{"index":14,"size":175,"text":"HIV/AIDS affects households' and communities' human, financial, social and physical capital, but we have little evidence how this affects individuals' or households' access, availability and utilisation of food within fishing communities. Some evidence suggests that women adjust food consumption patterns and reduce expenditure on food during times of hardship. Women at Nyamkazi landing site cut food expenditures by half, whilst those at Bugoma reduced the number of meals by half, whereas the composition of meals also changed towards cheaper ingredients (Geheb et al., 2008). Otherwise, currently, limited evidence has been presented of how PLHIV in fishing communities employ food consumption, expenditure, income or migration strategies to address food insecurity. These micro-level processes certainly merit further research. However, at a macro-level, it is important to remember that other forces of change concurrently affect the fishing sector, including ecology, climate, costs of inputs and production factors, prices, and so on. Studies of the wider impact of HIV/AIDS on food security and nutrition within fishing communities should set the immediate impact of the illness within the broader context."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: The vicious cycle of malnutrition and HIV "},{"text":"Table 1 : Change needed in nutritional intake due to HIV infection Nutrient % increase above RDA needed due to HIV Main food sources  Macronutrients   Macronutrients Carbohydrates -starches 10% -30% Cereals Carbohydrates -starches10% -30%Cereals and sugars  Starchy roots and fruits and sugarsStarchy roots and fruits   Fats, oils and sugars Fats, oils and sugars Carbohydrates -dietary fibre No change Vegetables and fruits Carbohydrates -dietary fibre No changeVegetables and fruits Fats No change Milk and eggs FatsNo changeMilk and eggs   Meat, offal, poultry and fish Meat, offal, poultry and fish   Fats, oils and sugars Fats, oils and sugars Proteins No change Low fat legumes ProteinsNo changeLow fat legumes   High fat legumes and High fat legumes and   oilseeds oilseeds   Milk and eggs Milk and eggs   Meat, offal, poultry and fish Meat, offal, poultry and fish Micronutrients   Micronutrients Iron Unclear Meat, offal, poultry and fish IronUnclearMeat, offal, poultry and fish Iodine Not known Iodized salt IodineNot knownIodized salt Zinc Not known Meat, offal, poultry and fish ZincNot knownMeat, offal, poultry and fish Vitamin A* Not known Meat, offal, poultry and fish Vitamin A*Not knownMeat, offal, poultry and fish   Fats, oils and sugars Fats, oils and sugars   Orange vegetables and fruit Orange vegetables and fruit B-group Vitamins Not known Meat, offal, poultry and fish B-group VitaminsNot knownMeat, offal, poultry and fish Folate Not known Dark green vegetables FolateNot knownDark green vegetables Vitamin C Not known Vegetables and fruits Vitamin CNot knownVegetables and fruits Calcium Not known Milk and eggs CalciumNot knownMilk and eggs RDA: Recommended Daily Allowance. (Adapted from FANTA, 2007; cited in RDA: Recommended Daily Allowance. (Adapted from FANTA, 2007; cited in  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Increased nutritional requirements due to HIV Stage of HIV Causes of reduced nutritional intake Increased energy requirements  Adults & adolescents Children Adults & adolescentsChildren (to maintain body (to maintain growth) (to maintain body(to maintain growth) weight)  weight)  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Nutritional status of children at Lake Victoria (2002) compared to national averages for 1996-2005  Country Stunted  Wasted  Underweight  CountryStuntedWastedUnderweight  Survey National Survey National Survey National SurveyNationalSurveyNationalSurveyNational   average  average  average averageaverageaverage Uganda 43.3% 39% 4.7% 4% 17.0% (194) 23% Uganda43.3%39%4.7%4%17.0% (194)23%  (194)  (181)    (194)(181) Kenya 26.7% 38% 3.4% 6% 14.9% (121) 20% Kenya26.7%38%3.4%6%14.9% (121)20%  (120)  (119)    (120)(119) Tanzania 44.5% 38% 3.4% 3% 19.5% (236) 22% Tanzania44.5%38%3.4%3%19.5% (236)22%  (236)  (235)    (236)(235) Totals 40.2%  3.9%  17.6% (551)  Totals40.2%3.9%17.6% (551)  (550)  (545)    (550)(545)  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Fish supplies and share of fish protein in animal protein consumption Country Per capita fish supply (kg) Fish protein/animal protein (%)  Angola 6.6 27.1 Angola6.627.1 Burundi 3.2 29.6 Burundi3.229.6 Congo Dem. Rep. 5.7 31.0 Congo Dem. Rep.5.731.0 Equatorial Guinea 22.6 61.9 Equatorial Guinea22.661.9 Ghana 22.5 63.2 Ghana22.563.2 Malawi 5.7 37.7 Malawi5.737.7 Senegal 36.3 47.4 Senegal36.347.4 Tanzania 10.3 33.6 Tanzania10.333.6 Uganda 9.8 30.0 Uganda9.830.0 Source: Adapted from WorldFish Center, 2005: 3.  Source: Adapted from WorldFish Center, 2005: 3.  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Projected loss to agricultural labour force through AIDS, 1985-2020 Namibia Botswana Zimbabwe Mozambique South- Africa Kenya Malawi Uganda Tanzania  -26% -23% -23% -20% -20% -17% -14% -14% -13% -26%-23%-23%-20%-20%-17%-14%-14%-13% Source: Drimie, 2002.        Source: Drimie, 2002.  "}],"sieverID":"fa3f25d5-9c9a-4d43-bbc4-415ae90a4675","abstract":"This report reviews the literature on food security, nutrition and HIV/AIDS in relation to the fisheries sector, predominantly in sub-Saharan Africa. Considering the limited literature on fisheries, dominant processes and factors emerging in the agrarian literature are reviewed, and assessed for their actual and potential applicability to the fisheries sector."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0457a23763df3a369f9a249b3d025b4a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/37804c44-afdd-41ad-a4a4-3719facc5dbf/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Uno de los más importantes aportes al estudio de la biología ha sido la descripción del AON (ácido desoxírribonucleico) \"la molécula de la vida\". El estudio de sus propiedades fisicoquímicas y biológicas ha desarrollado en menos de cincuenta años un enfoque completamente novedoso en lo referente al origen, flujo y almacenamiento de la información genética en los organismos vivos (dogma cenlral de la biología molecular); además, ha hecho posible la utilización de este conocimiento en la solución de problemas concretos a través de la ingeniería genética o tecnología del AON recombinante."}]},{"head":"Definición","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"El ADN es una estructura termodinámicamente estable aunque informacionalmente dinámica y sujeta al cambio. El efecto de su expresión es de enorme complejidad y plasticidad, estos dos hechos definen la originalidad de un organismo a la vez que 10 hacen ligeramente distinto de otros individuos de su misma especie y completamente diferente de organismos de otros grupos o taxones que al igual que él comparten el hecho de poseer moléculas de AON."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"El AON como macromolécula, es un polímero de carácter ácido, con características fisicoquímicas propias responsable de la generación, transmisión y almacenamiento de la información hereditaria en todo organismo vivo. Todas las células poseen en su núcleo AON, incluyendo organelas tales como cloroplastos y milocondrias en plantas. El AON se encuentra asociado a proteínas estableciendo complejos especiales que conforman diversos niveles de organización dentro de los cuales los cromosomas son los más representativos."},{"index":3,"size":218,"text":"El AON se encuentra en el núcleo de las células asociado con proteínas y organizado en cromosomas como se mencionó antes. Una molécula de AON consiste en dos cadenas unidas por puentes de hidrógeno formando una doble hélice (fig. 1). Cada cadena es una secuencia repetitiva de unidades similares llamadas nucleólidos, cada uno compuesto de un azúcar, un grupo fosfato y una base nitrogenada (fig. 2). Cuatro bases diferentes están presentes en el AON: adenina (Al, timina (T), cilosina (C) y guanina (G). El orden especifico de las bases a lo largo de la cadena se conoce con el nombre de secuencia del ADN. La secuencia especifica las instrucciones genéticas exactas requeridas para crear un individuo con características únicas. La información genética puede entonces ser definida como frases escritas usando las bases A, C, T y G como alfabeto. La secuencia de las bases a lo largo de una cadena es exactamente complementaria a la otra, lo cual indica que ambas cadenas poseen la misma información genética. Las dos cadenas de AON están unidas quimicamente por puentes de hidrógeno formando pares de bases. A siempre estará unida a T por dos puentes de hidrógeno mientras que G estará unida con e por tres puentes de hidrógeno. El tamaño del genoma corresponde al número total de pares de bases."}]},{"head":"El Gen","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"El gen es la unidad básica de la herencia. Posee la información básica para la síntesis de proteínas. las cuales son los compuestos estructurales de las células y los tejidos."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"En términos bioquímicos, un gen consiste de una cadena de ácido desoxirribonucleico (ADN) la cual forma parte de una unidad genética mucho más larga conocida como cromosoma (gig3). Organismos unicelulares como las bacterias, poseen pocos miles de genes mientras que organismos complejos como las plantas superiores poseen hasta 50.000 genes diferentes."},{"index":3,"size":289,"text":"El estudio de como los genes guardan la información genética y como es transmitida ésta información ha sido una labor titánica durante mucho tiempo, pero solamente en la última década se ha podido dilucidar la complejidad de estructuras y mecanismos que contribuyen hoy a entender qué es el gen. La información genética completa de un organismo compuesta por muchos genes se conoce con el nombre de genoma. El genoma contiene la información para la construcción de todas las estructuras celulares y las actividades a lo largo de la vida de una célula u organismo. Solo a mediados de los años setenta con el desarrollo de la tecnología del ADN recombinante y posteriormente con los métodos de secuenciación de ADN, se pudo estudiar la organización molecular del gen al nivel de la base nucleotídica. En los vegetales se ha estimado que existen entre 10.000 y 100.000 genes según la complejidad de la planta. Los genes varían ampliamente en longitud, teniendo la mayoría de ellos varios miles de bases. Sin embargo, solo aproximadamente el 10% del genoma contiene secuencias codificantes para la síntesis de proteínas. Estas secuencias llamadas exones contienen el código genético que es leído y es finalmente traducido en proteinas. Entre los exones, se encuentran secuencias que no tienen funciones codificantes (intrones). Algunas de éstas secuencias son secuencias reguladoras, necesarias para llevar a cabo la expresión de la información genética. Las secuencias de ADN pueden estar presentes en diferentes cantidades, variando entre una a millones de copias por célula o genoma haploide. Estas secuencias repetidas se pueden encontrar seguidas en el cromosoma o pueden estar dispersas a lo largo del genoma. Normalmente . estas secuencias se encuentran agrupadas o en los centrómeros o en los telómeros de los cromosomas."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"Todos los organismos vivientes están compuestos de proteínas, las cuales son moléculas grandes y complejas, compuestas por cadenas de subunidades llamadas aminoácidos. Veinte aminoácidos diferentes son usualmente los que componen las proteínas. En el gen, cada secuencia de 3 bases se conoce con el nombre de codón, en el cual se encuentra el código para la síntesis y ensamblaje de cada aminoácido. Por ejemplo, la secuencia ATO codifica para el aminoácido metionina. Debido a que 3 bases codifican para un aminoácido, la proteína codificada por un gen de 3000 pb, estará compuesta de 1000 aminoácidos."},{"index":5,"size":168,"text":"El código genético es una serie de codones en los cuales está especificado cuales aminoácidos son necesarios para sintetizar proteínas determinadas. Las instrucciones que están en los genes para llevar a cabo la síntesis de proteínas, son transmitidas indirectamente a través de una molécula llamada ARNm (ARN mensajero), la cual es similar a una de las dos cadenas del ADN. Para que la información que se encuentra en el gen sea expresada, una molécula de ARN complementaria es prcducida a partir -, del ADN molde mediante un proceso llamado transcripción. Este ARNm se transporta desde el núcleo al citoplasma donde sirve como molde para la síntesis de proteínas. La maquinaria celular traduce los codones en cadenas de aminoácidos que formarán finalmente la molécula de proteína. En el laboratorio, es posible aislar la molécula de ARNm y usada como molde para sintetizar una cadena de ADN complementario (ADNc), la cual puede ser posteriormente usada con el fin de localizar genes de interés y ser ubicados en un mapa genético."}]},{"head":"Genoma","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Los estudios sobre organización del genoma son importantes para el entendimiento de la función y evolución del mismo y para dar información que permita diseñar estrategias para su manipulación."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Las características de un organismo están especificadas en su información genética la cual esta representada como una secuencia de ácido nucléico. La suma total de esta secuencia es lo que conforma su genoma. En general el tamaño del genoma es proporcional a la complejidad fenotípica del organismo y esto va de acuerdo a el número de productos génicos necesarios para la replicación y mantenimiento funcional de nuevos individuos."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"La información genética almacenada en los cromosomas (Figura 1), es multiplicada en dos pasos secuenciales: Transcripción en donde una porción linear del gene es copiado dentro de una molécula de RNA de cadena única y Traducción: en los ribosomas el RNA mensajero es traducido dentro de aminoácidos unidos covalentemente (cadena polipeptidica). Una vez liberados del ribosoma, la cadena polipeptídica puede estar sujeta a modificaciones post-traduccionales."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"El flujo de información genética de DNA a RNA esta altamente regulado en todas las células y coordinado. Tal control en la expresión genética es necesario para evitar que haya un gasto innecesario de energía sintetizando un producto que no sea necesitado por la célula. Así, la expresión de genes puede estar restringida a algún tiempo durante el desarrollo de un organismo, en la expresión en ciertos tipos de células, o en respuesta a estímulos externos. o requerido por todas las células en todos los estad íos."}]},{"head":"Organización de Genomas de Organelas","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Las mitocrondrias y cloroplastos poseen genomas de ADN que codifican para todos las especies de ARN y algunas de las proteínas involucradas en las funciones de la organela. En eucariotes primitivos el ADN mitocondrial es linear pero usualmente los genomas de las organelas tienen la forma de una molécula de ADN circular. Debido a que cada organela contiene varias copias del genoma y a que existen muchas organelas por célula, el ADN de organelas constituye una secuencia repetitiva."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Genoma de Cloroplasto: Se han realizado varios estudios con el fin de elucidar el tamaño y la organización general de muchas moléculas de ADN de cloroplasto utilizado mapeo por enzimas de restricción. La forma general del ADN ct de ecucariotes primitivos y superiores es una secuencia de 10-24Kb que esta presente en dos copias idénticas como una unidad invertida."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Genoma de Mitocondria: El genoma de mitocondria varía enormemente en tamaño y esto hace imposible generalizar sobre su organización. El ADN de mitocondria de 3 especies (humano, ratón y vaca) han sido secuenciados y la organización del genoma es similar."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Fíg 1. Representación esquemática de la organización de un cromosoma vegetal Flavell, 1996 Regiones no meliladas "}]},{"head":"VTR","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"AON FINGERPRINTING","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Los marcadores moleculares basados en la vanaclon de las secuencias del ADN (minisatelites, microsatelites y otros) han dado una herramienta para distinguir entre genotipos estrechamente relacionados."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"En 1985, Jeffreys y colaboradores desarrollaron el primer fingerprint multilocus de ADN y especularon que estos patrones de ADN podian ser un poderoso método para identificación individual y prueba de paternidad. En abril de 1985 el primer caso de disputa de migración fue satisfactoriamente resuelto por esta metodología."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Este análisis de ADN se puede hacer a partir de muestras de sangre, semen, fluido vaginal, cabellos rotos, células bucales."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"Los resultados o patrones moleculares obtenidos con estas técnicas son heredables y únicos para cada individuo, algo similar a las huellas digitales, de ahí que hoy en dia son muy utilizados para resolver casos de paternidad disputada, casos de violación y medicina forense. En el caso de plantas es de gran utilidad en la certificación de variedades y semillas, escoger parentales en programas de mejoramiento, estructura genética de poblaciones, estudios de diversidad y variabilidad genética, etc."},{"index":5,"size":157,"text":"El ADN fingerprinting da fenotipos de ADN, no genotipos, en la cual la información sobre los loci y alelas no está disponible. En contraste, minisatélites ya clonados producen patrones de hibridización de ADN específica de locus de la cual la información genotípica puede ser deducida lo que es de crítica importancia para análisis de ligamientos. Cientos de minisatélites clonados han sido aislados ya sea por rastreo de librerías genómicas con clones los cuales detectan locis hip.ervariables o por hibridización de las librerías con oligonucleótidos basados sobre secuencias de minisatelites ya conocidas o por clonación selectiva de fragmentos de ADN en bacteriófagos vectores. Muchos de estos ministatelites clonados han sido localizados en el genoma humano. Ellos se han encontrado sobre cada cromosoma, incluyendo el X y la región de XY. Los minisatelites no se encuentran distribuidos a lo largo del genoma sino preferentemente localizados cerca a los extremos de los cromosomas humanos. (Tomado de Jeffreys and Pena, 1993)"},{"index":6,"size":70,"text":"Además de utilizar los minisatélites para tipificación de DNA, los microsátelites también pueden ser aplicados al ADN fingerprinting. El ADN fringerprinting con oligonucleótidos complementarios a las secuencias cortas tienen vairas ventajas: son más rápidas ya que los pasos de prehibridización pueden ser omitidas. Oligonucleótidos sondas como (CAC05 y (GATA)4 son ahora utilizadas como sondas multilocus, revelando regiones hipervariables en muchos organismos ecucariotes corno animales y vegetales (Epplen, el. al., 1991)."}]},{"head":"BIOINFORMÁ TICA Introducción","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"El desarrollo de las técnicas en Biología Molecular ha permitido generar de una manera mucho más eficaz y rápida una gran cantidad de información. Un ejemplo claro lo constituye la secuenciación de ADN (secuenciación del genoma humano). En los aflos 70s mediante la secuenciación manual, se estimaba que se lograba obtener información a razón de 1500 pb/aflo/persona. Actualmente con la completa automatización de obtención y análisis de datos de secuencia se estima que se logran secuenciar 1'000,000 pb/año/persona. Estos avances producen una elevada cantidad de información, la cual plantea a su vez la necesidad de generar sistemas altamente eficientes para su almacenamiento y manejo Dentro de este contexto surge un nuevo concepto en Biología Molecular que ha tomado un gran auge y desarrollo recientemente, y que une a la Biología Molecular con la Biología Computacional. Es en este momento cuando comenzamos a referirnos a una nueva disciplina conocida como Bioinformática."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"El objetivo fundamental de la Bioinformática es desarrollar estrategias computacionales para:"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• el almacenamiento y depuramiento de la información y • analizar y examinar datos generados."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"La Bioinformática permite, además, en cierta medida resolver preguntas de tipo biológico, relacionadas con la asignación de posibles funciones a regiones codificadoras no caracterizadas. De igual manera, permite entender las interacciones entre los genes y sus productos en las células, y todo esto a la luz de la evolución de las familias de genes dentro y entre especies."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"Con las herramientas que ofrece la Bioinformática, una vez generada una secuencia se puede establecer con que otras secuencias previamente reportadas en una base de datos presenta similitud. También es posible tener acceso a dichas secuencias y con ellas es posible generar un alineamiento que permitirá posteriormente establecer relaciones evolutivas o encontrar regiones conservadas. Todas estas aplicaciones se muestran en el diagrama de flujo y serán desarrolladas en el texto y a manera de ejercicio."}]},{"head":"Bases de datos","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"El GenBank","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Para cumplir con el primer objetivo (almacenamiento y depuración de la información), la Bioinformática ha recurrido al diser'io y desarrollo de bases de datos muy potentes y altamente eficaces."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"El comienzo de las bases de datos computacionales se inició en 1982 con los trabajos de la EMBL (European Molecular Biology Laboratory) la cual posteriormente se unió al GenBank. En ese momento ambos centros contribuían mutuamente en la actividad de ingresar la información, lo cual consistía principalmente en la transcripción de las secuencias publicadas en los artículos a un formato apropiado para ser usado en computador. La base de datos que se creó en Japón (DDBJ DNA Data Base of Japan) se unió poco ar'ios después. En 1988 se reunieron estos tres grupos (EMBL, GenBank y DDBJ) Y unificaron criterios y formatos."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Así, el GenBankGenBank es la base de datos de secuencias genéticas que han sido reportadas y son de dominio público. Estas secuencias son aportadas principalmente por los proyectos de secuenciación a gran escala o por remisión directa de laboratorios individuales."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Existen aproximadamente 2,570,000,000 bases en 3,525,000 reportes de secuencias hasta abril de 1999."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"La base de datos del GenBank es parte de la International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration, la cual comprende las bases de datos de ADN de Japón (DDBJ), y de Europa EMBL), y del GenBank propiamente dicho del NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information). Estas tres organizaciones intercambian información diariamente."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"Los datos del GenBank pueden ser adquiridos a través del sistema integrado de recuperación del NCBI, Entrez."},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"La información generada a través de estos grandes proyectos si bien se ha centrado principalmente en la secuenciación de genomas completos, también ha generado una copiosa información sobre estructura y ubicación de genes y/o secuencias ya identificadas. Esta información ha sido también almacenada en otro tipo de bases de datos."}]},{"head":"Entrez","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Desde un principio se planteó la necesidad de poder obtener información de varias bases de datos de una manera simultánea. De no existir estrategias computacionales que permitiesen establecer una relación coordinada entre estas bases de datos, sería necesario visitar cada una de ellas por separado. La respuesta a esta necesidad se encontró con la generación de un sistema conocido como Entrez, el cual fue desarrollado y es mantenido por el NCBt."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Algunas aplicaciones usando las bases de datos:"},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Alineamiento de secuencias y búsqueda en bases de datos Una de las principales metas de los investigadores es poder establecer el tipo de relación que existe entre dos secuencias. Este tipo de relación puede cubrir dos conceptos: la similitud que es una medida observable y puede ser expresada, como por ejemplo, porcentaje de identidad. Homología, mientras tanto, implica una relación funcional o evolutiva."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"A pesar de que las búsquedas en bases de datos revelan únicamente similitud, es posible que a partir de esta similitud se pueda inferir homología (relación evolutiva) y de allí se podrían establecer algunos principios sobre la función."}]},{"head":"Búsqueda de similitud en bases de datos","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Una vez se ha generado una secuencia de nucleótidos, en algunos casos se desea saber si corresponde a algún gen, o en otros interesa asegurarse de si lo que se ha obtenido corresponde a aquello que se esperaba. La búsqueda de similitud en la base de datos permite determinar con que tipo de secuencias esta potencialmente relacionada una secuencia recién generada."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Al hacer una búsqueda en la base de datos, la operación básica que se realiza es un alineamiento progresivo de la secuencia recién generada (conocida como query) con cada una de las secuencias presentes en la base de datos. Los resultados son reportados como un listado de \"hits\" seguido por una se ríe de alineamientos indivicluales más varios \"scores\" y estadisticas. Dada la gran cantidad de información almacenada en la base de datos se debe tener en cuenta los algoritmos computacionales bien diseñados que permiten desarrollar este tipo de búsquedas a una alta velocidad y de una manera confiable."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"Ejemplo de un algoritmo para usar con las bases de datos: BLAST Para desarrollar los alineamientos se han generado diferentes algoritmos matemáticos, los cuales pueden ser clasificados, basados en el método que emplean, en dos grandes grupos: el de programación dinámica y el heurístico. Dentro de los primeros se encuentran los algoritmos de Needleman-Wunsch y de Smith-Waterman. Estos algoritmos trabajan muy lentamente y por esta razón se han diseñado los algoritmos heurísticos que quizás no son tan finos como los primeros pero que dan resultados muy rápidamente y de buena confiabilidad. Los programas BLAST y FASTA trabajan basados en algoritmos de este tipo."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"El tipo de reporte o salida de computador que aparece después de la búsqueda empleando el programa BLAST es como muestra la Figura 2."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Primero aparece el esquema gráfico: Cada color da una información determinada."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"Color ~ey for Rlign\"en~ Scores Finalmente, de acuerdo a lo anterior se dan los resultados de la búsqueda, permitiendo establecer la relación de similitud de la secuencia problema con porciones de secuencias de organismos depositadas en las bases de datos."}]},{"head":"ALGUNOS SITIOS WEB DE INTERÉS","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"c -' ==~ __ +_=_D=:.E::;F~I~N;I,C:;;::-:,IO=..;• N: . . : -• _-+~--::-_ SITIO we-s--\"--'I -::OC:SC=S-=E::CRVACIO~ CONFINADO. Este término es usado para describir métodos seguros de mantenimiento y control de organismos transgénicos, para este caso cultivo en invernadero. Consiste en minimizar un posible impacto ambiental por el manejo de plantas transgénicas a nivel de este tipo de instalaciones."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"CONTENIDO. Este término es usado para describir métodos seguros de mantenimiento y control de organismos transgénicos en almacenamiento, transporte y laboratorio. Su propósito es minimizar exposiciones innecesarias del hombre o del medio ambiente a organismos que representan un riesgo potencial."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"DIVERSIDAD BIOLÓGICA. Se entiende la variabilidad de organismos vivos de cualquier fuente, incluidos entre otros, los ecosistemas terrestres y marinos y otros ecosistemas acuáticos y los complejos ecológicos de los que forman parte; comprende la diversidad dentro de cada especie, entre las especies y de los ecosistemas."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"ECOSISTEMA. Se entiende un conjunto dinámico de comunidades vegetales, animales y de microorganismos en su medio no viviente que interactúan como una unidad funcional."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"EVALUACiÓN DEL RIESGO. Metodologias para calcular qué daños podrían causarse, con qué probabilidad se presentarían y la escala para estimar su magnitud."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"GEN. Unidad básica hereditaria, que se localiza en los cromosomas de las células y se duplica durante cada división celular: permite la transmisión de los carácteres hereditarios del organismo progenitor a sus descendientes."},{"index":7,"size":67,"text":"GERMOPLASMA. Generalmente se refiere a una muestra de individuos de una población (que puede incluir una o varias especies) y que representan una porción significativa de la variabilidad genética de dicha(s) especies. La variabilidad genética está representada en el material hereditario que contiene dicha muestra y generalmente está almacenada viva (colecciones de microorganismos, células, plantas, semillas, animales vivos, entre otros), crio-conservada (congelada) o como muestras de ADN."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"INGENIERíA GENÉTICA. Técnicas de recombinación de ADN o ARN."},{"index":9,"size":38,"text":"LIBERACiÓN EN EL MEDIO AMBIENTE. El uso de un producto manipulado fuera de los límites de un confinamiento físico normal de un recinto cerrado, laboratorio, invernadero, fermentador o cualquiera otra estructura cerrada bajo las condiciones de bioseguridad establecidas."},{"index":10,"size":22,"text":"MANEJO DEL RIESGO. Medidas tendientes a prevenir la ocurrencia del riesgo y a mitigar los efectos de éste, si llegare a presentarse."}]},{"head":"MATERIAL GENÉTICO.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Se entiende todo material de origen vegetal, animal, microbiano o de otro tipo que contenga unidades funcionales de la herencia."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"ORGANISMO DONANTE. Un organismo del cual el material genético es extraído para ser insertado dentro, o en combinación con otro organismo."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"ORGANISMO RECEPTOR. Un organismo que recibe material genético de un organismo donante, ORGANISMO TRANSGÉNICO, U ORGANISMO MODIFICADO GENÉTICAMENTE POR BIOTECNOLOGiA (OMG): Organismo cuyo material genético (ADN/ARN) ha sido alterado por técnicas de ingeniería genética."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"ORGANISMO. Cualquier forma'viva de los cinco reinos (protista, manera, fungi, vegetal y animal)."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"PLANTA TRANSGÉNICA. Planta cuyo material genético fue transformado por medio de la adición de ADN de una fuente diferente del germoplasma parental, con uso de técnicas de ADN recombinante."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"RIESGO. Combinación entre la magnitud de las consecuencias de una amenaza y la probabilidad de que tales consecuencias se presenten."},{"index":7,"size":96,"text":"SEMICONFINADO. Se refiere a los métodos y prácticas para el manejo seguro de material que esté siendo evaluado en campo con el fin de minimizar el impacto ambiental en el proceso de prueba de materiales transgénicos que tienen posibilidad de comercialización. Se consideran dos niveles: Pruebas a nivel de parcela experimental y pruebas a nivel semicomercial. La evaluación del riesgo en este tipo de pruebas se juzga con un alto componente cualitativo, por lo que es esencial el análisis caso por caso, teniendo en cuenta la experiencia acumulada y la familiaridad con la especie en estudio."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"VECTOR O AGENTE VECTOR. Organismo, material u objeto utilizado para transferir material genético del organismo donador al organismo receptor."},{"index":9,"size":73,"text":"USUARIO. Cualquier persona natural o jurídica, pública, privada o mixta, nacional o extranjera, que realice actividades de introducción, uso, investigación, manejo, liberación al ambiente y comercialización en el territorio nacional de organismos genéticamente modificados, así como de las materias primas y productos derivados de éstas. Cualquier consumidor que compra y/o utiliza un OMG no es un usuario en el sentido de esta regulación a menos que su uso esté sometido a condiciones específicas."},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"TRANSFORMACiÓN GENÉTICA Qué son y para qué sirven las plantas transgénicas?"},{"index":11,"size":76,"text":"Las plantas transgénicas o genéticamente modificadas, y en general todos los organismos transgénicos, son aquellos a los cuales se les ha introducido material genético nuevo (p.e., nuevos genes, nueva información genética), a través de medios no convencionales (sin necesidad de hacer cruzamientos de tipo sexual). Los nuevos genes pueden provenir de individuos de la misma especie o de otras especies, lo cual rompe la barrera de la compatibilidad sexual entre dos organismos para intercambiar información genética."},{"index":12,"size":43,"text":"Se han utilizado básicamente dos mecanismos para obtener transgénicos: 1-La transformación mediada por un vector natural como es la bacteria del suelo Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Figura 3). 2-La transformación mediada por el bombardeo de micropartículas recubiertas con el material genético de interés (Figura 4)."},{"index":13,"size":81,"text":"Ambas figuras muestran que el material genético es introducido en células individuales, de las cuales se puede regenerar un organismo completo que expresa los genes que se la han introducido. Dentro de los genes introducidos generalmente van genes que permiten seleccionar las células que los han recibido. En el caso de las plantas, la nueva tendencia es usar genes que le permiten a las células alimentarse de azúcares que no utiliza en condiciones naturales (por ejemplo, manosa en vez de sacarosa)."},{"index":14,"size":13,"text":"Dependiendo del gen introducido, así mismo es la utilidad de la planta transgénica."},{"index":15,"size":25,"text":"Por ejemplo, la mayoría de las plantas transgénicas comercializadas hoy contienen genes de resistencia a herbicidas y a plagas (virus, insectos, y bacterias entre otros)."},{"index":16,"size":71,"text":"Estas características pueden ser útiles para el agricultor, el productor de semillas, e indirectamente el consumidor, por el menor uso de pesticidas para controlar plagas, que igualmente beneficiaría al medio ambiente. Si el gen introducido mejora la calidad nutritiva de la planta y sus derivados comestibles (raices, frutos, hojas, etc), el beneficiario directo seria el consumidor. El caso más reciente es el del arroz con alto contenido de Vitamina A ."},{"index":17,"size":45,"text":"En el CIAT se han desarrollado plantas transgénicas con resistencia a virus (arroz) y a herbicida (yuca, pastos tropicales), y actualmente se trabaja en la introducción de resistencia a insectos (en yuca). Existen también plantas transgénicas de frijol (P. acutifolius) con genes marcadores de selección. "}]},{"head":"SISTEMA DE PROPAGACiÓN IN VITRO DE LA YUCA","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"La falta de tecnologías para la producción de material de siembra en cantidad suficiente y bajo condiciones sanitarias óptimas, se ha convertido en un obstáculo para el desarrollo a escala comercial del cultivo de la yuca en Colombia."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"La Unidad de Biotecnología, del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical CIAT, está desarrollando dos sistema de propagación de material de siembra con el objetivo de suplir la demanda a diferentes escalas y usuarios: para pequeños y medianos productores, usando el esquema de investigación partícipativa (bajo la financiación del PRGA) y para grandes productores mediante el sistema de bioreactores (®RITA) (bajo financiación de PBA-DGIS-Holanda)."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"El sistema-para pequeños productores cuenta con un sistema de bajo costo en insumas (por ejemplo, azúcar de mesa, enraizadores comerciales, jugos de frutas, entre otros) y equipos sencillos (por ejemplo, jeringas, cucharas, olla a presión, cámaras de plástico) que permite obtener la misma tasa de multiplicación a la lograda en un laboratorio convencional (1:3-4). Este esquema se desarrolló en conjunto con un grupo de mujeres campesinas ubicadas en Santa Ana, Cauca."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Actualmente se está tratando de estabilizar el laboratorio de bajo costo como un sistema que pueda integrar varios cultivos (por ejemplo, plátano, mora y algún ornamental) que les permita a los agricultores tener un esquema productivo de plantas (para comercializar) que mejore sus ingresos. El objetivo final del proyecto es establecer un mecanismo para crear una microempresa rural que genere el material de siembra para un grupo de usuarios."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Este trabajo mostró que es posible producir material in vitro (en tubos de ensayo) de yuca en sistemas no controlados, con insumas locales y que el campesino mismo puede producir su material de siembra lo cual disminuye los costos (fig 1)."},{"index":6,"size":153,"text":"El proyecto de propagación masiva usando sistemas de bioreactores ®RITA busca escalar el proceso y aumentar el ingreso de' los agricultores de la Costa Norte de Colombia a través del desarrollo de programas de producción de semilla de yuca de alta calidad fitosanitaria y genética. Este equipo diseñado por el grupo de investigación de CIRAD-Francia, se basa en el sistema de inmersión temporal, el cual ha sido usado con éxito en sistemas de embriogénesis somática de café (Berthouly, 1991), banano (Alvard et al 1993), caucho (Etienne et al 1993) y caña de azucar (Lorenzo etal 1998) entre otros. El grupo de trabajo de la Unidad de Biotecnologia ha implementado, o está implementando, el sistema de propagación en diferentes cultivos como yuca, lulo, tomate de árbol y ñame (usando nudos trozos de tallo con yemas). También lo está utilizando para la producción de tejidos embriogénicos en yuca, arroz (de anteras) y el pasto Brachíaria."},{"index":7,"size":47,"text":"Este sistema consiste en que los tejidos reciban alternadamente nutrientes y hormonas del medio de cultivo y un flujo de oxigeno durante el cultivo. Esto permite el crecimiento acelerado de tallos y hojas, lo cual prolifera un gran número de yemas para el siguiente ciclo de propagación."},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"Figura 1: Grupo de Mujeres de Santa Ana, Cauca recibiendo capacitación en propagación in vitro de yuca. Actualmente en esta zona se encuentra funcionando un laboratorio de bajo costo operado por 11 mujeres."},{"index":9,"size":80,"text":"Los datos preliminares han mostrado que la tasa de multiplicación en este esquema se puede aumentar entre 1:6 -1: 1 O veces lo cual representa aproximadamente el doble de la tasa convencional en medio sólido. Este sistema se esta probando con diez clones (MCo! 2215, MCol 1505, MTai 8, MEcu 72, CM 3306-4, CM 4574-7, CM 523-7, MBra 383, MBra 507, MCub 74) importantes para la Costa Norte y diferentes zonas productivas de yuca en Colombia (Escobar et al 200)."},{"index":10,"size":31,"text":"Actualmente estamos ajustando la metodología en pro de aumentar la eficiencia en la tasa de propagación, disminuir el tiempo entre ciclos y poder generar un sistema de bioreactores a bajo costo. "}]},{"head":".-J","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Figura 2: Sistema de funcionamiento de bioreactor RITA. Fase 1: Fase inicial del ciclo."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Fase 2: El período de rnmersion se activa, abre la valvula que permite el paso del aire a través del filtro O.2jJM y el medio sube y entra en contacto con el tejido, Fase 3: recambio de aire dentro del RITA, Fase 4: El ciclo termina, la valvula se cierra yel medio desciende hasta un nuevo ciclo."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" . . . , _ ........ ~.,.. ...... . . , _ ..... ~~.,.. ...... . . , _ ........ _ las búsquedas son acompañados de estadísticos. gblJ041031MUSETS2 Mouse erythroblastosis virus oncogene homolog ... 989 0,0 gbIJ04102IHUMETS2A Human erythroblastosis virus oncogene homolo ... 301 6e-SO gbIAF057716IAF057716 Ovis aries transcription factor Ets-2 mRNA ... "},{"text":"Librería de cONA mtAON Oligonucleotido Pb PCR Plásmido rDNA RFLP Sonda Taq polimerasa  GLOSARIO DE ALGUNOS TÉRMINOS USADOS EN BIOLOGíA MOLECULAR Librería de AON Una colección representativa de fragmentos de AON genómicos clonados (ver librería genómica) GLOSARIO SOBRE BIOSEGURIDAD y ORGANISMOS MODIFICADOS GLOSARIO DE ALGUNOS TÉRMINOS USADOS EN BIOLOGíA MOLECULAR Librería de AON Una colección representativa de fragmentos de AON genómicos clonados (ver librería genómica) GLOSARIO SOBRE BIOSEGURIDAD y ORGANISMOS MODIFICADOS : EMBL ADN de copia única European Molecular Secuencia de ADN la cual esta presente una vez por GENÉTICAMENTE Una colección representativa de fragmentos de ARN http://www.ebLac.uk/I'Homepage.11 B' I L b t i , genoma haploide mensajeros clonados 10 ogy a ora ory I GenBank (Natíonal center tor I http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov I i Entrez Biotechnology Information) . , I http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Entrezl Permite obtener ADN repetitivo Secuencias de ADN las cuales están representadas por AON mitocondrial ACCIDENTE. Cualquier incidente que suponga una liberación de organismos más de una copia por genoma haploide. también llamado Fragmento corto de ADN de cadena única (usualmente de modificados genéticamente durante su utilización contenida o confinada y que presente ADN de copia múltiple 10-30 bases) frecuentemente usado como cebador para o pueda presentar un peligro inmediato o diferido para la salud humana o para el medio : EMBL ADN de copia única European Molecular Secuencia de ADN la cual esta presente una vez por GENÉTICAMENTE Una colección representativa de fragmentos de ARN http://www.ebLac.uk/I'Homepage.11 B' I L b t i , genoma haploide mensajeros clonados 10 ogy a ora ory I GenBank (Natíonal center tor I http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov I i Entrez Biotechnology Information) . , I http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Entrezl Permite obtener ADN repetitivo Secuencias de ADN las cuales están representadas por AON mitocondrial ACCIDENTE. Cualquier incidente que suponga una liberación de organismos más de una copia por genoma haploide. también llamado Fragmento corto de ADN de cadena única (usualmente de modificados genéticamente durante su utilización contenida o confinada y que presente ADN de copia múltiple 10-30 bases) frecuentemente usado como cebador para o pueda presentar un peligro inmediato o diferido para la salud humana o para el medio ADN polimerasa ambiente. información de la Enzima la cual cata liza la replicación de ADN usando secuencia ció n de ADN o PCR ADN polimerasa ambiente.información de la Enzima la cual cata liza la replicación de ADN usando secuencia ció n de ADN o PCR Alelo , base de datos del GenBank, de i publicaciones, etc. Forma alternativa de un gen para un locus en particular como molde ADN de cadena única Par de bases i Reacción en cadena de la pOlimerasa, un poderoso Alelo,base de datos del GenBank, de i publicaciones, etc. Forma alternativa de un gen para un locus en particular como molde ADN de cadena única Par de bases i Reacción en cadena de la pOlimerasa, un poderoso BLAST CONA L ' Basic Local Aligment Search Tool método usado para amplificación in vitro de ADN a partir ' http://ncbLnlm.nih.gov/BLAST/ I Búsqueda de I .. \"ADN copia\" producido por transcripción reversa de ARN de ciclos repetidos de cebadores dirigidos para la síntesis , similitud mensajero (mRNA) por una transcriptasa reversa de una secuencia blanco usando una ADN polimerasa I BLAST CONAL ' Basic Local Aligment Search Tool método usado para amplificación in vitro de ADN a partir ' http://ncbLnlm.nih.gov/BLAST/ I Búsqueda de I .. \"ADN copia\" producido por transcripción reversa de ARN de ciclos repetidos de cebadores dirigidos para la síntesis , similitud mensajero (mRNA) por una transcriptasa reversa de una secuencia blanco usando una ADN polimerasaI ClustalW ClustalX Cebador Clonación Desoxirribonucleasa Programa de alineamiento ver Oligonucleótido _ http://www2.ebi.ac.uk/clustalw/ estable al calor Un elemento extracromosomal dentro de la célula Permite realizar alineamiento múltiple de secuencias de ADN de aminoacidos1' Interfase gráfica de Se refiere al aislamiento de una línea celular en particular bacteriana el cual es usualmente capaz de replicarse en conteniendo un fragmento de ADN deseado Enzima que degrada ADN forma autónoma, Puede ser usado como vector para clonación de fragmentos de AON heterólogos. I ftp:/lftp-Igbmc. ustrasbg. fr/pub/ClustalX ClustalW Distancia: medida matemática de diferencia entre 2 L __ I unidades taxonómicas AON ribosomal el cual contiene los genes codíficantes ClustalW ClustalX Cebador Clonación Desoxirribonucleasa Programa de alineamiento ver Oligonucleótido _ http://www2.ebi.ac.uk/clustalw/ estable al calor Un elemento extracromosomal dentro de la célula Permite realizar alineamiento múltiple de secuencias de ADN de aminoacidos1' Interfase gráfica de Se refiere al aislamiento de una línea celular en particular bacteriana el cual es usualmente capaz de replicarse en conteniendo un fragmento de ADN deseado Enzima que degrada ADN forma autónoma, Puede ser usado como vector para clonación de fragmentos de AON heterólogos. I ftp:/lftp-Igbmc. ustrasbg. fr/pub/ClustalX ClustalW Distancia: medida matemática de diferencia entre 2 L __ I unidades taxonómicas AON ribosomal el cual contiene los genes codíficantes Electroforésis Separación de moléculas en un campo eléctrico para ARN ribosomal maduro (17S, 5,8S, y 5S y 25S) ElectroforésisSeparación de moléculas en un campo eléctrico para ARN ribosomal maduro (17S, 5,8S, y 5S y 25S) Endonucleasa de restricción Polimorfismo en las longitudes de los fragmentos de Enzima la cual corta ADN. Más comúnmente conocida como enzima de restricción tipo 11, la cual corta el ADN en restricción Endonucleasa de restricciónPolimorfismo en las longitudes de los fragmentos de Enzima la cual corta ADN. Más comúnmente conocida como enzima de restricción tipo 11, la cual corta el ADN en restricción   un sito específico (secuencia de 4-8 nucleótidos) Fragmento de AON (o ARN) marcado radioactívamente o un sito específico (secuencia de 4-8 nucleótidos) Fragmento de AON (o ARN) marcado radioactívamente o   no; usado en hibridización de AON no; usado en hibridización de AON Fenotipo  Propiedades observados de un caracter o grupo el cual AON polimerasa termoestable proveniente de la bacteria son los productos de su base genética modificados por el medio ambiente y otros factores epigenéticos (ver acuática Thermus acuaticus FenotipoPropiedades observados de un caracter o grupo el cual AON polimerasa termoestable proveniente de la bacteria son los productos de su base genética modificados por el medio ambiente y otros factores epigenéticos (ver acuática Thermus acuaticus   genotipo, plasticidad fenotípica) genotipo, plasticidad fenotípica) Genoma  Dotación de información genética propia de cada especie , GenomaDotación de información genética propia de cada especie , Genotipo  Código genético el cual determinada propiedades de un GenotipoCódigo genético el cual determinada propiedades de un   caracter o grupo (ver fenotipo) caracter o grupo (ver fenotipo) Huellas digitales de Complejo de bandas electroforéticas producidas por Huellas digitales deComplejo de bandas electroforéticas producidas por ADN  numerosos \"Ioei\" polimórfieos sobre un gel en particular, ADNnumerosos \"Ioei\" polimórfieos sobre un gel en particular,   como resultado del análisis de restricción con sondas de como resultado del análisis de restricción con sondas de   ADN repetitivas ADN repetitivas  "},{"text":" tener los organismos transgénicos y sus derivados en el ambiente y la salud humana. Por ser una tecnología \"nueva\", con gran potencial para mejorar el bienestar del hombre, deben tomarse precauciones para minimizar los efectos no deseados. Figura 3. Figura 3. Esquema del Esquema del proceso de proceso de transformación transformación genética genética mediada por mediada por Agrobacterium. Agrobacterium. Fuente: Fuente: MundoCientífico MundoCientífico (1999). (1999). Figura 4. Figura 4. Esquema de la Esquema de la transformación transformación genética genética mediada por mediada por bombardeo de bombardeo de micropartículas. . micropartículas. . Fuente: Mun<!.~, Científico (19~ I Fuente: Mun<!.~, Científico (19~ I También se está colaborando con También se está colaborando con instituciones como la Universidad Nacional, CENICANA y CORPOICA para aplicar esta instituciones como la Universidad Nacional, CENICANA y CORPOICA para aplicar esta tecnología en tomate, frutales y caña de azucar. tecnología en tomate, frutales y caña de azucar.  "}],"sieverID":"575a23ec-6480-4835-800a-49721909ec9d","abstract":""}

data/part_3/046094ff5cb60bf40f1c0eecdb45fdb0.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"046094ff5cb60bf40f1c0eecdb45fdb0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1325/2750.pdf"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Scophthalmus Rafinesque, 1810: The valid generic name for the turbot, S. maximus (Linnaeus, 1758) [Pleuronectiformes: Scophthalmidae] by","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"(1) The WorldFish Center, Aquatic Biodiversity Informatics Office, Khush Hall, IRRI, College, Los Baños, Laguna 4031, PHILIPPINeS."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"[[email protected]] (2) MNHN, USM 603, CP 26, Département de systématique et évolution, 57 rue Cuvier 75231 Paris cedex 05, FraNCe."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"[[email protected]] * Corresponding author the turbot, Scophthalmus maximus (linnaeus, 1758), is an important commercial and highly esteemed species dating back to antiquity (Chanet, 2003). Consequently, we might imagine that the taxonomy and nomenclature of this species are both clear and stable. Unfortunately, this is not the case as there has been a long history of confusion and controversy regarding the valid genus name for the turbot, the main topic of this paper, and also regarding the existence of one or two species. in the past 50 years and up to the present days of ichthyological popular and scientific literature, the scientific species name used for the turbot is either Scophthalmus maximus (linnaeus, 1758) or Psetta maxima (linnaeus, 1758), more or less indistinctly (the original combination is Pleuronectes maximus linnaeus, 1758). the confusion/ controversy regarding the valid generic name for this species persists to this day although Norman (1931) thoroughly discussed the nomenclature of Scophthalmus Rafinesque, 1810 and Psetta Swainson, 1839, and concluded that Scophthalmus is the valid generic name for the turbot."},{"index":4,"size":142,"text":"the choice of Psetta in major check-lists, ichthyofaunas and FAO (e.g., Nielsen 1973Nielsen , 1986;;FAO, 2009), as well as in recent national check-lists or red lists (e.g., Plikss, 2002;evseenko, 2003;Bicelenoglou et al., 2005;Fricke, 2007;Fricke et al., 2007;Plejic, 2007;Dhora, 2010) resulted in the selection of Psetta maxima as the current accepted name in the two major global fish databases (eschmeyer and Fricke, 2010;Froese and Pauly, 2010), and thus disseminated to other global catalogues (Bailly, 2009;Bisby et al., 2009, in press), although Bailly (2001) selected Scophthalmus for the european Register of Marine Species (eRMS), and by other authors (Ojaveer et al., 2003;Riede, 2004;Azevedo et al., 2007). all these works did not incur new taxonomic investigations, although the latter give information on genetics. Nelson (2006) almost alone did retain explicitly the conclusion of Chanet (2003) in the 4 th edition of Fishes of the World."},{"index":5,"size":234,"text":"the findings presented in a recent (and the only) phylogenetic analysis of all the species of the scophthalmid flatfishes (Chanet, 2003) do not provide resolution to the question of generic placement of the turbot. after a strict cladistic analysis on morphological and anatomical features, Chanet (2003) found that Scophthalmus maximus belonged to a clade that also included S. rhombus (linnaeus, 1758) and S. aquosus (Mitchill, 1815) with the two latter species being more closely related than with S. maximus. S. rhombus and S. aquosus differ from the turbot in having: i) deeply branched anteriormost dorsal-fin rays, ii) rudimentary epural 2, iii) convex shape of the cranium in orbital region, iv) a patch of vomerine teeth. although these synapomorphies undoubtedly support the proposed phylogeny, Chanet concluded they are not sufficient to support recognition of different generic names for the two clades. instead, he recommended that only one genus name be used for these three species. Recognizing the monophyly of this 3-species clade within the Scophthalmidae emphasises the large amount of shared characters common to these species, whereas, recognizing two genera among this 3-species clade would emphasize the monophyly of the rhombus-aquosus clade but would de-emphasise the close relationship of the three species indicated by the characters they share in common. however, based on the topology of the cladogram, Chanet did not conclude unequivocally whether Scophthalmus or Psetta is the appropriate generic name for the turbot."},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"today, we still have the situation where two generic names are in use to convey information regarding a single species. From a nomenclatural perspective and also from the practical standpoint of information storage and retrieval regarding knowledge about this species, continued use of two generic names for the turbot is confusing, inefficient and unacceptable. Furthermore, it may also diminish possibilities for future researchers unaware of this nomenclatural confusion to make the most meaningful choices when constructing comparative studies among the scophthalmid flatfishes."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"to reconcile this situation, we provide several lines of evidence based on morphological information from Chanet's phylogenetic study (2003), other morphological characters and genetic information not used in his cladistic analysis, as well as information on the biology, life history and ecologies of the turbot and closely related species to effectively argue for accepting Scophthalmus as the valid genus name for the turbot. as the two genus names are still in use in the recent literature, we bring here more arguments to follow the conclusions of Chanet (2003)."}]},{"head":"MATERIAL AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Three Biodiversity Information Systems were searched early February 2010 to get updated information, references and number of uses of the two names in the literature: Catalog of Fishes (eschmeyer, 2010); FishBase (Froese and Pauly, 2010); Biodiversity Heritage Library (2010). The two formers extracted information mostly from references after 1950, whereas the latter handles publications before 1925."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"the Catalog of Fishes can be checked for information on types and nomenclatural issues."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"in FishBase, on 135 systematic citations of the species (excluding the fish collection databases), 39 use Scophthalmus maximus from 1957 to 2007 and 84 use Psetta maxima 1964 to 2010. The frequency of use does not show differences along the years. the remaining are mentions of misidentifications and of the original name, Pleuronectes maximus linnaeus, 1758."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"None of the two names could be object of a petition to the international Commission of Zoological Nomenclature on the basis of usage."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"in the Biodiversity heritage library, in FishBase, on 93 citations of the, 38 use Scophthalmus maximus and 55 use Psetta maxima (or P. maximus)."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"the use of one or the other name does not seem to be linked to particular type of publications."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Scophthalmus maximus and S. maeoticus","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":700,"text":"Presently, depending upon authors, three or four nominal species of scophthalmids are assigned to either Scophthalmus Rafinesque, 1810 or Psetta Swainson, 1839: the turbot, Scophthalmus maximus (l., 1758) or Psetta maxima (l., 1758); the brill, S. rhombus (l., 1758), the type species of Scophthalmus designated by Jordan (1917: 82); the Black Sea turbot, S. maeoticus (Pallas, 1814) or P. maeotica (Pallas, 1814), often considered a synonym of the previous species; and the windowpane, S. aquosus (Mitchill, 1815). Norman (1931: 513) assigned all four of these nominal species to Scophthalmus. From Norman's studies (1931,1934) until Chanet (2003), there have been no detailed systematic works (i.e., based on detailed study of specimens) that evaluated the status of the nominal genera, Scophthalmus and Psetta. Some synthetic works, such as regional ichthyofaunas (e.g., Nielsen, 1986;Bilecenoglu et al., 2002), report diagnostic characters -such as the presence/absence of bony tubercles -purported to distinguish the two genera. But how informative of genetic distinctness is the presence/absence of bony tubercles in turbots? the distinction between the two nominal turbot species (S. maximus and S. maeoticus) is based solely on the presence and size of bony tubercles (Tortonese, 1971;Chanet, 2003). these tubercles are transformed elasmoid scales (Zylberberg et al., 2003). in S. maximus, these structures are present only on the eyed-side of the body and are smaller than the diameter of the eye, while, in S. maeoticus, they occur on both sides of the body and are larger than the eye diameter (tortonese, 1971). Chanet (2003) reviewed both literature and specimens, and found that individuals with large tubercles on both sides of the body are not rare, and are not limited to the Black Sea. For instance, several turbots were collected in the Baltic Sea that had Black Sea-like tubercles. Based on morphological data, Chanet (2003) tentatively concluded that S. maximus and S. maeoticus are conspecific, with S. maximus being the senior available name for this species. he further concluded that this problem should be addressed using molecular techniques (mitochondrial or microsatellite DNA). Suzuki et al. (2004) published an analysis of mitochondrial DNA with 66 turbot specimens sampled in the Atlantic Ocean, western Mediterranean Sea, Aegean Sea, Sea of Marmara, Black Sea off Turkey and Romania, and Azov Sea. Nielsen et al. (2004) studied eight microsatellite loci in 706 turbot specimens collected from the Bay of Biscay to the Baltic Sea. In both works the genetic divergence within these populations was found to be low and was considered by these authors to represent only intraspecific differences. Most importantly, genetic differences were not related to the presence or size of tubercles because specimens =with large tubercles on both sides of their bodies occurring in the same geographic area were not closely related (Suzuki et al., 2004). Therefore, findings from morphological (Chanet, 2003) and genetic studies (Suzuki et al., 2004;Nielsen et al., 2004) are in agreement that the variation in body tubercles is not a suitable feature to define natural groups within turbots and support that only a single species of turbot is present among specimens with or without tubercles of varying sizes. Azevedo et al. (2008) conducted a phylogenetic analysis of the order Pleuronectiformes based on sequences of 12S and 16S mitochondrial genes where four scophthalmid species (Lepidorhombus wiffiagonis, S. maximus, S. aquosus and S. rhombus)) were included. these authors confirm the monophylies of the family Scophthalmidae and the genus Scophthalmus. Further, in the consensus maximum-parsimony tree of Azevedo et al. (2008: 288, fig. 2) and in the consensus tree produced by a Bayesian analysis of Azevedo et al. (2008: 288, fig. 3) S. maximus is more closely related to S. aquosus than to S. rhombus, contradicting the results of Chanet (2003), where S. rhombus and S. aquosus were closely related. But, in the consensus tree produced by a maximum likelihood analysis of Azevedo et al. (2008: 289, fig. 4) S. maximus and S. rhombus appear as sister-groups. however, these discrepancies on terminal branches between the analyses do not modify the problem of generic name of the turbot and are probably linked to sampling bias (Azevedo et al., 2008, only studied half of the species of the family) and to the doubtful interest of the studied genes for interspecific relationships."}]},{"head":"Nomenclatural history","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":346,"text":"As for the many european teleostean species, scientific nomenclature for the turbot begins with Linnaeus (1758: 271) when he named this species Pleuronectes maximus. For Linnaeus (1758Linnaeus ( , 1766)), Pleuronectes is a genus containing all of the then known species of flatfishes, which includes 16 species described in 1758 plus two more in 1766. Rafinesque (1810: 14) created the genus Scophthalmus, to which he assigned both Pl. maximus and Pl. rhombus (linnaeus, 1758). Later, Cuvier (1817: 222) assigned both species to Rhombus, but, as Norman (1931: 511) noted, this assignment was unnecessary because Scophthalmus had priority over Rhombus. Subsequent to Cuvier's studies, Swainson (1839: 302) created the genus Psetta, with the type species (by monotypy) being the turbot, Psetta maximus (species name later corrected to Psetta maxima by Bonaparte (1846: 49) to agree in gender). Unfortunately, Swainson did not mention the brill, Scophthalmus rhombus (linnaeus, 1758) in his study. therefore, two generic names have been available for the turbot since 1839, Scophthalmus and Psetta. Norman's studies (1931,1934) placed Psetta in the synonymy of Scophthalmus. however, as pointed out by Norman (1931), Psetta is an available and valid genus name for Pleuronectes maximus because although Psetta was first published by Klein in 1775 for an acanthuridae, the work did not conform to the principle of binominal nomenclature and the name is not available from that author (see eschmeyer and Fricke, 2010 for further details). Norman's conclusion to recognize only one genus for the turbot has not been universally accepted by subsequent researchers. Cotte (1944) analyzes that \"psetta\" was a fish name used by Greek (aristotle,…) and roman (Plinius, Oppien, atheneus,…) authors during antiquity. he made an attempt to link the name used at that time and the species as we circumscribe them today. he gave strong evidences to link \"rhombus\" to the brill, but he was less successful with \"psetta\" that he also links to the brill. Our guess is that the name was used for both species. Nevertheless, these pre-linnean works have no influence on the nomenclature according to the international Code of Zoological Nomenclature."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"in addition to close relationship as indicated in the cladogram presented in Chanet (2003) and in Azevedo et al. (2008), the three species also show a high similarity with respect to their morphology, biology and ecology. they differ from other scophthalmid species by being large, epibenthic and stenohaline species (Able and Fahay, 1988;Nielsen, 1986;Morse and Able, 1995;Quéro and Vayne, 1997;Person-Le Ruyet, 2000;Bond and Lyczwoski-Schultz, 2006;Chanet and Branellec, 2008)."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Systematics deals with communication of all information on living organisms on earth. This field of study aims at discovering, synthesising and organising all of what we may know about individuals we observe (Systematics Agenda 2000, 1994), so that we are able to speak about their morphological features, biological and ecological characteristics in a synthetic and simplified manner (hence the grouping of individuals in species, species in genera, genera in families, etc.). For such a purpose, and as its fundamental framework, systematics uses the result of taxonomy that delivers both a phylogenetic/classification backbone and scientific names. These scientific names are used as the gateways for indexing and retrieving all information. Scientific names are the access points to communicate, through oral discussions, printed documents, and more recently, electronic medias, especially database-and web-based Biodiversity information Systems, about species and other taxa. Scientific nomenclature should convey the best available information concerning the evolutionary relationships of the taxa under discussion. at the same time, keeping the nomenclature as simple or as uncomplicated as possible should also be a goal for every taxonomist."},{"index":2,"size":261,"text":"Situations, such as the present one, where two generic names are available for a species, are unacceptable. Duplicity of generic assignment of any species is counterproductive to the goals of nomenclature and creates an inefficient and confusing situation concerning information storage and retrieval regarding that species. Determining whether or not Scophthalmus or Psetta is the valid genus name for the turbot, requires the analysis of a variety of morphological and biological data, as well as conformation to the rules for scientific nomenclature. The preponderance of evidence evaluated indicates close relationship among three scophthalmid species, S. aquosus, S. rhombus and S. maximus (with S. maeoticus being a junior synonym of the later). acceptance of Scophthalmus as the valid genus name for the turbot, as assessed by Norman (1931), thereby relegating Psetta as a junior synonym of Scophthalmus, conveys the best information regarding the relationship of this species to the other Scophthalmidae, and synthesizes in the best way the shared morphological, anatomical, biological and ecological traits of the three species compared to the other species in the family. Furthermore, in adopting Scophthalmus as the valid genus name for this taxon eliminates any further confusion resulting from the use of two generic names for this species, and to that end will help stabilize and simplify nomenclature within the Scophthalmidae. Recognizing the turbot as a member of Scophthalmus best reflects our information regarding the relationships of this species among the Scophthalmidae, provides a measured step towards stabilizing the nomenclature of this species, and improves the practical aspects of information storage and retrieval for this species."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"bb0aa436-289c-452f-8650-3a0b8e4b9e97","abstract":"past 50 years, the turbot is referred to either as Scophthalmus maximus (linnaeus, 1758)  or Psetta maxima (linnaeus, 1758)  in the literature. Norman (1931) had argued that the valid name for the turbot was Scophthalmus maximus. however, his recommendation was never universally accepted, and today the confusing situation exists where two generic names are still being used for this species. We address this issue by analysing findings from recently published works on the anatomy, molecular and morphological phylogenetic systematics, and ecology of scophthalmid fishes. The preponderance of evidence supports the strong recommendation to use Scophthalmus as the valid generic name for the turbot. acceptance of this generic name conveys the best information available concerning the systematic relationships of this species, and also serves to simplify the nomenclature of scophthalmid flatfishes in publications on systematics, fisheries and aquaculture, fishery statistics, ichthyofaunal and field guides for the general public, and in various legal and conservation-related documents. this paper reinforces the conclusions of Chanet ( 2003) with more arguments.RÉSUMÉ. -Scophthalmus Rafinesque, 1810: le nom de genre valide du turbot, S. maximus (linnaeus, 1758) (Pleuronectiformes: Scophthalmidae).Depuis 50 ans, le turbot est dénommé dans la littérature soit Scophthalmus maximus (linnaeus, 1758), soit Psetta maxima (linnaeus, 1758). Norman (1931) avait montré que le nom valide pour le turbot était Scophthalmus maximus. Cependant, sa recommandation ne fut jamais universellement appliquée, et aujourd'hui la situation reste confuse avec deux noms génériques en usage pour cette espèce. Nous résolvons ici ce problème par l'analyse de travaux récents (morphologiques, anatomiques, moléculaires et écologiques) portant sur la systématique des Scophthalmidae. L'ensemble des données disponibles amène à considérer que Scophthalmus est le nom de genre valide pour le turbot. accepter ce nom de genre revient non seulement à véhiculer la meilleure information en terme de relations de parenté entre espèces, mais aussi à simplifier la nomenclature des Scophthalmidae dans les publications traitant de systématique, d'halieutique, d'aquaculture, d'écologie, dans les guides pour le grand public et les documents législatifs. le présent travail renforce les conclusions de Chanet (2003) en apportant des arguments supplémentaires."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"051cf30595d1d034f1ad53a473cc8f1c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/57f71ba0-f96d-4e13-a5c4-e831d00583b2/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Analysis of marketing systems on traditional bananas and plantains in Peru","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Conclusions Transaction costs (TC) in the banana and plantain sector","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The role of traditional Musa for small producers •100% have a mixed cropping system: 82% coffee + Musas and the other 18% citrus + Musas •Six different varieties are produced • Musas are consumed by the household • 88% answered that Musas are important because they are constant income to maintain the household •For 77% of the producers, income from Musa amounts to less than 25% of the income from crops and are secondary crop, and for 23% it is more than 25%"}]},{"head":"Value chain analysis of Musa","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Linear regression analysis on the household`s profit","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"•The monthly sale of Musa contributes to maintain the household`s income between the annual harvest of the main crop •Transaction costs in the Musa Peruvian VC differ depending on the level of the chain •Selling in the long distance chain (VCP) is more profitable for farmers •Producers `profits decrease with poor road infrastructure and a small number of buyers visiting the communities •A long term relationship between producer and buyer results in lower profits since farmers trade-off prices for a secure sale •Higher profits are obtained by producers that are paid right after the transaction"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Introduction•Figure 1 : Figure 1: Value chains map of traditionally produced Musas "}],"sieverID":"2f01a72d-2c8a-472d-99ed-6fd7e3b42444","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0525a8b37bfa0c40c0c2ab1ea3a0bda2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0525a8b37bfa0c40c0c2ab1ea3a0bda2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8dad92bd-a290-45e1-bdcb-3efe04c6f8b9/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Genomic Surveillance of the Rift Valley fever: from Sequencing to Lineage assignment","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus is a re-emerging zoonotic disease of arboviral origin, and belonging to the Bunyaviridae family [1]. The evolutionary history of Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is complex and has been greatly influenced by dramatic changes to environment throughout Africa in the past 150 years. Over this time period, RVFV gene flow has been impacted on various levels such as geographic dispersal and reassortment events. Overall, there are 15 lineages, designated from A to O [2]. On numerous occasions, viruses from these lineages have been transported outside enzootic regions through movement of infected animals and/or mosquitoes. This has led to large outbreaks in countries where the disease had not been previously reported. Genomic surveillance of the virus diversity is crucial in developing intervention strategies. To undertake genomic surveillance of the virus, we sought: 1. To reliably classify and assign Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) sequences to lineages. 2. To genetically characterize RVFV isolates through whole genome sequencing.   "}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Query","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"LineageaLRT UFboot Segment Length Identity(%) "}]},{"head":"One Health Relevance","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"We generated complete genomic sequences of 5 Rift valley fever virus isolates from outbreak samples in Kenya. The isolates used were all vertebrate host (Bos taurus). These sequences will enrich genetic characterization of the virus by allowing phylogenetic inference between known and newly sequenced strains. We developed a command line pipeline and a user-friendly Rift Valley fever virus typing tool with the aim of rapidly characterizing RVF genomic sequences. This is useful in tracing the origin of outbreaks and supporting surveillance efforts."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Lineage assignment process. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: The web interface offers a portal for users to perform classification and visualize the results "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: RVFV genome coverage versus cycle threshold values, Reads coverage and Maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree Successfully recovered 99% viral consensus sequences. Query sequence, DVS-321, clusters in lineage C clade. "}],"sieverID":"7dea0418-e166-4b7e-91ea-66a903c13f8f","abstract":""}

