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+{"metadata":{"id":"002a9be501b7414c0e3ddf6a684b630a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040817.pdf"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Multi-stakeholder Perspective in Catchment Management -Case from Nepal","keywords":["Pratima Shrestha","Consultant","International Water Management Institution (IWMI-Nepal)","Jawalakhel","Nepal"],"chapters":[{"head":"Executive Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":395,"text":"Users' organizations at local level play an important role for the management of water and forest resources by organizing the users in the management of resources. A study carried out in Nepal focuses on institutional arrangement between forest and water resource users in Begnas Watershed of Indo-gangetic basin, Nepal. This study attempts to understand the dynamics of resource use. The information was collected through checklist in focused group discussion with different users group of water and forest. Forest Users Groups (FUGs) in the upstream are protecting the environment through Community Forest activities which has helped in protecting the lake environment downstream and users' access to the sustained use of forest resources. The WUG at downstream is more diverse as it includes irrigation users, fishermen and boaters groups whose livelihood is dependent on water in the lake. However, the Water Users Groups have different level of interest and the benefit they derive from the lake is also varied. Therefore, these institutions have not been able to address the problems of resource management in an integrated way. Beside, the local level elected institutions also have interest in collecting taxes from the users of these resources but their contributions in overall management is negligible. The downstream irrigation groups and the fishers group are the immediate and major beneficiaries of the lake. The irrigation group and the fisheries group are using the water of lake and have benefited with agriculture and fish farming respectively. However, benefit distribution among the fisher group is more equitable than among the irrigation users group because of co-operative arrangement. But there is no relation among various users in the management process of natural resource. In practice, all the users' organizations are working in their own way without consultation with other user in resource management. The preliminary finding suggest that interaction between various local level institutions like WUG, FUG and other local institutions, could help in maximizing the benefit from resource management through integrated approach. It was also found that they all wish to work in integrated way with other users group also. But they do not know how? It seems that a platform creation could be helpful for these user groups by providing opportunity to express their view, interests and issues. The up-scaling of their institutional role to look at resource management from catchment perspective seems to be useful through appropriate intervention from outside."}]},{"head":"Background","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Poor rural women and men face critical food security and livelihoods challenges, particularly in marginal upper catchments of the Nepal and Indian Himalayas. Restricted access to often-degraded water, land, and forest resources combined with low productivity of open-access resources invariably result in seasonal or permanent out-migration and the loss of traditional knowledge, labor for management and community solidarity to address resource degradation. Functioning models of CBNRM seem to work for a single critical resource, e.g., forest. Examples of more integrated approaches tend to be found only at a small scale, in one or just a few communities. Yet communities need to manage multiple resources, particularly forests and water, and also have to address resource competition issues with other communities, e.g., upstream diversions of water that affect downstream availability. Successful examples of multiple resource management by communities are less common, and are generally confined to single sectoral approaches such as the community forestry program and farmer-managed irrigation systems (FMIS) in Nepal."}]},{"head":"An action research entitled Resource Management for Sustainable","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Livelihoods is being implemented since April 2005 with the support from Challenge Program for Water and Food (CPWF) of CGIAR. The action research was initiated to contribute to enhanced sustainable livelihood opportunities and reduced vulnerability for poor rural people in upper catchments in Nepal and India through improved understanding of existing linkages or limitations among institutions for integrated natural resource management."}]},{"head":"Objective of the study","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"The objective of the study is to analyze forest and water based livelihoods opportunities and constraints through the lens of institutional dynamics exhibited by various resource management groups and institutions at sub-basin level. This study attempts to understand the dynamics of resource use with following questions."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"• What are the institutional roles of each of the resource user groups in the management of natural resources? • How these user groups are linked to each other in contributing to resource management?"}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Households out of the 310 households from the aforementioned community villages were randomly selected for interview and mostly the households head were interviewed. Direct interviews, transact walk, and unstructured interviews. The research was undertaken in a 75.04 sq. km. Begnas-Rupa Basin (Figure 1) which spreads over undulated mountains in the upstream and a flatter valley floor in the downstream. Between the two lies the Begnas lake which has an earthen dam that feeds to the Begnas Irrigation System (BIS) in the valley floor area. Three communities each in the upstream and valley floor was considered for the study. Although at the same watershed these communities are situated at different altitudes and their association with the management of forest and water resources depicts an interesting characteristics. In the upstream, three community villages, namely Lamichhane Gaon, Thapa Gaon and Bhurtel Gaon, situated in Dund Khola micro watershed were selected. Whereas in the valley floor three community villages, Saat Muhane, Raja Ko Chautara and Sainik Basti, located at different junctions of the Begnas Irrigation System were taken. The major basis of the selection of these communities was the water rights differentials displayed by them."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The basis of collection of data was a comprehensive checklist 1 which was designed through participatory focus group discussions to generate data related to resource assessment, information on livelihood, resource management practices and institutional analysis. Eighty six small-group interviews, and direct observation methods using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques are the few to mention among the arrays of data collection tools used for this research."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"1 These include checklists for studying management of (a) domestic water supply system, (b) Begnas Irrigation System, (c) irrigation and agriculture aspects, especially for FMISs, and (d) community forest."}]},{"head":"Socio-Economic characteristics of Begnas Catchment","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Population","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The average family size among the total sampled population of 963 from the survey of three communities each from upper watershed and valley floor in the catchment is 5.7 (Table 1).  "}]},{"head":"Figure1 Begnas-Rupa Basin","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Landholding and tenure System","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The landholding size of the majority household both in the upper catchment and valley floor is less than 0.5 ha, which indicates that the people are living below poverty line. Nevertheless, in terms of the irrigation availability, the households in the valley floor are better off. But the inequity among the households having land in the upper reach of the canal and those at the tail reach is great. The land at the tail end is mostly irrigated during the monsoon only."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Majority of the households are the owner cultivator as the land size is small. However, some of the households have rented out as they have land size larger than one hectare, which is nearly 2 percent of the households. And a few (5 percent) of the households are share cropper."}]},{"head":"Food Security","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"More than half of the households (hhs) of valley floor grow food sufficient for whole year because of the availability of irrigation facilities. While in the upstream communities, little less than 30% of the households produced sufficient food for the whole year. However, about one-fifth of the households had food deficit for three months and one-third of the households produced sufficient food for up to six months only in the valley floor. A significant number (18%) of the households produced sufficient food for only three months from their farming in the upper catchment. This shows that the more households in the valley floor are better off in terms food sufficiency for the households compared to the households in the upper catchment. This is largely because, majority (61%) of the households in upper catchment reported that they have access to limited irrigation. Only about 10.5 percent of the households did not have any access to the irrigation channels.  "}]},{"head":"Off-farm activities","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Besides engaging in agricultural activities including farming, livestock keeping and selling milk are some other sources of income for the households. Well-off households get remittances either from family members serving in Nepali, Indian and British Army or from overseas employments in Gulf countries, Malaysia and Hong Kong. Middle income category households get remittances from seasonal migration to nearby towns or other urban areas in the country. Relatively poorer households, however, earn income from seasonal labor wage within the villages besides income from fishing, boating, and tea shops along trails. Farmers in the upper watershed have a growing tendency of migrating to the valley floor or to the urban areas because of the less economic opportunities available in the village. As a result new constructions are coming up in fertile agricultural land in the valley floor."}]},{"head":"Institutions in Begnas-Rupa Watershed","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Since the Begnas Lake is the interface between the upper watershed and valley floor, there are several local level organizations -both governmental and non-governmental and various user groups engaged in the management of resources. Some of those organizations include the Forest Users' Group, Water Users Group which also includes Fishers' Group and boat operators' Group. Besides, there are Fishery Development Board, local elected institutions, local NGOs and Community Based Organizations. Many of these groups are formally or informally organized. They carry out their activities independently except for some occasions when people affiliated to two or more institutions happen to interact, more in an informal way."}]},{"head":"Forest Institutions","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Due to heavy pressure on forests from the extraction of various products, the forests in the past were badly degraded. In the subsequent years, however, community forestry program contributed tremendously in regenerating and restocking the forests in the watershed. "}]},{"head":"Water Institutions","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The Majority of the water users' groups are in the downstream because of the existing economic potential. Water institutions including Water Users Association (WUA) and Farmer Managed Irrigation System (FMIS) perhaps represent the largest group of institutions in Begnas-Rupa Watershed followed by Jalhari (Fishers' Group) and Boat Operators Group. They are discussed below."}]},{"head":"Irrigation Users","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"The upper watershed, Dund Khola micro-basin, has a total of 15 FMIS which fall in the category of informal institutions as they are not registered with any government departments. Some of these FMIS were rehabilitated by the erstwhile BTRT Watershed Management Project. Even at informal levels, the functioning of these FMIS are important as evidenced by the reduced erosion and increased water availability for drinking and irrigation as a result of management of irrigation system by them. Water allocation and distribution rules based on traditional water rights in all three communities are contributing to maintaining status quo promoting inequities. Mobilization of labor input for the maintenance of irrigation channels is inherently an age-old practice which is not sufficient for increasing irrigation efficiency. Lack of external support has hindered the timely improvement in the irrigation system as they usually cannot collect adequate resources on their own. Our study found that with the improvement in the infrastructures and management practices, the existing inequities among the users at the head reach and at the tail end could be removed because the available flow of irrigation water is sufficient to irrigate the land."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Absence of their formal recognition by government's Divisional Irrigation Office is the constraint for obtaining any governmental assistance that requires formal registration with the authority. This is evident of inadequate linkage or association that they have with the government agencies. In the valley floor area, the Begnas Irrigation System (BIS) Water Users' Association (WUA) is the formal institution."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"The BIS WUA is a formal organization with written constitution and registered as three tiered organization: at main, branch and tertiary level. Even though drawing water from Begnas Lake, the WUA is not involved in the maintenance and protection of the water source, the dam and the head works. There is no enough collection of Irrigation Service Fee (ISF) for the maintenance of the irrigation systems and the tendency is more on getting increased governmental support. As a result they are dependent on the annual grant from the government."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"For maintenance activities at branch canal level, the resource is generated locally on an ad hoc basis."}]},{"head":"Jalhari(Fishers Group)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Fishers group are also a major resource users of Begnas Lake. Fishers have their association named as \"Machha Byawasayi Samiti, Begnas Tal\" (Fish Farming Committee of Begnas Lake). The organization was formed in 1981 and registered in 1999 in the municipality. The organization has 42 members. Each household are the member. The members have to get license from Fishery office near the lake. License costs Rs.150-200 (US$ 2.2-3.0) per year and one has to pay Rs.15 (22 cents) for one fishing net in the lake. Fisherman pay fee of Rs.2 per kg to Fish Collection Centre (FCC) and that goes to District Development Committee (DDC). They have to pay Rs.360 (US$ 5.5) annually to municipality."}]},{"head":"Boat Operators","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Boaters association is a formal water user group in Begnas Tal formed in 1985 and registered with the DDC in 1994. It is a source of additional income for the household. Now a day one boat earns only half (US$ 15-22) of the amount in a month than 5 years before due to increase in the number of boats and decrease in the number of tourist arrival due to the deteriorating security situation in the country. Compared to the cost of making boat which is Rs17, 000-Rs.20,000 (US$ 259.5-305.0), the earning from it is not satisfactory. However, having own boat is also important to travel from their village to other side of the lake for marketing and other purposes."}]},{"head":"Government and other institutions","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Besides the roles of WUAs and FUGs in the resource management in Begnas Lake, the Fishery Centre of Government, local governmental bodies and I/NGOs are another set of institutions which are associated with the resource management in the catchment. The Fishery Centre provides technical support for the fish farming in the lake by the Jalhari (Fisher's group) and their livelihood is dependent on fish raising in the lake. As per the Local Self-governance Act (LSGA), the Lekhnath municipality and the Kaski District Development Committee (DDC) are two locally elected bodies with legal entities that have stake in the management of the natural resources at the local level. One major problem with them is that their roles and responsibilities are sometimes overlapping with those of the government line agencies within the district and the central government."}]},{"head":"Equity in resource management","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"One of the important aspects of the resource management is the process through which users have equal opportunity to participate in collective decision making by crafting rules. The rules are important for the functioning of group, which the users by becoming a member of the group should adhere to. That participation ensures access to benefit from resource management for which the users will have to invest their resources. Nevertheless, the access to benefit should be equitable among and across the resource users. Therefore, equity in common property resource management should be looked into from the perspective of equity within the resource users group and equity among the resource users group."}]},{"head":"Equity within the resource user Group","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Irrigation Users","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Social relations play an ever-increasing important role in the individual and collective water rights to the irrigation water in the Begnas-Rupa watershed. According to tradition, water rights are tied to land in the historic command area, however increasing competition in the allocation of water at the system level has led to the access of water becoming more socio-political in nature. The water scarcity have resulted due to the increase in the command area due to the conversion of bari(unirrigated) land to khet(irrigated) land in the upper catchment and construction of Begnas Irrigation System (BIS) in the valley floor which intended to irrigate 540 ha of land."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Firstly, water resource use, and struggles for access to water, can be seen to operate at several levels. The claim of tail enders in the upper catchment is legitimate in the sense that there are no further water sources that they may access and develop for providing irrigation facilities for their land. However, the users at the head end in the upper catchment do not agree to this for fear of loosing their water right. While, the users at the tail end of the BIS in valley floor do not have adequate control of the irrigation system and also do not have resources to implement any intervention that help in reducing inequity."},{"index":3,"size":192,"text":"Secondly, the age-old rules for water allocation and distribution within the command area have become ill-equipped for dealing with the increased number of stake-holders within the command area, as evidenced by water scarcity particularly for tail-enders (i.e. those with khet lower down) both in the upper and valley floor. The rules are traditional based on customary right and may have been subject to little change in decades. Today's pressures of water resource scarcity are magnified by environmental change causing more variable rainfall, and a rising population having developed further khet and requiring water for irrigation. It is clear that for equity amongst tail and head-enders in the existing command area, rules of allocation and distribution within the command area should be developed further. This is possible only when service delivery capacity of the irrigation infrastructures is improved. Users have not collected Irrigation Service Fee (ISF) and have not done any significant maintenance activities for long. Annual maintenance comprises of a labour contribution of one person per household irrespective of land holdings in the command area in the upper catchment and occasional maintenance by the users at branch level at the valley floor."}]},{"head":"Forest Users","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"FUGs have enforced rights, duties and punishments for its members' involvement in the management of Community Forest (CF). However, the rules varies across the Forest Users' Groups (FUGs) in the catchment, as each of the groups have flexibility in drawing rules within the CF framework prescribed by the government. Although, members come from various social strata, there is no discrimination in rights and duties among the members. FUGs harvest the forest once a year from January-March in a plot wise rotation and distributed among member households in an equal amount. The harvested products are mainly used for fuelwood and fodder at home. However, the present practice cannot be termed equitable, as the poorer households, especially the land less are more dependent on the forest product for their livelihood but they also receive equal amount of forest products. The gender aspects in the forest management are weak in terms of representation of women users in the executive committees."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"Since, most of the forest products are for domestic consumption, income generation from forest products is lacking. Because of this, FUGs are constrained in expanding their social and community activities due to lack of funds. Some of the CF groups tried for the plantation of valuable species like Amriso i.e. T. maximus and other medicinal plants. But they could not receive expert inputs for adequate planning to diversify the activities. This seems to be an important area where the concerned government agency, District Forest Office (DFO) could provide expert guidance to diversify forest plantation upon request from the users. This is essential to contribute to the livelihood of user household through increase in household income from the forest products."}]},{"head":"Jalhari (Fishers Group)","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"There are 40 households of Fisher men engaged in the fish raising in the lake. The number of cage is decided among the Fishers Group with the technical advice from Fishery Development Centre. Fishers usually keep 5-6 cages per household for fish raising in the lake and the cage is equally distributed among 40 households. In one cage, 300-400 small fishes are kept. One buys fingerlings and raises it in the cage. It takes one year for fingerling to weigh 1kg, after that it takes one year to grow by 0.5kg. There is no restriction for fishing. User can collect fish as many as they can in one day. There is no discrimination between rich and poor."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Fishers collect Rs.2 from the fishermen for paying Re 1 per kg to municipality for the renewal of their occupation. They have to pay tax of Re 1 per kg of fish to District Development Committee. One household earns Rs.6000-Rs.8000 ($90-122) per month. Fishermen are satisfied with their earnings and occupations. This is the only source of income for their livelihood."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Female have formed their own group and are also actively involved in fish raising and selling. Female group has started cooperatives for saving. They have also started child care centre. They have built their own organizations building."}]},{"head":"Boat Operators","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"None of the boat operators are entirely dependent on the earning from the boat for their livelihood. Each of the boat need to wait for their turn as boats is operated on a rotational basis. Association regulates the activities of boaters through implementation of the rules which has been prepared for boaters such as enforcement of queue system in boat operation, taking fee from each boater on monthly basis. Everyone has equal chance to canoeing boat and waits for their turn to come. But if there is any emergency case like someone has to be taken to hospital or other, they don't wait for their turn. Females are also actively involved in canoeing the boat and are member in association from each household so that they can get license to canoeing boat."}]},{"head":"Institutional Linkages and its Dynamics","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"FUGs have formal relation with the District Forest Office (DFO), as they are registered to DFO with approved work plan. They receive technical assistance and get involved in capacity building activities organized by DFOs. Besides, FUGs have linkage with both government and nongovernment organizations including DDC, VDC and District Federation of Forest Users (DFFU). But they are more occasional instead of a regular contact."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"The FMIS group upstream which is informal does not have any relation with government and other local organization except FUGs. They have informal relation with the other resource users at the downstream. BIS have defined its boundary area near the lake and have claimed that it has been encroached by other groups by constructing building."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Fishers Group has linkage with Fishery Centre, as it receives license for the fish raising and also technical support from this office. Also, they have to register their occupation in Municipality. However, they do not have formal or informal relation with FUGs upstream except that they are also member of FUGs. They seek cooperation from Boaters' Group for maintaining the environment of lake. But Boaters do not take interest in cleaning the lake according to the fisher group."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"They don't have formal relation with BIS. However, they are affected by the use of lake water which is controlled by them. But in recent years they have established working relationship with irrigation users' group which was indicated by approval they received to plug the irrigation outlet by placing net to check the fish flowing to the irrigation canal."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"Boaters association has collaboration with Fisher Group at local level for the pollution control in the surrounding of lake. The linkage with DDC/Municipality is more formal, as they have to register with them."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"Non-government organizations or local organizations also support the households through introduction of new technologies and income generation activities. These organizations help in implementation of drip irrigation and vegetable production and selling."},{"index":7,"size":64,"text":"From the discussions above it has become clear that two sets of institutes have stake in the catchment management. The users' organizations are the local level stakeholders whereas the institutions that influence/control, facilitate/provide technical support and collect taxes from local stakeholders and also who claim ownership of local resources are the external stakeholders. The following table provides a glimpse of institutional linkages between them."},{"index":8,"size":134,"text":"The institutional linkage among the local stakeholders is horizontal whereas the linkage with the external stakeholders is vertical as indicated in the figure 2. The horizontal linkage is important for functional linkages among resource user group. Whereas the vertical linkage is important for policy support as the activities of these resource users group is facilitated/controlled by sectoral policies. The figure shows that institutionally, the forest users groups and irrigation users groups at upstream are more isolated in terms of their linkage with other local resource users groups and external stakeholders. It is interesting to note that the FMIS at upstream does not have vertical linkage with government agencies indicating that they do not have access to external resources. This has constrained improvement in the irrigation systems to address the equity issue as mentioned earlier."},{"index":9,"size":243,"text":"Theoretically, it is assumed that watershed management in the upper catchment helps in maintaining good environment downstream. This has been acknowledged by the Fishers Group. They have observed changes in water quality, increase in water level and fish production also due to check in debris flow to the lake after the plantation upstream and with the increase in crown cover. But, changes that occurred were due to the linkage between forest and water, which is acknowledged both by the upstream and downstream users, is yet to be established. This has been hindering the establishment of institutional linkage between the upstream forest users and downstream water users, which is fundamental to the integrated resource management. The water users at downstream (BIS, Fishers Group and Boaters Group) have linkages to each other. This is because the downstream irrigation groups and the fishers group of the lake are the major beneficiaries from the lake water followed by the boaters group. The irrigation users claim first use right of the lake on the ground that the dam construction was for diverting water to irrigation. Therefore, their vertical linkage with external agencies is also intense and expanded because the external stakeholders also collect taxes from the users and some of them claim ownership of the lake. The other indirect beneficiaries from the lake are the communities running hotels and shops nearby lake side. However, their linkage with other users at local level for the resource management is limited."},{"index":10,"size":97,"text":"The vertical linkage of local users group with external agencies also reflects sectoral orientation i.e. BIS linked to Directorate of Irrigation and Fishers Group linked to the Fishery Centre of the Government. Likewise, The FUGs at upstream are linked to District Forest Office under the Ministry of Forest. These three district level agencies represent three different ministries: Ministries of Water Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Forest respectively and follow their sectoral policies. Therefore, it could be said that the integration at the policy level is more important to have integrated activities at the local level."},{"index":11,"size":95,"text":"One of the mechanisms to establish linkage among resource users from upstream and downstream is to introduce Environmental Services Fee (ESF). But benefit downstream is due to the action of upstream users' needs to be established and the cost/ benefit needs to be ascertained before its introduction. Beside, the enforcement of ESF is not possible without any intermediary that plays the role of mediator between the resource users upstream and downstream. Foremost of all, the users need to acknowledge and accept the concept of ESF, which is quite new to the users in the catchment."}]},{"head":"Analysis and Conclusion","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"FMISs at upstream are informally organised and are not able to mobilise adequate resources for the improvement of infrastructure. For example, about half of the land area in one of the scheme upstream does not have irrigation facilities due to traditional practices prevalent in the area. The improvement in the infrastructure and redefining the existing water right could provide benefits to the farmers by irrigating their entire fields. But lack of their linkage with the external agencies, because of their informal nature, they have not been able to access to external support needed for infrastructure improvement."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The Forest Users Group (FUG) upstream are formally organised and has been managing forest that is community owned. Households in the community have access to the forest product, mainly the firewood. Organisationally, they are strong but their linkage with other institution downstream is non existent. There is no linkage between the local forestry institution (CFUG) and local water institution (WUA) in terms of managing resources"},{"index":3,"size":211,"text":"Though several water user groups including the WUA of Begnas Irrigation System are functioning downstream, the functional linkage among them is weak. Each of the user group is trying to maximize the benefit from the lake without making substantial contribution for its sustenance. But at the same time if one looks at the system level, equitable delivery of water can improve access to water for poor farmers and then improve their livelihood. Such improvement in water management at system level will help in managing water at the basin level. In such a situation, quite often, conflicts arise within and among the institutions due to their diverging interests. The interest of various resource users group is reflected through their organisational undertaking. There exists an institutional gap in actualizing the said linkage. For example, during long dry spell, BIS wants to release more water from the lake to the main canal to irrigate their dry land. In contrast, the fishermen's associations object for such activities, as it lowers the water level in the reservoir threatening the fish farming. This is because, the dam in the lake was constructed mainly for irrigation purpose, so the irrigation users have first use rights of water from the lake according to the president of Water Users' Association."},{"index":4,"size":169,"text":"The resource users recognise the water-forest (upstream-downstream) linkage although it is not clearly visible and users are unable to identify and establish this. Actualization of such linkage at the basin level would be possible only when the governance at the system level is improved and delivery of water to users becomes reliable and equitable at system level. As far as water delivery at system level is concerned, it was assumed that users could manage the internal water distribution on their own in an equitable way without needing external input. This assumption is not turning into reality mainly because of lack of resources and adequate communication among users. As a result, in many water use systems, water distribution has remained inequitable leading to several types of water use conflicts. Thus, improvement in governance and actualization of equitable and reliable delivery of water at system level are pre-requisite for realizing upstream-downstream linkages at basin level. This could be addressed with the proper delineation of ownership and management right of the users."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"A holistic approach of Lake Management in consultation with relevant stakeholder can create a win-win situation for all of them. This is not happening due to lack of relevant policies that delineate the roles and responsibilities of both external and local organizations in common property resource management. This clearly supports for integrated management of resources in the catchment. This is because; the sectoral line agencies, with which some of the local stakeholders have vertical linkage are guided by relevant sectoral policies."},{"index":6,"size":94,"text":"Another important factor is that the upper watershed is the source of water to the Begnas irrigation system and the drinking water scheme serving the downstream towns. Therefore, the activities of upstream users would have detrimental effect on the environment of lake for which they need to be compensated by the downstream beneficiaries. But the concept of Environmental Services Fee (ESF) is quite new and the stakeholders need to be made aware of this and users downstream are convinced of this. Beside, an intermediary needs to be identified if the ESF is to materialise."},{"index":7,"size":138,"text":"The research project aims at creating a platform that could be helpful for these user groups where each of the user group present their view, interests and demands. The Local municipality seems to be in a better position to lead the integrated approach as they are one of the major stakeholders for lake management. Therefore Local municipality is in a better position to lead the platform. Beside, the users could learn from the experiences of each other and some of the experiences should be shared among them for better resource management. For this, the users group could strengthen relationship with local institutions, government agencies and other external institutions for expanded and integrated activities on land and water management. Ultimately, the platform could be facilitated to act as up scaled institutions for integrated natural resource management at catchment level."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"2 0 2 Kilometers Landuse.shp Cultivation Forest Bush Grass Sand Channel River Cliff Lake/pond Road Highway Rivers or stream Basin boundary # S Settlement Begnas -Rupa Tal Catchment and Irrigation Command Area   "},{"text":"Figure 2-Food Security Food Security  38.9 11.1 27.8 19.4 2.8 20.8 16.7 41.7 12.5 8.3 16.7 44.4 33.3 6.6 0 52 28 8 4 8 64.3 14.3 14.3 3.6 3.6 59.4 15.6 15.6 3.1 6.3 38.9 11.1 27.8 19.4 2.820.8 16.7 41.7 12.5 8.316.7 44.4 33.3 6.6 052 28 8 4 864.3 14.3 14.3 3.6 3.659.4 15.6 15.6 3.1 6.3  "},{"text":" The forests in the watershed are subtropical forests and lower temperate forests. The subtropical forests are in the lower altitudes and are dominated by hill sal (Shorea robusta) forest with chilaune-katus (Schima wallichii -Castanopsis indica) forest dominating between 1,000 m and 1,700 m. The lower temperate forests are mainly broadleaved forests with Pinus roxburghii up to 2000 m and Pinus wallichiana at the higher elevations. with regard to appropriation, inventory of forest product, graduated sanctions, conflict-resolution mechanism, and monitoring systems through collective-choice arrangements as specified in its rules. Forest Users Groups are becoming effective for the management of forest resources. It is due to the community-based management approaches, FUGs have evolved in diverse conditions over time and space. These have been mostly affected by location of resource use, resource use pattern, local socio-cultural, politicalinstitutional arrangements and their linkages with them. They have confined boundary area and have their own rights within that area. The FUGs are at different stages and are evolving as effective institutions in social development processes. But they are not financially strong due to lack of resource generation activities, as the major species does not have economic value. This has been one of the constraints in providing economic benefit to the households.  "},{"text":"Figure 3 Institutional Linkage between Local and External Stakeholders External Stakeholders Local Stakeholders Two way relationship One way relationship  Village Development Committee Municipality Fishery I/NGO s District Forest Office Irrigation Divisional Office District Development Committee Village Development CommitteeMunicipalityFisheryI/NGO sDistrict Forest OfficeIrrigation Divisional OfficeDistrict Development Committee Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems Forest Users Boaters Group Fishers Group Begnas Irrigation Group Farmer Managed Irrigation SystemsForest UsersBoaters GroupFishers GroupBegnas Irrigation Group  "}],"sieverID":"1e28d25e-173c-458b-bd67-206624abe4ba","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0137f065a929c98e38c04a8ccfbc1b7b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0137f065a929c98e38c04a8ccfbc1b7b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a89cfdee-03db-485a-8aaa-8668646df2cd/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Scaling Up Sweetpotato Through Agriculture and Nutrition in Kenya","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is a significant public health problem in Kenya, affecting approximately 20% of children in Nyanza province. In Kenya, the SUSTAIN project is working in Nyanza province, where over 50% of women do not receive vitamin A supplementation post-partum and over 60% of children under 6 months are likely not to receive vitamin A supplements. Given the prohibitive cost of animal source foods, plant source foods such as biofortified orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) can serve as a major source of vitamin A as well as enhancing food security as the OFSP varieties mature quickly (3-4 months)."