data/part_3/057264b75922f6d0cd31bfd5ab4e3f45.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"057264b75922f6d0cd31bfd5ab4e3f45","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2d8844f9-e678-43da-bb81-739437d9808f/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Local Governance in Anticipatory Action and Crisis Response A New Study in Mali","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"In fragile contexts, where high quality national statistics may be missing or out of date and where crises are often compound, overlapping, and fast-moving, there are strong pragmatic and legitimacy-based reasons to involve local actors in decision-making around aid distribution. Local-level decision-making involves actors with higher-quality information about local needs and priorities (Alderman, 2002). When crises are still ongoing, outside actors may be unable to safely access communities without engaging with local brokers to reach individuals in need. Empowering local decision-making can also be motivated by a long-term desire to strengthen (or at least not further undermine) local institutions that have been weakened by conflict and crisis."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"While some recent studies have been pessimistic about the potential for community-driven decisionmaking around aid to strengthen institutions (Casey, 2018; Humphreys, Sanchez de la Sierra, and van der Windt, 2019), Samii (2023) argues that locally-driven approaches should be viewed as a \"remarkable success\" at other goals like delivering community infrastructure amid severe need and weak institutional capacity and adapting to serve new community needs over time-especially when compared to the limited set of options that donors face in fragile contexts. Greater local involvement in understanding the process of aid distribution can also improve legitimacy; for example, information-sharing community meetings held around deployment of a community-based conditional cash transfer program built trust in elected leaders in Tanzania (Evans et al., 2019). The opportunity to choose development projects through local, direction elections in Indonesia resulted in higher satisfaction with projects and greater perceived benefits and legitimacy of development aid (Olken, 2010)."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Yet, tradeoffs around localized decision-making over aid distribution may work differently for humanitarian aid and anticipatory action (AA) in fragile contexts. In community-driven development projects, there can be scope and timing to form local committees to oversee a development project, to ensure gender inclusion on those committees, and to allow communities time and scope to develop fair and legitimate ways of making decisions before projects are implemented. In the case of humanitarian aid-short-term aid delivered in the immediate aftermath of a crisis-and AA-aid delivered in response to an early warning designed to prevent or mitigate the potential impacts of a shock before its acute impacts are felt (Anticipation Hub, 2020)-forming new decision-making structures is often infeasible given timing and operational constraints."},{"index":4,"size":181,"text":"Given these constraints, humanitarian and AA donors face a different and potentially more challenging set of questions around how to localize decision-making around aid distribution in fragile contexts: Under what local political economic conditions can greater involvement of local leaders further the goal of getting valuable resources to populations in need, and under what conditions might greater involvement undermine that goal? Where is the divergence in the information that donors versus local leaders hold on local needs and in local preferences? For example, how and to what extent to donor and local preferences divergence over the timing of aid, how and to whom aid is distributed within communities, whether local actors feel they can hold donors accountable, and the type of aid that is given (e.g. inkind support vs. cash, support for communities vs. individuals)? How do local leaders vary in who they involve in their own decision-making processes when they are involved in aid distribution? For example, how and when do they involve local women leaders, civil society organizations, youth leaders, civil servants, leaders from opposition movements, and traditional leaders?"}]},{"head":"Context and Challenges with Aid Distribution for Local Leaders","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"We explore these questions in Mali, where the cumulative effects of frequent droughts, flooding, and conflict have contributed to widespread food insecurity and poverty. According to the World Food Programme (WFP, 2023), 8.8 million people in Mali are in critical need of humanitarian assistance in 2023, around 40 percent of the total population. Mali is divided into 703 locally-governed communes, which have the responsibility to provide public goods and services to local populations. Communes are led by an elected commune council and an elected mayor. Communes are subdivided into villages and hamlets, which are generally led by traditional leaders."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"In this project, IFPRI will interview local leaders at both the commune-and village-level to understand how humanitarian aid distribution works in practice from their perspectives, their preferences and priorities for local involvement in aid decision-making, as well as sources of local resilience present in the community that donors may miss or inadvertently undermine through different aid distribution mechanisms. Given the importance of these questions for effective aid in this context and in other fragile contexts, there is significant potential for insights from this research to inform donor policies. The research can also shed light on what resources communities have if budgets are insufficient to provide aid in all communities or to all affected households in a particular communityand some must rely only on these underlying local sources of resilience."},{"index":3,"size":304,"text":"Our first step in this project was to conduct an initial round of qualitative research in five communes in the Sikasso and Ségou regions in central and southern Mali, as shown in orange in Figure 1. In these communes, we interviewed a mix of mayors, who are elected officials in Mali, and regional coordinators of programming for non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The communes varied in security status and accessibility-both factors which can make aid distribution more challenging. We asked leaders a series of interview questions about how aid distribution works in practice in their communes, including challenges that they face and opportunities they see for improvements. Across all communes, local leaders noted that they are often called upon in some fashion to play a role in identifying beneficiaries of aid programs, although the specifics varied. They highlighted identifying aid beneficiaries as one of the most difficult parts of aid distribution from their perspective. One reason is that the amount of aid distributed is almost always small compared to the needs of the population, which can lead to widespread dissatisfaction and frustration with almost any decision that local leaders would make about how to select beneficiaries. Disconnects between how donors and programs see families-as household units encompassing a nuclear family-du (in the local language, Bambara)and how communities understand family units-as including the grandfather and his brothers, the sons and their brothers, the wives of the sons and brothers, the children and grandchildren, or the Gwa (Bambara)-can make it seem to other community members like one \"family\" is receiving aid multiple times. This can raise suspicions among community members about corruption or unfairness in the process. This is but one salient example of how local cultural norms may influence preferences over aid distribution that donors might missbut could better take into account if information were less asymmetric."},{"index":4,"size":165,"text":"In communes with more severe security conditions, identification of beneficiaries is even more challenging. In these cases, local leaders noted that more than 90 percent of members of various villages within the commune were in severe need. Farming had become almost impossible, and means of production (e.g., productive assets) had been destroyed, making food security an urgent concern. In these cases, mayors noted that aid is often sent to neighboring villages, and communities are asked to travel to pick up aid from distant locations due to impossibilities of transporting aid through insecure locations. One mayor noted, even if this creates security risks and transport costs for individuals, \"people will come because they absolutely need this aid.\" The mayors that we interviewed noted that they relied heavily on village and traditional leaders, particularly in areas where decisions about aid distribution were most difficult, and where security conditions were most severe. These were often cases where mayors themselves had been displaced from the communes for security concerns."},{"index":5,"size":182,"text":"A second concern raised by local leaders was the lack of up-front consultation with them by donors and NGOs before programming begins. Even when some information was shared, mayors often viewed this as following a protocol rather than an initiation of genuine collaborative activities that would enable them to share the concerns and needs of the local population and collaborate to address those needs in a meaningful way. One mayor shared an example of an NGO that came to distribute certified seeds to villagers in his commune but did not set up enclosures to protect the seedlings, which were destroyed by animals as soon as they started to grow. Beyond wasting resources and failing to achieve the objectives of the project, consultation failures undermine respect of local actors for aid programs and can diminish trust within the community and between the community and those providing aid (including local government actors who may be involved). Mayors also questioned why humanitarian and development initiatives were not part of their Social, Economic, and Cultural Development Plans (PDSEC)-the development project document produced by each commune government."},{"index":6,"size":276,"text":"Third, local leaders cited weak crisis management capabilities at all levels, due both to limited funds and organizational and information-sharing challenges. Every crisis is dealt with on a case-by-case basis using existing resources. For example, local cereal banks, which are supposed to scale to provide support to populations when crises hit, can only provide a food ration for two or three days. Weak crisis anticipation was widely cited. A number of local leaders expressed interest in crisis management trainings and capacity-building opportunities, including opportunities to learn from other local leaders in other regions of Mali. For example, one mayor noted that he was interested in learning how other mayors were addressing security challenges amid humanitarian aid distribution and that he thought other mayors may be interested in how he has navigated getting aid to internally-displaced populations in his own commune. However, formal processes for such knowledge exchange are generally absent. Despite these challenges, local leaders argued that cultural practices and norms around mutual aid provide a source of resilience. For example, one leader cited a local practice of families joining forces to cultivate the field of another person who has been a victim of violence or loss. Several leaders also noted that the principle of mutual aid facilitated welcoming and supporting internally-displaced persons in their community. This corresponds with findings that Mali has among the highest levels of generalized trust in Africa and high degrees of pro-social behavior, despite conflict (Bleck et al., forthcoming). However, sustained violence over time can hit communities so hard that there is simply no critical mass of people who can help each other due to the loss of means and resources."}]},{"head":"Study Design","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Building from the insights of the initial round of qualitative research, researchers from IFPRI, the University of Bamako, the University of Notre Dame, and the University of Houston will conduct a two-phased research project across 500 villages in 125 communes in several regions in Mali. The 125 communes are being selected in consultation with local partners to vary in key geographic characteristics and in exposure to crises, but to ensure safety and accessibility for enumerators. In the first phase of the research, we plan to implement a brief survey to understand the communes' exposure to crises over the past 12 months, the communes' most pressing needs, the local structure of the communes' aid distribution committee, and the presence and operations of humanitarian donors in the commune."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"In the second phase of the research, we plan to return to the 125 communes to implement a quantitative survey of five individuals in each commune:"},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"1. The mayor, the elected leader of the commune 2. An opposition candidate for the role of mayor (or similar role) who lost a recent election 3. The secretary general, a civil service position in the commune 4. Two leaders from local civil society organizations (CSOs)"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"We will additionally conduct surveys of four local leaders in four villages within each commune. Within each village, we will interview:"},{"index":5,"size":126,"text":"1. The dugutigi (Bambara), the traditional leader of the village 2. The women's association leader 3. The youth association leader 4. A village 'problem solver' identified by the dugutigi as someone who he would contact to help 'get things done' within the village and consult with any local problems At both the commune-and the village-level, therefore, we plan to interview a mix of official leaders, traditional leaders, members of the opposition, service providers/ implementers, and civil society leaders. Each of these leaders may have different perspectives on aid distribution and each may be involved in varying ways in the process across localities, depending on the local political economy contexts of each locality and the tendency of different leaders to consult widely across civil society in decision-making."},{"index":6,"size":199,"text":"Figure 2 outlines the broad selection criteria for the villages within each commune: 1) the chief village of the commune, which is generally the most accessible and the closest to decision-making and resources; 2) the most crisis-affected village of the commune; 3) the village perceived to be the \"most cooperative\" with the mayor; and 4) the village perceived to be the \"least cooperative\" with the mayor. We will select the \"most cooperative\" and \"least cooperative\" villages by asking mayors which village leaders in his commune he works the best and the least well with. This latter dimension is important because \"local decision-making\" is multi-layered, and different types of communities can be more or less included in local processes by local leaders even when decision-making is devolved. With each leader in our survey sample, we plan to implement surveys on leaders' views on local sources of resilience to crises, types of shocks experienced by the commune and village, views on how and whether donors effectively engage communities in the distribution processes, views on how humanitarian aid could be distributed differently to better match local sources of resilience, and perceived information asymmetries around crisis triggers and needs between donors and communities."},{"index":7,"size":174,"text":"Additionally, we plan to implement a series of survey experiments designed to test leaders' preferences around different aspects of aid distribution. A survey experiment is a randomized experiment embedded within a survey; they can be useful both for measuring sensitive topics and for measuring causal effects. Both features of survey experiments will be useful in this context, where questions about aid distribution can be sensitive and where many different causal effects are plausible. For example, local leaders might choose between different aid distribution \"profiles\" which vary the timing of aid (before or after a crisis begins), the amount of aid, transparency over aid for the local population, the extent of upfront consultations with donors, and the ability of local leaders to monitor and provide feedback to donors on aid distribution and implementation, among other potential factors. By randomizing which attributes of aid distribution are salient, it is possible to test the effects of information about these attributes on reported leader behavior and preferences. Asking in this way can also hopefully elicit more truthful responses. "}]},{"head":"Commune","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Policy Relevance and Broader Implications","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Our study will contribute to a growing body of evidence on local governance in fragile and conflict-affected countries, which find that multiple forms of governance and types of conflict and fragility can exist at the local level within the same country (Autesserre, 2010;Justino, 2019;Justino, Bruck, and Verwimp, 2013;Kyle and Resnick, 2019). It also contributes to both policy and academic debates about the role of communities in allocating development resources."},{"index":2,"size":190,"text":"Existing evidence points to at least three challenges for raising the role of local actors in distribution of AA and humanitarian programming in Mali specifically, and in fragile contexts more generally. First, low civic education of citizens in Mali and low expectations about public goods and services (Gottlieb, 2016) may limit the potential of ordinary citizens to participate in decision-making and accountability processes in a meaningful way, leaving these processes open to elite capture and manipulation. Second, differences in local political economy conditions could substantially shift the outcomes of local deliberations. For example, when there are a greater number of political competitors on a commune council, local deliberations yield worse public goods provision due to difficulty forming coalitions to support and sustain decisions (Gottlieb and Kosec, 2019). Third, local elites can play an outsized role in shaping the outcomes of deliberative processes, even when they are participatory and even if doing so is unintentional (Humphreys, Masters, and Sandbu, 2006). Who those local elites engage in their own decisionmaking processes and how open they are to being monitored by citizens will shape the legitimacy and effectiveness of donors' local engagement strategies."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"Overall, there is a need to understand the roles played by local leaders in effective AA and humanitarian aid programming in fragile contexts, and how this might vary across local contexts and conditions. We expect that this knowledge can be useful to actors like the World Food Programme already operating in Mali, as well as to other donors facing challenging questions around aid distribution. There is also growing interest among donors and other development actors in developing AA capabilities in Mali by embedding AA capabilities with local leadership-empowering local leaders to respond to early warning triggers in anticipation of crises. This research can expand the knowledge base on the contexts in which these types of programs might work, and how. "}]},{"head":"ABOUT THE AUTHORS","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Qualitative research sites in Mali "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Study site selection "},{"text":" Jaimie Bleck is an Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of Notre Dame. Jessica Gottlieb is an Associate Professor at the Hobby School of Public Affairs at the University of Houston. Katrina Kosec is a Senior Research Fellow in the Poverty, Gender, and Inclusion Unit (PGI) at the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Jordan Kyle is a Research Fellow in PGI at IFPRI. Moumouni Soumano is an Assistant Professor of Administrative and Political Sciences at the University of Bamako.  "}],"sieverID":"a26e5e82-4036-43b9-85f5-222840e65303","abstract":"How best to deliver aid programs in fragile contexts and whether donors can support resilience in these contexts are long-standing questions among development practitioners and scholars. While there is widespread agreement that \"local context\" matters and should be taken into account when designing and delivering aid programs, it is difficult to know what aspects of local context matter and when, who to involve in locally driven decision-making (when there are myriad social and political forces), and how potential tradeoffs between competing preferences, needs, and priorities of local actors differ across space. Even when local context is beyond the influence of donors, a better understanding of local political economy dynamics can help donors make better decisions and avoid unintended consequences."}

data/part_3/057cdb5b1e3b20eaa7bd5f1d7da8abbd.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"057cdb5b1e3b20eaa7bd5f1d7da8abbd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f26e8753-3770-43da-8f06-1ef42dff71b5/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Diseño de intervenciones de gestión de conocimiento en la investigación agrícola para el desarrollo Metodología, experiencias y lecciones aprendidas Compartir conocimiento para lograr impacto en el desarrollo","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Teoría de Cambio de GC del CIAT","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Las áreas de intervención se representan a continuación, formuladas como productos, e incluidas en la Teoría de Cambio (ToC) de la GC que se desarrolló en CIAT. Se ilustra la relación de los productos, las herramientas de GC disponibles para desarrollarlos, con los resultados e impactos deseados."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"A medida que un proyecto avanza, la GC amplía su influencia. En la siguiente figura, se ilustran intervenciones de GC en la vía de impacto: al inicio de un proyecto los implementadores buscan una planeación participativa involucrando a los socios inmediatos. Por tanto, es importante desde el principio enfatizar en compartir los progresos de la investigación."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Con los primeros resultados y de manera colaborativa con los socios, se desarrollan herramientas y metodologías que se adaptan a múltiples audiencias. Redes de"}]},{"head":"La GC en la investigación agrícola para el desarrollo","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Áreas de intervención de la GC","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"La GC puede contribuir al logro de impactos a través de siete áreas de intervención: contactos estratégicos son esenciales para compartir estos productos y generar su uso a escala. Los medios, incluyendo los sociales, son importantes para visibilizar las soluciones desarrolladas."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Finalmente, para lograr impacto a escala en los cambios en conocimientos, actitudes y habilidades requeridos por los usuarios finales, es necesario influir en la toma de decisiones en políticas que definen, en gran medida, la actuación de dichos usuarios."}]},{"head":"Uso de tecnologías 11de información y comunicación (TIC)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Implementadores de proyectos usan las TIC para recopilar y compartir datos e información. Se desarrollan estrategias para incluir diferentes grupos de usuarios y abordar temas generacionales. El diseño de estos proyectos se enfoca primero en el contexto, las audiencias y la relevancia del contenido, para luego identificar las mejores soluciones de intercambio de conocimiento."}]},{"head":"Cocreación de productos 111de información y 11 conocimiento","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Los productos (bases de datos, infografías, aplicaciones para móviles o manuales y guías) se desarrollan en los idiomas requeridos, de manera colaborativa, adaptados a múltiples audiencias y con base en sus necesidades expresas."}]},{"head":"Comunicación para el desarrollo","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Se utilizan herramientas y métodos de comunicación para llegar a los usuarios finales de la investigación. Los científicos se involucran en el diseño de esas herramientas, teniendo en cuenta conocimientos y culturas locales, vinculando a socios relevantes y compartiendo ampliamente lecciones aprendidas."}]},{"head":"Compartir procesos de investigación","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Aplicando los principios de la investigación adaptativa, los socios y los grupos de interés se integran en conversaciones facilitadas que forjan confianza y crean ciclos de aprendizaje que, a su vez, promueven nuevas oportunidades para una mayor integración de los actores."}]},{"head":"Planificación de la investigación","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Los investigadores planean su trabajo de manera participativa siguiendo principios de una gestión basada en resultados. El proceso se evalúa periódicamente para identificar oportunidades inesperadas que mejoren la investigación."}]},{"head":"Uso de herramientas de GC","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Los científicos y los socios fortalecen sus capacidades en investigación participativa, liderazgo, facilitación, tutoría, conformación y gestión de redes y el uso de medios sociales, entre otros, de manera que puedan facilitar y participar mejor en las plataformas multiactor y equipos transdisciplinarios."}]},{"head":"Gestión de la información 111generada en procesos 111de investigación","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"La información relevante para los procesos de investigación se hace disponible, accesible y aplicable a un público de interés amplio. Mediante la implementación de una política de acceso abierto, se puede usar, reproducir y dar un nuevo propósito a los datos y la información.  Las lecciones aprendidas se generaron desde cuatro proyectos de DAPA. En todos se aplicaron elementos de la Teoría de Cambio para identificar las necesidades en GC y diseñar estrategias de intervención. Los proyectos tienen como metas: a) la generación de capacidades institucionales, b) la identificación de estrategias de mitigación y adaptación a la variabilidad y al cambio climático y c) la contribución al cierre de brechas productivas."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Lecciones aprendidas 1 A través del uso de la Teoría de Cambio se aumentó la aplicabilidad de los resultados de investigación."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"El hacer explícita la ToC de un proyecto permite entender mejor las perspectivas que tenemos, como implementadores: con quién estamos trabajando, qué queremos lograr, quién se beneficia con los resultados, quiénes y cómo los usan y qué esperamos que cambie o mejore."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"2 La GC contribuye al fortalecimiento institucional y mejora la relación entre socios."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"En el desarrollo de un proyecto, las organizaciones socias mejoran su relación y se fortalecen institucionalmente en la medida en que su personal se involucra en acciones de GC que permiten conocer la cultura organizacional de cada una de ellas y, a partir de esto, formular estrategias conjuntas para compartir información e involucrar a sus investigadores en la generación de contenidos y productos."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"Lo anterior posibilita aprovechar intereses comunes de los socios para establecer, a partir del fortalecimiento de capacidades individuales y organizacionales, una estrategia de GC en la que todos aportan."},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"3 El éxito de la GC depende de la calidad de integración del gestor de conocimiento con el equipo científico y del compromiso de todos los implementadores del proyecto."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"Un objetivo fundamental de la GC en la investigación agrícola es generar un puente entre la ciencia y sus usuarios para lograr productos útiles y aplicables. En este sentido, el gestor de conocimiento tiene que tener un pie en la ciencia y otro pie en la comunidad. "}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"A través de este proceso de construcción de lecciones aprendidas, nuestro equipo busca fortalecer la aplicabilidad de la GC en proyectos futuros de investigación agrícola para el desarrollo. A pesar de las diferencias en las intervenciones de GC en cada proyecto, hay lecciones aprendidas comunes que permiten no solo mejorar nuestro propio nivel de intervención sino también generar un cambio de actitud en los socios, para que ellos se apropien más de estos temas. Lo deseable es que los socios busquen apoyo en GC desde la planificación del proyecto hasta la ejecución de actividades, y que adquieran capacidades para usar herramientas y metodologías de GC ellos mismos."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Es decir, debe entender lo que genera la ciencia y lo que hacen y necesitan los usuarios."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"4 Las TIC no son un fin sino un medio."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"Las experiencias han mostrado que las TIC son claves para que el pequeño agricultor tenga acceso a información que apoye su toma de decisiones, pero han sido desaprovechadas en muchas ocasiones por un enfoque centrado en aspectos infraestructurales, minimizando las oportunidades de interacción. En este sentido, mediante la GC se ha confirmado la necesidad de: 1) generar estrategias diferenciadas según los usuarios para lograr el uso apropiado de la herramienta, 2) realizar un análisis contextual de la actitud, habilidad, conocimiento y prácticas en torno a las TIC y 3) identificar recursos disponibles y el ambiente habilitador de los usuarios de la plataforma en línea."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"* Fotografías: José Antonio Arana: 1, 3 y 4. Diego Obando: 2. Luis Armando Muñoz: 5. Viviana García: 6. Karina Feijóo: 7. "}],"sieverID":"a5b426a6-88db-485b-8dd5-246cf24557be","abstract":"Tropical (CIAT) desarrolló una metodología de gestión de conocimiento (GC) para que sus programas y proyectos de investigación diseñen planes de gestión acordes con sus vías de impacto. Durante 2 años, trabajando con cuatro proyectos piloto del Área de Investigación en Análisis de Políticas (DAPA, por sus siglas en inglés) del CIAT, se han aplicado conceptos de Teoría de Cambio para identificar, diseñar e implementar intervenciones de gestión de conocimiento apropiadas y derivar lecciones.Este folleto presenta un resumen de las lecciones aprendidas a las que ha llegado el grupo de GC del CIAT luego de participar en proyectos de investigación agrícola para el desarrollo. Se habla de las posibles áreas de intervención de la GC en este tipo de proyectos y cómo puede contribuir al logro de sus impactos. De igual manera, se expone la teoría de cambio de la GC que se desarrolló para el CIAT. Se ilustra el rol de implementadores, socios y usuarios a lo largo de la vía de impacto de un proyecto y, finalmente, se resaltan cinco lecciones que conviene considerar en el diseño de intervenciones en proyectos de investigación para el desarrollo."}

data/part_3/05e76a9e84f729d858f06804fe313a25.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05e76a9e84f729d858f06804fe313a25","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/80a431e8-a59a-4385-a64a-e0ddc8224bfe/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Sampling","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"In the absence of a sampling frame (complete list of households in these areas), geographic random sampling was used to select the households to be surveyed. For the market agent survey, snowball sampling was used. Seventy-five households and 20 market agents were sampled per site. Table 2 summarizes the numbers of hubs and households surveyed. "}]},{"head":"Community survey","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"In each site, the PRA took about one day with about 20-25 persons from the area around the hub. At each baseline sampled hub, PRAs were conducted at two sublocations. The PRA was not conducted at the control sites so as not to raise expectation in these sites. The following topics were discussed:"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Project Brief "}]},{"head":"Household survey","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The household survey recorded information on survey sites (country, district, sites and geographic positioning system [GPS] coordinates of the household location); details of the respondent; details of the enumerator; and data quality control procedures followed in the field. The remaining part of the survey was structured into ten sections (see Table 3). "}]},{"head":"Market agent survey","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The market agent survey recorded information on date of interview; establishing whether or not the interviewee is in charge of the business activities; and field level data quality control procedures (e.g. supervisor/enumerator code). The remaining part of the survey was structured into five sections."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The first section recorded general information related to the interviewee (e.g. age, gender, year of schooling, role of the respondent and position in the business). Data related to the location where the interview was conducted were also recorded (e.g. GPS coordinates and whether this was at the business premise or elsewhere), as were businessrelated details and information on constraints related to financial, transport and organizational maters."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"While interviews on the general section were conducted with all business types, the remaining four sections were designed for different categories of business service providers, i.e. feed suppliers; artificial insemination and other animal health service providers; milk traders; and credit providers. These sections were designed so that information would be collected on business constraints and opportunities specific to each category and made available for use in formulating strategies for interventions."}]},{"head":"I. Baltenweck, A. Gelan, J. Poole and E. Kariuki","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Disclaimer: This material was funded by and is the absolute property of the East Africa Dairy Development (EADD) Project. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the EADD Project. The mention of specific organizations or their services, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by EADD in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. This document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License ILRI works with partners worldwide to help poor people keep their farm animals alive and productive, increase and sustain their livestock and farm productivity, and find profitable markets for their animal products. ILRI's headquarters are in Nairobi, Kenya; we have a principal campus in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and 14 offices in other regions of Africa and Asia. ILRI is part of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (www.cgiar.org), which works to reduce hunger, poverty and environmental degradation in developing countries by generating and sharing relevant agricultural knowledge, technologies and policies."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 : Survey and control sites  Kenya Rwanda Uganda KenyaRwandaUganda Survey sites Kabiyet Bwisanga Mukono Survey sitesKabiyetBwisangaMukono  Kaptumo Kabarore Kakooge KaptumoKabaroreKakooge  Soy Mbare Bbale SoyMbareBbale  Siongiroi  Luwero SiongiroiLuwero  Metkei  Masaka MetkeiMasaka Control sites Siaya Nyagihanga Bumanya Control sitesSiayaNyagihangaBumanya  Kandara   Kandara  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Numbers of dairy households and hubs surveyed  Dairy Project Sur- Control Surveyed DairyProjectSur-ControlSurveyed  households hubs* veyed hubs house- householdshubs*veyedhubshouse-  targeted by  hubs  holds targeted byhubsholds  EADD     EADD Kenya 110,000 17 5 2 525 Kenya110,0001752525 Rwanda 24,000 10 3 1 302 Rwanda 24,0001031302 Uganda 45,000 15 5 1 450 Uganda 45,0001551450 Total 179,000 42 13 4 1277 Total179,000421341277 * as per original plan     * as per original plan Data collection     Data collection Data collection started in September 2008 in Uganda and Data collection started in September 2008 in Uganda and Rwanda and in October 2008 in Kenya. Additional sites Rwanda and in October 2008 in Kenya. Additional sites in Kenya were surveyed in July-August 2009 following in Kenya were surveyed in July-August 2009 following another round of site selection. The community survey another round of site selection. The community survey was conducted by use of the participatory rural appraisal was conducted by use of the participatory rural appraisal (PRA) method, while data for the household and market (PRA) method, while data for the household and market agent were collected by use of structured questionnaires. agent were collected by use of structured questionnaires.  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Summary of the structure of the household survey Sec-tion Description Respondents Sec-tionDescriptionRespondents A Household composition and labour availability All respondents AHousehold composition and labour availabilityAll respondents B Farm activities and facili-ties All respondents BFarm activities and facili-tiesAll respondents C Livestock inventory All respondents CLivestock inventoryAll respondents D Milk production and marketing All dairy-keeping house-holds DMilk production and marketingAll dairy-keeping house-holds E Livestock management All dairy-keeping house-holds ELivestock managementAll dairy-keeping house-holds F Livestock health services All dairy-keeping house-holds FLivestock health servicesAll dairy-keeping house-holds G Feeds and feeding mod-ule A third of all respondents GFeeds and feeding mod-uleA third of all respondents H Breeding module A third of all respondents HBreeding moduleA third of all respondents I Household welfare All respondents IHousehold welfareAll respondents J Interview setting All respondents JInterview settingAll respondents  "}],"sieverID":"c1cb6ae1-2863-4e18-bd21-ea4d41fb709f","abstract":"The East Africa Dairy Development (EADD) project is a regional industry development program implemented by a consortium of partners led by Heifer International. It is currently being piloted in 18 sites in Kenya, 8 in Rwanda and 27 in Uganda. The overall goal of the project is to transform the lives of 179,000 families, or about 1 million people, by doubling household dairy income in 10 years through integrated interventions in dairy production, market access and knowledge application.This brief presents an overview of the methodology used to carry out a baseline survey for the EADD project in 2008-09. The objective of the survey was to assess the baseline situation of dairy farmers and their communities at the start of the project, and to identify key constraints faced by dairy farmers and market agents and opportunities for overcoming them through targeted project interventions. The study had three components, namely, community, household and market agent surveys. Details are available in the baseline survey report No. 1."}

data/part_3/05ec0fddfd418bbf423ab3d440646c62.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05ec0fddfd418bbf423ab3d440646c62","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H012291.pdf"},"pageCount":6,"title":"South Asian Regional Workshop on Groundwater Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems and Sustainable Groundwater Management, Dhaka, Bangladesh","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"As stated in the last issue of the Newsletter we are pleased to share with you the outcome of the workshop held in Dhaka, Bangladesh during 18 21 May 1992."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"A four-day South Asian Regional workshop on Groundwater Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems and Sustainable Groundwater Managementwas held in Dhaka, Bangladesh from 18 to 21 May, 1992. Fifty-seven participants from 10 countries including 5 lIMI professional staff, attended the workshop. Five Indonesian participants who attended the workshop were taken ona one-week field trip after the workshop. The first day's activities began with an inaugural session followed by presentations of syntheses of the papers that had been prepared. Discussion groups were then formed and assigned the task 8 of identifying issues of particular concern for further exploration during the remainder of the workshop. These discussion groups were organized around the topics of: i) Aquifer and drawdown conditions; il) FMIS groundwater support services;"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"iii)"},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"FMIS sustainability under water-surplus conditions; iv) FMIS sustainability conditions; and under water-deficit v) FMIS sustainability within surface irriga tion systems."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"The second and the third day were devoted to field visits to see the working of various types of FMIS under different management conditions in the northern part of Bangladesh. On the final day, there were again small group discussions-this time set up to address and make recommendations about some of the areas of concern identified earlier. These three groups focused on: technical considerations; institutional issues; and socioeconomic aspects."}]},{"head":"luues for Discussion","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"On the first day, the five discussion groups came up with a number of concerns for further exploration. These issues are listed below by discussion-group topic. Valuable groundwater is often used inefficiently and at times wasted. Therefore, integration of efficient utilization of groundwater through better water management practices in conjunction with rainfall and surface water is necessary."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Selection of type of tubewells, their installation, operation and management are to be matched to meet the aquifer characteristics and drawdown conditions."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"There is a need to enact proper groundwater regulatory mechanisms through a proper mix of technology and management for groundwater utilization so as to maintain groundwater at desired levels and prevent environmental degradation.!t would be useful to find solutions to problems associated with: There was a lively discussion on the use of shallow and deep tubewells as extraction devices."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Arguments were put forward for and against the use of deep tubewells. While discussing deep tubewells, two sets of issues were identified. The first set is with regard to existing deep tubewells."},{"index":5,"size":132,"text":"In Bangladesh itself there are more than 30,000 deep tubewells. The process and results of turnover and local management of these tubewells need to be looked into. Ultimately, most of these tubewells are likely to be owned by selected individual farmers who will be invariably well to-do. The second set of issues is with regard to the installation of new deep tubewells. There were forceful arguments to ban turbine pumps for installation of deep tubewells. It was also argued that in view of these large deep tubewells in water deficit areas such as hard rock areas, groundwater levels are receding fast, requiring innumerable shallow well owners either to deepen the wells or to abandon them. Therefore, there is an urgent need to regulate the use of deep tuhewells in these area too."},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"At the end, it was recommended that a three phase approach be adopted which initially emphasizes shallow tubewells and groundwater management for stabilizing the drawdown level at an appropriate depth by regulating the use of shallow tube wells; secondly, to go for deep-set shallow tube wells and, finally, attempts may be made to go for deep tubewells where other methods of extraction have failed or are inefficient."},{"index":7,"size":48,"text":"Under watershed conservation and management, it was recommended that the micro-aquifer should be the unit for groundwater conservation. It was suggested that a water balance study of the micro aquifer be carried out to study the impact of surface water on groundwater and to design appropriate extraction mechanisms."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"In order to improve the efficiency ofgroundwater use and to manage the groundwater resources in a sustainable manner it was suggested to: i) Provide adequate technical extension serv ices;"},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"ii) Establish a strong unit for maintenance of groundwater structures; ''ii) Bannmg of deep tubewells is not a possible solution. But their use should be regulated through viable local institutional arrange ments."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"•iv) Landless laborers should be given prefer ence to manage tubewells in a sustainable manner;"},{"index":11,"size":29,"text":"• v) Some of the aquifers extend overmore than one nation (for example the Gangetic aqui fer). Regional efforts are necessary to as sess groundwater potential and intercon nectedness."},{"index":12,"size":27,"text":"vi) State policies toward groundwatermanage ment should target not only the individual pump owner but the network of wells that will interact now or in the future."},{"index":13,"size":65,"text":"vii) Well ownership may be individual, but communities in an area should be organized and be invested with the right of taking decisions on new individual invest ments in wells in their area. Conservation technologies must be adopted by all owners of wells. Group purchase and distribution of power to these owners and enforcement ofcollection / loan repayment for credit provided to them are needed."},{"index":14,"size":56,"text":"viii) Aquifer characteristics, and recharge rates vary greatly within even smallareas; there fore, state policies should be tailored to the natureofeach ecological zone (Le., ground water resource endowment region). Blan ket countrywide or statewide policies for areas of high ecological heterogeneity are likely to be mefficient and wasteful of state capital when direct subsidies are involved."},{"index":15,"size":37,"text":"• be) When the cost of pumping exceeds publi cized and agreed-upon locally defined lim its, all further official credit for extractive investmentsshouldbe cutoff. Theseindude mvestments in well deepening, pump en ergization, construction of new wells, etc."},{"index":16,"size":38,"text":"x) Choice of technology should be such that small groundwater groups are preferred to large groups when the resource base so permits. If shallow groundwater exists, then shallow tubewells are to be promoted rather than deep tube wells."},{"index":17,"size":8,"text":"{R. Saktllivadirtcl, D. Parker and S. MarlOr, IlMIJ"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Also most of the data collection is at a macro level and the data are not readily usable at micro level by the farmers who need them most. Therefore, it is recommended that:  Sustainability Issues of GWFMIS in Water Surplus Areas. There is a need to improve the increasing costs of construction, replace institutionally and sectorally (agriculture, ment and 0 & M; energy and transport) for sustainable use Sustainability Issues of GWFMIS in Water Surplus Areas. There is a need to improvethe increasing costs of construction, replace institutionally and sectorally (agriculture, ment and 0 & M; energy and transport) for sustainable use  * economic efficiency and profitability of the deterioration of water quality; and of groundwater and other resources. * economic efficiency and profitability ofthe deterioration of water quality; and of groundwater and other resources. It * groundwater irrigation. Therefore, it is necessary to: the objectives of data collection and map the differential effects of water markets on the poor. vi) Collect and compile data on and techniques for technology management, farmers' needs It* groundwater irrigation. Therefore, it is necessary to: the objectives of data collection and mapthe differential effects of water markets on the poor. vi) Collect and compile data on and techniques for technology management, farmers' needs It i) Introduce macro-economic policies for ping groundwater resources and review Study is needed on the impact of withdrawing and resources management, and improve profitable and efficient groundwater accessibility to this information. mechanisms must be clearly defined; state assistance for groundwater development and on how measures can be developed to improve the performance of groundwater development. irrigation; ii) Provide groundwater development subsi dies (increase output price, input subsidy, groundwater data and their assessment are Sustainability Issues of GWFMIS within Surface not readily available to the farmers at the Irrigation. It is necessary to: micro-aquifer level (at the village level). Iti) Introduce macro-economic policies for ping groundwater resources and review Study is needed on the impact of withdrawing and resources management, and improve profitable and efficient groundwater accessibility to this information. mechanisms must be clearly defined; state assistance for groundwater development and on how measures can be developed to improve the performance of groundwater development. irrigation; ii) Provide groundwater development subsi dies (increase output price, input subsidy, groundwater data and their assessment are Sustainability Issues of GWFMIS within Surface not readily available to the farmers at the Irrigation. It is necessary to: micro-aquifer level (at the village level).  credit and insurance); Attempts must be made to collect micro aquifer data within the existing agro-eco iii) Balance surface water and groundwater Groundwater Support Services Issues. There is a i) Develop methodologies and techniques for need to provide support services for groundwater FMIS in the following areas: efficient resources management through conservation and utilization; select appro logical unit through cost-effective pro development for their optimal utilization; priate tubewell technology-deep versus cedures and using the local knowledge credit and insurance); Attempts must be made to collect micro aquifer data within the existing agro-eco iii) Balance surface water and groundwater Groundwater Support Services Issues. There is a i) Develop methodologies and techniques for need to provide support services for groundwater FMIS in the following areas: efficient resources management through conservation and utilization; select appro logical unit through cost-effective pro development for their optimal utilization; priate tubewell technology-deep versus cedures and using the local knowledge It * * * iv) Encourage local manufacturing of ground of the farmers. Also mechanisms must be developed to make data available to water development equipment. the farmers when they need them.Particip v) Ensure economic growth through better atory research data collection should be performance of water markets and im promoted. proved access to water and credit markets existing data should be synthesized; for the poor. attempts mustbe made to collect additional data to fill in gaps; to update the database and to analyze the data to bring them to a easily available credit for construction of wells, purchase of equipment and spare parts and operation and maintenance; price support, market information and mar keting facilities and storage and transport facilities for their produce; and shallow tubewells for conjunctive use of groundwater (GW) with surface water; integrate groundwater activities with surface water utilization; trea t groundwater as a common propert.y resource through legal provisions and sanctions. ii) Understand the interaction between' subsidies for operation, maintenance and groundwater and surface water recharge replacement. in terms of groundwater abstraction and It* * * iv) Encourage local manufacturing of ground of the farmers. Also mechanisms must be developed to make data available to water development equipment. the farmers when they need them.Particip v) Ensure economic growth through better atory research data collection should be performance of water markets and im promoted. proved access to water and credit markets existing data should be synthesized; for the poor. attempts mustbe made to collect additional data to fill in gaps; to update the database and to analyze the data to bring them to aeasily available credit for construction of wells, purchase of equipment and spare parts and operation and maintenance; price support, market information and mar keting facilities and storage and transport facilities for their produce; and shallow tubewells for conjunctive use of groundwater (GW) with surface water; integrate groundwater activities with surface water utilization; trea t groundwater as a common propert.y resource through legal provisions and sanctions. ii) Understand the interaction between' subsidies for operation, maintenance and groundwater and surface water recharge replacement. in terms of groundwater abstraction and  usable form and make them available to It is necessary to: water quality, and suggest measures to usable form and make them available toIt is necessary to: water quality, and suggest measures to It farmers, agencies and planners. at present, many national govemments rely i) control them. Develop an institutional framework for group formation, partnership and legal iii) Identify sources of pollution of surface Itfarmers, agencies and planners. at present, many national govemments relyi)control them. Develop an institutional framework for group formation, partnership and legal iii) Identify sources of pollution of surface  upon foreign experts and assistance to de  framework for the groundwater group. water and groundwater and arrest dete upon foreign experts and assistance to deframework for the groundwater group. water and groundwater and arrest dete  velop requisite databases and. to assess groundwater resources. It is necessary to develop local capability to undertake these assignments. ii) rioration of water quality. Provide training for management support, recordkeeping, accounting and on-farm iv) Understand the linkages existing among management. GW user groups, surface water FMIS and velop requisite databases and. to assess groundwater resources. It is necessary to develop local capability to undertake these assignments.ii)rioration of water quality. Provide training for management support, recordkeeping, accounting and on-farm iv) Understand the linkages existing among management. GW user groups, surface water FMIS and iii) iv) v) Recognize that priorities may be different Under groundwater exploitation, it was i) between lift technologies under different recommended that groundwater zoning be introduced into areas where only shallow tubewells can be used, areas where only deep tuhewell can be allowed and areas where both groundwater environments and socio economic conditions. ii) Identify the level of resource management and institutional development necessary for different regions; develop institutional objectives and management organizations relevant to farmers' interests. shallow and deep tubewells can be allowed for groundwater extraction. Based on relevant environmental data and agro-ecological zones, appropriate groundwater extraction guidelines should be developed and disseminated, which are suited to the location through technology policy for groundwater extraction. public agencies and suggest measures to Provide technicalsu pport services on infor improve their linkages and performance. mation ofgroundwater resources available, selection criteria, on-farm water manage ment; and well maintenance and mechanic support. Provide spare parts during the recommend ed life span of the tubewell. Analyze and identify the impact ofground water support services on the following: * technical performance of groundwater utilization in improving command area, pump operation efficiency, recovery of v) Develop and field-test a suitable organiza tional structure for conjunctive use of sur face water and groundwater systems. vi) Stipulate proper regulatory and control mechanisms to control water table, and to prevent waterlogging and pollution. vii) Provide adequate training; cost-effective technology; adequate input services; market and credit facilities. iii) iv) v) Recognize that priorities may be different Under groundwater exploitation, it was i) between lift technologies under different recommended that groundwater zoning be introduced into areas where only shallow tubewells can be used, areas where only deep tuhewell can be allowed and areas where both groundwater environments and socio economic conditions. ii) Identify the level of resource management and institutional development necessary for different regions; develop institutional objectives and management organizations relevant to farmers' interests. shallow and deep tubewells can be allowed for groundwater extraction. Based on relevant environmental data and agro-ecological zones, appropriate groundwater extraction guidelines should be developed and disseminated, which are suited to the location through technology policy for groundwater extraction.public agencies and suggest measures to Provide technicalsu pport services on infor improve their linkages and performance. mation ofgroundwater resources available, selection criteria, on-farm water manage ment; and well maintenance and mechanic support. Provide spare parts during the recommend ed life span of the tubewell. Analyze and identify the impact ofground water support services on the following: * technical performance of groundwater utilization in improving command area, pump operation efficiency, recovery of v) Develop and field-test a suitable organiza tional structure for conjunctive use of sur face water and groundwater systems. vi) Stipulate proper regulatory and control mechanisms to control water table, and to prevent waterlogging and pollution. vii) Provide adequate training; cost-effective technology; adequate input services; market and credit facilities.  iii) Understand and plan for water conser water charges, loan recovery and rates iii)Understand and plan for water conserwater charges, loan recovery and rates  iv) vation, improved recharge and conjunctive use; social and economic implications of groundwater depletion; new mechanisms to improve resources management includi ng the study of the relative efficacy of wa ter markets, regulation and control to be met. Develop partner-not client relationships between farmers and agencies; strengthen capacity of organizations (farmers, state agencies) to adapt andinnovate for different groundwater conditions; train farmers and of return to investment; Workshop Recommendations * macro-economic policies (protection versus free market, pricing policies including energy cost and subsidies Technical Considerations. The main issues under this topic were grouped as follows: for groundwater development); * management!organization style (own ership issue ... individual versus group management and public versus private); i) Groundwater resource assessment; ii) Groundwater exploration; iii) Water conservation and management; and and iv) Environmentalconsiderations in ground water abstractions. iv)vation, improved recharge and conjunctive use; social and economic implications of groundwater depletion; new mechanisms to improve resources management includi ng the study of the relative efficacy of wa ter markets, regulation and control to be met. Develop partner-not client relationships between farmers and agencies; strengthen capacity of organizations (farmers, state agencies) to adapt andinnovate for different groundwater conditions; train farmers andof return to investment; Workshop Recommendations * macro-economic policies (protection versus free market, pricing policies including energy cost and subsidies Technical Considerations. The main issues under this topic were grouped as follows: for groundwater development); * management!organization style (own ership issue ... individual versus group management and public versus private); i) Groundwater resource assessment; ii) Groundwater exploration; iii) Water conservation and management; and and iv) Environmentalconsiderations in ground water abstractions.   operators; and improve extension services. operators; and improve extension services.  v) Integrate groundwater irrigation activities v)Integrate groundwater irrigation activities  "}],"sieverID":"03a37be4-d71c-4dc1-9992-6b74bb3ba5fd","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0610b3b51409edc2fc7ca3ded9c8ad11.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0610b3b51409edc2fc7ca3ded9c8ad11","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6c127057-839f-4f27-8d90-78250396e58c/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Poverty and Water Management in the São Francisco River Basin: Preliminary Assessments and Issues to Consider","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"O","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"f the approximately 17 million who inhabited the SFRB in 2003, about 3.7 million (approximately 21%) were poor by Brazilian standards (living on about one minimum salary or less). Just over four million people lived in rural areas of the SFRB and nearly one-third of them (about 1.2 million) were poor."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"But the rural poor were not distributed evenly across the SFRB (see Figure 1). The proportion of the rural poor tended to be lower in the southern portion of the SFRB, primarily in the state of Minas Gerais, the mountainous zone where the São Francisco River begins. Rural poverty, by this measure, tended to be higher in the central and northern zones, with some municípios registering proportional rates of poverty well in excess of 50% of the rural population."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"The depth of poverty matters greatly; Figure 2 depicts the spatial distribution within the SFRB of the extreme poverty, i.e., individuals belonging to households living on less than one-third of the Brazilian monthly minimum salary per person. These extremely poor households are located almost exclusively in the central and northern zones of the SFRB."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"While poverty is central to our research, training, and outreach mandates, it is also interesting to focus attention on municípios that are less poor, in part because we may learn something from these less-poor municípios that may be useful to their more-poor counterparts. Reviewing Figures 1 and 2, it is easy to identify less-poor municípios in the central and northern zones of the SFRB where rural poverty was especially concentrated. One has to wonder what factors might cause neighboring municípios to have such different rural poverty rates; might water availability have something to do with this?"},{"index":5,"size":125,"text":"Water Availability in the SFRB While water availability is difficult to define and even more challenging to measure, at any resolution, Figure 3 depicts estimated water availability for the SFRB, by município. Our measure of water availability considers annual precipitation, base evapotranspiration, catchment area upstream, and slope (how likely is rainfall or run-on likely to 'stay' on the receiving farm); municípios that appear in darker blue have more available water than those in green or yellow. No seasonal or other water storage, or artificial conveyance of water, is included in this measure of water availability; this measure of water availability may be most useful in areas where irrigated agriculture relies on precipitation as well as on local diversions of direct runoff from the upstream catchment."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Two important patterns emerge, one that we have been long familiar with and another that is somewhat surprising. The familiar pattern is that of generally higher measures of water availability in the southern and central zones of the SFRB than in the northern zone; this corresponds to known variations in annual rainfall, which ranges from a high of about 1,500 mm/year in the southern zone to a low of about 500 mm/year in some areas of the northern zone."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"The surprising pattern is the presence of relatively water-scarce municípios in the high-rainfall southern zone, and some relatively water-rich municípios in the arid northern zone. Other variables in the water availability measure as well as scale of analysis (resolution) explain these differences. "}]},{"head":"Water-Poverty Links in the SFRB","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Might it be the case that the municípios with relatively more available water tend to be less poor? A visual comparison of Figure 2 and Figure 3 do not consistently suggest that such a relationship between water availability and rural poverty exists; some of the 'wettest' municípios have very high proportions of rural poor, and many relatively 'dry' municípios seem to have escaped rural poverty almost completely."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Analysis of water-poverty links in rural areas will help detect the links between this measure of water availability and rural poverty at the município scale of analysis. Might the links, or perhaps absence of links, identified at município level between water availability and poverty be different if the spatial resolution and quality of the data and analysis were higher?"},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"The Bottom Line on Poverty in the SFRB The rural poor need sustained increases in income. Increasing the availability and reducing the cost of water, a critical input to agricultural production, can help achieve this objective-directly via increases in on-farm productivity and profits, and indirectly via increases in the demand for and salaries paid to off-farm laborers."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"But water is only one of several key inputs into agricultural production (capital, labor, and technology are also critical), and increases in agricultural production alone do not ensure increases in farm profits-the value of farm outputs must be greater than production costs, and the value of output is determined by distance to and access to markets, quality of infrastructure, product quality, etc. Given the diversity of product mix, distance to market, access to water, etc. across municípios in the very large SFRB, policy action for poverty alleviation in the SFRB will have to focus on an array of factors."},{"index":5,"size":137,"text":"So where does this leave us in our efforts to reduce poverty in the SFRB? Should we abandon efforts to increase water availability to help reduce poverty? Probably not. While more research remains to be done to definitively address these issues, it may well be the case that increasing access to water may be the most effective and efficient means of reducing poverty in selected municípios or sub-zones within the SFRB, and public policy action combined with local private investments will likely be needed to make this happen. Our first task, then, is to identify municípios or groups of municípios for which this is the case. Our second task will be to specifically identify the policy actions required to increase access to water and hence reduce poverty. A third, and perhaps larger task, will be identifying effective "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. São Francisco River Basin: Percent Rural Population that is Poor, 2003 "}],"sieverID":"7cc3e0d4-ef62-409a-a33d-ad0849be39a2","abstract":""}

data/part_3/06b07c26511217cc4c3295774ce31414.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06b07c26511217cc4c3295774ce31414","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c5939f56-2eb2-44be-9f6a-66d2389203cf/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Environmental Management in Smallholder Dairy Production in Tanzania A Training Manual for Agripreneurs and Technical Extension Sta","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"2. Dairy production and environmental impacts - ------------------------------------------------------------------------------9 2.1 Land degradation and loss of vegetation cover - ---------------------------------------------------------------------9 2.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and climate change - -------------------------------------------------------------------9 2.3 Water use and pollution - -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10 3. Environmentally friendly practices for dairy farmers - -------------------------------------------------------------------11 3.1 Sustainable soil management practices - ------------------------------------------------------------------------------11 3.2 Improved animal feeds, feeding management, and nutrition- -------------------------------------------------12 3.3 Forage conservation - ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12 3.4 Feed processing --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 3.5 Improved animal genetics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 3.6 Improved animal health and infrastructure ---------------------------------------------------------------------------14 3.7 Manure management practices - ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14 3.8 Use of biogas - ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16 4. Closing remarks - -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18 5. References - -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19 Figures  -------------------------10 Figure 2: The upper image depicts a heavily grazed area with many animals, experiencing wind and water erosion due to a loss of vegetation cover. The lower image shows an area with fewer animals and vegetation cover, as well as healthier cows with increased milk production.  "},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Figure 7: Improved dairy cows in Daluni Mkinga District, Tanga Region, feeding on improved forages (Brachiaria cv. Cobra) to enhance milk output while lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Credit:  "}]},{"head":"List of acronyms","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The dairy industry is one of the most important agricultural subsectors in Tanzania. It is perceived by numerous farmers as an important activity and plays a major role in the economic and social lives of many households by contributing nutritious foods, jobs and employment, assets and savings, soil fertility, and income generation (FAO & New Zealand Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Centre, 2019). The national dairy cattle herd includes the traditional sector that contributes 70% of the total milk produced, while the remaining amount comes from smallholder dairy farmers with crossbred and purebred Bos Taurus cows (Njombe et al., 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"The development of the dairy sector is supported by outstanding natural resources such as extensive rangelands and diverse natural vegetation that supports cattle feeding. Two thirds of the country's 88.6 million hectares are suitable for grazing. Despite these resources, the sector performs below its potential. The dairy industry has seen an increase in livestock numbers of 4.3% but only a small gain of 1.8% in productivity (FAO & New Zealand Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Centre, 2019). Smallholder dairy farmers experience unsatisfactory production for several reasons, including a supply of dairy feed that is erratic both in quality and quantity, the presence of low-yield breeds, and a lack of appropriate management practices (Mbwambo et al., 2017). Despite undergoing enormous growth, dairy farming in Tanzania has been facing significant challenges in accessing fodder of sufficient quantities and quality, especially during the long dry season, to facilitate the sustainable production of milk and meat; as a result, animals are fed on undesirable feedstuffs, which can lead to lower milk production and animal productivity (Maleko et al., 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"The population of both humans and livestock is increasing in Tanzania, while the size of the land area remains constant, implying that open grazing lands are dwindling. In addition, there has been a trend toward rapid evolution of property rights from large parcels of land under village or communal ownership to small parcels of land under private ownership. Climate change and unpredictability exacerbate the situation by lengthening dry seasons and increasing the frequency of severe droughts, resulting in water and pasture scarcity. Despite these problems, the country's need for milk and meat is rising as the population expands. It remains uncertain how we can produce meat and milk for the purposes of creating income and guaranteeing food security for the rural poor without harming or polluting our environment."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"This training manual was developed to guide the training of trainers such as agripreneurs, technical extension staff, and lead dairy farmers in acquiring the necessary information and practical skills for environmentally sustainable dairy production in Tanzania. It builds on this review of existing training materials, as well as outputs from a stakeholder workshop in December 2020 in Arusha."}]},{"head":"Dairy production and environmental impacts","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Regardless of the sector's potential contribution to the health, nutrition, and income generation of smallholder producers in Tanzania, dairy production is seen as one of the major contributors to environmental degradation."}]},{"head":"Land degradation and loss of vegetation cover","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Continuous grazing or overgrazing, as well as the cut and carry of plant biomass to feed animals without replenishing nutrients, have been identified as a major environmental issue in Tanzania. Soil erosion and land degradation have been blamed on the mismanagement of grazing animals."}]},{"head":"Greenhouse gas emissions and climate change","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The dairy subsector in Tanzania is estimated to emit about 28.8 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (t CO2eq) annually. Methane from enteric fermentation accounts for 91.4% of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for dairy production in the environment. Emissions associated with the management of stored"}]},{"head":"10","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Training Manual manure such as methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) represent a further contribution of 2.3 million t CO2eq or 8.2% of the total GHG emissions from the dairy cattle sector (FAO & New Zealand Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Centre, 2019). Traditional livestock systems are responsible for the bulk of the emissions-97%-while improved dairy systems only contribute 3% of the total emissions. At the national level, the emission intensity of milk produced in Tanzania is on average 19.9 kg of CO2eq per kg of fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM)."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Traditional systems produce emissions ranging from 20.3 to 28.8 kg CO2eq/kg FPCM, whereas upgraded systems produce emissions ranging from 1.9 to 2.2 kg CO2eq/kg FPCM. In both systems, emissions intensity was lowest in the temperate highlands and highest in the semi-arid zones (FAO & New Zealand Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Centre, 2019). Thus, the majority of emissions from on-farm dairy production arises from enteric fermentation, manure deposition by grazing animals, manure management, and the application of manure to agricultural land. Providing dairy animals with poor-quality feeds results in low productivity and digestibility of feed and, as a result, in high emission intensities."}]},{"head":"Water use and pollution","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Improper animal manure storage and management procedures can cause environmental problems. Animal waste runoff, known as slurry, which contains the soluble nutrients in manure, may end up in drainage channels, ditches, and eventually flowing rivers (Figure 1). The nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content of the manure causes hypertrophication and leads to masses of algae (Nonga, 2011). These algae blooms can completely block all available light from the water and obstruct the breakdown of organic matter, resulting in a high biological oxygen demand and oxygen depletion. These processes in turn are detrimental to living organisms such as fishes and aquatic plants in the area. Also, animal wastes mean additional suspended material in the water solution and, together with the decomposition of organic matter, can cause the water body to have a strong, unpleasant odour, taste, and colour. Furthermore, dairy production is known for its intensive use of drinking water, which is a challenge for resource-constrained areas. Training Manual"}]},{"head":"Environmentally friendly practices for dairy farmers","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The following five main training topics have been recognized as key practical interventions that are recommended for delivering environmental improvements in Tanzania's dairy sector:"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"i. Sustainable soil management practices."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"ii. Improved animal feeds, feeding management, and nutrition."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"iii. Higher animal production through genetics and other management approaches, including better nutrient utilization for productive purposes to reduce maintenance on an individual animal or on a herd basis, increased feed efficiency, and decreased CH 4 per unit of meat or milk products."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"iv. Enhanced animal health and infrastructure."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"v. Proper manure management and use of biogas."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"Better environmental management practices, integrated into smallholder dairy keeping, can lessen adverse impacts on the environment. Opportunities for improved environmental management can be actualized across various areas in the country."}]},{"head":"Sustainable soil management practices","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Intensive dairy production can lead to soil and water pollution. Inappropriate use and management of organic and inorganic fertilizers and of water, as well as improper manure disposal, all lead to high concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and animal waste (Nonga, 2011;Kusiluka et al., 2012). Appropriate technologies-including soil and water conservation, soil fertility management, agroforestry, water harvesting, conservation agriculture, and indigenous knowledge-can augment productivity and production (Majule & Shishira, 2008). Examples of the technologies involved in enhancing soil management include the following (Figure 2)."}]},{"head":"Soil erosion control:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Soil erosion is caused by wind, water, or deep tillage, and leads to deterioration of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils and to the loss of natural vegetation. Recommended practices to control erosion include the use of farmyard manure, agroforestry, improved fallow, mixed farming, minimum land tillage, and growing forage grasses especially on contours."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Vegetation management: Improper cultivation practices, deforestation, overgrazing, fires, and collection of wood for fuel and construction are the major causes of vegetation degradation in this region. The natural regeneration of plants can be promoted through destocking, confining dairy animals, and restricting shifting agriculture and tree planting. 12 Training Manual"}]},{"head":"Improved animal feeds, feeding management, and nutrition","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"It is well known that feed contributes about 60-70% of the costs in dairy production. Roughages including forage grasses, legumes, and crop residues are the key feeds for ruminant livestock, including dairy cattle and goats."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Local production of roughages, and in particular, on-farm production of forage grasses and legumes, is not only profitable but also conserves the environment and provides households with multiple benefits."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"Dairy animal performance can be optimized through high-quality forages, which can tremendously improve milk production, animal growth, conception, and calving, while also reducing disease risks (Figures 3 and 4). Furthermore, high-quality forages, such as Brachiaria grasses, contain less fermentable fiber and pass through the digestive tract faster, allowing cows to consume more feed and produce more milk. The less time spent in enteric fermentation, the less CH 4 is generated. High-quality diets can increase net energy intake, and if the net energy is partitioned to milk, it will reduce CH 4 production. Establishment of multi-purpose trees such as Leucaena can serve as protein sources in animals' diets as well as contributing to climate change mitigation. "}]},{"head":"Forage conservation","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Forage quality can be enhanced by harvesting or grazing less-mature forages, selecting strains or species with strong genetic potential, growing improved forages that have superior digestibility such as Brachiaria grasses, and storing forages properly, especially ensiling into hay, silage, or leaf meal, to conserve digestible nutrient content, improve dietary utilization, and increase feed efficiency (Figures 5 and 6). In general, better-quality forages will contain a greater proportion of non-structural carbohydrates to neutral detergent fibre (NDF), or the NDF will be less woody to enable fast digestion and passage through the digestive tract. "}]},{"head":"Feed processing","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Processing forages by chopping them into the recommended size of 5-10 cm or by pelleting them will increase rumen NDF digestibility and can lessen CH 4 emissions as result of an increased passage rate."}]},{"head":"Improved animal genetics","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"About 97% of the cattle population in Tanzania is comprised of local breeds. While they are adapted to feed and water shortages, disease challenges, and harsh climates, the productivity of these breeds is generally suboptimal. Milk production is as low as 5 to 8 liters per cow per day over a lactation period of 200 days. Enhancing the genetic potential of dairy animals is critical, but it is equally important not to promote animals with strong genetic potential into climates and management environments where they cannot achieve their promise and will, in fact, perform worse than native breeds or crossbreeds due to management, disease, or climatic challenges. Herds of cattle are large in many sub-Saharan countries because the animals fulfill multiple roles ranging from draught power to the production of manure, milk, and meat, with low levels of nutrition supply that diminish production. This situation creates high competition with other users of land and water resources and the environment."}]},{"head":"14","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Training Manual"},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"An acceptable, efficient, and sustainable method of production, such as genetic selection and breeding, could enable environmental sustainability in the dairy production system (Figures 7 and 8). Genetic selection can increase the productivity of animals. Breeding can help adapt animals to local conditions and address issues associated with reproduction, vulnerability to stress, adaptability to climate change, and disease incidence. Better breeding management practices, such as using artificial insemination and ensuring access to wide genetic pools for selection, can accelerate those gains (FAO, 2014). "}]},{"head":"Improved animal health and infrastructure","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Improving animal health services, including disease prevention and management, has notable benefits for the efficiency of livestock systems and food security, while reducing GHG emissions. Dairy cow performance is affected by the occurrence of numerous animal illnesses, tick-borne infections, and internal and external parasites."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"The \"unproductive emissions\" connected to death and sickness impact the emission intensity of animals. Animal death rates are substantial, ranging between 15% and 25% for calves. Many health problems originate because animals are in poor condition due to inadequate nutrition, but also due to the limited availability of animal health care. Sickness has an indirect effect on emission intensities because it causes slower growth, lower mature weight, worse reproductive performance, and a diminished milk supply (Kusiluka et al., 2012). The major animal pests and diseases in the tropics are East Coast Fever, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, brucellosis, rinderpest, ticks, and internal parasites."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Improving reproduction rates and extending the reproductive life of animals will increase productivity and lower CH 4 and emission intensities. Relevant interventions include reducing the incidence of endemic, productionlimiting diseases that have several negative outcomes, including death or cull of previously healthy animals, decreased live-weight gain, suboptimal milk yield and quality, lessened fertility, abortions, and additional waste. Healthier animals are generally more productive and have lower CH 4 emission intensities."}]},{"head":"Manure management practices","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"In most small-scale livestock production systems in Tanzania, proper integrated manure management is not practiced, resulting in nutrient loss, environmental degradation, human and cattle health hazards, and GHG emissions (Figure 9). The difficulties in management could be due to a lack of either an ideal location to dispose of cow manure or appropriate technology to reuse it and comply with environmental rules."},{"index":2,"size":186,"text":"Training Manual Diet can have a significant impact on the chemistry of manure, including faeces and urine, and, as a result, on GHG emissions during storage and after application. Organic nitrogen and inorganic ammoniacal nitrogen are both present in animal manures. The majority of organic nitrogen is found in organic matter, whereas ammoniacal nitrogen is found in the form of ammonium (NH 4 + ) or free ammonia (NH 3 ). When NH 4 + is exposed to the open air, it degrades into gaseous NH 3 , which is then released into the atmosphere (FAO & New Zealand Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Centre, 2019). Reduced dietary nutrient digestibility is likely to heighten the fermentable organic matter concentration in manure, thereby increasing CH 4 emissions. As an effective emission mitigation strategy for ammonia and N 2 O in manure, feeding protein close to an animal's requirements, including altering dietary protein concentrations with lactation or according to growth stage, is recommended. Low-protein diets for ruminants should be balanced for rumen-degradable protein so that microbial protein synthesis and fiber degradability are not impaired (CIAT & World Bank, 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"The use of semi-permeable covers is valuable for reducing ammonia, CH 4 , and odor emissions at storage, but is likely to increase N 2 O emissions when effluents are spread on pasture or crops. Impermeable membranes, such as oil layers and sealed plastic covers, are effective in reducing gaseous emissions but are not very practical. Combusting accumulated CH 4 to produce electricity or heat is recommended. Further effective methods for reducing ammonia and CH 4 emissions from stored manure include cooling and, in areas where soil acidity is not an issue, acidification. Composting can effectively reduce CH 4 but can have a variable effect on N 2 O emissions and increases ammonia and total nitrogen losses. Anaerobic digesters are a recommended mitigation strategy for CH 4 that generate renewable energy and provide sanitation opportunities in developing economies, but their effect on N 2 O emissions is unclear (Mushi et al., 2015). Management of digestion systems is important to prevent them from becoming net emitters of GHGs (Figure 10; FAO, 2010). "}]},{"head":"Use of biogas","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":299,"text":"Organic waste can be collected and used to make biogas, a renewable source of energy, to minimize GHG emissions and the dangers of pollution to rivers. When biogas replaces fossil fuels, it decreases emissions even more, resulting in carbon-negative systems in some cases.  Biogas provides a clean and easily controlled source of renewable energy and, when adequately applied, can significantly reduce observed rates of deforestation (Figure 11). Biogas has dual potential applications. It can be used directly to replace firewood and charcoal and hence slow the rate of deforestation. Alternatively, it can be converted to electricity using a heat engine, which can solve electric energy challenges. Biogas can also lessen emissions in the air and soil. Slurry from manure stored in biodigesters for biogas emits less N 2 O than fresh manure applied directly to grassland (Amon et al., 2006;Lekule & Sarwatt, 1997). During storage and anaerobic digestion in biodigesters, readily available carbon in slurry, which could cause denitrification, is incorporated into the microbial biomass or is lost as CO 2 or CH 4 . As a result, there is less available carbon in the slurry to fuel denitrification when the slurry is applied to land (Mushi et al., 2015). Indeed, controlled anaerobic digestion is potentially a \"win-win\" management of animal manure, since CH 4 emitted during storage as a biogas is used to produce heat and electricity, while N 2 O emissions after digested slurry is spread are also reduced. The rate, timing, and placement of animal effluent applied to soils all affect potential N 2 O emissions. Emissions of N 2 O from manure are higher when manure is applied to wet soil than when it is applied to drier soil; emission peaks generally occur within 24 hours of application (Mushi et al., 2015;Eckard et al., 2010)."}]},{"head":"18","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Training Manual"}]},{"head":"Closing remarks","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"This training manual cannot possibly cover every local farm situation. However, it gives a good overview of the underlying principles of well-performed, sustainable smallholder dairy production through environmental conservation-based solutions. Although in practice there still are many barriers and bottlenecks hindering the optimal use of sustainable dairy production, applying the best available practices can enhance the production and productivity of livestock, protect nature and the environment, and promote the household economy through dairy business value chains."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"A dairy cow feeding on Brachiaria Mlato II at Mzee Petro in Hallu Village, Babati Manyara Region. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance Dairy cows feeding on chopped Napier grass. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance A dairy cow feeding on dairy meal. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Uncovered cattle manure draining its slurry into a surface water resource. --------------------------10 "},{"text":"Figure 3 :Figure 4 : Figure 3: Dairy cows feeding on corn silage in Kilimanjaro Region. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance --------12 Figure 4: Improved forage species Brachiaria hybrid cv. Cobra in Tanga.Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12 "},{"text":"Figure 5 :Figure 6 : Figure 5: Integrated improved forage, namely Brachiaria grass, and vegetable production for greater availability of dairy feed and soil improvement. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance ---------------------12 Figure 6: Improved forage (Brachiaria cv. Cobra) preserved in the form of silage and hay in Siha District, Kilimanjaro Region, and Muheza District, Tanga Region.Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 "},{"text":"Figure 8 :Figure 9 :Figure 10 :Figure 11 : Figure 8: A heap of uncovered manure, leading to emissions of methane and nitrous oxide gases and considerable nutrient losses. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance -------------------------------15 Figure 9: A heap of covered manure on a small dairy farm. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance ------------------15 Figure 10: A structure designed to for storing cattle manure; the manure is stacked in four phases, with 21 days in the first three phases and 14 days in the fourth phase, until it comes to maturity and can be applied on the farm. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance ----------------------------16 Figure 11: Overview of the manure chain from collection to application --------------------------------------------16 "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Uncovered cattle manure draining its slurry into a surface water resource. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2:The upper image depicts a heavily grazed area with many animals, experiencing wind and water erosion due to a loss of vegetation cover. The lower image shows an area with fewer animals and vegetation cover, as well as healthier cows with increased milk production. "},{"text":"Figure 3 :Figure 4 : Figure 3: Dairy cows feeding on corn silage in Kilimanjaro Region. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance "},{"text":"Figure 5 :Figure 6 : Figure 5: Integrated improved forage, namely Brachiaria grass, and vegetable production for greater availability of dairy feed and soil improvement. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Improved dairy cows in Daluni Mkinga District, Tanga Region, feeding on improved forages (Brachiaria cv. Cobra) to enhance milk output while lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: A heap of uncovered manure, leading to emissions of methane and nitrous oxide gases and considerable nutrient losses. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance "},{"text":"Figure 11 : Figure 11: Overview of the manure chain from collection to application "},{"text":"Figure 10 : Figure 10: A structure designed to for storing cattle manure; the manure is stacked in four phases, with 21 days in the first three phases and 14 days in the fourth phase, until it comes to maturity and can be applied on the farm. Credit: David Ngunga/Alliance "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"c2e9cb3f-8f59-4b63-b9a4-88e373802e07","abstract":"Cover Image: Local livestock feed does not have the same nutritional value as improved varieties. Livestock farmers in Tanzania, are finding ways of boosting their production and lowering their environmental impact by planting improved forages. (Credit: GeorginaSmith /CIAT) Training Manual The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) delivers research-based solutions that address the global crises of malnutrition, climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation.The Alliance focuses on the nexus of agriculture, nutrition and environment. We work with local, national, and multinational partners across Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, and with the public and private sectors and civil society. With novel partnerships, the Alliance generates evidence and mainstreams innovations to transform food systems and landscapes so that they sustain the planet, drive prosperity, and nourish people in a climate crisis.The Alliance is part of CGIAR, the world's largest agricultural research and innovation partnership for a food-secure future dedicated to reducing poverty, enhancing food and nutrition security, and improving natural resources. www.bioversityinternational.org www.ciat.cgiar.org www.cgiar.org International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) ILRI envisions a world where all people have access to enough food and livelihood options to fulfil their potential. ILRI's mission is to improve food and nutritional security and to reduce poverty in developing countries through research for efficient, safe and sustainable use of livestock-ensuring better lives through livestock. https://www.ilri.org/ The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock aims to create a well-nourished, equitable and environmentally healthy world through livestock research for development. For more information, please visit https://livestock.cgiar.org"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0748eadefbc943fa36db29dd9f4d1426","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/990019e6-3a26-4c3b-89d8-95dac6d0a2e6/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Key stakeholders and platforms/networks in food system transformation in Vietnam in 2022 SHiFT WP5 Vietnam, December 2022","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"The stakeholder identification is initiated under the SHiFT initiative to identify with whom the project needs to engage with in order to achieve food system transformations. It brings together all the stakeholders working on food systems issues in a so-called 'living' database that can be used to quickly identify potential stakeholders in each of the SHIFT focal countries. Understanding, engaging and capacitating the different food system stakeholders will provide diverse perspectives to foster collaborations to leverage transformative actions across the system to improve outcomes. This stakeholder identification is a first step to build an understanding who (people and institutions) is engaged with food system issues at different governance levels, including public and private actors, those working in formal and informal sectors at national, regional and local government level."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"In addition, the SHiFT country engagement approach is looking to connect with and strengthen existing stakeholder (coordination) mechanisms or platforms in the domain of food system transformation rather than establish new collaborative structures. Applying a stakeholder platform mapping tool to detect (coordination) structures engaged around food system issues existing platforms and networks are identified."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"For the 2022 baseline stakeholder identification, in Vietnam data was collected building on:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"-Existing participant lists from previous consultations under A4NH; -Stakeholders known from ongoing collaborations (e.g. ongoing projects, existing networks, etc.);"},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"-List of delegates of various Food Systems Dialogues organized by the Ministry for Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) in Vietnam ahead of the United Nations Food System Summit (UNFSS) in 2021 with the technical support from the Alliance."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"-List of private companies and cooperatives that received training on production and business skills in previous projects of the Alliance."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"After the stakeholder identification, we have employed two ways of information validation."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"-For organizations like ministries and sub-departments under ministries which include many departments and divisions, we have validated information directly via direct consultation workshop held on the 24 th November 2022 that were integrated with the Zero Hunger Nation Action Program."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"-For other organizations, we have validated information via emails."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"The validation process has involved some major steps:"},{"index":9,"size":56,"text":"-Step 1: Validation preparation: First we make a template for each stakeholder with all information that we have gathered from their website and/or on our own understanding. This template includes the names of the stakeholders in full with acronymed names, link to website, area of focus, key activities implemented, products generated, areas of operation, contact points."},{"index":10,"size":52,"text":"-Step 2: Present the objective of validation: In order for stakeholders to understand our work and spend time to validate information, we have shared common objectives of this activity in the consultation workshop or via emails. Additionally we have shared with them some documents about Work package 5 and the SHiFT initiative."},{"index":11,"size":1,"text":"-"},{"index":12,"size":13,"text":"Step 3: Gather validated information: Validated information will be updated in the database."},{"index":13,"size":12,"text":"The process is also applied to the identification of networks and platforms."}]},{"head":"Key stakeholders in food system transformation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"In total, over 87 key stakeholders were identified, representing 8 groups of stakeholders (see Table 1). "}]},{"head":"International Institutions/Donor Institutions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"This category includes organizations which fund projects and provide grants. We have currently identified 6 organizations, including ADB, ACIAR, USDA, Embassy of Canada, the World Bank, WHO. This group has provided grants in relevant sectors to create economic and development impacts, increase linkages between small-and medium-sized enterprises and global value chains, manage food safety, promotes good governance and legal reforms."}]},{"head":"United Nations Organizations","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"This category includes organizations such as FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, UNIDO, UNDP that we have close collaboration with and other organizations that are members of the United Nations. These organizations have been expanded towards strengthening institutions, policies, social protection, health, education, agriculture, and more. They has focused on activities to eradicate poverty and reduce inequalities through sustainable development, strengthened Viet Nam's sustainable industrial development and competitiveness, provided technical assistance, in accelerating SDG achievements."}]},{"head":"Governments institutions • National Government Ministries and Agencies","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"This sub-category includes ministries and other governmental organizations who have a mandate to support national level programs. Each organization is responsible for relevant sectors. They include Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) (food production; food supply, food processing and trade, food safety), Ministry of Health (MOH) (nutrition; food safety, policy) , Ministry of Industry and Trade (MOIT) (food processing and trading, food safety, policy), Ministry of Planning and Industry (MOPI) (Policy, plan for economic development), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) (environment, policy), etc."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Each ministry is in charge of state management in their own sector. For instance, MARD is responsible for rural development and the governance, promotion and nurturing of agriculture and the agriculture industry. MOH responsible for state management of food safety for all food products, micronutrients, food additives, food processing aids, imported products as processed foods, pre-packaged tools, packaging materials, containers that direct contact with food. MOIT performs the function on state management and development of the food industry. Those three ministries are responsible for food safety management."}]},{"head":"• Sub-national Government","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"This sub-category includes departments at the provincial levels in the network with ministries, which are in charge of state management and the overall implementation in the common field or relevant areas. They are Provincial People Committees and relevant departments. This network is quite large, to each province. In addition, this sub-category also include centers for specific tasks under relevant departments (e.g. SMEs Supporting Center, etc.)"}]},{"head":"Research Institutions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"This category conducts scientific research and applied research in relevant sectors. In addition, the group has the mandates of consultation, evaluation, comments on strategy, policy, planning, plans, programs, schemes and projects. It is divided in 3 subcategories: "}]},{"head":"Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"This category is divided into to subcategories, as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"• International NGOs They includes large, well established international NGOs with a presence in multiple countries (for example, organizations like Rikolto, Oxfam, SNV, CARE International, World Vision International, FHI 360, CropLife, etc.). This group collaborates with national partners to enhance capacity, increasing income, and improving life quality of the disadvantaged groups, especially ethnic minority people, women and girls, poor farmers and other vulnerable groups; strengthen capacity of local organizations in planning and implementation of programs on poverty reduction, especially in rural and mountainous areas of Vietnam; and provide inputs and feedbacks on strategy and policy development processes for sustainable socio-economic development of rural and mountainous areas. Gender is expressed much in their activities."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"• "}]},{"head":"Civil Society Organizations","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"This category includes centers under national organizations assembling and representing business community, employers and business associations in Vietnam, for example, SME Support Center under Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry (VCCI), etc.; unions working to support specific groups in society in production and economic development, for example, Vietnam Farmer's Union (VFU), Vietnam Women's Union (VWU), etc.; associations and groups of local people who are united around a certain issues, for example, consumer rights groups like Vietnam Consumers Protection Association (VICOPRO), Transparent Food Association (AFT); groups of organizations to support each other in production and business, like Vietnam Gardening Association (VACVina), Vietnam Organic Agriculture Association (VOAA)."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"In general, this category organizes service and consultant activities (training, mentoring, coaching, etc.) and supports relevant beneficiaries in production and business and resolve issues that they encounter."}]},{"head":"Private sector","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The category private sector is quite comprehensive, so sub-divided into a number of subcategories."}]},{"head":"• Input Supply organizations","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"This subcategory includes cooperatives as well as private companies, who supply inputs to farmers (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, machinery). This subcategory has provided a wide range of agricultural solutions to Vietnamese farmers through high-yield, high-quality hybrid seeds and pesticides as well as fertilizers. They include international input companies like Syngenta, Bayer CropScience, etc.; national leading cooperations and companies like The PAN Group Joint Stock Company (the PAN group), Vietnam National Seed Group JSC (Vinaseed), Tan Loc Phat Seeds Company Limited (Tan Loc Phat Company); and some distribution companies like Hoang Gia seed company. Of which international input companies and national leading companies have R&D activities and systematic distribution networks while distribution companies mainly focus on input distribution. Especially the PAN group -affiliated with some leading company like Vietnam National Seed Group JSC (Vinaseed), Lafoocois -is a pioneering agriculture and food group, providing trustworthy products and innovative solutions within an integrated value chain -Farm, Food, Family."}]},{"head":"• Farmers groups/Associations","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"This subcategory of stakeholders includes representative groups including cooperatives, farmers associations or other types of groups who represent the interests of various farmer as well as key large scale farming companies. This group primarily produces and trade products with standard certification (VietGAP, safe standards, organic) like vegetables, fruits, etc."}]},{"head":"• Buyers/traders/consultancy firms","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"This subcategory includes companies that purchase and aggregate food products for distribution, for example Fresh Studio, Platform Vietnam, etc. Their scope of work ranges from agricultural inputs to fresh produce, processed goods and end consumer products."}]},{"head":"• Processers","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"This subcategory consists of micro/small/medium and larger companies who produce and process foods for the domestic market and a small part of it for export, for example Loc Troi JSC (Loc Troi Group), Olam Rice Vietnam, CP Viet Nam Corporation (CP group), Vietnam Northern Food Cooperation (Vinafood 1), etc. Large processors often develop their networks with various numbers of farmers/cooperatives as well as micro/small/medium companies."}]},{"head":"• Vendors and Retail (including informal actors)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"This subcategory includes supermarkets, major distributers as well as associations who represent groups of informal actors (associations of market traders for example). Examples could be Bac Tom food chain, Biggreen Safe Food Company, etc. This group mainly focus on food distribution via their own large networks."}]},{"head":"Overview of technical working groups, networks, and platforms","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Technical working groups, networks, and platforms have potential to drive food systems discussions at different governance levels and focuses on the connectivity among food system stakeholders. This section is divided in two groups: platforms maintaining an active operational agenda, and platforms tied to specific projects/programs. Platforms that are no longer active, dormant or otherwise inactive are not presented. "}]},{"head":"Active platforms and networks","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The common activities of these flatforms are to organize meetings to analyse, assess, and support innovations and transformation in relevant sectors. These flatforms are considered effective networks for members to share experience as well as update information. "}]},{"head":"Platforms tied to specific projects/programs","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"These flatforms are specific for projects/programs with the aim at planning, multi-sector and intersector approaches, and resource mobilisation for the implementation. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Number of stakeholders identified by  "},{"text":"group No. Name of groups of stakeholders Number  1 International Institutions/Donor Institutions 6 1International Institutions/Donor Institutions6 2 United Nations Organizations 5 2United Nations Organizations5 3 Governments institutions 11 3Governments institutions11 4 Research Institutions 14 4Research Institutions14 5 Academic Institutions 7 5Academic Institutions7 6 Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 10 6Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)10 7 Civil Society Organizations 11 7Civil Society Organizations11 8 Private sector 23 8Private sector23  Total 87 Total87  "},{"text":"• National Governmental Research Organizations They include Vietnam Academy of Agricultural Sciences (VAAS includes 15 affiliated research institutes under VAAS Fruit and Vegetable Research Institutes -FAVRI, CASRAD), National Institute of Nutrition (NIN), Institute for Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development (IPSARD), Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and Environment (IPONSE). • National- • National-  "},{"text":"not government related Research Organizations They include Mekong Development Research Institute (MDRI) which provide services to conduct a large number of applied research projects from policy review, market research, and surveys to randomized control trials. The institute provides services on survey and data management, monitoring and evaluation, etc. and FocusGroupGo Asia Pacific which provide consultation services for projects. FocusGroupGo Asia Pacific played as a curator of national food system dialogues of Vietnam.They include organizations under CGIAR (e.g. the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, IRRI, ILRI, CIP, ICRAF), CIRAD, HealthBridge Foundation of Canada -Vietnam office. Those organizations work closely with theirs partners who are ministries and national government and not government related research organizations to make food and agriculture systems more sustainable, efficient and inclusive, through sustainably funded science, research-based solutions and inclusive knowledge generation. • International Research Organizations • International Research Organizations Academic Institutions Academic Institutions  "},{"text":" Local NGOsLocal NGOs (for example, the Consultative Institute for Socio-Economic Development of Rural and Mountainous Areas (CISDOMA), Center for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies (CARES), etc.). This group are often established under universities or research institutes but operate independently. They work closely with other governmental organizations and international NGOs to carry out projects in the relevant fields. Some of them have conducted R&D activities to develop products for sales and transfer technology like aquaponics, chickenponics, etc.  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Number of technical working groups, networks, and platforms identified by group  No. Name of groups of stakeholders Number No.Name of groups of stakeholdersNumber 1 Active platforms and networks 19 1Active platforms and networks19 2 Platforms tied to specific projects/programs 4 2Platforms tied to specific projects/programs4  "},{"text":" They include Food Safety Working Group (FSWG), Markets and Agriculture Linking Chains in Asia (MALICA), Technical Working Group on Nutrition (TWGN), Slowfood Community in Hanoi (SCH), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Policy Partnership on Food Security (APEC-PPFS), Vietnam Standards and Quality Association (VINASTAQ), Vietnam Consumers Protection Association (VICOPRO), Vietnam Gardening Association (VACVINA), Vietnam Organic Agriculture Association (VOAA), Horticulture Innovation Club (HIC), The Vietnam Association of Food Science and Technology (VAFoST), Nutritional Foods Group (NFG) -European Chamber of Commerce in Vietnam (EuroCham), Scaling Up Nutrition Movement (SUN), Scaling Up Nutrition Civil Society Alliance (SUN CSA), Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resources Management Working Group (SANRM), Common Microbial Biotechnology Platform (CMBP), The Viet Nam One Health Partnership for Zoonoses (OneHealth), The Agroecology Learning alliance in South East Asia (ALiSEA), etc.  "},{"text":" They include Post harvest network, Steering board Zero hunger Challenge Action Program, The Steering Committee of the National Nutrition Strategy (NNS), Mekong Region Multistakeholder platform, etc.  "}],"sieverID":"8aab6ebd-a607-402e-bbf7-de42f53c1ba3","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"077948a028a6fb3369fa154620d45164","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0a4c5053-6573-4358-8a81-b872576d7a5c/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Progress accelerates and stagnates as breakthroughs are made","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"• Control FMD where control not previously possible"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Same level of control but more efficient (time, cost)"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• Increased certainty in disease/infection status (trade, rapid detection)"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"• Increased understanding"}]},{"head":"Global control with current technologies","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Countries with outbreaks in free zones Jan 2005-Aug 2014"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"• Free countries "}]},{"head":"FMD research needs","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• Literature review -FMD publications 2011-14"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Institute updates on current research  "}]},{"head":"Diagnostics","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• Progress "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Preparedness, early detection and control • Free and endemic with vaccination • Vaccine immunity -duration, match • Vaccine stability, safety, strategy & evaluation • Proving freedom • Limited control activities • Impact estimation • Feasibility of FMD control -effectiveness, cost, convenience/compliance "},{"text":"••• Modelling approaches developed & widely used • Importance of field evaluation of control programmes • Alternatives to stamping out [vaccinate-to-live] • Incentivisation through commodity-based trade • Gaps • Evaluation & validation of models • Practicalities of vaccinate-to-live • Safety & acceptance of commodity-based trade • Strategies & guidance for endemic countries Knowledge Vaccine matching tests & measures of cross-protective immunity • Further development of modelling approaches for policy guidance • Improved, cross-protective, DIVA vaccines 2. Reduce risk to Members of an FMD incursion from the neighbourhood • Cheaper vaccines with long lasting, broad spectrum immunity • Capacity building -technical skills, regional collaboration, vaccine quality assurance • Improved knowledge and monitoring of wildlife and illegal trade 3. Promote the global FMD control strategy • Cheaper vaccines with long lasting, broad spectrum immunity [SAT 2, African strains] • Can FMD be controlled with current vaccines without effective biosecurity? • Economic impact of FMD & when are control efforts cost-effective • Evaluation of commodity based trade as a safe way of exporting from wildlife FMD endemic areas • Progress in genetic and molecular technologies will benefit all EuFMD -3 Pillars: Research needs 1. Improve readiness for FMD crisis management by Members • Vaccine matching tests & measures of cross-protective immunity • Further development of modelling approaches for policy guidance • Improved, cross-protective, DIVA vaccines 2. Reduce risk to Members of an FMD incursion from the neighbourhood • Cheaper vaccines with long lasting, broad spectrum immunity • Capacity building -technical skills, regional collaboration, vaccine quality assurance • Improved knowledge and monitoring of wildlife and illegal trade 3. Promote the global FMD control strategy • Cheaper vaccines with long lasting, broad spectrum immunity [SAT 2, African strains] • Can FMD be controlled with current vaccines without effective biosecurity? • Economic impact of FMD & when are control efforts cost-effective • Evaluation of commodity based trade as a safe way of exporting from wildlife FMD endemic areas • Progress in genetic and molecular technologies will benefit all EuFMD -3 Pillars: Research needs 1. Improve readiness for FMD crisis management by Members • Vaccine matching tests & measures of cross-protective immunity • Further development of modelling approaches for policy guidance • Improved, cross-protective, DIVA vaccines 2. Reduce risk to Members of an FMD incursion from the neighbourhood • Cheaper vaccines with long lasting, broad spectrum immunity • Capacity building -technical skills, regional collaboration, vaccine quality assurance • Improved knowledge and monitoring of wildlife and illegal trade 3. Promote the global FMD control strategy • Cheaper vaccines with long lasting, broad spectrum immunity • Can FMD be controlled with current vaccines without effective biosecurity? • Economic impact of FMD & when are control efforts cost-effective • Evaluation of commodity based trade as a safe way of exporting from wildlife FMD endemic areas • Progress in genetic and molecular technologies will benefit all EuFMD -3 Pillars: Research needs 1. Improve readiness for FMD crisis management by Members • Vaccine matching tests & measures of cross-protective immunity • Further development of modelling approaches for policy guidance • Improved, cross-protective, DIVA vaccines 2. Reduce risk to Members of an FMD incursion from the neighbourhood • Cheaper vaccines with long lasting, broad spectrum immunity • Capacity building -technical skills, regional collaboration, vaccine quality assurance • Improved knowledge and monitoring of wildlife and illegal trade 3. Promote the global FMD control strategy • Cheaper vaccines with long lasting, broad spectrum immunity • Can FMD be controlled with current vaccines without effective biosecurity? • Economic impact of FMD & when are control efforts cost-effective • Evaluation of commodity based trade as a safe way of exporting from wildlife FMD endemic areas • Progress in genetic and molecular technologies is crucial & will benefit all EuFMD -3 Pillars: Research needs "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"research review -approach Peer-reviewed publications June 2011-14  Research Category Papers (n) Research CategoryPapers (n) Epidemiology 116 (23%) Epidemiology116 (23%) Vaccines 94 (19%) Vaccines94 (19%) Pathogenesis 74 (15%) Pathogenesis74 (15%) Molecular biology 57 (11%) Molecular biology57 (11%) Diagnostics 55 (11%) Diagnostics55 (11%) Immunology 50 (10%) Immunology50 (10%) Policy, preparedness and trade 38 (8%) Policy, preparedness and trade38 (8%) Wildlife 19 (4%) Wildlife19 (4%) Vaccine evaluation (quality, efficacy, effectiveness) 16 (3%) Vaccine evaluation (quality, efficacy, effectiveness)16 (3%) Other 15 (3%) Other15 (3%) Economics 14 (3%) Economics14 (3%) Biotherapeutics 13 (3%) Biotherapeutics13 (3%)  "},{"text":"Total 505 (100%) Half modelling studies Economic studies needed by those with least resources Vaccines -The ideal FMD vaccine  • Faster, cheaper, simpler diagnostics • Effective, rapid and long-lasting protection with one inoculation • RT-LAMP, high-speed, portable PCR, sequencing • Faster, cheaper, simpler diagnostics • Effective, rapid and long-lasting protection with one inoculation • RT-LAMP, high-speed, portable PCR, sequencing • Prevents viral transmission & carrier state • Simple pen-side tests • Prevents viral transmission & carrier state • Simple pen-side tests • More powerful molecular techniques • Allow differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA) • Next generation sequencing • More powerful molecular techniques • Allow differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA) • Next generation sequencing • Tools for molecular epidemiology • Tools for molecular epidemiology • Better understanding of within-host virus evolution, between animal transmission, •Better understanding of within-host virus evolution, between animal transmission,  population level virus ecology population level virus ecology • Gaps  • Gaps • Continued progress in rapid/simple diagnostics & molecular techniques • Continued progress in rapid/simple diagnostics & molecular techniques • Vaccine matching -beyond small scale, imprecise antibody assays • Vaccine matching -beyond small scale, imprecise antibody assays • Wildlife diagnostics & sampling (under investigation) • Wildlife diagnostics & sampling (under investigation)  "}],"sieverID":"37a454cd-c198-4b29-a098-103c27d6c38b","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0852b252114df17865ed37df9863237b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0852b252114df17865ed37df9863237b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/601d1365-cf70-41a9-8465-e7342dcc8eca/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Underutilised food species database with nutrition data, common and local names, medicinal uses and links to recipes","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Project Title: P331 -Policy process analysis and policy engagement Description of the innovation: The database currently displays information for 185 prioritized underutilised food species. Entries include nutrition data, common and local names, medicinal uses and links to recipes, when available. Additional nutrition information is available for some species at the variety level. This database fills a gap in global food composition information. Global databases and food composition tables tend not to include nutritional values of orphan crops nor traditional knowledge associated with their collection, preparation and use. "}]},{"head":"New Innovation: No","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Research and Communication Methodologies and Tools Stage of innovation: Stage 4: uptake by next user (USE) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Outcome Impact Case Report: <Not Defined> Description of Stage reached: The database is online along with a growing global online repository of information on biodiversity for food and nutrition. Researchers from Bioversity International and other partners monitor use with Google Analytics. A recent publication (https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/10/2/231/htm) highlights further applications in research and policy. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: Bioversity (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Headquarter (Bioversity International) Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • Government of Brazil • Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Turkey) • KALRO -Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization • UNEP / UN Enviroment -The United Nations Environment Programme • FAO -Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations • Ministry of Wildlife and Forest Conservation (Sri Lanka) Milestones: No milestones associated Sub-IDOs: • 27 -Enrichment of plant and animal biodiversity for multiple goods and services • 16 -Optimized consumption of diverse nutrient-rich foods 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:47 (GMT+0) "}],"sieverID":"f1dd862f-fd6a-4021-aba6-b52c256d60cd","abstract":""}

data/part_3/088f28cf9d9136ac869ecc5472288bda.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"088f28cf9d9136ac869ecc5472288bda","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b76ba770-3764-41a5-9b92-e2a8e7846b40/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"The MoreMilk project aims to improve child health and nutrition through milk consumption. It will evaluate the potential of milk markets and milk development interventions to contribute to health and nutrition outcomes. It will do this by (a) assessing how markets and policies influence the quantity and safety of milk consumed in urban settings; (b) assessing the health and nutrition benefits of a successfully piloted informal dairy sector intervention (trader-intervention), through a randomized control trial in Nairobi; (c) assessing the potential reach of the trader-intervention as well as bridges and barriers to scale and sustainability through surveys in Kenya, Assam (India) and Tanzania; (d) assessing the drivers of milk consumption in urban and rural Kenya and Tanzania and developing a social behaviour change communication strategy for milk consumption and (e) scoping priority areas for food safety investments with a focus on Ethiopia, Tanzania, Nigeria and Burkina Faso."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"To support the project, the following communication plan spells out the proposed strategy for publication and research uptake. It covers the communication objectives and guiding principles, target audiences, activities, channels, monitoring and evaluation approaches and the people involved in implementation."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The objectives of the communication plan are to:"},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"1. Create awareness about the project's activities and research outputs 2. Ensure research outputs and data are available, accessible and reusable 3. Promote knowledge sharing and engagement among stakeholders and partners"}]},{"head":"Guiding principles","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The following principles will guide the implementation of the communication plan."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Quality: Editorial quality will adhere to the relevant guidelines for editing and publishing of documents, such as the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) research publishing guidelines and peer-reviewed journals' instructions to authors."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Consistency: Use of branding elements such as logos and boilerplate text in communication products will be in line with institutional and donor guidelines."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Open access: Research outputs will be managed in line with ILRI's Open Access policy (http://www.ilri.org/open) which provides for creative commons licensing for research products, allowing them to be used and re-used freely provided the source is acknowledged. Likewise, research data will be managed in line with ILRI's policy on research data management and sharing which provides for datasets to be made available in an Open Access data portal (http://data.ilri.org/portal). The donor is providing additional funding for publication of results in open access channels."}]},{"head":"Audiences","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The communication plan aims to meet the information needs of the following internal and external audience groups:"}]},{"head":"Activities and communication channels","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Various activities will be undertaken and communications support provided to effectively convey key messages to relevant audience groups. These activities include:"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• Publishing: writing, editing and production of research outputs. These include peerreviewed journal articles, research reports, working papers, posters, conference presentations, research briefs and policy briefs"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• Blogging and web content management: posting of regular updates on project activities, events and outputs"},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"• Republishing via various online platforms e.g. ILRI social media channels (Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn) as well as the CGIAR website's Agriculture for Nutrition and Health page and CGIAR Twitter account"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Curation: indexing of project outputs on CGSpace institutional repository (http://cgspace.cgiar.org)."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"• Management of research datasets"},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"• Repackaging of technical content into simplified formats such as policy briefs, posters and infographics"},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"• Internal communication: knowledge and information sharing among team members (e.g. via email, face-to-face and virtual meetings)"},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"• Media engagement: media briefings for dissemination of significant research findings and policy recommendations"},{"index":10,"size":21,"text":"• Dialogues such as workshops and seminars for engagement and information sharing with stakeholders such as community members and policy influencers"},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"• Newsletter (quarterly or biannual): To be distributed to project partners, donors, stakeholders and other relevant audiences."}]},{"head":"Social media channels","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Various ILRI social media tools will be used to enhance the online discoverability, reach and accessibility of the project's research. These social media channels include:"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"• AgHealth blog"},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"In addition, to support internal communication among the project team members, social media tools like Wikispaces and Yammer may be used as internal working spaces for collaborative planning and sharing of information on intermediate project outputs."}]},{"head":"Synergies with other projects and initiatives","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"We will partner with the following initiatives in order to increase reach and influence:"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• Chatham House-ILRI collaboration: summarises evidence on the importance of livestock products for the first 1,000 days and the risks of foodborne disease associated with livestock products."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• Land O'Lakes-ILRI collaboration: a series of learning events around livestock products and household nutrition impacts."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"• Supporting Global Livestock Advocacy for Development project funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. We will develop messages on livestock products nutrition and health for advocacy."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• SNV-Regional Strategic Analysis and Knowledge Support System advocacy project on milk in Kenya"},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"Monitoring and evaluation"},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"Communications will be monitored monthly. Changes in the following statistics will be tracked and measured:"},{"index":8,"size":2,"text":"• Subscribers"},{"index":9,"size":6,"text":"• Views (blog posts; web pages)"},{"index":10,"size":3,"text":"• Reader comments"},{"index":11,"size":4,"text":"• CGSpace document downloads"},{"index":12,"size":6,"text":"• Twitter followers, interactions and impressions"},{"index":13,"size":5,"text":"• Facebook likes and comments"},{"index":14,"size":3,"text":"• LinkedIn comments"},{"index":15,"size":7,"text":"• Coverage in print and online media"},{"index":16,"size":31,"text":"The strategy will be evaluated at the end of each year to assess the extent to which it is meeting the stated objectives. The key performance indicators to be evaluated are:"},{"index":17,"size":8,"text":"• Increased awareness of the project among audiences"},{"index":18,"size":9,"text":"• Increased discoverability, accessibility and use of project information  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Deliverables• Quarterly or biannual project newsletter • Six-monthly report on activities and monitoring and evaluation outcomes • Minutes for regular and extraordinary project meetings People involved Tezira Lore (communication specialist for ILRI's Food Safety and Zoonoses Program) will lead the implementation of the communication plan, working closely with and supported by ILRI's Communications and Knowledge Management Unit. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"• Enhanced knowledge sharing and engagement among project teams Feedback will be sought from both internal and external audiences on the content, channels, frequency of information dissemination, adequacy of information provided, what works and what doesn't work and what improvements need to be made. The feedback received will be used to refine the communication plan and its implementation.  "}],"sieverID":"1c303168-ca26-44c6-9e4e-d7ae145725f8","abstract":""}

data/part_3/08e6e86d4c09dbda3c1af1e7a8bed04b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08e6e86d4c09dbda3c1af1e7a8bed04b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb8da656-b1a9-4f40-a301-fb30faba4a2a/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"To cite this report","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"BACKGROUND","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"The Community-Based Breeding Program (CBBP) was introduced in Ethiopia in 2009 as an innovative sheep and goat breeding approach, departing from traditional methods that relied on exotic breeds and nucleus breeding. This program aims to improve the livelihoods of sheep and goat producers, enhance market supply and food security, and establish a replicable genetic improvement framework within and beyond Ethiopia. The Menz sheep community-based breeding program in North Shewa has been at the forefront of CBBP in Ethiopia, playing a crucial role in sustainable livestock development. As the Menz CBBP expands and accumulates a vast amount of data, the management and analysis of this data becomes increasingly complex, impeding the timely provision of feedback. Hence, a digital database system called DTREO has been developed and implemented to facilitate the data capture and analysis process. To ensure the functionality of the DTREO, a well-trained team of enumerators is essential to collect, maintain, and utilize data efficiently through a digital database. The objective of this training program is thus to equip enumerators working on Menz sheep CBBP with the necessary skills and knowledge to carry out their tasks effectively, thereby contributing to the overall success of the Menz community-based breeding program."}]},{"head":"TRAINING CONTENT","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"The training was focused on:"}]},{"head":"Introduction to the Menz Community-Based Breeding Program:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Menz sheep is one of the well-known and recognized for adaptation and disease-resistance breeds in Ethiopia. "}]},{"head":"It is widely reared in the","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"2.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Importance of data quality for the success of genetic improvement programs."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Accurate Breeding Value Estimation: Genetic improvement programs rely on estimating the breeding values of animals to make informed selection and mating decisions. Breeding values predict the genetic merit of individuals for specific traits. High-quality data ensures these estimates are as accurate as possible, leading to better selection decisions and genetic progress."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Effective Selection and Mating Decisions: Quality data allows breeders and geneticists to identify animals with desirable genetic traits and characteristics. Accurate information on traits such as productivity, health, and adaptability enables breeders to select animals that will contribute positively to the overall improvement of the population. Reliable data ensures that animals are chosen based on their true genetic potential, leading to more effective selection and mating decisions."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Enhanced Genetic Diversity Management: Genetic improvement programs aim to maintain and improve genetic diversity within a population. High-quality data helps identify individuals with unique genetic attributes and potential mating pairs that maximize genetic diversity. Accurate data on pedigree, ancestry, and genetic relationships enables breeders to make informed decisions to prevent inbreeding and maintain a healthy gene pool."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"Monitoring Progress and Evaluating Program Performance: Data quality is vital for tracking the progress of genetic improvement programs over time. By consistently collecting accurate and reliable data, breeders can assess the success of their selection strategies and evaluate the program's performance. This information helps identify areas for improvement, adjust breeding goals, and implement necessary changes to ensure continued progress."}]},{"head":"Practical training on how to use Dtreo for data collections","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Dtreo Genetic Database is a powerful tool for capturing and analyzing genetic data in breeding programs. To • Introduce enumerators to the Dtreo Genetic Database and its key features."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Train enumerators on data entry/capture procedures within the Dtreo database."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• Provide hands-on experience in using Dtreo for data collection in the field."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Familiarize enumerators with data validation and quality control measures within Dtreo."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• Demonstrate how to save captured data within Dtreo and ensure proper data storage."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"• Training on data transfer procedures from Dtreo to the cloud storage platform."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Menz area, where crop production and maintaining cattle are challenging due to shortages of moisture, frost, and poor soil fertility. The livelihood of people in the Menz area highly depends on the adaptive Menz sheep breed. Menz sheep CBBP is one of the prior initiatives that has been implemented since 2009 in Ethiopia. The breeding program was successful, and substantial genetic progress and economic benefits were attained. The training participants learned about Menz sheep CBBP, including comparisons and practical examples from other CBBPs, which helped them better understand the importance of CBBPs. This section provided an overview of the Menz community-based breeding program, including its goals, objectives, and significance in the region. "},{"text":" effectively utilize this database for data collection, providing practical training to enumerators is essential. This training program aims to familiarize enumerators with the functionalities and operations of Dtreo, enabling them to collect and manage genetic data efficiently for the genetic improvement program. DTREO training was provided based on the content: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/126192 and was focused on: "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"6a5676eb-83c7-446d-bcc5-7a43cc3cbcdf","abstract":"Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank."}

data/part_3/097423421bb649ebf084e9c1519e11f2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"097423421bb649ebf084e9c1519e11f2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bec73b8c-ec3e-47c5-b41c-92dc9b840d6a/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Effect of Field Multiplication Generation on Seed Potato Quality in Kenya","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The current average potato yields in Eastern Africa has been reported to be about 8 t*ha -1 (Obado et. al., 2010;FAO, 2010), which is well below the yields of 25 t*ha -1 attained by some progressive smallholder farmers, harvesting in the same soils and under the same rain fed conditions in these countries."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"The adoption of clean seed and new varieties can significantly help to close this -yield gap‖ and boost on-farm productivity. This yield gap can be attributed to the use of low quality seed potatoes (Kinyua et al., 2001), low yielding varieties, poor disease management (Olanya et al., 2001), and inadequate soil fertility management (Berga et al., 2001). However, potato seed quality is an important determinant of the final yield and quality (Struik and Wiersema, 1999).Low quality seed is believed to be one of the major yield reducing factors in potato production in Sub Sahara Africa (Fuglie, 2007). The accumulation of seed borne diseases in farm saved seed potatoes used for several cropping cycles causing severe degeneration (Gildemacher et al., 2007). Turkensteen (1987) identified bacterial wilt, caused by Ralstonia solanacearum Smith and virus diseases caused by Potato virus Y (PVY, family Potyviridae, genus Potyvirus) and Potato leaf roll virus (PLRV, family Luteoviridae, genus Polerovirus) as the most important seed borne potato diseases in Africa."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Despite several efforts to enhance seed potato multiplication systems in potato sub-Sahara Africa (Monares, 1987;Potts and Nikura, 1987;Crissman et al., 1993), potato farmers in Kenya still identified quality of seed potato as their major concern within potato production system and it was prioritized as an important technical intervention to improve smallholder potato profitability (Gildemacher et al., 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":140,"text":"Most potato growers in Kenya have two choices when faced with the decision of where to get their seed. They can use seed from their own harvest with higher disease levels each season, purchase seed from a neighbour, the local market, or from a specialist clean seed multiplier. The clean seed multipliers in turn get their [82] input seed traditionally from National programs who supply what is known as basic or certified seed. Basic and certified seed may have been inspected by a mandated government agency depending on National seed regulations. National programs produce basic seed by multiplying disease free -minitubers‖ in isolated fields, and are traditionally grown in pots in insect proof screenhouses. This whole cycle typically takes 5-7 seasons and the potato seed stocks inevitably accumulate seed borne diseases such as viruses or bacterial wilt through each cycle."},{"index":5,"size":289,"text":"However, the choice to use high-grade seed is strongly limited by its availability. In Kenya the amount of quality, regulated (certified) seed has been less than 1% of the estimated demand of 48,000 tons per year. Another 2% of seed is produced by informal seed multipliers using basic seed (3 rd FG) multiplying this for 1-3 seasons before selling it to ware potato producers (Obado et al., 2010). Additionally, about 2% of potato farmers practice -Positive Selection‖ method to improve their seed quality. The innovative extension intervention system known as -Select the Best‖ was developed by CIP and KARI and ran from 2004 up to 2007. Through the training potato producers learn how to maintain the quality of their potato seed for a longer period through positive selection. The process involves training farmers to recognize healthy plants, which are not showing symptoms of seed borne diseases such as virus and bacterial wilt. Healthy plants, representing about 10% of the crop, are marked and later harvested to provide next year's seed. The intervention is relatively low cost and requires less contact time than a conventional farmer's field school. Essential in the training curriculum is that the farmers plant a demonstration experiment in which they compare the yields through using their existing seed selection method, using positive selection, or buying seed from a specialist. This provides the farmers with options to improve their seed quality. However, 95% of potato farmers use seed of minor quality. Besides low availability of high-grade seed, Obado et al. (2010) evaluated more than 1200 potato farmers in a countrywide baseline survey and reported that the awareness of the benefits of high-grade seed was very poor and many considered the investment in high-grade seed as too high."},{"index":6,"size":215,"text":"To increase the availability of high-grade potato seed, CIP together with its national partners, have tested and developed the components of an innovative seed strategy, which both dramatically lowers the cost of production of pre-basic or -starter‖ seed coupled with extension-based interventions to train smallholders in the better on-farm management of their own seed. Engagement with the private sector as a means to widen the supply base and satisfy demand for clean seed is also a key component of the strategy. Because the strategy involves the delivery of low cost quality seed to growers in 3 generations of field multiplication, rather [83] than the conventional 5 to 7 generations, this new strategy has been named as -3G‖ system. CIP believes that wide-scale adoption of these technologies, as well as capacity building in conventional technology (field management and storage), would be an appropriate response to current concerns over rising food prices and to secure seed supplies for the next few seasons and to put the whole seed supply chain onto a more sustainable path for the future. The introduction of new technologies, lowering seed production costs, improving farmer knowledge, widening, and strengthening the seed supply base (including private sector suppliers) may also put the whole seed production chain onto a more sustainable basis for the future."},{"index":7,"size":167,"text":"The purpose of this study is to determine the yield gap caused by degeneration of various seed qualities compared with Farmers saved seed (hereafter called Farmers practice). The seed qualities used were from the 2 nd field generations (2 nd FG) of a private seed multiplier. Basic seed from the National program (3 nd FG), certified seed from a public seed multiplier (6 th FG), informal seed which is seed obtained from credible farmers but which had been produced without the normal certified seed production regulations (FG 4-6) and -Positively selected seed .The yield gap caused by seed quality was determined by carrying out multi-location On-Farm trials with three main varieties over two seasons in potato growing regions of the country. Besides the evaluation of the yield gap caused by the seed quality, these trials were acting as demonstrations for farmers to create awareness of the importance in using high-grade seed. At each side field days were held were farmers, extension officers and other stakeholders were invited."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":321,"text":"At 16 locations in the main potato growing areas of Kenya On-Farm trials with different seed qualities were set up in the -Short Rains‖, SR (mid October 2009mid January 2010)and -Long Rains‖, LR (mid April 2010 -early August 2010) seasons, respectively. Plots compromised 40 plants with 3 replications in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) layout at each site. In the LR an additional on station trial with 4 replications was conducted at the field research station of the University of Nairobi, Lower Kabete, Nairobi. Fertilization was based on 90 kg N supplied by a 10 N, 26 P, 10 K fertiliser applied at planting.. Late blight was controlled according to the respective disease pressure with the alternating sprays of Ridomil and Mancozeb. Following seed qualities of the varieties Asante (released in 1998 -CIP 381381.20), Dutch Robyjn andTigoni (released in 1998 -CIP 381381.13):1-CF and 2-CF private: Project seed (USAID funded --3G‖ project) multiplied by Kisima Farm, Timau, Mt. Kenya region: seed [84] from the first and second field multiplications, respectively. Tested and certified by the national certification body (Dutch Robyjn not available). 3-Basic: supplied by the National Potato Program of the Kenyan Agricultural Research Institute: Three field multiplications. Tested and certified by the national certification body. 6-CF: Certified Seed Agricultural Development Cooperation (ADC): Six field multiplications (Asante not included in On-Station trial) 4 inf., 5 inf., 6 inf. = obtained from credible farmers but which had been informally produced seed without the normal certified seed production regulations -four, five and six field multiplications at the same farms, respectively. PS: Positive selected seed (PS) from farmer groups involved in the project training modules. (Asante not available in SR). FP: Seed quality farmers use to plant -obtained from the same field where farmers practiced positive selection, but from a different section where PS was not practiced. The On-Station trial included PS and FP from 4 Farmer Groups of Asante and Tigoni varieties, respectively."}]},{"head":"Assessments","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Seed lots forming the different categories were tested for incidence of Potato virus Y (PVY), Potato leaf roll virus (PLRV) and Potato virus X (PVX) using enzymelinked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA:CIP, Lima, Peru) with leaf sap obtained from eyes cut after harvest and grown in aphid free greenhouse chambers for 4-6 weeks (Casper and Meyer, 1981;Torrance, 1992). At the point of testing, seed quality 6-CF was not available and thus not tested. Yield determination was made by weighing on per plot basis and transferred into t*ha -1 . Tuber number was counted for the On-Station trial and converted into tubers per m 2 ."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Statistical analysis was based on the SPSS GLM procedure (Version 19). Fixed effect models were analyzed per seed quality. Random effects were for the On-Station trial the replication and for On-Farm trials the interaction between replication and site. The Bonferroni-Holm Test was conducted to separate means with a confidence level of 95%. Relative values have been arcsine transformed before analyzing."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"[85]"}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Seed quality is closely related to degeneration due to viral infections, especially PLRV and PVY which contribute to severe yield losses. The potato seed qualities tested in this study show a clear increasing virus infection level with increasing number of field generations (FG) with all three varieties (Table 1)."},{"index":2,"size":375,"text":"The results reveal that certified seed from field generation 1 and 2 (private multiplier) was free from both viruses. Considerable PVY infections could be observed in certified seed from field generation 3 (National program) with varieties Dutch Robyjn (15%) and Asante (7.5%) and lesser with Tigoni. Seed obtained from informal non-certified shown increased virus levels with both PLRV and PVY on all varieties. However, the results reveal that the variety Dutch Robyjn has the highest PVY infection resulting in a level of 40% already after 5 FG. This is mainly due to the already high PVY level from the seed from the National program, which the informal seed multipliers are using for further seed bulking. Farmers practicing the PS technology were able to half the infection levels for both viruses and varieties (Table 1). In general, the results obtained in this study indicated that these viruses can be a limiting factor to potato (ware and seed) production in Kenya and informal seed multipliers poorly practice the importance of vector control and the practice of negative selection. Moreover, considering that all seed sources were obtained from altitudes above 2200 masl the steady increase of virus levels with number of FG's indicate that virus transmitting aphid populations may have moved towards higher altitudes most likely due to increasing temperatures and possibly caused by effects of climate change. Hence, field multiplication generations have to be reduced to maintain high yield potential, which is the rationale behind the 3G project with the main effort in reducing the number of FGs from 5-7 to 2-3 seasons. Having in mind that knowledge of insecticide applications is poor among farmers and that application of those harmful for human health should be minimized, the introduction of virus resistant varieties seems to be the most promising future option to reduce seed degeneration caused by viruses. Promising CIP germplasm with combination of late blight and virus resistance is available for variety deployment in tropical highland regions. A screening of 292 clones from B1C5 (fifth cycle of recombination of the pure native Andigena group B1) showed extreme resistance to both viruses, resulted in a high percent of clones showing resistances to PVY (70%) and PVX (73%). Likewise, 59% of clones showed resistance to PLRV (Landeo, 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"The yield determination undermines clearly the importance of seed quality and the prominent effect of seed borne diseases in particular bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum (Smith) and virus. However, poor seed quality also carries important seed borne diseases e.g. soft rot (caused by Erwinia chrysanthemi), Fusarium wilt and dry rot (caused by Fusarium solani) and Verticilium wilt (caused by Verticilium albo-atrum) and limited to two regions (Meru and Taita Hills) also Rhizoctonia solani (Kuehn)."},{"index":4,"size":273,"text":"The average yield of farmer's seed in the On-Farm evaluations was 11.1 t*ha -1 and 9.3t*ha -1 in the SR and in the LR seasons, respectively, which were very low, although grown with relatively high fertiliser and strict late blight control. The low yields with farmer's seed clearly show the yield gap produced by the quality of seed. With all varieties additional FG's led to considerable yield losses (Table 2). FG 2-CF out-yielded all other seed qualities significantly with yields in-between 243 and 352% of the yield obtained with FP seed (Table 2),followed by FG-3-CF with significantly higher yields than in the plots planted with seed of lower quality. However, yield increase of FG-3-CF was lowest with variety Dutch Robyjn, which can be linked to the already high PVY infection level of this seed quality (Table1 and 2). Yields were comparable to better when seed potatoes obtained from informal seed multipliers after one informal multiplication (4 FG) were planted than the certified seed that was 6 FG old. A second informal multiplication (FG 5 inf.) although caused further significant yield losses. However, yield increases compared to farmers seed still range been between 56 and 90%. The Positive selection method also increased the yield considerably compared with FP, but the effect differed between varieties. Whereas, high yield increases of 55% and 29% and 44% (SR and LR) could be obtained with Dutch Robyjn and Asante, respectively, lower yield increases of 18 and 23 % were realized with Tigoni. The main reason might be that symptoms of viral infections are more distinct with varieties Dutch Robyjn and Asante than with Tigoni, which made the selection"},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"[87]"},{"index":6,"size":146,"text":"process more difficult and less effective with this variety. However, this cannot be confirmed by this study as the varieties were grown with different farmer groups and difference in knowledge and accuracy of selection were not determined. The additional On-Station trial indicates the same effects on yield as obtained with On-Farm trials. However, the inclusion of more FG's from different seed qualities allows a better insight. The overall yield potential was limited by low precipitation and thus water deficiency at mid -end of flowering. Nevertheless, the differences in tuber number and yields are enormous between seed qualities. Whereas, no significant differences between the FG 1-CF and FG 2-CF could be observed both had significantly higher tuber numbers and yields than all other seed qualities tested. Compared to FP seed the number of tubers was doubled and the tripled with FG 1-CF and FG 2-CF (Table 3)."},{"index":7,"size":99,"text":"[88] In general, yields and tuber number were reduced more or less gradually by seed age for both varieties (Table 3). However, biggest differences in yield and tuber number were determined between FG1+ FG2 from the private multiplier to FG3 from the national program (6 t*ha -1 and 5-7 tubers*m 2-1 ) (Table 3), which clearly can be attributed to the virus -free status of FG1+ FG2 and the PVY infection levels in FG 3 (Table 1). Differences of PS(31and 18% yield increase with Asante and Tigoni, respectively) FP are also according to the results of the ON-Farm trials."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"For SSA, Scott et al. (2000) projected a 250% increase in demand for potato between 1993 and 2020, with an annual growth in demand of 3.1%. The growth in area under production is estimated at 1.25% a year, the rest of the increase being achieved through predicted growth in productivity. For both increased productivity and area under production, a timely availability of good quality seed of improved potatoes varieties will be vital. As this study clearly reveals the number of field multiplication generations of seed potato and a good quality control system affect the productivity to a substantial magnitude. However, pressure of virus transmitting aphids is high enough in reducing the number of seed FG possible to produce high quality seed compared to European conditions and pointing out the need for varieties combining i.e. virus and late blight resistance. Other seed borne diseases could also be reduced significantly by the use of high-grade seed. In Kenya, the spread of bacterial wilt with infected seed as the predominant source of inoculum is of major concern."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The -3G‖ approach for making available seed to farmers in three generations instead of the usual seven or more generations provides one of the best [89] opportunities to exploit the contribution of the potato to improve livelihoods."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"Objectives in this projects is the use rapid minituber multiplication technologies such as aeroponics and reducing the number of field generations and thus less land will be used per seed production unit. The overall objective is to increase the availability of high-grade seed in Kenya from 1% to 10% within the next two years. Additionally the training in the -Select the Best‖ method will enable farmers to keep the quality of their seed for a longer time through positive selection and suitable storage. There is a great potential to boost potato productivity and total production, especially if these are coupled with best cultural practices."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 : PLRV and PVY infections of different seed qualities available in Kenya differing in number of field multiplication generations (1-6) from certified (CF) or informal number of field multiplication generations (1-6) from certified (CF) or informal production systems as well as Positively Selected and Farmers Practice seed of production systems as well as Positively Selected and Farmers Practice seed of varieties Asante, Dutch Robyjn and Tigoni in 2010.Variety varieties Asante, Dutch Robyjn and Tigoni in 2010.Variety Virus Virus (%) (%)  "},{"text":"No. of field generation and seed source 1-CF 2-CF 3-CF 4-inf. 5-inf. 6-inf. PS FP  Asante PLRV PVY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.5 0.0 10.0 17.6 20.6 13.8 23.8 11.3 18.8 27.5 41.3 AsantePLRV PVY0.0 0.00.0 0.00.0 7.50.0 10.017.6 20.613.8 23.811.3 18.827.5 41.3 Dutch PLRV - - 0.0 5.0 10.0 12.5 20.0 38.1 DutchPLRV--0.05.010.012.520.038.1 Robyjn PVY - - 15.0 18.8 40.0 45.0 25.0 52.4 RobyjnPVY--15.018.840.045.025.052.4 Tigoni PLRV PVY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 10.0 2.5 17.5 15.0 -- 15.0 15.0 22.5 27.5 TigoniPLRV PVY0.0 0.00.0 0.00.0 2.510.0 2.517.5 15.0--15.0 15.022.5 27.5  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Average relative yield of different seed qualities available in Kenya differing in number of field multiplication generations (1-6) from certified (CF) or informal production systems as well as Positively Selected compared with Farmers Practice seed (=1) of varieties Asante, Dutch Robyjn and Tigoni. Data obtained from 6 On Farm sites in Short rain season 09/10 and 6 different sites in the Long rain season '10 in Kenyan potato growing woredas, respectively   No. of field generation and seed source  No. of field generation and seed source Variety Season 2-CF private 3-CF public 6-CF public 4-inf. 5-inf. PS VarietySeason2-CF private3-CF public6-CF public4-inf.5-inf.PS Asante LR 2010 2.67a 2.25b 1.97c 2.18bc 1.89d 1.44e AsanteLR 20102.67a2.25b1.97c2.18bc1.89d1.44e Tigoni LR 2010 2.80a 2.44b 1.98c 2.04c 1.90d 1.18e TigoniLR 20102.80a2.44b1.98c2.04c1.90d1.18e Asante SR 2009/10 2.43a 2.10b 1.92c - 1.61d 1.29e AsanteSR 2009/102.43a2.10b1.92c-1.61d1.29e Dutch Robyjn SR 2009/10 - 1.88a 1.73b - 1.56c 1.55c Dutch RobyjnSR 2009/10-1.88a1.73b-1.56c1.55c Tigoni SR 2009/10 3.52a 2.77b 2.58c - 1.85d 1.23e TigoniSR 2009/103.52a2.77b2.58c-1.85d1.23e  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Tuber number *m 2-1 and yield in t*ha -1 of different seed qualities available in Kenya differing in number of field multiplication generations (1-6) from certified (CF) or informal production systems as well as Positively Selected (PS) and Farmers Practice seed (FP) of varieties Asante and Tigoni in the Long rain season '10 at the University of Nairobi Variety  No. of field generation and seed source 1-CF 2-CF 3-CF 4-inf. 5-inf. 6-inf. PS FP VarietyNo. of field generation and seed source 1-CF 2-CF 3-CF 4-inf. 5-inf. 6-inf. PSFP Asante Tubers*m 2-1 30.9a 31.5a 25.1b 22.4c 23.1bc 18.9d 16.8d 14.5e AsanteTubers*m 2-130.9a 31.5a 25.1b 22.4c 23.1bc 18.9d 16.8d 14.5e  t*ha -1 28.6a 28.8a 22.7b 21.6b 19.8c 16.8d 11.4e 8.7f t*ha -128.6a 28.8a 22.7b 21.6b 19.8c16.8d 11.4e 8.7f Tigoni Tubers*m 2-1 38.5a 36.7a 29.5b 30.4b 24.5c 26.1c 21.8d 18.9e TigoniTubers*m 2-138.5a 36.7a 29.5b 30.4b 24.5c26.1c 21.8d 18.9e  t*ha -1 34.6a 32.1a 26.3b 25.9b 23.3c 20.7d 13.0e 11.0f t*ha -134.6a 32.1a 26.3b 25.9b 23.3c20.7d 13.0e 11.0f  "}],"sieverID":"ffa72255-8fb3-4304-8c79-2917b9488b01","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09816319d4786e3f63b2579d49bc03c1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6e54091e-a734-4964-ad5b-d14929fbafc4/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Water/Energy/Food/Environment (WEFE) Nexus Challenges in a Climate Crisis 2007-08 food, fuel & fertilizer  1. Generally, climate mitigation, by lowering emissions, improves agricultural 1. Generally, climate mitigation, by lowering emissions, improves agricultural 2. production and other food systems components and thus food security & nutrition 14% 2021-22 food, fuel & fertilizer crisis 12% 2.production and other food systems components and thus food security & nutrition 14% 2021-22 food, fuel & fertilizer crisis 12%   2011-12 food, fuel & 2011-12 food, fuel &  crisis fertilizer crisis 10% crisisfertilizer crisis10%  Food, fuel & fertilizer price indices  -2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% GDP growth in LMICs Food, fuel & fertilizer price indices-2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8%GDP growth in LMICs    -4% -4%  "},{"text":"Not all mitigation is created equal; key  mitigation actions increase food prices mitigation actions increase food prices growing hunger; other actions affect nutrition of vulnerable populations more growing hunger; other actions affect nutrition of vulnerable populations more ➢ Bioenergy crops (corn/sugar) compete for land, water, labor, capital with food ➢ Bioenergy crops (corn/sugar) compete for land, water, labor, capital with food  "},{"text":"women/s/men's livelihoods /time use differently 4. Changing diets are now accepted as a key mitigation strategy by IPCC and encouraged as such 5. Intentional nutrition policy can reduce emissions / retain nutrition under CC 6. If we don't link mitigation commitments with nutrition outcomes nutrition could well be worsened; but NDCs should not be the only venue High uncertainty of future climate variability impacts ➢ Climate change impacts on infant and child feeding practices ➢ CC impacts on diseases that affect nutrition ➢ CC impacts on household sanitary environment ➢ Diets and climate change (cultured meat / insects to retain ASF in LMICs) ➢ Assessments that consider larger food systems (f.ex. how do higher temperatures affect food demand and diets?) ➢ Interactions of CC & other environmental stressors (f.ex. Zoonotic diseases) --> Need more pathways-focused studies Climate mitigation -Nutrition linkages What we know Climate mitigation -Nutrition linkages What we know ➢ Climate change affects food production directly (f.ex. heat stress) and ➢ Climate change affects food production directly (f.ex. heat stress) and indirectly (f.ex. via water availability, flooded roads that impede access to indirectly (f.ex. via water availability, flooded roads that impede access to inputs and sale of outputs) inputs and sale of outputs) ➢ Food production and diets affect climate change directly, still a lot to do to ➢ Food production and diets affect climate change directly, still a lot to do to fully understand emissions from alternative agricultural practices and from fully understand emissions from alternative agricultural practices and from diets diets ➢ Climate mitigation can but does not necessarily improve nutrition ➢ Climate mitigation can but does not necessarily improve nutrition ➢ Trade in food is a key measure to reduce climate change impacts on food ➢ Trade in food is a key measure to reduce climate change impacts on food security and nutrition security and nutrition ➢ Large under-invested innovation space in agriculture (plant architecture, root ➢ Large under-invested innovation space in agriculture (plant architecture, root structure, transpiration efficiency) but also water structure, transpiration efficiency) but also water ➢ Climate extremes affect nutrition & health in utero through lower birthweights, ➢ Climate extremes affect nutrition & health in utero through lower birthweights, stunting ➢ Climate extremes affect many other pathways that in turn affect nutrition 2. Evidence gaps stunting ➢ Climate extremes affect many other pathways that in turn affect nutrition 2. Evidence gaps (f.ex. Migration/ prostitution/ HIV/AIDS, etc.) (f.ex. Migration/ prostitution/ HIV/AIDS, etc.)  "}],"sieverID":"afcc3fa8-34d3-4d58-aeb8-759473e5d1fa","abstract":""}