}]},{"head":"What do we want to achieve?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"SUSTAIN Kenya sets out to reach 35,000 households with children under 5 years of age with OFSP vines and nutrition education by 2018. We expect that these households will produce OFSP at least twice a year and consume OFSP at least twice per week when it is in season. We will also work with a commercial partner to establish at least one commercially traded processed product in the market that uses OFSP as a major ingredient. The target is to reach at least 100,000 consumers with this product. Our expected impacts are: 1) Signifi cant increases in the frequency of OFSP consumption and 2) enhanced infant and young child feeding practices."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Where are we working?"},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"We are working in Homa Bay, Migori, Nyamira, Kisumu and Siaya counties in Nyanza province (Fig. 1). Each project site had to meet the following criteria: (1) Supported by APHIAPlus Western Kenya Project and implemented by PATH (a key project health partner); (2) Potential for production of OFSP with some currently being cultivated; (3) Access to moist lowlands in dry season to aid in conservation of OFSP vines; (4) Ability and willingness to use land for cultivation of OFSP vines; and (5) Proximity to roads that facilitate linking producers to market opportunities."}]},{"head":"How are we making it happen?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"Through the now completed Mama SASHA project in Bungoma County the International Potato Center (CIP) and partners used an integrated model to link nutrition counselling with ante-natal and infant health services, OFSP dissemination and agricultural extension. This model was very eff ective in increasing OFSP adoption and utilization of health services. SUSTAIN Kenya is building on this experience and working partnerships through two approaches. First, we are testing a less intensive integrated agriculture-nutrition approach to get OFSP into the farms and diets of households with children under 5 years of age in Nyanza Province. Secondly, we are working with commercial food processors to determine whether existence of commercial markets for OFSP-based products can provide incentives for accelerated OFSP adoption by smallholders; and whether a more diversifi ed market will lead to an overall increase in investment in the entire OFSP value chain. We emphasize and promote the fi rst 1,000 days approach, which targets pregnant women and children up to 2 years of age for key nutrition interventions. We deliberately focus on reaching women and children during ante-natal and postnatal healthcare attendance at selected health facilities. We have established a coupon system, whereby a mother is issued with a coupon at the health facility, which she presents to receive vines from a trained, decentralized vine multiplier  "}]},{"head":"Homa Bay","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Oyugis Homa Bay Mbita Kisii"}]},{"head":"V I S I T T H E S W E E T P O T A T O K N O W L E D G E P O R T A L : W W W . S W E E T P O T A T O K N O W L E D G E . O R G","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"(DVM) located near the facility (Fig. 2). In total, 28 health facilities are linked to 66 DVMs. Parallel to this intervention, we have phased in the development of a commercial OFSP value chain that links smallholder producers to commercial processors. We expect that this partnership will create incentives for wider adoption of OFSP varieties in Nyanza Province and lead to increased investments in various stages of the overall OFSP value chain."}]},{"head":"What have we achieved so far?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"SUSTAIN expanded from three counties (2014) to fi ve counties (2015) in Nyanza province and Busia County in the Western Province of Kenya. The number of DVMs increased from 18 in 2014 to 66 in 2015. Fifty per cent of these DVMs are women. We trained 126 health workers on delivering agriculturenutrition messages with a focus on OFSP (Fig. 3). Their buy-in has been instrumental in mobilizing farmers at the community level. Through an integrated agriculture-nutrition approach, we have reached 9,707 households, most with children under 5 years and/or pregnant women, with OFSP vines and nutrition education. Lessons focus on how to use OFSP for infant and young child feeding. Seventy-fi ve mother-support clubs have been set up at the community level to enhance infant and young child feeding practices. These monthly trainings are attended by pregnant and/or lactating mothers and provide a forum for demonstrations on complementary feeding and child health."},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"SUSTAIN solicited proposals from agro-processors interested in investing in starting an OFSP purée factory in Nyanza Province that would supply purée to the bakery division of Tusky's supermarket, the second largest supermarket chain in Kenya. Organi Limited won the bid, and opened a processing facility in 2015 with technical support from CIP and Euro Ingredients Limited (Fig. 4). In June 2015, Organi began supplying 200-250 kgs of OFSP purée to Tusky's on a daily basis. The OFSP bread and buns being sold in 4 pilot stores in Nairobi are being sold out on a daily basis (Fig. 5). As a result of intense community mobilization in 2014, the acreage under OFSP is starting to increase. The fact that farmers have started delivering OFSP to the processing facility less than 4 months after the onset of the rains is an indication that they will adopt OFSP production if a ready market is available. We also observed an increased use of OFSP roots for home consumption in July, when hardly any other crop was mature."}]},{"head":"What's next?","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"In the coming year, we expect to reach at least 12,000 households with the ag-nutrition-health service intervention. On the marketing side, we are working with partners to organize farmers to produce suffi cient OFSP to supply the Organi Ltd purée factory. We expect at least 100 acres to be planted by November 2015. Technically, we will continue to assist Organi to be able to scale-up to at least 2000 kgs of purée daily by mid-2016."}]},{"head":"Who do we work with?","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"SUSTAIN is a partnership between agricultural and health institutions. The Ministry of Health and PATH (a leading international health NGO) collaborate with CIP and the Ministry of Agriculture to ensure nutrition and agricultural interventions are linked eff ectively and can share skills and experiences. SUSTAIN is also working with Tuskys chain of supermarkets on the production of commercial OFSP products and marketing strategies, with additional technical inputs from a private sector food technology fi rm Euro Ingredients Limited (EIL). Organi Limited is a private company that processes puree and delivers to Tuskys for development of bakery products."}]},{"head":"CONTACTS:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Penina Muoki (CIP), [email protected] Sammy Agili (CIP), [email protected] "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" SUSTAIN is a 5-year partnership (2013coordinated by CIP and fi nanced by the UK Department for International Development (DFID), to scale up the nutrition benefi ts of biofortifi ed orange-fl eshed sweetpotato (OFSP). The goal is to reach 1.2 million households with under-5 year old children in Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, and Rwanda. SUSTAIN supports integrated interventions in agriculture, nutrition, utilization, and marketing to strengthen production and consumption of OFSP. SUSTAIN emphasizes rigorous measurement and evaluation in order to assess the scalability of these interventions and contribute to global evidence on achieving large scale nutrition outcomes through biofortifi ed crops. "},{"text":"Fig Fig.1 Counties in Nyanza Province Kenya "},{"text":"FigFig. 3 Fig. 5 OFSP bread on sale in Tusky's supermarket (credit T. Muzhingi) "}],"sieverID":"7f64efa9-43d7-4f1f-8e22-8ec715167a07","abstract":""}

data/part_1/019a879296ac7333fe59f94a59947ec3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"019a879296ac7333fe59f94a59947ec3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d698af68-aa16-476f-a2a3-eac5bef3c8fc/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Control:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"good control measure."}]},{"head":"Pearl Millet Crop Husbandry","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Head Mold:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"mold. The colour of the mold will humid conditions during the grain will not germinate well."}]},{"head":"Control:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"in such a way that your crop will mature after the end of the rainy season."}]},{"head":"Pests of pearl millet","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"African ballworm: Bollworms infest both seeds. The most damage is on grain at the milky stage."}]},{"head":"Control:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Spray your crop with endosulfan."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"For more information, please contact: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"For more information, please contact: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) -Nairobi World Agroforestry Centre Box 39063-00623| Gigiri | Nairobi-Kenya; Tel: +254 (20) 722 4808 Email: [email protected] Website www.icrisat.org Stem borers: These borers infest the crop anytime from the second week of emergence to maturity. They can easily be seen inside the stems of infested plants. "},{"text":"org KAREMBO BIASHARA Seed rate  Pests Symptoms Control PestsSymptomsControl Thrips Attacks plant Use of resistant ThripsAttacks plantUse of resistant  petioles Leaves varieties petioles Leavesvarieties  have tiny holes surrounded by discolored areas. Crop rotation and intercropping Field sanitation have tiny holes surrounded by discolored areas.Crop rotation and intercropping Field sanitation   Seed treatment- Seed treatment-   spray with -Thiodan, spray with -Thiodan,   match,karate, match,karate,   Duduthrin Duduthrin Aphids They feed on Use of resistant AphidsThey feed onUse of resistant  young plants, varieties young plants,varieties  pods of green grams. Attacked young leaves Spraying -Thiodan, Sherpa plus, Karate, actara. pods of green grams. Attacked young leavesSpraying -Thiodan, Sherpa plus, Karate, actara.  become twisted  become twisted  Excretion of  Excretion of  honey dew leads  honey dew leads  to growth of sooty  to growth of sooty  mould  mould Pod borers Feeds on leaves Use of resistant Pod borersFeeds on leavesUse of resistant  by scrapping varieties by scrappingvarieties  tissue Bore into the pods and feed on the seeds They also cause Crop rotation Field sanitation Seed treatment/ spraying- tissue Bore into the pods and feed on the seeds They also causeCrop rotation Field sanitation Seed treatment/ spraying-   Dimethoate, Sherpa Dimethoate, Sherpa   plus plus  They suck plant Use of resistant They suck plantUse of resistant  sap leading to varieties sap leading tovarieties  retarded growth Attacked leaves become shrinked. spraying -Actara, karate, retarded growth Attacked leaves become shrinked.spraying -Actara, karate,  "}],"sieverID":"d3666c33-2799-4e43-a781-ff166310cfdd","abstract":""}

data/part_1/019d22945a200c893a9aab7292489c0a.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"019d22945a200c893a9aab7292489c0a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cbc2b560-531a-4218-8f87-3aa7655a2de0/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Mitigation options","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• Reductions in emissions: significant potential!   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Managing demand for animal products  Improved / intensified diets for ruminants  Reduction of animal numbers  Reduced livestock-induced deforestation  Change of animal species  Feed additives to reduce enteric fermentation  Manure management (feed additives, methane production, regulations for manure disposal) "},{"text":"billion tonnes CO2 eq 68% mixed systems / 32% grazing systems 50% from the highlands 85% from cattle Methodology  0.00 2.00 10.00 12.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 Mbeere South Grazing Arid 24% Grazing Temperate 8% MRA 17% Mixed Arid 17% • Livestock species, productivity, feeding practices, etc Mixed humid 9% Mixed Temperate 42% • Simulations of productivity, methane and manure • Scenarios with alternative diets • Recalculation of productivity, methane and manure 0 500 2,500 3,000 Gem Garissa Othaya Siaya Mukurweini Njoro 1.1 • Survey in 6 districts • Baseline diets for animals 1,000 1,500 2,000 Value (US$) 0.00 2.00 10.00 12.00 4.00 6.00 8.00Mbeere SouthGrazing Arid 24% Grazing Temperate 8% MRA 17% Mixed Arid 17% • Livestock species, productivity, feeding practices, etc Mixed humid 9% Mixed Temperate 42% • Simulations of productivity, methane and manure • Scenarios with alternative diets • Recalculation of productivity, methane and manure 0 500 2,500 3,000 Gem Garissa Othaya Siaya Mukurweini Njoro 1.1 • Survey in 6 districts • Baseline diets for animals 1,000 1,500 2,000Value (US$)  "},{"text":"Average TLU Variation in size (TLU) and value of household domestic herds  Cattle, other cattle and oxen Sheep and goats Cattle, other cattle and oxenSheep and goats Poultry Pigs PoultryPigs Rabbit Camels RabbitCamels Value $  Value $  "},{"text":"Cattle dominates herds Milk production and diets for cattle in the 6 districts  District Milk per Rangeland Maize Cut and Roadside Grain DistrictMilk perRangelandMaizeCut andRoadsideGrain  cow (kg/yr) grazing stover carry weeds supplements cow (kg/yr)grazingstovercarryweedssupplements     fodder   fodder Garissa 275      Garissa275 Gem 548      Gem548 Mbeere S 860      Mbeere S860 Njoro 1256      Njoro1256 Mukurweni 2089      Mukurweni2089 Othaya 2035      Othaya2035 Siaya 706      Siaya706  "},{"text":"Manure and methane production for the baseline diets in the six districts  District Energy Manure per Methane Methane DistrictEnergyManure perMethaneMethane  density of animal (kg/yr) production produced per lt density ofanimal (kg/yr)productionproduced per lt  the diet  (CO2 of milk the diet(CO2of milk  (MJ ME/kg  eq/lactation) (CO2 eq/lt) (MJ ME/kgeq/lactation)(CO2 eq/lt)  DM)    DM) Garissa 8.4 693 796 2.37 Garissa8.46937962.37 Gem 9.3 730 780 1.42 Gem9.37307801.42 Mbeere S 9.6 693 824 1.12 Mbeere S9.66938241.12 Njoro 9.9 693 863 0.72 Njoro9.96938630.72 Mukurweni 10.5 657 936 0.47 Mukurweni10.56579360.47 Othaya 10.5 657 936 0.47 Othaya10.56579360.47 Siaya 9.4 730 838 1.14 Siaya9.47308381.14  "}],"sieverID":"5a71c41a-a2a7-4f77-ac01-471ba8cbc0ae","abstract":""}

data/part_1/01a7040478046b928fdb38185ec93e49.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01a7040478046b928fdb38185ec93e49","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/217efbcd-f04d-4a8a-8e14-5a9ecd8dfe04/retrieve"},"pageCount":51,"title":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings. Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030. Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Executive Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems (SI-MFS) initiative is being implemented in six countries of the Global South: Ghana, Ethiopia, Malawi, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Laos. The initiative's main objective is to provide equitable, gender-transformative pathways for improving the livelihoods of smallholder farmers through action research. Interventions under the SI-MFS initiative focuses on five impact areas: (1) nutrition, health and food security; (2) poverty reduction, livelihoods and jobs; (3) gender equality, youth and social inclusion; (4) climate adaptation and mitigation; and (5) environmental health and biodiversity. By focusing on these impact areas, the initiative is contributing to several sustainable development goals (SDGs) including no poverty, zero hunger, good health, gender equality and empowering all women and girls, decent work, and economic growth. This baseline report presents Malawi's SI-MFS data covering 1,269 farming households from six sampled districts: Mzimba in the Northern region, Dedza and Kasungu in the Central region, Balaka, Mangochi, and Zomba in the Southern part region. Of 1,269 farming households, 948 were treatment households and 321 were control households. Several characteristics including demography, agricultural land characteristics, gender, time use and labor, crop production, inputs and productivity, storage facility, livestock ownership, dwelling characteristics, agricultural-related shocks, food consumption expenditure, and non-food consumption expenditure were captured. Data analysis was done using several descriptive statistical tools including but not limited to cross-tabulations, contingency tables, and frequencies, presented in either graphical or tabular format."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"With the current survey data, we found that crop production is the primary economic activity of the sampled households. Maize and legume crops such as groundnut, soybean, and pigeon peas are significant crops in the study districts. In addition to crop production, livestock farming is also a major farming activity, especially for animals such as chickens and goats. While most households have a diversified diet (they consume seven food groups), most (73%) are poor. Gender inequality on income and assets ownership including land, in particular among women and the youth is common. Even though some districts including Mzimba and Kasungu had more land under SI technologies such as conservation agriculture (i.e., crop rotation and zero/minimum tillage) and inorganic fertilizer, farmers in districts with higher population density such as Mangochi and Balaka allocated more land to intercropping, as a coping mechanism to land scarcity. Overall, food inflation (68%), rising agricultural input"}]},{"head":"| Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"With only seven growing seasons to achieve two critical sustainable development goals (SDGs): no poverty and zero hunger by 2030, the Global South still faces an enormous challenge to feed its current and future generations. While this challenge is associated with many factors, a few facets remain outstanding: (i) recurrent extreme weather events (Amadu et al., 2020;MacLaren et al., 2022;Tesfaye et al., 2021), (ii) global pandemics including Covid-19 (Amare et al., 2021;Headey & Ruel, 2022;Manyong et al., 2022;Osendarp et al., 2021), (iii) rising population growth (Ricker-Gilbert et al., 2014;United Nation, 2015;Willy et al., 2019), (iv) war, conflicts and migration (Deininger et al., 2023;Rao et al., 2019), and (v) low adoption of agricultural technologies, in particular, fertilizer and improved seeds (Khonje et al., 2022a;2018;Manda et al., 2016). These factors probably explain why crop yields, including cereals and legumes, have remained low (<3.5 tons/ha) in Malawi (Benson, 2021;FAO, 2021;Khonje et al., 2022b)."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"To address these challenges, international research institutions and local partners are implementing different project activities on sustainable intensification (SI) of mixed farming systems (MFS) initiative in the six countries of the Global South: Ghana, Ethiopia, Malawi, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Laos. SI responds to the need to feed the growing populations by producing more food on the same piece of land and concurrently reducing environmental degradation (Garnett & Godfray, 2012). To identify context-specific pathways towards resilient, scalable MFS that preserve natural capital, an integrated systems research with SI is required."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"More broadly, various components of MFS interact with each other and with the external environment, including climate and landscape (Auricht et al., 2019). One potential advantage of these farming systems is that they occur in almost all agro-ecological zones, with a diverse climatic and soil conditions and livelihood patterns (Dixon et al., 2019;Thornton et al., 2018). Moreover, not only is the MFS important because it covers 2.5 billion ha of land globally, but also because it supplys around 75% of milk, 60% of meat, and 41-86% of cereals consumed in the Global South (de Haan et al., 1997;Herrero et al., 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":168,"text":"The SI-MFS initiative aims to provide equitable, gender-transformative pathways for improving the livelihoods of smallholder farmers through several pathways. For instance, in an MFS, livestock provides animal-sourced foods (ASF), as these are rich in protein and micronutrients, and income to farming households, manure to fertilize the soil, and draft power for crop cultivation (Headey et al., 2018;Khonje et al., 2022a;Rawlins et al., 2014;Zaharia et al., 2021). However, increased consumption of ASF also has its downsides, as ASF have much larger climate and environmental footprints than plant-based foods (PBF) (Parlasca & Qaim, 2022;Springmann et al., 2016;Xu et al., 2021). While crops provide PBFs, income, organic manure, and livestock feed from crop residues (Khonje et al., 2022a;2018;Manda et al., 2016;Tesfaye et al., 2021). Therefore, an integrated crop-livestock farming system has the potential to maintain ecosystem function and health, and to help prevent agricultural systems from becoming fragile by enhancing biodiversity and thus increasing capability to absorb shocks to the natural resource base (Holling, 1995;Peterson et al., 2020;Thornton et al., 2018)."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"Even though this (SI-MFS) initiative has several potential benefits to farmers, end consumers and environment, there are knowledge gaps on the biophysical and socio-economic interactions and dynamics (Dixon et al., 2019;Thornton et al., 2018). This can undermine many The baseline report is organized into four additional sections. Section 2 presents the contextual background, impact evaluation design, and sampling procedure. We then present detailed descriptive results on household demographics, agricultural land characteristics, crop production and input use, crop yields, storage facility, livestock ownership, dwelling characteristics, and asset ownership, and household shocks in section 3. Section 4, presents and discusses key results on the five impact areas of the SI-MFS initiative. The last section draws some conclusions."}]},{"head":"| Methodology","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Selection of the survey sites","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"The SI-MFS initiative in Malawi is operating in six districts: Mzimba in the Northern region; Dedza and Kasungu in the Central region; Balaka, Mangochi, and Zomba in the Southern region (Figure 1  linkage with the Ukama Ustawi (UU) regional initiative. In addition, this cluster also has a good diversity of cropping systems and high livestock density, considering the importance of livestock in the initiative. The Dedza cluster was selected mainly because of the previous investments by the Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for Next Generation (Africa RISING) project, and the existing functional partnerships. Similarly, the Balaka-Mangochi-Zomba cluster was chosen because of the current long-term collaboration with the Department of Agricultural Extension Service (DAES), the importance of livestock in the farming system, and co-location/synergies with the UU initiative sites."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Members of the SI-MFS initiative selected the treatment sections and villages within the selected EPAs. On the other hand, the Monitoring Evaluation, Learning, and Impact Assessment (MELIA) team set the control sections and villages. The sections were selected in such a way that the sections were similar as much as possible in terms of agroecology, population density, elevation, precipitation, temperature, market access, and farming systems, but far away to avoid contamination. Next, the villages in the control sections were selected using probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling."}]},{"head":"| Power calculation and sampling procedure","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"A Quasi randomized control trial (QRCT) design was followed to obtain credible and robust impact estimates at the end of the initiative investment cycle. Since the treatment villages were purposively selected, implementing a cluster randomized design was impossible; instead, randomization was done at the household level. Using data from the Africa RISING end-line survey, we selected some technologies and their combinations, such as crop rotation, intercropping, inorganic fertilizer amendments, and improved crop varieties, and computed their adoption rates."},{"index":2,"size":177,"text":"In general, the adoption rates of these technologies ranged from 2.3% to 42% on average (Shee et al., 2016). Using a baseline joint adoption of crop rotation, intercropping, and improved varieties of 6% (Shee et al., 2016), a 5-percentage point increase in adoption to 11%, and 80% power, a minimum sample size of 1,016 was deemed appropriate to detect the effect size of 0.05. To account for non-responses, the reserve sample was put at 25%. Ultimately, 1,269 households were sampled and interviewed (Table 1). In total, the survey covered 10 EPAs from the six districts. Of 1,269 households, 948 were treatment households, and 321 were control households. A sample size of 1,269 smallholder farming households was used in the analysis after data cleaning. Descriptive statistics (in tabular and graphical forms) were mainly used to summarize key features of sustainable intensification of mixed farming systems in Malawi. is a ratio between the number of people aged below 15 years and those above 64 years of age and the working population aged between the age of 15 and 64."}]},{"head":"| Results and Discussion","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Demographic characteristics","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Demographic characteristics by research group","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The results show that the dependency ratio for the population is 48.65 on average (Table 2). The average household size is 5.02 members, with a range of 1 to 17 household members."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"On average, years of education for adults is 10.81. While the average adults' years of age is 37.85, ranging from 18 to 85. The average age of the household head is 46.62."},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"Generally, our t-test results show that the mean difference between treatment and control households is only statistically significant (at least 5%) for household size and adult years of education (Table 2). This implies that household size is higher for control households (5.31) than treatment households (4.92). Interestingly, we also found that control households (11.48) have high years of adult education than the treatment households (10.58). These two characteristics could influence how households seek or secure financial resources. In other words, it could have an impact on the ability of the households to access food from markets and income levels (i.e., poverty levels) to finance other basic needs at the household level. We also found that the average percentage of household heads that are either married or living together for the control group is 72%, which is significantly higher than 67% for the treatment group (Table 2)."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"Conversely, we did not find strong evidence on whether the mean differences are statistically different for other demographic characteristics. This suggests that the randomization when recruiting households worked adequately as suggested by the balance test results in Table 2. However, these are only descriptive results where other confounding factors are not considered. Thus, these results should be interpreted with caution in this report."}]},{"head":"| Demographic characteristics by research group and district","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"So far, we have disaggregated our results by research groups (treatment vs. control households). While this is informative, this approach cannot give us demographic characteristics at district level. To address this issue, we also did our analysis at district level."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Although it is possible to do this analysis for all variables in our study, we only focused on a few variables as guided by mean t-test results. Figure 2 shows average household size, by district and research group."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"We found that the average household size for the treatment group is higher in Mangochi, seconded by Mzimba, while Zomba district has the lowest average household sizes among the treatment group. In contrast, the average household size for the control group is also higher in Mangochi which is seconded by Mzimba and Dedza districts. Zomba district also has a lower average household size for the control group among all the sampled districts. However, in general, our t-test results on the mean difference between control and treatment groups for the household size in the six districts suggest no statistically significant difference between the two groups except for Kasungu."},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"Adult years of education by district and research group are reported in Figure 3. On average, adult years of schooling among the treatment group is highest in Mzimba, followed by Kasungu and Dedza districts. Conversely, Mangochi has the lowest average adult years of education for the treatment group among the six districts. We observe a similar pattern for the control group. Mzimba district also has a higher average adult year of education for the control  group, Kasungu and Dedza follow. Mangochi also has the lowest average adult years of education among the control groups. These results could substantially affect the adoption of SI-MFS interventions. Several existing studies found that education is key for farmers to know the inherent characteristics of agricultural technologies and their benefits (Khonje et al., 2022a;2018;Manda et al., 2016), particularly if a new agricultural innovation is introduced in an area."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Before concluding the discussion on demographic characteristics, a few other characteristics were analysed and are presented in Table 3. On religion, 77% of the household heads are Christians, while 21% are Muslims, and 1% belong to the African traditional religion."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"Table 3 also shows that 67% of the households are male headed, with the control group registering a higher proportion (70% vs. 66%) than the treatment group."},{"index":7,"size":72,"text":"On educational background, most household heads (87%) have attended formal education. For those that have attained formal education, 22% of the household heads have attended primary school from standard 1 to 4, and a bigger proportion (42%) have attended primary school from standard 5 to 8. Instead, only 13% of the sampled households had attended secondary education from Forms 1 to 3, and only 9% had attained O-level (Form 4) and beyond."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"We also found that very few households had attended adult literacy education in the six sampled districts. Overall, after t-test analysis on the mean difference between control and treatment groups, statistically significant results were observed for Muslims and farmers who attended adult literacy education."}]},{"head":"| Economic activities","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"To support their livelihoods, the sampled farming households are involved in several economic activities. Figure 4 reports selected main economic activities. On average, of the 1,269 households, 69% were engaged in crop production as their primary economic activity. While 14% of the sampled households depend on ganyu (casual labor) as their main activity, and 10%  are self-employed but without employees as their primary activity (Figure 4). Unlike for ganyu and self-employed without employees, the proportion of households involved in crop production was higher in the control group as compared to the treatment group."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"How do farming households allocate their time on main economic activities? To provide insights on this question, the research group's time allocation on main economic activities was analysed. Results are reported in Table 4. As expected, most (81%) of the sampled households spend more time on farming during the rainy season, with the treatment group registering a higher proportion (2.64% vs. 0.62%) than the control group. The secondranked activity during the rainy season was domestic work at 35% and non-farm income generating activities at 31%. These activities were ranked second in the rainy season."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"In contrast, most sampled households also spent most of their time on farming followed by non-farm income-generating activities in the dry season. This is the time; farming households are engaged in winter cropping or dambo farming or irrigation farming. In addition to winter farming and non-farm income generating activities, the sampled households were fairly engaged in unpaid domestic work (25%) and resting (24%).  "}]},{"head":"| Agricultural land","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Table 5 shows the summary statistics of household level agricultural land characteristics for the treatment and control groups. The SI-MFS initiative collected data on 2,233 parcels and 2,733 plots of land across 1,269 households. The average land holding size was 0.98 hectares, with the control group having more (1.10 vs. 0.94) agricultural land than the treatment group."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"One potential implication of this finding is that the SI-MFS initiative could target promoting technologies that maximize yields per unit area. This is so because most households in the target districts for the initiative have smaller land holdings, and arable land is a major constraint due to high population growth (Rao et al., 2019;Doss et al., 2020;Ricker-Gilbert et al., 2014;United Nations, 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"After doing a t-test analysis, we found that the average land holding size is higher (1.10 vs. 0.94) and statistically significant for the control group than the treatment group (Table 5)."},{"index":4,"size":150,"text":"However, we also found that per capita land holding size for the study population is 0.23. The mean difference for the two groups is almost the same and is not statistically significant. On average, we also found that the control group has a significantly higher number of parcels of     We also analysed parcel-level characteristics by gender (i.e., household decisions by husband vs. wife separately). The results are shown in Table 6. On average, wives owned less farming land (0.80 vs. 0.98) as well as number of plots than husbands (Table 6). We also found that plot allocation decisions at parcel level is primarily done by husbands than wives. Even though, these results are only descriptive, it is worrisome that women are owing less productive assets such as land. Perhaps, this could be an incentive for the SI-MFS initiative to have interventions that are sensitive to gender equality and social inclusion."}]},{"head":"| Agricultural production, inputs and productivity","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"This section outlines key crop grown, input usage, crop yields and different agricultural practices used by the sampled farmers.  grown on average by 99% of the sampled farmers followed by legume crops, especially soybean, groundnuts, and pigeon peas."}]},{"head":"| Crops grown in study districts","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Another key feature from Figure 8 is that soybean and cassava were grown more by farmers in the control group than those from the treatment group. In contrast, almost all legume crops (except soybean) were grown more by farmers in the treatment group than the control group. Probably, this could be a good starting point to promote maize-legume based technologies under the SI-MFS initiative."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Do key crops in Figure 8 also get a fair share of land allocation in a growing season?"},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"Table 7 shows the average amount of land allocated to various crops by the sampled farming households. Consistent with Figure 8 results, we also found that main crops such as maize, soybean, and groundnut were allocated more land than other crops.  Conversely, farmers allocated small land to minor crops such as tuber crops. This is also suggesting that the SI-MFS initiative could target to promote technologies associated with minor crops such as cassava. Since some of these minor crops are drought tolerant, and promoting them could be critical during extreme weather events."}]},{"head":"| Sustainable intensification of mixed farming systems (SI-MFS) technologies","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"We now focus our discussion on the adoption of SI-MFS technologies by the sampled farmers."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Table 8 shows the proportion of sampled farmers who adopted different SI-MFS technologies by research group."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"As part of MFS (i.e., combination of crop production and livestock or manure), crop production was done by all sampled farmers. While, livestock farming and organic manure was adopted by 35% of the sampled farmers (Table 8). Generally, mixed farming is more popular (37 vs 31) among the treatment group as compared to the control group (Table 8)."},{"index":4,"size":212,"text":"On specific SI-MFS technologies, as expected, our results suggest that inorganic fertilizer application (75%), crop rotation (53%), organic manure (49%) and intercropping (49%) are among critical and popular SI practices adopted by farmers (Table 8). Use of inoculants and agricultural lime is not popular among farmers. The key question is why are such technologies are still unpopular with farmers? Can the SI-MFS initiative take this as an opportunity to enhance the promotion of inoculants in the study districts, especially for districts where legume crops are mainly produced? This could probably help to increase yields for legume crops such as soybean. Of late, soybean is becoming a key strategic cash crop for Malawian farmers, following declining output prices for other key cash crops such as tobacco. However, we also found that more farmers are using inorganic fertilizers maybe because they are aware of the benefits associated with fertilizer application on yield gains. One important issue to be considered is that Malawi has been subsidizing fertilizer, improved cereal and legume seeds since the 2004/2005 growing season (Khonje et al., 2022a;2022b). Evidence suggest that the input subsidy program (ISP) has increased fertilizer usage and adoption of improved maize varieties and to some extent crop yields (Abman & Carney, 2020;Chirwa & Dorward, 2013;Ricker-Gilbert & Jayne, 2017)."},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"Therefore, it is unsurprising to observe that per capita fertilizer use was slightly higher, averaging 111 kg per household (Table 9), with Mzimba and Kasungu, registering highest values of 168 and 155, respectively (Figure 10). Similarly, implementation of the ISP, probably explains why use of improved maize varieties was relatively high (44%), with Mzimba and Mangochi registering adoption rates of 56% and 54%, respectively (Figure 11). As previously explained, this is consistent with existing studies (e.g., Abman & Carney, 2020;Chirwa & Dorward, 2013;Ricker-Gilbert & Jayne, 2017). There was also a notable difference in adoption of improved maize varieties in districts such as Balaka and Dedza between the treatment group and control groups.  "}]},{"head":"| Other agricultural inputs","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Apart from using fertilizer and improved maize seed, farmers often use other agricultural inputs. The results on other agricultural inputs are reported in Tables 9, 10 and Figure 12. Only   11% of the sampled farmers used pesticides in the management of crop pests (Table 9). We do not find strong evidence on whether the use of pesticides is different between the treatment and control groups. However, strong evidence is found once the results are disaggregated by gender (Table 10). The decision on input use including pesticides, fertilizer, and improved maize seed is primarily done by husbands as opposed to wives. The results further show that wives owned less land than husbands and the implication of this finding has already been discussed in the previous section (i.e., section 3.3)."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"On farm labor use, both communal labor (43%) and hired labor (22%) were relatively common among the sampled farmers. Using labor days to capture time use and labor on agriculture activities, we also observe that the total amount of family labor plus communal labor used per household was 148.73 personal days on average. We also disaggregated labor use data by gender. On average, the male family labor was reported to be 64.09, which is lower than the female family labor, which was reported at 75.57 personal days. Kasungu and Mzimba registered higher person days on labor use (Figure 12). In contrast, Zomba ranked the lowest on labor use among the six study districts."}]},{"head":"| Crop yields","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Table 11 reports descriptive statistics for crop yields (kg/ha) by research group. On average, we found that sweet potatoes had highest yield of 2,073. This was followed by irish potatoes"},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"(2,000) and cassava (1,701). Based on Figure 8, main crops such as maize, soybean and groundnut had lower yields (kg/ha), on average, ranging from 793 to 1,283. Even though some crops are widely grown in Malawi, their yields are relatively low. Several existing studies suggest that low adoption of agricultural technologies, especially fertilizer and improved seeds, explain why crop yields including cereals and legumes, have remained low (<3.5 tons/ha) in Malawi (Benson, 2021;FAO, 2021;Khonje et al., 2022a;2022b;2018;Manda et al., 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The disaggregated results suggest that the control group had higher yields for peas than the treatment group (Table 11). In contrast, the treatment group registered higher yield for tobacco than the control group. Nevertheless, these results should be interpreted cautiously as measurement errors are common when measuring crop yields in agricultural surveys, particularly if recall data methods are used (Abay et al., 2021;2023;Wollburg et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Moreover, more often most farmers rarely keep records on these characteristics, at least in an African context (Khonje et al., 2022a;2022b)."}]},{"head":"| Crop storage","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":252,"text":"Figure 13 highlights the percentage of households that had various crops in storage a month after harvesting. We found that most (92%) of the sampled households kept maize one month after harvesting. Generally, next to maize, legume crops including soybean (23%), groundnut (22%), pigeon peas (17%) and common beans (9%) were second important crops, which are often stored immediately (i.e., one month) after harvesting.  However, conventional wisdom and emerging experimental evidence suggest that more often farmers do not keep legume crops for a longer period because of two post-harvest constraints: (i) lack of appropriate storage technology, and (ii) commitment issues (Nindi et al., 2023). This study (Nindi et al., 2023) suggests that combining technology (i.e., hermetic bags) with collective action (i.e., village storage programs) that is localized and flexible can lead to better post-harvest outcomes for smallholder farmers. For instance, farmers who were offered hermetic bags under the village storage program had multiple benefits from the intervention including, having more legumes at harvest, storing legumes for a longer period, receiving a higher output price, and more revenue than the control group (Nindi et al., 2023). We also found that, there is a big variation between the two groups on their ability to store crops. For instance, more farmers stored pigeon peas and peas from the treatment group than those from the control group (Figure 13). Conversely, more farmers from the control group stored soybean and cassava. Probably, liquidity constraints and post-harvest constraints explain this behaviour as established by Nindi et al. (2023)."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Our sampled farmers were also asked to report on the typed of storage facilities they use for various crops. According to Figure 13, the top three crops that are often kept by farmers are maize, groundnuts, and soybean. Thus, our analysis on type of storage facilities focused on the three crops. The results are reported in Table 12. In general, the results show that most farmers (93%) used polypropylene/wollen bags as a storage facility. Specifically, 97% of the farming households used polypropylene/wollen bags as a storage facility for maize, whereas 4.30% of households used other storage facilities."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"For groundnut and soybean, 99.65% and 100% of the sampled households used wollen bags, respectively. Another interesting feature is that hermetic bags (PICS) are slowly becoming popular next after wollen bags. This suggest that gradual adoption of hermetic bags could help to address post-harvest constraints among smallholder farmers. However, for this technology to be more effective, probably the price differential between wollen bags and hermetic bags should be relatively smaller."}]},{"head":"| Livestock ownership","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"Figure 14 presents the average number of animals owned by sampled households. Two indicators were used: number of animals and tropical livestock units (TLUs), which are reported in Figures 14a and 14b, respectively. Following prior studies (e.g., Ahmed & Mesfin, 2017;Bellemare & Barrett, 2006;Njuki et al., 2011;Storck et al., 1991), the following TLU conversion factors were used: calf (0.25), heifer (0.75), cow or oxen (1), chicken and other poultry (0.013), sheep and goat (0.13), pigs (0.2), horse (1.10), and rabbits (0.02). Most of the sampled households in the study districts own chickens, goats, and doves. For example, on average, a household kept 3.51 chickens, 1.4 goats, and 0.52 doves (Figure 14a). Overall, a farming household owned 0.76 TLUs (Figure 14b).  We get mixed evidence after disaggregating the results by the research group. Figure 14 suggest that the treatment groups had a higher number of young bulls, heifers, sheep, goats and doves than their counterparts. Conversely, the control group had a higher number of ducks, guinea fowl, and turkeys, on average. Nevertheless, the mean differences are statistically 14b). As stated earlier, an increase in number of animals per adults would enhance labor productivity and improve food security and health through consumption of ASFs. In addition, livestock ownership is very crucial in providing manure, and livestock income. These resources could be crucial inputs in the SI-MFS initiative. Putting it differently, promoting livestock under the initiative could play a significant complementary role with crop-based farming systems and household resilience."}]},{"head":"| Housing characteristics","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Table 13 provides a summary of the housing characteristics for the research groups and for the pooled sample. On average, 69% of the sampled households used burnt bricks as the main material for the wall of the housing unit, and 29% of households used mud bricks for the wall of the house. On floor characteristics, we found that 75% of the sampled household's floors are made of mud and 25% are constructed with cement on average. In terms of the roof, about 51% of households thatched their roofs with corrugated metal. While 45% of the sampled households thatched their houses with leaves or raffia or grass."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"On water, sanitation and hygiene characteristics, majority (85%) of the sampled households in the study districts sourced their water from boreholes. Most (54%) of the households used their own (private) traditional latrines with a wall and roof. In terms of lighting and cooking fuel, 81% of households used torches for lighting, and 95% used wood for cooking. The mean differences between the treatment and control groups is statistically significant for stone/burned brick walls, piped water in a yard/plot, and two types of lighting sources: torches and solar lights."}]},{"head":"| Household wealth index","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"We construct an aggregate wealth index using housing conditions, durable non-agricultural assets, durable agricultural assets, livestock ownership, and land ownership as proposed by Hjelm et al. (2017). We compute the aggregate wealth index through factorial analysis using the principal component factor (PCF) method. Table 14 shows the summary statistics of the Note: SD, standard deviation households in quintiles. The higher the wealth index for a household, the wealthier are its members on average. The results show that most of the households were in the poorest category."}]},{"head":"| Agriculture-related shocks","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Figure 14 provides descriptive statistics on agricultural shocks faced by the farmers over the past five years. On average, we found that rising food prices (68%), rising agricultural input prices (67%), drought (53%) and crop pest and disease outbreaks (42%) as among major agricultural shocks affecting farmers. However, we did not find strong evidence on the mean differences between the two groups for these major agricultural shocks.  Conversely, we found that the mean difference between the treatment and control groups was statistically significant for falling agricultural output prices. This suggests that most farmers could not maximize returns from agricultural production."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Perhaps, two important insights emerge from these findings. First, consistent with existing literature (Amadu et al., 2020;MacLaren et al., 2022;Tesfaye et al., 2021), extreme weather events remain one of the formidable challenges facing the current agricultural farming systems for the Global South. Second, current agricultural farming systems should aim at addressing the agricultural shocks in totality if sustainable food production is to be achieved."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"By working on adaptive research that works for farmers, therefore, this will be the right opportunity for the SI-MFS initiative to contribute several SDGs by 2030. "}]},{"head":"| Results by Impact Areas","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"As mentioned earlier, the SI-MFS initiative is expected to contribute to five impact areas: (1) nutrition, health and food security; (2) poverty reduction, livelihoods and jobs; (3) gender equality, youth and social inclusion; (4) climate adaptation and mitigation; and (5)"},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"environmental health and biodiversity. The five impact areas will contribute to several SDGs including no poverty, zero hunger, good health, gender equality and empowering all women and girls, decent work and economic growth."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"To measure the performance and results of the SI-MFS initiative, several indicators will be used for each of the five impact areas. For nutrition, health and food security, we will report three standard indicators: food consumption expenditure, food consumption score (FCS) and household dietary diversity score (HHDS). In addition, crop productivity associated with the initiative, could also be a proxy measure for food security. However, the results on crop yields are not discussed in the proceeding chapter as they are already discussed in chapter three."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"While several indicators exist on measuring poverty and welfare, we will focus on three indicators: household income, poverty and proportion of farming households engaged in farm and non-farm activities in this study. These indicators will be key on assessing the performance of the SI-MFS initiative on improving livelihoods of people through (i) higher incomes, and"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"(ii) increasing on-farm and off-farm jobs, which will (iii) lift people out of poverty."},{"index":6,"size":91,"text":"So far, the first two impact areas have direct measurement indicators, which is different with measuring gender equality, youth and social inclusion. In other words, gender analysis cannot be done in isolation. Here, in addition to some of the aforementioned indicators especially on poverty, livelihood, and jobs, we will disaggregate time use and participation in community organization by gender (i.e., male farmers vs. female farmers) and other marginalized groups (youth vs. non-youth). The objective of this analysis is to examine how women, the youth, and other marginalized groups could be empowered."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"Lastly, the last two impact areas: climate adaptation and mitigation; and environmental health and biodiversity are somehow interrelated. As a result, the results for the two impact areas are combined. Here, we will report on adoption of climate-smart agricultural innovations promoted under the SI-MFS initiative. For instance, increasing area under SI technologies could be key in improving resilience to climate change for millions of farmers, reducing carbon foot prints and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and enhancing environmental health and biodiversity (Holling, 1995;Munandar et al., 2015;Thornton et al., 2018)."}]},{"head":"| Nutrition, health and food security","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"To describe nutrition, health and food security status, we used household-level (a seven-day dietary recall) food consumption data. We calculated three indicators: FCS, HDDS, and food consumption expenditure. FCS is measured by summing a predetermined set of weights-i.e., staples (2), pulses (3), vegetables (1), fruits (1), meat and fish (4), dairy (4), sugar (0.5) and oil (0.5)-designed to reflect the heterogeneous dietary quality for each of the eight food groups consumed by the households (WFP, 2008). The FCS ranges in value from zero to 112, and a higher score would imply a better heterogeneous dietary quality."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"HDDS is measured as the count of ten different food groups-i.e., cereals, tubers and roots, legumes and nuts, meat and fish products, vegetables, fruits, milk and milk products, sweets, sugars and beverages, oils and fats, and spices and condiments-consumed by the household during the recall period. These indicators have been widely adopted in measuring household access to nutritious food and food security in the sub-Saharan Africa (Khonje et al., 2022a;Muthini et al., 2020;Sibhatu et al., 2015). The results are reported in Table 15. On average, we found that a farming household had FCS of 41 and HDDS of seven."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"The treatment group had slightly higher scores than the control group. However, statistically, our t-test results suggest that mean difference between the two groups is not substantial (not significant). On the contrary, we found that farming households from the treatment group had higher food expenditure than those in the control group by MWK18,158 (Table 15)."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Like most earlier results, we also disaggregated nutritional outcomes and food consumption expenditure (income) by district. The results are reported in   We also disaggregated nutritional and outcomes and food consumption expenditure by gender and age category. The results are reported in Table 17. Two key story lines are emerging from these results."},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":"First, female headed households have lower scores for FCS and HDDS than male headed households. This finding emphasize that women continue to struggle in accessing resources including income for buying food. This could be related to the fact that women farmers have a lower probability of adopting improved agricultural technologies, mainly because of social norms embedded in wider socio-cultural settings that constrain their access to resources (Gebre et al., 2019;Ndiritu et al., 2014). Thus, the initiative may need to implement gender-sensitive interventions, especially on institutional and systemic barriers on adoption of agricultural technologies at scale."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Second, it is interesting to note that young people have a higher HDDS and food consumption expenditure than adults. However, this may not mean that young people have more resources but rather culturally they are considered as a priority to be given food, in particular during the lean period."}]},{"head":"| Poverty reduction, livelihoods and jobs","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"In addition to food consumption expenditure data, we also used non-food consumption expenditure data to calculate poverty status. The results are shown in Table 18. Overall, 94%"},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"and 74% of the farming households were involved in agriculture and non-agriculture enterprises, respectively as a primary livelihood activity. Majority (73%) of the sampled households are poor 1 . More poor households came from the control group (76%) than the treatment group (72%). Table 18 results also suggest that the treatment group (72%) had few farmers who were involved in non-agriculture activities than the control group (78%). Are the poverty levels similar across the study district? To provide insights on this question, we disaggregated poverty indicators by district. The results are reported in Table 19."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Using consumption expenditure data, the results show that poverty levels ranged from 69% in Mangochi to 79% in Zomba."},{"index":4,"size":142,"text":"However, the story is different if household-i.e., summing crop income, livestock income and non-farm income-income data is used. For instance, on average, Dedza has the highest household income than any other study district (Table 19). Possibly, farmers in Dedza could have benefited from adoption of SI under the Africa RISING.  Interestingly, we also found that poverty levels were statistically significant among female household heads and the youth compared to male household heads and non-youth (i.e., adults) (Table 20). This could be an incentive for the SI-MFS initiative to significantly contribute towards reduction of poverty in the study districts. However, female headed households and the youth are getting less farm (i.e., crop and livestock) income from agriculture enterprises than their counter-parts (Table 20). Perhaps, these results entail that women farmers and the youths could be deliberately targeted as beneficiaries for the SI-MFS initiative."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"fertilizers were more popular among male headed households compared to female headed households (Table 23). However, Table 23     Gilbert et al., 2014;United Nation, 2015;Willy et al., 2019), also found that areas with lower population density are associated with bigger farm sizes."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Related to this point, farmers in districts with higher population density such as"},{"index":7,"size":93,"text":"Mangochi and Balaka are associated with smaller farm sizes. As a result, more land is under intercropping in these districts, as a coping mechanism to land scarcity. Moreover, female headed households and the youth had allocated less land to SI technologies than male headed households and non-youth (Table 26). These results suggest that women, the youth and other marginalized groups continue to struggle to access productive assets including land. This could be key in improving resilience to climate change for millions of smallholder farmers, reducing GHG emissions, and enhancing environmental health and biodiversity."}]},{"head":"| Conclusion","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"To summarize the key findings, most of the sampled households are Christian, male-headed, and involved in crop production. Most farmers allocate their land to maize and legume crops such as groundnut, soybean, and pigeon peas. However, almost half (49%) of sampled farming households adopted intercropping and only 35% used mixed farming system technologies."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Despite most farmers using inorganic fertilizer (75%), crop rotation (53%) and organic manure (49%) as well as improved seed varieties (44%), crop yields were marginally low, with maximum value of 2,073kg/ha. This echoes most prior studies (e.g., Benson, 2021;FAO, 2021;Khonje et al., 2022b) who found that crop yields, including cereals and legumes, have remained low (<3.5 tons/ha) in Malawi. On the contrary, the use of inoculants and agricultural lime is not popular among smallholder farmers. To keep their farm produce, most farming households use woollen and hermetic bags."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"In addition to crop production, livestock farming is also a prominent farming activity especially for animals such as chickens and goats. This is a welcome development, since promoting livestock under the SI-MFS initiative could play a significant complementary role with crop-based farming systems and household resilience. However, the benefits associated with mixed farming may not be maximized as this (mixed farming) practice is not common in the study districts. One major implication of this finding is that extra efforts should be made to promote crop-livestock systems that suit small landholdings. Furthermore, crop and livestockbased interventions could be promoted as a package and not in insolation, which is common for most development projects in the Global South."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"Regarding dwelling characteristics, majority of the households used burned bricks as the primary materials for walls and mud bricks to make floor. Most houses were roofed with leaves or grass. This is consistent with the aggregate wealth index data for the sampled households, where majority of the them were classified as poor. Probably, this is worsened by major recurring agricultural shocks including food inflation (68%), rising agricultural input prices (67%), drought (53%) and crop pest and disease outbreaks (42%) in the six study districts. Moreover, about 85% of the sampled households accessed drinking water from boreholes and not piped water. On other water, sanitation and hygiene characteristics, majority (54%) of the households used their own (private) traditional latrines with a wall and roof."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"Several key issues are emerging from our analysis on the five impact areas: (1) nutrition, health and food security; (2) poverty reduction, livelihoods and jobs; (3) gender equality, youth and social inclusion; (4) climate adaptation and mitigation; and (5) environmental health and biodiversity. First, we generally observe that a farming household had FCS of 41 and HDDS of seven. To be precise, farming households from the treatment group had higher food consumption expenditure than those in the control group by MWK18,158. We also found that female headed households have lower scores for FCS (41.82 vs. 38.8) and HDDS (7.36 vs. 6.91) than male headed households. Young people have a higher HDDS and food consumption expenditure than adults."},{"index":6,"size":96,"text":"Second, even though most of the sampled households have a diversified diet (they consumed seven food groups on average), poverty levels are still high (73%). This suggests that most farming households may still struggle to access highly nutritious food from food markets as well as accessing basic needs to support their livelihood. More poor households came from the control group (76%) compared to the treatment group (72%). Dedza had the highest household income than any other study district. However, women and the youths are earning less crop, livestock and non-farm income from farming and non-farm activities."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"Perhaps, these results entail that women farmers and the youths could be deliberately targeted as beneficiaries for the SI-MFS initiative."},{"index":8,"size":133,"text":"Third, in addition to gender disparity on income and assets ownership including land, gender pay gap also exists on agricultural activities. Overall, male casual laborers earned more income than female casual workers when they were engaged in farming activities, non-farm activities and businesses in the study districts. Similarly, we observed a considerable gender disparity on time use and participation in community organizations. Male farmers mainly participated in community organizations such as church or mosque (47%), local administration (11%) and groups associated with input supply (11%). Whereas female farmers generally participated in village savings and loan associations (VSLA) (45%) and farmers' associations (9%). In general, these results underscore that gender and social inequalities are a persistent feature of agri-food systems including MFS and if not addressed, achieving the SDGs by 2030 will be difficult."},{"index":9,"size":115,"text":"Lastly, with recurrent extreme weather events, achieving the SDGs without climatesensitive interventions will be a formidable challenge. The results show that more land was allocated to crops under CA, inorganic fertilizer and organic manure. Our analysis suggest that population plays a contrasting role on allocation of land to SI technologies. Farmers in Kasungu and Mzimba-abundant land with less population-districts allocated more land to SI technologies such as CA (i.e., crop rotation and zero/minimum tillage). In contrast, farmers in districts with higher population density such as Mangochi and Balaka are associated with smaller farm sizes. As a result, more land is under intercropping in these districts, which may act as a coping mechanism to land scarcity."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" development-oriented interventions aiming at driving MFS towards SI. To address this knowledge gap, a baseline survey was conducted from December 2022 to January 2023 in Malawi. The objective of the study was to characterize SI-MFS. Therefore, this baseline report focuses on providing critical features of SI-MFS in Malawi. Using cross-sectional data from the baseline survey, our descriptive analysis focuses on general farming characteristics and five impact areas of the initiative: (1) nutrition, health and food security; (2) poverty reduction, livelihoods and jobs; (3) gender equality, youth and social inclusion; (4) climate adaptation and mitigation; and (5) environmental health and biodiversity. Through different interventions under the SI-MFS initiative, outcomes from these impact areas will contribute to several SDGs including no poverty, zero hunger, good health, gender equality and empowering all women and girls, decent work, and economic growth. The Malawi baseline survey covered several topics: household demographics, time use and labor, agricultural land characteristics, gender, crop production, input use and productivity, storage facility, livestock ownership, dwelling characteristics, and asset ownership, food consumption expenditure, nonfood consumption expenditure, and household shocks. "},{"text":" ). Several SI-MFS interventions focusing on different agricultural technologies are being implemented in these districts including conservation agriculture (CA), different types of intercropping (e.g., double-up legumes and mbili mbili) of other hybrid maize with improved groundnut, soybean, cowpea, pigeon pea, and bean varieties with different doses of inorganic fertilizer. "},{"text":"Figure 1 | Figure 1 | Map of Malawi showing the sample distribution by survey district. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Average household size, by district and research group. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Average adult years of education by district and research group. "},{"text":" Note: N, Number of observations (No. of farming households). **Significance at 5%. "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Economic activities by research groups. "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Average household land size (ha) by district and research group. "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Average number of parcels by district and research group. "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Percentage (%) of households with closest parcel within 15 minutes away by district and research group. "},{"text":"Figure 8 Figure 8 reports the proportion of sampled households who grew selected crops by the research group. One key message from Figure 8 is that maize arguably remains the most essential crop "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: Percentage of households who cultivate various crops. "},{"text":"Figure 10 : Figure 10: Average amount of fertilizer use by district and research group. "},{"text":"Figure 11 : Figure 11: Percentage of households using improved maize seed by district and research group. "},{"text":"Figure 12 : Figure 12: Average person-days used (including communal labor) by district and research group. "},{"text":" Note: N, Number of observations (No. of farming households). *Significance at 10%, **Significance at 5%, ***Significance at 1%. "},{"text":"Figure 13 : Figure 13: Percentage of households that had crops in storage one month after harvest by research group. "},{"text":" Note: N, Number of observations (No. of farming households). *Significance at 10%, **Significance at 5%, ***Significance at 1%. "},{"text":"Figure 14 : Figure 14: Average number of animals owned by households by research group. "},{"text":" significant only for three types of animals: pigs, oxen and horse or donkey (Figures14a and "},{"text":" Note: N, Number of observations (No. of farming households). ***Significance at 1%. "},{"text":"Figure 15 . Figure 15. Percentage of households who experienced agriculture-related shocks. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 also shows the detailed geographical distribution of the sampled households (i.e., farming households) by district, EPA, and research group. Of 1,269 households, 320 were  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Distribution of sampled households by EPA and research group    Number of Number of Treatment Control Full Number ofNumber ofTreatmentControlFull District EPA sections villages households households sample DistrictEPAsectionsvillageshouseholdshouseholdssample Balaka Rivirivi 2 6 110 16 126 BalakaRivirivi2611016126 Balaka Phalula 4 10 162 32 194 BalakaPhalula41016232194 Dedza Golomoti 2 4 55 15 70 DedzaGolomoti24551570 Dedza Lobi 2 6 107 17 124 DedzaLobi2610717124 Kasungu Chulu 8 12 108 64 172 KasunguChulu81210864172 Kasungu Lisasadzi 2 5 27 33 60 KasunguLisasadzi25273360 Mangochi Nasenga 4 11 190 32 222 MangochiNasenga41119032222 Mzimba Champhira 6 11 108 64 172 MzimbaChamphira61110864172 Zomba Masaula 4 6 54 32 86 ZombaMasaula46543286 Zomba Dzaone 2 3 27 16 43 ZombaDzaone23271643   36 74 948 321 1,269 36749483211,269 While 194 farming households were interviewed in Dedza, with 70 and 124 households While 194 farming households were interviewed in Dedza, with 70 and 124 households coming from Golomoti and Lobi EPAs, respectively. In Kasungu, 97 control households and coming from Golomoti and Lobi EPAs, respectively. In Kasungu, 97 control households and 135 treatment households were interviewed. Whereas 222, 172, and 129 households were 135 treatment households were interviewed. Whereas 222, 172, and 129 households were interviewed for Mangochi, Mzimba and Zomba, respectively. While almost all the study interviewed for Mangochi, Mzimba and Zomba, respectively. While almost all the study districts covered more than one EPA, only one EPA (Champhira) was covered in Mzimba. districts covered more than one EPA, only one EPA (Champhira) was covered in Mzimba.  "},{"text":"Table 2  reports the summary statistics for selected demographic characteristics at the household reports the summary statistics for selected demographic characteristics at the household level. Our analysis primarily focused on five characteristics: household size, adult years of level. Our analysis primarily focused on five characteristics: household size, adult years of education, adult age, age of the household head, and dependency ratio. The dependency ratio education, adult age, age of the household head, and dependency ratio. The dependency ratio  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Household level summary statistics by research group  N Mean SD Min Max NMeanSDMinMax  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Summary statistics for other demographic characteristics for the household head by research groups   Full sample Treatment Control Mean Full sampleTreatmentControlMean  (N=1,269) (N=948) (N=321) difference (N=1,269)(N=948)(N=321)difference  (1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) -(3) (1)(2)(3)(4) = (2) -(3) Religion (%)     Religion (%) Christianity 77.30 76.27 80.37 -04 Christianity77.3076.2780.37-04 Muslim 21.12 22.26 17.76 05* Muslim21.1222.2617.7605* African traditional religion 1.10 1.16 0.93 00 African traditional religion1.101.160.9300 None 0.47 0.32 0.93 -00 None0.470.320.93-00 Gender (%)     Gender (%) Male 66.98 65.93 70.09 -04 Male66.9865.9370.09-04 Education (%)     Education (%) None 13.40 14.14 11.21 03 None13.4014.1411.2103 Standard 1-4 21.59 22.15 19.94 02 Standard 1-421.5922.1519.9402 Standard 5-8 42.40 41.14 46.11 -05 Standard 5-842.4041.1446.11-05 Form 1-3 12.69 12.97 11.84 01 Form 1-312.6912.9711.8401 O-level and above 9.38 9.28 9.66 -00 O-level and above9.389.289.66-00 Adult literacy 0.55 0.32 1.25 -01* Adult literacy0.550.321.25-01*  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Summary statistics of time allocation and perceived engagement in daily activities (%)  Full sample Treatment Control Mean difference Full sampleTreatmentControlMean difference (N=1,269) (N=948) (N=321) (N=1,269) (N=1,269)(N=948)(N=321)(N=1,269) (1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) -(3) (1)(2)(3)(4) = (2) -(3)  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Summary statistics of agricultural land by research group  N Mean SD Min Max NMeanSDMinMax  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Descriptive statistics on parcel characteristics by gender   Full Husband  Wife FullHusbandWife  sample Yes No Yes No sampleYesNoYesNo  (N=6,368) (N=791) (N=5,577) (N=734) (N=5,634) (N=6,368)(N=791)(N=5,577)(N=734)(N=5,634)  (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (1)(2)(3)(4)(5) Parcel characteristics      Parcel characteristics Distance from homestead to 21.52 22.60* 20.41 20.74 22.47 Distance from homestead to21.5222.60*20.4120.7422.47 parcel (walking minutes) (30.68) (32.97) (28.09) (28.47) (33.17) parcel (walking minutes)(30.68)(32.97)(28.09)(28.47)(33.17) Parcel size (ha) 0.90 0.98** 0.82 0.80*** 1.04 Parcel size (ha)0.900.98**0.820.80***1.04  (1.83) (1.89) (1.76) (1.72) (1.95) (1.83)(1.89)(1.76)(1.72)(1.95) Plot allocation decision (%) 82 100*** 63 80*** 84 Plot allocation decision (%)82100***6380***84  (39) (00) (48) (40) (36) (39)(00)(48)(40)(36) Number of plots (number) 1.30 1.31 1.29 1.27** 1.34 Number of plots (number)1.301.311.291.27**1.34  (0.62) (0.64) (0.60) (0.59) (0.66) (0.62)(0.64)(0.60)(0.59)(0.66)  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Cultivated crop area (in hectares) by research group   Full sample (N=1,269) (1) Treatment (N=948) (2) Control (N=321) (3) Mean difference (4) = (2) -(3) Full sample (N=1,269) (1)Treatment (N=948) (2)Control (N=321) (3)Mean difference (4) = (2) -(3) Maize 0.48 0.47 0.52 -0.04* Maize0.480.470.52-0.04* Soybean 0.13 0.11 0.20 -0.09*** Soybean0.130.110.20-0.09*** Groundnut 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.01 Groundnut0.080.080.080.01 Pigeon pea 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 Pigeon pea0.030.030.020.01 Tobacco 0.02 0.01 0.02 -0.01 Tobacco0.020.010.02-0.01 Sorghum 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.00 Sorghum0.020.020.010.00 Cowpea 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00 Cowpea0.010.020.010.00 Cotton 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01** Cotton0.010.020.000.01** Sweet potato 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 Sweet potato0.010.010.010.00 Peas 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 Peas0.010.010.000.00 Cassava 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 Cassava0.010.010.010.01 Bean 0.00 0.00 0.01 -0.00 Bean0.000.000.01-0.00 Potato 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.00 Potato0.000.000.00-0.00  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Proportion of sampled farmers adopting SI-MFS technologies by research group   Full sample Treatment Control Mean difference Full sampleTreatmentControlMean difference  (N=1,269) (N=948) (N=321)  (N=1,269)(N=948)(N=321)  (1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) -(3) (1)(2)(3)(4) = (2) -(3) Mixed farming 35 37 31 06** Mixed farming35373106**  (48) (48) (46)  (48)(48)(46) Fertilizer use 75 75 77 -02 Fertilizer use757577-02  (43) (43) (42)  (43)(43)(42) Maize improved 44 42 50 -08** Maize improved444250-08**  (50) (49) (50)  (50)(49)(50) Intercropping 49 54 35 19*** Intercropping49543519***  (50) (50) (48)  (50)(50)(48) Crop rotation 53 51 61 -10*** Crop rotation535161-10***  (50) (50) (49)  (50)(50)(49) Zero/minimum tillage 15 14 16 -01 Zero/minimum tillage151416-01  (35) (35) (36)  (35)(35)(36) Organic manure 49 51 43 08** Organic manure49514308**  (50) (50) (50)  (50)(50)(50) Inoculant 02 02 03 -00 Inoculant020203-00  (15) (15) (17)  (15)(15)(17) Lime 01 01 00 01* Lime01010001*  (09) (11) (00)  (09)(11)(00)  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Households using agricultural inputs  Full sample (N=1,269) (1) Treatment (N=948) (2) Control (N=321) (3) Mean difference (4) = (2) -(3) Full sample (N=1,269) (1)Treatment (N=948) (2)Control (N=321) (3)Mean difference (4) = (2) -(3)  "},{"text":"Table 10 : Descriptive statistics on agricultural inputs by gender Note: Mean values are shown with standard deviations in parentheses. We used t-test to test the mean difference between columns (2) or (4) and (3) or (5). **Significance at 5%, ***Significance at 1%.  