data/part_3/098b1ef243c2a38ca5888e2c645681a6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"098b1ef243c2a38ca5888e2c645681a6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cbaa5cba-01d0-4819-99e8-715a4fb581c5/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"AICCRA Food Systems -Framing food systems transformation • iii ii • AICCRA Food Systems -Framing food systems transformation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Figures","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Even for today's population, the status of the continent's food and nutrition security is a major concern. In 2019, more than 19% of the population, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), was categorized as hungry. This figure is projected to increase to nearly 26% by 2030 1 unless radical measures are taken to improve the continent's food system in the face of climate change and other factors that undermine efforts to improve food security."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"To sustainably feed its growing population, the continent will require a transformation of its food systems."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"Africa's commitment to transform its food systems is articulated in the continental blueprint, Agenda 2063, and associated policy frameworks. The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) and the African Union's Malabo Declaration on Accelerated Agricultural Growth and Transformation for Shared Prosperity and Improved Livelihoods provide a coherent framework for tackling intrinsic challenges within Africa's many food systems. These frameworks spell out the continent's targets for food and agriculture by 2025 using 2013 as the baseline year. The targets are to end hunger, halve poverty, triple intra-Africa trade and ensure that at least 30% of livelihoods dependent on agriculture are resilient to climate change. The challenge is to reconcile between these frameworks and provide a mechanism for tracking progress in multiple domains based on country reporting. The Malabo Declaration made specific commitments to mutual accountability on action and results."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"The latest report 3 on progress towards the Malabo targets shows that by 2019, only 4 countries were on track out of 49 countries that provided data on the required indicators. This underscores the need and urgency to accelerate progress towards CAADP targets, as well as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 2 targets to achieve zero hunger by 2030."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"Accelerating this progress requires a profound change in all facets of the food system, especially in the context of climate change, emerging pandemics, and threats to biological diversity. Food systems continent-wide are under increasing pressure and, to date, have not been able to produce sufficient quantities of food, meet nutrition needs, benefit populations equally and equitably, or address the negative impacts of food on the environment and natural resources 4 . Unless the necessary changes are urgently addressed, the unprecedented threats will compound and deepen the existing failings in the food systems. Africa has the world's fastest growing population, estimated to reach 1.7 billion by 2030. This number is expected to increase to 2.5 billion by 2050"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Priority intervention areas the strategy spells out for food systems"}]},{"head":"1.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Promote the equitable sharing of climate risk and reward amongst all food system actors, especially small-scale, rural farmers."}]},{"head":"2.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Enhance resilience of food systems against climate effects, while emphasising nutrition outcomes and integrated planning."}]},{"head":"3.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Emphasise production toward agro-ecological transition, to reduce GHG intensity (including methane and other gases), and dependencies on external inputs."}]},{"head":"4.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Strengthen food system governance interventions across Africa's regions."}]},{"head":"Strengthen finance, investment and resource allocation interventions.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"It is within this wider framing that the authors a. provide a brief overview of food systems, specifically highlighting the climate change dimension;"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"b. unpack the notion of transformational and incremental approaches; and c. offer a diagnostic checklist for catalysing and expanding food systems transformation."}]},{"head":"2: Continental policy -linking food systems and climate change","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"In Accelerating this progress requires a profound change in all facets of the food system, especially in the context of climate change, emerging pandemics, and threats to biological diversity. Food systems continent-wide are under increasing pressure and have yet to produce sufficient quantities of food of appropriate quality, or to prioritise nutritional outcomes and needs in agricultural sector planning. National and regional organizations and governments will need to work hard to benefit populations equally and equitably, and to account for and address the negative impacts of food systems on the environment and natural resources. At the same time, large amounts of investment will need to be sought so that biophysical, social and ecological performance indicators can be monitored rapidly and efficiently to ensure progress towards the continent's food system targets."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The challenges of prioritising, financing and implementing the changes needed in Africa's food systems need to be urgently addressed, so that existing failings can be rectified and the threats from climate change addressed. Central to these challenges are dimensions of inclusion, equitable distribution of risks and benefits across food systems, and a focus on gender, youth empowerment, and rural employment Priorities for research and innovation need to focus on addressing the fundamental challenges faced by farmers, which relate to policies, institutions, and society in general. In the past, the prevailing focus of research and innovation has tended to concentrate largely on technical solutions."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"For the future, technical innovation needs to be supported by appropriate enabling conditions so that the finance, markets, capacity development, policy and regulatory frameworks and social safety nets needed are all in place. Crucially, the needs and voices of farmers who are on the frontline of climate change and most exposed to the risk need to be at the centre of the transformation agenda."}]},{"head":"3: Defining a food system","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Issues concerning the food system include the governance and economics of food production and its sustainability, the opportunities to reduce post-harvest losses and waste throughout the food system, how food production affects the natural environment and the impact on individual and population health. 6 7"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Functioning, sustainable food systems are intended to deliver food security and nutrition for all, resulting in: profitability (economic sustainability), broad-based benefits for society (social sustainability) and positive or neutral impact on the natural environment (environmental sustainability). 8"},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Multiple food systems frameworks exist with varying degrees of complexity. Each depict the socio-economic and environmental drivers that influence food system activities and recognize food systems outcomes that include food security (utilization, access, availability, stability and resilience), socio-economic and environmental outcomes."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"A food system is a complex web of activities involving the production, processing, transportation and consumption of all connecting people to their food (see Figure 1). And, climate change will continue to have pervasive impacts on food systems activities resulting in production losses, nutrient deficiencies, environmental hazards, human displacement and potential for conflict (see Figure 2). Subsequently as food systems transformation is undertaken to meet socioeconomic, food security and environmental outcomes, enhancing resilience to the impacts of climate change will play a major part."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Examining food systems in the face of both longterm and short-term shocks and change suggests the need for systems transformation.  "}]},{"head":"Promoting transformation in food systems","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The UN Food Systems Summit created the opportunity for national food systems dialogues that brought together a wide range of stakeholders to share experiences and consider ways to improve food systems that are suitable for people and the planet. 12"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"In preparation for the Summit, countries throughout Africa have hosted national and sub-national multistakeholder dialogues to consider transformative actions in their food systems."}]},{"head":"These considerations have been guided by the Food Systems Summit Action","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Tracks that underpin necessary transformations to achieve food systems outcomes. These are:"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Ensuring access to safe and nutritious food for all (enabling all people to be well nourished and healthy)."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Shifting to sustainable consumption patterns (promoting and creating demand for healthy and sustainable diets, reducing waste)."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Boosting nature-positive production at sufficient scale."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Advancing equitable livelihoods and value distribution (raising incomes, distributing risk, expanding inclusion, creating jobs)."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"Building resilience to vulnerabilities, shocks and stresses (ensuring the continued functionality of healthy and sustainable food systems)."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"How is transformation defined? Agriculture and food systems How is transformation defined? Agriculture and food systems transformation in one formulation is \"a significant redistribution-by at least a third-of land, labour and capital, and/ or outputs and outcomes (e.g. types and amounts of production and consumption of goods and services) within a timeframe of a decade.\" 13"},{"index":8,"size":93,"text":"While this definition frames transformation in a quantitative sense, important qualitative dimensions are also identified, such as \"multifaceted, multi-dimensional, multi-sectoral, multi-scale change resulting in new systems and processes incorporating a range of transitional, diverse innovations and interventions that intersect to create momentum and critical mass\". 14 It is important to distinguish between transformative change and incremental shifts; the latter occurring more slowly without modifying essence of existing structures. 15 For transformative change to occur, incremental shifts must be directed toward and contribute to significant systems change that disrupts rules, behaviours and practices. 16 "}]},{"head":"Broadening the analysis","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"A wider lens, for example on patterns on food consumption, preferences, constraints, food quality and environmental implications."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Unpacking gender roles and dynamics in food systems and how this links to aspects such as nutritional status and social empowerment."}]},{"head":"Expanding the engagement","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Encourage partners to step up efforts to align health and agriculture-related policies and investments and expand these efforts to partnerships with commerce, trade and industry, food standards authorities, environment-related authorities."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Engage more pro-actively and substantially with the private sector."}]},{"head":"Amending or enacting new policies and legislation","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Broadening focus to policies that affect the availability, diversity, affordability and desirability of foods, for example: food safety and quality; regulation of food marketing; food loss and waste; food trade; agricultural and natural resource management policies; social protection and food subsidies."}]},{"head":"Strengthening local governance and coordination","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Mobilize support to strengthen the capacity of local authorities. Raising awareness of national policies at grassroots level."}]},{"head":"Launching campaigns on healthy and sustainable diets","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Promote investments in well-designed public awareness-raising campaigns and adequate marketing and labelling regulations."}]},{"head":"Developing national food-based dietary guidelines","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"These can be used to inform nutrition public awareness-raising campaigns, food regulations, as well as set standards for school meals, food assistance programmes and other public food procurement programmes, creating incentives for the food industry to supply more nutritious foods and guide investments in agriculture."}]},{"head":"Scaling up smart public investments","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Making agricultural investments and value chains nutrition-sensitive."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Strengthening synergies between food and agriculture investments and nutrition policies and programmes."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Closing the gender gap in agriculture by improving rural women's access to land, assets, resources, technologies, services and opportunities, and the promotion of gender-sensitive policy frameworks."}]},{"head":"Attracting private investments","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Encourage large private investors (food industry, private foundations, pension funds, etc.) and venture capitalists to make investments at country level in initiatives and enterprises that bring healthy foods to local markets, while preserving the environment and generating employment opportunities. "}]},{"head":"A framework and diagnostic checklist for considering elements of food systems transformation","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"These build upon the Food Systems Summit Dialogues and Solutions Clusters 19 -but also respond to the contributions of sub-national dialogues, and provide important feedback to help include participants who may or may not have been party to the process leading up to the Summit."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The critical task includes synthesizing and translating insights and identified resources to place-based, specific applications, where the 'rubber will hit the road'. Building a greater sense of ownership and agency are essential ingredients to an effective process of deliberation, uptake and implementation."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"It is with this next, critical undertaking in play, that a diagnostic framework and check list have been developed to elaborate the elements of food systems transformation. The authors have reviewed different frameworks, checklists and narratives around transformative food systems to suggest questions to consider in navigating the many dimensions of food systems transformation and test current strategies for their level or degree of comprehensiveness. The checklist begins with a section on the processes and approaches to catalyse and support food system transformation followed by substantive elements of food systems."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"This diagnostic framework and checklist aim to assist Member States, Regional Economic Communities (RECs), the African Union Commission (AUC), sub-regional agricultural research organizations (ASARECA, CCARDESA, CORAF, NAASRO), AFAAS, CGIAR centres, FANRPAN, AGRA, PAFO and other key stakeholders within national food systems."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Within the Annex 1, there are suggested readings on checklist element along with indicative, relevant Solutions Clusters of the Food System Summit. These have been embedded to draw connections between identified global priorities grouped with those elements that correspond to emerging discussions on transformative pathways. Annex 2 offers a table to provide potential user groups a guide to checklist elements that may be of interest to their expertise and experience."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Following the formal UN Food Systems Summit in September 2021, the African Union member states now need to take up the critical task of putting together context-specific, finely tuned and staged strategies to transform food systems in Africa.  • Are intentional linkages across formal and informal food systems made?"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"• Have novel partnerships across disciplines, themes, stakeholders, sectors and scales been created?"},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• Have action research, practice and policy been intentionally linked?"},{"index":9,"size":25,"text":"• What measures have been put in place to address existing inequities and injustices in the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of the food system?"},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"• What elements of a just transition are articulated?"},{"index":11,"size":9,"text":"• Has climate justice for marginalized actors been addressed?"},{"index":12,"size":8,"text":"• How have food rights-based approaches been demonstrated?"}]},{"head":"Innovative or novel partnerships Equitable livelihoods and justice","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"A FRAMEWORK AND DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST FOR CONSIDERING ELEMENTS OF FOOD SYSTEMS TRANSFORMATION"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"• How are transitions to agroecological, regenerative, nature-based and indigenous approaches for integrated farming and pastoral systems or resilient landscapes (practices to increase agrobiodiversity, conserve land and water, cycle nutrients, reduce waste and enhance productivity) being demonstrated?"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• Has nature and the ecosystem services that it provides been sufficiently valued, and have these values been included in decision making?"},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• Is the condition and integrity of the natural resource base being adequately considered, and is the potential for sustainable use of ecosystems services and equitable provision of rewards clearly addressed?"},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"• What steps are industrial agriculture actors taking toward transitioning to resilient and just food system practices?"},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• How are nature based solutions and linkages between rural and urban communities being identified and promoted?"},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"• What is the trajectory for increasing availability of quality food produced through nature based solutions?"},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"• How gender and youth responsive are agricultural practices?"},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"• What conditions and historical practices have been shaping consumer consumption patterns?"},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"• Are multiple options demonstrated for increasing and distributing quality food and improving availability across different contexts in the country?"},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"• How are food affordability/ purchasing power being integrated into transformative interventions?"},{"index":12,"size":10,"text":"• Are products designed to capture consumer attention and loyalty?"},{"index":13,"size":24,"text":"• How does vendor product properties and positioning promote sustainable diets (e.g. regulation against high sugar foods/drinks; assuring kiosks have affordable and healthy snacks)?"},{"index":14,"size":26,"text":"• What are the elements of messaging around food to raise awareness and catalyse consumer shifts? Are there incentives in place to assist this behavioural change? "}]},{"head":"Sustainable consumption and nature positive production","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Have existing impactful practices, innovations and technologies been assessed?"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• How is the scaling of existing impactful practices being planned/demonstrated and under which circumstances?"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• How can landscape and territorial approaches be identified and incentivized as mechanisms for scaling?"},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"• Are existing digital innovations for enhancing access, affordability, and nutritious diets being demonstrated (e.g. apps to identify diets/ nutrient deficits in marginalized groups, apps to link markets with consumers, monitor pests in farmers' fields, crowd source seasonal workers, citizen science, etc.)?"}]},{"head":"Building on existing innovations to scale","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Digital innovations","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"A FRAMEWORK AND DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST FOR CONSIDERING ELEMENTS OF FOOD SYSTEMS TRANSFORMATION"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Are nutrition sensitive and healthy diet approaches embedded from food production to consumption?"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• How are access and food safety dimensions being addressed across scales?"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Are policies and tools being leveraged to enhance traceability and transparency?"},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"• What is the planning and investment trajectory for integrating greater renewable energy sources into food production, processing and transport?"},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"• Are there mechanisms in place for preparing foods that do not degrade the environment (e.g. sustainable charcoal production)?"},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"• How are spatial planning and zoning efforts, together with infrastructure investments and regulatory policies being conceived and applied in tandem with energy, transport and equitable access considerations? For example with:"},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"• Food deserts being mapped and prioritized to ensure healthy diets are available and affordable to marginalized areas, and"},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"• Public markets and informal marketing channels of farm products situated for accessibility through local transport, and provided sufficient resources?"},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"• How is value chain development influencing diversity of food sources and agrobiodiversity (e.g. tree products, nutrient dense rich diets)?"},{"index":11,"size":8,"text":"• Are value chains being bundled and shortened?"},{"index":12,"size":19,"text":"• Are there examples of reducing food waste and putting food waste to other uses (e.g. energy, nutrient cycling)?"},{"index":13,"size":13,"text":"• What interventions are in place for reducing emissions across different value chains?"},{"index":14,"size":19,"text":"• What food sources for the country are dependent on cross-boundary and inter-country trade and are there other options?"},{"index":15,"size":15,"text":"• How have institutions (e.g. schools, prisons, etc.) transitioned to greater dependence locally-sourced, food-rich foods?"},{"index":16,"size":13,"text":"Nutrition sensitive and healthy diet approaches and access to safe and nutritious food"}]},{"head":"Energy and transport","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Food chains and value chains","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"A FRAMEWORK AND DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST FOR CONSIDERING ELEMENTS OF FOOD SYSTEMS TRANSFORMATION A FRAMEWORK AND DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST FOR CONSIDERING ELEMENTS OF FOOD SYSTEMS TRANSFORMATION"}]},{"head":"Developing and scaling innovations","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• How are the predictable elements and uncertainties of climate impacts (heat, drought, floods, locusts, etc.) being integrated into planning for food system transformation?"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Are strategies, policies and networks developed to reduce or prevent conflict over natural resources and food sources?"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• What potential is anticipated and incorporated to better foresee, prevent and manage pandemics (e.g. COVID-19, transboundary diseases)?"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• How is the food system transition explicitly linked to disaster risk reduction along the gradient of emergency response to development assistance in building resilience?"},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"• How can innovations be repurposed and reconfigured for rapid operationalization as part of crisis management (e.g. Lagos Food Bank Initiative) and what lessons can be translated from these?"},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• How can food production within rural and urban areas enhance opportunities for employment and reduce migration?"},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"• Are plans in place to source emergency food and replenishment supplies from local sources and to make more accessible key productive inputs (e.g. indigenous seed sourcing, livestock/crop insurance, etc.) while protecting critical assets of the most vulnerable?"}]},{"head":"Reducing disaster risks","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Enhancing local sourcing","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pre-emptive resilience building to reduce vulnerabilities to shocks and stresses","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Image: ©Georgina Smith (CIAT)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure 1 -Integrated elements, drivers and outcomes of a food system Figure 2 -Climate change impacts on African food systems Figure 3 -Principles for applying transformative framework to food systems efforts "},{"text":"FIGURE 1 . FIGURE 1. Integrated elements, drivers and outcomes of a food system (after Chesterman and Neely 2021 9 and van Berkum et al. 2018 10 ). "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 . FIGURE 2. Climate change impacts on African food systems (adapted from Gosling et al. 2020 11 ). "},{"text":"( adapted fromGAFF and Beacon of Hope, 2019)   Important principles to consider for transformation of food systemsApply a systems perspective Consider multi-level interactions and feedback loops Catalyse and nurture supportive and sustained relationships between key stakeholders and partners working across the value chain and decision makers Articulate and commit to core values including equity, social inclusion, mutual respect, community and participative stakeholder engagement Integrate regular joint reflection and learning events based on evidence and experience to stimulate ongoing adaptive action Acknowledge, sequence and manage relationships and tensions between short-term results, longerterm systems changes and the collective and overarching vision of food systems transformation Develop inclusive governance, novel partnerships and alliances for authentic inclusion of those traditionally left out of decision "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3. Principles for applying transformative framework to food systems efforts (adapted from Biovision Foundation and GAFF 2019 17 ). "},{"text":"AICCRA Food System Framework-Checklist Paper • A FRAMEWORK AND DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST FOR CONSIDERING ELEMENTS OF FOOD SYSTEMS TRANSFORMATION AICCRA Food System Framework-Checklist Paper • A FRAMEWORK AND DIAGNOSTIC CHECKLIST FOR CONSIDERING ELEMENTS OF FOOD SYSTEMS TRANSFORMATION Image: ©Axel Fasio (CIFOR) "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 . FIGURE 4. Diagnostic framework visualisation. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"9ee23a25-1002-48c1-8be8-b9a14ed4c6f8","abstract":"Image cover | ©Georgina Smith (ILRI) About AICCRA | Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research in Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank. Explore AICCRA's work at aiccra.cgiar.org 01 The priority of food systems transformation in Africa 1 02 Continental policy -linking food systems and climate change 03 Defining a food system 04 Climate change impacts on food systems 05 Promoting transformation in food systems 06 A framework and diagnostic checklist for considering elements of food systems transformation 13"}

data/part_3/0a2ed82c83c06e5d9d6fade4033390e6.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0a2ed82c83c06e5d9d6fade4033390e6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/06984f1e-2f74-4ec4-a001-6ee428cb5671/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Problem statement","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Zoonoses are diseases naturally transmitted between people and animals, and comprise approximately 60% of all human diseases. While the world's focus is on the real and present danger posed by the twothirds of emerging diseases which are of zoonotic origin, the burden imposed from endemic diseases such as brucellosis (undulant fever) and cysticercosis (pork tapeworm) is large and often overlooked. These endemic diseases cause an estimated one billion illnesses and millions of deaths every year, and are associated with malnutrition through multiple pathways. Many of these diseases have been 'neglected' by policymakers and clinicians due to under-reporting and association with marginalised communities. Along with other tropical diseases such as soil transmitted helminths these can be seen as 'neglected diseases of neglected populations."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Zoonotic diseases impose a dual burden upon communities, impacting the health and wellbeing of humans as well as their livestock. Animal health impacts include reduced productivity, livestock mortality and downgrading of livestock products with consequential economic losses."}]},{"head":"How we are addressing the problem","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Building on approximately 20 years of research by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and partners, the Neglected Zoonotic Diseases theme will address four key thematic areas."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"• Support the economic evaluation of control strategies for selected zoonoses and seek out the added value where control may also improve the profitability of livestock enterprises and food safety. In addition, monitoring processes may be utilised for early warning of emerging infectious diseases and evaluating the impact of the intervention on the use of antimicrobials and other veterinary pharmaceuticals. • Support the development of integrated surveillance technologies for both endemic and emerging zoonoses to facilitate data sharing and joint responses between sectors. • Provide flexible support to ILRI scientists and our partners to address foundational research gaps within the neglected zoonoses across sub-Saharan Africa focusing on their health and economic burden and transmission dynamics in humans and animals."}]},{"head":"Neglected zoonoses","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"One Health Centre in Africa I"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Build One Health capacity in the region in partnership with ILRI Capacity Development department and other partners."}]},{"head":"Role of One Health","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"For many zoonoses a 'One Health' approach to control is proposed, where infections are addressed in both the human and animal hosts. The integration of data collected in both humans and livestock can result in faster responses to disease outbreaks and fewer human cases. In some situations, One Health approaches provide enhanced economic benefits compared to single host or single sector approaches."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"These economic benefits include the potential for human and animal health sectors to share facilities and resources such as laboratories, IT systems and investigation team members."}]},{"head":"Expected outcomes","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Among the proposed outcomes in this area are the following."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"• Generating evidence which improves the prioritization and control of zoonotic diseases, including the provision of risk maps and mathematical models as decision support tools. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is a non-profit institution helping people in low-and middle-income countries to improve their lives, livelihoods and lands through the animals that remain the backbone of small-scale agriculture and enterprise across the developing world. ILRI belongs to CGIAR, a global research for development partnership working for a food-secure future. ILRI's funders through the CGIAR Trust Fund, and its many partners, make ILRI's work possible and its mission a reality. Australian animal scientist and Nobel Laureate Peter Doherty serves as ILRI's patron."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"You are free to use and share this material under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence ."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"better lives through livestock"}]},{"head":"Contact","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Lian Thomas, Theme leader Bernard Bett, One Health Centre lead [email protected] [email protected] ILRI, Kenya ILRI, Kenya ilri.org/research/facilities/one-health-centre"}]},{"head":"One Health Centre in Africa","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) has established a One Health Research, Education and Outreach Centre in Africa (OHRECA) with support from the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). The centre's primary goal will be to enhance human, animal and ecosystem health by developing capacity in One Health, supporting One Health network initiatives, and developing pathways from evidence to policy and practice. The centre's research and development activities are implemented under four themes, each having its own defined technical (scientific), capacity and policy outputs and outcomes. The four themes are:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• preventing emerging infectious diseases; • controlling neglected zoonoses; • ensuring safe food; and • reducing antimicrobial resistance October 2020"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"bc81fbdd-57f0-4230-9b37-6f7cb1607ef7","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0a9351469105ed4fdf813000c61c8128.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a9351469105ed4fdf813000c61c8128","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1ac93541-3f0a-455b-a9db-e4d62fa8935f/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Resúmenes de los Trabajos presentados VINCULAR BANCOS DE GERMOPLASMA Y PEQUEÑOS PRODUCTORES CON MERCADOS DE ALTO VALOR -EL EJEMPLO DE LA DIVERSIDAD DE CAPSICUM EN PERÚ Y BOLIVIA","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCCIÓN","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"La diferenciación de productos agrícolas de alto valor puede ser una estrategia eficaz para aumentar los ingresos y mejorar los medios de vida de los agricultores de pequeña escala. La creciente sofisticación de los consumidores está generando oportunidades sin precedentes para que estos agricultores desarrollen productos con valor agregado, como ya se ha visto con cacao y café. Aunque sabemos que la diversidad genética juega un papel importante en la diferenciación de estos productos, ésta todavía permanece marginalmente utilizada. Las variedades, incluyendo las variedades locales tradicionales, pueden contribuir con atributos de alto valor para productos altamente diferenciados. Al mismo tiempo, y en muchos casos, la variabilidad genética de cultivos está siendo erosionada en las parcelas de los agricultores con la consecuencia de que no se dispone de semillas con las características genéticas que podrían ser útiles en la búsqueda de estos atributos de alto valor. Afortunadamente, los bancos de germoplasma locales pueden ser una fuente útil para re-introducir esta diversidad genética, aunque estén actualmente subutilizados (Gollin et al. 2003). Es con este telón de fondo que se desarrolla el proyecto Capsicum, financiado por la Agencia Alemana para la Cooperación Internacional (GIZ) [Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit] y liderado por Bioversity International."}]},{"head":"OBJETIVOS Y JUSTIFICACIÓN","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":282,"text":"El objetivo general del proyecto reportado en esta presentación es desarrollar y probar un método multidisciplinario para incrementar el uso de la diversidad de cultivos nativos olvidados con el fin de mejorar los ingresos de los agricultores de escasos recursos, y proveer opciones para una producción más variada y sostenible. En particular, el proyecto se concentra en la diversidad del genero Capsicum (ajíes) en su centro de origen en Bolivia y Perú, diversidad que todavía es poco conocida, poco estudiada y por lo tanto permanece subutilizada, situación que contrasta con avances en la investigación agronómica y genética de Capsicum en Asia, el Norte de América y Europa (mayormente centradas en C. annuum L. que es una de las cinco especies domesticadas de ají). Las lecciones aprendidas en este proyecto se pueden aplicar para otros cultivos que enfrentan una situación similar en el resto del mundo. Se seleccionó Capsicum por las siguientes razones: (1) Capsicum es un complejo altamente diverso de especies domesticadas y silvestres que alcanza gran diversidad en su centro de origen en Bolivia y Perú; (2) Capsicum es de importancia mundial para la dieta y los ingresos de muchos agricultores; (3) Capsicum es un complejo prometedor para la diferenciación de productos, como lo evidencia el creciente interés de los consumidores en la última década y el rango de industrias que proveen Capsicum como materia prima; (4) Su centro de origen coincide con un área de gran pobreza en Latinoamérica, así que los resultados tendrán además un impacto en el desarrollo de esta región; y (5) Capsicum ha sido identificado por las redes de recursos fitogenéticos (RFG) en las Américas como una especie prioritaria para la investigación (CAPGERNET et al. 2008)."}]},{"head":"METODOLOGÍA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Para alcanzar los objetivos del proyecto, se requiere de un enfoque interdisciplinario que en este caso se ha resuelto con la participación de socios especializados en diferentes áreas de competencia1 entre las que se incluyen: (1) la selección de germoplasma promisorio de colecciones ex situ de Capsicum a través de la caracterización morfológica, molecular, bioquímica, y la evaluación de este germoplasma en el campo; (2) los estudios de mercados locales, nacionales e internacionales, para identificar características de Capsicum de interés comercial; (3) la identificación de cuellos de botella en las cadenas de valor actuales, que dificultan que agricultores de pequeña escala puedan convertir su sistema actual a uno de producción de alto valor; (4) la identificación de buenas prácticas de manejo y poscosecha que posibiliten ofrecer productos de ají de mejor calidad; y (5) el establecimiento de plataformas multi-actorales para promover la colaboración entre los diferentes actores involucrados en las cadenas de valor."}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Los resultados del proyecto hasta la fecha son: (1) una colección nacional de ajíes cultivados en Perú, representativa para todo el país; (2) colecta, conservación y caracterización de ajíes silvestres y cultivados en Bolivia, incluyendo accesiones de dos nuevos parientes silvestres de ajíes domesticados recientemente identificados por Nee et al. ( 2006); (3) la instalación de dos secadores solares en Chuquisaca, Bolivia, y en Lima, Perú, en combinación con estudios de secado óptimo. El uso de este equipo y la investigación asociada servirán como modelo para mejorar el proceso de poscosecha en las zonas de producción de ají seco en ambos países; (4) estudios de mercado de ají para Perú, Bolivia, Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea, así como un diagnóstico de las cadenas de valor y de sus mayores cuellos de botella para diferentes regiones de Perú y Bolivia; y (5) la organización de la primera reunión de plataforma de multiactores en tanto Bolivia como en Perú. Se está finalizando una caracterización morfológica según los descriptores para Capsicum (IPGRI et al. 1995) y un estudio molecular con 20 microsatélites para aproximadamente 1200 accesiones de Capsicum de Perú y Bolivia."}]},{"head":"DISCUSIÓN","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Los resultados iniciales permiten (1) hacer una primera selección de accesiones de Capsicum;"},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"(2) responder a los retos de manejo poscosecha de los productos de ají seco; y (3) identificar actores claves en la producción y cadenas de valor de ají en cada país. Como siguientes pasos, evaluaremos ajíes en diferentes zonas de producción de Perú y Bolivia que respondan a las características de interés comercial, según los resultados de los estudios de mercado y que tienen un potencial para uso directo por agricultores y en programas de mejoramiento. Prepararemos manuales de buenas prácticas de manejo agrícola y poscosecha que respondan a las realidades de producción en cada país. Fortaleceremos las plataformas multi-actorales para incrementar la producción y comercialización de ajíes nativos al propiciar reuniones de actores interesados. Esperamos que a través de estas plataformas, con base en el conocimiento generado durante el proyecto, se fortalezca una colaboración entre los diferentes eslabones de la cadena de valor que logre continuidad al término del proyecto; esto con el fin de asegurar un mejor uso de los ajíes nativos en su centro de origen. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"BIBLIOGRAFÍA CAPGERNET, NORGEN, REDARFIT, PROCISUR, REGENSUR, REMERFI, TROPIGEN. 2008. Towards a rational Hemispheric Conservation Strategy for plant genetic resources for food and agriculture in the Americas. Un documento de trabajo preparado por las seis redes de RFG en las Américas. Global Crop Diversity Trust. (http://www.croptrust.org/documents/regionalstrategies/Americas.pdf) GOLLIN, D., SMALE, M.,SKOVMAND, B. 2003. Search strategies and the value of a large collection. Brief 8. International Food Policy Research Institute, the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. IPGRI, AVRDC, CATIE. 1995. Descriptors for Capsicum (Capsicum spp.). International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy; the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Taipei, Taiwan, and the Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza, Turrialba, Costa Rica. NEE, M., BOHS, L., KNAPP, S. 2006. New species of Solanum and Capsicum (Solanaceae) from Bolivia, with clarification of nomenclature in some Bolivian Solanum. Brittonia 54: 322-356.  "}],"sieverID":"69223fb3-32f2-42c9-a7a9-a58172b73bff","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0c1903f04609cb751898293ecf3d6bac.json

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data/part_3/0c778b76b4eab84715421e6cec5517d3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c778b76b4eab84715421e6cec5517d3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/616c09ea-dfa6-4230-92fa-e805745f994b/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"Carbon footprint, non-renewable energy and land use of dual-purpose cattle systems in Colombia using a life cycle assessment approach","keywords":["Colombian cattle systems","environmental impact","global warming potential, greenhouse gases (GHG)","livestock production systems","Mitigation"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"By 2050, the global demand for animal products is expected to increase by more than 70% compared to the demand in the year 2010, due to accelerated population growth and increased individual incomes. Consequently, the livestock sector should increase production levels to satisfy the demand increase (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Yet, increasing production levels following a business as usual (BAU) approach would lead to increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and greater use of natural resources. Therefore, livestock producers must adopt cost-effective and climate-friendly practices to increase their productivity, while also reducing their negative environmental impacts."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Dual-purpose cattle systems (DPS) constitute more than 75% of all dairy cows in Latin America, and are responsible for 40% of total milk production (Rivas and Holmann, 2002). DPS are defined as cattle production systems where the objective of the farmer is to derive economic benefits from the sale of both milk and meat. Specifically, cows are partially milked, and the residual milk is consumed by their calves (Rojo-Rubio et al., 2009). In Latin America, DPS based on extensive grazing systems, where the herd of cattle are maintained exclusively on pastures, with little or no use of external inputs. Consequently, production levels are low in comparison to specialized dairy systems (González-Quintero et al., 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Colombia has the fourth largest cattle herd in Latin America (FAO, 2013), which in 2019 was comprised of 27.3 million heads with an annual milk and beef production of 7.3 million liters and 933 million kg, respectively (FEDEGAN, 2019). In Colombia, DPS account for 35% of the cattle population, and 58% of national milk production of the regular market. Most of the Colombian DPS farms are characterized by large natural open pastures, using low amounts of inputs and having low milk production per lactation (3.5 L cow -1 day -1 ) (Carulla and Ortega, 2016;González-Quintero et al., 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"The Colombian government is committed to reduce the national GHG emissions by 20% from the national BAU scenario between the baseline year 2010 and the year 2030 (Gobierno de Colombia, 2015). This goal has underscored the need for implementing mitigation actions focusing on the productive sectors that contribute a large proportion of the GHG emissions. In Colombia, agriculture is responsible for 26% of national GHG emissions, and ruminant enteric fermentation contributes more than 31% of the GHG emissions attributed to the agriculture sector (IDEAM et al., 2016). Therefore, mitigation efforts to effectively reduce GHG emissions and meet the set targets should, inevitably, consider the Colombian cattle production sector."},{"index":5,"size":203,"text":"Life cycle assessment (LCA) allows for the compilation and appraisal of inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of a product throughout its life from cradle to farm gate or to grave (Guinée, 2002). Worldwide, several studies have used the LCA methodology for the integral assessment of the environmental impacts and the identification of hotspots as well as enabling the identification of mitigation options for the activities with the higher impacts (Cardoso et al., 2016;Oishi et al., 2013;Rotz et al., 2016;Sejian et al., 2018;Styles and Jones, 2008;Thomassen et al., 2008b;Weiler et al., 2014). However, there are no studies that have evaluated the environmental performance of the Colombian DPS especially with data collected directly from producers, and in the Latin American region, studies that have assessed the carbon footprint of DPS are few (Gaitán et al., 2016;Mazzetto et al., 2020). To our knowledge, this study uses the largest number of farms for LCA's in DPS, dairy and beef systems in the world. The general lack of comprehensive studies makes it is difficult to establish appropriate GHG mitigation actions for the DPS. Such comprehensive studies would inform the development of more sustainable livestock farming systems and contribute to the accomplishment of national GHG emission reduction targets."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"The present study aims to (1) estimate the environmental impact of dual-purpose farms quantified based on GHG emissions, non-renewable energy use, and land use (LU), using a farm gate LCA approach with data gathered directly from the farms in Colombia; and (2) to identify the main hotspots of negative environmental impacts; and propose possible mitigation options and their cost-effectiveness."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Life cycle assessment approach","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"A LCA approach was used to assess the carbon footprint (CF; GHG emissions per kg product), non-renewable energy use, and land use of DPS in Colombia. The LCA was done by the attributional method, which aims to quantify the environmental impact of the main co-products of a system in a status quo situation (Thomassen et al., 2008a). The publicly available specification (PAS, 2050: 2011) (BSI and Carbon Trust, 2011) was used, which is based on LCA and allows the quantification of GHG emissions in the life cycle of products. Modelling was done with Microsoft Excel. For estimating CF, global warming potentials for a time-frame of 100 years were used: 28 for methane; 265 for nitrous oxide; and 1 for carbon dioxide (IPCC, 2014)."}]},{"head":"Goal and Scope 2.1.1.1 System boundary definition","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The system boundary was defined by the environmental impacts related to the DPS in a \"cradle to farm-gate\" perspective (Figure 1). The direct or primary emissions are those generated within the farm system (on-farm) and the secondary (off-farm) emissions are those upstream emissions related to the production and transport of imported resources such as feed, fertilizer, and amendments to soils (BSI and Carbon Trust, 2011). "}]},{"head":"Figure 1. System boundaries and flows accounted for in the estimation of the impact categories in the DPS in a \"cradle to farm-gate\" approach","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Functional unit and allocation","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Farm boundary","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The functional units used were 1 kg fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM) and 1 kg live weight gain (LWG) leaving the farm gate."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"When a process produces more than one output, the environmental burden must be assigned between those outputs based on an allocation method (BSI and Carbon Trust, 2011). To divide the environmental burden between milk and meat three methods were used (Rice et al., 2017): a) Economic allocation that was based on the price per kg and the total amount of milk (FPCM) and meat (LWG) produced per year. b) Energy allocation that was based on the energy content (MJ) and the total amount of milk (FPCM) and meat (LWG) produced per year. c) Mass allocation was based on the quantity of milk (FPCM) and live weight gain (LWG) produced per year."}]},{"head":"Life Cycle Inventory and impact assessment 2.1.2.1 Farm data","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The present study includes data collected by using surveys conducted on 1313 farms located in 13 Departments within Colombia. The data represent one calendar year and were collected during the period 2014 to 2015 by 2 projects: Ganadería Colombiana Sostenible and LivestockPlus. The criteria used to select these farms, the information included in the surveys, the main characteristics of farms, and the description of the study area were specifically described by González-Quintero et al. (González-Quintero et al., 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":189,"text":"Milk production was standardized to fat (3.7%) and protein (3.3%) corrected milk (FPCM) (Carulla and Ortega, 2016). Live weight gain (LWG) was quantified as weight (kg) of animals produced from the farm, assuming no change in size of stock on the farm and no animals bought into the farm. Gross energy concentration was calculated from daily gross energy (GE) intake estimated for each animal category based on diet digestibility and daily net energy requirements for maintenance, activity, growth, lactation, and pregnancy. Dry matter intake (DMI) was computed by dividing herd specific gross energy intake values by the energy density of the feed (18.45 MJ per kg DM) (IPCC, 2019). Pasture productivity (t DM ha -1 yr -1 ) and nutrient content and digestibility (%) were estimated based on (i) the region and municipality where the farm was located into the country, (ii) the identification of the main types of pastures for each region by using the atlas of bovine production systems in Colombia (Pulido-Herrera et al., 2005), and (iii) expert criteria. Use of fertilizer and lime was expressed as the amount applied over an area (ha) of improved pasture."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"The average and the 5 th , 25 th , 50 th , 75 th and 95 th percentiles of the variables used to describe the farms are presented in Table 1. "}]},{"head":"Estimation of on-farm and off-farm emissions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Estimations of primary and secondary emissions were performed on an annual basis using 2019 Refinement to 2006 IPCC (IPCC, 2019). Equations and emission factors (EF) used for the estimation of the primary emissions of CH4 and N2O for each pollutant are summarized in Table 2.  10.33 in IPCC (Gavrilova et al., 2019) Milk PR%: [1.9 + 0.4 The amount of organic dry matter in manure was calculated from the herd specific gross energy intake; digestibility of feed consumed; default values for ash content in dry matter and CH4 producing capacity; and the methane conversion factor."},{"index":2,"size":161,"text":"A nitrogen balance at farm level was made to check for possible N surplus and thus risk of N leaching. For each farm, surplus of N was quantified and expressed in kilogram N applied per ha. N input was estimated by multiplying the amount of each input purchased by its percent N content. Annual N deposition was assumed by a standard (15 kg N ha -1 ) (Bobbink et al., 2010), and N fixation was set as zero. The N outputs were estimated by multiplying the amount of milk and live weight produced by their N content. The difference between the N surplus at farm level and the N lost by gaseous emissions was too low for most of farms, therefore, N loss from manure and N fertilizers through leaching of the N was assumed to be negligible. Emissions from livestock respiration (Steinfeld et al., 2006) and the variation in soil carbon stocks at farm level were not taken into account."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Emission factors (EF) used for the estimation of the secondary emissions from imported feeds and fertilizers are summarized in Table 3. These GHG emissions corresponded to production and transport of these agricultural inputs. "}]},{"head":"Non-renewable energy use and land use","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Energy used for consumption of fossil fuels on-farm and transportation of inputs from factory to farm, were calculated according to the Planning Unit of the Mines and Energy of Colombia (UPME, 2016), and the Ecoinvent database (Weidema et al., 2013). Off-farm energy requirements related to the production of agricultural inputs were estimated by using specific factors obtained from Agri-Footprint, Ecoinvent, and European Life Cycle Reference Databases (Durlinger et al., 2014;Weidema et al., 2013) as shown in Table 3."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"The land use was calculated as the sum of the on-farm grazing area, and the area off-farm required to produce the purchased feeds. The grazing area was obtained from the surveys of each farm, and the off-farm area from Agri-Footprint database and Ecoinvent database as shown in Table 3."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analyses","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"Results are presented as means, minimum and maximum values. A principal component multivariate analysis (PCA) was performed with the PCA procedure from the FactoMineR package (Husson et al., 2015). This shows relationships among total environmental impacts (CF, land use, and non-renewable energy use) per kilogram FPCM and kilogram LWG resulted from economic allocation, and several quantitative variables (kg FPCM cow -1 year -1 ; kg FPCM ha -1 year -1 , kg LWG -1 year -1 ; kg LWG ha -1 year -1 , stocking rate, % of area under improved pastures, kg fertilizer ha -1 yr -1 , feed purchased as % of DMI, T forage production DM ha -1 yr -1 , and L diesel consumption ha -1 year -1 ). To perform a numerical classification of farms, a Hierarchical Clustering on Principal Components (HCPC) was done with the HCPC procedure from the FactoMineR package (Husson et al., 2015). The Ward algorithm was used to build the tree, and then the k-means consolidation to establish the clusters. For each cluster, average of farm characteristics and environmental impacts were computed. In addition, a nonparametric approach of Kruskal-Wallis was used to determine differences among clusters, followed by a post hoc test using the Kruskal-Nemenyi test (Pohlert, 2016)."}]},{"head":"Mitigation measures and economic analysis","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"Scenario analysis was conducted by introducing improvement strategies for analyzing possible future technological changes that lead to GHG emissions reductions. The selection of these strategies was based on the characteristics of clusters identified, literature review and expert opinion (Bogaerts et al., 2017;Cardoso et al., 2016;Mazzetto et al., 2015). In the scenario analysis, we considered as a mitigation measure the establishment of improved pastures to increase forage yield and the stocking rate and improve the forage quality on-farm. In addition, the adoption of electric fences that allow rotational grazing was also considered as a good pasture management practice that could be adopted by farmers in conjunction with the mitigation measure. We evaluated the adoption of improved pastures only in the area necessary for producing the current forage demand of cattle, which is less than the current area that farmers use for cattle rearing activities, and by this, the stocking rate can increase. We assumed the establishment of a forage plant with dry matter digestibility equal to 65%, crude protein content of 12%, dry matter productivity of 35 T ha yr -1 , and that can be implemented in the low tropics (< 1200 masl)."},{"index":2,"size":299,"text":"Additionally, we estimated the relative costs of the establishment and maintenance of improved pastures and electric fence, and the quantities of GHG emissions that would be reduced after implementing these measures. Consequently, we were able to quantify the economic benefits associated with achieving reductions in GHG emissions. The GHG emissions reductions of this measure were estimated as the annual average of the difference between the total GHG emissions of the baseline scenario and the total emissions under the scenario based on the adoption of the different mitigation measures (de Oliveira Silva et al., 2015). For estimating the GHG emissions from electric energy use by operation of electric fences, we used an electricity consumption of 42 kWh ha -1 yr -1 (Gutiérrez et al., 2018), and an emission factor for electric energy use in Colombia of 0.199 kgCO2 kWh -1 (UPME, 2016). The cost-effectiveness of the mitigation measures was estimated as the difference between the gross margin in the baseline and the gross margin in the scenario with the mitigation measure implemented, divided by the GHG emissions reductions. The gross margin in both scenarios was estimated as the difference between the revenues and expenses of farms in a period of one year. Revenues come only from the hypothetical sale of all live weight (LW), and all milk produced per farm per year. Prices of milk and meat sold were obtained from the Colombian National Cattle Ranchers Federation (FEDEGAN, 2019). Farm expenses were composed of investment and maintenance costs for the implementation of improved pastures and electric fence. The associated costs for the establishment and maintenance of this measure was calculated according to Gutierrez et al. (2018), which accounted for farm operations and quantities of inputs required (e.g., land adaptation, seeding, fertilizers, amendments to the soil, forage seed, and electric fence)."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Nitrogen balance","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"Nitrogen surpluses obtained at the farm gate are usually attributed to N lost by gaseous emissions (i.e. NH3, N2O and NOX), leaching and runoff of nitrate to surface or groundwater, and soil N stock changes (Penati et al., 2011). Due to the low amounts of inputs and low stocking rates, the DPS was characterized by low N surplus per ha (14.7 kg N ha -1 year -1 ) in most of the farms used in the current study. In comparison high input farms used as much as 186 kg N ha -1 year -1 (Penati et al., 2011). In some farms, the main N input was the atmospheric deposition (15 kg N ha -1 ), as purchased N fertilizer was low (11 kg N ha -1 year -1 ). The mean N outputs in milk (6.5 kg N ha -1 year -1 ) and meat (6.0 kg N ha -1 year -1 ) were similar, which reflects the dualpurpose orientation of the farms. On average, the total N surplus was 15.0 kg N ha -1 year -1 , at the same time, direct and indirect N emissions were 15.9 kg N ha -1 year -1 . These results are comparable to those of Penati et al. (2011) for Italian extensive highland dairy systems (6.4 kg N ha -1 year -1 ), which are characterized by the low N inputs."}]},{"head":"Annual methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Emissions from enteric fermentation was the main source of CH4 emissions, while the contribution of manure deposited on pastures was very small (Table 4). This behavior is typical for extensive cattle systems in the Latin American tropical region where excreta management is rare (Cerri et al., 2016;Gaitán et al., 2016;Mazzetto et al., 2020). 183.5 a AU: Animal Unit (1 AU being either 1 cow, or 3.3 female and male calves less than 1 year, or 1.7 female and male calves 1 -2 yr, or 1.3 heifers 2-3 yr, or 1.3 steers 1-2 yr, or 0.8 bulls)"},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"In general, we observed that direct N2O emissions from excreta deposited on grazed pastures were the main source of N2O emissions (51%), while indirect N2O emissions from volatilization of NH3 amounted to 28.7% of total emissions, mostly coming from animal excreta (27%) (Table 5). The contribution of fertilizers, in both direct and indirect emissions, was too low mainly due to the low adoption of this practice. Carbon dioxide emissions due to liming and burning of diesel fuel had large variation among farms, which depended on the quantities of lime and diesel fuel used (Table 6). "}]},{"head":"Allocation of environmental burdens between meat (LWG) and milk (FPCM)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Economic, energy, and mass methods were used to assign the environmental burdens between milk and live weight gain and to identify variations. When using these allocation methods, the proportion of environmental burdens allocated to meat differed, with the economic method assigning the greater burden, followed by energy content (Table 7). When applying mass allocation, emissions per kg LWG were lowest and emissions per kg FPCM were highest. Rice et al. (2017) found a similar trend as ours for the proportion of GHG allocated to meat depending on the allocation method used, increasing from the mass, to the energy, and to the economic allocation method. As recommended by Rice et al. (2017) when selecting an allocation method, the quality and reliability of data should be the most important factor. Consequently, in the multivariate analysis we decided to include results of the environmental performance of farms after economic allocation, which is associated to the fact that the ratio of milk and meat prices has been steady in Colombia (FEDEGAN, 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"In Latin America, an LCA study for DPS in Nicaragua allocated the total environmental burden to milk (Gaitán et al., 2016). Similarly, an LCA dairy study in Brazil did not consider allocation approaches (de Léis et al., 2015). An LCA study for dairy systems in Peru (Bartl et al., 2011) and the evaluation of cow-calf stage in an LCA for beef production in Mexico (Rivera-Huerta et al., 2016), found identical proportions as our economic approach after applying the economic allocation method. In addition, an LCA study in Costa Rica that included DPS, applied an expanded boundary LCA of coupled dairy and beef production to avoid the allocation of environmental burdens (Mazzetto et al., 2020). As there is no consensus among LCA studies regarding which allocation method to apply, the estimation of impacts per product cannot be established precisely, and variations in results can exist. A common framework for allocation would allow, for future LCA evaluations, the partitioning of environmental burdens amongst co-products on a consistent basis, and consequently, identify hotspots and behaviors per product, and compare results between studies. This would also facilitate the establishment of policies aimed at supporting mitigation and adaptation actions for the cattle sector."}]},{"head":"Contribution of on-farm and off-farm processes to total greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by cluster","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":243,"text":"In all the clusters most of the GHG emissions arose from on-farm activities related to enteric fermentation and manure deposited on pasture (Figure 2). Fertilization, and excreta management were limited, therefore the contribution of N2O to on-farm emissions was much lower than CH4 from enteric fermentation. On-farm carbon dioxide emissions were low due to the little use of machinery and liming. The ranking of off-farm emissions was mostly influenced by the amount of purchased feed, followed by agrochemical inputs and transport. A similar structure of GHG emissions distribution was also reported for DPS in Nicaragua and Costa Rica, which were low input dependent and based the feeding strategy adopted in sown and naturalized pastures (Gaitán et al., 2016;Mazzetto et al., 2020). Our results have a similar trend in the distribution of GHG emission of cattle milk and meat for the Latin American countries reported by Gerber et al. (2013), with methane being the main source of emissions. Gerber et al. (2013) assigned around 50% of total emissions to enteric fermentation (without counting emissions from land-use change), however, these figures are lower than our findings where this source of emissions accounted for more than 70% of total emissions. The above is mainly related to the fact that studied farms were low input farms and most emissions were from the animals. When farms intensify their production, GHG emissions arising from animals reduce, while those from excreta management and inputs production and use increase (Rotz, 2018)."}]},{"head":"Figure 2. Contributions of different on -farm and off -farm processes to total greenhouse gas emissions from dual -purpose farms at the farm gate located in 13 departments of Colombia (n=1313)","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Variation among farms and interpretation of clusters","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The large number of farms assessed (n=1313) provides a potential to identify relationships among environmental performance and farming practices, allowing for the proposal of strategies to increase productivity and mitigate GHG emissions."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"According to the bi-plot resulting from the PCA (Figure 3), milk yield (kg FPCM cow -1 year -1 ; kg FPCM ha -1 year 1 ) and meat production per hectare were positively correlated to the stocking rate (AU ha -1 ), as they were located in the same area of the graph. These variables were negatively correlated to emission (per kg FPCM and per kg LWG) and LU (per kg FPCM and per kg LWG). This means that increased milk per cow and ha, and meat per ha leads to reduced CF and LU per kilogram FPCM and per kilogram LWG. The analysis also showed a positive correlation among percentages of area of improved pastures, fertilizers application rate, forage production per ha, and non-renewable energy use (per kg FPCM and per kg LWG). Farms with high percentages of improved pastures used more synthetic fertilizers, which explains the positive correlation with non-renewable energy use."}]},{"head":"Figure 3. Bi-plot for the principal component analysis (PCA) with information collected from 1313 DPS of Colombia","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"After cluster analysis, four groups of farms were identified (Table 8). Average milk production for all farms are similar to the lower values of the production ranges reported for DPS in Latin America (Gaitán et al., 2016;Rojo-Rubio et al., 2009). However, results of cluster 1 and 3 are comparable with average values reported for DPS in Colombia, while clusters 2 and 4 presented lower yields. Farms of all groups base their feeding strategy on grazing on sown pastures all year round, with feed purchased (% of DM) being lower than 4% of DM in all clusters, a typical characteristic of extensive cattle systems in Latin America (Rao et al., 2015). Cluster 1 (261 farms) had the highest milk yield, meat production (per ha), stocking rate and diesel fuel consumption. This cluster presented the second largest application rate of fertilizers, area of improved pastures, and dry matter production. This led to the lowest results for GWP and land use among clusters, and the second lower results for non-renewable energy use due to high diesel fuel consumption."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Cluster 2 (220 farms) had the highest area of improved pastures and application rate of fertilizers. These farms had the highest dry matter production and the lowest stocking rate, which points to an inefficient use of the pasture. In addition, the production parameters were also low. Due to these characteristics, this cluster presented the highest non-renewable energy use and the second highest values for GWP and LU."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Cluster 3 consisted of 603 farms, had the highest LWG (per AU), the second highest milk yield (per cow and per hectare), meat production per ha, and stocking rate, and the lowest consumption of diesel among groups."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"Additionally, the area of improved pastures, fertilizer application rates, and dry matter production were the lowest amongst clusters. These characteristics led to the lowest non-renewable energy use and the second lowest value for GWP and LU. Despite the lower implementation of improved pastures and forage production among clusters, these farms had high milk and LWG production."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"Cluster 4 included 229 farms, had the lowest milk yield, LGW production (per AU), area of improved pastures, application rate of fertilizer and stocking rate. The low productive performance of these farms led to the highest GWP and LU, and the second highest non-renewable energy use among groups."}]},{"head":"Environmental impacts and comparisons with other studies","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The CF results were negatively correlated with milk production. This result, in terms of CO2-eq per kg FPCM, is in agreement with the findings of Gaitán et al. (2016) for DP farms in Nicaragua. This means that a general increase in productivity, per animal and per hectare, might reduce CF, as was also suggested by de Léis et al. (2015) for dairy production systems in Brazil. Results for Cluster 1 are similar to those reported for intensive silvopastoral systems in Colombia (Rivera et al., 2016), and slightly higher than those for climate smart farms in Nicaragua (Gaitán et al., 2016). In addition, results for Cluster 3 are comparable to the level estimated by Rivera et al. (2016) and Gaitán et al. (2016) for conventional systems, while values for Clusters 2 and 4 are higher than those reported in these studies. Due to the lower milk yield and stocking rate, our results are higher than CFs informed for specialized dairy farms in developed countries (Ross et al., 2017;Sejian et al., 2018;Styles et al., 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":225,"text":"In Latin-America, CF from beef systems range from 9 to 43 kg CO2-eq per kg LWG (Dick et al., 2015;Modernel et al., 2018;Ruviaro et al., 2015). Our results are at the lower end of this range and are also similar to CF informed for specialized beef production systems (Alemu et al., 2017;Mogensen et al., 2015). Emissions for Clusters 1 and 3 are comparable with those reported for more intensive systems, while results for Clusters 2 and 4 are closer to those of extensive systems. The relatively lower values found in this study are probably a consequence of the allocation of emissions between co-products, with a lower proportion assigned to meat, while in pure beef systems all GHG emissions are allocated to meat. This suggests that meat produced through DPS could be more environmentally friendly than meat produced in purely beef systems. The existence of a system where beef can be supplied from dairy farms while maintaining productivity within the dairy industry has been proposed as a good option to reduce GHG emissions from beef production in Ireland (Casey and Holden, 2006). Thus, well managed dual-purpose farms could attain higher meat production, replacing a greater percentage of meat from exclusively beef systems and thus reduce environmental burdens from the cattle sector. This could be an effective strategy to accomplish the national goals of GHG emissions reduction."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"The process which had the most energy use was fertilizer production off-farm. Cluster 2, which relies more on external inputs, showed the highest demand for non-renewable energy. Despite Cluster 1 having the second-largest fertilizer application rate, its high milk and meat yields reduced the impact of non-renewable energy use. Cluster 3 had the lowest non-renewable energy use per kg milk and meat of all the four clusters. This trend was also reported in dairy systems in Colombia, where a conventional system had higher nonrenewable energy used than a silvopastoral system, mainly due to its higher used of external inputs (Rivera et al., 2016). Results for clusters 1, 3 and 4 are lower than those reported by Zucali et al. (2017), Battini et al. (2016), andModernel et al. (2013), however, results for Cluster 2 are similar."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"The grazing area was identified as the most important contributor to land use, with more than 98% in each cluster. Similarly, Dick et al. (2015) reported that grassland occupied large areas (~100% of the farm area) on farms based on extensive and improved beef systems in Brazil, and Rivera et al. (2016) found that 92% of land use in intensive silvopastoral dairy systems in Colombia was left to pasture cultivation. Increasing stocking rate while maintaining the availability and quality of forage, could be an effective strategy not only to reduce land use but also GHG emissions."}]},{"head":"Improvement options and implications","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Clusters 1 and 3 had higher milk productivity (per cow and per hectare) and meat production per ha than clusters 2 and 4. This can be due to better herd reproductive practices (González-Quintero et al., 2020), which have been reported as strategies that allow the increasing of herd productivity in Latin American cattle systems (Holmann et al., 2003). In turn, clusters 1 and 2 were characterized by higher dry matter per ha of pasture and a larger proportion of improved pastures. This might be due to better pasture renewal practices than the other 2 clusters. These practices are associated with mechanization, fertilization, weed control, planting grass, rotational grazing, and electric fences (González-Quintero et al., 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Two production strategies can be identified among dual-purpose farms. The first, depicted in Clusters 1 and 2, is basing the feeding strategy on a combination of improved and natural pastures, combined with the highest fertilizer application rates. The second is found in farms of Clusters 3 and 4, where the feeding strategy is based on grazing natural pastures, with low input of fertilizers. However, there was a significant difference in terms of productivity of milk and meat (per ha) between clusters from each way of production strategy. This led to a lower GHG emissions in Clusters 1 and 3 compared to Clusters 2 and 4."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"The above analysis provides insight into possible technological changes and management options that can increase the productivity parameters and improve the environmental performance of DPS. In order to move from Cluster 2 to Cluster 1, livestock managers should improve pasture management and increase stocking rate. Similarly, to change from Cluster 4 to Cluster 3, farmers should adopt the good agricultural practices developed by farms from Cluster 3 which corresponded to rotational grazing, reproduction practices such as artificial insemination, controlled natural mating and reproductive control on cows, and record-keeping to better control farm activities. With these changes, it would be possible to reduce GHG emissions without vast investments."},{"index":4,"size":164,"text":"For the right establishment of policies aimed at supporting mitigation and adaptation actions for the cattle sector in Colombia, it is important to know the relative cost-effectiveness for the implementation of improved pastures as a mitigation measure. Results for the first year, after the implementation of improved pastures, showed positive cost-effectiveness for clusters 1, 2 and 4, while the result for Cluster 3 was negative (Table 9). However, for the following years after the implementation, the cost-effectiveness for all clusters was negative. The above suggests that cost savings can be achieved by adopting improved pastures, while reducing GHG emissions. Additionally, it is important to note that in the first year GHG emissions reductions were achieved for all clusters. Similar cost-effectiveness values were obtained in a study conducted in Brazil, where the implementation of improved pastures for land restoration reached negative cost-effectiveness (de Oliveira Silva et al., 2015). Carbon footprint (% variation with baseline), CO2-eq kgFPCM -1 1.6 (-25%) 2.0 (-37%) 1.6 (-34%) 2.2 (-48%)"},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Carbon footprint (% variation with baseline), CO2-eq kgLWG -1 6.8 (-25%) 5.0 (-37%) 6.9 (-34%) 9.5 (-48%)"},{"index":6,"size":127,"text":"Reductions in total GHG emissions led to a lower CF in all clusters in comparison to the baseline (Table 9). Cluster 2 reached similar values as Cluster 1, and Cluster 4 obtain even lower values than Cluster 3, due to an increased quality and yield of grasslands. By increasing the pasture productivity, less area is required to meet the same demand of the baseline, which means forage availability optimally fulfill cattle nutritional requirements. These new CFs figures, especially for clusters 1 and 2, are close to values reported for specialized dairy systems in Latin America and developed countries (Bava et al., 2014;Dalgaard et al., 2014;de Léis et al., 2015;Salvador et al., 2017), which points out the possibility of DPS to achieve better environmental performance with negative cost-effectiveness."},{"index":7,"size":225,"text":"Around 69.2% of the studied farms had less than 50 animals, which agrees with the percentage distribution of livestock farms in Colombia where 82% have less than 50 heads of cattle and are considered to be small ranchers (González-Quintero et al., 2020;ICA, 2019). In addition, DPS in Colombia are known to have low adoption of technology, low productive parameters and low profitability (González-Quintero et al., 2020). Studied farms were pastured based systems and rely mostly on the use of natural pastures and a lesser extent on improved ones. Because of the low farm profitability and socio-economic status of DPS, economic investment is a barrier to the adoption of improved pastures. Most of the Latin American countries, except for Brazil and Argentina, do not have policies or governmental programs for mitigation and adaptation to climate change focusing on the agricultural sector (González-Quintero et al., 2015). Therefore, it is necessary to provide incentives for the adoption of improved pastures such as increased availability and accessibility of seeds, inputs, and subsidies for labor, tax exemptions, financing technical assistance, payment for environmental services (PSE), and soft loans (Murgueitio, 2009). These incentives, which include public policy instruments, are important for achieving the implementation of these kinds of measures on a larger scale, allowing producers to have access to projects that foster measures for increasing cattle productivity and increasing environmental benefits."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The largest source of GHG emissions in dual-purpose systems in Colombia arises from cattle herds, where methane from enteric fermentation and N2O from excretions deposited on pastures are the main contributors to GHG emissions. Therefore, the carbon footprint of products leaving the farm will be sensitive to the amount of enteric methane and nitrous oxide from pastures in relation to the amount of milk and meat produced."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"The current study identified two production strategies, a more intensive strategy with high proportion of improved pasture and higher fertilizer application rates and a more extensive strategy with low input of fertilizers and grazing on natural pastures. Both strategies had a cluster of better farms (Cluster 1 and Cluster 3) that provided low carbon footprint values which were in the same range and a cluster of farms that had higher carbon footprint values (Cluster 2 and Cluster 4). Within both strategies, the two groups of farms had either low or high milk yield per cow and productivity (milk and meat) per ha. This suggests that both extensive and more intensive strategies for the dual-purpose cattle systems can lead to lower carbon footprint values and provide promising mitigation options. The balance between the inputs used and the onfarm emissions in relation to the milk and meat produced is the main determinant for the outcome of the carbon footprint and improvements that optimizes the effective use of resources will reduce the carbon footprint."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Despite the differences in management practices between both production strategies, our results suggest that the identification of an adequate fertilizer application rate and the implementation of better agricultural management practices, such as improved pastures had the potential to increase both the quality and amount of animal feed and reduce the carbon footprint. Therefore, these farming strategies are promising mitigation measures for reducing GHG emissions per kg of milk and meat at the farm gate after allocation, for dualpurpose cattle systems in Colombia. In addition, the mitigation practices showed a negative costeffectiveness after the implementation period."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"This study contributes to a better understanding of the environmental impacts of intensive and extensive dual-purpose systems in Colombia. By highlighting a cost-effective mitigation option, this paper provides an insight into the sustainable intensification process for the Colombian dual-purpose cattle systems."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 Farm characteristics based on the 1313 farms located 13 states in Colombia.  Mineral salt, kg AU -1 yr -1 31 0 31 33 35 39 Mineral salt, kg AU -1 yr -131031333539 Gross energy, MJ day -1 AU -1 225.1 159.8 196.0 222.2 250.8 301.3 Gross energy, MJ day -1 AU -1225.1159.8196.0 222.2 250.8 301.3 Dry matter intake, T AU -1 yr -1 4.4 3.2 3.9 4.4 5.0 6.0 Dry matter intake, T AU -1 yr -14.43.23.94.45.06.0 Land       Land Area, ha 45 4 8 16 39 181 Area, ha45481639181 Improved pastures, % of area 22.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 42.3% 93.0% Improved pastures, % of area22.0%0.0%0.0% 0.0% 42.3% 93.0% Silvopastoral systems, % of area 0.31% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Silvopastoral systems, % of area0.31%0%0%0%0%0% Natural pastures, % of area 77.7% 6.9% 57.1% 100% 100% 100% Natural pastures, % of area77.7%6.9%57.1% 100% 100% 100% For improved pastures       For improved pastures Fertilizer c , kg ha -1 yr -1 156 25 119 119.32 180.23 350 Fertilizer c , kg ha -1 yr -115625119 119.32 180.23 350 Dolomite lime, kg ha -1 yr -1 315 25 25 150 350 1500 Dolomite lime, kg ha -1 yr -131525251503501500 Agricultural lime, kg ha -1 yr -1 209 25 25 75 250 750 Agricultural lime, kg ha -1 yr -1209252575250750 Production of pasture, T DM ha -1 yr -1 9.9 8.0 8.0 8.0 11.5 14.6 Production of pasture, T DM ha -1 yr -19.98.08.08.011.514.6 Farm       Farm Stocking rate, AU ha -1 1.44 0.26 0.65 1.18 2.05 3.41 Stocking rate, AU ha -11.440.260.651.182.053.41 Diesel, L ha -1 yr -1 1.42 0.13 0.50 1.02 1.89 3.79 Diesel, L ha -1 yr -11.420.130.501.021.893.79 a FPCM: Fat Protein Corrected Milk (3.7% fat, 3.3% protein)       a FPCM: Fat Protein Corrected Milk (3.7% fat, 3.3% protein) b AU: Animal Unit (1 AU being either 1 cow, or 3.3 female and male calves less than 1 year, or 1.7 female and male b AU: Animal Unit (1 AU being either 1 cow, or 3.3 female and male calves less than 1 year, or 1.7 female and male calves 1 -2 yr, or 1.3 heifers 2-3 yr, or 1.3 steers 1-2 yr, or 0.8 bulls)      calves 1 -2 yr, or 1.3 heifers 2-3 yr, or 1.3 steers 1-2 yr, or 0.8 bulls) c Fertilizer: 31(N): 8(P): 8(K)       c Fertilizer: 31(N): 8(P): 8(K)   Dual-purpose cattle farms (n = 1313)  Dual-purpose cattle farms (n = 1313)   5th     5th  Mean percentile 25th 50th 75th 95th Meanpercentile 25th50th75th95th Herd, number of animals       Herd, number of animals Cows 25 2 5 12 26 85 Cows2525122685 Female calves (0-1 year) 8 0 1 4 8 26 Female calves (0-1 year)8014826 Male calves (0-1 year) 7 0 1 3 7 25 Male calves (0-1 year)7013725 Female calves (1-2 year) 6 0 0 1 6 30 Female calves (1-2 year)6001630 Male calves (1-2 year) 5 0 0 0 3 21 Male calves (1-2 year)5000321 Heifers (2-3 years) 6 0 0 1 6 29 Heifers (2-3 years)6001629 Steers (2-3 years) 2 0 0 0 0 10 Steers (2-3 years)2000010 Bulls, no 1 0 0 1 2 4 Bulls, no100124 Male and female calves less 1 yr + heifers (1-3 yr) + Young bulls (1-3 yr), no per cow 2 0 1 1.3 2 4 Male and female calves less 1 yr + heifers (1-3 yr) + Young bulls (1-3 yr), no per cow2011.324 FPCM a , kg cow -1 year -1 1316 571 1028 1199 1570 2385 FPCM a , kg cow -1 year -113165711028 11991570 2385 Live weight gain, kg AU -1(b) year -1 101 50 72 93 120 181 Live weight gain, kg AU -1(b) year -1101507293120181 Molasses, kg AU -1 yr -1 96 0 0 131 172 196 Molasses, kg AU -1 yr -19600131172196 Maize silage, kg AU -1 yr -1 88 0 0 0 201 256 Maize silage, kg AU -1 yr -188000201256  "},{"text":"Table 3 Estimation of off-farm emissions, energy use, and land use for dual-purpose-farms   Energy demand (MJ kg -1  Energy demand (MJ kg -1 Input GWP (kgCO2 eq kg -1 input) input) Land use (m 2 kg -1 input) InputGWP (kgCO2 eq kg -1 input)input)Land use (m 2 kg -1 input) Synthetic nitrogen    Synthetic nitrogen fertilizer    fertilizer N a 6.6 43.6 --- N a6.643.6--- P b 3.6 55.7 --- P b3.655.7--- K b 0.7 8.1 --- K b0.78.1--- Lime a 0.03 0.7 --- Lime a0.030.7--- Maize silage b 0.0762 0.963 0.237 Maize silage b0.07620.9630.237 Mineral salt c 0.155 1.92 --- Mineral salt c0.1551.92--- Molasses a 0.871 4.36 0.584 Molasses a0.8714.360.584 Transport b 254* 3.62** --- Transport b254*3.62**--- a Agri-footprint, 2015    a Agri-footprint, 2015 b Ecoinvent 3, 2013    b Ecoinvent 3, 2013 c ELCD: European Life Cycle Database   c ELCD: European Life Cycle Database * kgCO2 eq t -1 km -1 ; ** Mj t -1 km -1   * kgCO2 eq t -1 km -1 ; ** Mj t -1 km -1  "},{"text":"Table 4 Annual methane (CH4) emission from farm production estimated using both the IPCC's 2006 and 2019 Refinement to the IPCC's 2006 greenhouse gas inventory guidelines  Dual purpose cattle farms (n = 1313)  Dual purpose cattle farms (n = 1313) 2019 Refinement to IPCC 2006 inventory guidelines 2019 Refinement to IPCC 2006 inventory guidelines Mean Min Max MeanMinMax  "},{"text":"Table 5 Annual nitrous oxide emissions (N2O) from the farm production  Dual purpose cattle farms (n = 1313)  Dual purpose cattle farms (n = 1313) 2019 Refinement to IPCC 2006 inventory guidelines 2019 Refinement to IPCC 2006 inventory guidelines Mean Min Max MeanMinMax  "},{"text":"Table 7 Effect on emission per kg products with different allocation methods of greenhouse gas emission between meat and milk    milk  Dual-purpose cattle farms (n = 1313)  Dual-purpose cattle farms (n = 1313)  Mean Min Max MeanMinMax Meat CO2-eq, % of total    Meat CO2-eq, % of total Economic a 36 4 84 Economic a36484 Energy b 30 3 79 Energy b30379 Mass 13 1 55 Mass13155 Emission after allocation (meat), kg CO2-eq per kg LWG   Emission after allocation (meat), kg CO2-eq per kg LWG Economic 12.8 4.5 36.6 Economic12.84.536.6 Energy 10.5 3.5 32.8 Energy10.53.532.8 Mass 4.4 1.2 18.2 Mass4.41.218.2 Emission after allocation (milk), kg CO2-eq per kg FPCM   Emission after allocation (milk), kg CO2-eq per kg FPCM Economic 2.9 1 8.4 Economic2.918.4 Energy 3.3 1 10.2 Energy3.3110.2 Mass 4.3 1 18.2 Mass4.3118.2 a 1 kg FPCM = 1000 COP; 1 kg live weight gain = 4364 COP   a 1 kg FPCM = 1000 COP; 1 kg live weight gain = 4364 COP b Energy value of milk = 2.9 MJ kg -1 ; energy value of carcass meat = 9.25 MJ kg -1  b Energy value of milk = 2.9 MJ kg -1 ; energy value of carcass meat = 9.25 MJ kg -1  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Means for selected farm variables for four farm clusters of 1313 dual-purpose cattle farms in Colombia Cluster 1, Cluster 2, Cluster 3, Cluster 4, Cluster 1,Cluster 2,Cluster 3,Cluster 4, n = 261 n=220 n = 603 n = 229 n = 261n=220n = 603n = 229 Mean Mean Mean Mean MeanMeanMeanMean  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Marginal cost effectiveness, emissions reductions, and environmental performance of clusters after improved pastures establishment     establishment  Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 Cluster 1Cluster 2Cluster 3Cluster 4  Mean Mean Mean Mean MeanMeanMeanMean Marginal cost-effectiveness first year (establishment), US$ (t CO 2 e) -1 yr -1 0.09 0.05 -0.05 0.03 Marginal cost-effectiveness first year (establishment), US$ (t CO 2 e) -1 yr -10.090.05-0.050.03 Marginal cost-effectiveness following years (maintenance), US$ (t CO2eq) -1 yr -1 -0.11 -0.06 -0.19 -0.13 Marginal cost-effectiveness following years (maintenance), US$ (t CO2eq) -1 yr -1-0.11-0.06-0.19-0.13  "}],"sieverID":"1d656ebd-a7d5-4e56-a3c9-2ef7b576d28b","abstract":"The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.The Alliance is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c9f304ee2e7e241654a94255591876f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f1515f99-aaa6-468e-a546-0cfacc8417e7/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Outcome story for communications use:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Expansion of the seeds without borders agreement to Bhutan (News Kuensel). Bhutan can now import improved variety seeds without much hassle from six countries in the region. The country joined the Seeds Without Borders protocol with the agriculture secretary Rinzin Dorji formally signing the agreement on June 13 in Thimphu. Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Sri Lanka are the other members of the network agreement. The agreement initiated by International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was first signed between Bangladesh, and India in 2013. The agreement started with rice seeds. The seed agreement covers a number of rice-based crops such as maize, wheat, vegetables, pulses and other crops with the possibility to include many more in future."}]},{"head":"Links to any communications materials relating to this outcome:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• http://www.kuenselonline.com/bhutan-joins-seeds-without-borders/"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting "}]},{"head":"CGIAR innovation(s) or findings that have resulted in this outcome or impact:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The agreement allows for any given rice variety that has been tested, approved, and released in one country to be released in other countries without undergoing further testing and evaluation, as long as they will be grown under similar agroclimatic conditions."}]},{"head":"Innovations:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• 571 -Implementation of the Seed Without Borders agreement (https://tinyurl.com/2ko6wns9)"}]},{"head":"Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The agreement establishes common parameters for varietal release. It allows a rice variety that has been tested, approved, and released in one country to be released in other countries without undergoing further testing and evaluation, as long as they will be grown under similar agroclimatic conditions. Modern, climate-resilient rice varieties that withstand drought or salinity help vulnerable farmers establish a secure food supply for their families as well as added income that they can invest in their own future."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Standard regulatory systems for new rice varieties require multi-season testing to ensure performance, pest and disease resistance and consumption quality. While these processes are important for quality assurance, it is typically conducted independently by each country. As such, a variety released in one country is still required to go through a similar vetting process in a neighboring country, increasing the time to market these new rice varieties. The expansion of the regional seed-sharing agreement to include Bhutan builds on the success of the existing South Asia Regional Seed Policy Agreement, which was signed in 2014 by the governments of Bangladesh, Nepal, and India. In its first 3 years, this agreement has enabled eight rice varieties to be released and shared across three countries."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"279cdbea-4727-402c-8135-325847545ec0","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d18861ec23cd267d1fb320f04cde93a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3993a16e-acdd-41c3-938b-3ab1cbb83ced/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Stability of total carotenoid concentration and fresh yield of selected yellow-fleshed cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)","keywords":["Yellow-fleshed cassava","genotype by environment interaction","micronutrients"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Both genotype and environment determine the phenotype of an individual. These two effects, however, are not always additive because of the interaction between genotype and environment (GEI). GEI is the result of inconsistent performances of genotypes across environments. A significant GEI results from changes in the magnitude of differences between genotypes in different environments or changes in the relative ranking of genotypes (Fernandez, 1991). Breeders face the GEI challenge by evaluating genotypes in several environments to ensure that they select accessions with high and stable performance over a wide range of environments. Genotypes whose GEI is insignificant are said to be stable."},{"index":2,"size":223,"text":"The yellow flesh colour found in some cassava genotypes is associated with the density of micronutrients, such as ²-carotene (Iglesias et al., 1997;Chávez et al., 2005). Therefore, yellow-fleshed (YF) cassava has been at the centre-stage in breeding for enhanced micronutrients in this crop, a staple in much of the poverty-stricken Africa. A breeding program for enhanced carotenoids in cassava was initiated at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria in 2003 under the auspices of Harvest Plus, a challenge programme of the Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The starting point was the screening of YF cassava clones for carotenoid levels to establish useful variability for this trait. Twenty two clones were identified with relatively high levels of ²-carotene and are currently being used in breeding. It is important that high and stable levels of carotenoids are incorporated into a good and stable agronomic background to enhance their 1 Author for correspondence: Tel. 234 2 241 2626; Fax 234 2 241 2221; Email <[email protected]>. acceptability. High yield is an important factor that contributes to the acceptability of the new genotypes. This study, therefore, was designed to evaluate YF clones across locations for total carotenoid concentration and fresh yield, to determine the magnitude of genotype (G), environment (E), and GEI effects on these traits, and to identify stable and high performing clones."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"Twenty-five YF and three white-fleshed (WF) check clones of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) were planted at five locations in Nigeria during 2004/2005 and 2005/2006. The locations, Mokwa, Ibadan, Ubiaja, Zaria, and Onne represent the major cassava growing agroecologies in the country. The clones were grown under rain-fed conditions in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Planting in both years was done in July, i.e., during the rainy season. Each plot consisted of 40 plants in four rows (ridges 0.3 m high and 10 m long) spaced 1 m apart. Spacing within the ridges was 1 m. No fertilizers or herbicides were applied during the course of the experiment; although weeding was done as deemed necessary. Harvesting in both years was done at approximately 12 months after planting (MAP). At harvest, the fresh tuberous root yield per plot was recorded. Only the inner plants in a plot were harvested (excluding the border rows)."}]},{"head":"Determination of total carotenoids","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Three roots from each of the three plants per clone were randomly selected, washed in tap water, and air-dried on a clean concrete surface. The roots were peeled with a stainless steel knife and rinsed in deionised water. Thereafter, each root was cut into four longitudinal sections using a stainless steel knife. A quarter was removed from each root and chopped into small pieces. The chopped pieces from each root were mixed, and quickly rinsed in deionised water. All sampling were done under subdued light and samples were immersed in liquid nitrogen, and packed in polythene bags. All the samples were stored in a deep freezer at -80°C until they were analysed. Total carotenoid concentration was determined spectrophotometrically as described in the HarvestPlus Handbook for Carotenoid Analysis (Rodriguez-Amaya and Kimura, 2004)."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The data were subjected to combined analyses of variance using the GLM procedure of Statistical Analysis System (SAS) to determine the magnitude of the main effects and interactions. The unbalanced data consisting of 27 genotypes and three replications, which were common to all the locations, were subjected to the Additive Main effect and Multiplicative Interaction (AMMI) analysis using Matmodel (Gauch and Furnas, 1991). The biplots [main effect means vs. first Interaction Principal Component Axis (IPCA1)] from the AMMI analysis were used to study the effects of G, E, and GEI. The biplots were also used to identify genotypes with broad or specific adaptation to target agroecologies or environments for yield and total carotenoid concentrations."}]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Mean performance of the cassava genotypes across the environments is presented in Table 1. The clones had mean yields > 15 t ha -1 . YF clone 98/2132 gave the highest fresh yield of 26.1 t ha -1 across locations. The highest mean fresh yield, however, was recorded at Onne in 2005 (29.34 t ha -1 ), followed by Ibadan in 2006 (23.83 t ha -1 ), and Ibadan in 2005 (23.62 t ha -1 ). The Zaria (2005) environment gave the lowest mean yield (7.26 t ha -1 ). The highest mean total carotenoid concentration across locations was from the YF clone 01/1368 (7.34 ¼g g -1 ) followed by 01/1663 (7.1 ¼g g -1 ), 01/1371(6.92 ¼g g -1 ), and 01/1412 (6.63 ¼g g -1 )."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Combined analyses of variance using the GLM procedure of SAS (Table 2) indicated that location (L) and genotype (G) main effects were significant (p<0.001) for fresh yield and total carotenoid concentration. Year effect (Y) was also significant (p<0.001) for total carotenoid concentration but not for fresh yield. For both traits, Y x L and G x L interactions were significant, but G x Y interaction was not. The G x L x Y interaction was highly significant for fresh yield (p<0.001) and barely significant for total carotenoid concentration (p<0.05). G x L was the largest component of GEI for both these traits."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"The relative magnitude of the main effects and their interactions for all traits measured as a proportion of the total sum of squares showed that G impacted more on total carotenoid concentration than the other effects and interactions. Likewise, L impacted more on fresh yield. G x Y effect for total carotenoid content was more than twice that of the fresh yield although both interactions were of relatively low magnitude."},{"index":4,"size":146,"text":"The analysis of variance of the AMMI model (Table 3) for total carotenoids also showed that the effects of G, E, and GEI were significant (p<0.001). Environments (E) (obtained as L x Y combinations), genotypes, and GEI were highly significant (p< 0.001) for fresh yield and total carotenoid concentration. Genotypes accounted for 73.7% of the total sums of squares for total carotenoid concentration, while E accounted for just 6.6%, and GEI 14.9%. Genotypes, E, and GEI also accounted for 16.3%, 49.7%, and 14.9% of total sums of squares for yield respectively. Using the main effects and the first principal component axis (IPCA1) of the GEI, the AMMI analysis provides a graphical representation (biplot) to summarize information on the main effects and the first principal component scores of the GEI of both genotypes and environments simultaneously for fresh yield and total carotenoid concentrations (Fig. 1 and 2)."},{"index":5,"size":134,"text":"The postdictive success for AMMI, using all the available data and F-test at 0.05 probability level, involved the inclusion of the first four interaction PCA axes in the model for fresh yield and first six interaction PCA axes for total carotenoid concentration (Table 3). A significant feature of the multivariate models (including AMMI analysis) is that they account for a large proportion of the pattern related to treatment design in the first few dimensions. The subsequent dimensions account for diminishing proportion of this and an increasing percentage of noise. Since the AMMI1 biplots captured a large proportion of the pattern in the data (89%, and 86% of the treatment sum of squares for total carotenoid concentration and fresh yield respectively), they are accurate enough to explain the main effects and the pattern of GEI."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Displacement along the x-axis of the biplots reflected differences in main effects, whereas displacement along the y-axis exhibited differences in the interaction effects. Genotypes with IPCA1 scores near zero had little interaction with environments. Genotypes or environments on the same parallel line relative to the yaxis have similar mean values for the trait, and a genotype or environment on the right side of the midpoint of this axis has higher mean values than those on the left hand side."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"The      "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"There were variable responses to the impact of environment on the two traits of YF cassava. The environment effect was pronounced on both traits although the magnitude was higher for yield compared to total carotenoid contents. Partitioning of the sources of variation revealed that G x L was the main contributor of GEI for total carotenoid concentration and yield indicating that locations contributed more to fluctuations in performance than years. This suggests that breeding for both traits should involve testing varieties across multilocations to identify stable varieties. However, the high G and low E effects, and the relatively low GEI for total carotenoid concentration may necessitate evaluation over fewer environments to distinguish clones with high and stable performance. Studies on sweet potato (Grüneberg et al., 2005) also report G x E interactions of nutritional traits (that include carotenes) smaller than that of genetic variations. In this study, the GEI (AMMI) for total carotenoid concentration (14.9%) was close to the G effect on yield (16.9%). However, studies in latematuring varieties of maize across locations (Oikeh et al., 2003) revealed no significant GEI effect on ²carotene."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The high G but low E effect on total carotenoid concentration confirms the qualitative nature of the trait."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"Qualitative traits are generally controlled by a few genes and are less prone to environmental effects. Gregorio (2002) reported that two genes possibly determine the inheritance of ß-carotene root-concentrations. Our studies on the inheritance of root flesh colour (data not published) which is related to carotenoid concentration also suggest the involvement of two genes. The high impact of environment on yield is expected, since yield is a polygenic trait (Easwari and Sheela, 1998;Cach et al., 2006) and, therefore, subject to much influence from the environment. The high environmental impact makes future potential genetic gain in the yield of YF cassava problematic. This may require early testing of clones in multi-environments to identify those with specific adaptations."},{"index":4,"size":133,"text":"The relatively high stability of the clones for total carotenoid concentration suggests good prospects for cassava improvement for this trait. Clones with high carotenoid levels can be identified early in the breeding cycle and selection for the trait in a single environment can be relied upon. However, the significant GEI (even though of a small magnitude) on the trait suggests that some genotypes may not respond positively. Out of the YF clones, only 01/1235 was relatively stable with a high level of performance for both traits. This clone, therefore, can provide a genetic basis for breeding YF clones with high performance and stability for both yield and carotenoid concentrations. Overall, our results suggest that it is possible to breed YF cassava clones with high and stable performance for both yield and carotenoid concentrations."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Biplot of mean total carotenoid concentration and the first Interaction Principal Components Axis (IPCA1) scores of 24 yellow fleshed and three white-fleshed cassava clones planted at five locations in Nigeria, 2004/05 and 2005/06. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Biplot of mean fresh yield and the first Interaction Principal Components Axis (IPCA1) scores of 24 yellow fleshed and three whitefleshed cassava clones planted at six locations in Nigeria, 2004/05 and 2005/06. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Mean yield and total carotenoid concentration of 24 yellow and three white-flesh cassava clones and evaluated at five locations inNigeria, 2004Nigeria,  /05-2005/06.   /06.     Clone Fresh yield Total carotenoid concentration CloneFresh yield Total carotenoid concentration  (t ha -1 ) (µg g -1 ) (t ha -1 )(µg g -1 ) 01/1115 13.93 5.20 01/111513.935.20 01/1206 22.87 3.72 01/120622.873.72 01/1224 14.68 6.04 01/122414.686.04 01/1235 18.83 5.74 01/123518.835.74 01/1273 10.58 5.47 01/127310.585.47 01/1277 14.45 5.67 01/127714.455.67 01/1331 8.2 5.8 01/13318.25.8 01/1335 14.95 5.58 01/133514.955.58 01/1368 19.33 7.34 01/136819.337.34 01/1371 14.06 6.92 01/137114.066.92 01/1380 18.24 3.47 01/138018.243.47 01/1404 15.94 5.69 01/140415.945.69 01/1412 22.35 6.63 01/141222.356.63 01/1413 15.78 6.38 01/141315.786.38 01/1442 15.78 5.54 01/144215.785.54 01/1610 15.93 5.64 01/161015.935.64 01/1646 17.52 3.96 01/164617.523.96 01/1649 14.58 5.67 01/164914.585.67 01/1663 15.71 7.10 01/166315.717.10 90/01554 15.68 3.25 90/0155415.683.25 94/0006 19.92 3.08 94/000619.923.08 94/0330 12.33 3.69 94/033012.333.69 95/0379 19.31 4.34 95/037919.314.34 98/2132 26.1 4.77 98/213226.14.77 TME1 (check) 18.88 0.93 TME1 (check)18.880.93 30572 (check) 15.41 0.91 30572 (check)15.410.91 91/02324 (check) 25.14 0.93 91/02324 (check) 25.140.93 Mean 16.91 4.80 Mean16.914.80 SE (±) 0.784 0.35 SE (±)0.7840.35 Environment means  Environment means Ibadan2005 23.62 4.59 Ibadan200523.624.59 Ibadan2006 23.83 4.52 Ibadan200623.834.52 Mokwa2005 12.1 4.91 Mokwa200512.14.91 Mokwa2006 21.19 5.5 Mokwa200621.195.5 Onne2005 29.34 4.01 Onne200529.344.01 Onne2006 17.35 4.24 Onne200617.354.24 Ubiaja2005 11.89 4.53 Ubiaja200511.894.53 Ubiaja2006 14.15 5.05 Ubiaja200614.155.05 Zaria2005 7.26 4.73 Zaria20057.264.73 Zaria2006 8.32 5.87 Zaria20068.325.87 Mean 16.91 4.80 Mean16.914.80 SE (±) 2.33 0.18 SE (±)2.330.18  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Combined analyses of 25 yellow-fleshed and 3 white-fleshed cassava clones grown for two years(2005 and 2006)  at five locations in Nigeria for total carotenoids content and fresh yield. Source DF Type IIISS Meansquare F value Pr > F % of totalsum of Squares SourceDFType IIISS Meansquare F valuePr > F % of totalsum of Squares Total carotenoid concentration       Total carotenoid concentration Rep (Year*Location) 10 6.125 0.6125 0.91 0.5272  Rep (Year*Location)106.1250.61250.910.5272 Year (Y) 1 28.28 28.28 46.18 <.0001 1.2 Year (Y)128.2828.2846.18<.00011.2 Location (L) 4 103.62 25.91 42.3 <.0001 4.3 Location (L)4103.6225.9142.3<.00014.3 Y*L 4 22.28 5.57 9.09 0.0023 0.9 Y*L422.285.579.090.00230.9 Genotype (G) 27 1679.85 62.22 48.36 <.0001 70 Genotype (G)271679.8562.2248.36<.000170 Y*G 27 34.73 1.29 1.45 0.0959 1.4 Y*G2734.731.291.450.09591.4 L*G 108 224.38 2.08 3.08 <.0001 9.3 L*G108224.382.083.08<.00019.3 Y*L*G 102 90.62 0.89 1.32 0.0433 3.8 Y*L*G10290.620.891.320.04333.8 Error 260 175.57 0.68    Error260175.570.68 Total 543 2400.06     Total5432400.06 Fresh yield:       Fresh yield: Rep (Year*Location) 30 2343.32 78.11 3.03 <.0001  Rep (Year*Location)302343.3278.113.03<.0001 Year (Y) 1 56.7 56.7 0.73 0.401 0.1 Year (Y)156.756.70.730.4010.1 Location (L) 4 29975.39 7493.85 95.94 <.0001 28.4 Location (L)429975.397493.8595.94<.000128.4 Y*L 4 12990.61 3247.65 41.58 <.0001 12.3 Y*L412990.613247.6541.58<.000112.3 Genotype (G) 27 16561.86 613.4 24.44 <.0001 15.7 Genotype (G)2716561.86613.424.44<.000115.7 Y*G 27 677.63 25.1 0.52 0.9743 0.6 Y*G27677.6325.10.520.97430.6 L*G 108 11629.41 107.68 4.17 <.0001 11 L*G10811629.41107.684.17<.000111 Y*L*G 102 4952.3 48.55 1.88 <.0001 4.7 Y*L*G1024952.348.551.88<.00014.7 Error 751 19374.37 25.8    Error75119374.3725.8 Total 1054 105559.8     Total1054105559.8  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Analysis of variance (Matmodel) for total carotenoid concentration and fresh yield of 24 yellow and 3 white-fleshed cassava genotypes evaluated at five locations inNigeria, 2004Nigeria,  /05-2005/06.   /06.     Source DF SS MS Probability % oftotal SS % ofG x E SS SourceDFSSMSProbability% oftotal SS% ofG x E SS Total carotenoid concentration       Total carotenoid concentration Total 533 3494.458 6.556    Total5333494.4586.556 TRT 269 3327.633 12.370 0.0000000 *** 95.2  TRT2693327.63312.3700.0000000 ***95.2 GEN 26 2576.173 99.084 0.0000000 *** 73.7  GEN262576.17399.0840.0000000 ***73.7 ENV 9 230.782 25.642 0.0000000 *** 6.6  ENV9230.78225.6420.0000000 ***6.6 G X E 234 520.678 2.225 0.0000000 *** 14.9  G X E234520.6782.2250.0000000 ***14.9 IPCA 1 34 149.427 4.395 0.0000000 ***  28.7 IPCA 134149.4274.3950.0000000 ***28.7 IPCA 2 32 106.343 3.323 0.0000000 ***  20.4 IPCA 232106.3433.3230.0000000 ***20.4 IPCA 3 30 87.099 2.903 0.0000000 ***  16.7 IPCA 33087.0992.9030.0000000 ***16.7 IPCA 4 28 61.428 2.194 0.0000001 ***  11.8 IPCA 42861.4282.1940.0000001 ***11.8 IPCA 5 26 55.499 2.135 0.0000003 ***  10.7 IPCA 52655.4992.1350.0000003 ***10.7 IPCA 6 24 32.076 1.337 0.0023042 **  6.2 IPCA 62432.0761.3370.0023042 **6.2 IPCA 7 22 12.756 0.580 0.5718793  2.4 IPCA 72212.7560.5800.57187932.4 Residual 38 16.049 0.422 0.9327101  3.1 Residual3816.0490.4220.93271013.1 Error 264 166.825 0.632    Error264166.8250.632 Fresh yield       Fresh yield Total 794 79642.37 100.305    Total79479642.37100.305 TRT 269 64423.13 239.491 .0000000 *** 80.9  TRT26964423.13239.491.0000000 ***80.9 GEN 26 12952.11 498.158 .0000000 *** 16.3  GEN2612952.11498.158.0000000 ***16.3 ENV 9 39566.95 4396.327 .0000000 *** 49.7  ENV939566.954396.327.0000000 ***49.7 G X E 234 11904.08 50.872 .0000001 *** 14.9  G X E23411904.0850.872.0000001 ***14.9 IPCA 1 34 2986.42 87.836 .0000001 ***  25.1 IPCA 1342986.4287.836.0000001 ***25.1 IPCA 2 32 2958.239 92.445 .0000000 ***  24.9 IPCA 2322958.23992.445.0000000 ***24.9 IPCA 3 30 2061.578 68.719 .0000782 ***  17.3 IPCA 3302061.57868.719.0000782 ***17.3 IPCA 4 28 1378.005 49.214 .0150256 *  11.6 IPCA 4281378.00549.214.0150256 *11.6 IPCA 5 26 1001.397 38.515 0.1297607  8.4 IPCA 5261001.39738.5150.12976078.4 IPCA 6 24 498.408 20.767 0.8369402  4.2 IPCA 624498.40820.7670.83694024.2 IPCA 7 22 456.956 20.771 0.8244721  3.8 IPCA 722456.95620.7710.82447213.8 Residual 38 563.077 14.818 0.9937488  4.7 Residual38563.07714.8180.99374884.7 Error 525 15219.23 28.989    Error52515219.2328.989 Grand mean total carotene=4.7949; Grand mean fresh yield=16.9064 t/ha. ***, **, * Significant at P<=0.001, P<=0.01, and P<=0.05 Grand mean total carotene=4.7949; Grand mean fresh yield=16.9064 t/ha. ***, **, * Significant at P<=0.001, P<=0.01, and P<=0.05 respectively. IPCA i =Interaction principal component axis.     respectively. IPCA i =Interaction principal component axis. the most unstable across environments; it was, however,     the most unstable across environments; it was, however, best adapted for Ubiaja (in 2006). Onne (2005)     best adapted for Ubiaja (in 2006). Onne (2005) environment was the most productive for fresh yield     environment was the most productive for fresh yield and Zaria (in 2005) the most stable for yield although     and Zaria (in 2005) the most stable for yield although its mean performance was inferior. Ibadan and Onne     its mean performance was inferior. Ibadan and Onne were the most unstable environments for yield in 2005     were the most unstable environments for yield in 2005 and 2006 respectively, but had above average yields.     and 2006 respectively, but had above average yields.  "}],"sieverID":"f3e34ec2-5fea-4956-80fc-2946d05010c8","abstract":"The effects of genotype (G), environment (E), and G x E interaction on carotenoid concentration and yield of 25 yellow-fleshed (YF) and three white-fleshed (WF) cassava genotypes were investigated at five locations in Nigeria for two consecutive cropping seasons. The locations represented the major cassava growing agroecologies in the country and the objective was to identify stable cassava clones for yield and carotenoid levels. Location (L) and G main effects, and year (Y) x L and G x L interactions were significant (p<0.001) for fresh yield and total carotenoid concentrations; G x L was the largest component of G x E."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d9c63bac43c0cc9d22827fb24b4ecad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dabb1110-958c-4b0e-bcc6-01b86fb27525/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Introducing the Updated AgIncentives Database","keywords":["Agricultural Incentives","Nominal Rate of Protection","Nominal Rate of Assistance","Producer Support Estimate"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Prior to the 1980s, the available evidence on the changes in incentives provided by governments to farmers was extremely poor. While Josling (FAO 1973) had provided a widely-agreed methodology for measuring these changes, few studies were undertaken and those that were undertaken were frequently of limited commodity coverage and duration. Debates about assistance were therefore based on limited information, with participants frequently choosing arguments based on their own preferred sets of alternative facts."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"This changed during the 1980s, when the OECD began to monitor the producer support provided by governments in OECD countries. The famous Krueger, Schiff and Valdes (1988) studies of agricultural distortions in developing countries provided detailed information for 18 such countries."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"These two sets of studies yielded two key stylized facts-that agriculture in developed countries was typically highly protected, while it was generally taxed-and frequently highly taxed-in developing countries."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"During the early 2000s, the large set of studies coordinated by Kym Anderson provided information on approximately 80 countries (including estimates based on the OECD monitoring) and updated our assessment of developments. The estimates for OECD countries showed a clear downward trend from their peak levels around 1986-88, while protection rates were trending up strongly in developing countries."},{"index":5,"size":251,"text":"It has become clear that-rather than relying on intermittently-produced one-off studies of agricultural protection-there is a need for continuously-updated estimates. Fortunately, the key elements of such a database can be assembled based on work that is ongoing in a number of key international organizations-the FAO; the Inter-American Development Bank; the OECD; the World Bank. IFPRI is providing the framework in which these data will be presented in a common format at http://www.agincentives.org. By working together, these organizations will be able to provide useful, continuously-updated and relatively comprehensive information to users at relatively low cost. Because of differences in databases, methodologies, and time spans, it has been relatively difficult for analysts to obtain consistent long-term measurements of agricultural distortions across all developed and developing countries. This made it difficult for policy makers to correctly measure, compare, and interpret the impact of their policy designs across commodities, countries, and time spans. To improve on this situation, an Agricultural (Ag) Incentives Consortium including the major international organizations (IO) active in measurement of agricultural incentives--OECD, FAO, IDB, IFPRI, and the World Bank was formed. The AgIncentives Consortium focuses on organizing collaboration among IOs in order to provide better estimates of agricultural incentives, and to contribute to better policies. One pillar of this coordination involves generating a common set of clearly defined and well-documented common indicators, with a focus on price incentives. A second pillar is about expanding country and product coverage. A third pillar is providing a platform for tackling new issues and improving methodologies."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"A key element of the 2023 revamp of the database has been the inclusion of Nominal Rate of Assistance (NRA) measures. These include not just the support provided by trade measures, but support provided by subsidies paid on outputs, inputs, and on other criteria. These subsidies are particularly relevant to current debates on repurposing agricultural support because their impacts on economic, environmental, and social outcomes are strongly influenced by the design of agricultural support programs."},{"index":7,"size":80,"text":"In this paper, we first present a summary of the efforts in the literature to measure distortions and the relevant methodological discussions. Next, we present a synopsis of the Consortium and its goals, as well as data processing conducted for the databases of members of the Consortium. Then, we highlight key features of the Nominal Rate of Assistance measures now provided in the database. We, then, present and discuss the behavior of the NRPs over time. The final section concludes."}]},{"head":"Methodologies in the literature","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"One broad approach to measurement of trade distortions focuses on the measures actually used to provide protection (or taxation). Databases such as UNCTAD TRAINS database consolidate measures of tariffs and nontariff measures, including taking the tariff equivalents of specific, mixed, and compound tariffs. The WTO provides measures of both applied tariff rates and the schedules of commitments (bound tariffs) made by countries in WTO negotiations. The WITS software provides easy access to these databases (www.wits.worldbank.org)."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"While tariff-based measures are relatively easy to interpret and analyse, much agricultural protection and/or taxation is implemented using nontariff barriers such as tariff-rate-quotas, licenses, bans and sanitary and phytosanitary measures. For these, it is important to have measures of frequency and coverage, such as are provided by the UNCTAD TRAINS database (www.unctad.org). Unfortunately converting this information into measures of the extent to which trade is distorted, or producers are supported, is not straightforward. Simply knowing that imports of a particular good are limited to 10,000 tonnes tells us nothing about the trade restrictive impact of a quota unless we know what imports would have been in the absence of the quota. The usual approach taken to dealing with this problem is to estimate the ad valorem tariff that would, under specified conditions, have the same effect on trade to the tariff."},{"index":3,"size":174,"text":"Given the wide variety of policy instruments used to influence agricultural prices and outputs, the primary method for estimating the tariff equivalents of agricultural trade barriers is comparison of internal and external prices at a common reference point. If an import quota, for instance, reduces the availability of the good in the domestic market enough to increase its price by 20 percent relative to the external price, then that quota is viewed as being equivalent in its effect to a 20 percent ad valorem tariff. This approach was used by Krueger, Schiff and Valdes (1988) to estimate the tariff equivalents of the range of policy interventions that changed the domestic prices for agricultural goods relative to their external prices in a range of developing countries. This effect was measured as the proportional difference between the Producer Price (PP) and border prices adjusting for distribution, storage, transport, and other marketing costs (the Reference Price, RP). This measure is essentially a tariff-equivalent, t, of the measures used to influence domestic prices. The NRP is measured as:"},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"(1) NRPi = ((PPi / RPi) -1) Anderson et al. (2008) expanded this effort by measuring, in addition, the Nominal Rate of Assistance to agriculture, NRA, which includes policy measures other than trade barriers that affect the incentives for agricultural production in a country. They also outlined many of the methodological issues involved in deriving such numbers. Different components of NRA were identified and defined, such as NRA to farm output conferred by border price support, NRA to output conferred by domestic price support, and NRA to inputs, among others. Furthermore, there is clearer identification of non-distortionary price wedges such as transportation and processing costs relative to distortionary price wedges introduced by policy, which help in location and evaluation of prices being transmitted along the value chain."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"For direct measurement of policies, OECD has a major effort with, the Producer Support Estimate, PSE (OECD 2022). For OECD, the PSE is a part of the Total Support Estimate, which is an indicator of the annual monetary value of all gross transfers from taxpayers and consumers arising from policy measures that support agriculture, net of the associated budgetary receipts. Here, the percentage PSE represents policy transfers to agricultural producers, measured at the farm gate and expressed as a share of gross farm receipts."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"The PSE and the NRP are fundamentally different and comparing them directly is a common-and frequently major-source of error. Fortunately, there is a simple mapping between the NRP and the PSE that is frequently useful in comparing them. If, for simplicity, we consider the quantity of a good that costs $1 at the border, then an NRP of t means that good has a domestic value of (1+t). The PSE for this good is"},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"(2)"},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"This formula also has the useful feature of showing that the PSE must always lie between 0 and 1 for a positive rate of protection. The NRP, by contrast, can take any value. Rearranging equation ( 2) also allows us to move in the opposite direction:"},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"(3) t = "}]},{"head":"Consortium structure and database","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"The objectives of AgIncentives Consortium are to bring together the findings from the organizations active in this field on a continuing basis in order to develop a global view of incentives, and to shine a light on incentives in some of the smaller economies where distortions to agricultural incentives have a particular impact on the poor. The AgIncentives Consortium achieves these objectives through creation of a community of practice, and harmonization and consolidation of a database. As can be seen from Table 1, these IOs publish measurements of distortions with some overlap across geographical and sectoral coverage and time span. In particular, the FAO and IADB add coverage of a number of countries in Africa and in the Americas where own-country incentives have important implications for poor people. The goals of the Consortium, therefore, include maintaining the mandate and the independency of each IO, and creating a collaborative approach for database, with a clear recognition of the intellectual property rights of each partner. The initial focus of the Consortium has been on price distortions, with a consolidated indicator based on each IO database. We selected to compute the NRP, based on Krueger, Schiff, and Valdes (1988). As noted above, the NRP is the ratio between the price gap and the observed reference price measured at the same point in the value chain."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"We use the method for Direct NRP from Krueger, Schiff, Valdes (1988) to create a consolidated NRP with the underlying price metadata from IOs. We also compute average NRPs for the agricultural sector of countries, and a global NRP for commodities."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"(5) NRPTOTAL = ( ( sumc(PPc*Qc)/ sumc (RPc *Qc) ) -1 )"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"where summation over c refers to the commodities for which we have estimates in a particular country."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"(6) NRPCOMMODITY = ( ( sumi(PPi*Qi)/ sumi (RPi *Qi) ) -1 )"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"where summation over index i refers to production of the commodity in different countries."},{"index":7,"size":113,"text":"Because of the wide variety of policy instruments used to influence agricultural incentivesad valorem tariffs, specific tariffs, quotas, licenses, tariff-rate-quotas, etc.-it is not feasible to evaluate agricultural protection using measures such as the tariff rate. We, therefore, use measures of distortions based on the price comparison approach, which captures the complete impact of whatever distortions are applied. It does this based on the law of one price, where the goods must be comparable (in terms of quality, processing level, and location). The reference price is the border price evaluated at the official nominal exchange rate adjusted for transport, storage, distribution, processing, and for quality differences based on input data provided by each IO."},{"index":8,"size":36,"text":"The first step before computing NRPs, is creation of a harmonized metadata template that incorporates input data for all Ios involved and deals with and computes NRPs for commodities and countries as described in Figure 1."}]},{"head":"Figure 1: Harmonized data template process","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"We construct the harmonized metadata template to identify the path of price transmission across the Value Chain and to measure changes in prices along this path while computing the reference price at the same point in the value chain. This reference price is later compared to the farmgate price (PP) to compute the NRP. This is described in Figure 2."}]},{"head":"Figure 2: Price Transmission along a Value Chain","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Based on input data from the member IOs, we compute a continuous series of NRPs. Since there is some overlap across IOs in terms of commodity and country coverage, we use a hierarchy to select the final NRP. When there is an overlap for a period, country or commodity, the first selection for the composite NRP is the OECD database, followed by MAFAP-FAO, and IDB. This selection process may create NRP coverage for a country where one commodity NRP is from one data set and another NRP is from another data set. The same issue exists for the time span of a commodity coverage."}]},{"head":"NRA Indicators","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Unlike the NRP, the Nominal Rate of Assistance (NRA) is not a single measure for each commodity and year. Rather, it is a set of measures that capture the extent of support provided by a range of policy instruments. These include the market price distortions caused by border measuressuch as tariffs, quotas, trade bans or export taxes-reported in NRP measures. Additional NRA measures capture the changes in incentives created by subsidies linked to production, to inputs, or to other indicators such as current or historical land use. The set of NRA measures thus provides a more complete picture of the extent of producer support to the agricultural sector, relative to Nominal Rate of Protection (NRP) measures that captures only the extent to which agricultural policies affects the market price of a product relative to external prices."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Benchmark Price The total percentage NRA for country r, in year t, covering all products and policy measures is defined as:"},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"where X is the transfers made with policy instrument s from consumers or taxpayers to producers and \uD835\uDC49\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC51\uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC5B_\uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC53 is the value of production valued at farmgate reference prices for commodity i, in country r, and year t. The classification by policy instrument follows that used in the OECD's PSE manual, with support from border measures (A1) distinguished from subsidies on output (A2)."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"In addition, measures are provided for support provided by subsidies on inputs (B). All other of the other forms of support are provided as a single measure for \"other\" subsidies."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"In Table 2, we summarize various components of the NRA, with the types of policy interventions"},{"index":6,"size":185,"text":"represented by rows and the commodities by columns. In this table, we present the full OECD classification of support along the rows. As shown in the final column of the table, the AgIncentives NRA measures aggregate OECD categories C to G into a single aggregate for \"Other\" support. To expand the country coverage of the database, we complement data from the OECD PSE database primarily with data from the Inter-American Development Bank's Agrimonitor program and FAO's monitoring effort. As well as payments that can be attributed to commodity output, Table 2 highlights the presence of payments-such as fertilizer subsidies-that cannot be allocated to individual agricultural commodities. Another set of policy interventions that could, in principle, be allocated to individual commodities are made to non-Market Price Support (non-MPS) commodities for which estimates of policy transfers resulting from trade policies are not available.   In Figure 4, we present the average NRPs for the agricultural sector categorized by income levels of countries. For the period shown, high income countries have generally provided higher protection for their farmers, although the average protection rate has declined in the last decade."},{"index":7,"size":104,"text":"Middle income countries had lower NRPs on average than high income countries. Low income countries had negative NRPs in the period shown in Figure 3, partly because this was a period of relatively high prices and partly because the agricultural sector is seen as a source of government revenue (mostly in Africa) and export commodities are frequently taxed (Anderson 1995). One thing to note is the difference in NRPs for countries during the 2008 food price crisis. High and middle income countries had slightly lower NRPs in 2008 and 2011 food price crises, whereas low income countries had higher NRPs during these price crises. "}]},{"head":"Source: AgIncentives database","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"In Table 2, we present global NRPs by commodity. We observe the variation to be even higher at individual commodity level, relative to the agricultural sector NRP. Producers in livestock and dairy sectors have much higher protection relative to crop sectors. All grains including rice, maize, and wheat receive positive price support. Cash crops, such as coffee and tea, have negative NRPs, as these are export commodities with exports taxes keeping farm gate prices down. Another example of this is negative palm oil NRP, with demand for palm oil exports increasing.  "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The Agricultural Incentives Consortium is a broad collaborative effort on part of multiple IOs to create a common set of indicators that measure distortions to agricultural incentives, with a focus on prices. The Consortium also aims to create a community of practice that can help exchange ideas and information between organizations."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The initial output of the Consortium is to provide a global data set of NRPs based on combined IO data. This paper presents NRPs based on, but not limited to, the AgIncentives Consortium efforts. The results show that global average NRP moves in the opposite direction to the global Food Price index, suggesting that government policies, on average, reacted to food price crises of 2008 and 2011. Furthermore, it shows that trends in NRPs differed by income category, with high income countries lowering protection of producers, and middle income countries increasing protection. There is significant variation in average agricultural sector NRPs for lowincome countries, which are now mostly in Africa."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"The 2023 update of the AgIncentives database extends both the length of time for which measures of support are available and the range of measures available. The extension from NRP measures alone to a set of Nominal Rate of Assistance (NRA) measures provides a much broader view of the extent and nature of global agricultural assistance than was previously available."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"One aim of this exercise is to provide a unified measurement of distortions by agricultural policies for a wide audience of academics and non-academics. This type of unified approach would help governments design policies and measure them effectively. The global NRP and NRA measures rely on the same methodology, utilizing each IO database, in a consistent manner. They provide continuous and consistent measurement across a wide sectoral and geographical coverage, allowing stakeholders interpret the implications of agricultural policy design in an effective manner."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"We look forward to comments and feedback that can help improve the value of the information provided."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" OECD also calculates the Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC) that includes budgetary outlays and treats input markets differently. It is the Producer Price plus the value per unit of payments based on output relative to the Reference Price. (4) NPC = (PP + (payments based on output or production quantity) / RP) Transfers counted in the PSE include market price support, budgetary payments, and of revenue foregone by the government. The PSE has evolved from being just a measure of market price support to including payments based on output as well as well as expanding beyond taking into account just direct payments to multiple sources of payments. The Market Price Support (MPS) for a commodity is estimated either by adding together transfers to producers from consumers and taxpayers or by multiplying the quantity of production by the market price differential (the difference between farm and border price). The MPS component of PSE is similar to the NRP in that it also depends on price gaps. FAO (MAFAP 2016) and IDB-Agrimonitor (2016) use the methodologies developed by OECD. All the measurement efforts undertaken by Consortium members include measures of Nominal Rates of Assistance (NRA) provided by non-border measures such as subsidies to output and inputs. Support provided by subsidies can readily be expressed in monetary terms. When subsidies are expressed relative to the value of output, they are typically presented as a percentageSingle Commodity Transfer (SCT), relative to the value of production including support that can be attributed to that commodity(OECD 2016, p117). Converting these measures to an NRA as a percentage of the value of output at world prices requires subtraction of the value of the SCT from the gross value of output in the denominator of the SCT-an operation analogous to that undertaken for the PSE in equation (3). "},{"text":"Figure 3 Figure3below presents average global NRPs weighted by production quantity as seen in the above equations. Figure3also includes the FAO Food Price Index based on international prices weighted with the average export shares for 2002-2004. As seen below, there appears to be a tendency for the global NRP for the agricultural sector to rise over time, although values are positive (except for 2008), showing that overall agricultural policies have protected farmers in the countries providing protection, as long as the depressing impact of protection on world prices is not taken into account. As expected, we see that the average NRP and the average Food Price Index move in opposite directions. When global food prices are rising, governments are insulating consumers, by reducing or eliminating import duties or adding export taxes that in turn reduce protection afforded to producers. The clearest example is in the 2008 and 2011 food price crises, with the drop in global average NRP and the jump in the global Food Price Index. This effect reflects two factors-a tendency for policy makers to resist increases in world prices by lowering protection, and the tendency for such declines in protection to raise world prices by increasing demand for food and, in the case of export restrictions, by reducing the supply of food onto world markets. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Average NRPs for agriculture and the FAO Food Price Index.Source: AgIncentives database andFAO (2022)  "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Average NRPs for agricultural sector by income category. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Country and commodity coverage by IOs Not all countries report all data for all commodities listed and all years. * Including the EU27. Source: AgIncentives database International Organization Economic Clusters Covered Number of countries Time Period Total Commodities International OrganizationEconomic Clusters CoveredNumber of countriesTime PeriodTotal Commodities OECD OECD + Emerging 28* 1986-2021 67 individual, NONMPS, Total OECDOECD + Emerging28*1986-202167 individual, NONMPS, Total  Selected    Selected  African    African  countries    countries FAO-MAFAP and 18 2005-2021 32 individual FAO-MAFAPand182005-202132 individual  Bangladesh    Bangladesh  from South    from South  Asia    Asia IDB-AGRIMONITOR Latin Caribbean America and 19 2004-2020 46 individual IDB-AGRIMONITORLatin Caribbean America and192004-202046 individual World Bank South Asia 2 2004-2014  World BankSouth Asia22004-2014 Note:     Note:  "},{"text":"Table 2 : General classification of payment categories and NRA indicators Policy Categories Com. 1 Com. 2 Group x Non-MPS Unallocated Total Policy CategoriesCom. 1Com. 2Group xNon-MPSUnallocatedTotal A1. Market Price Support NRP 1 NRP 2 N.A. NRP XE  NRP T A1. Market Price SupportNRP 1NRP 2N.A.NRP XENRP T A2. Payments based on output      NRA_Output A2. Payments based on outputNRA_Output B. Payments based on input use      NRA_Input B. Payments based on input useNRA_Input C. Payments based on       C. Payments based on current A/An/R/I,       current A/An/R/I, production required D. Payments based on non-      NRA_Others production required D. Payments based on non-NRA_Others current A/An/R/I,       current A/An/R/I, production required       production required  "},{"text":"What do we learn from the Measures?   "},{"text":"Table 3 : Global NRPs by Commodity (%) Commodity 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Commodity20172018201920202021 Bovine Meat 10.2 10.7 9.7 8.9 7.5 Bovine Meat10.210.79.78.97.5 Cassava -6.3 -9.1 -7.7 -33.0 0.0 Cassava-6.3-9.1-7.7-33.00.0 Coffee -3.8 -5.6 -4.0 -4.1 -3.7 Coffee-3.8-5.6-4.0-4.1-3.7 Eggs 6.9 3.7 5.0 5.8 5.1 Eggs6.93.75.05.85.1 Maize 6.4 7.4 5.7 18.7 24.2 Maize6.47.45.718.724.2 Milk 0.1 0.5 -3.7 -4.2 -7.8 Milk0.10.5-3.7-4.2-7.8 Palm oil -8.0 -7.4 -8.5 -10.6 -10.7 Palm oil-8.0-7.4-8.5-10.6-10.7 Pig meat 13.5 13.4 12.5 12.3 13.4 Pig meat13.513.412.512.313.4 Poultry meat 15.3 14.1 15.6 18.7 12.9 Poultry meat15.314.115.618.712.9 Rice 35.2 18.2 15.2 10.7 27.0 Rice35.218.215.210.727.0 Soybeans -3.9 -5.5 -3.0 1.6 -2.4 Soybeans-3.9-5.5-3.01.6-2.4  "}],"sieverID":"72adc787-99a6-49a2-b451-979a40c49570","abstract":"Prior to the 1980s, information on agricultural incentives provided by governments was extremely limited and difficult to access. Much debate took place on the basis of participants' preferred alternative facts. During the 1980s, the OECD began to collect detailed information on agricultural incentives in member countries, but data remained fragmentary for developing countries. The only close-to-global information on agricultural distortions was provided by a one-off study undertaken by Kym Anderson at the World Bank, completed in 2009. The objective of this initiative is to bring together information on agricultural incentives from five key institutions: FAO; the Inter-American Development Bank; IFPRI; the OECD, and the World Bank. The resulting data are presented in a consistent format at http://www.agincentives.org . This paper discusses the methods used and the coverage of this database, and its potential value to economic modelers."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0dc359adf5af158cb713df10519fabe5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c6561061-593d-4ff0-a487-16708e8db213/retrieve"},"pageCount":66,"title":"PERFORMANCE MODELING OF ADAPTIVE CONGESTION CONTROL MECHANISMS FOR INTERNET TRAFFIC by","keywords":["Analytical Model","Previous Model","Congestion Control","Optimum Packet Dropping Function","MATLAB Program"],"chapters":[{"head":"List of Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of Equations","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Today the Internet to experience continues staggering growth as it has become a powerful platform, offering unprecedented access to the information and exchange of ideas globally."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Consequently, the need for high speed integrated application services such as voice, video and data on the Internet with specified Quality of Service (QoS) parameters request continues to increase."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"However, Internet traffic is variable in nature and the demand for buffer cannot be predicted in advance. On the other hand routers/switches have limited memory space, sometimes the incoming Internet traffic exceed the outgoing buffer size. Packets are heavily loaded in the network and congestion collapse will occurs."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"As a result of network congested packets queue lengths become very large, buffer overflows, packets are delayed during transmission, incomplete information accesses and the Internet quality of services deteriorate."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"There are different types of techniques that can be used to manage congestion. The traditional buffer management technique called Tail-Drop (TD) approach was designed to be an efficient and implemented on routers to control congestion."},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"[9]"},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"The TD technique was no congestion detected until the queue become full. When the queue was full, the maximum congestion signal was generated to notify the source and all the subsequent arriving packets were dropped."},{"index":8,"size":112,"text":"Once source detects that packets were lost, it slows down the arrival rate of packets then the capacity of the link and packets backlog in the queue decreases. When the buffer was not full, no congestion feedback signals were generated by TD technique and the source packets transfer rate increased until overflow happened again. [5] Therefore the TD technique was a cyclical of decrease and increase of packets arrival rate until the buffer is full and not full respectively. The technique was called best effort in performance modelling and had been used for several years to control congestion in the Internet, but it has two major drawbacks. 'Lock-Out' and 'Full Queues' [3]."},{"index":9,"size":117,"text":"Lock-Out means a situation that a single connection or a few flows to monopolize the router space, preventing other connections from getting room in the router which is the result of synchronization or other timing effects. [3,7] Full Queues where the router was forced to have large queues to maintain high utilizations and TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) detect congestion from loss. The network force to have long standing queue in the steady-state. [3,7] Therefore the TD technique is not suited for interactive applications such as voice and video which requires low end-to-end delay and jitter. Since the buffer is full for long periods of time and packets are continuously dropped until room is available to accommodate them."},{"index":10,"size":41,"text":"To overcome the TD technique drawbacks, one of the Active Queue Management (AQM) scheme known as Random Early Detection (RED) [4] technique for congestion control at routers or getaway was developed by Sally Floyd and Van Jacobson in 1993 [6, 14]."},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"RED technique was also recommended by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) [3] as a better technique compared to TD technique and is indeed widely implemented in routers today."},{"index":12,"size":39,"text":"The RED technique detects the impeding congestion before it occurs and provides feedback to the sender [9] by either marking or dropping packets even if buffer space is available. [11] Basically RED technique performs the following two main tasks:"},{"index":13,"size":11,"text":"• Estimation of the average queue size at the gateway and"}]},{"head":"• Packet drop decision","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"To accomplish the above tasks RED technique is implemented in an Exponentially Weighted"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Moving Average (EWMA) formula and calculates average queue size, and compared with minimum and maximum thresholds [8,12]."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• When the average queue size is less than the minimum threshold, no packets are dropped."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• When the average queue size is greater than the maximum threshold, each arriving packet is dropped."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"• When the average queue size is between the minimum and the maximum thresholds, each arriving packet is dropped randomly with probability and increased linearly from 0 to 1."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Consequently RED technique provides a solution to TD technique problems by maintaining a small size steady state queue which results in reduced packet loss, decreased end-to-end delay, and avoids lock-out behaviours of the routers."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"It also keeps the average queue sizes small, resulting in the efficient use of bandwidth by avoiding global synchronisation and biases against bursty traffic. [3,7]."},{"index":8,"size":97,"text":"Even though RED Mechanism is conceptually very simple, modification of the parameters used to estimate the average queue size, or to the parameters affecting the decision to drop a packet or not, can lead to significantly different queue management dynamics. [10] Therefore, RED technique is a basis for many other AQM mechanisms and its parameters sensitive attract many researchers to seek effective design scheme to enhance the performance by tuning the parameters. As a result range of services and traffics can be accommodated and the quality of service delivery to the customers and network operators are improved."}]},{"head":"Motivation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Researchers argued that the RED gateway algorithm can be implemented efficiently, with small number of add and shift instruction for each packet arrival in the system. Since so far there was no clear description of the parameters settings [4] and exact measurement was achieved."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Based on the above idea, different researches had been carried out in the area of Adaptive Congestion Control Mechanism for Internet traffic. The study was based on RED technique of AQM mechanism and they had achieved optimum results in performance metrics by varying the parameters settings for different network traffic and contributed to the research."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Therefore, the motivation of this project is to find out the optimum mathematical dropping function to drop a percentage of the packets earlier than strictly needed and avoid congestion The function should produce better performance metrics results at optimum RED parameter settings and to make a contribution to the research in performance modelling."}]},{"head":"Aim and Objectives","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The aim of the project is to find an optimum mathematical function which give better performance metrics results particularly lower average queuing delay and high throughput [14] compared with others functions after implemented in the analytical model."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"The new analytical model is derived from the previous model formulated by Guan et al [2] and the optimum function will be an input to the research in performance modelling."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"The objectives will be the optimum dropping function should expect to produce the following results when the performance metrics expression is implemented in MATLAB program with a range of threshold values:"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• Achieve minimum packet dropping probability:"},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"When the threshold values increases the optimum function should expect to produce low packets drop probability compared to other functions."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Achieve low propagation delay for maximum throughput in the network :"},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"The optimum function should achieve low network delay at the maximum throughput compared with others functions."},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"• Determine the optimum average queue size:"},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"The calculated average queue size should expect to be the optimum approaches to the maximum threshold compared to other functions."}]},{"head":"Structure of Dissertation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The remainder of this project is organised as follows: Chapter 2 contains detailed methodology for the implementation of the study, Chapter 3 deals with literature review, Chapter 4 performance modelling basics, Chapter 5 performance modelling and analysis of the project, Chapter 6 contain analysis of result and Finally Chapter 7 deal with conclusions and future works of the project."}]},{"head":"Chapter 2: Methodology","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"This section explains detailed and systematic approaches used during the implementation of the project:"}]},{"head":"Analytical modelling","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The proposed new analytical model is derive from the previous model formulated by Guan et al [2] after introducing a mathematical function to capture packets loss at the threshold value greater than or equal to L1 in the state transition diagram."}]},{"head":"Performance matrices derivation","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Subsequently from the new analytical model using virtual mathematics the balanced equations based on Markov chain state transition diagram , normalized equations based on equilibrium probability and initial state coefficient (π0 ) computing formula from the normalized equations are derived."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"In addition mean queue length after applying first order derivative to the summation of both the equilibrium probability and generating function product, using Little's rules throughput and mean queue delay and finally, probability of packets loss computing formulas derivation are carry out."}]},{"head":"Numerical results","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The derived performance metrics mathematical formulas are validated by setting different values for RED parameters such as packet arrivals, departures, thresholds and for functions using MATLAB program. Numerical results are produced for comparisons to identify the optimum function."}]},{"head":"Graphical analysis","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Graphs for visualizing and comparing the mean queue length, throughput, mean queue delay and probability of packets loss against a range of thresholds values for different functions are generated using MATLAB program."}]},{"head":"Summary of the results","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Each performance metrics numerical and graphical results obtained using MATLAB program are compared for each of the functions used in the analytical modelling. Summary of the compared results, contribution to the research in performance modelling and the direction of future work are produced. In addition some of the most important performance measure parameters of a communication or computer networks has been mentioned. Parameters such as throughput, message delay and probability of message loss are adopted as key performance measures for all network consideration. In particular probability of message loss can be used in assessing the transmission quality for certain types of data such as voice and video."