Full Husband  Wife FullHusbandWife  sample Yes No Yes No sampleYesNoYesNo  (N=6,368) (N=791) (N=5,577) (N=734) (N=5,634) (N=6,368)(N=791)(N=5,577)(N=734)(N=5,634)  (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (1)(2)(3)(4)(5) Plot size (ha) 0.38 0.41*** 0.36 0.37** 0.40 Plot size (ha)0.380.41***0.360.37**0.40  (0.30) (0.30) (0.29) (0.30) (0.30) (0.30)(0.30)(0.29)(0.30)(0.30) Improved maize seed (%) 0.33 0.35** 0.31 0.33 0.32 Improved maize seed (%)0.330.35**0.310.330.32  (0.47) (0.48) (0.46) (0.47) (0.47) (0.47)(0.48)(0.46)(0.47)(0.47) Fertilizer use (%) 0.49 0.50 0.48 0.51** 0.46 Fertilizer use (%)0.490.500.480.51**0.46  (0.50) (0.50) (0.50) (0.50) (0.50) (0.50)(0.50)(0.50)(0.50)(0.50) Pesticide use 0.08 0.10*** 0.06 0.06*** 0.10 Pesticide use0.080.10***0.060.06***0.10  (0.27) (0.30) (0.23) (0.23) (0.30) (0.27)(0.30)(0.23)(0.23)(0.30) Hired labor (%) 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.20 0.18 Hired labor (%)0.200.200.190.200.18  (0.40) (0.40) (0.39) (0.40) (0.39) (0.40)(0.40)(0.39)(0.40)(0.39)  "},{"text":"Table 11 : Descriptive statistics for crop yields (kg/ha) by research group  Crop yield Full sample Treatment Control Mean difference Crop yieldFull sampleTreatmentControlMean difference (kg/ha) (N=1,269) (N=948) (N=321)  (kg/ha)(N=1,269)(N=948)(N=321)  (1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) -(3) (1)(2)(3)(4) = (2) -(3) Bean 580.59 611.53 485.38 126.15 Bean580.59611.53485.38126.15  (615.35) (655.54) (465.09)  (615.35)(655.54)(465.09) Groundnuts 793.25 816.82 713.05 103.77 Groundnuts793.25816.82713.05103.77  (824.83) (834.82) (790.27)  (824.83)(834.82)(790.27) Soybean 820.65 850.43 761.85 88.59 Soybean820.65850.43761.8588.59  (609.86) (656.88) (501.72)  (609.86)(656.88)(501.72) Cotton 851.86 846.55 926.25 -79.70 Cotton851.86846.55926.25-79.70  (607.86) (590.50) (1135.26)  (607.86)(590.50)(1135.26) Peas 853.82 688.76 1679.10 -990.34*** Peas853.82688.761679.10-990.34***  (1028.74) (790.16) (1615.08)  (1028.74)(790.16)(1615.08) Pigeon pea 482.17 464.96 667.19 -202.24 Pigeon pea482.17464.96667.19-202.24  (394.65) (372.12) (632.18)  (394.65)(372.12)(632.18) Cowpea 790.87 774.53 848.91 -74.38 Cowpea790.87774.53848.91-74.38  (653.95) (667.07) (612.64)  (653.95)(667.07)(612.64) Maize 1283.29 1279.82 1293.61 -13.80 Maize1283.291279.821293.61-13.80  (932.96) (948.34) (887.12)  (932.96)(948.34)(887.12) Sorghum 1095.00 1022.68 1376.23 -353.55 Sorghum1095.001022.681376.23-353.55  (1014.63) (963.67) (1170.07)  (1014.63)(963.67)(1170.07) Cassava 1700.77 1711.62 1689.29 22.33 Cassava1700.771711.621689.2922.33  (1425.42) (1378.72) (1515.80)  (1425.42)(1378.72)(1515.80) Tobacco 1398.52 1576.65 1042.26 534.39* Tobacco1398.521576.651042.26534.39*  (793.04) (760.74) (774.60)  (793.04)(760.74)(774.60) Potato 1999.54 1947.77 2241.11 -293.34 Potato1999.541947.772241.11-293.34  (1295.66) (1271.32) (1678.66)  (1295.66)(1271.32)(1678.66) Sweet potato 2073.01 1975.76 2382.43 -406.67 Sweet potato2073.011975.762382.43-406.67  (1231.43) (1211.78) (1301.12)  (1231.43)(1211.78)(1301.12)  "},{"text":"Table 12 . The proportion of households using various storage facilities    Full sample Treatment Control Full sampleTreatmentControl Crop Storage facility (N=1,269) (N=948) (N=321) CropStorage facility(N=1,269)(N=948)(N=321) All crops Traditional granary 2.52 2.64 2.18 All cropsTraditional granary2.522.642.18  Metal/plastic silos 1.42 1.48 1.25 Metal/plastic silos1.421.481.25  Polypropylene/wollen bags 92.67 92.19 94.08 Polypropylene/wollen bags92.6792.1994.08  Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags 3.94 3.80 4.36 Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags3.943.804.36  Other 2.99 2.85 3.43 Other2.992.853.43 Maize Traditional granary 2.75 2.88 2.37 MaizeTraditional granary2.752.882.37  Metal/plastic silos 1.55 1.61 1.36 Metal/plastic silos1.551.611.36  Polypropylene/wollen bags 97.07 96.77 97.97 Polypropylene/wollen bags97.0796.7797.97  Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags 4.30 4.15 4.75 Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags4.304.154.75  Other 2.93 2.65 3.73 Other2.932.653.73 Groundnuts Traditional granary 1.77 2.34 0.00 GroundnutsTraditional granary1.772.340.00  Metal/plastic silos 1.77 2.34 0.00 Metal/plastic silos1.772.340.00  Polypropylene/wollen bags 99.65 99.53 100.00 Polypropylene/wollen bags99.6599.53100.00  Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags 5.65 5.61 5.80 Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags5.655.615.80  Other 3.18 2.34 5.80 Other3.182.345.80 Soybean Traditional granary 2.40 2.04 3.13 SoybeanTraditional granary2.402.043.13  Metal/plastic silos 1.71 0.51** 4.17 Metal/plastic silos1.710.51**4.17  Polypropylene/wollen bags 100.00 100.00 100.00 Polypropylene/wollen bags100.00100.00100.00  Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags 5.48 4.08 8.33 Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags5.484.088.33  Other 3.77 3.06 5.21 Other3.773.065.21  "},{"text":"Table 13 : Housing, water, sanitation and hygiene characteristics (%)  Full sample Treatment Control Mean Full sampleTreatmentControlMean (N=1,269) (N=948) (N=321) difference (N=1,269)(N=948)(N=321)difference (1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) -(3) (1)(2)(3)(4) = (2) -(3)  "},{"text":"Table 14 : Aggregate wealth index   Number of households Mean SD Min Max Number of householdsMeanSDMinMax First quintile (poorest 20%) 238 -1.932 0.256 -2.538 -1.523 First quintile (poorest 20%)238-1.9320.256-2.538-1.523 Second 237 -1.224 0.174 -1.520 -0.900 Second237-1.2240.174-1.520-0.900 Third 237 -0.558 0.210 -0.899 -0.136 Third237-0.5580.210-0.899-0.136 Fourth 237 0.426 0.354 -0.134 1.083 Fourth2370.4260.354-0.1341.083 Fifth (richest 20%) 237 3.300 2.565 1.086 15.416 Fifth (richest 20%)2373.3002.5651.08615.416 Full sample 1,186 0.001 2.165 -2.538 15.416 Full sample1,1860.0012.165-2.53815.416  "},{"text":"Table 15 : Descriptive statistics for nutritional outcomes and food consumption expenditure (income) by research groups   Full sample Treatment Control Mean difference Full sampleTreatmentControlMean difference  (N=1,269) (N=948) (N=321)  (N=1,269)(N=948)(N=321)  (1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) -(3) (1)(2)(3)(4) = (2) -(3) Food consumption score 40.82 40.95 40.44 0.52 Food consumption score40.8240.9540.440.52  (13.54) (13.54) (13.55)  (13.54)(13.54)(13.55) Household dietary diversity score 7.21 7.24 7.12 0.12 Household dietary diversity score7.217.247.120.12  (1.69) (1.68) (1.72)  (1.69)(1.68)(1.72) Food expenditure (MWK/capita/year) 108,981 113,574 95,415 18,158*** Food expenditure (MWK/capita/year)108,981113,57495,41518,158***  (109,194) (112,869) (96,425)  (109,194)(112,869)(96,425) Note: Mean values are shown with standard deviations in parentheses. 1 US$=MWK1,025 at the time of the survey (i.e., December 2022). Note: Mean values are shown with standard deviations in parentheses. 1 US$=MWK1,025 at the time of the survey (i.e., December 2022). ***Significance at 1%.     ***Significance at 1%.  "},{"text":"Table 16 . Farmers inMangochi had the highest FCS, HHDS and food consumption expenditure than other study districts. While, Dedza had the lowest FCS, HHDS and food consumption expenditure. These results suggest that farmers in Mangochi are able to access more diverse food groups with easy.  "},{"text":"Table 16 : Descriptive statistics for nutritional outcomes and food consumption expenditure (income) by district Note: Mean values are shown with standard deviations in parentheses. 1 US$=MWK1,025 at the time of the survey (i.e., December 2022).  Balaka Dedza Kasungu Mangochi Mzimba Zomba BalakaDedzaKasunguMangochiMzimbaZomba  (N=320) (N=194) (N=232) (N=222) (N=172) (N=129) (N=320)(N=194)(N=232)(N=222)(N=172)(N=129)  (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6) Food consumption score 38.19 36.55 44.09 46.14 39.68 40.28 Food consumption score38.1936.5544.0946.1439.6840.28  (11.30) (14.59) (15.31) (12.19) (13.36) (11.95) (11.30)(14.59)(15.31)(12.19)(13.36)(11.95) Household dietary diversity score 7.06 6.56 7.47 7.64 7.36 7.18 Household dietary diversity score7.066.567.477.647.367.18  (1.51) (1.96) (1.76) (1.36) (1.83) (1.52) (1.51)(1.96)(1.76)(1.36)(1.83)(1.52) Food expenditure 117,806 100,004 101,503 124,177 103,996 94,532 Food expenditure117,806100,004101,503124,177103,99694,532 (MWK/capita/year) (105,877) (96,993) (88,845) (158,377) (75,506) (98,794) (MWK/capita/year)(105,877)(96,993)(88,845)(158,377)(75,506)(98,794)  "},{"text":"Table 17 : Descriptive statistics for nutritional outcomes and food consumption expenditure (income) by gender and age category Note: Mean values are shown with standard deviations in parentheses. 1 US$=MWK1,025 at the time of the survey (i.e., December 2022). Gender Age category GenderAge category Male HH Female HH Youth HH Non-Youth HH Male HHFemale HHYouth HHNon-Youth HH (N=850) (N=419) (N=364) (N=905) (N=850)(N=419)(N=364)(N=905) (1) (2) (3) (4) (1)(2)(3)(4)  "},{"text":"Table 18 : Descriptive statistics on poverty status, income, livelihoods and jobs   Full Research group Mean difference FullResearch groupMean difference  sample Treatment Control  sampleTreatmentControl  (N=1,269) (N=948) (N=321)  (N=1,269)(N=948)(N=321)  (1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) -(3) (1)(2)(3)(4) = (2) -(3) Poor households (%) 73 72 76 04 Poor households (%)73727604  (45) (45) (43)  (45)(45)(43) Farmers involved in agriculture (%) 94 93 95 02 Farmers involved in agriculture (%)94939502  (24) (25) (21)  (24)(25)(21) Farmers involved in non-agriculture 74 72 78 06** Farmers involved in non-agriculture74727806** activities (%) (44) (45) (42)  activities (%)(44)(45)(42) Household income (MWK/capita/year) 182,204 177,103 197,270 20,167 Household income (MWK/capita/year)182,204177,103197,27020,167  (1,102,897) (1,074,447) (1184,567)  (1,102,897)(1,074,447)(1184,567) Crop income (MWK/capita/year) 166,397 161,416 181,107 19,691 Crop income (MWK/capita/year)166,397161,416181,10719,691  (1,098,564) (1,072,904) (1172,697)  (1,098,564)(1,072,904)(1172,697) Livestock income (MWK/capita/year) 185 169 231 62 Livestock income (MWK/capita/year)18516923162  (1,757) (1,740) (1,806)  (1,757)(1,740)(1,806) Non-farm income (MWK/capita/year) 15,622 15,518 15,931 413 Non-farm income (MWK/capita/year)15,62215,51815,931413  (24,225) (22,613) (28,496)  (24,225)(22,613)(28,496) Note: Mean values are shown with standard deviations in parentheses. 1 US$=MWK1,025 at the time of the survey (i.e., December 2022). Note: Mean values are shown with standard deviations in parentheses. 1 US$=MWK1,025 at the time of the survey (i.e., December 2022). **Significance at 5%.     **Significance at 5%.  "},{"text":"Table 19 : Descriptive statistics on poverty status, income, livelihoods and jobs by district Note: Mean values are shown with standard deviations in parentheses. HH, Household Head. 1 US$=MWK1,025 at the time of the survey (i.e., December 2022).  Balaka Dedza Kasungu Mangochi Mzimba Zomba BalakaDedzaKasunguMangochiMzimbaZomba  (N=320) (N=194) (N=232) (N=222) (N=172) (N=129) (N=320)(N=194)(N=232)(N=222)(N=172)(N=129)  (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6) Poor households (%) 72 77 70 69 73 79 Poor households (%)727770697379  (45) (42) (46) (46) (44) (41) (45)(42)(46)(46)(44)(41) Farmers involved in agriculture (%) 93 97 98 89 95 90 Farmers involved in agriculture (%)939798899590  (25) (16) (15) (32) (21) (30) (25)(16)(15)(32)(21)(30) Farmers involved in non-agriculture activities 73 71 70 80 76 71 Farmers involved in non-agriculture activities737170807671 (%) (45) (46) (46) (40) (43) (45) (%)(45)(46)(46)(40)(43)(45) Household income (MWK/capita/year) 84,431 315,819 268,888 112,120 247,016 102,099 Household income (MWK/capita/year)84,431315,819268,888112,120247,016102,099  (381,801) (2145,579) (833769) (457,452) (1,479,874) (344,162) (381,801)(2145,579)(833769)(457,452)(1,479,874)(344,162) Crop income (MWK/capita/year) 71,151 303,751 252,910 91,020 228,610 87,280 Crop income (MWK/capita/year)71,151303,751252,91091,020228,61087,280  (379,067) (2,142,655) (834,063) (452,639) (1463,646) (342,818) (379,067)(2,142,655)(834,063)(452,639)(1463,646)(342,818) Livestock income (MWK/capita/year) 112 114 305 163 34 495 Livestock income (MWK/capita/year)11211430516334495  (1,271) (1,266) (2,496) (1,473) (217) (2,984) (1,271)(1,266)(2,496)(1,473)(217)(2,984) Non-farm income (MWK/capita/year) 13,168 11,955 15,673 20,936 18,372 14,323 Non-farm income (MWK/capita/year)13,16811,95515,67320,93618,37214,323  (15,553) (16,802) (18,732) (34,422) (27,521) (31,586) (15,553)(16,802)(18,732)(34,422)(27,521)(31,586)  "},{"text":"Table 20 : Descriptive statistics on poverty status, income, livelihoods and jobs by gender and age category  Gender Age category GenderAge category Male HH Female HH Youth HH Non-Youth HH Male HHFemale HHYouth HHNon-Youth HH (N=850) (N=419) (N=364) (N=905) (N=850)(N=419)(N=364)(N=905) (1) (2) (3) (4) (1)(2)(3)(4)  "},{"text":"Table 24 : Area under sustainable intensification technologies by research group results does not account for intensive margins. To address this limitation, Tables 24, 25 and 26 show results on area under SI technologies by research group, district, and gender and age category, respectively.Table24results show that more land was allocated to crops under CA, inorganic fertilizer and organic manure. Unlike CA, farmers from the treatment group had more land under intercropping than the control group. As mentioned earlier, 49% of the sampled farmers  Full sample Treatment Control Mean Full sampleTreatmentControlMean  (N=1,269) (N=948) (N=321) difference (N=1,269)(N=948)(N=321)difference  (1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) -(3) (1)(2)(3)(4) = (2) -(3) Conservation agriculture (ha) 0.86 0.82 0.99 -0.16* Conservation agriculture (ha)0.860.820.99-0.16*  (1.48) (1.56) (1.21)  (1.48)(1.56)(1.21) Inorganic fertilizer (ha) 0.81 0.77 0.92 -0.15 Inorganic fertilizer (ha)0.810.770.92-0.15  (1.45) (1.51) (1.23)  (1.45)(1.51)(1.23) Organic manure (ha) 0.46 0.47 0.45 0.02 Organic manure (ha)0.460.470.450.02  (1.32) (1.44) (0.83)  (1.32)(1.44)(0.83) Intercropping (ha) 0.26 0.28 0.20 0.08** Intercropping (ha)0.260.280.200.08**  (0.48) (0.51) (0.39)  (0.48)(0.51)(0.39)  "},{"text":"Table 25 : Area under sustainable intensification technologies by district   Balaka Dedza Kasungu Mangochi Mzimba Zomba BalakaDedzaKasunguMangochiMzimbaZomba  (N=320) (N=194) (N=232) (N=222) (N=172) (N=129) (N=320)(N=194)(N=232)(N=222)(N=172)(N=129)  (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6) Conservation agriculture (ha) 0.91 0.57 1.49 0.40 1.02 0.67 Conservation agriculture (ha)0.910.571.490.401.020.67  (2.35) (0.63) (1.48) (0.43) (1.02) (0.64) (2.35)(0.63)(1.48)(0.43)(1.02)(0.64) Inorganic fertilizer (ha) 0.70 0.46 1.43 0.48 1.11 0.66 Inorganic fertilizer (ha)0.700.461.430.481.110.66  (2.26) (0.67) (1.52) (0.40) (0.97) (0.67) (2.26)(0.67)(1.52)(0.40)(0.97)(0.67) Organic manure (ha) 0.69 0.38 0.46 0.40 0.22 0.44 Organic manure (ha)0.690.380.460.400.220.44  (2.32) (0.58) (0.96) (0.44) (0.65) (0.61) (2.32)(0.58)(0.96)(0.44)(0.65)(0.61) Intercropping (ha) 0.31 0.33 0.11 0.29 0.08 0.47 Intercropping (ha)0.310.330.110.290.080.47  (0.69) (0.36) (0.38) (0.31) (0.27) (0.51) (0.69)(0.36)(0.38)(0.31)(0.27)(0.51)  "},{"text":"Table 26 : Area under sustainable intensification technologies by gender and age category adopted intercropping. This is so because most farmers have limited arable land, as such intercropping or mixed farming is a coping mechanism to land scarcity. Does land availability in the study districts play a significant role on explaining area under SI technologies? Table25show area under SI technologies in the six study districts. As expected, farmers in Kasungu and Mzimba allocated more land to SI technologies such as CA (i.e., crop rotation and zero/minimum tillage) and inorganic fertilizer. Probably, the population in the two districts is low relative to availability of arable land. Similar studies (e.g., Ricker-  Gender Age category GenderAge category  Male HH Female HH Youth HH Non-Youth HH Male HHFemale HHYouth HHNon-Youth HH  (N=850) (N=419) (N=364) (N=905) (N=850)(N=419)(N=364)(N=905)  (1) (2) (3) (4) (1)(2)(3)(4) Conservation agriculture (ha) 0.94*** 0.71 0.71** 0.93 Conservation agriculture (ha)0.94***0.710.71**0.93  (1.06) (2.08) (2.10) (1.13) (1.06)(2.08)(2.10)(1.13) Inorganic fertilizer (ha 0.90*** 0.63 0.65** 0.87 Inorganic fertilizer (ha0.90***0.630.65**0.87  (1.08) (1.98) (2.11) (1.07) (1.08)(1.98)(2.11)(1.07) Organic manure (ha) 0.46 0.48 0.40 0.49 Organic manure (ha)0.460.480.400.49  (0.73) (2.04) (2.08) (0.83) (0.73)(2.04)(2.08)(0.83) Intercropping (ha) 0.25 0.27 0.20*** 0.28 Intercropping (ha)0.250.270.20***0.28  (0.40) (0.62) (0.34) (0.53) (0.40)(0.62)(0.34)(0.53)  "}],"sieverID":"6d1228c2-63e4-4b85-bc85-ad7126b5a804","abstract":""}

data/part_1/01cd0c52fa02e20f15f4a60f9ab34016.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01cd0c52fa02e20f15f4a60f9ab34016","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9f03aba2-176d-4069-a03e-fd6acedf2879/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"~~","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Par Pina' '~ndersen ~()o'\\. "}]},{"head":"BIBLIOTECA","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Faat economíc analysis with raapect to casaava ia acarce. Aa a component oí an international program on the improvement of cassava, research is needed on the economics of ita produotion, marketing and conaumptíon."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The suggested objectives of CIAT agricultural economics reaearch activities on csasava are: l."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"To help guide the allocation of research resources. Attempts will be made to estimate relative social pay-off from alternative research efforta."}]},{"head":"2.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"To help improve the economíc efficiency of cassava procluction and' marketing."}]},{"head":"3.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"To estímate the overall economic and social conaequances of the adoption of improved technology in casaava production and marketing, 4."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"To help guide prívate and public investment and public poUcy with respect to caasa va."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"The specific areas of research needed include the following:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"Research to identify the major bottlenecks in production, marketing and consumption of cassava; to estimate the relative economic importance oí each one of these bottlenecks and to estímate the cost of reducing Q.l' eliminating them."}]},{"head":"2.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Research to estímate the cost of producing cassava under various management systems. Thia would include analyses ou the relative coat oí alternative means of diaease, weed and iusect control, optímum i j Discussion papel' preparad for the International Cassava Prograrn Review Conference, Cali, Colombia, January 10-12, 1972."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"¡."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":".."}]},{"head":"• ,","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"• \"i ' ."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":", 3."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"-2,-fertiliz~r use, plant spacing and other cost components. Furthermore, the relationship between cost oí production and farm size should be analy~d ."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Research too estimate economic losses dUring transportation and storage under various marketing systems. Furthermore, economic losses due to price fluctuations caused by saasonal variations in supply and demand or inefficient marketing systems should be analyzed."}]},{"head":"4.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Research to•analyze present and future demand for cassava. Demande for fresh and processed cassava will be considered. Tha economic feasibility oí utilizing increasing quantities of fresh cassava for animal feed and for industrial processing will be emphasized. 1'his would inelude a study to determine fue economic feasibility and the impact on consumer welfare of utilizing cassava to replace higher oost fonda and feeds."}]},{"head":"5.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Research to analyze the implication of an expanded cassava production on employrnent, incornes, income distribution and foreign trade."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"Given "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" the research resources available to the Agricultural Economics Program of CIA T it is obvious thst a considerable amount ol outside collaboration wiIl be needed to carry out the aboYe mentioned research withln a reasonable time span. Even with suoh collaboration 1t is doubtful whether aH the projects involved could or should be carried out sirnultaneously, hence a time priority ranking must be established. It appears that research area number one, including closely relatad projects from the othar four arcas of research, is, the most urgent.  "}],"sieverID":"656aaed1-2d41-4289-bcba-06fa852f3f98","abstract":""}

data/part_1/020ef509b1b739f455cff287edc35048.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"020ef509b1b739f455cff287edc35048","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a6aaa641-ea28-409f-9ccc-8aa1c6a0e936/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"• Farming serves as the cornerstone of the Agri-food Value Chain (AVC). It is crucial to provide increased support to marginalized farmers, particularly women [around 80% of rural women in India] who play a significant role • Traditional advisory services struggle to meet the evolving needs of the changing AVC, particularly for the most vulnerable stakeholders • Digital agriculture, driven by greater digital inclusion, opens up new opportunities for value addition. In rural areas, the adoption of ICT devices is on the rise","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY OBJECTIVES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"2. ICT Use Behaviour of the selected Women Farmers 1. Women farmers' existing Agri-information sources and their limitations"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• Women are heavily involved in crop cultivation due to male migration. Their challenges include a lack of timely information and limited awareness of ICT's potential in farming."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• When the capacity of the key actors is built, and their ICT use behavior is reiterated, they can act as important players in the local agri-information system."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• Social Network Analysis (SNA) can enhance the effectiveness of ICT-enabled agro-advisory services for women farmers."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"• The preparedness for adopting digital services shows moderately high motivation, irrespective of lower capabilities and opportunities, which need further attention "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Transitioning from ICT-enabled Advisory to Digitalized Agri-food Value Chain for Empowering Women Farmers: Experience from A Donor-supported Initiative in Indian Sundarbans INRODUCTION Kousik Mallick , Rupak Goswami , Sukamal Sarkar , Subhasis Mandal , Krishnendu Ray , Kalyan Roy , Poulami Sen, Sanchayeeta Misra Data collection Focus Group Discussion, Household Survey, Data analysis Atlas.ti. 9, UCINET, Excel Selection of Geographical boundary of the study location Capacity building and provisioning of season long agro-advisory services to the key actors We supplied smartphones to five key actors in the project, enabling them to connect with agricultural experts Key actors are trained to use Android smartphones effectively, connecting with experts through designated apps as they learn The key actors sends pictures and questions related to their farming; experts responds with easy to use solutions We regularly meet with the key actors in person and interact via WhatsApp video to support them, learn from their experiences, and keep the social bonding going After acquiring insights from experts and receiving information and materials from Sasya Shyamala Krishi Vigyan Kendra, key actors organize meetings among themselves and share their knowledge among the fellow women farmers 3. Women farmers' communication network highlighting influential nodes based on their indegree centrality [Consent of using the pictures of women farmers were procured] Insiders Outsiders Faculty Centre for Integrated Rural Development and Management , Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute 1of the AVC stakeholders to adopt digital services 4. Value chain mapping [for Paddy cultivation] and identifying Women participation in Satjelia Island Women Men This mark the boundary of study location; Actors to the right of this line are situated outside of "}],"sieverID":"71ee366a-d175-4ff0-b27b-1865fe6a15b6","abstract":""}

data/part_1/02564e4ceac60c842200b001a2258c66.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02564e4ceac60c842200b001a2258c66","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8396f498-06d0-4594-8e6b-da26bd2900a3/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Climate-Sensitive Multi-Scale Agronomy Decision Support Approach for Wheat Production Systems","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"SCALING READINESS GLOSSARY","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Intervention","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"A coherent set of planned activities for achieving speci c goals in a de ned period in a speci c space. An intervention is a general name of a project. Although most interventions are projects, there are other types of interventions such as programs, a speci c combination of projects for achieving higher-level objectives, and initiatives that refer to a set of planned activities usually without clear speci cation of goals and period. Scaling Readiness can be used for multiple types of interventions, e.g. projects, programs, policy interventions."}]},{"head":"Innovation Readiness Metrics","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"In Scaling Readiness two different Innovation Readiness metrics are used for addressing two different management questions. The rst one is the Average Innovation Readiness Level. It refers to the average Readiness of all the novel components of the innovation. The Average Innovation Readiness Level aims to give an overall idea about the functioning of the innovation without considering the interdependencies among the components. The second Innovation Readiness metric is the Innovation Readiness Score. The Innovation Readiness Score is the minimum of the Innovation Readiness Levels of all the novel components. It aims to present the overall functioning of the innovation taking into account the dependencies of the components for the proper functioning of the innovation. Depending on the preference of the innovation managers, either or both of the metrics can be used."}]},{"head":"Innovation Readiness Level","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"It is a metric indicating how mature or effective an innovation is to achieve its use objectives. It can be considered as a systematic answer to the question \"how good an innovation functions.\" It can be between 0, which indicates that the innovation is just an idea in the mind of its potential designers and developers, and 9, suggesting that the innovation is a proven innovation with clear evidence of its value measured in terms of livelihood impact, pro t, etc. Research and development projects increase the Innovation Readiness Levels by improving the design of the innovations, developing and validating the improved designs in uncontrolled and controlled conditions."}]},{"head":"Innovation Component","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Knowledge, technology, a concept, practice, etc. that constitutes a part of innovations. Innovations have many components. Some of them are novel and play critical roles in the functioning and use of the innovation in the contexts the intervention operates for achieving speci c intervention goals. They can be standalone innovations for other contexts and goals but for the speci c goals and contexts an intervention operates they work as a part of a larger innovation. In Scaling Readiness, these novel components of innovations are identi ed, characterized, and diagnosed. "}]},{"head":"Evidence-based Measurement","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Measures in Scaling Readiness are calculated using evidence. Speci c claims of Readiness and Use measures are assessed through a hierarchy of sources of veri cation. High-quality science articles and other peer-reviewed documents are the rst sources. In their absence, technical documents or other publicly scrutinized documents are used to back up speci c evidence claims. In the lack of any documents, multiple experts' opinions proven to have su cient competencies are triangulated to identify the measures."}]},{"head":"Bottleneck Component","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"A component or subset of components of an innovation that perform worse and are used by fewer users than the other components of the innovation. In Scaling Readiness, the bottleneck components of an innovation are used to prioritize the activities of a research for development intervention to achieve maximum impact at scale with minimum cost and resource use. Bottleneck components are not universal and depend on a speci c time, space and for speci c goals."}]},{"head":"INNOVATION PROFILE SHEET","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Climate-Sensitive Multi-Scale Agronomy Decision Support Approach for Wheat Production Systems  Readiness of the novel components vary between 3 and 9. These imply that the Innovation Readiness Score, which is based on the lowest-scoring component used for identifying the bottleneck component is 3. Meanwhile the Average Innovation Readiness Score, which is used for comparing the innovation with its previous status as well as with other innovations, is 6.3."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"In other words, the major bottleneck(s) for Climate-Sensitive Multi-Scale Agronomy Decision Support Approach for Wheat Production Systems in Ethiopia for Improving the effectiveness and e ciency of agricultural knowledge management systems, Increasing the use of evidence-based management decisions in the agriculture and food sectors, Improving productivity and pro tability of crop production is :data sharing bene ts for farmers."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Please note that the bottlenecks are identi ed using available evidence sources such as journal articles, book chapters, rigorous technical reports and in their absence other complementary research and research communication items. In some cases, an advanced novel component can be assessed as a bottleneck if there is no available evidence about its Readiness. This can be the case especially in innovation components that are designed, or developed recently. If this is the case, the use cases are recommended to invest resources in publishing and disseminating the evidence. Once the dissemination is done, the Readiness scores will be updated."}]},{"head":"pro tability of crop production","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Option 1: Substitute -nd alternative solutions that can serve the same purpose as data sharing bene ts for farmers data sharing bene ts for farmers monitor the overall bene ts generated by using the data coming from the farmers and transfer a share commercial bene t back to them. If there are any available su ciently performing alternatives that can monitor the overall bene ts generated by using the data coming from the farmers and transfer a share commercial bene t back to them, it is recommended to replace data sharing bene ts for farmers with the most suitable alternative Option 2: Outsource -establish a partnership with organizations that can develop and validate data sharing bene ts for farmers more effectively, e ciently and locally Option 3: Insource -further design, develop data sharing bene ts for farmers using the human resources of the use case team."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"data sharing bene ts for farmers is at the level of application (unproven). For it to move to the next level, it is necessary to synthesize, document and disclose the available conceptual evidence on data sharing bene ts for farmers. If there are local or national organizations or teams with su cient experience and capabilities to synthesize, document and disclose the available conceptual evidence on data sharing bene ts for farmers it is recommended to outsource the work on data sharing bene ts for farmers. If there are no such local and national organizations and teams, but there are international organizations that can do the work effectively and e ciently, they can be the second outsourcing option."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Please note that working with existing partners is not necessarily an advantage. Although, working with local organizations that EiA Ethiopia Wheat team has long term collaborations can improve the ownership of fully developed Climate-Sensitive Multi-Scale Agronomy Decision Support Approach for Wheat Production Systems in the future, it might hinder the (further) development of data sharing bene ts for farmers signi cantly. Therefore, it is recommended to have an honest conversation with existing long term partners about the development needs and validate if their experience and capabilities match these needs. If they do not match, it is recommended to offer the long term partners to co-manage the collaboration with other development partners that will be leading the outsourced work."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"if the substitution and outsourcing options have a low likelihood to monitor the overall bene ts generated by using the data coming from the farmers and transfer a share commercial bene t back to them, it is recommended to (further) develop it using the internal human resources of EiA Ethiopia Wheat."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"data sharing bene ts for farmers"}]},{"head":"RECOMMENDATIONS for","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Main mandate and contribution of research for development organizations like CGIAR is to develop scalable solutions, or innovations, that can achieve high impact at scale. However, not all scalable solutions are suitable for the CGIAR system. Innovations can be produced by repetitive trial and error or can be discovered and developed by coincidence. The key niche and contribution of CGIAR are sciencebased innovations.What makes science-based innovations different from the others is the systematic documentation of how they work and the availability of the information for public scrutiny. Therefore, it is important for EiA Ethiopia Wheat use case to prove the Readiness of their innovations by systematically documenting the performance of the innovation and disclosing the information to the public. This will not only increase the scienti c credibility and reputation of the use case but also increase its attractivity for investments. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" techniques, methods, and practices to monitor and prevent Wheat Rust outbreaks and mitigate the damage the rust causes in wheat production STANDARDIZED DATA GOVERNANCE AND ACCESS PROTOCOLS A set of formalized rules and conventions applied by multiple organizations and professionals in collecting, accessing, using, storing, transferring and deleting data LOCAL-LED AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION, FARMER ENGAGEMENT AND CAPACITY BUILDING Utilizing existing information and knowledge sharing systems and co-designing and co-implementing farmer engagement and capacity building activities with local actors INTEGRATIONS OF CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS INTO AGRICULTURAL DECISION MAKING Contemplating the interactions between agriculture and the environment, and the in uence of climate-related factors in design, development, delivery, and use support activities of agricultural solutions GENDER-SENSITIVE TESTING AND VALIDATION A set of testing and validation practices in which the participation, bene ts, and the in uence of women, youth, disabled, and other disadvantaged groups are considered and acted upon DETAILED TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR MULTI-STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION A set of well-articulated statements and agreements about the purpose and structures of a project, committee, meeting, negotiation, or any similar collection of people who have agreed to work together to accomplish a shared goal DATA SHARING BENEFITS FOR FARMERS A set of practices that monitor the overall bene ts generated by using the data coming from the farmers and transfer a share commercial bene t back to them DATA POOLING FROM MULTIPLE INTERVENTIONS Using the data generated by multiple other interventions to improve the accuracy and precision of recommendations COALITION OF THE WILLING a group of voluntary individuals sharing their professional experience and assets to address community, sector-wide, national and international livelihood challenges APPLICATION PROGRAMMING INTERFACES (APIS) A set of software tools that enable using the data and features of an operating system, application, and other services by another independent program "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Improving the effectiveness and e ciency of agricultural knowledge management systems,Increasing the use of evidence-based management decisions in the agriculture and food sectors,Improving productivity and pro tability of crop production Improving the effectiveness and e ciency of agricultural knowledge management systems,Increasing the use of evidence-based management decisions in the agriculture and food sectors,Improving productivity and pro tability of crop production FINDINGS Climate-Sensitive Multi-Scale Agronomy Decision Support Approach for Wheat Production Systems is an Approach type of innovation Space: Ethiopia INNOVATION READINESS ANALYTICS -1 Nov 2021 Time: INNOVATION READINESS ANALYTICS -2 Space:EthiopiaINNOVATION READINESS ANALYTICS -1 Nov 2021 Time: INNOVATION READINESS ANALYTICS -2 Goal: Space: Ethiopia Time: Nov 2021 Goal: Space:EthiopiaTime:Nov 2021 Goal:     Goal: Component Name It has 15 key performance components. Among them 10 are novel and signi cantly in uence Type Level Evidence Sources the impact at scale contribution of Climate-Sensitive Multi-Scale Agronomy Decision Support Component Name It has 15 key performance components. Among them 10 are novel and signi cantly in uence Type Level Evidence Sources the impact at scale contribution of Climate-Sensitive Multi-Scale Agronomy Decision Support Wheat Rust survelliance, early warning and management Approach for Wheat Production Systems in Ethiopia for Improving the effectiveness and Technology 6 Allen-Sader-11 e ciency of agricultural knowledge management systems, Increasing the use of evidence- Wheat Rust survelliance, early warning and management Approach for Wheat Production Systems in Ethiopia for Improving the effectiveness and Technology 6 Allen-Sader-11 e ciency of agricultural knowledge management systems, Increasing the use of evidence- Standardized data governance and access protocols based management decisions in the agriculture and food sectors, Improving productivity and Procedure 9 Whittard-19,Tamane-27 Standardized data governance and access protocols based management decisions in the agriculture and food sectors, Improving productivity and Procedure 9 Whittard-19,Tamane-27 Local-led agricultural extension, farmer engagement and These 10 are different types (1 Tool 2 Practice 3 Service 1 Procedure 1 Technology 1 Plan 1 Service 6 Gebrehiwot-22, capacity building Hailemichael-23, Organizational Arrangement ) Local-led agricultural extension, farmer engagement and These 10 are different types (1 Tool 2 Practice 3 Service 1 Procedure 1 Technology 1 Plan 1 Service 6 Gebrehiwot-22, capacity building Hailemichael-23, Organizational Arrangement )      Krishnan-20,ILRI-28 Krishnan-20,ILRI-28 Integrations of climate interactions and implications into Practice 6 Verdin-14,Freduah-33 Integrations of climate interactions and implications intoPractice6Verdin-14,Freduah-33 agricultural decision making  agricultural decision making Gender-sensitive testing and validation Service 6 Tsige-29,Tsige-30, Gender-sensitive testing and validationService6Tsige-29,Tsige-30,      Grabowski-34, Grabowski-34,      Nyantakyi-Frimpong-24 Nyantakyi-Frimpong-24 Detailed terms of reference for multi-stakeholder Plan 6 Nigussie-32 Detailed terms of reference for multi-stakeholderPlan6Nigussie-32 collaboration    collaboration Data sharing bene ts for farmers Service 3 Whittard-25 ,Beer-21 Data sharing bene ts for farmersService3Whittard-25 ,Beer-21 Data pooling from multiple interventions Practice 6 Petsakos-1,CIP-2 Data pooling from multiple interventionsPractice6Petsakos-1,CIP-2      Scheerer-3,Pemsl-4, Scheerer-3,Pemsl-4,      Pemsl-5,Arega-6 Pemsl-5,Arega-6      Hareau-7,Hareau-8, Hareau-7,Hareau-8,      Abdoulaye-9,CIP-10,IRRI- Abdoulaye-9,CIP-10,IRRI-      12,Alcober-13,Whittard-26, 12,Alcober-13,Whittard-26,      Mudege-18,Beer-21,Baker- Mudege-18,Beer-21,Baker-      17 17 Coalition of the willing  Organizational Arrangement 9 Whittard-19,Tamene-16, Tamane-27,Coalition of Coalition of the willingOrganizational Arrangement9Whittard-19,Tamene-16, Tamane-27,Coalition of      the Willing (CoW)-15 the Willing (CoW)-15 Application programming interfaces (APIs) Tool 6 Correndo-31 Application programming interfaces (APIs)Tool6Correndo-31 Average Innovation Readiness Type of the novel components: Average Innovation ReadinessType of the novel components:    Level:  Level:      10% 10%   6.3  10% 10% 30% Service Practice Organizational Arrangement Tool Plan 6.310%10%30%Service Practice Organizational Arrangement Tool Plan      10% Technology 10%Technology      20% Procedure 20%Procedure      10% 10%  "},{"text":" Option 0: Prove -document and disclose available and recently generated cognitive, conceptual, applied, experimental or impact/bene t evidence of data sharing bene ts for farmers in Ethiopia or su ciently similar contextsGuy Hareau, Ulrich Kleinwechter, Keith Wiebe, and Timothy B. Sulser. 2018. \"Comparing Modeling Approaches for Assessing Priorities in International Agricultural Research.\" Research Evaluation 27 (2): 145-56. https://doi.org/10.1093/reseval/rvx044 . Diemuth, and Charles Staver. 2014. \"Strategic Assessment of Banana Research Priorities.\" CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB). https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/82674. Ulrich Kleinwechter, Willy Pradel, Victor Suarez, J. J. Okello, and Surjit Vikraman. 2014. \"Strategic Assessment of Research Priorities for Potato.\" RTB Working Paper. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/132679384.pdf H 8 areau, Guy, Ulrich Kleinwechter, Willy Pradel, Victor Suarez, J. J. Okello, and S. Vikraman. 2014. \"Strategic Assessment of Research Priorities for Sweetpotato.\" https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/69247. A 9 bdoulaye, Tahirou, Arega D. Alene, Joseph Rusike, and Adebayo A. Akinola. 2014. \"Strategic Assessment of Yam Research Prioritie. \"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/103714. C 10 IP, \"Strategic Research Priority Assessment Toolkit.\" 2021. April 19, 2021. https://www.rtb.cgiar.org/strategic-researchpriority-assessment-toolkit/. A 11 llen-Sader, C. et al. \"An early warning system to predict and mitigate wheat rust diseases in Ethiopia\". Environ. Res. Lett. 14, 115004 (2019) http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4034 I 12 RRI, \"A Tool That Tracks and Stops Bacterial Blight Outbreaks in Rice.\" n.d. Accessed September 15, 2021. https://ricetoday.irri.org/atool-that-tracks-and-stops-bacterial-blight-outbreaks-in-rice/. A 13 lcober, Fred. 2018. \"AI Takes Root, Helping Farmers Identify Diseased Plants.\" Google. June 20, 2018. https://www.blog.google/ technology/ai/ai-takes-root-helping-farmers-identity-diseased-plants/. V 14 erdin, J., Funk, C., Senay, G. & Choularton, R. \"Climate science and famine early warning\" Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. (2005) B Biol. Sci. 360, 2155-2168 http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2005.1754 C 15 oalition of the Willing (CoW), \"Coalition of the Willing Soil and Agronomy Data Access, Management and Sharing Data Sharing Guidelines\". https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/107988?show=full (2020) 16 Tamene, L., Abera, W. & Erkossa, T. \"Digital solutions to transform agriculture: lessons and experiences in Ethiopia \". https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/111778 (2020)  EVIDENCE SOURCES EVIDENCE SOURCES  1 1 P etsakos, Athanasios, 2 CIP, \"Home -RTB Banana Research Priorities.\" 2018. January 23, 2018. http://www.rtb.cgiar.org/rtb-bananaresearchpriorities/. P etsakos, Athanasios, 2 CIP, \"Home -RTB Banana Research Priorities.\" 2018. January 23, 2018. http://www.rtb.cgiar.org/rtb-bananaresearchpriorities/. 3 S cheerer, L., C. Staver, M. Dita, L. Perez Vicente, and D. Pemsl. 2018. \"Strategic Assessment of Banana Fusarium Wilt Research 3S cheerer, L., C. Staver, M. Dita, L. Perez Vicente, and D. Pemsl. 2018. \"Strategic Assessment of Banana Fusarium Wilt Research  Priorities.\" International Potato Center. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/105440/RTB-Working-Paper-2018-2.pdf? Priorities.\" International Potato Center. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/105440/RTB-Working-Paper-2018-2.pdf?  sequence=5. sequence=5. 4 P emsl, Diemuth and Charlers Staver \"Strategic Assessment of Banana Fusarium Wilt Research Priorities.\" 2017. International Potato 4P emsl, Diemuth and Charlers Staver \"Strategic Assessment of Banana Fusarium Wilt Research Priorities.\" 2017. International Potato  Center. Center. 5 6 P emsl, A rega, Alene, Oleke Jofrey, Ruskie Joseph, Abdoulaye Tahirou, Bernardo Creamer, Martha Del Rio, and Jesus Rodriguez. 2015. \" 5 6P emsl, A rega, Alene, Oleke Jofrey, Ruskie Joseph, Abdoulaye Tahirou, Bernardo Creamer, Martha Del Rio, and Jesus Rodriguez. 2015. \"  Strategic Assessment of Research Priorities for Cassava.\" Strategic Assessment of Research Priorities for Cassava.\" 7 H areau, Guy, 7H areau, Guy,  "}],"sieverID":"357571e8-d71e-45d0-aad9-107c8864d7ad","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"025aafe42f181bb870c108181f909b92","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6c36e1a3-d478-41d5-8cb7-05c9f1236026/retrieve"},"pageCount":83,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"IDENTIFICANDO TECNOT\"OGIAS APROPIADAS PARA AGRICULTORES:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"CASO DEL SISTEMA FRIJOL + MAIZ EN IPIALES, COWHBIA 1982-1986 J.N. Woolley1, J.A. Beltrán l , R.A. Vallej02 y M. Prager 3"}]},{"head":"Resumen","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Este documento presenta un recuento sobre lo que se ha hecho hasta ahora en un programa de investigación en campos de agricultores (ICDA)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Se hace énfasis en la evolución de las actividades año tras año y en la integración de la información agronómica y socioeconómica. Se pretende que este documento sea utilizado en ejercicios y discusiones en programas de capacitación en lCDA y que les proporcione ideas e información a científicos que trabajan en asociaciones de frijol/maíz."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"En el distrito de Ipiales al sur de Colombia se adelantó un proyecto ICA-CIAT sobre el subsistema frijol/maíz para probar la metodología de ICDA, demostrar su efectividad y generar tecnología apta para pequeños agricultores. El área objetivo tiene 10,000 ha de frijol voluble + maíz a una altitud que oscila entre 2450 y 2900 msnm; el 77 por ciento de los agricultores tiene menos de 4 ha y generalmente son propietarios de su tierra. Se mercadea el 94 por ciento del cultivo de frijol pero el maíz es un cultivo de subsistencia."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"La metodología empleada basó el diseño de diferentes tipos de ensayos en un reconocimiento inicial y una encuesta formal, rápidos y respaldados por breves estudios adicionales en la medida en que surgieron las necesidades. El trabajO de cuatro años con cambios realizados paso a paso en el subsistema frijol voluble + maíz condujo a la liberación de una variedad estable del tipo de semilla aceptable locahlente y a la identificación de una línea precoz estable como candidata para su liberación. Ambas pueden sembrarse a la densidad de población y espaciamientos utilizados por los agricultores o también a densidades mayores."},{"index":5,"size":111,"text":"Otros cambios tecnológicos identificados, con potencial de adopción por los agricultores, incluyeron un mejoramiento en el control de enfermedades foliares y el control del marchitamiento por Fusarium mediante el uso de las nuevas variedades y químicos. Algunos temas nuevos que surgieron durante el trabajo y los cuales se espera que conduzcan a tecnologías adoptables incluyen el cambio de las variedades de maíz para permitir la obtención de mayores rendimientos de maíz o frijol; la inoculación con Rhizobium con o sin mayor fertilización química, con el fín de aumentar los rendimientos sin perturbar el equilibrio maíz-frijol; y aspersiones foliares con sulfato de magnesio pare curar el amarillamiento foliar causado por bajas temperaturas."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"También se han identificado asocios de ciclo corto de frijoles volubles o arbustivos con maíz, lo\" cuales permiten incluir también un cultivo de rotación en el mismo ciclo."},{"index":7,"size":68,"text":"La metodología utilizada fue muy efectiva para identificar tecnologías adoptables por los agricultores. La participación de los agricultores ha sido importante en todas las etapas, pero especialmente en la evaluación de los ensayos. El ensayo espontáneo y la adopción de una línea por los agricultores condujo a la decisión de su liberación formal. Su difusión se ha retrasado por los bajos precios de mercado y las inusuales heladas."},{"index":8,"size":70,"text":"La lCDA ha dependido del suministro de líneas de frijol y poblaciones de maíz provenientes de la estación experimental de Obonuco, como también de una colaboración estrecha entre investigadores y extensionistas. El lCA está desarrollando un proyecto de lCDA, denominado generación y transferencia de tecnología en sistemas de producción en seis áreas de Colombia, siendo Tpia1es una de ellas, en parte por el resultado del trabajo que se presenta aquí."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"l."}]},{"head":"Introducción","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Hay interés en varias partes del mundo sobre la eficacia de la investigación en campos de agricultores. Hay, sin embargo. relativamente pocos informes sobre la ejecución de todo el proceso. Este documento describe en detalle un programa de investigación en campos de pequeños agricultores en Colombia y analiza algunos de sus éxitos y problemas. Como se trata de un proyecto que todavía se encuentra en marcha, las conclusiones pueden modificarse en el futuro, como es de esperar también habrá más logros para reportar."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Desde 1978 el Programa de Frijol del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) y el Programa de T.eguminosas de Grano del Instituto"},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA), han trabajado bajo un convenio sobre la investigación en frijol. Al principio, este trabajo se concentraba en programas de mejoramiento en estaciones experimentales, incluyendo la de Obonuco, departamento de Nariño. Sin embargo, hubo también trabajos sobre validación de tecnologías en campos de agricultores en los departamentos de Antioquia (Tobón et al, 1982) y Huila (Ruíz de Londoño et al, 1985)."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"A principios de 1982, la investigación ICA-CIAT se inició en campos de agricultores, en el departamento de Nariño, enfocada hacia fríjol después de una solicitud al CIAT por parte de los directivos regionales del ICA. En el período de 1978-1982 se estimó que Nariño era tercero en la producc:!ón nacional de frijol con 9535t (15,000 ha) 76000t (113,600 ha) (URPA, 1985)."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"(Entre 1983 de un total de y 1985, los extensionistas locales han estimado 25000 ha de frijol en Nariño)."},{"index":6,"size":133,"text":"En 1982, las actividades del Programa de Frijol en campos de agricultores amplió el enfoque, expandiendo la validación de tecnologías (Sandere y '-ynam, 1982) al concepto de la investigación en campos de agricultores usando un modelo similar a los de otras instituciones, especialmente del CIMHYT. tas actividades de investigación en campos de agricultores en Nariño se encajaron dentro del marco metodológico descrito por Woolley y Pachico (1987) e incluyeron los pasos de selección del área de trabajo, diagnóstico (revisión de información secundaria, reconocimiento, encuesta y estudios especiales), de diseño (identificación de limitantes, grupos objetivos de agricultores y sus prácticas; identificación de soluciones apropiadas y diseño de ensayos) y de ensayos en campos de sgricultores (varietales, exploratorios, de niveles económicos, de verificación y semicomerciales) cada uno con sus diferentes métodos de evaluación (Figura 1)."}]},{"head":"Selección del Area de Trabajo","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Con ayuda de estimativos de producción en cada municipio proporcionados por funciouarios del ICA, se identificaron tres zonas potenciales de trabajo. Un reconocimiento confirmó que el frijol era importante en cada una y que el clima, la situación agrícola y los sistemas de cultivos para frijol en las tres zonas fueron 10 suficientemente distintos para justificar el trabajo en todas. Una zona era el distrito Ipiales, las otras (Funes y El Tambo) se describen en otros documentos (Woolley et al, 1988a(Woolley et al, , 1988b))."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Se procedió en mayo de 1982 a confirmar la bondad del distrito lpiales con base en la recopilación de información (principalmente por entrevistas con funcionarios del ICA) pero también por consulta de datos meteorológicos y escritos existentes (ICA, 1980). Ocho características tenían importancia."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"a. El distrito agrícola."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"b."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Es una zona de 6 ha."},{"index":6,"size":72,"text":"c. El frijol agricultor se vende); lpiales es importante en el plan nacional de desarrollo de minifundio con 77% de las propiedades ocupando menos es una fuente importante de ingresos para el pequeño (la encuesta después estimó que el 94% de la producción siempre se siembra en asocio con maíz que se usa para el autoconsumo, siendo una de las fuentes principales de alimentos (las otras son la papa, cebada y trigal."}]},{"head":"d.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Existe la estación experimental de Obonuco a 80 km de lpia1es que apoya los trabajos en la zona."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"e."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Hay personal del lCA asignado al distrito lpiales, pero sus trabajos se habían concentrado en papa, trigo, cebada y ganado de leche debido a la falta de recursos para trabajar en frijol/maíz."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"f. Se estimaba un total de 10,000 ha de maíz asociado con frijol en el área de influencia del distrito lpia1es."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"g. El frijol de grano grande producido en la zona es fácilmente vendible a alto precio (US$l/kg en la cosecha de 1982)."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"h. Las comunicaciones hacia y dentro de la zona son buenas gracias a la carretera Panamericana."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"El reconocimiento de la zona (ver sección 3), identificó cinco características más de la zona que confirmaron sus condiciones para un proyecto de investigación en campos de agricultores."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"i. Los agricultores de la zona demostraron mucho interés al ser interrogados sobre frijol y maíz y manifestaron sus deseos de conducir ensayos en la zona."}]},{"head":"j.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Los rendimientos promedios de frijol en la zona eran muy bajos (1.00 kg/ha en nueve meses) a pesar de que los rendimientos de maíz eran algo más aceptables (2000 kg/ha)."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"k."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Los agricultores estaban acostumbrados a usar insumos (especialmente en papa, pero también en frijol/maíz). Sin embargo todo el maíz y frijol sembrado era de variedades locales."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"l."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Existían tecnologías de la estación Obonuco aparentemente apropiadas para la zona."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"m. El sistema frIjol asociado con maíz es atractivo para los productores porque ofrece mayores retornos que el trigo y la cebada, pero implica menor riesgo y uso de capital que la papa."}]},{"head":"Diagnóstico Inicial y Diseño","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"En tres días, durante el mes de mayo de 1982, un grupo de cuatro profesionales del CIAT (dos economistas y dos agrónomos) realizó un reconocimiento de la zona en compañía de extensionistas del lCA. Se cubrieron las partes donde se encontraba frijol en los municipios de Ipiales, Pupiales. Contadero, Gualmatán. Potosí, Córdoba. Puerres."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Túquerres. Ospina y Sapuyes. Los últimos tres tenían relativamente poco frijol debido a su clima más frio y se eliminaron de la zona de trabajo inicial."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"En junio de 1982 se diseñó y ejecutó una encuesta para 45 agricultores de los otros siete municipios. T\"a planif icación del primer año de ensayos se hizo con base en la información del reconocimiento y de la encuesta. Los ensayos se sembraron en septiembre y octubre de 1982 en lpiales, Contadero, Gualmatán, Potosí y Córdoba. Pupiales y Puerres se excluyen para hacer más compacta la zona de investigación inicial. Para verificar los resultados de la encuesta y tener mayor información adicional, se ejecutó otra en febrero de 1983 a 27 agricultores de los cinco municipios en donde se concentraron los ensayos. Con base en la información secundaria, en el reconocimiento y en las dos encuestas (que eran consistentes entre si) (Pachico, 1984), se presents una breve descripción de la zona."}]},{"head":"Descripción de la zona","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"La zona de trabajo cubre alturas entre 2450m (la parte más baja del valle del río Guáitara) hasta 2900m (lImite de las siembras de frijol por el frio: el maIz sigue hasta los 3000m y la papa hasta los 3200m)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"La topografía es generalmente quebrada y los suelos son andisoles."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"Hay un período más seco, de junio a agosto, y los meses más lluviosos son de octubre a diciembre seguidos por marzo y abril. La precipitación promedio se estima en 800 mm anualmente. La temperatura media varía de 11 a 14 Oc según la altura dentro de la zona. Datos de precipitación tomados a 2600 msnm en 2 fincas de la zona ubicadas en los municipios de Contadero e Ipiales, estimaron la precipitación en el año 1986 como 723 y 779 mm. Hay mayores datos disponibles de estaciones meteorológicas pero todas se encuentran en las partes mas altas de la zona de trabajo."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Las estsciones ubicadas en las cabeceras de Puerres (2820 msnm) , Gualmatan (2830 msnm) y el aeropuerto de Ipiales (2960 msnm) , estimaron una precipitación promedia de 898, 880 y 875 mm anualmente (promedio 1980-1986)."},{"index":5,"size":85,"text":"La fecha de siembra de frijol varía un poco entre los municipios más húmedos hacia el este de la zona (PotosI, Córdoba, Puerres y la vereda de Chaguaipe en Ipiales) y los mas secos hacia el oeste (Contad ero , Gualmatan, Pupiales y el resto de Ipiales). En el este las siembras se distribuyen de mayo a noviembre con un máximo en agosto (30%). En el oeste, el período es más corto, de agosto a noviembre, con un máximo en septiembre (32%) y octubre (41%)."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"El frijol/maíz se siembra más comunmente después de papa (38% de los lotes de frijol), cebada (27%), frijol/maIz (20%), trigo (7%) o arveja (3%). En el este, una mayor proporción Se siembra después de un cultivo anterior de frijol/maIz y hay pocas siembras después de papa; en el oeste, se da lo contrario. Muchos agricultores niegan que existe un cultivo \"principal\" en sus fincas y enfrentan las variaciones de precios en el mercado sembrando un poco de todos los cultivos."},{"index":7,"size":41,"text":"El frijol/maíz se asocia con otros cultivos, incluyendo calabazas (84% de los lotes, pero con pocas plantas/ha), haba (Vicia faba) intercalada (50%) o quInoa (Chenopodium guinaal (8%). También se encuentra tupinus sp., pero solamente en los bordes de lotes de frijol/maíz."},{"index":8,"size":28,"text":"El 68% de los agricultores preparan la tierra con bueyes; el 11% con una combinación de tractor y bueyes; el 12% con tractor, y el 9% con azadón."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"Cuando se usan bueyes, 10 más común es dar dos aradas y una rastrillada."},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"Se siembran 4 semillas de maíz y 2 de frijol. "}]},{"head":"Manejo de los ensayos","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Todos los ensayos Se realizaron con agricultores quienes dedicaron una mayor parte de eu tiempo a la finca, en su mayoría, lo más típico del área. Los lotes solicitados a los agricultores, fueron casi siempre los que tenían destinados para la producción de frijol ese año, con el fin de obtener las prácticas típicas de rotación. Una excepción a esta regla fueron los campos con un historial de problemas de pudriciones radicales."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Dentro del dominio de recomendación tentativo, los ensayos se distribuyeron de tal manera que se muestreara adecuadamente el rango de variabilidad en la textura del suelo, la fertilidad del mismo (generalmente se dispuso de los análisis de suelo antes de la siembra), la pendiente y la altitud."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"En todos los ensayos, los agricultores realizaron operaciones de rutina cuando no se trataba de tratamientos experimentales: preparación del terreno, desyerba, aporque y control de enfermedades foliares e insectos. Los investigadores aplicaron los fertilizantes en todos los ensayos, excepto en los semicomercia1es. En los ensayos de variedades, exploratorios y de niveles económicos, el testigo tncluído en el ensayo correspondió a la práctica modal identificada en las encuestas y aplicada por los investigadores. En los ensayos de verificación, el agricultor anfitrión primero sembraba su propia práctica como uno de los tratamientos. Luego. con la ayuda del agricultor, los investigadores imitaban dichas prácticas en otros tratamientos, cambiando solamente los componentes involucrados en la tecnología en prueba."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"La semilla de frijol utilizada en los ensayos era una mezcla de la semilla cosecbada de los ensayos de los agricultores del año anterior."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"La semilla producida en las estaciones experimentales solamente se utilizaba para líneas nuevas en su primer año de prueba. Cuando la variedad de maíz no correspondía a un tratamiento experimental, se utilizaba la semilla de maíz de cada agricultor (casi siempre Morocho Blanco).  En 1984B, cinco de los nueve agricultores utilizaron en sus aplicaciones productos que controlan la roya, en tanto que los investigadores no."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"Mortiño y Frijolica 0-3.2 respondieron al control de enfermedades aplicado por los investigadores pero 32980-1-41 no (Cuadro 8). 32980-1-41 sufrió un mayor ataque de roya que las otras líneas y el control de roya por algunos agricultores quizás explique la diferencia."},{"index":7,"size":86,"text":"El minador de la hoja fue un problema severo en 1982B. Los intentos de los investigadores por controlarlo con insecticidas piretroides sintéticos fueron infructuosos en dos ensayos, por 10 cual fue necesario aplicar metamidofos para evitarles la pérdida total del fríjol a los agricultores colaboradores. T\"a incidencia del minador de la hoja disminuyó marcadamente en 1983B hac iendo imposible la continuación de los estudios de control que se habían iniciado. A finales del ciclo 1985B reaparecieron los síntomas del minador de la hoja en algunas zonas."}]},{"head":"Densidad y arreglos espaciales","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Existe el peligro del volcamiento del maíz si se aumenta el número de plantas de frijol por sitio. Por consiguiente, en los primeros intentos para aumentar la densidad de frijol se utilizó un componente que había sido evaluado a nivel de estación y de finca en el departamento de Antioquia, Colombia. Cada 0.5 ID se sembraron dos semillas de frijol y dos de maíz en lugar de cuatro de maíz y dos de frijol cada infiere que el uso de la fórmula 13-26-6 es apropiada, puesto que es factible que sea más barata que las aplicaciones separadas de N y K Y en ocasiones se pueden también obtener respuestas al P."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"La respuesta al magnesio fue variable en las fincas y entre años. Aunque no fue beneficioso en promedio. el magnesio aumentó el rendimiento de Frijolica 0-3.2 en 220 y 276 kg/ha en dos fincas que sufrieron de amarillamiento (véase la sección 4.12) en 1984B."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"La aplicación de 300 kg/ha de 13-26-6 aumentó los rendimientos tanto de frijol como de maíz en aproximadamente 100 kg/ha y fue económica en comparación con el nivel actual de los agricultores de 100 kg/ha. el cual a su vez dió una alta tasa marginal de retorno en comparación con la práctica de no fertilizar el cultivo (Cuadro 18). Solamente en 1985B, también se probaron niveles de 200 y 400 kg/ha de 13-26-6. Esta última dosis dio el mayor beneficio neto."},{"index":4,"size":115,"text":"A pesar de estos resultados, en los ensayos de verificación de 1985B, la aplicación de 300 kg de 13-26-6/ha solamente aumentó el rendimiento de maíz en campos con menos de 60 ppm de P y no aumentó el rendimiento de frijol en ninguno de los dominios tentativos (Cuadro 10). El diagnóstico actual del problema indica que una deficiencia de magnesio es agravada por el frio antes de la floración. El problema puede corregirse mediante aplicaciones foliares de sulfato de magnesio tan pronto como aparezca. Las aplicaciones al suelo al primer aporque también son efectivas, pero su alto costo (y ligero efecto negativo en campos sin amarillamientol las convierten en una \"póliza de seguros\" no atractiva."}]},{"head":"Intensificación del ciclo de cultivo","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"Cada año se ha realizado un ensayo de niveles económicos con el objeto de incluir otro cultivo después de la cosecha anterior de ma!z + frijol. La aceptabilidad de Frijol1ca 0-3.2 fue evaluada con 38 agricultores después de la cosecha de 1984B (Guerrero y Pachico, 1985). Los resultados fueron similares a los de un año antes (Cuadro 30), aunque ahora más agricultores notaban el pequeño descuento en su precio (Cuadro 31) estimado en 6.3 por ciento en junio de 1985. El 61 por ciento de los agricultores vendían Frijolica 0-3.2 solo y el resto mezclado con Mortiño. El tamaño del grano de Frijolica 0-3.2 y Mortiño varían de un año a otro y de una finca a otra. En 1984B, Frijolica 0-3.2 con frecuencia fue inferior en tamaño, aparentemente debido al problema del amar11lamiento. Los agricultores notaron la diferencia en tamaño, pero no consideraron a Frijolica 0-3.2 más susceptible al amar1llamiento que Mortiño (Cuadro 31)."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"El 87 por ciento de los agricultores afirmaron que sembrarían Frijolica 0-3.2 en 19858 y el 85 por ciento guardó semilla para este propósito; en promedio, 6.7 kg de Frijolica 0-3.2 en comparación con 18.2 kg de Por 10 tanto, cuando se incluye la participación de los agricultores, la investigación a nivel de finca no es un proceso ni demorado ni costoso."}]},{"head":"Análisis de las lecciones aprendidas","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"A continuación se presenta un resumen sobre las formas como las experiencias en Ipiales han contribuído a la evolución de las metodologías utilizadas, con énfasis especial en la autocrítica."}]},{"head":"Diagnóstico y planeación inicial","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"El reconocimiento fue útil para la preparación de la encuesta exploratoria que le siguió y para la preparación de la lista de problemas y posibles soluciones. Una mayor discusión de los resultados del reconocimiento habría permitido interrogar a los agricultores sobre las razones de ciertas prácticas para su inclusión en la encuesta exploratoria, como 10 recomendamos ahora. En retrospectiva, los ensayos planeados el primer año generalmente tuvieron en cuenta las necesidades y razoneS de los agricultores. Sin embargo, en el caso de la aplicación de fertilizantes, un mejor entendimiento inicial habría mejorado la calidad de los ensayos del primer año. En el reconocimiento, los investigadores encontraron que algunos agricultores aplicaban fertilizante al momento de la siembra. Sin embargo, en nuestro afán deducimos de los principios de nutrición vegetal y de los métodos de aplicación en la estación experimental de Obonuco, que esta práctica sería la más benéfica a nivel de finca, pero se presentaron daños radiculares y bajas poblaciones (sección 4.10). Una encuesta realizada el primer año mostró que pocos agricultores fertilizan al momento de la siembra y todos aplican el fertilizante por encima de la semilla (práctica que, dicho sea de paso, también puede perjudicar la población de plantas; véase el Cuadro 17)."}]},{"head":"Participación del agricultor","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"ta participación del agricultor puede dividirse en el manejo de los ensayos, la selección de tratamientos para ser incluidos en los ensayos y la evaluación de los ensayos. En los ensayos en pequeñas parcelas y de verificación, los agricul tores generalmen te han manej ado todas las variables no experimentales excepto la aplicación de fertilizantes, en la que las variaciones por manejo en la dosis pueden afectar severamente los resultados. En los ensayos semicomerciales, todas las prácticas han quedado en manos de los agricultores (Woolley y Paehico, 1987). A los agricultores no se les ha consultado explícitamente acerca de los tratamientos exactos que se deben incluir en los ensayos, aunque sus evaluaciones de ensayos anteriores influyen en la selección por parte del investigador. ta reacción de los agricultores en ensayos semicomerciales demostrará en el futuro de este proyecto si los investigadores han desperdiciado su esfuerzo debido a esta estrategia."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Desde el principio. los agricultores han participado en la evaluación de los ensayos de verificación. En 1984B y 1985B se introdujo la evaluación de todos los ensayos por los agricultores. Se ha descubierto que, para una evaluación efectiva, el agricultor debe COnocer los tratamientos desde el momento en que se siembre el ensayo."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"La evaluación por parte del agricultor en ocasiones ha sido engañosa o posiblemente mal organizada por nosotros. Por ejemplo, los agricultores que manejaron una distancia de siembra en la hilera de 0.5 m en los ensayos exploratorios no detectaron problema alguno en su manejo."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Incluso aquellos que trabajaron en parcelas más grandes en los ensayos de verificación, sólo expresaron, próximos a la cosecha, su rechazo a las prácticas de cultivo necesarias. Los agricultores también presentaron exceso de optimismo en cuanto a la venta de Frijolica 0-3.2 en mezcla con Mortiño, sin descuento en el precio. Obviamente, pudieron haber sido influenciados por el entusiasmo de los investigadores."}]},{"head":"Comunicación entre investigadores en campos de agricultores y la estación experimental","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Esta generalmente ha sido excelente, y se puede afirmar que la investigación en campos de agricultores ha unido grupos que originalmente estaban más separados. Los investigadores tanto a nivel de finca como de la estación experimental han estado involucrados en la planeación de la ICDA Y visitan mutuamente sus trabajos. En Obonuco se han sembrado copias de los ensayos para comparar los resultados con aquellos obtenidos con agricultores."}]},{"head":"Uso de una estrategia agresiva de investigación","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"En general, fue exitoso el rápido progreso hacia la verificación y la iniciación simultánea de varias líneas de investigación."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Los ensayos de verificación no fueron exitosos en el primer año. principalmente debido a que los dos campos escogidos fueron inusitadamente improductivos. leA Llanogrande resultó estar mal adaptada al área. pero los agricultores no se sintieron desestimulados por ésto (ambos continuaron como colaboradores). En general. se puede afirmar que. si la verificación se comienza en el primer año. debe hacerse en suficientes fincas (por 10 menos cuatro por dominio)."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"La variabilidad de las respuestas de un año a otro pueden interferir con una estrategia agresiva de investigación, pero generalmente no ha sido un problema en 1piales. La respuesta consistente de Frijolica 0-3. Las DMS para el maIz generalmente son aproximadamente tres veces superiores que las del frijol, puesto que el mafz es un cultivo de polinización cruzada y, por lo tanto, más variable de planta a planta que el frijol que es autopolinizado. Sin embargo, como las relaciones de precio frijol:maíz han promediado 3:1 (rango 2.4:1 a 4.5:0 en los cuatro años, los errores •en el rendimiento de frijol tienen, en promedio, tres veces más efecto en el beneficio neto estimado que errores del mismo tamaño en el rendimiento de maIz."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Por consiguiente, no es necesario aumentar la precisión en los datos del mafz, a menos que la relación de precios frijol:mafz disminuya sustancialmente."}]},{"head":"8.5.2","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Problemas en la definición de tratamientos para el control de enfermedades En la sección 4.7 se subestimó la efectividad del benomyl al comparar las prácticas variables de control de enfermedades que utiliza el agricultor, ajustadas según la ocurrencia de lluvias, con los tratamientos por calendario hechos por los investigadores. Comparar las nuevas prácticas de control de enfermedades con aquellas de los agricultores es un problema complejo. discutido en más detalle por Woolley (1987)."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"8.5.3 Número de repeticiones/finca y número de fincas Generalmente han sido necesarios datos de cuatro fincas para ensayos de variedades volubles. con el fin de detectar fuertes interacciones genotipo x ambiente de algunas líneas menos deseables. Cuatro copias del ensayo exploratorio de 1982B aería el mínimo deseable (en efecto hubo cinco) y cuatro copias parece ser el mínimo deseable para ensayos que tratan sobre cambios en la densidad y el arreglo espacial. Se requirieron hasta nueve ensayos (dispersos en tres años) con el fin de entender el efecto de las aplicaciones de fertilizantes. El maíz parece menos variable y los resultados de solo dos fincas en el ensayo de maíz precoz se consideran como confiables."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"puede ser suficiente para entender Dos fincas infectadas por altO el control de las pudriciones radiculares. pero se deben sembrar más fincas puesto que la infección no puede garantizarse."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"En los ensayos de verificación, dos repeticiones a nivel de ca.da finca son necesarias según nuestra experiencia. Los datos derivados de una sola repetición en cada una de 14 fincas en 1983B fueron difíciles de interpretar puesto que se sospechaba que las parcelas de los extremos habían sido afectadas por una fuente de varianza nO experimental. Ocho ensayos de verificación cosechados era lo mínimo para poder estratificar bien una zona variable. como Ipiales. en 1985B."}]},{"head":"Nuevos temas que emergieron de resultados inesperados","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Dos líneas de trabajo que surgieron muestran la adaptabilidad de la lCDA a situaciones nuevas. Los ensayos sobre los beneficios de la inoculación comenzaron como estudio de respaldo para determinar el potencial de la ino('ulación y comparar la nodulación de Mortiño y Frijolica 0-3.2. Sin embargo. la inoculación pareció ser una manera de aumentar el suministro de nitrógeno al maíz '1 frijol sin aumentar la competencia por el maíz. perjudicial para el frijol. y en el segundo año ya se está probando en tratamientos \\m un ensayo de fertilizantes."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"En una serie de circunstancias diferentes. se iniciaron los estudios sobre el problema del amarillamiento debido a su aparición repentina y condujeron en 15 meses a la recomendación preliminar de hacer aplicaciones foliares curativas con magnesio."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"En una forma diferente. el tratamiento de la semilla con benomyl+ carboxin en polvo se evaluó como control para pudriciones radiculares, pero en cambio parece ofrecer protección temprana contra la antracnosis."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"La fumigación del suelo con captafol no protegió contra las pudriciones radiculares del frijol. pero dio un aumento inesperado en el rendimiento de maíz. Ninguno de estos resultados habia sido informado anteriormente. Por consiguiente, la investigación adaptativa en campos de agricultores puede conducir a nuevos temas para investigación de respaldo o adaptativa."}]},{"head":"Nombramiento de variedades","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Es desafortunado que el nombre utilizado para la línea Ecuador 605 como nueva variedad fuera escogido sin consultar a los investigadores locales y a los agricultores, y utilizando una serie de criterios aparentemente diseñados para la conveniencia de los administradores de la investigación."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Nuestro conocimiento sobre el comportamiento del agricultor para nombrar materiales nos hubiera permitido predecir que los agricultores habrfan recortado el nombre \"Frijolica 0-3.2\" a \"Frijolica\", el mismo nombre dado a otras tres lfneas de frijol liberadas en 1985 y 1986. Se recomiendan nombres cortos, atractivos, y que hagan parte del vocabulario de los agricultores. El nombre de una área local (de donde también se inferiría la adaptación de la variedad p.e. ICA Pijao), fue usado anteriormente con éxito por el lCA. Estos aproximan el promedio de la relación frijol:maíz durante un período más largo, durante el cual hay datos disponibles. Por supuesto, las relaciones de precio frijol:fertilizante y maíz:fertilizante también afectan la interpretación de ciertos ensayos y tampoco son constantes."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"La variabilidad en retornos económicos de finca a finca para ciertas tecnologías esta fuera del alcance de este documento y se discute en otra parte (Luna y Valderrama, 1986) usando algunos datos de Ipiales."}]},{"head":"Resumen de las recomendaciones actuales","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Para asociaciones de ciclo completo de maíz y frijol (que ocupan 8-9 meses a 2600 manm) , los siguientes componentes pueden ser adoptados independientemente por los agricultores:"},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"La variedad Frijolica 0-3.2, sembrada al espaciamiento normal de los agricultores y con el maíz de los agricultores o, si se desea un espaciamento más corto, con tres semillas de maíz y tres de frijol cada 0.8 m en la hilera (la ventaja de utilizar tres semillas de maíz y cuatro semillas de frijol se espera confirmar en poco tiempo). Alternativamente. la línea más precoz TIB 30-42 puede ser utilizada con las prácticas de los agricultores o con tres semillas de maíz y cuatro semillas de frijol a 0.8 m en la hilera."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Se espera que el maíz Pool 7 quede confirmado como compañero apto para TIB 30-42."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"La adición de benomyl (0.5 kg/ha) a la fumigación que se utiliza actualmente para el control de enfermedades e insectos. con una reducción del maneb a 1.0 kg/ha."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"El tratamiento de la semilla de frijol con 0.75 g/kg de benomyl + 0.25 kg/ha de carboxin en polvo (recomendación provisional; se espera incluir captafol en polvo en lugar de benomyl + carboxin o junto con dicha mezcla)."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Para un cultivo de ciclo corto de 6-6.5 meses a 2600 mnsm, el sistema de         "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"4. 