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Further more he pointed out that sufficient state transitions descriptions using Markov chain process can be one way of modelling the performance of a digitized computer or communication networks."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Since many physical systems such as communication or computer networks operate on timeslotted basis and these can be conveniently modelled by discrete time-time Markov chain process. The process specifies a one-to-one correspondence between a time-slot in physical system and unit time in the model. Then performance measures for the system can be extracted from the equilibrium probability distribution of the Markova chain process."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"The Markov chain state transition process has been illustrated by a discrete-time M/M/1/J queue system using Kendall's notation in [13] with the assumptions that probability of packets arrival in the slot α, no packets arrival (1-α), the probability of packets departure in a slot be ß, no packets departure (1-ß) and α <ß."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"Further more the queuing system in equilibrium and the state transition diagram had finite state space J (J packets or customer in a system) which satisfies the conditions to have a unique stationary probability distribution compared with infinite queuing process where the number of customers in the system will build up to infinity. This is shown by figure 1 below. The average queue size, using a low pass filter with an exponential weighted moving average (EWMA) [4] equation has been calculated: Equation 1: Exponential weighted moving averages"},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"The average queue size is compared to two thresholds, a minimum (min th ) threshold and a maximum (Max th ) threshold [4] and proposed the following points:"},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"• If the average queue size ≤min t , then no incoming packets are dropped."},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"• If min t ≤ average queue size ≤ Max th , then the arriving packets are dropped with probability Pb, where P b , is a function of the average queue size."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"• Finally, if the average queue size > Max t then all incoming packets are dropped, this is shown at figure 2 below."}]},{"head":"Avg(t + 1)= (1 -w q","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":").Avg(t) + w q B(t)"},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Where w q is an averaging time constant, and B(t) is the instantaneous queue occupancy. Each time a packet was marked, the probability that the marked packet was dropped for that particular connection roughly proportional to that connection's share of the bandwidth at the gateway. [6] Two separate RED gateway algorithms were used in their proposal. The first algorithm to compute the average queue size that determined the degree of burstiness allowed in the gateway queue. The second algorithm to calculate the packet-marking/dropping probability determined how frequently the gateway marks/drops packets, given the current level of congestion."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"The above two RED gateways algorithms efficient implementation as a congestion avoidance mechanism achieved the following major goals: [6] • Congestion avoidance: -In RED gateway algorithm packets are dropped when average queue size exceed maximum threshold. However If the weight for the EWMA procedure has been set appropriately RED gateway guarantees that the calculated average queue size does not exceed the maximum threshold."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• Appropriate time scales: -In RED gateways, the time scale for congestion detection roughly matches the time scale required for connections to respond to congestion."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"RED gateways don't notify connections to reduce the traffic as a result of transient congestion at the getaway."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"• No global synchronization: -RED gateways avoid global synchronization by assigning low probability of marking for each arriving packets in the event of low congestion and higher probability of marking for each arriving packet during higher congestion. The gateways avoid global synchronization by making packets at as low a rate as possible."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"• Fairness: -RED gateway does not discriminate against particular connections or classes of connections. Packet marking for each connection is roughly proportional to that connection's share of the bandwidth. But do not attempt to ensure that each connection receives the same fraction of the total throughput."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"• Parameter sensitivity: -RED gateways apply the following rules or assumption for parameters to give adequate performance under a wide range of traffic conditions:"},{"index":9,"size":46,"text":"Ensure adequate calculation of the average queue size: w q >0.001. The weight w q should not be set too low, so that the calculated average queue length does not delay too long in reflecting increases in the actual queue length. Where w q queue weight."},{"index":10,"size":25,"text":"Set min th sufficiently high to maximize network power: The thresholds min th and max th should be set sufficiently high to maximize network power."},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"Make max th -min th sufficiently large to avoid global synchronization: As a rule of thumb usually max th to be at least twice min th would be."},{"index":12,"size":46,"text":"However, in spite of the fact that RED is the most promising AQM [12] scheme for congestion avoidance and control, research has shown that the performance of RED is highly dependent upon the way its parameters are tuned and the network environment where it is used."},{"index":13,"size":82,"text":"When maximum probability of marking (maxp) is large and/or network is lightly congested, the average queue size is near minth; conversely when maxp is small and/or the network is heavily congested, the average queue size is close to maxth. Thus, the queuing delays at the routers cannot be easily estimated because the changes in the average queue size vary widely according to the parameters and congestion in the network. [12] Finally they cited the following points as a future work of direction:"},{"index":14,"size":21,"text":"• Making conscious decisions and determination of optimal average queue size for maximizing throughput and minimizing delay for various network configurations."},{"index":15,"size":14,"text":"• Traffic dynamic mix of TD and RED gateway implementation in the current Internet."},{"index":16,"size":11,"text":"• Study the behaviour of RED gateway other than TCP protocols."},{"index":17,"size":14,"text":"• Implementation of packet marking priorities based on the connection at the RED gateway."}]},{"head":"Discrete-Time Performance Modelling Based On RED and Queue Threshold","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Guan et al in [2] was implemented two discrete-time setting using queuing threshold congestion control analytical models for performance evaluation of Internet traffic."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The analytical models were based on RED mechanism, i.e. RED is recommended by the Internet Society in [3], which compared the performance metrics parameters against thresholds in each of the two implemented models."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"The numerical analysis of the two models was conducted based on the assumption that departure always takes place before an arrival in any time unit or slot, arrivals follows an independent Bernoulli process, the system have finite waiting room or buffer space and the queuing discipline was First-come First-served (FCFS)."}]},{"head":"Model 1:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"In model 1 there was a step reduction in the probability of arrival rate from α1 directly to α2"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"when the queuing reached at threshold value L1. However the source operates normally and a reduction in arrival rate achieved through implicit feedback from the queue to arrival process, the probability of a departure is β and arriving packets dropped with a probability 1-α2/α1 after threshold value L1."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Model 1 represented by figure-3 is shown below:  Subsequently from the state transition diagram assuming α1≠β, α2≠β, and α1> α2, the balanced equations, normalized equations, mean queue length, throughput, mean queue delay and probability of packet loss calculated and numerical results was generated [2]."}]},{"head":"Model 2:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Model 2 was slotted into two thresholds and probability of an arrival in a slot be α1 before the number of packets in the system reaches the first threshold L1, the probability of an arrival in a slot be reduced to α2 after the number of packets in the system reaches the second threshold, the probability of a departure be β and the dropping probability increased linearly form 0 to the maximum 1-α1/ α2 within the two thresholds."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Model 2 illustrated by figure 5 is shown below:   From the overall numerical analysis Guan et al in [2] concluded that to achieve a lower delay for a specific probability of packet loss the following parameter settings should be used:"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• A high maximum drop probability"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• A low setting for the threshold"},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"• A narrow separation of the threshold Also to achieve a lower probability of packet loss the following parameters setting should be used:"},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"• A low maximum drop probability"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"• A high setting for the threshold"},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"• A wide separation of the threshold Therefore, based on the type of services required such as real time and non-real time services, the above parameters setting should be adjusted."},{"index":9,"size":64,"text":"Finally Guan et al in [2] suggested that future work should aim to generalize the results obtained to some extent by allowing multiple arrivals in a slot which can be applied to any arrival process. Furthermore, implementations of this model to Internet traffic e.g. a TCP/IP flow so that the technique of variable thresholds and blocking can be applied as a congestion control mechanism."}]},{"head":"A New AQM Algorithm for Congestion Control","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Alraddady, F. and Woodward, M. E [4] proposed a new AQM algorithm based on RED to control congestion on the Internet."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"The algorithm was implemented by modifying RED and providing a flexible way of adjusting the maximum dropping probability between the two thresholds [4], improving throughput and delay compared to RED."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"In RED algorithm [3], the probability of packet dropping increased linearly with the average queue size between the thresholds [2]. The slope of its packet dropping probability line depends on maximum packet dropping probability which has manually adjustable parameter. This is shown in figure 8 below.  Therefore, the proposed model algorithm has variable packet dropping probability that reflects the slopes which was calculated on the bases of a linear equation [4] using Mean Queue Length Target (MQLT) and incoming packet arrival rate."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"If there is a change between the current mean queue length and the target mean queue length, new maximum packet dropping probability was calculated which results in a new slope. And also moves the mean queue length back to the target mean queue length."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"And also if there is an increase in arrival rate compared with the target arrival rate again, this also leads to new slope by calculating new maximum packet dropping probability."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"The target mean queue length and the target average arrival rate of the system at the steady state was estimated from the know service rate and known the target delay by assuming a"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"Poison source and using the M/M/1/K [12] model as in [4]."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"This was achieved by the following two steps:"},{"index":9,"size":123,"text":"• First, calculated the model the target average arrival rate for given service rate and the target delay at steady state after simulating the model M/M/1/K as in [4] • Second, calculated the model the target average queue length at steady state for a given target average arrival rate and target delay after simulating the model M/M/1/K as in [4] Then the average incoming arrival rate (AIAR) was calculated by using the weighted moving average for the delay of the system and the current queue length at every packet arrival and applying Little's law [1]. Next the dropping probability at the target mean queue length was calculated by using the target average arrival rate as specified by an equation ( 3) in [4]."},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"The simulation result in [4] shows that for different arrival rate and fixed service rate the purposed model achieved lower delay, lower variance in average mean queue length and similar throughput compared with RED and Adoptive RED."},{"index":11,"size":37,"text":"On the other hand the correlation effect of the throughput doesn't have significant effect on delay for Adoptive RED and the proposed model algorithm but have significant effect of increased correlation on increased delay on RED algorithm."},{"index":12,"size":31,"text":"In general the performance of the proposed model is at least as good as Adoptive RED. But as to the original RED it has a problem of subject to further parameterization."}]},{"head":"Analytical Modelling Based On Dynamic RED","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Hussein Abdel-jaber, Mike Woodward, Fadi Thabtah and Mahmud Etbega [17] implemented a Discrete-Time Queue Analytical Model based on Dynamic Random Early Detection(DRED) technique to control congestion in the wireless and fixed network. They compared the results to the original DRED algorithm in terms of the performance metrics parameters."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The analytical model was enabled to accommodate single event i.e. arrival or departure of packet can take place in a slot or multiple event, where both arrival and departure could take place in the same slot with a finite capacity, including packets in the service."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The model has a single threshold (th) and packet arrival at each slot has identical independent distribution (I.I.D) Bernoulli process [1].The queuing discipline was FCFS. Figure 10 shows the queuing system of the proposed model. An inputs value has been assigned for the analytical model parameters and calculated the numerical values and simulation graphs of the performance metrics. They also recorded the packet dropping probabilities results for both methods in order to evaluate which method drops fewer packets."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"The simulation analysis as it was clearly shown with a diagram in [17] both method consistently produced similar results with regards to throughput(T) and packet loss (P loss )When the traffic load increasing up to a certain value level. After that the original DRED algorithm dropped at a higher rate than the analytical DRED. Hence its throughput performance deteriorated."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"However with regard to Average queue length (aql) and Average queuing delay (D) results, the original model DRED algorithm performed better than the analytical model DRED. [17] With regards to packet dropping probability (Dp), the diagrams in [17] shows that the analytical model achieved smaller dropping probability than the original DRED algorithm."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"Therefore the analytical model DRED technique throughput performance was sustained regardless of the traffic load rate as it was shown in [17] and produced better performance than the original DRED."}]},{"head":"Dropping functions analysis","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Analytical Modelling Based On Gentle-RED","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"LanWang, Geyong Min, Irfan Awan [8] were develop original analytical model of performance analysis using Gentle-RED (GRED-I) techniques of AQM [9] scheme under two heterogeneous classes of Internet traffic."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"The traffics were non-bursty(e.g. Text data) and busrty (e.g. Web and voice) traffic classes which modelled with Poisson Process and Markov-Modulated Poisson Process (MMPP) [13] respectively."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"The analytical model assumed to have MMPP average arrival rate, a single server, exponentially distributed service time for both traffic classes, and shared buffered management for the two traffic based on First-in-First-out (FIFO) queuing discipline."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"[9]"},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"The threshold for each traffic class k (k = 1, 2) is denoted by th k [8]. When the number of packets in the system exceeds threshold th k , the forthcoming packets of Class-k will be dropped randomly depending on the dropping probability [8]. This is shown by figure 12 below. Since data traffic was more sensitive to packet loss than bursty voice traffic, Class-1 traffic was dropped earlier than Class-2 in the presence of the sign of congestion. Thus, th1 was set to be less than th2."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"Assuming the state transition diagram of the queuing system follows Markova chain to set up equilibrium equation. The probabilistic flow rate into and out of the system becoming at a certain state in equilibrium condition with the sum of probability is equal to 1. Derivation of performance metrics was performed [8]."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"Using virtual mathematics and Little's rules [1] different equations was derived to calculate the aggregate and marginal performance metrics such as mean queue length, response time, throughput, and loss probability. And also the accuracy of the analytical model was validated through extensive simulation experiments."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"Comparisons of validating the analytical model to that of simulation was made and the following consistent results were obtained:"},{"index":9,"size":54,"text":"• The effects of the increase threshold th 1 under high bursty traffic was resulted an increase in the marginal mean queue length, mean response time and throughput but a decrease in loss probability. However at the low bursty traffic of the marginal loss probability increased as the result of growth of th1 ."},{"index":10,"size":33,"text":"The more common phenomena is that the marginal mean queue length, throughput, response time and loss probability of bursty traffic are become closer to those of low bursty traffic as threshold th1 decreases."},{"index":11,"size":102,"text":"On the other hand the aggregated utilization, mean queue length, throughput, and mean response time increase but the loss probability decreases as threshold th1 increases. The aggregated mean queue length, response time, and loss probability increase and the aggregated utilization and throughput decrease when traffic burstiness increases. Theses demonstrate the detrimental impacts of traffic burstiness on the performance of AQM mechanism. [8] • The effects of the increased threshold th 2 with a fixed th 1 under low bursty traffic was resulted in an increase in the marginal mean queue length, mean response time and throughput but a decrease in loss probability."},{"index":12,"size":21,"text":"On the other hand throughput of bursty traffic tends to decrease and the mean queue length, loss probability and delay increase."},{"index":13,"size":42,"text":"In addition the effect of th 2 on the marginal performance metrics for low bursty traffics more noticeable than high bursty traffics. It shows a more remarkable change when the rate of traffic is higher than when the traffic rate is lower."},{"index":14,"size":32,"text":"• The effect of aggregate performance metrics when traffic rate increases resulted in an increase in utilization, mean queue length, throughput, mean responding time and loss probability as threshold th 2 increased."},{"index":15,"size":28,"text":"When the traffic rate decrease as threshold th 2 increased, there was an increase in mean queue length, throughput, mean responding time and a decrease in loss probability."},{"index":16,"size":41,"text":"Therefore, the analytical model based on GRED-I in heterogeneous traffic environment validated using simulation and also illustrated with diagrams in [18]. The procedure used in the derivation of the model was general and can be easily extended for others AQM methods."}]},{"head":"Analytical modelling and comparison of AQM based congestion control","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"An improvement in performance over the RED algorithm by comparing the effect of different probability of packet drop functions using instantaneous queue length model have been proposed by Lan Wange, Geyong Min, Itfan Awan. [18] The traffic arrival process of the proposed model was two states Markov Modified Poisson Process (MMPP-2). This is shown by figure 13 below. To maintain the main strategies of AQM that is to drop packet before congestion occurs, while the queue length is not smaller than the threshold value, different dropping functions have been introduced in the state transition diagram to achieve a step reduction of the arrival rate."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Theses process can be seen as a decrease of the arrival rate for each function with some probability (1-d ij ) after the threshold values. Where i,j mean number of packets in the queue and Markova state respectively."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"From the above two state MMPP-2 diagram the corresponding state transition diagram in [18] were generated for calculating the performance metrics using virtual mathematics and equilibrium probabilities."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Five different functions have been used to compare their performance metrics with the change of threshold value with the same RED parameter setting."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"The results of one threshold analysis clearly shows in [18] that with an increasing the threshold value mean queue length, throughput, and mean queue delay under each function are increases as expected and loss probability tends to decrease. In particularly the exponential function, a x , at a=1.1 and with increasing threshold value, found to be an attractive function offer a better performance such as lower mean queue delay, higher throughput but less packet loss probability compared with others functions."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Two threshold analyses have been also show in [18] that the mean queue length, throughput, and mean queue delay are lower for the lower first threshold setting and increasing with enlarge the distance of two thresholds."},{"index":7,"size":45,"text":"In general the review of the above literatures shows that RED or RED variant techniques of AQM methods are parameter sensitive and there will be a possibility of implementing those techniques through optimal setting of the parameters to achieved better results compared so far achieved."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"However the optimum stetting of RED parameters required conscious design decision to achieve in minimum packet drop probability during congestion for variable Internet traffics."},{"index":9,"size":63,"text":"In this project new analytical model from the previous model, the work done by Guan et al [2] derivation is made by introducing different packet dropping functions in the state transition diagram after the threshold value. The optimum function which produces better performance metrics results at optimum RED parameters settings should identified in order to make contribution to the research in performance modelling."}]},{"head":"Chapter 4: Performance Modelling Basics","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"This section of the project deals with the fundamental properties of discrete-time queuing system that can be used in the actual implementation of the analytical model."}]},{"head":"Queue Modelling and Fundamental Properties","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Discreet-Time Queue","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The new analytical model is based on discrete-time queue system which is one of the main mathematical techniques used to analyze packet arrival, packet departure, waiting time in the queue, and the number of servers in the system as it was used in the original model formulated by Guan et al [2]. The basic queuing system is shown by Figure 14 below. The new analytical model maintains the following important characteristic of a discrete-time queue system:"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• The packet arrival process:"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"It is assumed that the inter arrival times are follows identically independently distributed Bernoulli process,"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"• The service times:"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"It is assumed that the service times are independent and identically distributed, and that they are independent of the inter arrival times."},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"• The service discipline:"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"Packets are transmission based on First-come First-served discipline, i.e. in order of arrival."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"• Servers and service capacity: Single server and finite service capacity."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"According to Kendall notation [12] the new analytical model classified as M/M/1/N=L1+J discreet-time queue system. Where M is stands for Markova (Memory less)."},{"index":10,"size":56,"text":"The mean number of packet in a stable system (over some time interval) is equal to their mean arrival rate, multiplied by the mean time in the system. This is a general procedure adopted to measure the mean waiting time of any queuing system and the calculation depends only on mean values and not on distribution."}]},{"head":"Discrete-Time Markov chain","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The new analytical model is implemented by Markov chains discrete-time state transition processes either at each step the system may change its state from the current to another state, or remain in the same state, according to a certain probability distribution."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The change of states are called transition, and the probabilities associated with various statechange are called transition probabilities."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"The model satisfies the Markov chain property as the evolution of the system after a given time instant depends only on the state at that instant and not on any past history."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"A steady state (at equilibrium) analysis is conducted in order to derive the balance equilibrium as well as performance metrics expressions."}]},{"head":"Chapter 5: Performance Modelling and Analysis","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"This section of the project deals with the actual implementation of the new analytical model derived from the previous model formulated by Guan et al [2] by carrying out the following series of steps:"}]},{"head":"Previous model","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The previous model [2] was a discrete-time queuing system derived based on the Markova chain state transition process with the assumption that departure always takes place before arrival in any unit time. Each arrival follows an independent Bernoulli process with a finite buffer capacity (L1+J), the queuing discipline was First-come First-served (FCFS) and the system had a single server."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"In addition the adopted model had one threshold value L1. α1 and α2 were packet arrivals before and after the threshold respectively. β was packet departure. There was a step reduction in the arrival rate from α1 to α2, when the number of packet reached at the threshold value L1. Alternatively this mean that the source continuing sending the packet at the rate equal to α1 but the arriving packet dropped with the probability 1-α2/ α1 [2]. The probabilities of no packet arrival and no packet departure are represented by (1-α1) and (1β) respectively. The probability, no packet arrival at the threshold value greater than or equal to L1 is represented by (1-α2). This is shown in figure 15 below. "}]},{"head":"New Analytical model","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"In the new analytical model the probability of packet arrivals is represented by a1 and a2 before and after the threshold value L1 respectively and d for probability of packet departure."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"The maximum buffer capacity of the system represented by L1+J with a single server. The   "}]},{"head":"Derivation of Performance Metrics","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"To derive the performance metrics equations assume that the new analytical model utilised discrete-time queuing system which relies on the particular time unit called slot. The capacity of the model is finite, (L1+J) buffer space, which include packet in the service."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"In addition the arrival process i.e.(a n ) , assume in the model is identically independently distributed Bernoulli process, a n Є{0,1}, 0,1,2,…., where a n represent packet arrival at slot n."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Then queuing discipline assume to be First-come First-serve (FCFS). [2,17] In order to derive the balanced equation and performance metrics measuring expression using virtual mathematics from the new analytical model state transition diagram the following sequence of steps are used:"},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"I. From the new analytical model state transition diagram the following equilibrium probability equations are derived under the assumption a1<d (stable system):"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"In general"},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":"In general"},{"index":7,"size":2,"text":"For i=L1+2,L1+3,…,L1+J-1"},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"For i=L1+J (8) Equation 2: Equilibrium Equations II. Solving the above equilibrium probability equations for each value of π i ,For i= 1, 2, VI. Using Little's rules [1] we can generate formulas for mean waiting time and Throughput as follows:"},{"index":9,"size":27,"text":"• Waiting time (W) the time interval where an arbitrary customer enters into the system to the time the customer leaves, including the time spent in service."},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"W= P' (1)/S Equation 6: Mean Waiting Time"},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"• Throughput(S) is the number of customer passing through the system per unit time."},{"index":12,"size":43,"text":"S= (1-π 0 ) d Equation 7: Throughput VII. The probabilities of packet loss, PL, the fraction of customers arrive to find no waiting room available to accommodate them. Of course this is true when the waiting room in the system is finite."},{"index":13,"size":28,"text":"Where i=L 1 , L1+1,…, L1+J, D=Functions Introduced  The diagram shows that the exponential function, a x , capture less packet dropping probability compared to the other functions."}]},{"head":"Performance Metrics Analyzed Results","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"To investigate the performance metrics equation derived above using the above four typical packet dropping functions an experimental analysis is carried out using MATLAB so that numerical and graphical results are generated."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The new analytical model RED parameters input values for packet arrival, a1=0.27, packet departure, d=0.30, system capacity, Max queue length=20 and threshold, L1= [1,2,…,Max queue length] are used for measuring the performance metrics."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"The numerical and graphical results of the performance metrics are shown below by the tables 1-4 and figures 19-22 for each of the four different dropping functions.  The numerical values in the table-1 and figure 18 shows that the probabilities of packet loss for each of the function decrease as the threshold value L1 increases. Lower packet loss can be achieved by setting higher threshold value L1 and this is consistent to the normal system.      On the other hand as the dropping area size is decreasing the effort done by the router to avoid congestion are less and less the three performance metrics values increased reasonably."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"The above numerical and graphical results clearly show that out of the four different functions the exponential function, a x , the power of a function, x a , exhibit lower probability of packet loss, higher throughput and lower delay compared with the other two functions."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"To identify the optimum function from the exponential function, a x , the power of a function,"},{"index":6,"size":85,"text":"x a , a similar experimental analysis as above are conducted the following numerical and graphical results shown by the tables 5-8 and figures 23-26 generated.  Again similar to the above results table 5 and figure 23 shows that when the threshold values increases probability of packet loss decreases as expected.     Tables 6-8 and figures 24-26 above show that with the threshold values increasing the throughput, mean queue length and mean delay for the two functions are increasing. This is consistent with the normal system."},{"index":7,"size":40,"text":"The above numerical and graphical results clearly show that out of the two functions exponential function, a x , achieved lower probability of packet loss, higher throughput and lower delay compared with the power of a function, x a ."},{"index":8,"size":113,"text":"Finally in order to draw a general conclusion about the exponential function, a x , at different parameter values of a, experimental analysis is carried out and numerical and graphical results are shown by tables 9-12 and figures 27-30 are drawn.          Tables 9-12 and figures 27-30 clearly show that when the values of the parameter a approaches 0.01 the exponential function achieved lower packets loss probabilities, higher throughput and lower delay as the values of the threshold increased. These settings of the parameters can be used for data service application. While the value of the parameter a approaches to 1, the settings can be used for real time applications that required lower delay."},{"index":9,"size":79,"text":"Therefore the above results are consistent with the normal system, and the exponential function based on the above input values and parameter setting is considered to be an attractive function for AQM method and hence, this is a contribution to the research on performance modelling. The results showed that exponential function is an optimum function which achieved lower probability of packet loss, higher throughput and lower delay compared with others functions when the values of the thresholds are increasing."}]},{"head":"Future Work","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The extension of this project work will be:"},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"• The new analytical model is implemented based on a single threshold value and achieved the above results. Two thresholds values implementation is required since RED is implemented by two thresholds values in the Previous model."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• All packet dropping functions are not examined on these paper. Much better packet dropping function could be investigated."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 : FIGURE 1: STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM FOR A DISCRETE-TIME M/M/1/J QUEUE ..................................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 : FIGURE 2: DROPPING PROBABILITY VS AVERAGE QUEUE SIZE OF THE RED ALGORITHM ..................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 : FIGURE 3: SINGLE BUFFER WITH ONE THRESHOLD L 1 ............................................................................................. "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 : FIGURE 4: STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM FOR DISCRETE-TIME FINITE QUEUE WITH THRESHOLD VALUE L 1 ......... "},{"text":"FIGURE 5 : FIGURE 5: SINGLE BUFFER WITH TWO THRESHOLDS L 1 AND L 2 .............................................................................. "},{"text":"FIGURE 6 : FIGURE 6: DOUBLE THRESHOLD TRANSITION DIAGRAM FOR DISCRETE-TIME FINITE QUEUE ............................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 7 : FIGURE 7: STEP REDUCTION AND LINEAR REDUCTION ............................................................................................ "},{"text":"FIGURE 8 : FIGURE 8: RED ALGORITHM .................................................................................................................................... FIGURE 9: PROPOSED ALGORITHM ........................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 10 : FIGURE 10: QUEUING SYSTEM MODEL ...................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 11 : FIGURE 11: THE STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM FOR THE DRED ANALYTICAL MODEL ............................................ "},{"text":"FIGURE 12 : FIGURE 12: DROPPING PROBABILITY OF FOR TWO TRAFFIC CLASSES ....................................................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 13 : FIGURE 13: TWO-STATE MMPP ............................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 14 : FIGURE 14: BASIC QUEUING SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................ "},{"text":"FIGURE 15 : FIGURE 15: DISCRETE-TIME FINITE QUEUE WITH L1 THRESHOLD STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM .......................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 16 : FIGURE 16: SINGLE THRESHOLD ANALYTICAL MODEL ........................................................................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 17 : FIGURE 17: LOSS OCCURRENCES IN THE ANALYTICAL SINGLE THRESHOLD MODEL ............................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 18 : FIGURE 18: TYPICAL DROPPING FUNCTIONS VS THRESHOLD (L1) .......................................................................... FIGURE 19: PROBABILITY OF PACKET LOSS VS THRESHOLD ................................................................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 20 : FIGURE 20: THROUGHPUT VS THRESHOLD .............................................................................................................. "},{"text":"FIGURE 21 : FIGURE 21: MEAN QUEUE LENGTH VS THRESHOLD ................................................................................................ "},{"text":"FIGURE 22 : FIGURE 22: MEAN QUEUE DELAY VS THRESHOLD .................................................................................................. "},{"text":"FIGURE 23 : FIGURE 23: PROBABILITY OF PACKET LOSS VS THRESHOLD ................................................................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 24 : FIGURE 24: THROUGHPUT VS THRESHOLD .............................................................................................................. "},{"text":"FIGURE 25 : FIGURE 25: MEAN QUEUE LENGTH VS THRESHOLD ................................................................................................ "},{"text":"FIGURE 26 : FIGURE 26: MEAN QUEUE DELAY VS THRESHOLD .................................................................................................. FIGURE 27: PROBABILITY OF PACKET LOSS VS THRESHOLD ................................................................................... "},{"text":"FIGURE 28 : FIGURE 28: THROUGHPUT VS THRESHOLD .............................................................................................................. "},{"text":"FIGURE 29 : FIGURE 29: MEAN QUEUE LENGTH VS THRESHOLD ................................................................................................ "},{"text":"FIGURE 30 : FIGURE 30: MEAN QUEUE DELAY VS THRESHOLD ................................................................................................. "},{"text":" PROBABILITY OF PACKET LOSS FOR DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS ................................................................... TABLE 2: THROUGHPUT FOR DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................... TABLE 3: MEAN QUEUE LENGTH FOR DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS ................................................................................. TABLE 4: DELAY FOR DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS .......................................................................................................... "},{"text":"EQUATION 1 : AbbreviationsAQM ACTIVE QUEUE MANAGEMENT DRED DYNAMIC RANDOM EARLY DETECTION ECN EXPLICIT CONGESTION NOTIFICATION FCFS FIRST-COME FIRST-SERVED FIFO FIRST-IN-FIRST-OUT GRED-I GENTLE-RED I.I.D "},{"text":"[ 9 ] after implementation in the derived model called the analytical model. The new analytical model is the derivation of the Adaptive Congestion Control Mechanism Model formulated by Guan et al. [2] now called the previous model after introducing the optimum function in the state transition diagram. "},{"text":"Chapter 3 : 3 . 1 Literature Review & Related worksThis section deals with literature review of different research papers on the area of congestion control in both dynamic threshold and dropping function analysis in performance modelling of Adaptive Congestion Control Mechanism for the Internet traffic. The aim of the review is to appreciate the various research approaches used to prevent congestion with particular focus on achieving minimum packet loss via maximum throughput in the course of applications transmission over the Internet.The researches are based on RED techniques which is an AQM method in heterogeneous traffic and working conditions. The following are some of the works done so far by different researchers: Modelling with Discrete-Time Queue Today, developments in practical world computers and communications systems are becoming more and more digital, or discrete-time in nature. Hence Michael E. Woodward wrote a book called modelling with discrete-time queue[1] which introduced the concept of developing accurate models of communications or computer networks based on discrete-time queuing theory which can be used to analyse the performance of a network.In a continuous-time only a single state change can occur at any given time instant. This makes it difficult to apply the concept of performance modelling in the digitized computer or communication networks However in the discrete-time because of the finite size of a time-unit, multiple state changes can occur from one time-unit to the next in digital forms. Performance modelling based on these techniques become very easy but needs conscious design concept to apply the techniques in the digitized computer or communication networks. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: State transition diagram for a discrete-time M/M/1/J queue "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Dropping Probability Vs Average Queue Size of the RED algorithm "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Single Buffer with One Threshold L 1 The corresponding state transition diagram of the above figure using Markov chain finite "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: State Transition Diagram for Discrete-Time Finite Queue with Threshold value L 1 "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Single Buffer with Two Thresholds L 1 and L 2 "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Double Threshold Transition Diagram for Discrete-Time Finite Queue "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Step Reduction and Linear Reduction "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: RED Algorithm In contrast, the proposed model adjusted the slope of the line dynamically by adjusting "},{"text":"Figure Figure 9: Proposed Algorithm "},{"text":"Figure 10 :Figure 11 : Figure 10: Queuing system model "},{"text":"Figure 12 : Figure 12: Dropping probability of for two traffic classes "},{"text":"Figure 13 : Figure 13: Two-state MMPP "},{"text":"Figure 14 : Figure 14: Basic queuing system "},{"text":"Figure 15 : Figure 15: Discrete-Time Finite Queue with L1 Threshold state transition diagram The new analytical model is the derivation of the above model after introducing different "},{"text":" probability of no packet arrival and no packet departure is represented by (1-a 1 ) and(1-d)    respectively. The probability no packet arrival at the threshold value greater than or equal to L1 represented by (1-a 2 ) = (1-a1(1-D)). The Markov chain state transition diagram is depicted as follows in figure16below. "},{"text":"Figure 16 : Figure 16: Single Threshold Analytical Model "},{"text":"Figure 17 : Figure 17: Loss occurrences in the analytical Single Threshold Model "},{"text":" 3... L1+J with respect to π 0 using virtual mathematics values for π 1 , π 2, π 3 , ...,π , and the results in step (ii) , we can solve the value for π 0 as: probability-generating function formula for finite queue length and substituting results obtained in step (II), we can calculate for the value of P (first order derivative of the expression obtained in step (IV) evaluated at Z=1 produced an expression for calculating Mean Queue Length (MQL).d)/d(1-a1) and γ 2 =a(1-D)(1-d)/d(1-a1(1-D)) Equation 5: Mean Queue Length (P' (1)) "},{"text":"Equation 8 : Probability of Packet lossThe probability of packet loss increased from zero '0' to '(1-D)'. Where D is the dropping function introduce in the P L expression at the threshold L1 to capture the packet loss. "},{"text":"Figure 18 : Figure 18: Typical Dropping Functions Vs Threshold (L1) "},{"text":"F1=logFigure 19 : Figure 19: Probability of Packet loss Vs Threshold "},{"text":"F1=log Figure 20: Throughput Vs Threshold "},{"text":"Figure 21 : Figure 21: Mean Queue Length Vs Threshold "},{"text":"Figure 22 : Figure 22: Mean Queue Delay Vs Threshold "},{"text":"F2=x - 3 Figure 23 : Figure 23: Probability of Packet loss Vs Threshold "},{"text":"Figure 25 : Figure 25: Mean Queue Length Vs Threshold "},{"text":"Figure 26 : Figure 26: Mean Queue Delay Vs Threshold "},{"text":"Figure 27 : Figure 27: Probability of Packet loss Vs Threshold "},{"text":"Figure 28 : Figure 28: Throughput Vs Threshold "},{"text":"Figure 29 : Figure 29: Mean Queue Length Vs Threshold "},{"text":"Figure 30 : Figure 30: Mean Queue Delay Vs Threshold "},{"text":" In this project, new analytical modelling based on the previous model to investigate optimum packet dropping function using virtual mathematical techniques in performance modelling has been conducted.The new analytical modelling approaches are based on RED techniques of AQM methods with a single threshold; discrete-time queuing system, identically independently distributed packets arrivals and departures based on Bernoulli process and maintain Markov chain state transition process.Performance metrics such as probability of packet loss, average queue length, throughput, and average queuing delay are derived for different functions and investigated the accuracy of the model through extensive experiments. To compare the parameters at the steady state, fixed input value for packet arrival and departure while changing the thresholds values are used. "},{"text":"TABLE 5 : PROBABILITY OF PACKET LOSS FOR EXPONENTIAL AND POWER FUNCTIONS ............................................  "},{"text":"TABLE 6 : THROUGHPUT FOR EXPONENTIAL AND POWER FUNCTIONS ......................................................................  "},{"text":"TABLE 7 : MEAN QUEUE LENGTH FOR EXPONENTIAL AND POWER FUNCTIONS ........................................................  "},{"text":"TABLE 8 : DELAY FOR EXPONENTIAL AND POWER FUNCTIONS .................................................................................  "},{"text":"TABLE 9 : PROBABILITY OF PACKET LOSS FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ...........................  "},{"text":"TABLE 10 : THROUGHPUT FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ...................................................  "},{"text":"TABLE 11 : MEAN QUEUE LENGTH FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS .....................................  "},{"text":"TABLE 12 : DELAY FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ..............................................................  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Probability of Packet Loss for Different Functions Functions    Probability of Packet Loss    FunctionsProbability of Packet Loss F1=log(x)^-3 NaN 0.0585 0.0439 0.0346 0.0291 0.0257 0.0235 0.0219 0.0207 0.0199 F1=log(x)^-3 NaN0.05850.04390.03460.02910.02570.02350.02190.02070.0199 F2=0.4/x 0.0514 0.0343 0.0269 0.0231 0.0208 0.0193 0.0183 0.0175 0.0169 0.0164 F2=0.4/x0.05140.03430.02690.02310.02080.01930.01830.01750.01690.0164 F3=(0.4)^x 0.0514 0.0243 0.0142 0.0125 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 F3=(0.4)^x0.05140.02430.01420.01250.01220.01220.01220.01220.01220.0122 F4=x^-3 0.0609 0.0195 0.0138 0.0128 0.0125 0.0123 0.0123 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 F4=x^-30.06090.01950.01380.01280.01250.01230.01230.01220.01220.0122  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Throughput for different functions Functions         Throughput FunctionsThroughput F1=log(x)^-3 NaN 0.9447  0.9510 0.9552  0.9577 0.9593 0.9604 0.9613 0.9619 0.9623 F1=log(x)^-3 NaN0.94470.95100.95520.95770.95930.96040.96130.96190.9623 F2=0.4/x 0.9478 0.9553  0.9587 0.9606  0.9618 0.9626 0.9632 0.9636 0.9640 0.9642 F2=0.4/x0.94780.95530.95870.96060.96180.96260.96320.96360.96400.9642 F3=(0.4)^x 0.9478 0.9600 0.9655 0.9665  0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 F3=(0.4)^x0.94780.9600 0.96550.96650.96670.96670.96670.96670.96670.9667 F4=x^-3 0.9437 0.9625  0.9657 0.9664  0.9665 0.9666 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 F4=x^-30.94370.96250.96570.96640.96650.96660.96670.96670.96670.9667        Throughput Vs Threshold  Throughput Vs Threshold    0.975         0.975    0.97         0.97    0.965         0.965      L1, (F3)      L1, (F3)   Throughput 0.955 0.96   L1, (F2)     Throughput0.955 0.96L1, (F2)        L1, (F1)    L1, (F1)    0.95         0.95      L1, (F4)       L1, (F4)    0.945         0.945    0.94 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0.9402468101214161820         L1: Threshold  L1: Threshold  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Mean Queue Length for different functions Functions     Mean Queue Length     FunctionsMean Queue Length F1=log(x)^-3 NaN 0.5336 0.9613 1.3654 1.7755 2.1044 2.4121 2.7046 2.9821 3.2440 F1=log(x)^-3 NaN0.53360.96131.36541.77552.10442.41212.70462.98213.2440 F2=0.4/x 0.1869 0.4861 0.8302 1.2098 1.6100 1.9782 2.3304 2.6675 2.9888 3.2933 F2=0.4/x0.18690.48610.83021.20981.61001.97822.33042.66752.98883.2933 F3=(0.4)^x 0.1869 0.4411 0.7025 1.0363 1.4110 1.8028 2.1983 2.5884 2.9673 3.3305 F3=(0.4)^x0.18690.44110.70251.03631.41101.80282.19832.58842.96733.3305 F4=x^-3 0.1688 0.4160 0.6974 1.0410 1.4166 1.8068 2.2005 2.5895 2.9676 3.3304 F4=x^-30.16880.41600.69741.04101.41661.80682.20052.58952.96763.3304  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Delay for different functions Functions     Delay     FunctionsDelay F1=log(x)^-3 NaN 0.5648 1.0108 1.4295 1.8540 2.1936 2.5114 2.8136 3.1003 3.3709 F1=log(x)^-3 NaN0.56481.01081.42951.85402.19362.51142.81363.10033.3709 F2=0.4/x 0.1972 0.5088 0.8660 1.2593 1.6740 2.0550 2.4194 2.7682 3.1005 3.4154 F2=0.4/x0.19720.50880.86601.25931.67402.05502.41942.76823.10053.4154 F3=(0.4)^x 0.1972 0.4595 0.7277 1.0722 1.4597 1.8649 2.2740 2.6776 3.0694 3.4452 F3=(0.4)^x0.19720.45950.72771.07221.45971.86492.27402.67763.06943.4452 F4=x^-3 0.1789 0.4322 0.7222 1.0772 1.4657 1.8691 2.2764 2.6788 3.0699 3.4451 F4=x^-30.17890.43220.72221.07721.46571.86912.27642.67883.06993.4451  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Probability of packet loss for exponential and power functions Functions    Probability of Packet Loss    FunctionsProbability of Packet Loss F3=(0.4)^x 0.0514 0.0243 0.0142 0.0125 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 F3=(0.4)^x0.05140.02430.01420.01250.01220.01220.01220.01220.01220.0122 F4=x^-3 0.0609 0.0195 0.0138 0.0128 0.0125 0.0123 0.0123 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 F4=x^-30.06090.01950.01380.01280.01250.01230.01230.01220.01220.0122  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Throughput for exponential and power functions Functions  Throughput FunctionsThroughput F3=(0.4)^x 0.9478 0.9600 0.9655 0.9665 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 F3=(0.4)^x0.94780.9600 0.9655 0.9665 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 F4=x^-3 0.9437 0.9625 0.9657 0.9664 0.9665 0.9666 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 F4=x^-30.9437 0.9625 0.9657 0.9664 0.9665 0.9666 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Mean Queue Length for exponential and power functions Functions Mean Queue Length FunctionsMean Queue Length F3=(0.4)^x 0.1869 0.4411 0.7025 1.0363 1.4110 1.8028 2.1983 2.5884 2.9673 3.3305 F3=(0.4)^x0.1869 0.4411 0.7025 1.0363 1.4110 1.8028 2.1983 2.5884 2.9673 3.3305 F4=x^-3 0.1688 0.4160 0.6974 1.0410 1.4166 1.8068 2.2005 2.5895 2.9676 3.3304 F4=x^-30.1688 0.4160 0.6974 1.0410 1.4166 1.8068 2.2005 2.5895 2.9676 3.3304  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Delay for exponential and power functions Functions Delay FunctionsDelay F3=(0.4)^x 0.1972 0.4595 0.7277 1.0722 1.4597 1.8649 2.2740 2.6776 3.0694 3.4452 F3=(0.4)^x0.1972 0.4595 0.7277 1.0722 1.4597 1.8649 2.2740 2.6776 3.0694 3.4452 F4=x^-3 0.1789 0.4322 0.7222 1.0772 1.4657 1.8691 2.2764 2.6788 3.0699 3.4451 F4=x^-30.1789 0.4322 0.7222 1.0772 1.4657 1.8691 2.2764 2.6788 3.0699 3.4451  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Probability of packet loss for different values of exponential functions Functions    Probability of Packet Loss    FunctionsProbability of Packet Loss F1 =(0.01)^x 0.0142 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 F1 =(0.01)^x 0.01420.01220.01220.01220.01220.01220.01220.01220.01220.0122 F2=(0.20)^x 0.0409 0.0138 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 F2=(0.20)^x0.04090.01380.01220.01220.01220.01220.01220.01220.01220.0122 F3=(0.40)^x 0.0514 0.0243 0.0142 0.0125 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 0.0122 F3=(0.40)^x0.05140.02430.01420.01250.01220.01220.01220.01220.01220.0122 F4= (0.60)^x 0.0562 0.0422 0.0266 0.0177 0.0142 0.0129 0.0124 0.0123 0.0122 0.0122 F4= (0.60)^x 0.05620.04220.02660.01770.01420.01290.01240.01230.01220.0122  "},{"text":"Table 10 : Throughput for different values of exponential functions Functions     Throughput     FunctionsThroughput F1 =(0.01)^x 0.9655 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 F1 =(0.01)^x 0.96550.96670.96670.96670.96670.96670.96670.96670.96670.9667 F2=(0.20)^x 0.9523 0.9657 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 F2=(0.20)^x0.95230.96570.96670.96670.96670.96670.96670.96670.96670.9667 F3=(0.40)^x 0.9478 0.9600 0.9655 0.9665 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 F3=(0.40)^x0.94780.96000.96550.96650.96670.96670.96670.96670.96670.9667 F4= (0.60)^x 0.9457 0.9518 0.9589 0.9635 0.9655 0.9663 0.9666 0.9667 0.9667 0.9667 F4= (0.60)^x 0.94570.95180.95890.96350.96550.96630.96660.96670.96670.9667  "},{"text":"Table 11 : Mean Queue Length for different values of exponential functions Functions    Mean Queue Length    FunctionsMean Queue Length F1 =(0.01)^x 0.1412 0.3729 0.6786 1.0303 1.4097 1.8026 2.1982 2.5884 2.9673 3.3305 F1 =(0.01)^x 0.14120.37290.67861.03031.40971.80262.19822.58842.96733.3305 F2=(0.20)^x 0.1824 0.3831 0.6793 1.0303 1.4097 1.8026 2.1982 2.5884 2.9673 3.3305 F2=(0.20)^x 0.18240.38310.67931.03031.40971.80262.19822.58842.96733.3305 F3=(0.40)^x 0.1869 0.4411 0.7025 1.0363 1.4110 1.8028 2.1983 2.5884 2.9673 3.3305 F3=(0.40)^x 0.18690.44110.70251.03631.41101.80282.19832.58842.96733.3305 F4= (0.60)^x 0.1826 0.5149 0.8270 1.1261 1.4597 1.8224 2.2048 2.5902 2.9675 3.3305 F4= (0.60)^x 0.18260.51490.82701.12611.45971.82242.20482.59022.96753.3305  "},{"text":"Table 12 : Delay for different values of exponential functions Functions     Delay     FunctionsDelay F1 =(0.01)^x 0.1463 0.3857 0.7019 1.0657 1.4582 1.8647 2.2739 2.6776 3.0694 3.4452 F1 =(0.01)^x 0.14630.38570.70191.06571.45821.86472.27392.67763.06943.4452 F2=(0.20)^x 0.1915 0.3966 0.7028 1.0658 1.4582 1.8647 2.2739 2.6776 3.0694 3.4452 F2=(0.20)^x0.19150.39660.70281.06581.45821.86472.27392.67763.06943.4452 F3=(0.40)^x 0.1972 0.4595 0.7277 1.0722 1.4597 1.8649 2.2740 2.6776 3.0694 3.4452 F3=(0.40)^x0.19720.45950.7277 1.07221.45971.86492.27402.67763.06943.4452 F4= (0.60)^x 0.1931 0.5410 0.8625 1.1688 1.5119 1.8861 2.2811 2.6796 3.0694 3.4452 F4= (0.60)^x 0.19310.54100.86251.16881.51191.88612.28112.67963.06943.4452  "}],"sieverID":"021e457a-f912-480d-9990-c636d7a406ee","abstract":"The need for access integrated applications such as video, voice and data with a defined quality of service parameter over the Internet by the users are currently increasing rapidly.Yet there are challenges on the Internet backbone to operate at its capacity to assure efficient service delivery to the users.One of the major challenges is called congestion collapse which results in issues like high packet delay, high packet loss and low packet throughput in the course of data transmission for various applications on the Internet. Now a day's congestion prevention has become one of the most critical issues that must be confronted by the users. It is also a major challenge to researchers in the field of performance modelling. So far different researches have been carried out and remarkable achievements have been made in controlling congestion collapse and achieving minimum packets loss probability in both Single and Double Threshold analysis leading to Step and Linear reduction respectively. However, as it has been suggested by the researchers, improvements are still needed to achieve better performance results in this regard. The intentions of this project are: First formulating a new analytical model on different packet dropping function based on the previous model. Second derivations of performance metrics such as mean queue length, throughput, response time and probability of loss equations. Third validate the accuracy of the new analytical model through extensive experiment in MATLAB program. And to find out optimum packet dropping function which capture minimum packet loss probability and contribute to the research work in performance modelling.The results of the analysis show that exponential function is an optimum function which achieved lower probability of packet loss compared with others functions when the values of II the threshold are increasing. And also a reasonable increment have been achieved in throughput, average queue length, and average queuing delay as expected with a change in threshold values."}

data/part_3/0dd11ac7e92f8cf042aba47df2fa93ce.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0dd11ac7e92f8cf042aba47df2fa93ce","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0af231f8-7c64-4431-b7d4-43eb929b56ea/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"Identification of Gendered Trait Preferences among Rice Producers Using the G+ Breeding Tools: Implications for Rice Improvement in Ghana","keywords":["Frimpong, B.N.","Asante, B.O.","Asante, M.D.","Ayeh, S.J.","Sakyiamah, B.","Nchanji, E.","Mujawamariya, G.","Zenna, N.","Tufan, H. Identification of Gendered Trait Oryza sativa","qualitative","product profile","plant breeding"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":448,"text":"In order for nations to achieve their socioeconomic development objectives, rice is essential [1]. As a result, according to the FAO [2], rice is the second-most consumed grain in the world after maize and the most important staple food for a significant portion of the global population. In Ghana, rice is the fastest growing food commodity, as it is consumed by almost every household, with an increasing annual per capita consumption of 40 kg per person [3]. However, Ghana is a net importer of rice, and about 42% of its demand is met through imports totaling over USD 200 million per annum [3]. Since 2010, production levels and areas under cultivation have increased by over 30%; however, genetic gains on farmers' fields have been largely static. Average yields are still low: 3.3 MT/Ha as against demand is met through imports totaling over USD 200 million per annum [3]. Since 2010, production levels and areas under cultivation have increased by over 30%; however, genetic gains on farmers' fields have been largely static. Average yields are still low: 3.3 MT/Ha as against the potential of 6-7 MT/Ha [4]. Figure 1a,b show rice production trends and the level farmers are achieving in terms of yield per hectare in Ghana. Agricultural technologies have been identified as one of the primary determinants of productivity, profitability, and sustainability in the food production sector [5,6]. Modernday breeding efforts in sub-Saharan Africa, and for that matter, Ghana, have led to releases of over thirty-five (35) rice genotypes, such as Digang, Gbewaa rice, CRI-Mpuntuo, CRI-Kantinka, CRI-AGRA Rice, CRI-Amankwatia, Legon1, Sikamo, Wakatsuki, CRI-Dartey and CRI-Enapa, to mention but a few by Ghanaian scientists, but uptake of these new cultivars is still at a slow pace considering the year of release and the numbers exhibited publicly. When varieties and technologies are developed but not widely used by end users, it is a waste of efforts and resources given the cycles a variety goes through to be developed. Ref. [7] attributed the slow rate of adoption of new varieties to modern breeding's failure to incorporate end users preferred varietal characteristics. End users from various socioeconomic classes, demographic characteristics, and positions have different varietal options that must be taken into account during the breeding process [8]. There is an urgent need to increase genetic gain on rice farms and make the rice breeding program in Ghana more responsive to the needs of stakeholders in the rice value chain. Since 2020, the rice breeding program at the CSIR-Crops Research Institute has been undergoing a modernization effort with the support of the CGIAR Excellence in Breeding (EiB) program. A major part of this effort is the definition of rice market segments and development"}]},{"head":"Acreage and Production of Rice","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":374,"text":"Area (,000 ha) Production (,000,MT) Agricultural technologies have been identified as one of the primary determinants of productivity, profitability, and sustainability in the food production sector [5,6]. Modernday breeding efforts in sub-Saharan Africa, and for that matter, Ghana, have led to releases of over thirty-five (35) rice genotypes, such as Digang, Gbewaa rice, CRI-Mpuntuo, CRI-Kantinka, CRI-AGRA Rice, CRI-Amankwatia, Legon1, Sikamo, Wakatsuki, CRI-Dartey and CRI-Enapa, to mention but a few by Ghanaian scientists, but uptake of these new cultivars is still at a slow pace considering the year of release and the numbers exhibited publicly. When varieties and technologies are developed but not widely used by end users, it is a waste of efforts and resources given the cycles a variety goes through to be developed. Ref. [7] attributed the slow rate of adoption of new varieties to modern breeding's failure to incorporate end users preferred varietal characteristics. End users from various socioeconomic classes, demographic characteristics, and positions have different varietal options that must be taken into account during the breeding process [8]. There is an urgent need to increase genetic gain on rice farms and make the rice breeding program in Ghana more responsive to the needs of stakeholders in the rice value chain. Since 2020, the rice breeding program at the CSIR-Crops Research Institute has been undergoing a modernization effort with the support of the CGIAR Excellence in Breeding (EiB) program. A major part of this effort is the definition of rice market segments and development of a robust product profile for rice breeding in Ghana. A product design team consisting of actors along the rice value chain, including a gender specialist, was established to develop a product profile. Although the actors identified six major traits that they desired that breeders focus on, they found all six traits to be gender neutral. Moreover, previous work on varietal preferences in Ghana has not been robust on gendered trait preferences and has been limited in scope mainly to the Ashanti region, which accounts for only 5% of the country's rice production [3,[9][10][11]. Before the inception of the research, the team reviewed fifteen research articles in related areas to identify gaps that could be addressed. The summary of the literature findings is presented in Appendix A."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Consequently, there was a need for in-depth research using robust tools to incorporate gendered trait preferences into the existing product profile and expanding the study horizon for findings more representative of the country's situation. The G+ product profile tool, which is an innovative gender-responsive breeding tool, was tested in the study. This research, therefore, sought to identify gendered trait preferences among rice producers using the G+ tools."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Specifically, this research sought to identify gendered trait preferences among rice producers, develop a rice product profile using the G+ tools, compare the use of the G+ tools versus the conventional tools, and discuss the implications of the findings for rice breeding in Ghana. Another objective was to confirm an assertion in the literature that \"men focus more on production and marketing related traits as women focus on production and cooking qualities\" and apply modern tools to conduct gender impact analysis to ascertain how these traits affect the various gender groups."},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"The G+ tools were developed by the CGIAR Gender & Breeding Initiative (GBI) in 2018 as part of an effort to complement work initiated by EiB on developing product profiles to make breeding programs more responsive to the needs of crop value chains. The tools have been created to assist social scientists and breeders in collaborating to incorporate gender issues into breeding programs from conception to implementation, increase the uptake of crop varieties, and have a greater social impact. In determining whether a product should be advanced, the tools are used to assess the gender dimensions of plant or animal traits. They help to determine whether a product profile has implications for gender equity or whether a trait satisfies minimal \"do no harm\" standards in accordance with an evidence-based gender analysis. They also describe the favorable benefits of a trait for end users."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"The results of this study will provide GBI feedback on the effectiveness and difficulties involved with the application of the tools, since they are new and have not been widely used in the scientific community."},{"index":6,"size":106,"text":"Secondly, given that the initial piloting of G+ tools focused on other crops rather than rice and reported gender impact generally without disaggregating the findings [12] and the deficit in data on gendered trait preferences in rice production, this research is extremely vital for improving rice production and the adoption of rice technologies through an enhanced gendered approach to trait identification. This has implications for adoption and marketing of rice varieties and its attendant impacts on the welfare of women and men farmers in Ghana. This study is also a contribution to policy on efficient ways to reduce the rice import bill and work toward self-sufficiency."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Definition of Gender-Related Concepts","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"i.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Gendered trait preferences: Important traits disaggregated by gender. ii. Gender-sensitive traits: Traits distinctively preferred or ranked by a particular gender group. iii. Gender-neutral traits: Traits jointly preferred by all gender groups and not related to a specific gender. iv. Gender-relevant traits: Essential traits specific to a particular gender group. v."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"G+ tools: These are gender-responsive customer and product profile breeding tools. vi. Gender trait impact analysis: An analysis of preferred traits to identify the likelihood of negative consequences associated with the trait choices for a particular gender group. Conclusions are based on the scores generated."}]},{"head":"Ethical Statement","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Despite the lack of a formal ethical clearance committee at the CSIR-Crops Research Institute, all funded projects are approved using existing local protocols. According to local guidelines, studies that do not involve the collection of medical samples from subjects do not require formal approval, but must adhere to Ghana's Data Protection Act, 2012 (Act 843) and the Institute's governing Act, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Act, 1996 (Act 521). In the absence of an ethical standing committee, the project adhered to and passed the institute's research expectations, guidelines, and ethics, which were approved by the institute's administration before activities began."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Participants were also given a structured informed consent form that explained the study's objectives, the confidentiality of the data collected, voluntary participation, not revealing any respondent's identity in the results reporting, and the use of the local language they understood to elicit their responses."}]},{"head":"Description of Study Areas","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"The study was conducted in four rice-growing areas that belong to the irrigated lowlands and rain-fed lowland rice ecologies. Ghana's Volta, Greater Accra, Central, and Ashanti regions were among the study's regions. In terms of rice usage and research activity, the regions picked were among the top rice-growing regions. Ashanti Region comes in fifth place in terms of rice production, with a 2017 production volume of 34,718.18 MT, behind Volta Region with production volume of 234,149.78 MT [4]. The Volta and Greater Accra regions have one of the oldest irrigation systems, where tenant farmers primarily grow rice in two seasons and only sporadically grow vegetables. All of these regions have closely collaborated with research and benefited from a number of varietal releases that have raised regional productivity. One of the major rice-growing districts was chosen from each region: Ketu North, Shai Osudoku, Assin North, and Ejura Skeyeredumase. The districts' profiles are summarized in Table 1. Ketu North district has the least amount of land, while Ejura Sekyeredumase has the most. Agriculture continues to be the primary source of income for farm families in all districts where the labor force is economically active, and workers are at least 15 years old. All of the districts have bimodal rainfall patterns, sufficient sunshine, and favorable weather for the growth of crops, particularly rice. "}]},{"head":"Samples and Sampling Technique","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"The farmers targeted for the study were chosen using a multi-stage sampling technique. The first step involved selecting one administrative district within each region purposively chosen based on the amount of rice produced and utilized and the presence of research. These included the Ketu North District in the Volta region, the Shai Osudoku District in the Greater Accra region, the Assin North District in the Central region, and the Ejura Sekyeredumase District in the Ashanti region. Secondly, from a list of rice communities compiled by the district department of agriculture and the irrigation schemes, five rice communities per district were chosen randomly. Twenty communities in total were chosen for the study's quantitative phase."},{"index":2,"size":270,"text":"Men farmers made up 70-75% of the sampling frame, while women farmers made up 25-30%. The research group decided to choose 70% men and 30% women. The total population for the study was 10,580. The sample size determination formula in [18] was used because a simple random sampling technique was used, and the sample came from a finite population. The sample size calculation indicated that the targeted sample size was 385 rice farmers, but it was rounded up to 400 for greater predictive power. The next stage of sampling involved randomly selecting 20 farmers from each of the 20 communities, yielding a total of 400 respondents, 134 women and 266 men. Because not all of the men farmers showed up for field work, their positions were filled by other women farmers, changing the previously proposed proportions of 70% men and 30% women to 66.5% men and 33.5% women, respectively. Farmers were sampled at random without replacement, so each farmer had one chance to be chosen. The qualitative stage involved 12 focus group discussions (FGDs), with 3 adult men, 3 adult women, 3 young men, and 3 young women groups participating. Separate discussions were held for adult men, adult women, young men and young women in the study districts. A young person was defined as a man or woman between the ages of 15-35 years, which is the definition accepted by the National Youth Employment Agency in the country [19], and an adult, above 35 years. In order to allow for effective interaction, each FGD had eight participants. There were 96 active individual rice producers in the groups as a whole."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"The quantitative results combined adult men and young men into \"men category\" and likewise for women because of the high degree of similarity in their trait choices."}]},{"head":"Data Collection Procedure","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"The research was conducted in the four districts from April to July 2022. An initial desktop review was carried out to identify gaps in the literature on the topic investigated and relevant approaches to data collection that previous studies had used. A summary of some of the reviewed articles and gaps identified is presented in the Appendix A. The study used a mixed-method approach, that is, a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches to data collection. The qualitative approach involved participatory tools such as focus group discussions with separate gender groups and the application of the G+ product profile query tool. The data gathered were mostly primary with the two approaches. The quantitative approach was followed by a qualitative approach to gain in-depth understanding of the explanations given for the varietal and trait choice rankings, as well as the negative and positive effects of the trait choices. During the survey, trained enumerators administered a well-structured interview schedule to the respondents, and a checklist was used for participatory engagement. The qualitative data were collected through age-and sex-disaggregated focus group discussions led by a facilitator and notetaker. The proceedings were audio-recorded and transcribed afterwards. The quantitative data collection process was automated with the help of the online data programming tool Kobocollect, and the data were then downloaded into the STATA 15 software."},{"index":2,"size":265,"text":"Field enumerators were chosen based on their field project experience, knowledge of rice production, and ability to communicate in the local dialect. Sixteen ( 16) experienced field assistants were trained on the designed instruments, the qualitative approach, and how to ask the G+ product profile questions prior to the formal field work. The enumerators were made to practice in dummies, one as the rice farmer and the other as the interviewer. The enumerators' roles were swapped, and the results were evaluated by the entire team. This was done to ensure that enumerators could ask the appropriate questions in the field. To assess the reliability, consistency, and validity of the questions, the survey instrument was pretested in a selected rice community, Besease in the Ashanti region, with farmers who shared characteristics similar to those of the sampled study farmers. During field administration, an interview guide written in English and translated into the local language was used to obtain the necessary information from the farmers. Individual face-to-face interviews for the quantitative and qualitative surveys were conducted at a central location within the study districts. Individual interviews lasted approximately 45 min, while focus group discussions lasting approximately 2 h. In the qualitative process, the research team was introduced, the mission was explained, the focus group discussion guidelines were established, and the participants' consent to record the process was requested. The team collaborated closely with the directors and extension officers of the district departments of agriculture, as well as with the managers of the two irrigation schemes, who provided the study's sampling frame and assisted during the field work."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"The unit of analysis was specific rice farmers from chosen households, and the data gathered included their socio-demographics, farm level and institutional characteristics, varietal choices and related attributes, intensity of trait preferences, and trait preferences for each rice environment. The qualitative stage confirmed the varietal preferences, reasons for the choices and the disparity in the ratio of men to women rice farmers in the districts."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"The negative and positive impacts of the \"must have traits\" were elicited during the focus group discussions using the G+ product profile query tool."