4 Cambio de la variedad de frijol voluble El componente varietal se ha evaluado en un gran número de ensayos, incluyendo todos aquellos sembrados desde 1983.Cada año desde 1982 se ha diseñado un ensayo de variedades con maíz Morocho Blanco. La mitad de las líneas incluidas en 19828 habían sido expuestas a evaluaciones preliminares en 1981B en dos fincas por encima de los 2900 rn. Luego, y en cada año, se han evaluado nuevas Hneaa provenientes de la estación experimental de Obonuco (Cuadro 2). Desde 1985B, estas líneas son las mejores identificadas en dos ensayos de líneas avanzadss adelantados a nivel de finca el año anterior.Desde el primer año de pruebas, Frijolica 0-3.2 (liberada en junio de 1985 y antiguamente llamada Ecuador 605) demostró ser promisoria.Presentaba buenos rendimientos, era dos o tres semanas más precoz que Mortiño, más sincronizada en cuanto a su madurez y tolerante a la antracnosis. Luego se le identificó como tolerante al marchitamiento por Fusarium (sección 4.9). TIB 30-42 entró a los ensayos en 1983B y es cinco a ocho semanas más precoz que Mortiño, más resistente a la antracnosis que Frijolica 0-3.2 y con similar resistencia al marchitamiento por Fusarium.La línea 32980-1-41 fue altamente promisoria en 1982B pero desde entonces ha decepcionado. Aunque con frecuencia resulta ser más precoz que Frijolica 0-3.2, su precocidad varía más con el ambiente que otras líneas evaluadas. También presentó lesiones causadas por antracnosis en algunos ensayos de 1984B, a pesar de haber sido clasificada como resistente en Obonuco. La reutilización de la semilla en los ensayos año tras año puede haber permitido que apareciera la susceptibilidad a la antracnosis.ANO 53 es la línea promisoria más nueva y es del tipo de semilla roja redondeada. precoz y resistente a la antracnosis.Todas las cuatro líneas mencionadas presentan los tipos de semilla aceptables en el área.Todas dieron rendimientos de frijol superiores a Mortiño y Sabanero y disminuyen poco o nada los rendimientos del maíz. El beneficio neto obtenido de las nuevas líneas en los ensayos de variedades generalmente fueron superiores a las líneas Mortiño y Sabanero de alto valor comercial (Cuadro 3).En el Cuadro 4 se resumen los resultados de todos los ensayos en los que se han evaluado estas líneas y no sólo de los ensayos de variedades.Frijolica 0-3.2 y TTB 30-42 rindieron aproximadamente 200 kg/ha más que Mortiño sin disminuir más los rendimientos de maíz. Frijolica 0-3.2 presentó un comportamiento consistente excepto en 1984B cuando su ventaja sobre Mortiño se redujo nas fincas (sección 4.121. por el \"problema del amarillamiento\" en algu-T,a línea 32980-1-41 disminuyó en su comportamiento después de 1982B, como ocurrió en los ensayos de variedades. Los análisis de adaptabilidad de todas las líneas evaluadas en dos o más años (Figura 21 confirman la superioridad de Frijolica 0-3.2 en una amplia gama de ambientes. TlB 30-42, 32980-1-41 Y 32980-1-44 la superaron en rendimiento hasta en un promedio de 100 kg/ha en fincas cuyo rendimiento se encuentra debajo del promedio. Sin embargo, Frijolica 0-3.2 fue la más estable de todas, con un coeficiente de adaptabilidad igual al de Mcrtiño, pero de mayor rendimiento. Al compararlas en un regimen agronómico similar, el comportamiento de la línea menos agresiva TIB 30-42 fue similar al de Mortiño a niveles de fertilidad altos. Sin embargo, TIB 30-42 responde más a altas densidades de siembra que Mortiño. 4.5 Cambio de frijol voluble a fr!jol arbustivo Los investigadores en la estación experimental de Obonuco habían propuesto el uso de frijol arbustivo en unicultivo o intercalado como alternativas al frijol voluble. Cada año se probaron dos o tres líneas de frijol arbustivo en unicultivo al lado del ensayo de variedades de frijol voluble. A partir de 1984B también se incluyó frijol arbustivo intercalado. A pesar de que ocasionalmente se presentó un buen año para el frijol arbustivo, como lo fue 1982B (1981B también hahía sido hueno en los ensayos del lCA), sus rendimientos en los demás años fueron bajos (Cuadro 5), El frijol arbustivo resultó más susceptible a los suelos pobres y a la sequía a principios del ciclo de cultivo que el frijol voluble. Sorprendentemente, el maíz afectó poco los rendimientos de frijol, de tal manera que el maíz intercalado con frijol arbustivo fue económicsmente superior al frijol en unicultivo e incluao dio beneficios similares a la asociación de maíz con frijol voluble (Cuadro 3), Frijolica 0-3.1 (originalmente "},{"text":"4. 11 Inoculación con RhizobiumLos beneficios de la inoculación con Rhizobium Se estudiaron por primera Vez en 1985B, con miras a desarrollar tecnologías aptas a nivel de finca para el área. Se observó un fuerte efecto en frijol en dos fincas, pero poca respuesta en una tercera (Cuadro 19), En fincas donde se presentó respuesta a la inoculación, el número de nódulos fue sorprendentemente más bajo en los tratamientos inoculados. El número de nódulos también fue más bajo en Frijolica 0-3.2 que en Mortiño. a pesar del rendimiento superior de Frijolica 0-3.2. La inoculación con Rhizoblum con o sin aplicación de nitrógeno puede ser una manera de aumentar el suministro de nitrógeno al maíz y al frijol sin disminuir los rendimientos de frijol. 10 cual ocurre cuando el nitrógeno se aplica solo y el maíz responde fuertemente. Esto se está investigando en ensayos durante 1986B, Además. se está explorando la respuesta a la inoculación de Mortiño, Frijolica 0-3.2 Y TIB 30-42 con tres cepas diferentes de Rhizobium adaptadas a zonas frías.4.12 Estudio del problema del amarillamientoHacia la mitad del ciclo de 1984B. dos meses antes de la fecha de liberación de Frijolica 0-3.2. se observó un problema de campo que aparentemente afectó más a Frijolica 0-3.2 que a Mortiño. Las hojas se tornaron amarillas, comenzando con las más bajas y gradualmente extendiéndose hacia las superiores. En algunas ocasiones se observaron manchas púrpuras en las hojas. tos síntomas no se asemejaban a las del marchitamiento tardío por Fusarium y no habia evidencia de pudrición radicular en las plantas afectadas. Ocasionalmente se observaron síntomas también en Mortiño y otras líneas.fueron severos en Frijolica 0-3.2 Y rendimiento fue solamente 280 kg/ha 24 Incluso cuando los síntomas no en Mortiño. la pérdida en (ej. S.A. Mejfa, Cuadro 26).Eventualmente más de la mitad de los ensayos a nivel de finca fueron afectados, pero Frijolica 0-3.2 siguió superando en rendimiento a Mortiño en 63 kg/ha en 1984B.Tan pronto como apareció el problema, se diseño un ensayo superpuesto en campos de los agricultores afectados. La aplicación de magnesio foliar aumentó el rendimiento en 128 kg/ha (aplicado a la mitad del llenado de vainas en un campo donde el amarillamiento era ligero) y 324 kg/ha (aplicado a finales de la floración). Una mezcla de micronutrimentos(8, Zn, Mo y Mg) no fue más efectiva que la aplicación de magnesio solo (Cuadro 20). No se observó respuesta en Mortiño. En 19858 hubo poco amari11amiento. Cuanao se repitió el ensayo superpuesto, incluyendo un tratamiento con cloruro de magnesio, no se observaron diferencias significativas entre tratamientoa. AsI, nO se pudo comprobar definitivamente que el beneficio venIa del magnesio y no del azufre contenido en el sulfato de magnesio. aunque en 1984B se nota que no hubo respuesta a sulfato de zinc. En el ensayo de fertilizantes de 1984B, hubo una respuesta significativa a 20 kg/ha de magnesio al primer aporque (220 y 276 kg/ha) en dos campos con sIntomas de amarillamiento pero no en otros sin amarillamiento. El amarillamiento se redujo en los tratamientos con magnesio. Se analizaron semillas de Mortiño y Frijolica 0-3.2 de diferentes años para buscar deficiencias en micronutrimentos (Zn, Mn, Mo, B), las cuales podrían presentarse cuando la semilla se produce año tras año en el área, pero los resultados no indicaron deficiencias. En 19848, los rendimientos más altos de Mortiño se obtuvieron cuando la floración comenzó después del 11 de marzo, en tanto que Frijolica 0-3.2 rindió menos que Mortiño en ensayos dónde la floración comenzó entre el 20 de febrero y el 11 de marzo (Cuadro 21). Como los perlados de fria más severos ocurrieron en enero y a principios de febrero, ésto sugiere que ambas variedades son sensibles al fria justo antes de la floración. El peso de la semilla de Mortiño fue inusitadamente bajo cuando comenzó a florecer entre el 20 de febrero y el 6 de marzo. lo cual indica que el frio también pudo afectar el peso de la semilla. Sin embargo, los pesos de semilla más altos en Frijolica 0-3.2 se obtuvieron cuando comenzó a florecer el 21 de febrero o 10 de marzo. "},{"text":" Mortiño. En el estudio sobre aceptabilidad y basado en los informes de los agricultores y muestras de cultivos, se estimó que Frijolica 0-3.2 rendía 100 kg/ha más que Morriño. El promedio obtenido de ensayos en 1984B fue similar (63 kg/ha), pero superior en los otros tres años sin problema de amarillamiento (242 kg/hal (Cuadro 4).Incluyéndose agricultores con otros accesos a semilla, se esrima que 200 a 250 agricultores sembraron Frijolica 0-3.2 en 1985B. Dos fenómenos retrasaron su difusión. Una helada severa durante tres días consecutivos a principios de noviembre de 1985, catalogada como la peor en 20 años en ese mes, eliminó al frijol en muchas partes de Ipiales, incluyendo un 60-70 por ciento de las parcelas de Fr:ljolica 0-3.2 de los agricultores. Para muchos agricultores, era muy tarde para resembrar.Luego los precios disminuyeron al nivel más bajo de los últimos 10 años, lo cual aumentó el descuento sufrido por Frijolica 0-3.2 a por 10 menos un 30 por ciento. A estos precios aún era tan rentable como Mortiño debido a su mayor rendimiento estable. Sin embargo. los agricultores que dependían de intermediarios locales y no de los mercaderes de Ipiales, informaron que algunos intermediarios no compraban Frijolica 0-3.2.Un estudio realizado a principios de 1986B con una muestra de agricultores quienes habían sembrado Frijolica 0-3.2 en 1985B, se determinó que el 20 por ciento había perdido toda su semilla debido a las beladas. El 50 por ciento del resto continuó sembrando Frijolica 0-3.2 y había aumentado su área sembrada al 35 por ciento en promedio de su área sembrada con frijol. la cual disminuyó debido a los precios bajos. Se estimó que obtuvieron en promedio 692 kg/ha de Frijolica 0-3.2 y 515 kg/ha de Mortiño. Los rendimientos de maíz no fueron afectados. El otro 50 por ciento continuó evaluando la variedad favorablemente para rendimiento, resistencia a enfermedades y precocidad, pero no la sembraron en 1986B debido a su bajo precio(Pachico, comunicaci��n personal). ta investigación actual está enfocada a entender las razones de la diferencia entre las estrategias de los dos grupos de agricultores. Se considera que es factible que Frijolica 0-3.2 sea adoptada por una alta proporción de agricultores si los precios del frijol retornan al nivel normaL 7. Análisis del uso de recursos tos ensayos en Ipiales han sido más numerosos que 10 usual en proyectos de investigación en campos de agricultores, principalmente debido a nuestro interés en el desarrollo y la adaptación de metodologías (Cuadro 32). Con el fin de adquirir más experiencia en diferentes diseños de ensayos y con varios componentes tecnológicos, Se han estudiado más soluciones que 10 usual o aconsejable en la investigación adaptativa en campos de agricultores. Con el fin de obtener información sobre el mínimo número de ensayos aconsejable en un dominio de recomendación, a veces se han sembrado muchas copias. tos principales logros reportados en este documento (es decir, excluyendo la información sobre dosis de fertilizantes e intensificación de cultivos) pudieron haberse logrado mediante un diagnóstico inicial y sólo 61 ensayos distribuidos en cuatro años. La liberación de Frijolica 0-3.2 pudo haberse logrado mediante un diagnóstico inicial y 25 ensayos a nivel de finca distribuidos en tres años (Cuadro 33). Como parte del desarrollo de metodologías, la encuesta inicial Se adelantó en 1982A y se repitió con refinamientos en 1983A. Con el conocimiento que se tiene actualmente, un reconocimiento de una semana (dos a cuatro profesionales) y una encuesta a 50 agricultores (15 personas-día de ejecución y 15 de análisis) hubiera sido suficiente para el diagnóstico inicial. "},{"text":"1 2 fue importante en su adopción rápida por parte de los agricultores y su liberación. La respuesta al cambio en los arreglos espaciales (sección 4.8.1) y el control de enfermedades foliares (sección 4.7) fue diferente en 1982B y en 1983B. Estos componentes habían pasado directamente de ensayos exploratorios a ensayos de verificación los cuales revaluaron combinaciones de componentes similares pero reducidas en número. Esta estrategia fue más fructífera que la simple repetición del ensayo exploratorio en 1983B. puesto que ambos componentes así lograron un progreso más rápido hacia la modificación (arreglo espacial) o recomendación eventual (control de enfermedades foliares). La inconsistencia en la respuesta a dosis aumentadas de fertilizantes al verificarlos en 1985B (sección 4.10) probablemente se debe a factores distintos a la variabilidad que se presenta de un año a otro.La estrategia agresiva también ha evaluado ciertos componentes tecnológicos (dosis de fertilizante desde 1982B y arreglo espacial/densidad desde 1984B) solamente en la variedad promisoria Frijolica 0-3.2, y no en Mortiño. la variedad local. Esto ha sido conveniente debido a que los agricultores parecen adoptar la nueva variedad antes que las Tamaño de la parcela y número total de repeticiones Loa grupos de tres o cuatro ensayos de un solo diseño usualmente han tenido el DMS (10%) para el rendimiento de frijol del orden de 100-150 kg/ha antes de combinar efectos factoriales. Esta da suficiente precisión para la mayor la de los componentes tecnológicos, puesto que ganancias menores no serIan de interés para los agricultores. Sin embargo, los tratamientos de la semilla no son costosos y los agricultores pueden estar interesados en ganancias promedio menores, especialmente como seguro contra ataques por enfermedades ocasionalmente severos.1,os ensayos generalmente no han sido 10 suficientemente precisos para determinar si los tratamientos de semillas producen efectos positivos o negativos pequeños. Sin embargo, es diffcil justificar invertir más recursos en aumentar el número de repeticiones con el fin de aumentar la precisión. "},{"text":"1 El futuro de la lCDA en el área Influenciado por el éxito de este proyecto y por las experiencias en la lCDA de diversos programas nacionales con el ClMMYT y el CIID, el lCA decidió ejecutar seis proyectos piloto de lCDA. Uno se inició en !piales en 1986 y fortalece los contactos entre científicos en la estación experimental de Obonuco y aquellos que tienen su base en lpiales. El subsistema maíz-frijol se incluye entre los diversos subsistemas que se están estudiando. Los municipios incluidos, Potosi, Córdoba y Puerres, cubren parte de la zona dónde se inició este trabajo, de tal manera que los resultados del proyecto del cual se informa aquí se están utilizando en forma extensiva. 9.2 El futuro del frijol en lpiales No hay duda de que el precio del frijol influirá en el entusiasmo de los agricultores respecto a las tecnologías estudiadas junto con ellos en este proyecto. Dado un nivel de precios similar al de las cosechas de 1982B y 1983B, la mayoría de las tecnologías que han alcanzado los ensayos de verificación o los ensayos semicomerciales en 19868 ya se están adoptando (Frijolica 0-3.2 y quizás el uso de benornyl foliar) disponibilidad de una gama de variedades de diferente madurez y diferentes tipos comerciales de semilla, y hay líneas promisorias y una variedad liberada (Frijolica 0-3.2, TI8 30-42, quizás ANO 53 y, en frijol arbustivo, Antioquia 8-11) las cuales satisfacen estas necesidades. El marchitamiento tardío por Fusarium es un problema que aparentemente está aumentando, pero por fortuna las primeras dos líneas son tolerantes. Se cree que el minador de la hoja será un problema en 19868 y ésto al menos ofrecerá la oportunidad para estudiar su control. Las tasas marginales de retorno para los efectos principales se presentan en el Cuadro 34. La relacion de precios frijol:maíz es el parametro que más determina cúales tratamientos son económicos. Los costos variables y beneficios netos aquí presentados se calculan por lo tanto usando promedios de costos y precios de productos (corregidos por inflación) para tres estaciones cuando la relación de precios frijol:maíz era cerca de 2.5 (l982B, 1983B Y 1985B) Y uno cuando era cerca de 4.5 (l984B). "},{"text":" !i!~~Da1-fu ~ ¡:nr pr:frrera. W!Z en !'E!t'O ro qti i cac1 m . Fesnm. ~ di! vads!ades. a.r di! 1\\lar:Ifu, IS62B-L'HiB. "},{"text":"( 3 ) . Da~s \"'. u.i: oe lJ.'t:a sola ::::lJ:tc.a en Puerres. "},{"text":"Los COStOS v~~bles iucluyen el va!or de 1&8 v.~as. a. Calculaco con costos y ~rec.1OS promad10$ de 19S2! a 1985» e1Dre •• do «n p.aoa de a1c1amDre de 1986. "},{"text":" 'r.. 't'rau:a.:Leu1:o a la aa.:llJ.a.. b*DQ'III:'11 .... ca'rDO::an. ti:' b tm.a f1.nca e.l agr:Lc.ulc.or • ..eró C&rp;-..nw rayaQo y uo Mctn:1ño. "},{"text":"2R Pam tmf:mIIs:lI:os cm U .. :!framtc:a 431; 1lU1Hpl1car ¡xr 1.414 pam 1M3 e:tte ot:ro; tn!tanIen!:aI Y ¡xr 1.225 ¡:em tmf:mIIs:lI:os cm y sfn <ltdhBlmca 431'O se perdiÓ lX1\" p.i!d.c:kres mHmlares En I$!,B y \\ID ftE c:lEro1rtaL p;r In lote ~ deu:l:1fomE en 19l5B. Cuadro 28. Movimiento de lIneas promisorias en ensayos de finca en Ipiales. Datos se refieren al número total de ensayos sembrados que inclulan la lInea. Incluida en ensayos regionales antes que empezara el proyecto V Incluida en ensayos de verificación y otros ensayos M Incluida en ensayos semicomerciales y otros ensayos * Evaluada sólo en viveros o surcos de observación Cuadro 30. Características mencionadas por los agricultores con respecto a Frijolica 0-3.2. Pregunta abierta a los que usaron la variedad, lpiales, Colombia 1984iín!r:o l'iín!r:o l'iín!r:o l'iín!r:o l'iín!r:o l'iín!r:o l'iín!r:o ... lbtab ~ ... ibtab ~ _btab ~ mihrab ~ ll.!sarrolJo <E Il!cro'P 1letÉ:Ido <E la :lnxlI'1m de :tI!I:lJ[lm m la Im\\ m Jpiales, 1~1965. "},{"text":" TIB 33462) fue ligeramente menos estable en unicultivo año tras año que Antioquia 8 y T1B 33411 (los resultados de otros estudios lo confirman) de mancozeb en 1982B, pero el efecto del benomyl fue bajo en los ensayos de mancozeb en 1982B, pero el efecto del benomyl fue bajo en los ensayos de verificación de 1983B y 1984B (Cuadro 4). El cambio aparente de un de verificación de 1983B y 1984B (Cuadro 4). El cambio aparente de un año a otro fue, al menos en parte, al cambio del diseño del ensayo. En año a otro fue, al menos en parte, al cambio del diseño del ensayo. En 1983B los investigadores aplicaron benomyl mas mancozeb tres veces como 1983B los investigadores aplicaron benomyl mas mancozeb tres veces como \"tecnología mejorada\", pero se dejó que los agricultores aplicaran a su \"tecnología mejorada\", pero se dejó que los agricultores aplicaran a su testigo. En promedio, los agricultores aplicaron 3.8 veces; de 13 agri- testigo. En promedio, los agricultores aplicaron 3.8 veces; de 13 agri- cultores, 10 utilizaron insecticidas y no solamente fungicidas; 4 agri- cultores, 10 utilizaron insecticidas y no solamente fungicidas; 4 agri- cultores utilizaron azufre u oxycarboxin con mancozeb como fungicidas. cultores utilizaron azufre u oxycarboxin con mancozeb como fungicidas. En 1984B se observó un patrón similar. Por 10 tanto, el control de En 1984B se observó un patrón similar. Por 10 tanto, el control de enfermedades con 3 aplicaciones de mancozeb + benomyl es superior a las enfermedades con 3 aplicaciones de mancozeb + benomyl es superior a las mezclas costosas de productos actualmente utilizados por los agriculto- mezclas costosas de productos actualmente utilizados por los agriculto-   En la En la siguiente sección se discuten dichos efectos. Las únicas interacciones siguiente sección se discuten dichos efectos. Las únicas interacciones significativas fueron ligeras (0.05 ~ P ~ 0.10). Frijol1ca 0-3.2 significativas fueron ligeras (0.05 ~ P ~ 0.10).Frijol1ca 0-3.2 respondió más a la densidad que Mortiño y el mejoramiento en el control respondió más a la densidad que Mortiño y el mejoramiento en el control de enfermedades foLiares fue más efectivo a densidades mayores de fríjol de enfermedades foLiares fue más efectivo a densidades mayores de fríjol JCuadro 6). Los tres componentes nuevos ejercieron efectos similares en JCuadro 6). Los tres componentes nuevos ejercieron efectos similares en un ensayo de verifJ.cación realizado en 1983B, pero sus interacciones un ensayo de verifJ.cación realizado en 1983B, pero sus interacciones fueron diferentes (Cuadro 7). Se observó Un mayor aumento en los fueron diferentes (Cuadro 7).Se observó Un mayor aumento en los  "},{"text":" Los rendimientos de maíz asociados con Mortiño y otras líneas fueron similares, por lo cual confirma que ls muerte de las plantas de fríjol ocurrió tarde en su ciclo de crecimiento. En 1985B, TI8 30-42 se observó tolerante al mar- 4.8.2 TIB 30-42 4.8.2 TIB 30-42 Tan pronto como se demostró la naturaleza promisoria de esta línea menos Tan pronto como se demostró la naturaleza promisoria de esta línea menos 1.0 m entre agresiva y precoz, se iniciaron los trabajos para determinar un arreglo 1.0 m entre agresiva y precoz, se iniciaron los trabajos para determinar un arreglo espacial adecuado. plantas. La distancia entre surcos no se varió. En 1982B, este cambio Las interacciones nitrógeno x fósforo estuvieron ausentes. El nitrógeno chitamiento tardío como Frijolica 0-3.2 en dos ensayos de verificación en el arreglo espacial aumentó los rendimientos de maíz, los rendimien-TIB 30-42 respondió bien a una alta densidad (4F 2M a 0.5 m) en 1984B aumentó los rendimientos de maíz casi linealmente. pero disminuyó los sembrados por casualidad en campos infectados. tos de frijol y los beneficios netos tanto para Mortiño como para rendimientos de frijol debido a la competencia ejercida por el maíz. El (Cuadro 9), pero los agricultores no evaluaron favorablemente la distan-Frijo1ica 0-3.2 (Cuadro 6). Al verificarlo en 1983B, aumentó los rendi-Los efectos del control químico han sido más variables. El insecticida rendimiento de frijol disminuyó en todos los años a medida que el N cia de siembra corta, aun para esta variedad. Por 10 tanto, cuando TIS mientos de frijol pero disminuyó los de maíz, 10 cual condujo a un pe-aldrin aplicado al suelo fue el mejor control en una finca infectada en aumentó de 13 a 39 kg/ha; continuó disminuyendo en 1983B a medida que el espacial adecuado. plantas. La distancia entre surcos no se varió. En 1982B, este cambio Las interacciones nitrógeno x fósforo estuvieron ausentes. El nitrógeno chitamiento tardío como Frijolica 0-3.2 en dos ensayos de verificación en el arreglo espacial aumentó los rendimientos de maíz, los rendimien-TIB 30-42 respondió bien a una alta densidad (4F 2M a 0.5 m) en 1984B aumentó los rendimientos de maíz casi linealmente. pero disminuyó los sembrados por casualidad en campos infectados. tos de frijol y los beneficios netos tanto para Mortiño como para rendimientos de frijol debido a la competencia ejercida por el maíz. El (Cuadro 9), pero los agricultores no evaluaron favorablemente la distan-Frijo1ica 0-3.2 (Cuadro 6). Al verificarlo en 1983B, aumentó los rendi-Los efectos del control químico han sido más variables. El insecticida rendimiento de frijol disminuyó en todos los años a medida que el N cia de siembra corta, aun para esta variedad. Por 10 tanto, cuando TIS mientos de frijol pero disminuyó los de maíz, 10 cual condujo a un pe-aldrin aplicado al suelo fue el mejor control en una finca infectada en aumentó de 13 a 39 kg/ha; continuó disminuyendo en 1983B a medida que el queño aumento en los beneficios netos para Frijollca 0-3.2 y uno mayor 1983B y en las raíces se observaron canales causados por un insecto no N aumentó de 39 a 65 kg/ha. pero se recuperó en 1984B y 1985B. queño aumento en los beneficios netos para Frijollca 0-3.2 y uno mayor 1983B y en las raíces se observaron canales causados por un insecto no N aumentó de 39 a 65 kg/ha. pero se recuperó en 1984B y 1985B. para Mortiño (Cuadro 7). Sin embargo, al evaluar los ensayos, los agri-identificado. Los fungicidas no aumentaron más los rendimientos. Sin para Mortiño (Cuadro 7). Sin embargo, al evaluar los ensayos, los agri-identificado. Los fungicidas no aumentaron más los rendimientos. Sin cultores rechazaron el componente debido al cambio que exigía en sus cultores rechazaron el componente debido al cambio que exigía en sus prácticas de cultivo (hacer caballones en lugar de montículos), a la prácticas de cultivo (hacer caballones en lugar de montículos), a la dificultad para aplicar fungicidas por el denso crecimiento del frijol y dificultad para aplicar fungicidas por el denso crecimiento del frijol y al temor a que ocurriera volcamiento del maíz y menores rendimientos. al temor a que ocurriera volcamiento del maíz y menores rendimientos. 4.8.1 Frijolica 0-3.2 4.8.1 Frijolica 0-3.2 En 1984B, se ensayaron y evaluaron por los agricultores arreglos de En 1984B, se ensayaron y evaluaron por los agricultores arreglos de siembra para Frijolica 0-3.2 con maíz y densidades de frijol cercanas a siembra para Frijolica 0-3.2 con maíz y densidades de frijol cercanas a en el rendimiento de frijol en 1984B y 1985B. Produjo efectos negativos en el rendimiento de frijol en 1984B y 1985B. Produjo efectos negativos en frijol (de 30 a 240 kg/ba) en 3 de 12 fincas. Posiblemente cuando el en frijol (de 30 a 240 kg/ba) en 3 de 12 fincas. Posiblemente cuando el benomyl es absorbido por la plants joven, retarda el desarrollo de la benomyl es absorbido por la plants joven, retarda el desarrollo de la infección de antracnosis y aumenta el rendimf.ento por esta razón y no infección de antracnosis y aumenta el rendimf.ento por esta razón y no por el control que ejerce sobre el marchitamiento tardío. tas pérdidas por el control que ejerce sobre el marchitamiento tardío. tas pérdidas en rendimiento de frijol por la aplicación de fungicidas a la semilla o en rendimiento de frijol por la aplicación de fungicidas a la semilla o al suelo, pueden ser el resultado del daño causado a poblaciones de al suelo, pueden ser el resultado del daño causado a poblaciones de  "},{"text":" tay ruf:f.c.tEtte rrale7A. ~d:r.m d!s¡ués del pr:IIrer lIDlLIM\\ ~ ESOOJ lCIllAL lIDlLIM\\~ESOOJ lCIllAL cultivo puede describirse provisionalmente como mafz Pool 5 (del tipo morocho blanco precoz) asociado con el frijol trepador precoz t 32983 &ojo nn:Hm1ellf:o de ]a¡ rult:1_ -iia:ar var1s:la:les mi; l'I'!'di--'I.'rl,jol:lca 0-3.2 11bemh loCales de frijol d:ms de una ~fSt:ICaS simIllm!s -{\\lar tmfz ne:m ~t:Ivo -Ml521m~ -Mis fert:l.J.:!mu -lll S ~ ro verl-f1 -....Ad:Idam-B, ~ o fu ..:t-t necesario íÍrlca1a1te CI.1a'OO Ijj,y amr:!.l.1an!sJt pr el f:do cultivo puede describirse provisionalmente como mafz Pool 5 (del tipo morocho blanco precoz) asociado con el frijol trepador precoz t 32983 &ojo nn:Hm1ellf:o de ]a¡ rult:1_ -iia:ar var1s:la:les mi; l'I'!'di--'I.'rl,jol:lca 0-3.2 11bemh loCales de frijol d:ms de una ~fSt:ICaS simIllm!s -{\\lar tmfz ne:m ~t:Ivo -Ml521m~ -Mis fert:l.J.:!mu -lll S ~ ro verl-f1 -....Ad:Idam-B, ~ o fu ..:t-t necesario íÍrlca1a1te CI.1a'OO Ijj,y amr:!.l.1an!sJt pr el f:do (M4) (semilla roja de tamaño mediano) o intercalado en hileras con el frijol arbustivo Antioquia 8-11. 5.lfetJ!!l'l'Wles folliJIes, -\"l'arieti!d ~ -Frijolfca 0-3.2 11bemh 1\\r.Jr:Ic:iiñ nrifnl1ar -TIB 3)..42 m ~ ~ lb;.,el~I ¡ma l:Ilxmcllñ (M4) (semilla roja de tamaño mediano) o intercalado en hileras con el frijol arbustivo Antioquia 8-11. 5.lfetJ!!l'l'Wles folliJIes, -\"l'arieti!d ~ -Frijolfca 0-3.2 11bemh 1\\r.Jr:Ic:iiñ nrifnl1ar -TIB 3)..42 m ~ ~ lb;.,el~I ¡ma l:Ilxmcllñ 10. ll!!;ja d.ntI<h! de frljol Agradecimientos -\"l'arieti!d !l1!fOS agresiva a nayor d.ntI<h! 43.2; 3 san!llas a 0.& x 1m !:ajo llIfi!jo ~tnq 4 semt11as a O. x 1m ro wrlfi- 10. ll!!;ja d.ntI<h! de frljol Agradecimientos-\"l'arieti!d !l1!fOS agresiva a nayor d.ntI<h!43.2; 3 san!llas a 0.& x 1m !:ajo llIfi!jo ~tnq 4 semt11as a O. x 1m ro wrlfi-   creiéÍ;¡ creiéÍ;¡ Agradecernos mucho a Douglas Pachico y a Carlos Adolfo tuna por muchas -TIB 3)..42Jo 3 smd1.1as a 0.& !:ajo nern ~tlr; 4 sairlllas a O. x 1m ya wrlfi-discusiones útiles, por su orientación y datos procesados en el análisis calo Agradecernos mucho a Douglas Pachico y a Carlos Adolfo tuna por muchas -TIB 3)..42Jo 3 smd1.1as a 0.& !:ajo nern ~tlr; 4 sairlllas a O. x 1m ya wrlfi-discusiones útiles, por su orientación y datos procesados en el análisis calo económico y por permitirnos utilizar datos obtenidos de sus encuestas. &1fellielab folliJIes ~~;'A!@2tal económico y por permitirnos utilizar datos obtenidos de sus encuestas. &1fellielab folliJIes ~~;'A!@2tal Muchas personas tornaron parte en la planesción y ejecución del tratajo y In) Muchas personas tornaron parte en la planesción y ejecución del tratajo y In) particularmente nos gustaría mencionar a Nestor Angúlo, Jeremy Davis, Pedro Pablo Erazo. Bernardo García. Orlando Monsalve. Judith Kipe-Nolt. tuis Obando, Carlos Pantoja. Cesareo Gallego, Jorge tuia Cabrera, Efren fulr:IclaES rsdInjlares ..fuII:m1 cpfirdro + var:I.a:B:I ~l + carlx:Ildn !:ajo !:Hi0 tnl.enmi agdI;ultm'. ~ ro -ci\\c:ffu. Ftijo ~2rl11B 3)..42 tolemi1I:es. nayor~ particularmente nos gustaría mencionar a Nestor Angúlo, Jeremy Davis, Pedro Pablo Erazo. Bernardo García. Orlando Monsalve. Judith Kipe-Nolt. tuis Obando, Carlos Pantoja. Cesareo Gallego, Jorge tuia Cabrera, Efren fulr:IclaES rsdInjlares ..fuII:m1 cpfirdro + var:I.a:B:I ~l + carlx:Ildn !:ajo !:Hi0 tnl.enmi agdI;ultm'. ~ ro -ci\\c:ffu. Ftijo ~2rl11B 3)..42 tolemi1I:es. nayor~ Asprilla, Gildardo Orozco, Johiner Rodríguez y Nolberto Rios. Sobre todo, agradecemos el apoyo y el interés de los agricultores del distrito Ciclo Jmg:¡ tmfz + frljol -Mñz + frijol pmm: -Pool 5 tmfz + t 32ffi3 (frijol \\Ulub1e) o ~a 8-n (frijol arlu!tiw En prt.EI:a Asprilla, Gildardo Orozco, Johiner Rodríguez y Nolberto Rios. Sobre todo, agradecemos el apoyo y el interés de los agricultores del distrito Ciclo Jmg:¡ tmfz + frljol -Mñz + frijol pmm: -Pool 5 tmfz + t 32ffi3 (frijol \\Ulub1e) o ~a 8-n (frijol arlu!tiw En prt.EI:a de lpiales y les agradecemos por la confianza depositada en nosotros. Este documento se 10 dedicamos a la memoria de nuestro colega Osear &1felliehb folliJIes ....Ad:Idam-~l al lB> -fu e~ de OOIu>tta::liÍ1l:a:jo ~ aiI:UUmfs) a::tml de trEn!b nerejo del ~tlr. lhy :The,!;;WG lf,1.'i~ ~~ el <mtm1 de lpiales y les agradecemos por la confianza depositada en nosotros. Este documento se 10 dedicamos a la memoria de nuestro colega Osear &1felliehb folliJIes ....Ad:Idam-~l al lB> -fu e~ de OOIu>tta::liÍ1l:a:jo ~ aiI:UUmfs) a::tml de trEn!b nerejo del ~tlr. lhy :The,!;;WG lf,1.'i~ ~~ el <mtm1 Herrera Durán quien contribuyó con entusiasmo durante los primeros dos años del trabajo hasta su inoportuna muerte. Falta de féBfi:Jro al frijol Y -<'atbJm:' p:qxntiát N:P:K -& averf€p5 <p\" el 13-26-6 es gasID :he::eario en pJtiIelo ~ ¡ma apl1Cflcla-es 11 18 pdIrem desyeIba. Se eliplo-m1 la<! l1caMam de P + K ro la si:'h:a Herrera Durán quien contribuyó con entusiasmo durante los primeros dos años del trabajo hasta su inoportuna muerte. Falta de féBfi:Jro al frijol Y -<'atbJm:' p:qxntiát N:P:K -& averf€p5 <p\" el 13-26-6 es gasID :he::eario en pJtiIelo ~ ¡ma apl1Cflcla-es 11 18 pdIrem desyeIba. Se eliplo-m1 la<! l1caMam de P + K ro la si:'h:a 11. Referencias MIIBbr de la roja -tro de :lnsect:.lcldas p:Imtm:I.des ~ \\B) de lIPtankbfoo fuclaií. Ptd:>lam ~e-ció d!s¡ués de 1~83 11. Referencias MIIBbr de la roja-tro de :lnsect:.lcldas p:Imtm:I.des~ \\B) de lIPtankbfoo fuclaií. Ptd:>lam ~e-ció d!s¡ués de 1~83 El. mfz IY-\"f'S'I'\" mil ~.   El. mfz IY-\"f'S'I'\" mil ~. Guerrero P. y Pachico D. (1985), Evaluación por los agricultores: el Guerrero P. y Pachico D. (1985), Evaluación por los agricultores: el caso de Frijolica 0-3.2 en el Sur de Nariño, Colombia. borrador caso de Frijolica 0-3.2 en el Sur de Nariño, Colombia. borrador para CIAT, eali, Colombia.  para CIAT, eali, Colombia.  "},{"text":" Costo variable y beneficio neto de algunos sistemas en el ensayode variedades, Nariño, clima frio 19828-19858.    Calculado con costos y precios promedios de los cuatro años, expresado en pesos de diciembre de 1986. ReSIIren de rf![l(\\jmjentos (kg!ha) de maf.z y frijol para frijoles arbustivos en ersayos de varfedades.Ip1ales 19828-19858.    Lo~es int.ermed1Oa uara fó.tc~o (21 a 45 ppm) p~DVftU1.nt.6 ce UDA rot.&e1ÓU difarentc a la d. 'Pa'Pa~ Cuadro 3. T.derdrbd Efect:o Frijol unirultivo Va:rUOlltl Frtjol Var1e,clad M.a..U. Pt\"tm!ecÍ1O 2 lotes ieT'\"t:~lIls -\\~ protttecb .. o\" locen! :~.:niir't:1.1.t!s(2) Cbltr gme 1$28 19l3B 19l41l F M F M F M 1583B Pes:> 100 SÍ!l) 1cmB 1%!IB 1'll51l Prcmrl10 F _ . . txBJ!da aallln ( .... r\"AI,) M F M F M F M F M e:a:rre Sezá.llal kau41m1ftD~ Coseos Deuei~;~o a.nd~en~c COBtQS Denetic~c 1 ;\\ .. a a gDlpes gol.pe 13-2.6-9 -I...-!L 'Vllriab es ne:t:o .....!-_\"_ vI;riabl¡;s net:o <m1 l' M (kg/ha) kglo.a =:U.a de 'Pee08Jn..a Itg/b.,a mU •• de p •• os/ha F 1'HiB M PttmdIo l1:rd!mlo F M Cuadro 3. T.derdrbd Efect:o Frijol unirultivo Va:rUOlltl Frtjol Var1e,clad M.a..U.Pt\"tm!ecÍ1O 2 lotes ieT'\"t:~lIls -\\~ protttecb .. o\" locen! :~.:niir't:1.1.t!s(2) Cbltr gme 1$28 19l3B 19l41l F M F M F M 1583B Pes:> 100 SÍ!l) 1cmB 1%!IB 1'll51l Prcmrl10 F _ . . txBJ!da aallln ( .... r\"AI,) M F M F M F M F M e:a:rre Sezá.llal kau41m1ftD~ Coseos Deuei~;~o a.nd~en~c COBtQS Denetic~c 1 ;\\ .. a a gDlpes gol.pe 13-2.6-9 -I...-!L 'Vllriab es ne:t:o .....!-_\"_ vI;riabl¡;s net:o <m1 l' M (kg/ha) kglo.a =:U.a de 'Pee08Jn..a Itg/b.,a mU •• de p •• os/haF1'HiBMPttmdIo l1:rd!mlo F M l'd.jol!ca 0-3.2* TlB ))..42 3m:>-1-44 3m:>-1-41 lbImí 1 ID\\M-8k MJrtiib (t:est:Ig:»* Var.Iakl de frljal Var.!a:Iades da frijol Mlrt:Ifu a Frljo1lca 0-3.2 Mlrt:Ifu a TlB JJ.42 Mlrt:Ifu a 329D-1-41 ~<EII\"IÚZ Va:rledad 19828 de frijol 4 fincas AntioquiaB lIlI 521 ?rtlol1ca 0-3 .. 2 Morocho Beo :lB 30-42 Merceno l'h:o :~1joll.ea 0-3.2 Marceno Beo :1':'1jo.11ea 0-3 .. 2 ?rtjo.Uca 0-3.2 Morocbo Beo Frijol1ca 0-3.1 TIB 33411 1445 Horoc.nc Deo :-r11ollc.a 0-3.2 Moroeno Beo :1ord.:ic Mort1Do ~.crocho BCD ~ (t:est:Ig:»* TIB 33-41 V 5799 Car!!iSlld.o rnyah (t:est:Ig:» Frljol ~ llFIrfsrb (DI lI1Úz Frijoljt:a ()\"3.2 TIB 33341 1231 ?~o ltJm:in b:l.arro a l-B $lJ (0-3.2 Y M:rt) 3 fincas 33 lJ 32 32 Jj 31 35 Pndo lI!Il mladát a tb:t:Ifu mIJes~ 1~ &I]j 1l84B 1!Ml 72 M:mm/Ctam 7J7 1m 5't5 00 ~ 461 43 Mxa:Io 7S4 :1m 485 56 ~ 956 1745 ~ 65 ~tl1mrh 355 47 !\\:>jo 629 2178 231 a'j lbr..:Jo/Ctam Ifij ;n;z Cl:sto var:Ia:>le Benef:Ido neto GnUes de pes:sAa) 243 -131 :al -79 63 58 23l 142 19'1 -3 91 fB ~ 197 228 -136 :;os 43 lOO -317 135 -93 éll 243 24 -155 1i'O ro 19838 1984B 19858 Pmnedio Pmnedio ¡x:n:Ierado 'U3 1235 lll5 lWl 1193 1111 3 fincas 4 fincas 1984B Y 19858 19838 a 1985B 506 639 7oz8 670 O.S 3 3 300 936 1147 27.9 181.0 547 2267 O.S /o 3 100 823 1292 1.6.0 147.' 64/0 2158 O.S 3 3 100 962 1229 16.8 202.2 533 2104 O.S 3 J 300 763 845 2B.l 128.6 556 \"1254 0.8 3 3 300 872 938 28.0 155.5 527 2081 616 476 788 632 600 625 575 755 665 652 1.0 3 4 100 .782 1000 15 .. 2 155.0 453 1741 l.0 2 4 100 338 1062 14.' 80.9 217 2087 1.0 2 4 100 564 1375 14.' 14a .. 2 214 2193 :ro 1107 139 1484 416 1922 348 161i4 570 1404 615 llríJ 8J) 1522 58!! 1724 515 1786 001 1582 479 l356 .$6 1646 311 1701 4IIJ 1767 553 l.568 311 1323 412 1526 366 1737 Jj g¡ Rcs:m/lbjo 485 2149 :ID 1377 173 1555 343 1763 34 43 lbjo 228 1259 2lJ 1704 m 1797 31 45 lbjo ® 2276 Jj 93 436 1855 0.91 10.3 75.3 123.9 153.2 82.8 b 283 755 HU 461 2186 -144 DMS (10:) 151 306 ll7 643 324 56 -12 -44 156 ltJm:in b:l.arro a l-B 521 (0-3.2 Y M:rt)b -187 549 133 m -27 428 IH! (10%) 202 l3l l3l 124 O O 10 3, ~/t-Egro Uaq¡rnn:le* 29 49 ~ 293 1747 Saiitb Jj 36 57 !Iom:b/Crem. 006 1969 3m:>-1-4J 32 56 Mxa:Io 572 Z5lJ 3297&-1-41 32 46 lbjo 561 Zl1fJ V 3.llD\" 31 52 Illam 545 2:!h7 lihlaiJr 521* 34 51 lbjo 537 J:l!ID.1-41 0.61 6.7 66.0 %.8 92.9 49.5 3m)-1-44 0.67 6.0 Frijol futercalsdo ero maf.z FeJ:tjH?l!dm (al pr:IIrer ~) ~ n.l 128.0 lIXi.S TIB 30-42 o.n 7.3 119.3 153.1 61.3 tWS3 67.4 lbrt:lfu (t:est:I¡p) 1 12.6 59.9 109.0 61.9 67.1 l3Ila3SN Pranedio Fr11all •• <>-3.2 (:lI! Jrl a !'DI 31)..42 (:lI! 4F) -169 63 111 5/0 -126 4% -34 427 -81 235 -ro :Bí 3SN a 6SN -44 513 la; JJ2 1Il 119 57 341 11.1' a 341' l{) 176 ~ 27 77 -218 52 -5 1984B 19858 19848 Y 1985B Frijol Mdz Frl;Iol Mdz Fri:lol Mdz -90 -291 -f> -23 100 • 300 <,Iha 13-26-6 -109 -93 29 17l j)en.,-l -l;Uí)oUn Og/kgl !1orocDO blanco a MB-521 64 209 20 186 2291 &>lf'<\"Cim MIl: ]o::al V2 35 66 Mxa:Io/Ctam 283 1097 &>1f<'f'iiñ MIl: ]o::al VI 35 59 Mxa:Io/Cmm. 'lJ6 1129 10\\ M-4 (t 32'm)* Jl .il !\\:>jo 201 15.il TIB 19-42 lJ 51 Mmrl> 212 SisEO (t:est:I¡p) 1.18 16.1 70.5 150.0 78.5 Frijol arlnstlvo Jntetcala:b (DI lI1Úz 341' a 56.7P 35 -113 153 -19 22 439 i'O 100 O a 100 kgIln ~ 156 822 122 19 157 674 145 sa; Antioquia 8 434 1928 :T1j~ 0-3 .. 2 (4M Jy) l~O m a (3M 3F) Q~8 m 180 ::29 80 J63 501' -1993 468 MurttDo (4M 21'1 1.Q m a FrijoLloa 0-3.2 (4K 3Fl 1.0 m 218 -375 239 -i052 1960 100 a :ro kgIln 13-26-6 149 152 67 JJ7 -54 -108 54 147 O a 20 -52 22l 100 \":357 -53 -552 18 -229 Frijolica 0-3.1 429 1752 510 1820 469 1786 TIB 33411 368 2058 528 C08m& fijos: 42.7 m:Ues ó. pe.u/ha 1768 448 1913 1818 TIB 19-41 lJ 56 Mmrl> 123 1670 0053 31 55 lbjo 615 1709 002] lJ 65 !\\:>jo 436 1t1l:kqrfa 8 0.62 21.7 107.5 59.1 TIB 33411 0.59 22.4 114.4 107 -577 108 297 64 li6 93 25 O a l$. (en fUiSE'lda lN + 341') IH! (lO%) 131 422 124 514 (l). Lo't:c.1 con aleo eont.eu:iá.c de fósforo ( 60 p¡:::rm) Y pT'Ove'tÚetl't:.s de c.u.J..tivo d. 'Papa .. 48.S 1m Frijoljt:a ()\"3.1 0.55 18.9 112.0 SO.7 QIdrlo <E de!l!rltlal (2)_ l'd.jol!ca 0-3.2* TlB ))..42 3m:>-1-44 3m:>-1-41 lbImí 1 ID\\M-8k MJrtiib (t:est:Ig:»* Var.Iakl de frljal Var.!a:Iades da frijol Mlrt:Ifu a Frljo1lca 0-3.2 Mlrt:Ifu a TlB JJ.42 Mlrt:Ifu a 329D-1-41 ~<EII\"IÚZ Va:rledad 19828 de frijol 4 fincas AntioquiaB lIlI 521 ?rtlol1ca 0-3 .. 2 Morocho Beo :lB 30-42 Merceno l'h:o :~1joll.ea 0-3.2 Marceno Beo :1':'1jo.11ea 0-3 .. 2 ?rtjo.Uca 0-3.2 Morocbo Beo Frijol1ca 0-3.1 TIB 33411 1445 Horoc.nc Deo :-r11ollc.a 0-3.2 Moroeno Beo :1ord.:ic Mort1Do ~.crocho BCD ~ (t:est:Ig:»* TIB 33-41 V 5799 Car!!iSlld.o rnyah (t:est:Ig:» Frljol ~ llFIrfsrb (DI lI1Úz Frijoljt:a ()\"3.2 TIB 33341 1231 ?~o ltJm:in b:l.arro a l-B $lJ (0-3.2 Y M:rt) 3 fincas 33 lJ 32 32 Jj 31 35 Pndo lI!Il mladát a tb:t:Ifu mIJes~ 1~ &I]j 1l84B 1!Ml 72 M:mm/Ctam 7J7 1m 5't5 00 ~ 461 43 Mxa:Io 7S4 :1m 485 56 ~ 956 1745 ~ 65 ~tl1mrh 355 47 !\\:>jo 629 2178 231 a'j lbr..:Jo/Ctam Ifij ;n;z Cl:sto var:Ia:>le Benef:Ido neto GnUes de pes:sAa) 243 -131 :al -79 63 58 23l 142 19'1 -3 91 fB ~ 197 228 -136 :;os 43 lOO -317 135 -93 éll 243 24 -155 1i'O ro 19838 1984B 19858 Pmnedio Pmnedio ¡x:n:Ierado 'U3 1235 lll5 lWl 1193 1111 3 fincas 4 fincas 1984B Y 19858 19838 a 1985B 506 639 7oz8 670 O.S 3 3 300 936 1147 27.9 181.0 547 2267 O.S /o 3 100 823 1292 1.6.0 147.' 64/0 2158 O.S 3 3 100 962 1229 16.8 202.2 533 2104 O.S 3 J 300 763 845 2B.l 128.6 556 \"1254 0.8 3 3 300 872 938 28.0 155.5 527 2081 616 476 788 632 600 625 575 755 665 652 1.0 3 4 100 .782 1000 15 .. 2 155.0 453 1741 l.0 2 4 100 338 1062 14.' 80.9 217 2087 1.0 2 4 100 564 1375 14.' 14a .. 2 214 2193 :ro 1107 139 1484 416 1922 348 161i4 570 1404 615 llríJ 8J) 1522 58!! 1724 515 1786 001 1582 479 l356 .$6 1646 311 1701 4IIJ 1767 553 l.568 311 1323 412 1526 366 1737 Jj g¡ Rcs:m/lbjo 485 2149 :ID 1377 173 1555 343 1763 34 43 lbjo 228 1259 2lJ 1704 m 1797 31 45 lbjo ® 2276 Jj 93 436 1855 0.91 10.3 75.3 123.9 153.2 82.8 b 283 755 HU 461 2186 -144 DMS (10:) 151 306 ll7 643 324 56 -12 -44 156 ltJm:in b:l.arro a l-B 521 (0-3.2 Y M:rt)b -187 549 133 m -27 428 IH! (10%) 202 l3l l3l 124 O O 10 3, ~/t-Egro Uaq¡rnn:le* 29 49 ~ 293 1747 Saiitb Jj 36 57 !Iom:b/Crem. 006 1969 3m:>-1-4J 32 56 Mxa:Io 572 Z5lJ 3297&-1-41 32 46 lbjo 561 Zl1fJ V 3.llD\" 31 52 Illam 545 2:!h7 lihlaiJr 521* 34 51 lbjo 537 J:l!ID.1-41 0.61 6.7 66.0 %.8 92.9 49.5 3m)-1-44 0.67 6.0 Frijol futercalsdo ero maf.z FeJ:tjH?l!dm (al pr:IIrer ~) ~ n.l 128.0 lIXi.S TIB 30-42 o.n 7.3 119.3 153.1 61.3 tWS3 67.4 lbrt:lfu (t:est:I¡p) 1 12.6 59.9 109.0 61.9 67.1 l3Ila3SN Pranedio Fr11all •• <>-3.2 (:lI! Jrl a !'DI 31)..42 (:lI! 4F) -169 63 111 5/0 -126 4% -34 427 -81 235 -ro :Bí 3SN a 6SN -44 513 la; JJ2 1Il 119 57 341 11.1' a 341' l{) 176 ~ 27 77 -218 52 -5 1984B 19858 19848 Y 1985B Frijol Mdz Frl;Iol Mdz Fri:lol Mdz -90 -291 -f> -23 100 • 300 <,Iha 13-26-6 -109 -93 29 17l j)en.,-l -l;Uí)oUn Og/kgl !1orocDO blanco a MB-521 64 209 20 186 2291 &>lf'<\"Cim MIl: ]o::al V2 35 66 Mxa:Io/Ctam 283 1097 &>1f<'f'iiñ MIl: ]o::al VI 35 59 Mxa:Io/Cmm. 'lJ6 1129 10\\ M-4 (t 32'm)* Jl .il !\\:>jo 201 15.il TIB 19-42 lJ 51 Mmrl> 212 SisEO (t:est:I¡p) 1.18 16.1 70.5 150.0 78.5 Frijol arlnstlvo Jntetcala:b (DI lI1Úz 341' a 56.7P 35 -113 153 -19 22 439 i'O 100 O a 100 kgIln ~ 156 822 122 19 157 674 145 sa; Antioquia 8 434 1928 :T1j~ 0-3 .. 2 (4M Jy) l~O m a (3M 3F) Q~8 m 180 ::29 80 J63 501' -1993 468 MurttDo (4M 21'1 1.Q m a FrijoLloa 0-3.2 (4K 3Fl 1.0 m 218 -375 239 -i052 1960 100 a :ro kgIln 13-26-6 149 152 67 JJ7 -54 -108 54 147 O a 20 -52 22l 100 \":357 -53 -552 18 -229 Frijolica 0-3.1 429 1752 510 1820 469 1786 TIB 33411 368 2058 528 C08m& fijos: 42.7 m:Ues ó. pe.u/ha 1768 448 1913 1818 TIB 19-41 lJ 56 Mmrl> 123 1670 0053 31 55 lbjo 615 1709 002] lJ 65 !\\:>jo 436 1t1l:kqrfa 8 0.62 21.7 107.5 59.1 TIB 33411 0.59 22.4 114.4 107 -577 108 297 64 li6 93 25 O a l$. (en fUiSE'lda lN + 341') IH! (lO%) 131 422 124 514 (l). Lo't:c.1 con aleo eont.eu:iá.c de fósforo ( 60 p¡:::rm) Y pT'Ove'tÚetl't:.s de c.u.J..tivo d. 'Papa .. 48.S 1m Frijoljt:a ()\"3.1 0.55 18.9 112.0 SO.7 QIdrlo <E de!l!rltlal (2)_ 00 37 31 64 !\\:>jo      418 1897 00 373164!