}]},{"head":"Method of Data Analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Quantitative data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics, such as means, frequency tables, percentages, charts and t-test. The descriptive statistics were used to summarize and describe the characteristics of sampled rice farmers. Inferential statistics such as the t-test were used to test the intensity of the preferences for the traits among men and women in the rice value chain. The t-test, however, was further used to test the difference between the men and women groups, while the chi-square test of independence was used to evaluate the distribution of preferences among the rice segments. The chi-square was used because of its ability to test the association between sets of categorical variables. The chi-square test statistics were computed by the expression:"},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"where: χ 2 = chi-square f 0 = the observed frequency (i.e., the observed counts in the cell) f e = the expected frequency if the variables are independent Thus, the chi-square was the difference between what was actually observed in the data and what would be expected if the variables were indeed independent. The results were evaluated by comparing the actual value with a critical value read in the chi-square distribution table after considering the degrees of freedom, which were calculated as the number of rows minus 1, by the number of columns minus 1. A four-point Likert scale (1 to 4; 1 = must have, 2 = important, 3 = nice to have, 4 = neutral) was presented to the respondents to elicit the essential traits that breeders needed to focus on, and during the focus group discussions, the pair-wise ranking was used to arrive at the top traits for consideration. An example of the pair-wise results is presented in Table A2 in Appendix A."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"Additionally, qualitative data collected from each focus group were transcribed, coded, and analyzed to identify emerging themes and categorize them to generate patterns for analyses using content analysis, as described by [20] and adopted by [21]. For the qualitative data, the primary units of analysis were adult men, adult women, young men and young women in the rice growing communities. Both investigative and descriptive approaches were used to examine gendered adoption and trait preferences among rice producers in southern Ghana, and the G+ tool was used to conduct the \"Do No Harm\" and \"Positive benefit analysis\" to identify inequalities among the gender groups as a result of the presence of some particular traits."},{"index":4,"size":327,"text":"The G+ tool is a decision support tool that complements the efforts earlier made by the Excellence in Breeding (EiB). The tool is employed for gender-responsive crop improvement programs. It assists the breeding team to be conscious of end users' needs and preferences and mainstream gender throughout the breeding cycle. The tool has two parts; the customer and product profiles. The customer profile identifies the end users of a new or existing product and analyzes their demographic and social differences that influence their choice of the product. The customer profile can be used to collect both primary and secondary data from a targeted market segment. Information collected can be triangulated through expert consultations. The product profile, on the other hand, investigates the attributes of a product and how these attributes could benefit or cause harm to men and women who use the product. With a set of designed questions relating to men's and women's perceptions of the product attributes, a decision is reached based on scores provided by the gender groups. Decisions in the form of impact scores for the preferred traits were reached by following the standard operating procedures (SOPs) outlined in seven steps, as schematically presented in Figure 2a. The first three steps involve information gathering on a proposed product profile for the targeted market segment, which, in this study, we referred to as the \"Conventional product profile\", identifying gender gaps and collecting gender disaggregated data on preferred traits. The 4th and 5th steps analyze the negative impact or positive benefits associated with the traits. When it comes to the traits that breeders must avoid and the \"positive benefits\" that they should include in their breeding goals, \"do no harm\" tries to highlight all of the disparities in these areas. A gender analysis using standardized questions is used to determine the gender impact score. To better understand farmers and obtain their perspectives on the desired traits, the questions were further broken down in the field."},{"index":5,"size":321,"text":"these attributes could benefit or cause harm to men and women who use the product. With a set of designed questions relating to menʹs and womenʹs perceptions of the product attributes, a decision is reached based on scores provided by the gender groups. Decisions in the form of impact scores for the preferred traits were reached by following the standard operating procedures (SOPs) outlined in seven steps, as schematically presented in Figure 2a. The first three steps involve information gathering on a proposed product profile for the targeted market segment, which, in this study, we referred to as the \"Conventional product profile\", identifying gender gaps and collecting gender disaggregated data on preferred traits. The 4th and 5th steps analyze the negative impact or positive benefits associated with the traits. When it comes to the traits that breeders must avoid and the \"positive benefits\" that they should include in their breeding goals, \"do no harm\" tries to highlight all of the disparities in these areas. A gender analysis using standardized questions is used to determine the gender impact score. To better understand farmers and obtain their perspectives on the desired traits, the questions were further broken down in the field. The gender impact score is calculated by conducting an evidence-based gender analysis based on standard questions. \"Do no harm\" on one part has six negative impact questions. Each question is scored on a 3-point scale; 0 = Neutral; −1 = Avoid/ mend and −2 = Reject. The \"positive benefits\" side also has six questions framed in the reverse of the \"do no harm\" and each question scored on a 4-point Likert as 0 = Neutral; +1 = Nice to have; +2 = Important and +3 = Required (Must have) as shown on Figure 2b. The Appendix A contains sample scored sheets that can be used as a guide to better understand the justifications provided and the methodology used to determine the scores."}]},{"head":"Results","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Socioeconomic Characteristics of Rice Producers","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":212,"text":"Table 2 shows the summary statistics of the variables considered in rice farmers' trait preference and adoption decisions by men and women, as well as the t-test values of their mean differences. The t-test results for the variables years of education, residential status, marital status, off-farm income, rice farming experience, household head, and farm size for both major and minor seasons were statistically significant, indicating differences in these variables for men and women. The proportion of men (66.5%) rice farmers was higher compared to women (33.5%). On average, rice farmers were 46 ± 12.3 years old. This implies that most of the respondents fell within the agricultural productive age range of 30-50 years [23]. This outcome supports the findings of [24], who found that the typical Ghanaian rice farmer is 45 years old on average. Most rice farmers only have a basic level of education. The average length of time spent in school for men rice farmers was nine years, compared to six years for women rice farmers. This difference was statistically significant at the 1% and 5% levels, respectively. Based on the respondents' responses, a larger percentage (58%) of the rice farmers were natives. In general, approximately 83% of respondents were married, with a household size of six members on average."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"With an average annual off-farm income of GH 4941.76 (USD 405.06), 39% of rice farmers engaged in off-farm income activities. More men rice farmers (41%) participated in off-farm activities compared to women rice farmers (34%) who engaged in off-farm activities. With an average annual off-farm income of GH 5928.18 (USD 485.92), men rice farmers earned more than twice as much as women (GH 2582.9 (USD 211.74)). A typical rice farmer in the study area had an average of 14 years of rice farming experience and cultivated an average of 4.8 acres (1.92 hectare) of rice over two farming seasons per year; producing 2.8 acres (1.12 hectare) in the major season and 1.95 acres (0.78 hectare) in the minor season."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"Again, access to agricultural extension services was available to 61% of men and 58% of women rice farmers. The sampled farmers averagely received 12 extension visits annually. Nearly 46% of the sampled rice farmers were members of a farmer-based organization that had been operating for about 5 years. With the disaggregated data, 40% women and 49% men had been members of an FBO for at least 5 and 6 years, respectively. The agricultural sector in Ghana is severely hampered by lack of credit access. Just about a third of the sampled respondents had access to credit, and they received an average of GH2546.79 (USD 208.75) in credit, as shown in Table 2."}]},{"head":"Distribution of Varieties by Rice Production Ecologies among Men and Women Farmers","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":330,"text":"The distribution of all of the different rice cultivars among men and women farmers in the study area is shown in Figure 3. The quantitative findings indicate that across all rice ecologies, AGRA rice, Ex-baika, and Jasmine rice were the most widely cultivated improved rice varieties, though there were some minor differences within the geographical space as some varieties were cultivated solely by a particular gender group, as revealed in the participatory interactions. For instance, in Ejura Sekyedumase Municipal, rice farmers additionally cultivated \"Lapez\", \"Amankwatia\" and \"Aflao\" with different position rankings by adult men and adult women, respectively. Due to their distinctive qualities and ability to thrive in irrigated and rainfed lowland environments, these varieties are widely used. Men and women rice farmers adopted AGRA rice at rates of 47% and 41%, respectively. Ex-baika/Legon1 came in second with adoption rates of 27.6% and 32.1%, respectively. Figure 4 shows the different rice ecologies and the distribution of rice varieties among men and women rice farmers in the different rice environments. According to the findings, a majority of men and women cultivated the AGRA and Jasmine rice varieties in the rainfed lowland environments. The forest transition zone in Ghana is where these varieties are mainly grown. On the other hand, both men and women primarily grow the Ex-baika/Legon1 variety in irrigated lowland systems. It is the most common variety among farmers in the coastal savanna zones. The qualitative results revealed that men and women rice farmers cultivated other varieties in these environments, as shown on Table 3a. In the rainfed lowland, Lapez and Aflao are among the top varieties jointly cultivated. The specificities indicate Jasmine was mainly grown by adult men and Amankwatia by adult men and young men, as shown in Table 3a. Togo Marshall was another important variety cultivated by all genders in the irrigation belt, except by the young men. The young men cultivated only Ex-baika in the irrigated lowland ecology. Men and young women jointly cultivated AGRA rice."}]},{"head":"Gendered Trait Preferences among Rice Producers","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":432,"text":"The study's goal was to find differences in gender-specific traits between men and women rice farmers. Each gender was asked to rate their preferred traits on a four-point Likert scale as 1 = \"Must have\"; 2 = \"Important\"; 3 = \"Nice to have\" and 4 = \"Neutral\", with a lower score indicating greater importance, for a variety of rice varietal characteristics. The results presented concentrated on the \"must have\" traits, as these would guide the breeding team on end-user product profiles to improve. To determine whether there was a significant difference between the means of the two groups, a t-test was run.       The literature has shown that men's and women's trait and varietal preferences are often different. In cases of similarities, the trait is often the same but prioritized differently due to diverse, intersectional categories [25]. The outcomes for the \"must have\" agronomic/production, marketing, and post-harvest-related traits are shown in Figures 5-7, respectively. According to the quantitative results, both men and women rice farmers considered high yield to be the most important characteristic, with roughly 97.7% of women and 93.9% of men placing it first. Men and women rated the trait differently, with a 5% significant difference shown by the t-test value of 2.1683. Early maturing came next, ranking as the second-highest ranked trait for both men and women that did not show a statistically significant gender difference. Men and women homogenously ranked biotic and abiotic characteristics such as pest and disease tolerance, tolerance to drought and tolerance to lodging. Both the quantitative and qualitative approaches yielded somewhat different results, as the biotic and abiotic traits at the qualitative level were necessary characteristics for both adult men and young men. Adult women preferred medium-to tall-height plants to control weeds in addition to having high yield and early maturing traits. In the group discussions, women were once more specific in their definitions of yield and early maturing traits. They preferred rice that had about 15-20 tillers and matured in 90-120 days. This is not surprising considering that this is a productive role performed by women in Ghana rice production. Young women were more concerned about the yield attribute in terms of on-farm performance and the milling recovery rate, as depicted in Table A1 in Appendix A. Aroma, good taste, white color, long-slender grain, and high nutrient content are among the marketing-related qualities that both men and women value. Men prioritized long-slender grains and white grain color, whereas women gave more weight to aroma, taste, and nutrient content. There were no significant gender-based differences, according to the t-test results, as shown in Figure 6."},{"index":2,"size":212,"text":"Men and women differed slightly in the rankings of traits related to post-harvest processing and culinary qualities. Both men and women placed great value on varieties with a lower brokenness percentage, but women gave more weight to traits that made it easier to process and prepare high-quality foods, such as short cooking times [26], as shown in Figure 7. The qualitative assessment revealed similar results for both adult women and young women, as both preferred rice with short cooking time, requiring less water during cooking and with high swelling capacity. Young men were also interested in rice with less starch so that it does not stick together during cooking. With a t-value of 3.2612, the results indicated a statistically significant difference between the groups at the 99% confidence level. Again, the study's findings showed that preferences for particular crop variety traits could arise from gendered roles or responsibilities in various stages of agricultural production [27,28]. For instance, since parboiling is primarily a woman's job, women rice farmers ranked milling without parboiling as the second most important post-harvest trait. Men farmers, however, ranked ease of threshing as their top desired post-harvest quality. At a 1% level of significance, the t-test results of 3.4449 and 4.3469 indicated a statistical difference between the two groups."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"farmers ranked milling without parboiling as the second most important post-harvest trait. Men farmers, however, ranked ease of threshing as their top desired post-harvest quality. At a 1% level of significance, the t-test results of 3.4449 and 4.3469 indicated a statistical difference between the two groups.   farmers ranked milling without parboiling as the second most important post-harvest trait. Men farmers, however, ranked ease of threshing as their top desired post-harvest quality. At a 1% level of significance, the t-test results of 3.4449 and 4.3469 indicated a statistical difference between the two groups.     "}]},{"head":"Qualitative Results of Gender Analysis and Gender Impact Score","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Top Preferred Traits Disaggregated by Sex and Age","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The literature has shown that men's and women's desired traits and varietal preferences are often different. In cases of similarities, the trait is often the same but prioritized differently due to diverse, intersectional categories [25]. The field survey evidence indicated that the traits for men, women, young men, and young women were high yielding, marketability and early maturing. Men, women, young women and young men had the same, except young men preferred early maturing over marketability, as shown in Table 4. The marketability traits were further probed in the focus group discussions and in addition to taste and aroma, which were preferred by men, women and young women. Adult women and young women preferred translucent grains, which was mentioned as a strong selling indicator and described in verbatim language, as in Box 1. Young women also valued another marketability trait, which was the white grain color, also a marketdemanded trait."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Box 1. Adult women and young women preferred translucent grains, which was mentioned as a strong selling indicator and described in verbatim language."},{"index":3,"size":283,"text":"Although men, women, and young women identified marketability as the secondbest rice trait during the focus group discussions, there were differences in the intensity of trait descriptions. Women producers had three descriptors of what marketability meant-good taste, aromatic, translucent, and men had two descriptors-good taste and aromatic. The young women had the highest descriptors of the marketability traits-good taste, aroma, shininess, and white color, while for young men, the second-best trait was \"The market likes rice that shines. It attracts customers even from afar and commands premium price in the market. Traders with their exerience are able to differentiate between rice types bases on its shinniness……Adult women and Young women\"  The literature has shown that men's and women's desired traits and varietal preferences are often different. In cases of similarities, the trait is often the same but prioritized differently due to diverse, intersectional categories [25]. The field survey evidence indicated that the traits for men, women, young men, and young women were high yielding, marketability and early maturing. Men, women, young women and young men had the same, except young men preferred early maturing over marketability, as shown in Table 4. The marketability traits were further probed in the focus group discussions and in addition to taste and aroma, which were preferred by men, women and young women. Adult women and young women preferred translucent grains, which was mentioned as a strong selling indicator and described in verbatim language, as in Box 1. Young women also valued another marketability trait, which was the white grain color, also a market-demanded trait. Box 1. Adult women and young women preferred translucent grains, which was mentioned as a strong selling indicator and described in verbatim language."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"\"The market likes rice that shines. It attracts customers even from afar and commands premium price in the market. Traders with their experience are able to differentiate between rice types based on its shininess . . . . . . Adult women and Young women\""},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"Although men, women, and young women identified marketability as the second-best rice trait during the focus group discussions, there were differences in the intensity of trait descriptions. Women producers had three descriptors of what marketability meant-good taste, aromatic, translucent, and men had two descriptors-good taste and aromatic. The young women had the highest descriptors of the marketability traits-good taste, aroma, shininess, and white color, while for young men, the second-best trait was early maturing. With the descriptions given, it is important to recognize that these traits may have different meanings for different social classes."}]},{"head":"Gender Gap Analysis","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Table 5 indicates the impact of the rice traits as viewed by women. Women would not mind drudgery and additional costs for yield-enhancing inputs as long as the monetary outcomes adequately compensate them and they retain control over their income and benefits. Good taste and aromatic and translucent attributes of the rice products earn premium prices, making the production profitable for women. Additional interventions in women-friendly/gender-responsive mechanizations can also reduce women's drudgery."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Table 5. Impact of preferred traits from the women's perspective."}]},{"head":"Do No Harm","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"There is increased drudgery for women due to the increased time women spend drying and winnowing produce. It is also a paid job because of their high involvement in post-harvest activities such as drying and winnowing. Yields are enhanced by inputs, but women experience constraints on access because of low purchasing power."}]},{"head":"Positive Benefits","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Attractive because of the high incomes for both men and women, even though drudgery is an issue for women. Creates business opportunities for women, increases women's participation in the market, and boosts sales and incomes. Total control over incomes and other benefits resulting from higher yields and marketability."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Men's perspectives on the impact of the preferred traits is as shown in Table 6. Although high-yielding traits increased women's allocation of time to work and their need for land, which they face challenges in accessing, net benefits in terms of job creation, incomes and increased control of the benefits resulting from higher market demand offset negative gender implications of high yields and marketability traits (Table 6 ). There is a need to tackle access to resources in addition to breeding women's preferred traits. Table 6. Impact of preferred traits from the men's perspective."}]},{"head":"Do No Harm","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"More labor requirement disproportionately burdens women, who provide most of the production and post-harvest labor. It takes much of women's time, displacing them from other duties related to the family and community. Incentivizes land expansion, which women do not have access to equally with men."}]},{"head":"Positive Benefits","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Creates employment for both men and women. Women have total control over generated benefits and gain decision-making power. Increases men's and women's involvement in additional marketing functions."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"According to Table 7, while high-yielding traits increase the time spent on production and post-harvest activities, marketability constrains them from carrying out other household chores. Nonetheless, it is worthwhile for women to venture into production because of economic returns. They sometimes do not benefit from the incomes incurred, so capacity-building on the importance of women's voice and bargaining power is important, in addition to breeding traits required by clients."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Table 7. Impact of preferred traits from the young women's perspective."}]},{"head":"Do No Harm","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Increases the amount of time women spend drying and winnowing produce. Requires land expansion and use of inputs to which young women do not have equal access compared to young men."}]},{"head":"Positive Benefits","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Creates employment for both men and women, even the youths. Women and young women sometimes have total control over generated benefits and gain decision-making power, but that is not in all cases. Market preferred traits result in time savings, thus enabling young women to attend to other homestead chores."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The storyline was similar to young men's assessment of the implications of breeding product traits for gender gaps, as shown on Table 8. The benefits of the high yields and marketability override the negative implications of the traits for gender if other interventions, such as gender-responsive mechanization, access to resources and increased bargaining power, are promoted. It is said that young men are more inclined to early maturing traits than their women counterparts."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Table 8. Impact of preferred traits from the young men's perspective."}]},{"head":"Do No Harm","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Increases amount of time women spend drying and winnowing produce. Requires land expansion and use of inputs to which women do not have equal access compared to men."}]},{"head":"Positive Benefits","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Creates employment for both men and women as well as young men. Young women have total control over generated benefits and gain decision-making power. Marketability is time-saving, enabling women to attend to other homestead chores."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The impact scores show that tradeoffs were critical, as presented in Table 9. Although the traits may cause harm through increased drudgery, they are required or important for men and women farmers and should be part of the product profile. If tradeoffs are impossible, then alternative interventions mentioned above can complement the breeding priorities. "}]},{"head":"Comparison of the Application of G+ Tools Versus Conventional Approach","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":392,"text":"Table 10 shows the existing product profile the breeding team at CSIR-Crops Research Institute, Ghana is working on with the standard varieties as benchmark. This was developed through the conventional way of assembling stakeholders of rice value chain actors and soliciting their views on important traits to advance in the breeding program. From the stakeholders' assessment, some traits as evaluated by the team had gender relevance, and others did not. Gender-relevant traits are traits that relate to a particular gender group even if they are in the minority. On the other hand, the G+ approach granted the rice producers the opportunity to openly express themselves in like groups and provide more details on the traits' relevance to each gender group and associated negative consequences. Thus, from the gender trait impact analysis score, all of the proposed traits identified were of gender relevance with the exception of yield and aroma, which were gender-neutral as they were preferred by all genders. The G+ tool was able to identify additional traits of gender relevance as listed in Table 10, including translucence, white grain color, early maturing, cooking time, swelling capacity and amount of water required during cooking, which breeders must add to their breeding objectives in order to meet the needs of all gender groups who depend on the crop as a source of livelihood and enhance adoption of released cultivars. Smallholder farmers' decision-making is influenced by their socio-demographic variables [29]. Men accounted for the majority of the sample based on the sampling frame retrieved. The men's dominance in rice production reflects the deeply rooted cultural settings of most typical Ghanaian rural communities, where men have access to production resources and thus own large farms and tend to participate in most farm activities, with the women in some cases assisting their men counterparts to undertake farming operations. Both men and women were within the economically active group and had attained primary education (1-6), which is consistent with the 2010 Population and Housing Census results for the chosen districts (GSS, 2010). This result, however, deviates from the norm, where previous studies have found low levels of education among rural folks [30]. Men, however, further continued after primary education, leaving the women behind. This may be due to the fact that after primary education, there may be some women dropping out of formal education for legitimate reasons."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"The average rice farmer in the study area was 46 years old. This implies that most of the respondents fell within the agricultural productive age range of 15-60 years [23]. This outcome supports the findings of [24], who found that the typical Ghanaian rice farmer is 45 years old, on average. Household size is a proxy for family labor availability, which could affect the adoption of labor-intensive good agronomic practices [31,32]. A household size of six members suggests that farmers could receive support from their family when needed. Men farmers had more members within their household than women. This could affect women in carrying out activities that are labor-intensive."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"On the other hand, women received more extension visits and had higher credit access than men. This may be due to the point that at the study locations, especially the irrigated schemes, farmers received in-kind credit in the form of seed, fertilizer and agro-chemicals. Personal conversations with extension agents revealed that they were comfortable dealing with women because of their high loan repayment rates. The results are consistent with a study conducted by [33]."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":"Refs. [31,34,35], noted that smallholder farmers' membership in a farmer-based organization was important, as they were able to access quality information and new technologies from their groups. Ref. [29] reported that more than 50 percent of their respondents be-longed to a farmer-based organization. The opposite result was recorded for this study, as less than 50% men and women belonged to an organization. This could affect the easy flow of information among farmers. In the study areas, farmers relied mainly on extension agents and sometimes research institutions for information on production practices and improved technologies. A similar observation was made by [29,36] in their studies. Ref. [37] discovered individual and demographic characteristics to be important in trait assessment, as they interact to reveal trait preference differences."}]},{"head":"Farmers' Varietal and Trait Preferences across Rice Ecologies","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Rice in Ghana is predominantly produced in diverse ecologies: upland, rainfed lowland, and irrigated lowland [38]. Each agro-ecology requires different varieties with specific adaptation requirements [38]. The top three varieties; AGRA, Jasmine and Ex-baika/ Legon 1 are all improved varieties cultivated by farmers. AGRA was more cultivated in the rainfed lowland, and Ex-baika was cultivated in the irrigated ecology. Jasmine was of more interest to men farmers. The qualitative stage revealed additional preferred varieties, such as Togo Marshall in the irrigated zone and Lapez and Aflao in the rainfed lowland. These varieties possessed unique traits that raised the interest of the producers to grow them."},{"index":2,"size":214,"text":"Refs. [8,39] discovered that women explicitly justified some of their preferences for variety types based on concerns about food security. This discovery is in support of the findings from the current study. Relatively, there was no difference in production-related traits based on gender during the quantitative stage; however, few variations among the groups were noticed during the qualitative stage. Men and women placed high value on traits related to production, such as high yield, early maturity, tolerance to pests, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to disease, and tolerance to drought stress. Post-harvest traits were rated higher by women compared to men due to the fact that women are primarily responsible for processing and food preparation in most societies [27,28]. The rankings of marketrelevant characteristics, such as flavor, aroma, translucence, good swelling capacity, and long, bold grain were generally agreed upon by both men and women. The findings of [9,40,41], which found that the presence of aroma and taste had a significant impact on consumers' decisions and attracted a good market, are consistent with this result. Ref. [29] identified grain yield, and [42] conducted a similar study in Tanzania and reported high grain yield, early maturity, drought tolerance, disease resistance, and marketability as the most farmer-preferred traits in the assessment of preferred wheat traits by farmers."}]},{"head":"Robustness of the Gender-Responsive Breeding Tool (G+ Product Profile Query)","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Six traits developed by rice stakeholders remained gender-neutral. However, application of the G+ product profile query in the field through qualitative data collection approaches to probe in detail men, women, young men and young women's trait preferences and perceptions revealed that some traits were more specific to some gender groups and thus essential and need not be taken for granted when developing new varieties. Cooking time, taste, translucence, white grain color and less brokenness were extra traits that were reported during both the quantitative and qualitative stages of the study with gender dimensions."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Institutional Review Board Statement: Since the research was carried out by a recognized government institution and did not involve the collection of medical samples from the subjects, a formal ethical clearance was not taken, but study was approved by the Institute's administration and followed all guidelines set by the Institution and the State's Data Protection Act, 2012 (Act 843)."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Informed Consent Statement: All of the respondents gave informed consent and their permission for the study to be carried out. Their participation was, however, voluntary, and they could withdraw at any time if they felt uncomfortable with the questions. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. (a) Rice production trends: area under cultivation (2015-2020). (b) Rice yields from 2015-2020. Source: [4]. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. (a) Rice production trends: area under cultivation (2015-2020). (b) Rice yields from 2015-2020. Source: [4]. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. (a) Standard operating procedure for gendered trait preference. (b) Steps in generating the impact scores. Source: [22]. Copyright: Licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Distribution of rice varieties among men and women farmers. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Distribution of top rice varieties by production ecologies among men and women farmers. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . 24 Figure 3 . Figure 3. Distribution of rice varieties among men and women farmers. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Distribution of top rice varieties by production ecologies among men and women farmers. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Distribution of top rice varieties by production ecologies among men and women farmers. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. \"Must have\" production-related traits for men and women rice producers. ** indicates significance at 5% level. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. \"Must have\" marketing-related traits for men and women rice producers. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. \"Must have\" production-related traits for men and women rice producers. ** indicates significance at 5% level. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. \"Must have\" marketing-related traits for men and women rice producers. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. \"Must have\" marketing-related traits for men and women rice producers. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. \"Must have\" post-harvest-related traits for men and women rice producers. *** indicates significance at 1% level. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. \"Must have\" post-harvest-related traits for men and women rice producers. *** indicates significance at 1% level. "},{"text":"3. 4 . Qualitative Results of Gender Analysis and Gender Impact Score 3.4.1. Top Preferred Traits Disaggregated by Sex and Age "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . District profile of chosen study districts. Variables Study Districts Ketu North Shai Osudoku Assin North Ejura Sekyeredumase GPS  Latitude 6 • 03 N and 6 • 20 N 5 • 45 S and 6 • 05 N 6 • 05 N and 6 • 04 S 7 • 9 N and 7 • 36 N Latitude6 • 03 N and 6 • 20 N5 • 45 S and 6 • 05 N6 • 05 N and 6 • 04 S7 • 9 N and 7 • 36 N Longitude 0 • 49 E and 1 • 05 E 0 • 05 E and 0 • 20 W 1 • 05 E and 1 • 25 W 1 • 5 W and 1 • 39 W Longitude0 • 49 E and 1 • 05 E0 • 05 E and 0 • 20 W1 • 05 E and 1 • 25 W1 • 5 W and 1 • 39 W Land mass 423.8 km 2 968.361 km 2 1150 km 2 1340.1 km 2 Land mass423.8 km 2968.361 km 21150 km 21340.1 km 2 Population size 114,846 105,610 80,539 137,672 Population size114,846105,61080,539137,672 % economically active population 70.2 69.2 76.5 74.6 % economically active population70.269.276.574.6 Rice ecology Irrigated Irrigated Rainfed lowland Rainfed lowland Rice ecologyIrrigatedIrrigatedRainfed lowlandRainfed lowland % involved in agriculture 67.1 85.6 59.9 60.9 % involved in agriculture67.185.659.960.9 Common crops Rice, maize, sweet potato, cassava and cowpea. Rice, maize, cassava, vegetables, mango, sugarcane, coconut and citrus Rice, vegetables, cocoa, plantain, oil palm, cassava, cocoyam and citrus. Maize, yam, beans, rice, plantain, cassava, groundnuts and watermelon Common cropsRice, maize, sweet potato, cassava and cowpea.Rice, maize, cassava, vegetables, mango, sugarcane, coconut and citrusRice, vegetables, cocoa, plantain, oil palm, cassava, cocoyam and citrus.Maize, yam, beans, rice, plantain, cassava, groundnuts and watermelon  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cont.       Study Districts  Study Districts Variables Ketu North Shai Osudoku Assin North Ejura Sekyeredumase VariablesKetu NorthShai OsudokuAssin NorthEjura Sekyeredumase  Tropical Grey and Black    Tropical Grey and Black Soil type Earths and tertiary formation with Black clays classified as Akuse series Granites and adamellites Forest and savanna ochrosol groups Soil typeEarths and tertiary formation withBlack clays classified as Akuse seriesGranites and adamellitesForest and savanna ochrosol groups  Savannah Ochrosols    Savannah Ochrosols Annual mean rainfall (mm) 890-1270 762.5-1220 1500-2000 1200 and 1500. Annual mean rainfall (mm)890-1270762.5-12201500-20001200 and 1500. Annual mean temperature ( • C) 24-30 24.4-40 26-30 21-30 Annual mean temperature ( • C)24-3024.4-4026-3021-30  Source: [13-17].    Source: [13-17].  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Socioeconomic characteristics of farmers.Exchange rate: USD 1 = GH 12.2; as of 20/03/23. a Figures in percentages. The asterisks, ** and *** indicate the differences in means between men and women across the agroecological zones with significant levels at 5% and 1%, respectively.  Women (n = 134)  Men (n = 266)  Pooled (n = 400)  Women (n = 134)Men (n = 266)Pooled (n = 400) Variable Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD t-Stat VariableMeanSDMeanSDMeanSDt-Stat Age 46.52 12.2 45.29 12.3 45.70 12.4 0.94 Age46.5212.245.2912.345.7012.40.94 Years of formal education 5.55 5.2 8.6 4.8 7.59 5.1 −5.80 *** Years of formal education5.555.28.64.87.595.1−5.80 *** Residential status (indigene) a 0.485 0.5 0.624 0.48 0.577 0.4 −2.67 *** Residential status (indigene) a0.4850.50.6240.480.5770.4−2.67 *** Marital status (married) a 0.731 0.44 0.88 0.25 0.832 0.37 −3.90 *** Marital status (married) a0.7310.440.880.250.8320.37−3.90 *** Household size 5.97 2.76 6.57 3.53 6.37 3.30 −1.73 Household size5.972.766.573.536.373.30−1.73 Off-farm activity (yes = 1) a 0.343 0.47 0.413 0.49 0.39 0.48 −1.35 Off-farm activity (yes = 1) a0.3430.470.4130.490.390.48−1.35 Off-farm income (GH¢) 2582.93 325.0 5928.18 597.6 4941.76 694.8 −3.57 *** Off-farm income (GH¢)2582.93325.05928.18597.64941.76694.8−3.57 *** Rice farming experience (years) 11.58 9.0 14.87 10.8 13.77 10.3 −3.02 *** Rice farming experience (years)11.589.014.8710.813.7710.3−3.02 *** Total farm size (acres) 4.12 3.85 5.11 5.25 4.79 4.8 −1.88 Total farm size (acres)4.123.855.115.254.794.8−1.88 Major season acreage 2.38 1.81 3.05 3.25 2.83 2.8 −2.17 ** Major season acreage2.381.813.053.252.832.8−2.17 ** Minor season acreage 1.74 3.0 2.05 2.96 1.95 2.9 8.73 *** Minor season acreage1.743.02.052.961.952.98.73 *** Extension access (yes = 1) a 0.582 0.49 0.616 0.48 0.605 0.48 −0.66 Extension access (yes = 1) a0.5820.490.6160.480.6050.48−0.66 Times of visit by extension agent 15.78 10.3 9.67 7.27 11.67 3.8 0.57 Times of visit by extension agent15.7810.39.677.2711.673.80.57 FBO membership (yes = 1) a 0.402 0.49 0.492 0.50 46.25 49.7 −1.69 FBO membership (yes = 1) a0.4020.490.4920.5046.2549.7−1.69 Years of FBO membership 4.68 4.1 5.80 5.98 5.48 5.5 −1.25 Years of FBO membership4.684.15.805.985.485.5−1.25 Credit access (yes = 1) a 0.343 0.47 0.338 0.47 0.34 0.47 0.09 Credit access (yes = 1) a0.3430.470.3380.470.340.470.09 Frequency of rice cultivation 1.51 0.50 1.52 0.54 1.52 0.5 −0.06 Frequency of rice cultivation1.510.501.520.541.520.5−0.06 Distance to market (km) 18.48 8.77 12.79 6.23 14.69 7.1 0.73 Distance to market (km)18.488.7712.796.2314.697.10.73 Amount of cash received (GH¢) 2653.98 706.6 2489.15 345.6 2546.79 500.1 0.20 Amount of cash received (GH¢)2653.98706.62489.15345.62546.79500.10.20 Agroecological zones:        Agroecological zones: Coastal savanna 0.41 0.49 0.493 0.50 0.497 0.50 −2.48 ** Coastal savanna0.410.490.4930.500.4970.50−2.48 ** Forest transition 0.589 0.49 0.458 0.49 0.502 0.50 2.48 ** Forest transition0.5890.490.4580.490.5020.502.48 **  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Varieties cultivated in rainfed lowland, by gender. (a) Varieties cultivated in rainfed lowland, by gender (a) Varieties cultivated in rainfed lowland, by gender Adult Men Adult Women Young Men Young Women Adult MenAdult WomenYoung MenYoung Women AgraRice AgraRice Ex-baika/ AgraRice AgraRice AgraRiceAgraRiceEx-baika/ AgraRiceAgraRice Jasmine Lapez Aflao Lapez JasmineLapezAflaoLapez Amankwatia Aflao Lapez Aflao AmankwatiaAflaoLapezAflao Lapez  Amankwatia  LapezAmankwatia (b)    (b)  "},{"text":"Varieties cultivated in irrigated lowland, by gender     Rice varieties cultivated by sex  Rice varieties cultivated by sex 5         5 0         0 AGRA Jasmine Ex-bika/Legon1 Amankwatia Togo Marshall CRI-Enapa AGRAJasmineEx-bika/Legon1 Amankwatia Togo MarshallCRI-Enapa      Female Male  FemaleMale   Rice varieties cultivated in production ecologies Rice varieties cultivated in production ecologies 0         0 Irrigated Rainfed Both Irrigated Rainfed  Both Irrigated Rainfed Both IrrigatedRainfedBothIrrigatedRainfedBothIrrigatedRainfedBoth lowland lowland Irrigated lowland lowland Irrigated lowland lowland Irrigated lowlandlowlandIrrigatedlowlandlowlandIrrigatedlowlandlowlandIrrigated   & Rainfed    & Rainfed  & Rainfed & Rainfed& Rainfed& Rainfed  AGRA rice  Jasmine    Ex-Baika AGRA riceJasmineEx-Baika    Women Men   WomenMen  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Varieties cultivated in rainfed lowland, by gender. (a) Varieties cultivated in rainfed lowland, by gender (a) Varieties cultivated in rainfed lowland, by gender Adult Men Adult Women Young Men Young Women Adult MenAdult WomenYoung MenYoung Women AgraRice AgraRice Ex-baika/ AgraRice AgraRice AgraRiceAgraRiceEx-baika/ AgraRiceAgraRice Jasmine Lapez Aflao Lapez JasmineLapezAflaoLapez Amankwatia Aflao Lapez Aflao AmankwatiaAflaoLapezAflao Lapez  Amankwatia  LapezAmankwatia (b)    (b)  "},{"text":"Varieties cultivated in irrigated lowland, by gender     Rice varieties cultivated by sex  Rice varieties cultivated by sex 5         5 0         0 AGRA Jasmine Ex-bika/Legon1 Amankwatia Togo Marshall CRI-Enapa AGRAJasmineEx-bika/Legon1 Amankwatia Togo MarshallCRI-Enapa      Female Male  FemaleMale   Rice varieties cultivated in production ecologies Rice varieties cultivated in production ecologies 0         0 Irrigated Rainfed Both Irrigated Rainfed  Both Irrigated Rainfed Both IrrigatedRainfedBothIrrigatedRainfedBothIrrigatedRainfedBoth lowland lowland Irrigated lowland lowland Irrigated lowland lowland Irrigated lowlandlowlandIrrigatedlowlandlowlandIrrigatedlowlandlowlandIrrigated   & Rainfed    & Rainfed  & Rainfed & Rainfed& Rainfed& Rainfed  AGRA rice  Jasmine    Ex-Baika AGRA riceJasmineEx-Baika    Women Men   WomenMen  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Varieties cultivated in rainfed lowland, by gender. (a) (a)  "},{"text":"Varieties cultivated in rainfed lowland, by gender  Adult Men Adult Women Young Men Young Women Adult MenAdult WomenYoung MenYoung Women AgraRice AgraRice Ex-baika/ AgraRice AgraRice AgraRiceAgraRiceEx-baika/ AgraRiceAgraRice Jasmine Lapez Aflao Lapez JasmineLapezAflaoLapez Amankwatia Aflao Lapez Aflao AmankwatiaAflaoLapezAflao Lapez  Amankwatia  LapezAmankwatia  (b) Varieties cultivated in irrigated lowland, by gender (b) Varieties cultivated in irrigated lowland, by gender Adult Men Adult Women Young Men Young Women Adult MenAdult WomenYoung MenYoung Women Ex-baika/ Legon 1 Perfume Ex-baika Ex-baika Ex-baika/ Legon 1PerfumeEx-baikaEx-baika Togo Marshall/ Perfume Marshall Togo Marshall  Togo Marshall Togo Marshall/ Perfume MarshallTogo MarshallTogo Marshall AgraRice Ex-baika  AgraRice AgraRiceEx-baikaAgraRice Jasmine    Jasmine  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Two preferred trait preferences of men and women farmers disaggregated by sex and age. Gender Group Traits 1 Trait 2 Gender GroupTraits 1Trait 2 Men High yielding Marketability (good taste and aroma) MenHigh yieldingMarketability (good taste and aroma) Women High yielding Marketability (good taste, aroma and translucent grains) WomenHigh yieldingMarketability (good taste, aroma and translucent grains) Young men High yielding Early maturing Young menHigh yieldingEarly maturing Young women High yielding Marketability (good taste, aroma, translucent grains and white colored grain) Young womenHigh yieldingMarketability (good taste, aroma, translucent grains and white colored grain)  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Impact scores, by gender. Gender Group Trait Do No Harm Benefits Gender GroupTraitDo No HarmBenefits Women High yielding −2 3 WomenHigh yielding−23  Marketability 0 2 Marketability02 Men High yielding −2 3 MenHigh yielding−23  Marketability 0 2 Marketability02 Young women High yielding −2 2 Young womenHigh yielding−22  Marketability  2 Marketability2 Young men High yielding −2 2 Young menHigh yielding−22  Marketability −1 1 Marketability−11  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Proposed product profile by CSIR-CRI breeding teams. Trait Name Gender Relevant Trait Minimum Trait Score Benchmark Variety Additional Traits from G+ Assessment Trait NameGender Relevant TraitMinimum Trait ScoreBenchmark VarietyAdditional Traits from G+ Assessment Yield Yes ≥ AGRA Rice Translucence YieldYes≥AGRA RiceTranslucence Aroma Yes 2 KDML 105 White grain color AromaYes2KDML 105White grain color Amylose Yes 15-22% KDML 105 Early maturing AmyloseYes15-22%KDML 105Early maturing RYMV No ≤4 AGRA Rice Cooking time RYMVNo≤4AGRA RiceCooking time Blast No ≤4 AGRA Rice Swelling capacity BlastNo≤4AGRA RiceSwelling capacity Drought No = Enapa Rice Amount of water during cooking DroughtNo=Enapa RiceAmount of water during cooking     Taste Taste  4. Discussion   4. Discussion  4.1. Profile of Men and Women Rice Farmers in Study Areas  4.1. Profile of Men and Women Rice Farmers in Study Areas  "},{"text":"Table A1 . Trait preferences in the production rice ecologies, by gender.  "},{"text":") Table: Trait preferences in the irrigated lowland ecology by gender.  Trait category Adult men Adult women Young men Young women Trait categoryAdult menAdult womenYoung menYoung women    High yielding (high tillers,  High yielding (high tillers, Production-related High yielding (high tiller numbers and milling recovery); Resistance to diseases; Resistance to lodging; Bold grains; Early maturing and Ease of threshing High yielding (15-20 tillers); Early maturing (90-120 days) and height to control weeds Medium to tall plant longer panicles, long and bold grains); Early maturing; Tall plant height Drought tolerant and High milling recovery rate; to compete with weeds; High yielding and Good milling yield Production-relatedHigh yielding (high tiller numbers and milling recovery); Resistance to diseases; Resistance to lodging; Bold grains; Early maturing and Ease of threshingHigh yielding (15-20 tillers); Early maturing (90-120 days) and height to control weeds Medium to tall plantlonger panicles, long and bold grains); Early maturing; Tall plant height Drought tolerant and High milling recovery rate; to compete with weeds;High yielding and Good milling yield    Resistance to lodging  Resistance to lodging Marketing Aromatic and Good taste Nice aroma (commands premium price); Good taste and Nice appearance and shiny Good taste; Aromatic and Shiny Good taste; Aromatic; White grain color; Shiny and long and bold grains MarketingAromatic and Good tasteNice aroma (commands premium price); Good taste and Nice appearance and shinyGood taste; Aromatic and ShinyGood taste; Aromatic; White grain color; Shiny and long and bold grains Cooking  Nice aroma; Good taste; cooks fast and does not need much water Short cooking time and not too much starch Good taste and Nice aroma CookingNice aroma; Good taste; cooks fast and does not need much waterShort cooking time and not too much starchGood taste and Nice aroma  (b)    (b)  "},{"text":"Table: Trait preferences in the irrigated lowland ecology by gender.  Trait category Adult men Adult women Young men Young women Trait categoryAdult menAdult womenYoung menYoung women  High yielding; Long-bold    High yielding; Long-bold  grains (heavy panicles); Early    grains (heavy panicles); Early Production-related maturing; Tolerant to drought    Production-relatedmaturing; Tolerant to drought  and lodging and Medium-tall    and lodging and Medium-tall  plant height    plant height Marketing Good taste, Aromatic and Translucent Good taste, Nice aroma and shines after milling Aromatic Nice aroma and Good taste MarketingGood taste, Aromatic and TranslucentGood taste, Nice aroma and shines after millingAromaticNice aroma and Good taste  Good taste (\"Can be eaten    Good taste (\"Can be eaten  without sauce\");    without sauce\");  Nice aroma (\"It allows bad    Nice aroma (\"It allows bad  boys even stay home because    boys even stay home because Cooking their favorite rice is   Swelling capacity Cookingtheir favorite rice isSwelling capacity  prepared\"); and long grains    prepared\"); and long grains  (\"Produces fine single grains    (\"Produces fine single grains  when cooked and good for    when cooked and good for  jollof and fried rice\")    jollof and fried rice\")  "},{"text":"Table A2 . Pair-wise ranking of varieties cultivated by women rice farmers in lowland ecology. No. Varieties Lapez Aflao AGRA Amankwatia Mr. Moore Mr. Harry Scores Rank No.VarietiesLapezAflaoAGRAAmankwatiaMr. MooreMr. HarryScoresRank 1 Lapez - Lapez Lapez Lapez Lapez Lapez 10 1 1Lapez-LapezLapezLapezLapezLapez101 2 Aflao Lapez - AGRA Aflao Aflao Aflao 6 3 2AflaoLapez-AGRAAflaoAflaoAflao63 3 AGRA Lapez AGRA - AGRA AGRA AGRA 8 2 3AGRALapezAGRA-AGRAAGRAAGRA82 4 Amankwatia Lapez Aflao AGRA - Mr. Moore Amankwatia 2 5 4AmankwatiaLapezAflaoAGRA-Mr. MooreAmankwatia25 5 Mr. Moore Lapez Aflao AGRA Mr. Moore  Mr. Moore 4 4 5Mr. MooreLapezAflaoAGRAMr. MooreMr. Moore44 6 Mr. Harry Lapez Aflao AGRA Amankwatia Mr. Moore - 0 6 6Mr. HarryLapezAflaoAGRAAmankwatiaMr. Moore-06  "}],"sieverID":"77959e86-84e8-4cbd-ab85-62f597050ff8","abstract":"Rice is the main staple for more than half of the world's population. In Ghana, rice is the fastest growing food commodity, and it is consumed by almost every household. However, yields continue to be low, as the pace of adoption of new varieties is low. The low rate of adoption has been attributed to failure of modern breeding to incorporate preferred traits for end users. This study thus employed an innovative set of breeding tools, the G+ tools, in identifying gendered trait preferences to develop a robust product profile through a mixed-method approach. The assertion that \"men focus more on production and marketing related traits as women focus on production and cooking qualities\" was also ascertained. Descriptive, inferential and content analyses were conducted, and the results indicate ecological differences in varietal choices. Production and marketing traits are jointly preferred by the gender groups. However, women and young women paid attention to post-harvest and cooking quality traits. The gender impact scores generated indicated there are tradeoffs in the traits preferred. These findings highlight the significance of recognizing geographical differences and gender heterogeneity in relation to varietal and trait preferences. In conclusion, the outcomes emphasize the necessity of gender-sensitive breeding work that considers the various needs and trait priorities of targeted men and women rice farmers in breeding decisions for a robust rice product profile."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ecf0ebf8dbdb8672107258a16c4bc96","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a86ec924-f21a-406e-bfae-a5d80c20e172/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Exploring genetic variability, heritability, and trait correlations in gari and eba quality from diverse cassava varieties in Nigeria","keywords":["genetic components","principal component analysis","instrumental texture profile analysis","cassava processed product quality","breeding for consumer preference traits"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":317,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is one of the oldest root crops used for food by humans and grown in over 100 countries and meets the daily caloric requirements of close to a billion people in Africa, Asia, and South America. 1 It is a major crop for food security and is an income generator for small-scale farmers because of its resilience to environmental stresses and year-round availability. Africa accounts for more than 50% (about 203 × 10 6 t) of the total global production, and Nigeria is the leading producer with 7.7 × 10 6 ha under cultivation for the crop. 2 Cassava roots are highly perishable owing to its tendency to undergo post-harvest physiological deterioration within 48-72 h after harvest. 3 Additionally, cassava roots contain cyanogenic glucoside compounds (hydrogen cyanide), which need detoxification before consumption. 4 Processing cassava roots into different granulated and paste products, such as gari, fufu, and lafun, before consumption is a strategy for overcoming post-harvest physiological deterioration and hydrogen cyanide limitations. 5 Among all processed products, gari takes up the largest percentage of cassava produced in West Africa, particularly Nigeria. 6 Gari is a toasted, pre-gelatinized dry granule, also known as 'cassava semolina' or 'Farinha de mandioca'. 7 Basic processing of gari includes peeling, washing, grating, fermenting (optional), dewatering by pressing, pulverising, dry heat roasting, grading, and packaging. 8 Gari's profitability to farmers and processors, ease of preparation for consumption, storage, and affordability for consumers make it a high-demand commodity. 9 Gari is consumed either by soaking in cold water or rehydrating in boiling water to make a stiff dough (eba). Eba is the most consumed form of gari in Nigeria and other West African countries. Basic preparation of eba includes a sprinkling of dry gari into boiling water, covering to allow gelatinization, and stirring to form a stiff dough. The stiff dough is usually consumed with vegetables or other types of soup."},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"Gari/eba quality traits are categorized into colour, functional, and textural properties. Colour is an organoleptic property that has been highly associated with appearance and acceptability of gari/ eba. 10 A dark colour of processed products is associated with low quality and may be due to genetic and/or processing methods. 11 Functional properties describe the behaviour of gari during preparation and cooking, and ultimately influence the product's appearance, flavour, and texture. These properties may be affected by genotype, processing method, and preservation methods of roots before processing. 5 The functional properties include bulk density (BD), swelling power (SP), solubility, swelling index (SI), pH, and particle size and have been used as criteria for predicting gari quality 12,13 and varietal acceptability. 11,14 Granule size, colour, and resistance to stirring of gari during eba preparation have all been linked to the textural qualities of eba. 11 Consumers often associate eba texture with qualities like smoothness, firmness, stickiness, elasticity, stretchability, and mouldability. 10 These textural measures can be influenced by length of fermentation and variety. 15 Eba texture can be assessed by using rheometry, instrumental compression tests, and human sensory panel tests."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Until recently, cassava improvement in West Africa has mainly focused on increasing root yield, nutrition, and resilience to numerous biotic and abiotic constraints that affected the crop's productivity. 16 However, insufficient consideration of quality and consumer preference traits by breeding programmes has led to the disadoption of some improved varieties. 10,11,17,18 This is due to the limited understanding of their genetic control and the difficulty in assessing these traits."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"To effectively consider traits related to gari/eba quality as breeding goals, it is important to assess the available phenotypic variation and determine the genetic parameters such as heritability and genetic variances required to effectively incorporate gari/ eba quality traits in breeding objectives. Understanding the inheritance of these traits is crucial in designing an effective breeding approach and in predicting the genetic gain resulting from selection. Also, in order to achieve concurrent improvement in traits related to gari, eba, and root dry-matter (DM) contenta routinely measured trait in the breeding programunderstanding the interrelationships between these traits is required."},{"index":5,"size":172,"text":"The quality of gari/eba is influenced by various factors, including genotype, environmental conditions, processing methods, and their interactions. Different genotypes exhibit variations in both the quantity and quality of the final product. 19,20 As a result, it is unclear what proportion of the phenotypic variation in gari yield and quality is due to genetics, environment, or/and processing factors and their interactions. For genetic improvements, breeders are interested in the proportion of variation attributed to genotype effect. Previous studies on genotypic variation of genotypes on traits related to gari/eba quality were mainly descriptive, and assessment was done using a limited number of varieties. 9,10,[20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28] For example, Almazan 25 screened 35 genotypes in two replications to study the influence of genotypes on gari quality. Though the study revealed a significant genetic variation for gari quality, it did not elucidate the nature and extent of genetic variation, heritability, and correlations with fresh root quality-related traits. The current study aimed to characterize the genetic variability, heritability, and correlations among fresh root, gari, and eba quality traits."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Planting material and experimental design Identifying a representative and diverse population for targeted product assessment is a critical starting point for genetic studies. The results of a cassava monitoring survey 29 were used to assemble a population that contains 33 popular landraces, released varieties, and advanced breeding lines (Supporting Information Table S1) that are cultivated in Nigeria, the leading cassava producer in the world. The population was planted at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) research station in Ibadan (7°49 0 N, 3°90 0 E), Nigeria, during the 2020-2021 and 2021-2022 planting seasons."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The trial for the first season (https://cassavabase.org/breeders/ trial/7169?format=) was established on 24 April 2020 and was harvested between 20 and 23 April 2021. The trial for the second season (https://cassavabase.org/breeders/trial/11571?format=) was established on 16 June 2021 and was harvested from 13 to 15 June 2022."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Landraces are traditional farmer-preferred varieties that evolve under farmer selections, whereas released or improved varieties are the result of conventional breeding involving targeted crosses, phenotyping, and successive selection stages for agronomic, pest and disease resilience and quality. The improved varieties came from different decades, from the 1970s to 2010s, and the advanced breeding includes varieties developed through genomic selection. 30 The selection of these genotypes ensured a full representation of cassava diversity based on the target product (gari) being assessed. The year of origin for the landraces is unknown, whereas the year of origin for the released materials was between 1972 and 2012, and the advanced breeding lines have a year of origin between 2013 and 2014 (Supporting Information Table S1)."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"The trials were planted in a randomized complete block design with two replications. The plot dimension was 4 m × 4 m consisting of 20 stands planted at spacings of 1 m and 0.8 m between rows and within rows respectively. The trial was conducted without supplemental irrigation under standard agronomic practices, including regular weeding."}]},{"head":"Trial harvesting, root processing, and product phenotyping","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":468,"text":"The trials were harvested 12 months after planting, and 20 kg of marketable roots from each plot were selected for gari processing, while six roots were used to determine the DM and starch percentage. All data captured in this study was done using the FieldBook app. 31 For DM and starch processing, the roots were peeled and shredded after removing proximal and distal ends to reduce fibrous material. After thorough mixing, 100 g samples of the root gratings were oven-dried at 95°C for 48 h until constant weight, and the DM was expressed as a percentage of fresh weight. 32 For starch, 100 g of freshly shredded roots from the step above were weighed and fine-milled in an electrical blender (IFM-C20G crush miller; Iwatani, Osaka, Japan). The slurry was filtered through a 180 μm by 200 mm (model no. 019-214 775-01; Tokyo Screen Co. Limited, Tokyo, Japan) sieve using 8 L of water. The starch granules were allowed to settle for 4 h, and the supernatant was decanted and air-dried for 48 h until constant weight. The starch content was expressed as a percentage of the fresh weight. The starch extraction residue was oven-dried at 95 °C for 48 h until constant weight and expressed as a percentage of fresh weight. 33 Gari processing Gari was produced using the method described by Abass et al. 8 and was further optimized by the Cassava Breeding Unit at the centralized processing facility at the IITA (Fig. 1). A fixed amount of 10 kg marketable cassava roots from each plot were peeled using a stainless-steel knife in a circumferential pattern to carefully ensure complete removal of the cortex (peel), without affecting the starchy root flesh. The peeled roots were washed and grated into a mash without adding water. The resulting mash was packed in a labelled polypropylene woven sack and allowed to ferment naturally for 72 h under ambient temperature as recommended for quality gari processing. 9,26,34 The fermented mash was dewatered using a hydraulic press and pulverized before being toasted on stainless-steel pans. The toasting process reduced the moisture content of pulverized mash to the recommended amount of about 10% for quality gari. 27,35,36 The temperature of the stainless-steel pan before frying was on average 120.5 °C. 15,34 The resulting gari was allowed to cool, sieved using a 1 mm and 2 mm mesh and packed in a well-labelled container in accordance with the guidelines provided by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. 37 The samples were then stored at ambient temperature (30 ± 2 °C) in the centralized storage facility of the Cassava Breeding Unit at IITA. Throughout the study, each processing step was carefully monitored to reduce operator variation and sample batch effects. Gari (%) was estimated as a percentage of starting weight as described by Aghogho et al. 20 "}]},{"head":"Eba preparation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Eba was prepared following the standardized protocol outlined in Fig. 2, in accordance with the approved standard operating procedure of the RTBfoods project. 38 Colour measurement on fresh roots, gari, and eba Grated fresh roots, gari, and eba samples were tightly packed in a whirl pack to avoid light refraction before the colour was measured using a chromameter (CR-400; Konica Minolta, Tokyo, Japan). The colour was recorded according to the standard CIE tristimulus L* (for brightness), a* (for red-green) and b* (for yellowblue). The samples were scanned in duplicate."}]},{"head":"Functional properties traits analysis on gari","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"We analysed several functional property traits of the gari, including its BD, SP, SI, solubility, pH, and particle size distribution. BD of gari refers to the heaviness of gari, which affects packaging and distribution. BD was measured using a modified method as described by Okezie and Bello. 39 A 250 mL graduated measuring cylinder was filled with gari samples and gently tapped on the laboratory bench about 50 times until they were levelled to the 250 mL mark. The weights were taken using an EJ Series value balance, and BD was expressed as grams per cubic centimetre."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"The SP and SI are two ways to assess swelling capacity, which is the ability of gari particles to absorb water and swell, in hot and normal water respectively. The swelling capacity impacts several textural aspects, including the ability of eba to be shaped and the flow of gari for 'drinking'. The SP was assessed using a modified version of the method described by Leach et al., 40 where 2g of gari was weighed and mixed with 30 mL of distilled water in a preweighed centrifuge tube. The mixture was heated in a water bath at 80 °C for 30 min while continuously shaking the tubes at 165 cycles per minute. The boiled samples were centrifuged at 8000 rpm for 20 min. The supernatant was collected for further analysis and the sediment mass was weighed. The SP was calculated as the percentage increase in gari sample weight."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"The SI of gari was measured using the method described by Ukpabi and Ndimele, 41 where 10 g of gari samples was placed in a 100 mL measuring cylinder and the initial volume measured. Cold distilled water was added to the 100 mL mark of the cylinder and allowed to sit for 4 h before observing the final volume of gari. SI was calculated to be a multiple of the original volume."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"Gari maximum rate of dissolution in a given volume of water at a given temperature is measured by its solubility. Solubility was carried out as described by Leach et al., 40 with slight modification. Supernatant from SP assessment described earlier herein was oven-dried in a preweighed aluminium plate at 60 °C for 24 h. The residue was weighed and the solubility was expressed as the percentage of dried supernatant to the initial sample weight."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"To measure the acidity or alkalinity of the gari samples, slurries (20% DM) of all gari were made and their pH measured using a hydrogen-ion activity meter (8606; Mettler Toledo GmbH, Greifensee, Switzerland)."},{"index":6,"size":118,"text":"Particle size distribution of gari samples was measured according to the method described by Oduro et al. 24 with slight modifications. A 50 g of gari sample was sieved using a four-tier arrangement in decreasing aperture size: ps800 (800 μm) for the large particles, ps500-800 (500 μm) for medium-sized particles, ps300-500 (300 μm) for small particles, and ps0-300 for the smallest particles, collected in a base pan. The sieve was covered with a tightly fitted lid and placed on a test sieve shaker (Octagon 200) and agitated for 10 min. After sieving, the different fractions of particles were weighed and recorded separately using an electronic balance (readability ±0.001) and expressed as a percentage of the initial sample weight."}]},{"head":"Textural properties traits","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"Texture of food can be assessed using both instrumental (rheometry and texture profile analysis) and sensory analysis. 42 Rheometry was undertaken using a Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA; 4500; Perten Instruments, Sydney, NSW, Australia). The gari samples were milled, passed through a 300 μm sieve, and then3 g of milled gari sample was weighed into the RVA canister containing 25 mL of distilled water. The mixture was stirred manually using a plastic paddle and the canister inserted into the tower chamber of the machine. The viscosity of gari was then measured following a previously described procedure. 12 Instrumental texture profile analysis (ITPA) was undertaken on eba using a textural profile analyser (TA-XTplus; Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, UK) following the standard operating procedure of RTBfoods. 38 The sensory textural profile analysis (STPA) was done according to the standard operating procedure of RTBfoods 43 based on mouldability, stretchability, stickiness, and hardness. We conducted the STPA by presenting coded and duplicate samples of the cooked eba dough to 15 trained panellists from staff and graduate students at the crop utilization laboratory at IITA, Ibadan, who consumed eba regularly."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Descriptive statistics and least significant difference among the variety status for each trait group was done using the 'pastecs' package version 1.3.21 44 and 'agricolae' package 45 in the R software. 46 We fitted the following linear mixed model using 'statgen-STA' package version 1.0.8 47 to estimate variance components and best linear unbiased predictions: y=X⊎ +Zu+e where y is the response vector of a trait for a given location, ⊎ is the vector of fixed effects with the design matrix X (relating observations to fixed effects, which include grand mean, replication number), u is the vector of random genetic effects with the design matrix Z (relating trait values to genotype, environment, genotype × environment interaction (GEI)), and e is the residual."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"We calculated the broad-sense heritability on trial level and across all environments for all traits:"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"where H 2 s is the trial level broad-sense heritability, V g is the genetic variance, V e is the error or residual variance, and r is the number of replications;"},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"where H 2 m is the broad-sense heritability estimate across all environments, V g is genotypic variance, V ge is the variance of GEI, V e is the residual variance, e is the number of environments, and r is the number of replications."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"Pairwise correlation between traits was determined using the R function 'cor' in the 'stats' package, 46 and the correlation matrices were visualised using the complex heatmap. 48 A principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out in addition to the correlation analysis to understand the grouping of variables and genotypes. The PCA was done using the R function 'prcomp' in the 'stats' package, and visualization was done using the 'corrplot' R package. 49 "}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Variation among fresh root, gari, and eba quality traits A total of 40 traits from the fresh root, colour, functional, and textural properties were phenotyped (Table 1). Most traits showed wide-ranging variability, with all variables exhibiting larger than twofold differences between the maximum and minimum values, except for gari BD and ITPA-cohesiveness (Table 1). These large differences indicate broad phenotypic variability within the genotypes used in this study. Notably, we observed a gradual and consistent reduction in brightness (L*) from fresh roots, gari, and eba (91.13, 89.45, and 68.13 respectively)."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"A comprehensive analysis of mean values across the three classes of germplasm (landraces, released varieties, and advanced breeding genotypes) revealed differences for some traits (Table 1). For fresh-root quality traits, such as DM, starch content, starch residue, and gari%, advanced breeding genotypes outperformed both landraces and released varieties. However, traits linked to colour (chromameter L*, a*, and b*) did not differ among the three groups of varieties."},{"index":3,"size":326,"text":"Among the gari quality traits, BD and SI of the advanced breeding genotype were different from that of the landraces and released varieties. There were differences in all particle size distributions among the different variety statuses except for ps500-800 (μm). Gari from landraces had more larger particles (ps800 (μm)) than smaller particles (ps0-300 (μm)) compared with breeding genotypes. In contrast, there was no discernible difference among the gari RVA and the eba ITPA-and STPA-related traits.  of variation for each trait. Information is sorted according to the descending residual variance component, and the level of significance (P value) was included. Traits with high percentages of genotypic variance are desired as they can be easily improved through recurrent selections. In the colour group, the genotypic term explained between 0% (a*_eba, L*_eba) and 75% (b*_fresh). Among colour traits, fresh root colour had the highest percentage explained by genotypes, followed by gari colour and then eba colour. This suggests that genetic improvement of colour would be more effective when measured in fresh roots and gari rather than in eba. Among the fresh-root quality traits, gari% (33.42%) had the highest percentage explained by genotype effect. Generally, traits in the fresh-root quality group have been successfully improved in the past through recurrent selection because of their high genetic variances. Traits such as BD (34.44%), ps0-300 (32.16%), ps300-500 (34.86%), and ps800 (34.9%), which have over 30% of the variation explained by the genotype term, can be considered for genetic improvement. Genetic improvement on traits like solubility (0%), pH (7.22), ps500-800 (7.78%), and SI (9.6%) may not be effective because of their low genetic variance. Among the textural traits, the RVA-related traits had between 3.97% (RVA-setback viscosity) and 17.01% (RVA-peak viscosity) of total variation attributable to genotype. In the ITPA-related traits, genotype term explained between 0.14% (ITPA-resilience) and 22.5% (ITPA-chewiness). Traits related to STPA had less than 2.62% of their variation explained by genotype, which will make improving these traits through recurrent selection difficult."}]},{"head":"Estimate of variance component","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"In this study, the environment variance component, which may include processing and cropping seasons, ranged from 0% (ps0-300, RVA-final viscosity) to 98.76% (a*_eba), which indicated large differences in the performance of genotypes between the two cropping seasons. However, these differences do not necessarily equate to shifts in genotype ranking (indicative of GEI), but rather signify change in means of the genotypes for each season. There was a large difference in observed response of genotypes for pH (79.34%), solubility (75.44%), and SI (63.03%), as seen by the percentage explained by environment. On the other hand, the environment explained between 0% (ps0-300) and 27.17% (ps500-800) for particle size distribution, which indicated that gari particle size did not change much between seasons. Variation among genotypes for the textural traits, especially ITPA and STPA related, were mostly explained by the environment. For example, 97.09%, 94.63%, and 93.44% of variation seen among genotypes for ITPA-cohesiveness, STPA-adhesiveness, and ITPAspringiness respectively was as a result of different planting seasons. Traits linked to RVA, such as RVA-setback viscosity, also revealed differences between seasons, with the environment explaining approximately 45.09% of the observed variation among genotypes."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Variance due to GEI is important in determining the difference in the performance and ranking of genotypes in different growing seasons. A large GEI can be a hindrance in crop improvement if it is larger than the genotypic variance. Fortunately, in this study, GEI was generally the smallest source of variation compared with the genotype and environment terms, suggesting little crossover in the performance of genotypes in the two cropping seasons for these traits."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"The residual term explained between 1.24% (a*_eba) and 90.13% (RVA-final viscosity) of the total variation seen among genotypes. In the colour group, the residual term explained between 0.4% (a*_eba) and 57% (L*_fresh). In the fresh-root quality group, the residual term had the lowest percentage variance explained compared with other sources of variation. Solubility (4%) and ps500-800 (58%) respectively exhibited the lowest and highest percentage variance explained by residuals in the functional properties group. Among the textural-related traits, the residual variance, which represents the unexplained variation in the data, was the second largest source of variation after the environmental variance."}]},{"head":"Genetic influence on traits expression","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"The trial-level broad-sense heritability H 2 s estimates were above 25% for most traits in both planting seasons (Fig. 4). In season 2021, two colour traits (L*_eba and a*_eba) and three texture traits (RVA-peak time, RVA-setback viscosity, and ITPA-adhesiveness) had heritability estimates below 25%. Two colour traits (L*_gari, a*_eba), one functional property (solubility), and one texture trait (RVA-final viscosity) in season 2022 also had estimates lower than 25%. Broad-sense heritability estimates across all environments H 2 m ranged from negligible (L*_eba, a*_eba, solubility) to 0.96 (b*_fresh) (Fig. 2). Heritability estimates from fresh roots were always higher than those from gari or eba (for each colour parameter). Heritability estimates for b* were the largest, followed by those for a* and then L*. In the fresh-root quality categories, all traits had heritability estimates above 0.50. Similarly, in the functional property categories, most traits had heritability estimates above 0.50 with the exception of SP, ps500-800, and solubility. Among the texture-related traits analysed, only a fewnamely ITPA-hardness, RVA-peak time, ITPA-chewiness, RVA-peak viscosity, and RVA-breakdownexhibited heritability estimates above 0.50. This indicates that these specific traits are influenced more by genetic factors than by environmental factors."}]},{"head":"Traits relationships","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":357,"text":"Because of the large differences observed between the two cropping seasons as indicated by the r 2 of the linear regression (Fig. S1) and the environmental variance observed (Fig. 3), correlation analysis (Fig. 5) was done among traits separately for each season. Further, only traits with H 2 > 20% were considered. The major purpose of the correlation analysis by season was to show the consistency of correlations among traits in terms of magnitude and direction. In both seasons, positive, negative, and negligible correlations among traits were observed. Few traits were significantly (P < 0.001) correlated with DM, including gari%, SI, and ITPA-hardness. Surprisingly, there were changes in correlation magnitude and sign for some traits in the two seasons (correlation between b*_gari and DM, RVA-setback and STPA-stretchability) (Fig. 5). However, in most instances where sign changes were noted, the correlation was significant in one season but not the other. In both planting seasons, b*_gari had a significant negative correlation with gari% and among the traits related to functional properties. BD and SI respectively had a positive and negative (P < 0.05) correlation with fresh-root quality traits. A negative correlation between DM and ITPA-hardness in both planting seasons was observed, whereas ITPA-gumminess correlated significantly with DM only in the 2020 planting season (Fig. 3). During the 2022 planting season, the correlation analysis revealed that gari pH had significant (P < 0.05) positive associations with gari%, b*_eba, and ps0-300, while showing negative associations with b*_gari and ps800. However, the correlation pattern for gari pH did not follow the same trend in the 2021 season. In the 2022 season, ITPAchewiness showed a mixed correlation pattern with particlesize-related traits, with negative correlations observed for ps0-300 and ps300-500 and a positive correlation observed for ps800. This trend was similar to that observed in the 2021 season, although the correlations were not statistically significant. Also, the particle-size-related traits were significantly correlated with SI only in the 2022 planting season. In the 2022 season, there was a significant (P < 0.05) positive correlation between STPA-stretchability with RVA-trough, RVA-peak viscosity, and RVA-setback viscosity. However, in the 2021 season, the correlations were negative and not significant."},{"index":2,"size":579,"text":"Other important correlations, stable across seasons, include a positive correlation between b*_fresh and b*_gari, SP and RVA-peak viscosity, and ITPA-hardness and SI, and a negative correlation between RVA-peak time and SP. Only a few traits were NA 0.47 0.45 0.68 0.41 0.19 0.08 0.34 0.28 0.21 0.45 0.37 0.39 0.48 0.61 0.17 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.30 0.41 0.26 0.19 0.15 NA 0.89 0.21 0.64 0.08 0.13 0.08 0.47 0.07 0.30 0.41 0.60 0.90 0.74 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.41 0.10 0.20 0.25 0.20 0.13 0.94 NA 0.23 0.51 0.06 0.15 0.00 0.33 0.04 0.18 0.40 0.69 0.98 0.68 0.15 0.31 0.15 0.31 0.03 0.12 0.25 0.07 0.68 0.62 0.50 NA 0.71 0.20 0.04 0.14 0.47 0.16 0.44 0.52 0.51 0.57 0.80 0.19 0.17 0.20 0.17 0.33 0.41 0.17 0.22 0.62 0.05 0.03 0.64 NA 0.01 0.18 0.33 0.27 0.01 0.24 0.24 0.37 0.07 0.46 0.30 0.10 0.14 0.34 0.29 0.35 0.09 0.24 0.27 0.22 0.14 0.26 0.28 NA 0.70 0.28 0.08 0.40 0.47 0.36 0.14 0.12 0.16 0.37 0.04 0.20 0.73 0.31 0.10 0.72 0.10 0.12 0.36 0.44 0.21 0.01 0.20 NA 0.01 0.16 0.15 0.35 0.21 0.16 0.46 0.22 0.38 0.13 0.05 0.21 0.19 0.12 0.23 0.01 0.37 0.30 0.32 0.36 0.04 0.22 0.36 NA 0.34 0.26 0.27 0.19 0.33 0.30 0.31 0.12 0.65 0.73 0.50 0.45 0.45 0.20 0.23 0.19 0.09 0.05 0.24 0.28 0.34 0.23 0.15 NA 0.33 0.16 0.10 0.18 0.06 0.30 0.03 0.12 0.18 0.16 0.37 0.38 0.19 0.23 0.06 0.23 0.21 0.13 0.21 0.11 0.08 0.01 0.22 NA 0.43 0.06 0.10 0.20 0.02 0.01 0.07 0.23 0.31 0.03 0.33 0.51 0.43 0.61 0.34 0.28 0.63 0.46 0.46 0.11 0.28 0.01 0.42 NA 0.62 0.30 0.23 0.40 0.38 0.10 0.29 0.57 0.33 0.06 0.59 0.12 0.55 0.36 0.33 0.64 0.39 0.28 0.01 0.20 0.03 0.24 0.89 NA 0.81 0.28 0.41 0.30 0.07 0.25 0.35 0.21 0.06 0.34 0.06 0.29 0.26 0.28 0.47 0.25 0.02 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.03 0.57 0.85 NA 0.25 0.35 0.11 0.01 0.14 0.03 0.10 0.12 0.05 0.03 0.10 0.95 0.99 0.21 0.52 0.10 0.12 0.03 0.37 0.01 0.18 0.39 0.66 NA 0.70 0.43 0.26 0.18 0.29 0.03 0.13 0.27 0.12 0.58 0.14 0.17 0.56 0.67 0.21 0.02 0.56 0.29 0.14 0.52 0.59 0.65 0.17 NA 0.04 0.39 0.47 0.37 0.18 0.27 0.23 0.17 0.25 0.18 0.40 0.08 0.13 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.12 0.01 0.21 0.00 0.16 0.23 0.02 NA 0.28 0.13 0.41 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.25 0.22 0.17 0.27 0.00 0.32 0.29 0.05 0.29 0.05 0.14 0.07 0.11 0.10 0.06 0.25 NA 0.40 0.31 0.04 0.01 0.17 0.15 0.32 0.58 0.48 0.38 0.28 0.00 0.01 0.11 0.45 0.04 0.02 0.07 0.14 0.47 0.19 0.20 0.60 NA 0.11 0.13 0.09 0.10 0.19 0.31 0.26 0.29 0.26 0.21 0.61 0.75 0.40 0.36 0.01 0.21 0.07 0.43 0.24 0.22 0.05 0.07 0.20 NA 0.54 0.47 0.37 0.10 0.35 0.13 0.11 0.00 0.25 0.32 0.49 0.50 0.11 0.36 0.05 0.05 0.17 0.11 0.35 0.05 0.16 0.49 0.49 NA 0.97 0.34 0.42 0.25 0.03 0.01 0.11 0.26 0.27 0.52 0.41 0.12 0.42 0.12 0.10 0.20 0.00 0.30 0.10 0.14 0.39 0.12 0.87 NA 0.10 0.42 0.34 0.33 0.23 0.19 0.13 0.30 0.09 0.37 0.07 0.09 0.18 0.17 0.06 0.24 0.32 0.20 0.12 0.41 0.77 0.67 0.25 NA 0.16 0.27 0.11 0.20 0.37 0.42 0.06 0.15 0.14 0.19 0.03 0.43 0.45 0.35 0.14 0.07 0.03 0.33 0.02 0.03 0.13 0.17 found to be correlated with eba quality traits; however, they were not stable across both seasons."}]},{"head":"Principal component analysis","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":263,"text":"The PCA was conducted for each of the two seasons' data. In the first season, the first two principal components (PCs) accounted for 43.69% of the total variance in the data (Fig. 6). PC1 explained 29.54% of the total variation, with gari% (0.27) and DM (0.25) having the highest PC loadings, whereas PC2 explained 14.15%, with b*_gari (0.27) and ps800 (0.33) having the highest PC loadings (Table S2). In the second season, the first two PCs accounted for 47.43% of the total variance in the data. PC1 explained 30.37% of the total variation, with ps800 (0.31) and SI (0.33) having the highest PC loadings, whereas PC2 explained 17.06%, with RVApeak time (0.41) and RVA-peak pasting temp (0.38) having the highest PC loadings (Table S2). In both seasons, the biplot of the first two PCs revealed that variables such as DM, gari%, and BD, as well as SI, ITPA-hardness, ITPA-gumminess, and ITPAchewiness, were strongly positively correlated, whereas variables such as SI and SP were negatively correlated. The landrace varieties were closely clustered together in the biplot, indicating similar values across the variables. In contrast, the released and advanced breeding genotypes were more spread out, suggesting considerable variation across the trait variables. However, four genotypes (TMS13F1053P0010, TMS13F1160P0005, TMEB3, and CR36-5) constantly clustered with each other in both seasons. The genotypes TMS13F1343P0022, TMS13F1362P0004, and IITA-TMS-IBA00070 exhibited a strong correlation with DM, gari%, and BD, indicating that these genotypes had higher values for these traits. On the other hand, the genotypes IITA-TMS-IBA50395 and TMEB47 were closely associated with textural traits such as ITPA-hardness, ITPA-gumminess, ITPA-chewiness, and SI."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":336,"text":"Understanding the genetic variability, heritability, and correlations among fresh root, colour, functional, and textural property traits of gari and eba is a critical step towards their genetic improvement. Traits evaluated in this study were selected based on information from previous publications from the RTBfoods project. 10,11,17,18,50 The population characterized in this study displayed large phenotypic variation for most traits. The values for a few traits recorded in this study (gari%, BD, solubility, pH) were similar to those previously reported. 10,12 The range of the SI observed in this study suggests that certain genotypes produced gari capable of expanding to over three times its original volume, a characteristic highly desirable to consumers. 10,25 Advanced breeding genotypes performed better in terms of fresh-root quality traits than landraces and previously released clones did. However, for gari colour, quality, and textural traits, the three classes of genotypes were similar except for BD and SI, where landraces and released varieties performed differently from breeding genotypes. Genetic variance is essential for selection of superior genotypes and trait improvement. We observed significant genotype effects for traits such as b*_gari, b*_eba, BD, ITPA-hardness, and ITPAgumminess, suggesting the potential for genetic gains through hybridization and selection. Environmental variance, which explains the impact of factors such as climate, soil, biotic factors, crop management, and processing methods, was the most influential and significant component of variance for all trait groups except fresh-root quality traits. 51 Multi-season data showed that environmental and residual variances contributed more to the variation seen among genotypes than genotypic variances for all traits groups except for those in the fresh-root quality category. Encouragingly, the GEI effect contributed the least to the variation measured in the study. This finding is particularly important since significant interactions would considerably complicate the breeding efforts and reduce its effectiveness. Variations due to the residual term include all unexplained sources of variation. The residual variance can be reduced by increasing the effectiveness of the phenotyping process, the use of better breeding and experimental designs, and more appropriate statistical models."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"Heritability H 2 , the ratio of genetic to phenotypic variances, can range from 0 to 100%. Traits with high H 2 (>50%) suggest good potential for genetic improvement through breeding. The H 2 estimates for many traits both across all environments (H 2 m ) and on trial-level (H 2 s ) indicated promising genetic variability. Adequate genetic variation allows for trait improvement through phenotype-based recurrent selection. All fresh-root quality traits showed high heritability values (H 2 > 0.50). This explains the widely reported genetic gains for fresh-root quality traits in cassava, particularly for DM. On the other hand, colour, texture, and functional properties tended to have lower heritability values with few exceptions, underlining the difficulties for breeders to develop varieties meeting consumers demands. High heritability of a few traits (b*_gari and b*_eba, BD, RVA-peak time, and ITPA-hardness) is worth highlighting. These traits can be included in breeding efforts. Traits with low heritability estimates across all environments, such as solubility, L*_eba, a*_eba, and ITPAresilience, had large environmental variance with little or no genetic variances."},{"index":3,"size":274,"text":"Trait correlation can improve selection accuracy of complex traits through indirect selection. Negative correlations among two desirable traits would limit the simultaneous genetic progress. A significant correlation among traits may be due to the presence of genetic linkage and/or pleiotropic effects of different genes. 52 Traits correlations changed in magnitude (and in some cases even in sign) in both cropping seasons. Of note was the correlation between DM with gari% and BD. Meanwhile, other correlations agreed with those reported earlier for SP-and RVA-related traits. 12,53 The correlation observed between particle-size-related traits and SI suggests that the larger the particle size the higher the SI of gari. 14 It is not unexpected to observe a negative correlation between gari% and b*_gari because the colour of gari is determined by the quantity of beta-carotene, which is negatively associated with DM. 54 DM is a primary determinant of gari%, and hence the correlation between the two traits is expected. Also, in this study, DM was associated (either negatively or positively) with traits related to eba textural properties, which is similar to what Akingbala et al. 55 found. This suggests that DM content plays a crucial role in determining the textural quality of eba. Genotypes with higher DM content are likely to result in a softer and sticky eba dough. This can be attributed to their high starch content, which undergoes higher gelatinization upon contact with hot water, thereby reducing the firmness of the eba dough. Considering the high H 2 m for DM, it would be possible to carry out an indirect selection of those traits that have low heritability but have a close association with DM."},{"index":4,"size":310,"text":"The results of PCA from both planting seasons revealed that less than 50% of the total variation was explained by PC1 and PC2. The PCA biplot for the two seasons' data recapitulated the trait results of correlation analyses, with DM, gari%, and BD showing a strong positive relationship, and suggests the possibility of simultaneous selection and improvement for these traits. On the other hand, SI, ITPA-hardness, ITPA-gumminess, and ITPA-chewiness were correlated with each other and negatively related with the DM, gari%, and BD. An antagonistic relationship between expansion in cold water as measured by SI versus expansion in hot water as measured by SP was observed. When gari is added to cold water, cell wall separation is encouraged, which reduces adhesion between cells and encourages hydration. 56 Crude fibres (hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin) are a measure of cell wall materials and are positively correlated with SI. 25,57 Therefore, genotypes with higher crude fibre content (and less DM or starch content) tend to have higher SI. In the presence of heat, starch in gari gelatinizes and swells more. In other words, gari from varieties with low DM expands more in cold water, whereas those from high DM varieties expand more in hot water because of the negative correlations between crude fibre and starch content. 58 The genotype cluster from the PCA revealed that landrace varieties were more like each other in their values across the variables, whereas the released and advanced breeding genotypes show greater variability in both seasons. These findings may have implications for the breeding and selection of cassava varieties for specific end uses. However, the results should be interpreted with caution owing to the small sample size and the fact that the experiment was repeated only in two seasons. Further research with larger sample sizes and more repetitions may be needed to confirm and expand upon these findings."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"Among the 40 traits assessed in this study, 33 were specifically linked to the quality of gari and eba. Several traits, including gari%, b*_gari, b*_eba, RVA-breakdown, ITPA-hardness, SI, and BD, displayed significant correlations with DM content and had a consistent heritability estimate across all environments. It is suggested that these traits be prioritized for genetic improvement in the cassava breeding programme."},{"index":6,"size":149,"text":"To increase the adoption of improved cassava varieties with acceptable gari and eba product quality in West Africa, it is imperative to understand the genetic basis of trait variation in the breeding germplasm. This study is a major effort to provide heritability estimates and the relationship between fresh-root quality traits, gari/eba colour, functional properties, and textural properties to support breeding decisions. It was encouraging to see the moderate to high heritability values for traits related to gari/ eba colour, functional properties, and textural properties. Although a strong seasonal effect was noticed for most traits, the relative importance of GEI was generally small. The magnitude of the error in the analysis of variance of several traits, however, was high. This study identified attributes amenable to improvement through breeding, and those that having low heritability require more efficient screening protocols to reduce experimental error and/or the introduction of broader genetic variability."},{"index":7,"size":82,"text":"(https://www.nextgencassava.org; grant no. IVN-007637) We thank the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) for funding the first author's PhD scholarship in plant breeding at the West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement (WACCI), University of Ghana Legon, Accra, Ghana. Special gratitude goes out to Mr Chike Ugoji, Dr Harnan Ceballos, Dr Wasiu Awoyale, and the entire personnel of the food science laboratory and cassava breeding unit of the IITA. We are grateful to our reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions that improved the manuscript."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure1. Schematic outlining the gari processing workflow and quality control measures. "},{"text":"Figure 3 presents the percentage of phenotypic variance explained by the genotype, environment, GEI, and residual source "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Percentage of phenotypic variance explained by each genotype, environment, genotype × environment interaction and residual terms for 40 gari and eba quality traits. Env: Environment. *, P ≤ 0.05; **, P ≤ 0.01; ***, P ≤ 0.001. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Broad-sense heritability estimates across all environments (MET) and trial level for 40 fresh root, gari, and eba traits. DM, dry matter; ITPA, instrumental texture profile analysis; MET, multi-environment trial; STPA, sensory textural profile analysis. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Correlation plot for 23 fresh roots, gari, and eba traits from two growing seasons (2021-2022 above the diagonal and 2020-2021 below the diagonal). "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Principal component analysis for 23 fresh root, gari, and eba traits from two growing seasons. (A) Season 2020-2021. (B) Season 2021-2022. DM, dry matter; ITPA, instrumental texture profile analysis; STPA, sensory textural profile analysis. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Statistical descriptive parameters for best linear unbiased predictions of fresh root, gari, and eba quality traits  Mean  Advanced breeding Landraces Released MeanAdvanced breedingLandracesReleased Traits name (min-max) SD genotypes (n = 11) (n = 10) (n = 12) Traits name(min-max)SDgenotypes (n = 11)(n = 10)(n = 12) Fresh root quality      Fresh root quality DM (%) 34.19 (22.0-44.4) 4.98 37.02a 33.53b 32.01b DM (%)34.19 (22.0-44.4)4.9837.02a33.53b32.01b Starch content (%) 27.2 (14.3-36.7) 5.15 29.5a 27.0ab 25.22b Starch content (%)27.2 (14.3-36.7)5.1529.5a27.0ab25.22b Starch residue (%) 5.94 (3.1-10.4) 1.35 6.73a 5.47b 5.61b Starch residue (%)5.94 (3.1-10.4)1.356.73a5.47b5.61b Gari (%) 23.44 (12.0-30.8) 4.46 25.74a 21.85b 22.42b Gari (%)23.44 (12.0-30.8)4.4625.74a21.85b22.42b Chromameter colour      Chromameter colour a*_fresh −0.39 (−1.4-3.8) 0.82 −0.47a −0.48a −0.24a a*_fresh−0.39 (−1.4-3.8)0.82−0.47a−0.48a−0.24a b*_fresh 20.8 (16.1-43.6) 4.37 20.58a 20.23a 21.51a b*_fresh20.8 (16.1-43.6)4.3720.58a20.23a21.51a L*_fresh 89.45 (83.5-94.3) 2.14 90.04a 89.37a 88.96a L*_fresh89.45 (83.5-94.3)2.1490.04a89.37a88.96a a*_gari 1.78 (0.5-4.5) 0.82 1.78a 1.7a 1.84a a*_gari1.78 (0.5-4.5)0.821.78a1.7a1.84a b*_gari 20.34 (14.7-35.3) 3.68 20.15a 20.27a 20.58a b*_gari20.34 (14.7-35.3)3.6820.15a20.27a20.58a L*_gari 91.13 (82.0-98.8) 5.48 91.74a 90.6a 90.9a L*_gari91.13 (82.0-98.8)5.4891.74a90.6a90.9a a*_eba −1.14 (−6.3-4.9) 4.3 −1.08a −1.49a −0.96a a*_eba−1.14 (−6.3-4.9)4.3−1.08a−1.49a−0.96a b*_eba 15.63 (11.5-28.7) 2.65 15.68a 15.18a 15.9a b*_eba15.63 (11.5-28.7)2.6515.68a15.18a15.9a L*_eba 68.13 (54.8-89.7) 7.46 69.07a 66.4a 68.43a L*_eba68.13 (54.8-89.7)7.4669.07a66.4a68.43a Gari quality      Gari quality Bulk density (g cm −3 ) 0.53 (0.43-0.60) 0.04 0.55a 0.52b 0.52b Bulk density (g cm −3 )0.53 (0.43-0.60)0.040.55a0.52b0.52b pH 4.4 (3.7-5.7) 0.47 4.45a 4.32a 4.39a pH4.4 (3.7-5.7)0.474.45a4.32a4.39a Solubility (%) 9 (5.0-22.0) 3.45 9.47a 8.41a 9.02a Solubility (%)9 (5.0-22.0)3.459.47a8.41a9.02a Swelling index 3.12 (2.3-5.0) 0.6 2.9a 3.28b 3.18ab Swelling index3.12 (2.3-5.0)0.62.9a3.28b3.18ab Swelling power (%) 647.53 (543-892) 56.33 657.6a 630.17a 650.88a Swelling power (%)647.53 (543-892)56.33657.6a630.17a650.88a Gari particle size      Gari particle size ps0-300 (μm) 10.28 (1.1-23.4) 4.32 12.45a 8.25b 9.92b ps0-300 (μm)10.28 (1.1-23.4)4.3212.45a8.25b9.92b ps300-500 (μm) 25.02 (8.9-34.1) 5.46 26.9a 22.96b 24.75ab ps300-500 (μm)25.02 (8.9-34.1)5.4626.9a22.96b24.75ab ps500-800 (μm) 27.96 (22.4-32.1) 1.94 27.64a 28.48a 27.87a ps500-800 (μm)27.96 (22.4-32.1)1.9427.64a28.48a27.87a ps800 (μm) 36.85 (18.4-67.7) 10 33.29b 40.3a 37.68ab ps800 (μm)36.85 (18.4-67.7)1033.29b40.3a37.68ab Gari RVA      Gari RVA RVA-breakdown (RUV) 28.26 (5.6-129.5) 21.32 31.72a 24.71a 27.59a RVA-breakdown (RUV)28.26 (5.6-129.5)21.3231.72a24.71a27.59a RVA-final viscosity (RUV) 299.43 (192.4-411.6) 45.2 288.47a 309.3a 302.8a RVA-final viscosity (RUV)299.43 (192.4-411.6)45.2288.47a309.3a302.8a RVA-pasting temp (°C) 76.2 (69.4-90.6) 3.38 76.71a 76.36a 75.56a RVA-pasting temp (°C)76.2 (69.4-90.6)3.3876.71a76.36a75.56a RVA-peak viscosity (RUV) 222.01 (142.6-327.4) 39.56 216.82a 222.16a 227.08a RVA-peak viscosity (RUV)222.01 (142.6-327.4)39.56216.82a222.16a227.08a RVA-peak time (m) 5.92 (4.7-7.0) 0.53 5.86a 5.05a 5.88a RVA-peak time (m)5.92 (4.7-7.0)0.535.86a5.05a5.88a RVA-setback viscosity (RUV) 104.49 (69.3-160.4) 18.94 102.82a 108.39a 103.09a RVA-setback viscosity (RUV)104.49 (69.3-160.4)18.94102.82a108.39a103.09a RVA-trough (RUV) 194.08 (119.5-282.1) 33.99 185.77a 179.68a 199.7a RVA-trough (RUV)194.08 (119.5-282.1)33.99185.77a179.68a199.7a Eba ITPA      Eba ITPA ITPA-adhesiveness (g s) −113.83 (−579.7-143.9) 79.33 −136.6a −95.19a −108.07a ITPA-adhesiveness (g s)−113.83 (−579.7-143.9)79.33−136.6a−95.19a−108.07a ITPA-chewiness (%) 61.47 (4.7-138.8) 17.98 58.27a 65.99a 60.87a ITPA-chewiness (%)61.47 (4.7-138.8)17.9858.27a65.99a60.87a ITPA-cohesiveness (%) 0.25 (0.08-0.58) 0.17 0.24a 0.24a 0.26a ITPA-cohesiveness (%)0.25 (0.08-0.58)0.170.24a0.24a0.26a ITPA-gumminess (%) 92.27 (46.1-237.5) 41.87 86.62a 98.44a 92.62a ITPA-gumminess (%)92.27 (46.1-237.5)41.8786.62a98.44a92.62a ITPA-hardness (g) 460.26 (164.0-907.4) 159.82 437.7a 504.33a 466.8a ITPA-hardness (g)460.26 (164.0-907.4)159.82437.7a504.33a466.8a ITPA-resilience (%) 5.98 (1.9-19.0) 4.68 5.66a 6.11a 6.17a ITPA-resilience (%)5.98 (1.9-19.0)4.685.66a6.11a6.17a ITPA-springiness (%) 24.09 (5.5-60.8) 17.06 23.5a 23.37a 25.17a ITPA-springiness (%)24.09 (5.5-60.8)17.0623.5a23.37a25.17a Eba STPA      Eba STPA STPA-adhesiveness 4.07 (1.1-9.8) 2.82 4.14a 3.77a 4.25a STPA-adhesiveness4.07 (1.1-9.8)2.824.14a3.77a4.25a STPA-hardness 2.81 (1.4-6.4) 1.08 2.65a 3.06a 2.77a STPA-hardness2.81 (1.4-6.4)1.082.65a3.06a2.77a STPA-mouldability 4.71 (2.6-9.3) 2.2 4.62a 4.84a 4.69a STPA-mouldability4.71 (2.6-9.3)2.24.62a4.84a4.69a STPA-stretchability 3.41 (1.3-7.4) 1.72 3.28a 3.43a 3.5a STPA-stretchability3.41 (1.3-7.4)1.723.28a3.43a3.5a DM, dry matter; ITPA, instrumental texture profile analysis; RVA, Rapid Visco Analyzer; RUV, RVA units; STPA, sensory textural profile analysis. DM, dry matter; ITPA, instrumental texture profile analysis; RVA, Rapid Visco Analyzer; RUV, RVA units; STPA, sensory textural profile analysis.  "}],"sieverID":"d81e28c4-15ae-4f28-b99b-073707dc39c2","abstract":"BACKGROUND: Gari (especially in Nigeria) is an important West African food product made from cassava. It is an affordable, precooked, dry, easy to prepare and store food product. Eba is a stiff dough produced by reconstituting gari in hot water. Gari and eba quality is an important driver of varietal acceptance by farmers, processors, and consumers.RESULTS: This study characterized the genetic variability, heritability, and correlations among quality-related traits of fresh roots, gari, and eba. Thirty-three diverse genotypes, including landraces and released and advanced breeding genotypes, were used in this study. In total, 40 traits categorized into fresh root quality, colour, functional, and texture properties trait groups were assessed. We observed broad phenotypic variability among the genotypes used in this study. Dry matter content had a positive (P < 0.05) correlation with gari%, bulk density and a negative correlation with eba hardness and gumminess. Broadsense heritability across all environments varied considerably among the different trait groups: 62% to 79% for fresh root quality, 0% to 96% for colour, 0% to 79% for functional and 0% to 57% for texture properties.CONCLUSIONS: The stable broad-sense heritability found for gari%, gari and eba colour, bulk density, swelling index, and hardness measured using instrumental texture profile analysis coupled with sufficient variability in the population indicate good potential for genetic improvement of these traits through recurrent selection. Also, it is possible to genetically improve gari%, bulk density, and swelling power by simultaneously improving the dry matter content of fresh roots."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ee92c5ee987df4d4051d229bcddee8a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2f63917e-aec8-4f87-9762-67c4f82d36bc/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"¿QUÉ ES LA NAMA BOVINA?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Figura 1. Emisiones de ganadería en relación con los demás sectores del Inventario Nacional de GEI. Fuente: Segundo Informe Bienal de Actualización de Colombia a la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas para el Cambio Climático NAMA bovina con base en IDEAM y otros (2018)."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Al ser una de las actividades económicas con mayor generación de emisiones, la ganadería bovina tiene el potencial de contribuir, de forma significativa, a la reducción de las emisiones del país y, de esta forma, aportar al logro del compromiso del gobierno de una reducción voluntaria de GEI al año 2030 en, al menos, el 51 por ciento, tal como quedó consignado en la segunda Contribución Nacionalmente Determinada (NDC), presentada en diciembre de 2020 a la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático, en cumplimiento del Acuerdo de Paris. Este compromiso hace parte del objetivo global, acordado por los Estados firmantes, de evitar que el aumento de la temperatura media mundial en este siglo supere los 2 grados centígrados respecto a los niveles preindustriales 4 ."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Además de mitigar GEI, la NAMA busca generar beneficios para el sector en materia de productividad, a través de incrementos en los rendimientos de la producción de alimentos altamente nutritivos, como son la carne y la leche bovinas, reducción de los costos de los insumos, formación de capacidades de los actores participantes en las cadenas de suministro, incursión en mercados sostenibles y una mayor resiliencia y adaptación al cambio climático."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"A su vez, la NAMA tiene el potencial de generar los espacios hacia la formalización de la producción ganadera. En cuanto a los efectos económicos, se espera que esta contribuya a reducir la pobreza en las áreas rurales, en las cuales se adopten las prácticas previstas en ganadería bovina sostenible, al mejorar las competencias de gestión y generar empleos. De este modo, dichas prácticas sostenibles van a promover cobeneficios ambientales, tales como la conservación de agua y suelos, el incremento de la biodiversidad y su capacidad para aportar servicios ecosistémicos."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":".¿DÓNDE VA A ACTUAR LA NAMA BOVINA? Con relación a las iniciativas que formen parte de la NAMA, estas podrán abarcar una escala que cubra desde el nivel local hasta el nacional. Para cumplir con la meta de mitigación, la estrategia es fomentar la adopción de prácticas en ganadería sostenible con todos los ganaderos e intervenir directamente, al menos, en un promedio del 23 por ciento del área de los 31 conglomerados."},{"index":6,"size":76,"text":"Cuadro 1. Inventario bovino, área y emisiones brutas de conglomerados priorizados para intervenciones en predios ganaderos. Fuente: Análisis elaborados en el marco de la formulación de la NAMA de la ganadería bovina sostenible. Nota: Las emisiones presentadas en este cuadro no se deben comparar de forma directa con las de la Figura 1 en la medida que los resultados en este cuadro se basan en insumos más desagregados y un inventario bovino más reciente (año 2019)."},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"¿CÓMO VA A ACTUAR LA NAMA BOVINA?"},{"index":8,"size":131,"text":"El objetivo general de la NAMA es reducir las emisiones de GEI generadas en la producción bovina e incrementar las remociones de carbono de los agroecosistemas dedicados a esta actividad. A continuación, se enuncian las fuentes de emisión incluidas en el análisis: (1) fermentación entérica, (2) gestión de estiércol depositado directamente en potrero, (3) procesos de nitrificación y desnitrificación de orina y heces depositados directamente en potrero, (4) fertilización de praderas y (5) tratamiento biológico de residuos orgánicos de la producción bovina. La absorción de carbono ocurrirá como resultado del cambio de cobertura del suelo en las áreas de pastizales establecidos y el cambio de uso de pastizales a coberturas naturales. A tal efecto, se implementarán dos estrategias de mitigación complementarias en los predios ganaderos existentes en los sistemas productivos priorizados:"},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"Intensificación sostenible de la producción ganadera a través de la gestión del conocimiento y el establecimiento de sistemas silvopastoriles (SSP)."},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"Recuperación y protección de áreas naturales dentro de predios ganaderos para la conservación y/o restauración de ecosistemas naturales."},{"index":11,"size":76,"text":"Estas estrategias son destacadas entre las opciones de respuesta global para la mitigación y la adaptación, puesto que también pueden combatir la desertificación y la degradación de la tierra y mejorar la seguridad alimentaria. Así mismo, se diseñan opciones de mitigación para eslabones subsecuentes a la producción primaria de la cadena de carne, que hacen referencia a la implementación de alternativas de tratamiento de los residuos generados en subastas, ferias ganaderas y en centrales de beneficio."},{"index":12,"size":320,"text":"En lo que concierne a las acciones de mitigación de la NAMA, estas son diseñadas con énfasis los procesos de gestión de conocimiento, que involucra la transferencia de capacidades a los actores de las cadenas de carne y leche, con respecto a las prácticas y tecnologías de producción sostenible. Los SSP son un tipo de agrosilvicultura orientada a la producción ganadera donde, a diferencia de los sistemas tradicionales de ganadería extensiva, hay presencia significativa de árboles y arbustos que interactúan con animales y pastos mejorados o nativos en un mismo espacio, bajo un sistema de manejo integral. Debido a su amplia aplicabilidad, versatilidad y capacidad para mejorar la productividad y mitigar las emisiones de GEI, los arreglos más comúnmente implementados son los siguientes: (1) árboles dispersos en potreros, (2) cercas vivas, (3) bancos mixtos de forraje, (4) setos forrajeros y (5) sistemas silvopastoriles intensivos para ramoneo (Figuras 3 y 4). En cada una de las áreas priorizadas para la mitigación de GEI, las estrategias para la creación de capacidad y el nivel de intensificación en las intervenciones, sobre los predios ganaderos, se adaptarán a las características de los paisajes predominantes y de los sistemas productivos. El proceso de gestión del conocimiento y la adopción de SSP involucran no solo a los productores sino también a la extensión agropecuaria, las instituciones educativas, las autoridades locales, los centros de ciencia, aspectos tecnológicos y de innovación agropecuaria y a los actores de las cadenas de valor de carne y leche bovina. A nivel predial, las actividades para la creación de capacidad se centrarán en aumentar la eficiencia de la producción ganadera, a partir de una fase diagnóstica e implementación posterior de mejoras de gestión formuladas con los ganaderos, entre otras: la renovación de pastos, la toma de decisiones con información objetiva recaudada con el uso de registros, la gestión de agua, la gestión de nutrientes del suelo y el manejo de energías renovables."},{"index":13,"size":8,"text":"CÓMO SE VA A IMPLEMENTAR LA NAMA BOVINA?"},{"index":14,"size":5,"text":"¿CÓMO SE VA A FINANCIAR?"},{"index":15,"size":207,"text":"La implementación de la NAMA bovina requiere inversiones en bienes públicos, tales como servicios de formación académica, extensión agropecuaria, incentivos e investigación e innovación, que recaen en las responsabilidades de las entidades públicas, debido a que estas inversiones resultan en externalidades positivas múltiples para el beneficio de la economía y la sociedad. También se requieren inversiones privadas por parte de los ganaderos, de sus organizaciones colectivas y de las empresas de las cadenas de suministro de carne y leche bovinas, enfocadas en modificar las prácticas de manejo en los sistemas productivos; a su vez, se necesita establecer una mayor cantidad de biomasa en los predios en forma de SSP, con el fin de intensificar la producción, reducir las emisiones de GEI y beneficiarse de los mercados de cadenas de suministro sostenibles. En este ámbito, la inversión promedio anual por hectárea en las áreas focalizadas de la NAMA debe ser de Col$239.000, equivalentes a US$68 (Figura 5). Por lo tanto, en todo el país, la inversión bruta agregada, para la reducción del 34 por ciento de las emisiones de la ganadería bovina para el año 2030, sería de Col$8,66 billones a lo largo de la década, sin considerar los aumentos de la utilidad ni la recirculación del capital."},{"index":16,"size":109,"text":"Si bien las inversiones anuales en la NAMA representarían el 5,3 por ciento del PIB pecuario 5 , para el año 2019 6 (una cifra significativa), las inversiones en la NAMA van a producir retornos que se realizarán en forma de rentas privadas (mayores ganancias) y en externalidades positivas que beneficiarán a toda la sociedad, tales como la reducción de carbono, mayor biodiversidad, incremento de la resiliencia al cambio climático y mejora en la calidad de productos al consumidor. Para catalizar esta cadena de beneficios, es necesario contar con la participación del sector privado, público y de la cooperación internacional que reúna los montos críticos que apoyen la transformación."},{"index":17,"size":247,"text":"Con respecto a las acciones requeridas para apalancar y gestionar la financiación de la NAMA, estas se agrupan en cuatro líneas estratégicas (Figura 6): La NAMA de la ganadería bovina se implementará de acuerdo con un plan estructurado en cuatro líneas de acción: (1) gestionar conocimiento e implementar proyectos ganaderos sostenibles, (2) promover la comercialización de productos bovinos sostenibles, (3) asegurar financiamiento y (4) desarrollar normas y regulaciones que apalanquen las acciones de mitigación en el sector. Estos esfuerzos requieren, en todos los eslabones de las cadenas de suministro de carne y leche, la participación y el compromiso de los actores públicos y privados del sector ganadero. Así mismo, una variedad de instituciones claves serán responsables de la gobernanza, coordinación e implementación de cada línea de acción propuesta. En la Figura 7, se da una idea de cuales son y serían parte constitutiva de la NAMA.  El proceso de implementación ha sido concebido en tres etapas: (1) socialización de la NAMA y sensibilización de públicos e instituciones; (2) elaboración de planes de trabajo y hojas de ruta con los actores claves de la implementación y (3) el monitoreo, reporte y verificación de la implementación. Para el último punto, se constituirá un sistema robusto que cumplirá con disposiciones nacionales, como son las del Registro Nacional de Reducción de las Emisiones de Gases de Efecto Invernadero (Renare), e internacionales, como las del Marco de Transparencia Reforzado de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático (ETF)."},{"index":18,"size":8,"text":"¿CÓMO SE VA A IMPLEMENTAR LA NAMA BOVINA?"},{"index":19,"size":9,"text":"¿CUÁL ES EL IMPACTO PREVISTO DE LA NAMA BOVINA?"},{"index":20,"size":10,"text":"Figura 9. Escenarios de mitigación de GEI (t de CO2e)"},{"index":21,"size":8,"text":"Emisiones netas GEI (millones de t CO2 eq) "}]},{"head":"Línea base","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"La reducción neta de emisiones gracias a la implementación de las acciones de mitigación en el año 2030 sería de 34%"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"(11,4 millones de t CO 2 eq), en el escenario optimista o 15% (5,1 millones de t CO 2 eq) en el escenario moderado respecto al escenario de Línea base."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"La NAMA tiene el potencial de contribuir desde el sector a la meta de mitigación nacional de 51%"}]},{"head":"Escenario optimista","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":235,"text":"Los análisis de mitigación de emisiones se realizaron sobre dos escenarios, uno moderado y otro optimista (Figura 8). Las acciones de mitigación de la ganadería bovina sostenible se implementarán durante el periodo 2021-2030 y, de acuerdo con el escenario optimista, incidirán sobre más: La adopción de estas prácticas se traduce en una ganadería con las siguientes características: (i) mayor productividad al generar más con menos recursos, (ii) mayores ganancias al mejorar los ingresos de la actividad ganadera y reducir los costos, (iii) menores emisiones de GEI, (iv) mayor resiliencia al cambio climático y (v) aumento de la integridad de los agroecosistemas. Estos impactos son posibles gracias al aumento en la oferta de forrajes y la mejora de los atributos nutricionales de estos, los cuales conllevan a la configuración de sistemas que producen alimentos sanos y de calidad en un entorno de bienestar animal, para el beneficio de los ganaderos y la sociedad en general, en cuanto a su productividad y rentabilidad. Estos efectos económicos tienen una relación directa con respecto a la reducción de la pobreza en las áreas rurales donde se implementa la ganadería bovina sostenible. Además, las zonas de pastoreo presentan temperaturas más bajas para mayor confort de los bovinos, aumenta la circulación de los nutrientes, la actividad biológica del suelo, la regulación de agua en los suelos y genera una mayor biodiversidad, la cual se expresa en mayores flujos de servicios ecosistémicos."}]},{"head":"$","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"¿CÓMO VA A CONTRIBUIR LA NAMA BOVINA A LAS POLÍTICAS Y METAS NACIONALES?"},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"La implementación de la NAMA bovina a través del establecimiento de prácticas sostenibles de producción contribuye, no solo a las metas y compromisos de cambio climático del país, sino también a los objetivos nacionales establecidos en políticas y metas nacionales, así como a los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) de alcance global que se ilustran la Figura 10."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"A continuación, entre estas se destacan las siguientes:"},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Política de Crecimiento Verde. Impulsar al 2030 el aumento de la productividad y la competitividad económica del país, al tiempo que se asegura el uso sostenible del capital natural y la inclusión social, de forma compatible con el clima."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"Objetivos de la Frontera Agrícola Nacional. Promover el uso eficiente del suelo rural agropecuario, el ordenamiento productivo y social de la propiedad rural y el fortalecimiento de la productividad y competitividad de las actividades agropecuarias; así como contribuir a estabilizar y disminuir la pérdida de ecosistemas de importancia ambiental. "}]},{"head":"AGRADECIMIENTOS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"La formulación de la NAMA Bovina de Colombia contó con las contribuciones técnicas de un amplio número de instituciones nacionales y de carácter internacional. Su formulación se llevó a cabo dentro del marco del Proyecto Ganadería Colombiana Sostenible, que se implementó a través de una alianza conformada por el Banco Mundial, la Federación Colombiana de Ganaderos (Fedegán), el Centro para la Investigación en Sistemas Sostenibles de Producción Agropecuaria (CIPAV), The Nature Conservancy (TNC) y el Fondo Acción para el Ambiente y la Niñez, con financiamiento del Departamento de Negocios, Energía y Estrategia Industrial (BEIS) del Reino Unido. A esta alianza, se unieron el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), a través del Programa de Investigación del CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS), el World Resource Institute (WRI) y la Universidad de Princeton. La participación de algunos técnicos de CIPAV fue financiada dentro del marco del proyecto \"Estrategias Productivas Sostenibles\", financiado por el Ministerio Federal Alemán de Medio Ambiente, Conservación de la Naturaleza y Seguridad Nuclear (BMU)."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"La preparación de los análisis y del documento se institucionalizó dentro del Comité NAMA Bovina, instancia de coordinación bajo el liderazgo del Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural (MADR) y el Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible (MADS) y con participación de representantes del Departamento Nacional de Planeación, la Unidad de Planificación Rural Agropecuaria (UPRA), el Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales (IDEAM), el Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE) y representantes de las instituciones que participaron en la formulación de la NAMA, FEDEGAN, TNC, CIPAV, Fondo Acción, CIAT y el acompañamiento del Banco Mundial y la Embajada del Reino Unido en Colombia."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura Figura 3. Tipos de sistemas silvopastoriles "},{"text":"Figura Figura 5. Inversion de la NAMA bovina "},{"text":"Figura 6 . Figura 6. Líneas estratégicas para el financiamiento de la NAMA bovina "},{"text":"Figura 7 . Figura 7. Entidades encargadas de la implementación de la NAMA "},{"text":"Figura Figura 8. Impactos potenciales en la Implementación de la NAMA bovina 3,6 millones de hectáreas con incidencia de acciones de gestión de conocimiento y efectos directos e indirectos de los SSP (1,5 millones de hectáreas en el escenario moderado) 25.300 predios ganaderos donde se mejorará la gestión y se establecerán SSP (11.500 predios en el escenario moderado) dejando un legado de "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Fuente AFOLU de emisión 2 Categoría IPCC Emisión año 2014 (millones de t CO2 eq) 3 % INGEI        Ganadería bovina Ganadería bovina Fermentación entérica ganado bovino Fuente AFOLU de emisión 3A1a Categoría IPCC 19.741 Emisión año 2014 (millones Ton CO2 eq) % INGEI 8,3% 15% Fermentación entérica ganado bovino Fuente AFOLU de emisión 3A1aCategoría IPCC19.741 Emisión año 2014 (millones Ton CO2 eq) % INGEI 8,3%15% Gestión de estiércol ganado bovino Fermentación entérica ganado bovino 3A1a 3A2a   716 19.741 0,3% 8,3% Residuos 6% Gestión de estiércol ganado bovino Fermentación entérica ganado bovino 3A1a 3A2a716 19.7410,3% 8,3%Residuos 6% Gestión de estiércol ganado bovino 3A2a   716 0,3% Gestión de estiércol ganado bovino 3A2a7160,3% Pastizales que permanecen como tales Pastizales que permanecen como tales 3B3a 3B3a   2.206 2.206 0,9% 0,9% Pastizales que permanecen como tales Pastizales que permanecen como tales 3B3a 3B3a2.206 2.2060,9% 0,9% N 2 O de orina y estiércol de bovinos en pastoreo Fermentación entérica otras espeCies Gestión de estiércol otras especies N2O de orina y estiércol de bovinos en 3C4 y 3C5 Otras 3A1 Otras 3A2 3C4 y 3C5 pastoreo Fermentación entérica otras especies Otras 3A1 Gestión de estiércol otras especies Otras 3A2 Tierras forestales 3B1  12.779 884 1.482 12.779 884 1.482 40.844 5,4% 0,4% 0,6% 5,4% 0,4% 0,6% 17,2% AFOLU 55% Emisiones Energía 35% N 2 O de orina y estiércol de bovinos en pastoreo Fermentación entérica otras espeCies Gestión de estiércol otras especies N2O de orina y estiércol de bovinos en 3C4 y 3C5 Otras 3A1 Otras 3A2 3C4 y 3C5 pastoreo Fermentación entérica otras especies Otras 3A1 Gestión de estiércol otras especies Otras 3A2 Tierras forestales 3B112.779 884 1.482 12.779 884 1.482 40.8445,4% 0,4% 0,6% 5,4% 0,4% 0,6% 17,2%AFOLU 55%EmisionesEnergía 35% Tierras convertidas en pastizales 3B3b   30.406 12,8% Tierras convertidas en pastizales3B3b30.40612,8% Tierras forestales Tierras convertidas en pastizales Otros usos de la tierra 3B1 3B3b Otras emisiones de no CO 2 provenientes de la tierra Otras 3B Gestión de estiércol y otras 3C 40.844 30.406 12.903 7.551 17,2% 12,8% 5,4% 3,2% IPPU 4% Tierras forestales Tierras convertidas en pastizales Otros usos de la tierra 3B1 3B3b Otras emisiones de no CO 2 provenientes de la tierraOtras 3B Gestión de estiércol y otras 3C40.844 30.406 12.903 7.55117,2% 12,8% 5,4% 3,2%IPPU 4% Otros usos de la tierra Otras 3B    12.903 5,4% Otros usos de la tierraOtras 3B12.9035,4% Otras emisiones de no CO 2 provenientes de la tierra Gestión de estiércol y otras 3C   7.551 3,2% Otras emisiones de no CO 2 provenientes de la tierraGestión de estiércol y otras 3C7.5513,2% Sumidero de absorción de carbono Categoría IPCC Absorción año 2014 (millones t de CO2 eq) % INGEI 1,5% Sumidero de absorción de carbonoCategoría IPCCAbsorción año 2014 (millones t de CO2 eq)% INGEI1,5%       29,6% 29,6% Tierras forestales 3B1   -15.603 68,9% Tierras forestales3B1-15.60368,9%       Absorciones Absorciones Tierras de cultivo 3B2   -6.717 29,6% Tierras de cultivo3B2-6.71729,6%       68,9% 68,9% Pastizales que permanecen como tales 3B3a    -339 1,5% Pastizales que permanecen como tales3B3a-3391,5%  "},{"text":"Figura 2. Ecorregiones ganaderas donde se focalizarán las acciones NAMA. ECORREGIONES 434 Municipios Inventario bovino nacional % 48 Emisiones de GEI % 52 Fuente: NAMA bovina.   Suroriente Suroriente  Orinoquía Orinoquía  Magdalena medio Magdalena medio  Caribe seco Caribe seco ecorregiones, Caribe húmedo ecorregiones,Caribe húmedo se han identificado 31 conglomerados de Antioquía y Eje Cafetero se han identificado 31 conglomerados deAntioquía y Eje Cafetero predios bovinos, que se destacan tanto por su potencial para mitigar GEI como por Altiplano cundiboyacense predios bovinos, que se destacan tanto por su potencial para mitigar GEI como porAltiplano cundiboyacense su aptitud para la producción de carne  su aptitud para la producción de carne y/o leche, la favorabilidad del entorno  y/o leche, la favorabilidad del entorno local para el desarrollo y la permanencia  local para el desarrollo y la permanencia de las medidas de mitigación.  de las medidas de mitigación. Dichos conglomerados abarcan 434  Dichos conglomerados abarcan 434 municipios, donde se alberga el 48 por  municipios, donde se alberga el 48 por ciento del hato nacional y, en los cuales, se  ciento del hato nacional y, en los cuales, se genera el 52 por ciento de las emisiones de  genera el 52 por ciento de las emisiones de GEI provenientes de la actividad ganadera  GEI provenientes de la actividad ganadera estimadas para el año 2020. Estos  estimadas para el año 2020. Estos municipios se ubican en los departamentos  municipios se ubican en los departamentos de Arauca, Casanare, Meta, Vichada,  de Arauca, Casanare, Meta, Vichada, Caquetá, Huila, Tolima, Valle del Cauca,  Caquetá, Huila, Tolima, Valle del Cauca, Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, Córdoba,  Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, Córdoba, Sucre, Atlántico, Bolívar, Cesar, Guajira,  Sucre, Atlántico, Bolívar, Cesar, Guajira, Magdalena, Boyacá, Cundinamarca y  Magdalena, Boyacá, Cundinamarca y Santander (Cuadro 1).  Santander (Cuadro 1).  "},{"text":"Ecorregión Cantidad de conglomerados Inventario bovino 2020 % participación en inventario bovino nacional Área total (ha) Emisiones brutas GEI año 2020 (millones de t CO 2 eq) % participación emisiones GEI bovinas nacional  Altiplano Cundiboyacense 1 184.756 0,68% 111.826 377 1,14% Altiplano Cundiboyacense1184.7560,68%111.8263771,14% Antioquia y Eje Cafetero 4 1.192.119 4,4% 609.300 1.805 5,44% Antioquia y Eje Cafetero41.192.1194,4%609.3001.8055,44% Caribe húmedo 6 2.224.566 8,2% 1.022.895 2.957 8,92% Caribe húmedo62.224.5668,2%1.022.8952.9578,92% Caribe seco 6 3.131.630 11,5% 1.755.159 3.989 12,03% Caribe seco63.131.63011,5%1.755.1593.98912,03% Magdalena medio 3 428.492 1,6% 431.300 513 1,55% Magdalena medio3428.4921,6%431.3005131,55% Orinoquia 7 4.095.081 15,1% 9.955.860 5.217 15,73% Orinoquia74.095.08115,1%9.955.8605.21715,73% Suroriente 4 1.687.551 6,2% 1.064.918 2.239 6,75% Suroriente41.687.5516,2%1.064.9182.2396,75% Total 31 12.944.195 47,6% 14.951.258 17.097 51,56% Total3112.944.19547,6%14.951.25817.09751,56%  "},{"text":"Políticas y metas nacionales, y ODS alineados con la NAMA Política Nacional de Ciencia e Innovación para el Desarrollo Sostenible 'Libro Verde 2030'. Orientar la ciencia y la innovación para el logro de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible.Declaración Conjunta de Intención. Contribuir al desarrollo sostenible de los sectores y comunidades rurales de Colombia, apoyar una transición hacia el desarrollo rural resiliente bajo en carbono, y promover la deforestación cero en las cadenas de producción de materias primas 7 . Política Nacional de Ciencia e Innovación para el desarrollo sostenible 'Libro Verde 2030' Negocios Verdes Política de Política Nacional de Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional Programa Pecuaria Sostenible Política Nacional Climático de Cambio Reconversión Nacional de Política Nacional de Crecimiento Política de Producción y Consumo Sostenible Política Gestión Integral de Recursos Hídricos Nacional Política Gestión Sostenible del Suelo Ecosistémicos sus Servicios Biodiversidad y Integral de la Agrícola Frontera Gestión Política Acuerdos Voluntarios Cero deforestación en las cadenas de suministro de leche y carne Plan Nacional de Bosques sobre de Nueva York Declaración Restauración Ecológica, Rehabilitación y Recuperación de Áreas Degradadas Política Nacional de Ciencia e Innovación para el desarrollo sostenible 'Libro Verde 2030' Negocios Verdes Política de Política Nacional de Seguridad Alimentaria y NutricionalPrograma Pecuaria Sostenible Política Nacional Climático de Cambio Reconversión Nacional dePolítica Nacional de Crecimiento Política de Producción y Consumo Sostenible Política Gestión Integral de Recursos Hídricos Nacional Política Gestión Sostenible del Suelo Ecosistémicos sus Servicios Biodiversidad y Integral de la Agrícola Frontera Gestión Política Acuerdos Voluntarios Cero deforestación en las cadenas de suministro de leche y carne Plan Nacional de Bosques sobre de Nueva York Declaración Restauración Ecológica, Rehabilitación y Recuperación de Áreas Degradadas   Fuente: NAMA bovina Fuente: NAMA bovina  "}],"sieverID":"1d173d1a-f00f-432b-a7e1-4631db1d5799","abstract":"es una política pública cuyo propósito es orientar la transformación del sector hacia prácticas bajas en carbono, dentro de un contexto integrado de sostenibilidad ambiental, social y económica. La NAMA bovina propone un conjunto de acciones voluntarias, denominadas medidas de mitigación del cambio climático, orientadas a reducir las emisiones de gases efecto invernadero (GEI), provenientes de la producción ganadera en los predios, a niveles inferiores a los que se tendrían bajo un desarrollo sectorial, sin la introducción de estas medidas. Entre estas acciones, está configurar sistemas productivos ganaderos ricos en vegetación, con la capacidad de absorber y retener carbono y de proveer alimento con un alto contenido de nutrientes.Con respecto a la financiación e implementación de las medidas de mitigación propuestas, estas se materializarán con la estrecha coordinación de esfuerzos públicos y privados a través de proyectos, políticas y programas del sector bovino que incorporen, en sus objetivos, la mitigación del cambio climático."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0f2dc6740fa6abe932e93125ac70adb8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2683119d-3f47-4271-b3b4-f0752a3a35bf/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Influence of altitude as a proxy for temperature on key Musa pests and diseases in watershed areas of Burundi and Rwanda","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Farming communities within the East and Central African (ECA) region have consistently ranked Musa spp. (comprising bananas and plantains) as an important food and cash crop [1,2,3]. The cultivated area in the region is estimated to be approximately 4.2 million sq. km with an annual production of about 17 million tonnes [1,4]. On the scale of smallholder farms, banana is often intercropped with perennial and annual crops such as coffee (Coffea arabica L. and Coffea robusta L. Linden), cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L. Lam), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and yams (Dioscorea spp.) [1,4,5,6]. The East African highland cooking bananas (EAHB; Musa AAA genome group) and plantains (AAB genome group) are the predominant Musa groups cultivated in the ECA region [7]. Other cultivars grown in the ECA region include dessert types (e.g., AABs such as 'Sukari Ndizi' and AAAs such as 'Cavendish' and 'Gros Michel'), the ABB cooking and beer types (e.g., 'Bluggoe' and 'Pisang Awak') and multipurpose FHIA types (hybrids)."},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"Altitude has been reported to affect both growth and yield of Musa cultivars [4,8], meaning that changes in temperature can potentially impact Musa production and distribution. For example, the AAA-EAHB cultivars are known to perform well at cooler temperatures thus production of this cultivar group could shift to higher altitude areas as ground temperatures increase because of global warming [4]. Current plantain growing zones are mainly limited to lower altitudes with humid conditions [8,9,10,11] and could possibly expand to higher altitudes under rising temperature and decreasing rainfall scenarios. Numerous abiotic and biotic factors have been reported to affect banana production in the ECA region [12,13]. Key biotic constraints include diseases such as Xanthomonas wilt of banana (BXW), banana bunchy top disease (BBTD) caused by the banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) and Fusarium wilt (FW), and pests such as banana weevils (Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and plant parasitic nematodes (PPNs) (e.g., Pratylenchus goodeyi (Cobb) (Nematoda; Pratylenchidae) Sher and Allen, Helicotylenchus multicinctus (Cobb) (Tylenchida; Hoplolaimidae) Golden and Radopholus similis (Cobb) Thorne) (Rhabditida: Pratylenchidae) [14,15]. The impact of these biotic constraints is influenced by a range of factors including cultivar susceptibility, crop management, weather, and climatic conditions [16,17,18,19,20,21]. Changes in crop production practices, landscapes and environmental conditions thus greatly influence the spread and impact of pests and diseases [22,23,24,25,26]."},{"index":3,"size":381,"text":"In this study, we aimed to improve our understanding of how the incidence and prevalence of banana pests and diseases varies across altitude in major production areas in Burundi and Rwanda. This requires an understanding of the management and environment factors that influence the variability of pest populations, disease prevalence and incidence. A study by German Calberto et al (2015) predicted an increase of up to 50% in land suitable for banana production based on projected rainfall and temperature in the next 10-50 years in Africa. The increase will provide suitable conditions for banana production in the tropics; however, in parallel, it may also accelerate pest and disease development and spread. Therefore, a strong understanding of the potential effect of changes in weather patterns on these key pests and pathogens of banana is crucial for guiding decision-making on management strategies. This study was therefore undertaken to understand the temporal and spatial occurrence of various banana pests and diseases along several altitude gradients with varying climatic conditions (temperature and rainfall). The altitude gradients were proxies for different climate scenarios (with lower elevations corresponding to higher temperature scenarios) and used to assess the potential effect of climate change in ECA region on banana pests and diseases. A strong correlation has been observed between altitude and temperature, i.e., in the study regions, the more the altitude the lower the temperature pattern [8]. In addition, [8] also reported higher precipitation at the mid to high altitude sites in the same watersheds. Incidence and/or prevalence of banana pests (weevils, PPNs) and diseases (BXW, BBTD, Fusarium) were assessed within different altitude gradients. These five biotic constraints have existed in the studied watersheds for a long time and as such, altitude effects and temperature linked patterns on pest and disease distribution should be visible. It has been postulated that differences in incidence and prevalence of pests and diseases observed across altitudinal/temperature gradients could be extrapolated to simulate expected impacts of global warming. The findings of this study will contribute towards the development of cohesive and proactive pest and disease management strategies under the prevailing conditions of global warming. Other factors influencing plant growth that are possibly affected by the altitude gradient such as atmospheric pressure, oxygen, carbon dioxide concentrations, sunlight, nutrient movement in the soil were not explored."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Field selection","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":289,"text":"Banana fields (<2 years old) with a minimum of 60 mats (clump of shoots and their rhizomes which are physically interconnected) were randomly selected at intervals of 3-5 km during two growing cycles of 2015 and 2016 in the watershed areas of Rusizi in Burundi and Ruhengeri in Rwanda. The assessment period coincided with the planting and harvesting of the annual crops that are commonly intercropped with banana. In Burundi, data were collected mid-way through the planting and harvesting period of March 2015 and July 2016, respectively. For Rwanda, data were collected in the middle of the harvesting and planting period of July 2015 and November 2016, respectively. Automatic weather stations with data loggers (HOBO Pro v2 U23-001 -Temperature/RH Data Logger, Onset Computer Corp., MA, USA) were set up to record daily temperature ( • C) and rainfall (mm) within the target watersheds covering three altitude ranges/gradients (i.e., low, 700-1200); mid, >1200-1700 and high, >1700 ->2200 m) in Burundi and two (mid and high) altitude gradients in Rwanda (Fig. 1). All assessed banana fields in Rwanda were within the two altitude ranges. The weather stations recorded data on an hourly basis. Monthly mean temperature and rainfall for each altitude range was computed over the study period. For each assessed field, coordinates and altitude were recorded using a handheld GPS (GARMIN eTrex 12 channel GPS) at <10 m navigation accuracy (Fig. 1). Global Positioning System (GPS) data were used to generate maps using ArcGIS software to indicate the exact locations of the assessed farms. The 192 farm households assessed during the two growing cycles (93 in Burundi and 99 in Rwanda) are shown in Fig. 1. Dominating cultivars on farmer fields in both countries are shown in Table 1 below."}]},{"head":"Pest and disease assessments","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"Incidence and/or prevalence of the major banana diseases (BBTD, BXW and FW) and pests (C. sordidus and nematodes) were assessed on randomly sampled farmers' fields across the three (for Burundi) or two (for Rwanda) altitude ranges. Incidence of the three banana diseases was visually assessed by observing all the plants on a mat and in a field for symptoms characteristic of each disease Nelson_2004 [11,27,28,29]. Mat-level incidence was calculated as the proportion of sampled mats containing at least one infected plant and expressed as a percentage. Disease and pest prevalence data was recorded as presence or absence of the diseases and pests on the assessed farms. A short and structured interview was used to obtain information from farmers (caretakers/owners of the sampled fields) on the trend in incidence (increasing, decreasing or stable) for the three diseases over the period 2012-2016 on each assessed field. C. sordidus damage was assessed by cutting off the pseudo-stem stump of at least five recently harvested plants to expose rhizome tissue [30]. The exposed rhizome tissue was examined for C. sordidus larvae damage by dividing the exposed rhizome surface into eight cross-sections; the number of sections with C. sordidus damage was divided by eight and multiplied by 100 to calculate the percentage damaged area [31]. Assessment for nematodes was done on ten plants per field following a zigzag transect, according to the procedure described by [32]."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The relationship between altitude and incidence and/or prevalence of diseases and pests was explored through the production of maps using ArcGIS (ESRI 2018; version 10.7). Scatter plots of altitude against disease incidence and monthly mean temperatures were produced to further explore this relationship. GenStat 19th Edition [VSN International Ltd 2014] was used for data analysis. A chisquare test of independence was performed to examine the relationship between temperature and disease and pest prevalence. Significant effects were reported at the 95% confidence level. The trend in disease presence for the period 2012-2016 was recorded as a percentage of respondents on whose farm diseases were increasing, decreasing, or remained stable, based on information provided by the farmer. Minimum and maximum temperature variation between assessments and at different altitudes for each country are presented in Table 2."}]},{"head":"Table 2","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Minimum and maximum temperature variation between growing cycles and at different altitudes for the Rusizi and Ruhengeri watersheds in Burundi and Rwanda, respectively. "}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Disease incidence","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"In Rwanda, no BBTD was observed in the target watershed whereas in Burundi, mat level incidence went over 50% (Fig. 2). While over 40% of the farms were infected with FW in Rwanda, the mat level incidences remained below 25% whereas in Burundi FW mat level incidence went over 50% (Fig. 3). In Rwanda, only a quarter of the surveyed farms were affected by BXW with mat level incidences remaining below 25%. (Fig. 4). By contrast, BXW mat level incidence varied from <25% to greater than 50% in Burundi (Fig. 4). No significant interactions (P < 0.05) were observed for mat level incidence of FW, BXW (Burundi and Rwanda) and BBTD (Burundi) with altitude range."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"A scatter plot of altitude against mat level disease incidence showed high incidence levels for all the three targeted diseases at low (700-1200 m) and mid (>1200-1700 m) altitudes in Kabezi, Kayonsha, Isale and Mutimbuzi communes of Burundi; and towards the high end of the mid-altitude category and the low end of the high-altitude category (>1700 ->2200 m) in Musanze and Ngororero districts of Rwanda for BXW and FW (Fig. 5). Whereas farms with BXW infected banana plants were found more at the mid-and high-Fig. 2. Mat level incidence of Banana Bunchy Top Disease (BBTD) in the Rusizi watershed area of Burundi. Each dot represents a farm where assessments took place. altitudes in Burundi; FW incidence was highest at the low altitudes (Fig. 5). In Rwanda, BXW and FW incidences were higher in the high altitudes (mid-way the mid and high altitudes) (Fig. 5)."}]},{"head":"Disease and pest prevalence","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Analyses of prevalence data with the different altitudes showed significant differences for BBTD and FW in Burundi only (Fig. 6). As the lowest prevalence pattern of BBTD was noticed at the high altitude (39%), the highest pattern got detected at the mid altitude level (78%), which didnot significantly differ from the low altitude (64%). The number of FW infected farms showed gradual decrease from the low to the high altitude (Fig. 6) and the effect of altitude variation on pest prevalence showed non-significant pattern in both Burundi and Rwanda (Fig. 6). No significant altitude effects were found on pest prevalence in either Burundi or Rwanda."}]},{"head":"Correlation of pest and disease variables with average temperature","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Results of chi-square tests of independence were not significant for disease and pest prevalence in Burundi and Rwanda, except for Fusarium wilt in Burundi, X 2 (1, N = 186) = 41.64, p < 0.001 (Table 3). This implies that in this study temperature did not significantly influence prevalence of diseases and pests."}]},{"head":"Trend in disease incidence","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"In Burundi, 51% of the farmers as well as 11% in Rwanda reported banana diseases on their farms to have increased over the period 2012-2016 (Fig. 7). In contrast, 19% and 16% of the farmers in Burundi and Rwanda, respectively, reported a decrease in the occurrence of banana diseases over this period (Fig. 7). 7% and 14% of the farmers in Burundi and Rwanda, respectively, indicated that once they applied the recommended management practices, the incidence of banana diseases within their fields stabilized (Fig. 7). In Burundi, close to 23% of the farmers had no knowledge of trends on incidence of banana diseases on their farms (Fig. 7). One percent of farmers in Burundi and 12% in Rwanda did not report any banana disease on their farms (Fig. 7). None of the farmers mentioned banana weevils or banana nematodes as pests of concern. "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"BBTD was not found in the targeted Rwanda watershed despite the presence of the disease in the Rusizi district of Rwanda, and in nearby Burundi and eastern DR Congo [33,34]. Long-distance spread of BBTV occurs through transportation of infected suckers, whilst spreading from the affected farms to neighbouring ones is exacerbated by winged Pentalonia nigronervosa (Coquerel) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) aphids [33]. This means that to decrease the likelihood of infection spreading, banana suckers (planting material) should be carefully inspected in order to exclude the infected ones. For farmers who can afford pesticides, we recommend the safe use of insecticides to control aphids and uprooting of all infected mats. Periodic inspection of should be practiced to identify and uproot infected material."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"Prevalence and incidence of diseases varied between countries. The success of banana disease control in Rwanda, especially for Xanthomonas wilt, is attributed to community ownership of the problem [35,36,37]. Also, the Ministry of Agriculture through the Rwanda Agriculture Board (RAB) put in place effective measures to control Xanthomonas wilt, under the arrangement dubbed Community Mobilization Campaigns and setting up of field schools to enhance awareness of farmers in affected areas. Such government initiatives were not evident in Burundi, which might provide reasonable justification for the higher disease incidences  On most of the surveyed farms, mixed genotypes/cultivars were grown. A high crop species or cultivar diversity on banana farms has been reported to reduce BXW incidence and/or severity [21,38]. Similar observations have been reported for diseases of other crops [39,40]. The incidence of Fusarium wilt is also reduced when susceptible banana genotypes are mixed with resistant/tolerant genotypes. This suppressive effect of mixtures arises from their dilution effect as well as an alteration of the microclimate which affects pathogen or vector survival and dispersal rate [40]."},{"index":3,"size":194,"text":"Decrease in temperature (low temperatures) and rainfall (low rainfall) will result in less diseases and less crop losses. Any change in these two environmental factors may escalate crop losses due to pest [41] and pathogen [42] damage, although the reverse can also happen. To understand the effects of climate change on the risk posed by diseases and pests to field grown crops, it is imperative to look at the distribution of the diseases and pests along an altitude gradient, representing a range of environmental temperatures. Such information is useful to track any shifts resulting from responses to climate change [43], since pest and disease compositions may change along an altitude/temperature gradient. For example, several studies concluded that the occurrence of BXW and BBTD was mainly limited to the lower and mid-altitude zones as the presence of the insect vectors of BBTV and BXW was negatively affected by cooler temperatures found at higher altitudes [27,34,[44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51]. In line with these findings, the results from our study indicate that BXW Fig. 6. Comparison of overall percentage pest and disease prevalence at different altitude gradients for Burundi and Rwanda. Letters were only added when significant differences were reported."}]},{"head":"Table 3","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Chi-Square test of significance between farm-level prevalence of banana pest and disease with average monthly temperature for the Rusizi and Ruhengeri watersheds in Burundi and Rwanda, respectively."}]},{"head":"Farm level prevalence","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Burundi Rwanda"},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Chi-square (X  and FW prevalence were lowest at high-altitude sites in Burundi. Limited prevalence of BXW, this is attributed to fewer floral infections due to a reduced insect vector activity at altitudes above 1700 m.a.s.l [27,44,45]. Insect vectored transmission of Xanthomonas vasicola pv. musacearum (Xvm), the pathogen causing BXW, is more prevalent in areas dominated by cultivars with dehiscent bracts on the male peduncle section (such as 'Pisang awak'; ABB genome group) and in production zones at altitudes below 1500 m.a.s.l where insect populations are large and very active [45]."},{"index":3,"size":152,"text":"Hodkinson [52] noted that thermal requirements for growth rather than temperature tolerance seemed to set spreading limits for insect species along altitude gradients. This was determined by the insect species' capacity to match their thermal tolerance range to the altitudinal temperature profile of their habitat. This implies that an increase in temperature with ultimate increase in insect vector activity in higher-altitude areas could potentially increase insect mediated infections for BXW. Similarly, higher temperatures at lower altitudes encourage the development of FW [49,53,54]. For Burundi, this would lead to a predicted increase in FW prevalence due to rising temperature associated with climate change and enhanced by periods of drought [55,56]. For Rwanda, however, data obtained during the current study provided no clear evidence for a temperature effect (using the altitude proxy) on BXW. Strong correlations have been observed between precipitation and BXW infection, with regions having higher rainfall levels being more prone [20,57]."},{"index":4,"size":182,"text":"BBTD was more observed at mid altitudes and less at the high and low altitudes. BBTD occurrence has been reported at altitudes between 780 and 2090 m.a.s.l. [34,51], with incidence levels reducing as altitude increases [34] also noted that higher temperatures coupled with poorly managed banana fields may enhance the spread of BBTD to higher elevations in Burundi [33] reported the presence of aphids at high altitudes, however, specific observations to evaluate a possible relationship between aphids and altitude were not made [58] linked incidence and prevalence of BBTD to the quantity of winged aphids that habitually develop after many generations of wingless aphids. They observed winged aphids at all altitude levels with the highest winged aphid numbers reported during the dry weather conditions in Burundi and recommended that cultural practices such as deleafing and desuckering, usually practiced during the rainy season because of intercropping (possibly contribute to reduction of aphid numbers) should be sustained in the dry season. Low incidence of BBTD at the highest altitudes could be attributed to reduced insect vector activity resulting from reduced temperatures as previously explained."},{"index":5,"size":207,"text":"According to [59]; any change in temperature is significant enough to influence the pest populations and their distribution [30] noted that damage from banana weevils is influenced by cultivar and altitude, with noticed reduction in reproduction levels at altitudes above 1500-1600 m.a.s.l. In Burundi, no significant differences for weevil prevalence were observed at the different altitudes despite the differences in minimum and maximum temperature. Average minimum and maximum temperature differences between the mid-and high-altitude locations in Rwanda during the two growing cycles were similar. This could explain in part why no significant differences were observed in the prevalence of banana pests/diseases in Rwanda. Although temperature did not influence farm-level prevalence of the pests in the current study [60] observed that the more the increment in temperature pattern, the more developmental acceleration in certain pests, resulting in more cycles of generations and crop damage per year. Increasing temperatures at higher altitudes will favour banana production but will increase prevalence of pests and diseases. Hence, there is an urgent need to develop predictive models to forecast incidence of important banana pathogens under changing climate. According to [61]; data on pest and disease occurrence is useful to demonstrate the role of environmental and socioeconomic variables in determination of their occurrence."},{"index":6,"size":212,"text":"The measurement of awareness and understanding of farmers' knowledge of Musa pests and diseases could put us in the right track to design and implement appropriate disease management practices [62,63]. Unlike in Burundi, most farmers in Rwanda were aware of the common banana diseases and how to manage them, which could explain the lower observed incidence in Rwanda. The success of banana disease control in Rwanda, especially for BXW, is attributed to community ownership of the problem Ndaihanzamaso et al. 2016 [36,37]. Unfortunately, this is not the case for pests such as nematodes as these continue to be neglected or go unnoticed by farmers, extension agents and policy makers all over the world, sub Saharan Africa (SSA) being no exception, despite the significant economic losses they cause [64]. Our results are in line with other studies that have emphasized the low awareness levels and poor understanding of nematodes in SSA [65]. Considering the results obtained from our pest and disease survey, the lack of knowledge by farmers about the importance of banana weevils and nematodes as pests threatening banana fields, can be likely attributed to a lack of awareness about these pests rather than to their absence, as both banana weevils and banana nematodes were highly prevalent in all the sampled areas."},{"index":7,"size":253,"text":"Further research should consider a larger number of growing cycles with different temperature and rainfall distribution patterns. From this study, we realize the need for a multidisciplinary approach to comprehensively analyse the severity of banana pests and diseases under future climates and not simply tracking the problem from a pathology and climate perspective. Although the data generated during this study is not sufficient to make conclusions on effects of climate change on banana pests and diseases, it highlights the need to adopt climate-smart integrated pest and disease management practices to ensure that smallholder farmers are resilient and able to mitigate climate change [66,67]. This will require the development of effective climate-smart management practices, (such as, breeding for pest tolerant and disease resistant cultivars, drip or furrow irrigation, crop rotation, manure application and application of biological pesticides) while engaging multiple stakeholders to build and strengthen the necessary linkages. Involving multiple stakeholders will provide a suitable environment to ensure farmer resilience to existing impacts as well as preparedness for future impacts. The development of climate-smart management strategies will also require quantitative modelling to investigate multiple interactions simultaneously. It will then be possible to interpret results from such models alongside social and ecological model outputs to support the development of appropriate responses to future outbreaks. Continuous monitoring and evaluation are required to allow the re-evaluation of tools and approaches. We also acknowledge that factors other than temperature affect abundance of pests and diseases. This could have favoured population build-up for aphid transmitting aphids at mid elevation."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Map of the two study areas; Rusizi watershed in Burundi (A) and the Ruhengeri watershed in Rwanda (B). The blue and green dots, respectively, represent the locations of the weather stations and farms assessed during the two growing cycles. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.) "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Mat level incidence of Fusarium wilt of banana in the (A) Rusizi watershed area of Burundi and (B) the Ruhengeri watershed area of Rwanda. Each dot represents a farm where assessments took place. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Mat level incidence of Xanthomonas wilt of banana (BXW) in the (A) Rusizi watershed area of Burundi and (B) the Ruhengeri watershed area of Rwanda. Each dot represents a farm where assessments took place. "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . Fig. 5. Scatterplot of mat level disease incidence against altitude for the surveyed farms in the Rusizi watershed in Burundi and the Ruhengeri watershed in Rwanda during the 2015 and 2016 assessment periods. "},{"text":"Fig. 7 . Fig. 7. Trends in incidence of banana diseases in Burundi and Rwanda focusing on the period 2012-2016 assessed through farmer interviews. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 Summary of the banana genotypes grown at the different altitude bands in the Burundi and Rwanda watersheds. Country Altitude gradients Average altitude Temperature ( o C)    CountryAltitude gradientsAverage altitudeTemperature ( o C)    2015  2016  20152016    Min Max Min Max MinMaxMinMax Burundi 700-1200 914 20.3 29.4 19.2 29.6 Burundi700-120091420.329.419.229.6  1201-1700 1434 17.7 28 18.4 28.2 1201-1700143417.72818.428.2  1701-2200 1927 15.9 26.7 15.8 26.6 1701-2200192715.926.715.826.6 Rwanda 1201-1700 1576 14.3 26.6 13.9 26.2 Rwanda1201-1700157614.326.613.926.2  1701-2200 1966 13.7 26 13.5 25.9 1701-2200196613.72613.525.9  "}],"sieverID":"a82c0fdb-9d97-495a-8f52-da9e47f7f3ee","abstract":"Pests and diseases are key biotic constraints limiting banana production among smallholder farmers in Eastern and Central Africa. Climate changemay favour pest and disease development and further exacerbate the vulnerability of smallholder farming systems to biotic constraints. Information on effects of climate change on pests and pathogens of banana is required by policy makers and researchers in designing control strategies and adaptation plans. Since altitude is inversely related to temperature, this study used the occurrence of key banana pests and diseases along an altitude gradient as a proxy for the potential impact of changes in temperature associated with global warming on pests and diseases. We assessed the occurrence of banana pests and diseases in 93 banana fields across three altitude ranges in Burundi and 99 fields distributed in two altitude ranges in Rwanda watersheds. Incidence and prevalence of Banana Bunchy Top Disease (BBTD) and Fusarium wilt (FW) was significantly associated with temperature and altitude in Burundi, revealing that increasing temperatures may lead to upward movement of banana diseases. No significant associations with temperature and altitude were observed for weevils, nematodes and Xanthomonas wilt of banana (BXW). Data collected in this study provides a baseline to verify and guide modelling work to predict future pest and disease distribution according to climate change scenarios. Such information is useful in informing policy makers and designing appropriate management strategies."}