\\:>jo4181897 0039 Mlrt:!íb x ~13 Frl,101 arlnstlvo En urla11.t.tvo ~ 2F; hu a M 2F, O.~ (0-3.2 y M:rt) 0058 IttIt:qrla 8 1M 3F, hu a 313F, O.a. (Frlj 0-3.2) a Fh 1985B ae usó Antioquia &-II (selecdmada de hábito '11): en loa afus anteriores era tma Jrezcla de 31 46 !\\:>jo 34 71 Ctam/lbjo 203 2 2ffi 00 355 194 -175 za; lJ 62 !\\:>jo 0.62 16.9 8.8 42.2 -11.0 92 -24 159 208 125 92   355 342 312 2262 1891 1858 0039 Mlrt:!íb x ~13 Frl,101 arlnstlvo En urla11.t.tvo ~ 2F; hu a M 2F, O.~ (0-3.2 y M:rt) 0058 IttIt:qrla 8 1M 3F, hu a 313F, O.a. (Frlj 0-3.2) a Fh 1985B ae usó Antioquia &-II (selecdmada de hábito '11): en loa afus anteriores era tma Jrezcla de 31 46 !\\:>jo 34 71 Ctam/lbjo 203 2 2ffi 00 355 194 -175 za; lJ 62 !\\:>jo 0.62 16.9 8.8 42.2 -11.0 92 -24 159 208 125 92355 342 3122262 1891 1858 IMl (100 TIB 33411 F'I::Ija1.:k:a ().. 3.1 O:nt:ml <E eofema:lales follata; hábitos I y TI. 0.59 0.55 17.9 16.5 23.5 aJ2 20.0 572 25.7 -10.8 131 11.9 -10.8 YJ 131 422 97 :>í5 IMl (100 TIB 33411 F'I::Ija1.:k:a ().. 3.1 O:nt:ml <E eofema:lales follata; hábitos I y TI.0.59 0.5517.9 16.523.5aJ2 20.0572 25.7 -10.8 131 11.9 -10.8YJ13142297:>í5 O:nt:ml agdrullDr a ~ + betl:n'!f1(3) 313 -116 16 35 52 -éll 127 -37      O:nt:ml agdrullDr a ~ + betl:n'!f1(3) 313 -116 1635 52-éll127 -37 Tra!alIIento da semUla ! a.elo           Tra!alIIento da semUla ! a.elo Perojo en betl:n'!fl O!dxl>dn ~l + carIx:l>dn 3: 1 ~alasemUla AIdrfu s:íl.o Cad>!ryl s:íl.o Fa:J:l:lm!sm ¡:v:u.eUo ~tm'eS -75 -59 -23 l{)I 2f¡ --106 20:) 11 00 -~ -100 12 56 -185 112 11 41 -203 1997 636 ~ 'J'j7 2137 515 1632 527 1'XlI -53 -ro -53 ro 57 2JJ 56 26 118 323 118\" '!Zf' 44 11 41 -203      Perojo en betl:n'!fl O!dxl>dn ~l + carIx:l>dn 3: 1 ~alasemUla AIdrfu s:íl.o Cad>!ryl s:íl.o Fa:J:l:lm!sm ¡:v:u.eUo ~tm'eS-75 -59 -23 l{)I2f¡ --106 20:) 11 00 -~ -100 12 56 -185 112 11 41 -203 1997 636 ~ 'J'j7 2137 515 1632 527 1'XlI -53 -ro -53 ro 57 2JJ 56 26 118 323 118\" '!Zf' 44 11 41 -203  "},{"text":" Cuadro 18. Ensayo de fertilización.Ipiales, 1983B-1985B.    (Fertilizantes aplicados en corona al primer aporque). Promedio de 9 fincas (3 por año). Crunílab an cmtos y prec:Ics pttII8Ha; de 1982B a 1<m3 y e:<presab en p!!!l':S de d:fcieIlbre de 1986. T.al cmtos Y I:m!ftda¡ pn:a el jueg> factorlal de N Y P EStiÚl \",lnílabo ajtl3tmh el otm e1s1mt:o a su n:b>el h!!jo b F.q.¡ivaltrte a la aplinrim promd1a de la; agdrultores en erwestssde 1982 Y 1983   Cuadro 23. Rendimiento de frijol y maíz en el ensayo intensificación del ciclo. Nariño, clima frio, 1983B. Promedio 3 fincas.     rl':'OIIIecl1o lotes l!n :-ulln-eilTI rl':'OIIIecl1olotes l!n :-ulln-eilTI Mínimo 1.4 15.1 4.9 1.7 0.43 1.40 0.1 0.04 6.4 0.4 1.2 6.0 O 3.9 ViIrla1!rl uf 3'}l ~ ll.~ P ppm Bray II M.O. % pH Ca meq/lOOg Mg meq/lOOg Ca/Mg K meq/l00g Na \" ClC \" B ppm Zn ppm MIl ppm Cu ppm Fe ppm PtoIed:I.o de tIDIeles de P PtoIed:I.o de niveles de N 34,CP 56.7P IMl(lOO 'l'nrtmdaltre atidI:m1es 35t< 34P 3'}l+34P+6C :ro kgAn J.3-26.6 :ro kgAn J3..2f>..6 + .a¡ lt lCO kgAn J.3-26.6 o (sin fertll1m:1m) IMl (100 frijol mñz a ViIrla1!rl Primer Cuartilo 2.8 39.4 5.6 5.0 1.09 3.2 0.6 0.06 11.8 0.64 2.7 20.5 0.47 20.8 Pa:dlmI.erm lq:¡¡}a Mediano 3.2 69.0 5.8 6.2 1.4 4.2 0.8 0.08 13.8 0.87 3.5 28.0 0.81 29.8 Frijol Mrl' Z Fri:joljca 0-3.2 M. B1am 735 l326 6lJ 7fJ74 679 'Bl2 571 aro fó7 2018 73l All6 :e 161 632 aro 75'J 2119 €al aJ96 706 1ffi9 m 1981 !fA 1563 la; 288 ~w1iñ salñ!fdt ~~ Tercer Cuartilo 4.0 109.5 6.1 7.7 2.1 5.6 1.1 0.1 17.6 1.11 5.1 39.3 1.28 38.4 O:mt:s var:úID1es fuñ1es de ¡\"\", ... An)'\" 17.0 aJ.4 23.8 13.2 20.4 27.7 aJ.4 21.7 19.7 33.3 9.5 4.4 P.etdImleI1I:ó Máximo 7.7 560.0 6.7 14.9 4.8 14.0 3.4 0.66 34.0 1.9 14.7 84.0 4.5 112.0 &nlf1clo ooto fuñ1es de 1\"\", ... An)a 1)\\.2 159.3 182.3 156.6 lW.8 168.8 lW.5 177.9 170.7 146.8 1W.6 119.2 pla:!tasAri pm!ld1o (l<wb¡) Frijol i'iífZ Z7.9 16.0 16.8 28. ¡ 28.0 15~2 14.4 14.4 176.8 174.7 175.0 177 ~5 161.2 138.5 119.8 163.6 keca~eut:o ~ M ~ar1able$a neto 4 ~seo »eOet~e~o ~/~ ~es ~e pesos/Qa 1437 1506 79.3 248.3 1290 1520 55., 193.3 1228 1439 SO.S Z02 .. ~ 126B JI03 90.4 lOS.: 991 1682 100 • .5 152.6 847 1227 79.1 111.8 850 2365 81.8 ZIlJ.4 555 3063 77.3 189.6 1058 1988 465 1157 O 30 62 81 -237 243 277 1421 446 -176 381 212 292-1U6 Mínimo 1.4 15.1 4.9 1.7 0.43 1.40 0.1 0.04 6.4 0.4 1.2 6.0 O 3.9 ViIrla1!rl uf 3'}l ~ ll.~ P ppm Bray II M.O. % pH Ca meq/lOOg Mg meq/lOOg Ca/Mg K meq/l00g Na \" ClC \" B ppm Zn ppm MIl ppm Cu ppm Fe ppm PtoIed:I.o de tIDIeles de P PtoIed:I.o de niveles de N 34,CP 56.7P IMl(lOO 'l'nrtmdaltre atidI:m1es 35t< 34P 3'}l+34P+6C :ro kgAn J.3-26.6 :ro kgAn J3..2f>..6 + .a¡ lt lCO kgAn J.3-26.6 o (sin fertll1m:1m) IMl (100 frijol mñz a ViIrla1!rlPrimer Cuartilo 2.8 39.4 5.6 5.0 1.09 3.2 0.6 0.06 11.8 0.64 2.7 20.5 0.47 20.8 Pa:dlmI.erm lq:¡¡}a Mediano 3.2 69.0 5.8 6.2 1.4 4.2 0.8 0.08 13.8 0.87 3.5 28.0 0.81 29.8 Frijol Mrl' Z Fri:joljca 0-3.2 M. B1am 735 l326 6lJ 7fJ74 679 'Bl2 571 aro fó7 2018 73l All6 :e 161 632 aro 75'J 2119 €al aJ96 706 1ffi9 m 1981 !fA 1563 la; 288 ~w1iñ salñ!fdt ~~ Tercer Cuartilo 4.0 109.5 6.1 7.7 2.1 5.6 1.1 0.1 17.6 1.11 5.1 39.3 1.28 38.4 O:mt:s var:úID1es fuñ1es de ¡\"\", ... An)'\" 17.0 aJ.4 23.8 13.2 20.4 27.7 aJ.4 21.7 19.7 33.3 9.5 4.4 P.etdImleI1I:ó Máximo 7.7 560.0 6.7 14.9 4.8 14.0 3.4 0.66 34.0 1.9 14.7 84.0 4.5 112.0 &nlf1clo ooto fuñ1es de 1\"\", ... An)a 1)\\.2 159.3 182.3 156.6 lW.8 168.8 lW.5 177.9 170.7 146.8 1W.6 119.2 pla:!tasAri pm!ld1o (l<wb¡) Frijol i'iífZZ7.9 16.0 16.8 28. ¡ 28.0 15~2 14.4 14.4176.8 174.7 175.0 177 ~5 161.2 138.5 119.8 163.6keca~eut:o ~ M ~ar1able$a neto 4 ~seo »eOet~e~o ~/~ ~es ~e pesos/Qa 1437 1506 79.3 248.3 1290 1520 55., 193.3 1228 1439 SO.S Z02 .. ~ 126B JI03 90.4 lOS.: 991 1682 100 • .5 152.6 847 1227 79.1 111.8 850 2365 81.8 ZIlJ.4 555 3063 77.3 189.6 1058 1988 465 1157 O 30 62 81 -237 243 277 1421 446 -176 381 212 292-1U6  "},{"text":" .alro 34. 'lasas 1IIlt'gImles de retotro (preckr¡¡ Y a:stxE casta\"tes prttmrlID de 1~-19i5) ¡:era efectx:s pdreI¡:alOS. Mlrr.oze:¡ + ~l (3) ',ogros deseados  Número de ensayos necesarios ',ogros deseadosNúmero de ensayos necesarios  EfEcto  1982B 1~ 1983B l'i6l} 1~ 1984B 1~ 1985B l'mlBiio EfEcto1982B 1~1983B l'i6l}1~1984B 1~1985B l'mlBiio ThrtiUzreifu        ThrtiUzreifu Actuales  24  33  40  47 Actuales24334047 (incluyendo información UJa3!N  3.4  7.1 0.39 3.6 (incluyendo información UJa3!N3.47.10.393.6 metodológica) lNaftlll   8.4  14.3 8.8 10.5 metodológica) lNaftlll8.414.38.810.5 11.3' a 341> Logros principales 341> a 56.7P 1 10 14.7 -1.0 20 6.7 19.8 -0.64 31 26.0 6.9 14.9 38 11.3' a 341> Logros principales 341> a 56.7P11014.7 -1.0206.7 19.8-0.64 31 26.06.9 14.938 O a 100 lqyht 13-26-6   11.2  3.1 9.9 8.0 O a 100 lqyht 13-26-611.23.19.98.0 Logros principales (reduciendo ensayos ,1 mínimo recomendable) 100 a 3lllqyht 1:J..,1b..6 O a al l1!: (3lllqyht !3-2(H;) O a 15 K (3!N + 341» 6 2.5 0.35 -20.0 11 2.6 O.l'} 40.0 22 -1.2 -3.0 36.0 22 -0.78 1.3 18.8 Logros principales (reduciendo ensayos ,1 mínimo recomendable) 100 a 3lllqyht 1:J..,1b..6 O a al l1!: (3lllqyht !3-2(H;) O a 15 K (3!N + 341»62.5 0.35 -20.0112.6 O.l'} 40.022 -1.2 -3.0 36.022 -0.78 1.3 18.8 Frijolica 0-3.2 liberada 0inhID de dens:IdOO 6  11  8  o Frijolica 0-3.2 liberada 0inhID de dens:IdOO6118o como línea estable (mínimo recomendable) ltI 21\". 1m a Ji 21\", O.É 14.6 5.9  9.1  9.8 como línea estable (mínimo recomendable) ltI 21\". 1m a Ji 21\", O.É14.65.99.19.8 ltI3F, 1m a lI3F, O.a. (Frij. 0-3.2)    13.4 34.9 23.5 ltI3F, 1m a lI3F, O.a. (Frij. 0-3.2)13.434.923.5 Posibilidad de intensificar 4  4  3  4 Posibilidad de intensificar4434 producción (adicional)       producción (adicional) Recomendaciones  5.7 0.00 4 0.90 3 2.4 3 Recomendaciones5.70.0040.9032.43 Fertilización Frijolica 0-3.2       Fertilización Frijolica 0-3.2 (adicional)        (adicional) FamjoEl1~l  -34.0 -3.7  -47.8  -28.3 FamjoEl1~l-34.0-3.7-47.8-28.3 Qntax{n  -153.0 ..:zJ6.0  81.9  -137.8 Qntax{n-153.0..:zJ6.081.9-137.8 1 Be!nt¡yl + Qntax{n 3: 1 Frijolica 0-3.2 liberada, TIB 30-42 candidata para liberación. AND 53 -56.7 210.0 98.4 1 Be!nt¡yl + Qntax{n 3: 1 Frijolica 0-3.2 liberada, TIB 30-42 candidata para liberación. AND 53 -56.7 210.0 98.4 en camino, uso benomyl en demostración, uso mayor densidad, uso benomyl Captafol l384.0 l384.0 en camino, uso benomyl en demostración, uso mayor densidad, uso benomyl Captafol l384.0 l384.0 + carboxin y maíz ME 521 en verificación. A1drlÍl 0010 -2.1 10.2    4.0 + carboxin y maíz ME 521 en verificación. A1drlÍl 0010 -2.1 10.24.0 Ca!:b:rwl !!Dlo     -2.6  -2.6 Ca!:b:rwl !!Dlo-2.6-2.6 2 i.e. 3 fincas para ensayos de parcela pequeña, 8 para verificación y 2i.e. 3 fincas para ensayos de parcela pequeña, 8 para verificación y  ensayos manejados por el agricultor.      ensayos manejados por el agricultor.  "}],"sieverID":"745e91aa-42f6-41cb-af30-515211b46676","abstract":""}

data/part_1/02dc1b06bf2e0909f73cd18bdab2cd27.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02dc1b06bf2e0909f73cd18bdab2cd27","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/14/4551/2022/essd-14-4551-2022-supplement.pdf"},"pageCount":3,"title":"History of anthropogenic Nitrogen inputs (HaNi) to the terrestrial biosphere: a 5 arcmin resolution annual dataset from 1860 to 2019","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table S1 . Decadal average of the area of cropland, pasture, and rangeland and the rate of fertilizer and manure additions.   Nfer Nfer Nman  Nfer Nfer Nman Nman  Nman NferNferNmanNferNferNmanNmanNman Decade Crop Area (Mkm 2 ) NH4 Crop NO3 Crop App Crop Pas Area (Mkm 2 ) NH4 Pas NO3 Pas App Pas Dep Pas Range Area (Mkm 2 ) Dep Ran DecadeCrop Area (Mkm 2 )NH4 CropNO3 CropApp CropPas Area (Mkm 2 )NH4 PasNO3 PasApp PasDep PasRange Area (Mkm 2 )Dep Ran   (gN/m 2 ) (gN/m 2 ) (gN/m 2 )  (gN/m 2 ) (gN/m 2 ) (gN/m 2 ) (gN/m 2 )  (gN/m 2 ) (gN/m 2 )(gN/m 2 )(gN/m 2 )(gN/m 2 )(gN/m 2 )(gN/m 2 )(gN/m 2 )(gN/m 2 ) 1860s 6.21 0.00 0.00 0.41 2.69 0.00 0.00 0.37 1.46 9.79 0.21 1860s6.210.000.000.412.690.000.000.371.469.790.21 1910s 9.38 0.01 0.01 0.70 3.94 0.00 0.00 0.56 2.50 14.78 0.43 1910s9.380.010.010.703.940.000.000.562.5014.780.43 1960s 13.66 0.86 0.44 1.09 6.24 0.03 0.02 0.58 4.32 23.85 0.87 1960s13.660.860.441.096.240.030.020.584.3223.850.87 1970s 14.10 2.00 0.86 1.22 6.76 0.18 0.11 0.61 4.55 23.96 0.97 1970s14.102.000.861.226.760.180.110.614.5523.960.97 1980s 14.55 3.25 1.17 1.34 7.29 0.41 0.23 0.62 4.69 24.49 1.00 1980s14.553.251.171.347.290.410.230.624.6924.491.00 1990s 14.85 3.80 0.98 1.36 7.66 0.53 0.23 0.56 4.83 25.04 1.03 1990s14.853.800.981.367.660.530.230.564.8325.041.03 2000s 14.95 4.70 0.71 1.38 7.80 0.74 0.17 0.51 5.08 25.03 1.10 2000s14.954.700.711.387.800.740.170.515.0825.031.10 2010s 15.69 5.58 0.58 1.42 7.90 0.94 0.14 0.52 5.47 24.68 1.16 2010s15.695.580.581.427.900.940.140.525.4724.681.16  "}],"sieverID":"a1c3d3ee-cdad-4ce4-a405-28fcb727e0d7","abstract":"The copyright of individual parts of the supplement might differ from the article licence."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0341fb8911f9d9c0a4ffb811aad13dad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/11356b3a-4ce9-41c5-9fbb-e39b95d81a93/retrieve"},"pageCount":40,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Figuras","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Figura 1. Guatemala. Mapeo inicial de la cadena de valor de la manía en la aldea Buenos Aires de Santa Ana Huista, Huehuetenango, donde opera el grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza .... "}]},{"head":"Prólogo","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"¿Cómo vincular a productores de pequeña escala con los mercados? Esta pregunta nos llevó a interiorizar, conocer y a demandar un proceso de formación para nuestro personal por parte del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) sobre la Metodología LINK, diseñada para la construcción y el mejoramiento de relaciones comerciales incluyentes entre productores de pequeña escala y compradores."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Lo anterior se presentó en el marco del proyecto regional Mujeres Rurales en Camino a la Prosperidad, dentro del cual además de Heifer y la Fundación Ford, también aportaron recursos el Fondo Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola (FIDA) y organizaciones locales. La implementación de este proyecto inició en septiembre de 2014 en Guatemala, Honduras y Nicaragua; y permitió el desarrollo, la implementación, validación y adaptación de una estrategia modelo para el desarrollo de negocios, así como también para vincular a los productores de pequeña escala, particularmente mujeres y jóvenes, con los mercados."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Entre los objetivos contemplados dentro del proyecto, se destacan:"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• Crear y fortalecer social y económicamente los modelos de negocios liderados por mujeres en áreas rurales."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"• Desarrollar y validar un modelo de negocios escalable con grupos de mujeres rurales y sus empresas asociativas."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"• A nivel de Heifer, adoptar un modelo de negocios adaptable al contexto y replicable, que contribuya a la meta global de la organización de contribuir a sacar a las familias de la pobreza."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"En este sentido, el proyecto generó algunos cambios importantes, entre ellos:"},{"index":8,"size":5,"text":"A nivel de las comunidades"},{"index":9,"size":70,"text":"De acuerdo a los criterios establecidos con las nueve organizaciones socias y los resultados de la línea base de marzo de 2015, se logró fortalecer a un total de 29 grupos de emprendimientos rurales, que incluyen las cadenas de valor de maní, miel, ganado porcino, marañón y café, grupos en los que se ha aplicado la Metodología LINK para diseñar, implementar y evaluar modelos de negocios incluyentes a pequeña escala."},{"index":10,"size":103,"text":"Debido a las características de los participantes, a lo largo de la aplicación de LINK se identificó la necesidad de hacer adaptaciones y complementar el proceso con la metodología CEFE (Competencia como base de la Economía a través de la Formación de Emprendedores). Como resultado, se han venido observando cambios positivos en las empresas, tales como el uso de buenas prácticas de negocios para mejorar desempeño, desarrollo de análisis de costos de producción y operación para definir precios, formación de comités de ahorro y préstamo, elaboración de planes de inversión y el establecimiento o fortalecimiento de relaciones comerciales con clientes formales e informales."},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"En cuanto al ámbito de construcción de capacidades de las mujeres rurales en empresarialidad y liderazgo se logró:"},{"index":12,"size":18,"text":"• Formación empresarial y de liderazgo, aplicando la metodología CEFE, para 313 personas (217 mujeres y 96 hombres)."},{"index":13,"size":11,"text":"• Educación financiera a 96 personas (72 mujeres y 24 hombres)."},{"index":14,"size":16,"text":"• Formación en Metodología LINK, dentro del proyecto, a 209 personas (172 mujeres y 37 hombres)."}]},{"head":"A nivel de Heifer","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"El proyecto ha contribuido a fortalecer las capacidades del personal en cadenas de valor y modelos de negocio. Con la asesoría del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), el personal ha recibido capacitación en la Metodología LINK y ha participado en intercambios, incluidos directores de país, gerentes de programas, técnicos y personas de la oficina central de la organización. Adicionalmente, se implementó un proceso de réplica del modelo de negocios y la Metodología LINK en Bolivia, Ecuador, Perú y México. Recientemente, el aprendizaje se ha compartido con países como Cambodia, Kenia y Uganda, en donde Heifer tiene presencia institucional y trabaja con organizaciones y grupos de base y emprendedores en áreas rurales."},{"index":2,"size":216,"text":"De la misma manera, Heifer en las Américas ha invertido en la réplica de la Metodología LINK y asignó fondos para el desarrollo de modelos de negocios, que complementaron inversiones en capital y la adquisición de activos en diferentes grupos de empresas. El proyecto también ha servido de modelo para el desarrollo y la consolidación de alianzas con el sector privado. En Nicaragua, por ejemplo, se desarrolló la relación con las empresas En el ámbito de las políticas públicas, se realizaron tres foros regionales con el apoyo del FIDA, la Fundación Ford e ICCO Cooperación, en donde se presentaron los resultados de la investigación regional denominada \"Iniciativa Conjunta sobre Gestión del Conocimiento: Acceso a Mercados y Diálogo en Políticas Públicas\". Esta investigación, desarrollada en conjunto con ICCO Cooperación y Heifer International, a través de las oficinas de Heifer Nicaragua y Heifer Guatemala, profundizó sobre las experiencias de asocio e inclusión entre los grupos de mujeres y los mercados, así como también analizó las principales barreras y oportunidades. Fue así como en Guatemala se presentó el caso de hortalizas de la Cooperativa Siete Pinos; en Nicaragua se socializó el caso de la cadena de valor de lácteos de la Cooperativa NICACENTRO; mientras que en El Salvador se compartió el caso de la cadena de valor de hortalizas."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Por otra parte, en Huehuetenango, Guatemala, se llevó a cabo un conversatorio a nivel departamental con la participación de productoras rurales, grupos de emprendimiento, las Oficinas Municipales de la Mujer (OMM) y representantes de mujeres ante el Consejo Departamental de Desarrollo, para incidir en la asignación de fondos públicos que apoyen iniciativas empresariales de las mujeres."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"Es importante destacar las sinergias generadas en el marco del proyecto con otros actores y organizaciones tales como: Oxfam, Sur Compite, Emprendesur, Funder, el Centro de Desarrollo Empresarial, el Consejo Nacional Supervisor de Cooperativas (CONSUCOOP, órgano regulador de la actividad cooperativa en Honduras) el Centro de Desarrollo Empresarial para la Mipyme del Golfo de Fonseca (institución público-privada de apoyo para el fomento de la actividad empresarial), así como con otras ONG e instituciones de desarrollo social."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"Desde la perspectiva de la gestión del conocimiento, el proyecto generó aprendizajes y resultados clave, que en conjunto se decidieron sistematizar, particularmente aquellos relacionados con la validación de un modelo de negocios que permitiera iniciar un proceso de construcción de una relación comercial incluyente y sostenible, así como la promoción de acciones de mejora e innovación."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"Este documento presenta una perspectiva comparada de ese proceso en las cadenas de miel (dos casos) y manía, evidenciando sus particularidades y señalando los cambios que tuvieron lugar como resultado de la aplicación de la Metodología LINK."},{"index":7,"size":126,"text":"En conclusión, el proceso de adaptación generado dentro de Heifer International permitió validar la Metodología LINK y adaptar sus herramientas, complementando este proceso con elementos metodológicos financieros y de formación empresarial. A nivel de Heifer International, la adaptación de la metodología LINK se ha extendido e institucionalizado a México, Bolivia, Ecuador, Perú y Haití. Más recientemente en Asia, se ha iniciado el pasado mes de junio el proceso de formación al personal de Heifer International en la metodología y herramientas de modelos de negocios para un nuevo ciclo de adaptación en 15 países de cuatro subregiones: sudeste de Asia (Vietnam, Cambodia y Filipinas), sur de Asia (India, Nepal y Bangladesh), África oriental (Uganda, Kenia, Ruanda y Tanzania), África del sur (Malawi y Zambia) y adicionalmente Senegal."}]},{"head":"A nivel institucional","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Heifer International cuenta con un manual de apoyo para la promoción de relaciones comerciales incluyentes y modelos de negocios más efectivos. Se han generado buenas prácticas y lecciones aprendidas que se difunden con socios locales más allá del proyecto Mujeres Rurales en Camino a la Prosperidad. La adaptación de la metodología LINK, a través del acompañamiento del CIAT, definitivamente ha significado una oportunidad para Heifer en las Américas en la integración de la perspectiva de mercado en el diseño de programas y proyectos, y he permitido definir una estrategia de facilitación empresarial para fortalecer el ecosistema emprendedor, el desarrollo de negocios con alto valor (demanda orientada por el mercado) y la innovación con impacto social en Latinoamérica. "}]},{"head":"Introducción","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Heifer es una organización que trabaja para el desarrollo. Su misión es trabajar con las comunidades para poner fin al hambre y la pobreza. En Mesoamérica Heifer trabaja en México, Guatemala, Honduras y Nicaragua; en el Caribe, en Haití; y en Suramérica, en Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú. En los últimos 5 años Heifer ha venido ampliando sus programas y proyectos, que inicialmente se enfocaron en ganadería sostenible, para trabajar en el fomento de la inclusión de los productores de pequeña escala en cadenas de valor, que les permita alcanzar esos ingresos dignos que requieren las familias rurales para salir de la pobreza."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"En este marco, y en concordancia con las estrategias que tiene Heifer International (de contribuir a la generación de un ingreso digno, de promover el empoderamiento económico de mujeres y jóvenes, y de fortalecer el capital social y el desarrollo institucional de las organizaciones de base a nivel rural) surge la relación con el CIAT, con quien Heifer coincidía en el propósito de promover el acceso a mercados, y quien fuera el autor de la Metodología LINK, diseñada para la construcción y el mejoramiento de relaciones comerciales incluyentes entre productores de pequeña escala y compradores."}]},{"head":"La Metodología LINK","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Esta Metodología 1 permite evaluar el estado de los modelos de negocio actuales entre un vendedor (que puede ser una organización de productores, bien sea asociación, cooperativa o grupo informal de primer, segundo o tercer grado) y un comprador (que puede ser un intermediario, minorista o mayorista); y desarrollar de forma conjunta modelos de negocio más incluyentes con los productores de pequeña escala, cuyos cambios sean mensurables."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"LINK se dirige principalmente a aquellos actores que desempeñan el rol de facilitadores, como Heifer International, y está diseñada para acompañarlos en un proceso de innovación basado en la aplicación de cuatro herramientas participativas:"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"1. El mapeo de la cadena de valor, para entender el contexto macro donde se mueven los negocios que vinculan a los productores rurales con compradores."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"2. La plantilla del modelo de negocio, para conocer en detalle cada negocio que vincule a productores rurales con compradores."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"3. Los principios para modelos de negocio incluyentes, para determinar si es realmente inclusivo cada negocio que vincule a productores rurales con compradores."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"4. El ciclo del prototipo, que permite mejorar continuamente, en términos de inclusividad y desempeño, cada negocio que vincule a productores rurales con compradores."},{"index":7,"size":41,"text":"Estas cuatro herramientas forman un kit básico a través del cual se puede comenzar un proceso de innovación desde cero y terminar en un ciclo de acción iterativo que contribuya a alcanzar un mayor desempeño y beneficio para los pequeños productores."}]},{"head":"La colaboración Heifer-CIAT y sus primeros frutos","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Al conocer más sobre LINK, Heifer International Centroamérica fue fortaleciendo su relación con el CIAT y adoptó la Metodología LINK internamente para trabajar en el diseño de nuevos proyectos y replicarla con socios locales para facilitar los vínculos entre grupos de productores organizados en cooperativas y asociaciones, y los mercados locales, nacionales o regionales. Fue así como en 2013, Heifer empezó a vincular algunos proyectos que tenía en Nicaragua dentro de su programa de Ganadería Sostenible en Laderas (GANASOL), con iniciativas que el CIAT estaba desarrollando en ese momento, también en Centroamérica."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Más adelante, Heifer logró recibir fondos de la Fundación Ford para implementar una propuesta en Guatemala, Honduras y Nicaragua, con un enfoque regional, denominada Mujeres Rurales en Camino a la Prosperidad, dentro de la cual además de Heifer y la Fundación Ford, también aportaron recursos el FIDA y organizaciones locales. Este proyecto, dentro del cual se realiza el presente estudio comparativo, tenía como objetivo que Heifer pudiera implementar y probar un prototipo para vincular a los productores de pequeña escala con los mercados."}]},{"head":"El proyecto Mujeres Rurales en Camino a la Prosperidad y el presente estudio","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"En Nicaragua, la relación comercial ocurre entre la Cooperativa Multiservicios Tierra de Nutrias R.L y COSATIN, también en la cadena de la miel. Tierra de Nutrias es una cooperativa de primer nivel que se constituyó en 2012 y asocia a 50 productores."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Por su parte, COSATIN es una cooperativa de segundo nivel que cuenta con 630 asociados. Estas dos cooperativas no tenían una relación comercial previa."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Este estudio presenta también algunas conclusiones sobre las adaptaciones que fueron necesarias para la aplicación de la metodología con los actores de la relación comercial, el impacto de la aplicación de las herramientas en estos actores, las principales dificultades halladas durante la implementación y la percepción de los compradores frente a la utilidad de trabajar temas de inclusión. De igual manera, es importante resaltar que el presente documento sigue el mismo eje de sistematización definido para los tres casos: la construcción de relaciones comerciales incluyentes."}]},{"head":"Situación inicial de la relación comercial","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"A continuación se describe la situación inicial en la que se encontraba cada relación comercial, previo a la aplicación de la Metodología LINK. Una diferencia marcada que existe entre los tres casos se refiere a la naturaleza de las organizaciones compradoras. En el caso de Guatemala se trata de una organización informal y pequeña liderada por una mujer que cuenta con dos puntos de venta en la forma de quioscos ubicados en la calle, con una trayectoria en el mercado de 4 años. En Honduras, el comprador es un supermercado formalmente constituido, con 18 años de presencia en el mercado y altamente reconocido. En Nicaragua, es una Unión de Cooperativas de segundo nivel que tiene como misión mejorar los ingresos de las familias rurales a través del mejoramiento de la producción, la comercialización a mercados justos y competitivos, y el mejoramiento de la calidad de vida."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Desde la perspectiva de las organizaciones vendedoras también se encuentran escenarios muy diferentes. La organización que tiene como contexto el país de Guatemala está conformado únicamente por mujeres que desde 1995 vienen fortaleciéndose tanto organizativa como empresarialmente. En Honduras, el vendedor es la cooperativa más reconocida entre las cooperativas de apicultores del país; lidera la Unión Apícola de Honduras (UAPIH) y tiene un rol protagónico entre las organizaciones y empresas que ejercen incidencia en la definición de las políticas públicas del rubro apícola. En Nicaragua, en cambio, se presenta una particularidad, ya que la organización vendedora encuentra la oportunidad para formalizar la relación comercial, en el marco del proyecto en el que tuvo lugar la aplicación de la Metodología LINK."}]},{"head":"Mapa de la cadena de valor","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"La primer herramienta de LINK − mapa de la cadena de valor − permite visualizar los distintos roles y conexiones entre los actores que participan en una cadena e identificar fuentes de innovación y mejora, obtener una mirada integral del sistema y reconocer el contexto, además de identificar obstrucciones, cuellos de botella y distorsiones en el sistema de mercado, además de los factores del entorno que afectan la cadena. Su aplicación permitió construir una perspectiva de las tres cadenas de valor en Guatemala, Honduras y Nicaragua."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"En cuanto a los aspectos del entorno, en los tres casos se evidenció que la debilidad de los marcos regulatorios, el cambio climático que altera la producción y facilita la aparición de plagas y enfermedades, y la limitada tecnología apropiada para la producción y transformación son asuntos que afectan a las tres cadenas analizadas."}]},{"head":"Actores directos","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Fuerzas ambientales: Baja producción o pérdida de la producción por falta de lluvia "}]},{"head":"El modelo de negocio","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"La segunda herramienta de LINK -Plantilla del modelo de negocio -permite plasmar bosquejos de los modelos de negocio y analizar el funcionamiento de una organización clave de la cadena de valor con una mirada de 360 grados."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"En los tres casos se realizaron entre dos y tres modelos de negocio que permitieron profundizar el análisis de la relación comercial desde distintas perspectivas. En Guatemala se abordó la relación de doble vía entre la cooperativa de productores y su cliente. En Honduras se analizó el modelo de negocio de la cooperativa hacia el cliente y sus productores. En el caso de Nicaragua se analizó la relación de doble vía entre la cooperativa y su cliente, y el modelo de negocio de la cooperativa hacia sus asociados."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"Si bien en cada relación comercial hay una propuesta de valor diferente y en cada caso el comprador es distinto (en Guatemala es un cliente informal, en Honduras es un supermercado y en Nicaragua es una unión de cooperativas), en los tres modelos de negocio desde las organizaciones de productores hacia los clientes se identificaron como aspectos positivos que hay buenas relaciones con estos, y que se viene avanzando en mejorar procesos administrativos y de gestión."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"En todos se encontró que hay varios aspectos por mejorar en cuanto a la comercialización. En el caso de Guatemala, hace falta responder a la demanda de \"productos innovadores\" que realizan los clientes de Dulces Típicos Delicias Huehuetecas y definir materia prima para la misma. En Honduras se señaló la ausencia de un contrato que formalice la relación comercial, y la falta de capital de trabajo de la cooperativa para realizar el acopio del total de la producción de los socios. Y en Nicaragua, se identificó como principal dificultad la falta de recursos financieros por parte de Tierra de Nutrias para poder financiar las actividades de los apicultores."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"Los modelos de negocio fueron evaluados para reconocer sus fortalezas y debilidades en cada bloque y entre las actividades que se encontraban se destacan las siguientes: en Guatemala la propuesta de valor no contaba con registro sanitario, ni"},{"index":6,"size":123,"text":"En los modelos de negocio de doble vía se identificaron oportunidades de mejora. En Guatemala, Dulces Típicos Delicias Huehuetecas reconoció que debe cambiar la forma de pago al grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza. En Honduras, COAPIHL planteó la oportunidad de promover la inclusión de las mujeres en la cooperativa y la necesidad de cumplir oportunamente con los pagos y desarrollar un paquete de beneficios que fortalezca a los productores para aumentar su fidelidad. En Nicaragua se identificó como principal debilidad la falta de garantías para tener acceso a los fondos de crédito de COSATIN. Del mismo modo, la necesidad de mejorar la organización interna de Tierra de Nutrias, pues sus órganos de dirección y control no están funcionando como lo establece el estatuto."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"Cuadro 1. Guatemala. Modelo inicial del negocio de grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza hacia Dulces Típicos Delicias Huehuetecas."}]},{"head":"Socios clave","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Actividades clave","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Propuesta de valor","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Relaciones con clientes Canales","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Recursos clave","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Estructura de costos","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Fuentes de ingreso Segmentos de clientes El corazón de LINK: Los principios de inclusión"},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"La tercera herramienta de LINK -Principios para modelos de negocio incluyentes -permite evaluar el desempeño de un modelo de negocio en temas que son críticos para la inclusión sostenible de los productores, en relaciones comerciales con un comprador formal. Dentro del análisis de los tres casos, se pueden ver coincidencias en la identificación de falencias sobre tres de los seis principios de inclusión que propone dicha herramienta. Estos principios son el acceso a servicios, la innovación incluyente y medición de resultados."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"De esta manera, se puede concluir que a pesar de la diferencia demográfica y de contexto social, político y cultural que caracteriza a los casos objeto de este informe comparativo, los actores que hacen parte de las tres cadenas de valor están teniendo dificultades para acceder a servicios financieros, servicios de información de mercado, servicios de apoyo en Buenas Prácticas Agrícolas (BPA), asistencia técnica, tecnología de producción y transporte."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"De igual forma, en los tres casos se evidencia la falta de capacidad para responder ante las demandas de productos innovadores por parte de los compradores. En el caso de Honduras queda reportado que esta situación se debe a que el comprador (Supermercados Del Corral) no realiza innovaciones en conjunto y tampoco incentiva este ejercicio. En el caso de Guatemala no cuentan con la tecnología ni con la materia prima para tal fin."},{"index":5,"size":103,"text":"Para seguir en la misma línea, se identificó que la medición de resultados no es una fortaleza en ninguno de los tres casos, lo que deja ver el poco seguimiento a los procesos, ya sea de manera formal o informal que realizan ambas partes dentro de la relación comercial. En este sentido, vale la pena mencionar que la aplicación de esta herramienta en el caso concreto de Guatemala, le permitió al grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza darse cuenta de las vulnerabilidades en su relación comercial con uno de sus principales clientes y así buscar alternativas para evitar que problemas menores afecten el negocio."},{"index":6,"size":57,"text":"Por otro lado, los tres casos evalúan positivamente los principios de colaboración entre actores, vinculación efectiva al mercado, y gobernanza transparente y consistente. Lo anterior se hace evidente con el intercambio de información entre las partes a través de correos electrónicos, llamadas telefónicas o encuentros personales de acuerdo a la dinámica y particularidad de cada relación comercial."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"A continuación, se muestra la perspectiva comparada inicial de la aplicación de los principios de inclusión por país: Figura 5. Honduras. Perspectiva inicial comparada de la aplicación de los principios de inclusión de COAPIHL y Supermercados Del Corral."},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"Figura 6. Nicaragua. Perspectiva inicial comparada de la aplicación de los principios de inclusión de Tierra de Nutrias y COSATIN."}]},{"head":"Acciones de mejora impulsadas","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"La cuarta herramienta de LINK -Ciclo del Prototipo -permite diseñar, probar y evaluar continuamente el modelo de negocio para llevarlo a otro estadio; en su marco se desarrollan estrategias de innovación sobre áreas identificadas y priorizadas con el propósito de mejorar la inclusión."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Aunque en su mayoría, las actividades priorizadas en cada caso con miras a fortalecer la relación comercial son diferentes, se pueden identificar puntos en común en donde se encuentran algunas actividades a pesar de las distancias que separan el desarrollo de cada caso. Esta es la situación de la Cooperativa Tierra de Nutrias (Nicaragua) y del grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza (Guatemala), quienes priorizaron dentro de sus actividades el registro sanitario de sus productos. En el segundo caso, incluso, se estableció el mejoramiento al centro de procesamiento como requisito para el trámite de dicho registro."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"Otro aspecto notablemente abordado por dos de los tres casos fue el elemento comunicativo para estrechar la relación comercial. En el caso de Honduras, las actividades planteadas en este sentido contemplaban el monitoreo y evaluación de la relación comercial entre la COAPIHL y Supermercados Del Corral, así como también el diseño de indicadores de éxito de la relación comercial. Designar un representante de ventas entre ambas organizaciones y comunicar los riesgos de producción fueron acciones que se sumaron a la matriz. En el caso de Guatemala no fue muy diferente, pues las mujeres de la organización se propusieron mejorar la comunicación con su clienta en el seguimiento de compras."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Finalmente, el tema de la capacitación fue otro punto en común en donde se encontraron las acciones priorizadas por la Cooperativa Tierra de Nutrias, quienes se propusieron capacitar a apicultores en el manejo de las colmenas para aumentar el volumen de producción de miel de abejas; y la iniciativa del grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza de capacitar en buenas prácticas de manejo (BPM) e inocuidad a nuevas socias del grupo de productoras."}]},{"head":"Situación actual: Los avances logrados","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"En cada caso, se obtuvieron distintos avances durante el proceso de la implementación de la Metodología LINK, las acciones priorizadas en el Ciclo del Prototipo que lograron implementarse, fueron posibles por la suma de recursos financieros adicionales a los dispuestos en el proyecto de la Fundación Ford."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Es así, como para el caso de Guatemala hubo aportes del gobierno municipal de Santa Ana y de Heifer-Guatemala, para el trámite del registro sanitario y mejoras al centro de procesamiento del grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza, así como para la participación en ferias comerciales y giras interdepartamentales. Además, en alianza con la Alianza de Servicios y Desarrollo Económico y Social de Huehuetenango (ASDECOHUE), fue posible contar con el apoyo de voluntarias especialistas en mercadeo."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"En Honduras, las inversiones realizadas en infraestructura se alcanzaron por medio del apoyo del proyecto Promesa Miel de Heifer International, Honduras y del proyecto Competitividad Rural del Banco Mundial; y en Nicaragua, gracias a recursos del proyecto GANASOL 1 financiado por Heifer International, fue posible el rediseño de la infraestructura interna del centro de acopio."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"A continuación, se describen los avances relacionados con la cadena de valor, el modelo de negocio y los principios de inclusión para cada caso."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"Cadena de valor. En el caso de Guatemala, más que un cambio, lo que hay que resaltar es que ahora, después de la aplicación de la Metodología LINK, las mujeres que integran el grupo Unión Esperanza reconocen y visibilizan su posicionamiento y participación en los eslabones de producción, transformación y comercialización del producto final tanto en la región Huista como a nivel departamental y nacional."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"En el caso de Nicaragua, el principal y más importante cambio registrado a nivel del mapeo de la cadena de valor es que antes de la implementación de la metodología, la Cooperativa Tierra de Nutrias no tenía un cliente formal, mientras que actualmente cuenta con un comprador para su producto, COSATIN."},{"index":7,"size":98,"text":"Además, tanto en el caso de Nicaragua como de Honduras se puede notar un fuerte impacto en el eslabón organizacional, resaltando en el primer caso un cambio significativo en la estructura de costos y fuentes de ingresos al mejorar la información proveniente del área contable, resultado de que actualmente haya una persona encargada de esta área; en el segundo caso, es importante resaltar el fortalecimiento de las capacidades de la junta directiva y la gerencia, para mejorar la toma de decisiones, lo que permitió estructurar reglamentos internos orientados a robustecer el componente organizativo y administrativo de la cooperativa."},{"index":8,"size":101,"text":"Con respecto al eslabón de producción, la cooperativa nicaragüense está realizando visitas de seguimiento en los apiarios de los socios para evaluar la producción del ciclo y poder negociar con el cliente la cantidad de miel a venderle. A su vez, en el caso que tiene como epicentro al país hondureño, se priorizaron las necesidades de brindar asistencia técnica permanente y de lograr un mejoramiento genético de las abejas reinas, con el propósito de aumentar la productividad. También es importante resaltar el esfuerzo por involucrar activamente a las mujeres en este eslabón, hecho que no se especifica en el caso Nicaragua."},{"index":9,"size":80,"text":"El eslabón de procesamiento no es ajeno a los cambios anteriormente destacados, presentando cambios significativos en el caso de la Cooperativa Tierra de Nutrias (Nicaragua), pues actualmente se está realizando la prueba de humedad de la miel en el centro de acopio, actividad que antes debía hacerla el comprador. Por su parte, COAPIHL trabajó en el proceso de certificación de la planta (en Análisis de Peligros y Puntos Críticos de Control) para el aseguramiento de la calidad de la miel."},{"index":10,"size":108,"text":"Modelo de Negocio. En cuanto al modelo de negocio, los casos de Guatemala y Honduras especifican un cambio y mejoría en su propuesta de valor. En el primer caso, la propuesta de valor cuenta con una nueva imagen que visibiliza el trabajo de las mujeres, los valores nutricionales y las cualidades intangibles del producto. En esa misma dirección se inició el proceso de registro sanitario para maní dulce o garrapiñada, maní salado y maní picante. En el segundo caso, la propuesta de valor de COAPIHL está enfocada en brindarle a Supermercados Del Corral otros productos además de la miel, tales como el polen, propóleo y miel con panal."},{"index":11,"size":82,"text":"Otro componente dentro del modelo de negocio en el que se registraron cambios para estos dos casos, fue el de recursos clave. En Guatemala, se remodeló el centro de procesamiento y se adquirió equipamiento y tecnología necesaria como selladoras, secadoras y equipo industrial para procesar mantequilla de maní, reiniciando su producción. Por su parte, en el caso de Honduras, no solo se construyó una planta de procesamiento, equipamiento y bodega, sino también se adquirió un equipo de inseminación de abejas reinas italianas."},{"index":12,"size":97,"text":"Otros cambios en el modelo de negocio dentro de la particularidad de cada caso, se registraron en el componente de socios clave para COAPIHL (Honduras) quien ya ha iniciado los primeros acercamientos con Supermercado Junior, La Antorcha, Walmart, COAPICH, COPAEOL. Por otro lado, se registra un cambio en la estructura de costos del grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza (Guatemala) al aumentar en un 25% los niveles de producción, lo cual equivale a un incremento en ventas de 8 a 12 quintales por mes y en ganancias de US$100 a US$150 por quintal de maní procesado al mes."},{"index":13,"size":15,"text":"Cuadro 4. Guatemala. Modelo de negocio actual del grupo Unión Esperanza hacia Dulces Típicos, Huehuetecas."}]},{"head":"Socios clave","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Actividades clave","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Propuesta de valor","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Relaciones con clientes Canales","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Recursos clave","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Estructura de Costos","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Fuentes de ingreso"}]},{"head":"Segmentos de clientes","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Productoras de maní • Maní dulce: Q780,00/1 qq (US$100)"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Maní frito y salado: Q320,00/1 qq (US$40)"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Venta de 12 qq de maní procesado al mes, que se ha incrementado 4 qq en comparación con las ventas iniciales Ganancia:"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• US$150 por qq al mes"},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"• Entrega personal y por encomienda • Transporte extraurbano \"Cuevas\" Principios de Inclusión. Es importante resaltar que con el fortalecimiento de la propuesta de valor, cada una de las organizaciones de los casos desarrollados en Guatemala y Honduras logró superar las falencias que las llevó a identificar el principio de innovación inclusiva como una debilidad organizacional."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Es así como el grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza logra el desarrollo y comercialización de un nuevo producto: el maní picante. En el caso de Honduras se registra la oferta de nuevos productos a partir de la miel, tales como el polen, el propóleo y la miel en panal."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"Con respecto al principio de Medición de Resultados, se observa un incremento significativo en el caso de Guatemala, debido al diseño e implementación de herramientas de medición de ventas y compras."},{"index":8,"size":40,"text":"En contraste, en el caso de Honduras, de acuerdo a Supermercados Del Corral, es necesario fortalecer la comunicación y desarrollar una herramienta integral que permita la medición conjunta y articulada, pues actualmente cada organización hace sus propias mediciones por separado."},{"index":9,"size":53,"text":"En Nicaragua, COSATIN valoró que la inclusión no era tan fuerte como pensaban al inicio. Al hacer la segunda medición y entender los parámetros utilizados, los valores registrados fueron menores. Para Tierra de Nutrias, hubo mejoras en cuanto a innovación (prueba de humedad) y un reto es trabajar el registro sanitario del producto."},{"index":10,"size":43,"text":"Para el caso del grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza, queda como reto la vinculación de las productoras a mercados locales (Principio de Vinculación Efectiva al Mercado) y el acceso equitativo a la formación empresarial (Principio Acceso a Servicios), para mejorar su desempeño empresarial."},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"A continuación, se muestra la perspectiva comparada final de la aplicación de los principios de inclusión por país: "}]},{"head":"La percepción de los compradores","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Los tres compradores que participaron en la construcción y consolidación de las relaciones comerciales incluyentes abordadas en este documento, tienen una naturaleza organizacional distinta y vivieron un proceso particular con algunas similitudes y diferencias al involucrarse en la aplicación de la Metodología LINK."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"En el tema de la motivación para participar en el proceso, se encontraron razones tan diferentes como la ubicación geográfica de cada organización. Así pues, Supermercados Del Corral (Honduras) se motivó y decidió participar en el proceso porque este se alineaba con su enfoque social y ambiental de apoyo a productores locales, y porque a través de él podría apoyar de forma directa a COAPIHL."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"Por su parte, COSATIN (Nicaragua) decidió participar de la implementación de la metodología por dos razones. En primer lugar, porque les daba la oportunidad de construir una nueva relación comercial con una cooperativa apícola; ya que en el pasado habían intentado, sin éxito, este tipo de acercamiento. En segundo lugar, porque identificaron que los resultados de aplicar las herramientas que hacen parte de LINK les permitirían avanzar y mejorar en sus procesos de encadenamiento productivo en miel, un tema de su total interés."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"En el caso de Dulces Típicos (Guatemala), la propietaria decidió participar en la implementación de la Metodología LINK porque reconocía la calidad y salida comercial que tenía este maní, por lo que vio su participación como una oportunidad para fortalecer su relación con el grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"En cuanto a las similitudes identificadas dentro de la participación de los compradores en el proceso, se encontró el hecho de que para cada uno de ellos fue la primera vez que realizaban la construcción del modelo de negocio de su organización enfocado en la relación comercial."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"Con respecto a los beneficios que la implementación de la Metodología LINK aportó a las organizaciones compradoras, se pueden resaltar los identificados en el caso de Guatemala y Honduras. En el primero, dada la naturaleza informal de Dulces Típicos el proceso le permitió aprender nuevos conceptos y herramientas que puede incorporar para su desarrollo empresarial."},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"En el segundo, Supermercados Del Corral pudo descubrir una forma de valorar la inclusión en la relación comercial y aprender de elementos que desconocía. En su aplicación experimentó un proceso interesante y educativo, el cual a futuro puede ser replicado con otras organizaciones de productores, quizá de forma independiente o con el acompañamiento de una organización como Heifer."},{"index":8,"size":63,"text":"Desde su experiencia con la metodología, tanto COSATIN (Nicaragua) como Supermercados Del Corral (Honduras) consideran que para lograr relaciones incluyentes se requiere fidelidad y calidad, entre otros elementos particulares de acuerdo al contexto de cada organización. En cuanto a los factores de preocupación a largo plazo, ambas organizaciones ven el cambio climático, las deforestaciones y la contaminación ambiental como elementos comunes de alarma."},{"index":9,"size":44,"text":"En cuanto a los temas de inclusión, en el caso de Guatemala, para la propietaria de Dulces Típicos trabajar esta clase de contenidos conlleva establecer relaciones sólidas y de mutua confianza y por ello el grupo de mujeres es su único proveedor de maní."},{"index":10,"size":31,"text":"Por su parte, Supermercados Del Corral ve en estos temas de inclusión la oportunidad de llevar a cabo procesos de identificación de debilidades y cuellos de botella para poder abordarlos estratégicamente."},{"index":11,"size":72,"text":"COSATIN, en cambio, ve la inclusi��n para crear redes amplias y especializadas como un asunto de ventaja competitiva a largo plazo; de esta manera, considera que al lograr la integración entre cooperativas se puede tener más volumen de ventas y más fuerza gremial. Fue tan positiva la experiencia de esta Cooperativa, que en la actualidad se encuentra implementando la metodología con otra cooperativa de miel en el marco de un ejercicio propio."}]},{"head":"El impacto de la aplicación de las herramientas en los actores de la relación comercial","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"El proceso de implementación de la Metodología LINK en los casos de Guatemala, Nicaragua y Honduras han terminado por impactar positivamente la relación comercial entre los actores de cada caso de la siguiente manera:"},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Por un lado, Dulces Típicos Delicias Huehuetecas ha comenzado a familiarizarse con el sistema de producción del grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza; gracias a esto, ha podido darse cuenta de los desafíos de conectividad que viven las productoras al vivir en una zona lejana. Esta experiencia le permitió acercarse más a las productoras, pues al inicio de la relación solo tenía contacto con una de ellas. Dicho acercamiento propició el trabajo conjunto entre vendedor y comprador en el desarrollo de nuevos productos como el maní picante."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"Algo similar sucedió en el caso de Nicaragua, pues COSATIN reconoció que debe haber una mayor colaboración con la Cooperativa Tierra de Nutrias para lograr una oferta consistente y calidad de la miel, lo que evidencia que mediante esta experiencia su percepción cambió respecto a sus niveles de inclusión como comprador. Es así como nace el compromiso de capacitar a tres apicultores a nivel técnico para que ellos les den seguimiento a las colmenas para garantizar la calidad de la miel; y a su vez, poner a disposición un crédito para la compra de colmenas a 5 años de plazo, a una tasa de interés del 8% anual y con un año de gracia."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"En el caso de Honduras, ahora COAPIHL es el principal proveedor de miel de Supermercados Del Corral, promoviendo de esta manera un mayor acercamiento, intercambio de información y la participación de la Cooperativa en las promociones del Supermercado."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"Finalmente, los protagonistas de los tres casos coinciden en afirmar que se logró una alta inclusión en la relación comercial, siendo el de Guatemala el mejor calificado (10 de 10), seguido por el de Nicaragua (9 de 10) y por el de Honduras (8 de 10)."}]},{"head":"El público objetivo y la adaptación de la Metodología LINK","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"El término adaptación tiene al menos dos connotaciones. De un lado, se refiere a la modificación de una obra literaria o científica, y en este sentido, en ninguno de los casos se modificaron las herramientas que la Metodología LINK propone para la construcción de relaciones comerciales incluyentes: en cada caso se elaboró el mapeo de la cadena (herramienta 1), se esbozaron los modelos de negocio (herramienta 2), se evaluaron los principios de inclusión (herramienta 3) y se implementó el ciclo del prototipo (herramienta 4), conforme a los procedimientos propuestos por LINK."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Sin embargo, el término adaptación también se refiere a acomodar o ajustar algo para que pueda difundirse entre un público distinto de aquel al cual iba destinado, y en este sentido, en los tres casos se trabajó con productores que presentaban niveles muy bajos de lectoescritura, lo cual representó un factor de dificultad en la implementación y demandó el uso de nuevas estrategias para ayudarles a incorporar los conceptos necesarios para el proceso. De la misma manera, se recurrió a herramientas complementarias para la determinación o estructuración de los costos de producción para cada caso incluyendo el uso de imágenes y códigos locales para una mejor comprensión de la herramienta, sus metodologías y el modelo de sus negocios."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Aunque en todos los casos hubo adaptación de las herramientas, en Guatemala (donde las productoras además de contar con bajos niveles académicos tenían una lengua distinta, que demandó apoyarse en el dibujo) la experiencia fue particular, ya que se adaptó lingüísticamente y con técnicas andragógicas al contexto y dinámica de las organizaciones de pequeños productores donde fue implementada; esto resalta la importancia de la facilitación pedagógica y el perfil del facilitador para el éxito de la implementación de la metodología."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"De acuerdo a lo anterior, es importante tener claro que debido a que la Metodología LINK se centra en el diseño, construcción o fortalecimiento de relaciones comerciales incluyentes, su implementación debe ser complementada con otras herramientas que apunten al mejoramiento del desempeño de las organizaciones en las que Heifer aportó y adicionó valor al proceso de implementación y adaptación."},{"index":5,"size":100,"text":"Una dificultad en común que se identificó en los casos de Nicaragua y Honduras fue el poco tiempo disponible con el que contaban los socios de las cooperativas para los talleres y las actividades de capacitación, al igual que la poca disponibilidad de información en tiempo y forma (informes financieros, planes, balances, inventarios) que afectó la aplicación de las herramientas de la metodología, la cual se extendió por 5 meses adicionales. Pero también ese tiempo permitió realizar las inversiones de capital adicional y el equipamiento de los negocios, y otras inversiones necesarias identificadas dentro de los nuevos prototipos de negocios."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" .............................................................................................8 Figura 2. Honduras. Mapeo inicial de la cadena de valor de COAPIHL .......................................... 9 Figura 3. Nicaragua. Mapeo inicial de la cadena de valor de Tierra de Nutrias........................... 10 Figura 4. Guatemala. Perspectiva comparada de la aplicación de los principios de inclusión de Unión Esperanza y Dulces Típicos Delicias Huehuetecas ...................... 15 ICTA Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Agrícolas ICTAInstituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Agrícolas MAGA Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganadería y Alimentación MAGAMinisterio de Agricultura, Ganadería y Alimentación MEFCCA Ministerio de Economía Familiar, Comunitaria, Cooperativa y Asociativa MEFCCAMinisterio de Economía Familiar, Comunitaria, Cooperativa y Asociativa MIFIC Ministerio de Fomento, Industria y Comercio MIFICMinisterio de Fomento, Industria y Comercio MINSA Ministerio de Salud MINSAMinisterio de Salud MSPAS Ministerio de Salud Pública y Asistencia Social MSPASMinisterio de Salud Pública y Asistencia Social ODESAR Organización para el Desarrollo Económico y Social para el Área Urbana y Rural ODESAROrganización para el Desarrollo Económico y Social para el Área Urbana y Rural SAG Secretaría de Agricultura y Ganadería SAGSecretaría de Agricultura y Ganadería SAT Superintendencia de Administración Tributaria de Guatemala SATSuperintendencia de Administración Tributaria de Guatemala SENASA Servicio Nacional de Sanidad Agropecuaria SENASAServicio Nacional de Sanidad Agropecuaria  "},{"text":" Guatemala. Mapeo inicial de la cadena de valor de la manía en la aldea Buenos Aires de Santa Ana Huista, Huehuetenango, donde opera el grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza. Fuerzas económicas: Fuerzas socioculturales: Fuerzas político-legales: Fuerzas tecnológicas: Alto costo de insumos para la Limitada participación de las Nuevos impuestos, legislación Falta tecnología apropiada Manejo producción, el procesamiento mujeres, violencia contra la para pequeños productores y para la producción y la MERCADO y la comercialización mujer, conflictos comunitarios transformación Comercialización empresarios, proceso electoral Procesamiento pos cosecha/ acopio Producción Provisión de insumos Agropecuarias de Grupo de mujeres Mercado local, la región Huista Productores locales y frontera con «Roberto» Buxup Unión Esperanza Mayas Popti, Grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza departamental y nacional México Mestizas, Precio final: US$6,28 Precio final: US$5,38 COSATIN C$31,304 100 L de miel Productor 66% Tierra de 13 bidones a Cooperativa Insumos Producción Acopio Procesamiento Consumidor Final Comercialización Miel a granel (Cooperativa) Cliente Final Comercialización Nutrias La miel a granel se entrega en Proveedores Proveedores de maquinaria, equipo e insumos: overoles, guantes, ahumadores, extractores, centrífugas, medicinas envasada, Alta Idea S.A. en los Maní dulce, frito Productores de restaurantes Casa y salado (200 y 400 g) Blanca, Monte Alto y mantequilla Transporte extraurbano y Casa Brava de maní Grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza la frontera con México MAGA SAT DIACO mercado local C$14,000 Precios de venta: • Mayoristas: US$4,21 • Punto de venta: US$4,39 acopio al cliente y la fraccionada se entrega a las oficinas de ODESAR 61 Productores (48 hombres y 13 mujeres), ubicados en cinco departamentos: Comayagua, Santa Bárbara, La Paz, Copán e Intibucá. • Producción mínima: 15 kg/año • Producción promedio: Asistencia técnica: Heifer, COMRURAL Intermediarios • Requisición de productos e insumos, control de calidad • Procesos: Descritalización, homogenización, filtrado, enfriado envasado manual, etiquetado y empacado Procesamiento Acopio de la cooperativa Tierra de Nutrias Se envasa la miel y se realiza el etiquetado de la miel fraccionada. (Cooperativa) • Productos acopiados: Miel, polen, propóleos, cera y jalea. • Compra el kg Centro de Procesamiento • Socio distribuidor: US$4,03 Comisariato equipado. Venden 8qq al mes= La Tinaja ASDECOHUE US$1.500 mensuales sin Café Paulinos CSEM definir bien costos. Hacienda Real Tienen etiqueta y Dulces Típicos empaque Delicias Aduana Grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza Mujeres producen • Utilidad bruta, mayoristas: US$0,54 • Utilidad bruta, vitrina: US$0,72 • Utilidad bruta socio: Huehuetecas SAT Doña Marta Comerciantes locales 18qq por ciclo US$0,36 Transporte de COSATIN Transporta en sus vehículos la miel del centro de acopio • Total de colmenas: 3.932 • 64,47 colmenas promedio por productor KLIM ICTA / Ardavin Studio ASDECOHUE / Porcentaje de ventas: • Socio: 20% • Mayorista: 50% de Muy Muy hacia su centro agroindustrial • 90.454 kg de producción promedio 23 kg/año • Producción máxima: 35 kg/año • Actividades: Movilización, alimentación, revisión y cosecha Técnicas: • Descristalización al baño María • Requisición de pedidos • Trazabilidad Estructura de costos: • Etiqueta, miel y envase: US$2,62 • Costos operativos: US$1,01 Heifer DIACO ASDECOHUE UNITERRA CECI / CSEM CSEM • Vitrina: 30% • Costo de producción: US$1,79 Precio • Precio de venta: ponderado: US$4,21 CONALFA BANRURAL US$2.390 • Utilidad por botella: MAGA US$0,60 Costo total por kg: Capacitaciones sobre acceso a mercados US$3,67 US$2,39 • Control de calidad • Acopio: 30.000 kg al año • Costo de acopio: US$0,032 por kg • Porcentaje de la producción acopiada: 33% Costo total: US$2,42 Financiamiento: Fondo revolvente (Heifer), Banpais Alianzas: SAG, Secretaría de Salud Pública, DEI, Cadena Apícola Producción (productor) Acopio (Cooperativa) Actores directos Prestadores de servicios de apoyo Prestadores de servicios Actores indirectos operacionales 22 pequeños productores socios de la cooperativa Acopio de la cooperativa Tierra de Nutrias Se recibe la miel y se realiza la sedimentación de la miel para eliminar impurezas. Manejo de los apiarios, limpieza y alimentación de las colmenas, selección de marcos a cosechar y cosecha de la miel. CATIE Capacitaciones en escuelas de campo Transporte público: • C$20* por bidón • C$20 por persona Transporta la miel a granel al centro de acopio Distribuidora Karen, Veterinaria Diana Azúcar, colmenas, desparasitantes Transporte público Se trasladan los insumos a las fincas de los apicultores HEIFER Guatemala Actores indirectos colmena: US$13,72 MIFIC • Utilidad promedio por MINSA Reguladores MEFCCA MEFCCA MSPAS Reguladores registro de marca MAGA Prestadores de servicios Se realiza el Supervisión de las instalaciones para extender el Trazabilidad Regulación de las cooperativas registro sanitario *C$1=US$40,0347 del producto Figura 1. Figura 2. Honduras. Mapeo inicial de la cadena de valor de COAPIHL. Figura 3. Nicaragua. Mapeo inicial de la cadena de valor de Tierra de Nutrias. Fuerzas económicas: Fuerzas socioculturales: Fuerzas político-legales: Fuerzas tecnológicas:Alto costo de insumos para la Limitada participación de las Nuevos impuestos, legislación Falta tecnología apropiada Manejo producción, el procesamiento mujeres, violencia contra la para pequeños productores y para la producción y la MERCADO y la comercialización mujer, conflictos comunitarios transformación Comercialización empresarios, proceso electoral Procesamiento pos cosecha/ acopio Producción Provisión de insumosAgropecuarias de Grupo de mujeres Mercado local, la región Huista Productores locales y frontera con «Roberto» Buxup Unión Esperanza Mayas Popti, Grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza departamental y nacional México Mestizas, Precio final: US$6,28 Precio final: US$5,38 COSATIN C$31,304 100 L de miel Productor 66% Tierra de 13 bidones a Cooperativa Insumos Producción Acopio Procesamiento Consumidor Final Comercialización Miel a granel (Cooperativa) Cliente Final Comercialización Nutrias La miel a granel se entrega en Proveedores Proveedores de maquinaria, equipo e insumos: overoles, guantes, ahumadores, extractores, centrífugas, medicinas envasada, Alta Idea S.A. en los Maní dulce, frito Productores de restaurantes Casa y salado (200 y 400 g) Blanca, Monte Alto y mantequilla Transporte extraurbano y Casa Brava de maní Grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza la frontera con México MAGA SAT DIACO mercado local C$14,000 Precios de venta: • Mayoristas: US$4,21 • Punto de venta: US$4,39 acopio al cliente y la fraccionada se entrega a las oficinas de ODESAR 61 Productores (48 hombres y 13 mujeres), ubicados en cinco departamentos: Comayagua, Santa Bárbara, La Paz, Copán e Intibucá. • Producción mínima: 15 kg/año • Producción promedio: Asistencia técnica: Heifer, COMRURAL Intermediarios • Requisición de productos e insumos, control de calidad • Procesos: Descritalización, homogenización, filtrado, enfriado envasado manual, etiquetado y empacado Procesamiento Acopio de la cooperativa Tierra de Nutrias Se envasa la miel y se realiza el etiquetado de la miel fraccionada. (Cooperativa) • Productos acopiados: Miel, polen, propóleos, cera y jalea. • Compra el kg Centro de Procesamiento • Socio distribuidor: US$4,03 Comisariato equipado. Venden 8qq al mes= La Tinaja ASDECOHUE US$1.500 mensuales sin Café Paulinos CSEM definir bien costos. Hacienda Real Tienen etiqueta y Dulces Típicos empaque Delicias Aduana Grupo de mujeres Unión Esperanza Mujeres producen • Utilidad bruta, mayoristas: US$0,54 • Utilidad bruta, vitrina: US$0,72 • Utilidad bruta socio: Huehuetecas SAT Doña Marta Comerciantes locales 18qq por ciclo US$0,36 Transporte de COSATIN Transporta en sus vehículos la miel del centro de acopio • Total de colmenas: 3.932 • 64,47 colmenas promedio por productor KLIM ICTA / Ardavin Studio ASDECOHUE / Porcentaje de ventas: • Socio: 20% • Mayorista: 50% de Muy Muy hacia su centro agroindustrial • 90.454 kg de producción promedio 23 kg/año • Producción máxima: 35 kg/año • Actividades: Movilización, alimentación, revisión y cosecha Técnicas: • Descristalización al baño María • Requisición de pedidos • Trazabilidad Estructura de costos: • Etiqueta, miel y envase: US$2,62 • Costos operativos: US$1,01 Heifer DIACO ASDECOHUE UNITERRA CECI / CSEM CSEM • Vitrina: 30% • Costo de producción: US$1,79 Precio • Precio de venta: ponderado: US$4,21 CONALFA BANRURAL US$2.390 • Utilidad por botella: MAGA US$0,60 Costo total por kg: Capacitaciones sobre acceso a mercados US$3,67 US$2,39 • Control de calidad • Acopio: 30.000 kg al año • Costo de acopio: US$0,032 por kg • Porcentaje de la producción acopiada: 33% Costo total: US$2,42 Financiamiento: Fondo revolvente (Heifer), Banpais Alianzas: SAG, Secretaría de Salud Pública, DEI, Cadena Apícola Producción (productor) Acopio (Cooperativa) Actores directos Prestadores de servicios de apoyo Prestadores de servicios Actores indirectos operacionales 22 pequeños productores socios de la cooperativa Acopio de la cooperativa Tierra de Nutrias Se recibe la miel y se realiza la sedimentación de la miel para eliminar impurezas. Manejo de los apiarios, limpieza y alimentación de las colmenas, selección de marcos a cosechar y cosecha de la miel. CATIE Capacitaciones en escuelas de campo Transporte público: • C$20* por bidón • C$20 por persona Transporta la miel a granel al centro de acopio Distribuidora Karen, Veterinaria Diana Azúcar, colmenas, desparasitantes Transporte público Se trasladan los insumos a las fincas de los apicultoresHEIFER Guatemala Actores indirectos colmena: US$13,72 MIFIC • Utilidad promedio por MINSA Reguladores MEFCCA MEFCCAMSPAS Reguladores registro de marca MAGA Prestadores de servicios Se realiza el Supervisión de las instalaciones para extender el Trazabilidad Regulación de las cooperativasregistro sanitario*C$1=US$40,0347 del productoFigura 1.Figura 2. Honduras. Mapeo inicial de la cadena de valor de COAPIHL. Figura 3. Nicaragua. Mapeo inicial de la cadena de valor de Tierra de Nutrias.  "},{"text":"clave Actividades clave Propuesta de valor Relaciones con clientes Canales Recursos clave Fuentes de ingreso Segmentos de clientes Estructura de costos Socios clave Actividades clave Propuesta de valor Relaciones con clientes Canales Recursos clave Estructura de costos Fuentes de ingreso Segmentos de clientes  Cuadro 3. Nicaragua. Modelo inicial de negocio de Tierra de Nutrias hacia COSATIN. • Productoras de maní • Producto de alta • Dulces Típicos Delicias prima • Persona a persona • 61 apicultores • Seleccionar la materia (13 mujeres y 48 calidad (variedad Wash, • ASDECOHUE conserva tamaño y Huehuetecas • Comprar insumos para transformar • CSEM sabor) • Transformar la materia • Producción artesanal • MAGA por mujeres POPTI prima • Honesta y de confianza • Constante • Llamadas telefónicas hombres) • Proveedores de insumos • Agencias de • Heifer y mestizas, región • Empacar el producto cooperación: Heifer y Huista, Huehuetango • KLIMP América Cooperación Alemana • Miel de calidad envasada con normas de higiene • Abastecimiento continuo y permanente • Diferentes presentaciones • Precios asequibles y • 200 y 400 g de maní • Rotoprin frito, dulce, salado, • Instituciones del reconocimiento de Supermercados Del Corral • 3.899 kg de miel anual • US$4,21 por kg en los mercados de Siguatepeque y Comayagua • La relación comercial inició el año 2005 • Acopiar • Procesar • Envasar y etiquetar • Comercializar • Transportar al Supermercado • Vía telefónica • Visitas a supermercados • Correo electrónico Socios • 22 apicultores asociados. Divididos en cinco grupos en diferentes comunidades del municipio de Muy Muy, Matagalpa • Miel de abejas convencional 100% pura • Color ámbar • Humedad: 18% • Olor característico • Miel fraccionada envasada y etiquetada Clientes Unión de Cooperativas de Servicios Agropecuarios Tierra Nueva R.L (COSATIN) • Productividad y calidad • Supervisar la producción en apiarios • Recibir la miel de los asociados • Sedimentación, empaque y etiquetado de la miel • Entregar miel a granel • Entregar miel fraccionada los clientes • Llamadas telefónicas al momento de la cosecha • correo electrónico • Ardavin Studio mixto y natural; empacado en bolsa • Capital de trabajo cristal • Entrega personal y por Estado: SAG, SENASA, Secretaría de Salud, DEI, Alcaldía Municipal • Insumos de encomienda marca a nivel nacional • Centro de acopio • Personal calificado • Venta en el supermercado (costos de transporte asumidos • Consistencia en la producción y • Transporte extraurbano entrega transformación \"Cuevas\" • Bancos, financieras: CONSUCOOP y FACACH • Precio competitivo • Equipo de reparto (vehículo) • Respaldo financiero por COAPIHL) • Entregas mensuales, presentados para la • Miel a granel Recursos físicos • Centro de acopio equipado • Mano de obra de los asociados de la • Bidones plásticos limpios • Barriles metálicos grado alimenticio • Barriles plásticos Hace falta el registro sanitario del producto • 8 qq por mes venta en góndolas o por pedido cooperativa Capital de trabajo limpios • Crédito • Apiario de los asociados • Maní dulce: Q1.220,00/1 qq Venta de 100 bolsas de maní al mes: Q1.140 (US$146) Utilidad: • Materia prima: US$9.626,00 • Venta de la miel: US$16.414,00 anual Otros ingresos -Donaciones: • 20% salado • Maní frito: Q2.060,00/1 qq • Maní dulce: Q780,00/1 qq • Acopio: US$124,00 Envases C$5.124,84 • Pago de servicios básicos (agua y energía) • Pago de crédito (PHPG) 102,000 Venta de miel • Margen de ganancia • Ingemann: 720 L (C$*5.040) • 70% frito • Maní salado: Q2.060,00/1 qq • 10% dulce o garapiñado (US$100) • Maní frito y salado: • Procesamiento y comercialización: US$4.873,00 Tapones C$1.419,47 Etiquetas C$12.002,32 Sacos C$4.032,00 • Compra de miel a los asociados • Odesar: 35 L (C$1.225) • Mercado local: 280 L (C$12.600) • Ferias: 140 L (C$6.300) • Presentaciones de 100 y 200 g Q320,00/1 qq (US$40) Empaques (plásticos) C$2.480,00 El margen de ganancia equivale al 35% • Donación de etiquetas, envases, bolsas, licuadora, materia -Venta de cereales, plantas medicinales, Flor de Jamaica prima -Crédito (PHPG) C$102.000 • No se conoce con exactitud los costos del modelo de negocio • No hay información contable *C$1=US$40,0347 Cuadro 3. Nicaragua. Modelo inicial de negocio de Tierra de Nutrias hacia COSATIN.• Productoras de maní • Producto de alta • Dulces Típicos Delicias prima • Persona a persona • 61 apicultores • Seleccionar la materia (13 mujeres y 48 calidad (variedad Wash, • ASDECOHUE conserva tamaño y Huehuetecas • Comprar insumos para transformar • CSEM sabor) • Transformar la materia • Producción artesanal • MAGA por mujeres POPTI prima • Honesta y de confianza • Constante • Llamadas telefónicas hombres) • Proveedores de insumos • Agencias de • Heifer y mestizas, región • Empacar el producto cooperación: Heifer y Huista, Huehuetango • KLIMP América Cooperación Alemana • Miel de calidad envasada con normas de higiene • Abastecimiento continuo y permanente • Diferentes presentaciones • Precios asequibles y • 200 y 400 g de maní • Rotoprin frito, dulce, salado, • Instituciones del reconocimiento de Supermercados Del Corral • 3.899 kg de miel anual • US$4,21 por kg en los mercados de Siguatepeque y Comayagua • La relación comercial inició el año 2005 • Acopiar • Procesar • Envasar y etiquetar • Comercializar • Transportar al Supermercado • Vía telefónica • Visitas a supermercados • Correo electrónico Socios • 22 apicultores asociados. Divididos en cinco grupos en diferentes comunidades del municipio de Muy Muy, Matagalpa • Miel de abejas convencional 100% pura • Color ámbar • Humedad: 18% • Olor característico • Miel fraccionada envasada y etiquetada Clientes Unión de Cooperativas de Servicios Agropecuarios Tierra Nueva R.L (COSATIN) • Productividad y calidad • Supervisar la producción en apiarios • Recibir la miel de los asociados • Sedimentación, empaque y etiquetado de la miel • Entregar miel a granel • Entregar miel fraccionada los clientes • Llamadas telefónicas al momento de la cosecha • correo electrónico• Ardavin Studio mixto y natural; empacado en bolsa • Capital de trabajo cristal • Entrega personal y por Estado: SAG, SENASA, Secretaría de Salud, DEI, Alcaldía Municipal • Insumos de encomienda marca a nivel nacional • Centro de acopio • Personal calificado • Venta en el supermercado (costos de transporte asumidos • Consistencia en la producción y • Transporte extraurbano entrega transformación \"Cuevas\" • Bancos, financieras: CONSUCOOP y FACACH • Precio competitivo • Equipo de reparto (vehículo) • Respaldo financiero por COAPIHL) • Entregas mensuales, presentados para la • Miel a granel Recursos físicos • Centro de acopio equipado • Mano de obra de los asociados de la • Bidones plásticos limpios • Barriles metálicos grado alimenticio • Barriles plásticos Hace falta el registro sanitario del producto• 8 qq por mes venta en góndolas o por pedido cooperativa Capital de trabajo limpios• Crédito• Apiario de los asociados• Maní dulce: Q1.220,00/1 qq Venta de 100 bolsas de maní al mes: Q1.140 (US$146) Utilidad: • Materia prima: US$9.626,00 • Venta de la miel: US$16.414,00 anual Otros ingresos -Donaciones: • 20% salado • Maní frito: Q2.060,00/1 qq • Maní dulce: Q780,00/1 qq • Acopio: US$124,00 Envases C$5.124,84 • Pago de servicios básicos (agua y energía) • Pago de crédito (PHPG) 102,000 Venta de miel • Margen de ganancia • Ingemann: 720 L (C$*5.040) • 70% frito • Maní salado: Q2.060,00/1 qq • 10% dulce o garapiñado (US$100) • Maní frito y salado: • Procesamiento y comercialización: US$4.873,00 Tapones C$1.419,47 Etiquetas C$12.002,32 Sacos C$4.032,00 • Compra de miel a los asociados • Odesar: 35 L (C$1.225) • Mercado local: 280 L (C$12.600) • Ferias: 140 L (C$6.300) • Presentaciones de 100 y 200 g Q320,00/1 qq (US$40) Empaques (plásticos) C$2.480,00 El margen de ganancia equivale al 35% • Donación de etiquetas, envases, bolsas, licuadora, materia -Venta de cereales, plantas medicinales, Flor de Jamaica prima -Crédito (PHPG) C$102.000 • No se conoce con exactitud los costos del modelo de negocio • No hay información contable*C$1=US$40,0347  "}],"sieverID":"37eee8f4-ff26-4dc4-8979-2679c5a93b08","abstract":"Hervil Cherubin, quienes apoyaron el proceso de adaptación metodológica de LINK en los programas y proyectos de Heifer International.Un agradecimiento especial para Oscar Castañeda, vicepresidente de Heifer International para las Américas, por su contribución y respaldo institucional al desarrollo y construcción de un ecosistema para la aceleración del impacto en las Américas.Finalmente, gracias a todos los colaboradores administrativos, financieros, técnicos, gerencias y particularmente a las organizaciones socias, empresas del sector privado, cooperativas, asociaciones de productores y productoras, que participaron en este esfuerzo conjunto para el desarrollo de modelos de negocio más incluyentes con los productores y productoras de pequeña escala."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"042147aed4ef525dd295ef86680f28c2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1b35f52b-7dc5-4686-9fd1-000c3cd75403/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"Enbancing Farmers' Participationin Plant Breeding: Community Biodiversity Development and Conservation Program (CBDC), Bobol Project, Pbilippines","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Fanners have traditionally exchanged and shared seeds among themselves. Seed sharing and exchange enable fanners to evaluate and seleet new crop varieties that smt theír needs and preferences and adapt to specific environmental conditions in their fields (Berg 1994). Fanners are therefore able to continually produce diverse crop varieties that are specifically adapted to local needs and conditions."},{"index":2,"size":306,"text":"However, when the Green Revolution started in the 19605, the conservation and development of crop varieties were mainly taken over by agricultural research centers (Berg 1994). For instance, the Intemational Rice Research Institute (IRRI) developed new varieties of rice that displaced many of the traditional varieties, F onnal breeding programs not only displaced local varieties but also much ofthe fanneIS' role in crop conservation and development (Satazar n.d,), FOmlal breeding programs differ from farmers' methods of developing new varieties. Breeders set breeding objectives with broad rather than specific adaptability in mind (Berg 1994). This means lhat the new varieties are designed to adapt to a wide range of field conditions. High yie1d is the top consideration for breeders, while fanners consider yield along with other charaeteristics deemed important, such as aroma and eating quality. Furthemlore, breeders produce new varieties in very favorable environments. Varietal trials are carried out in fields that are highly fertile and highly seeded (Atlin and Frey 1989), where optimum amounts of fertilizers are applied. The new varieties, however, perfoml differently in fanneIS' fields where conditions are more variable and management practices are different, Hidelisa M. de Ramos is a Icchnical officer at SEARlCE. This proJect is ímplemented by Ibe Soulbeast Asia Regionallnstitute forCommunity Education (SEARlCE), • regional NGO working on issues about access and control of plant genetic resources (PGR) and fanners' rights, and currentty implementíng commu• níty-based PGR projects in Southeast Asia, Ceccarellí (1989) states that direct selection ofvarieties in the target environment is an efficient breedíng strategy since thís will produce varieties that satisf'y specific fanners' needs and condítions better. Tbis calls for a decentralized and participatory breeding approach where fanners are involved in !he development and selectíon of new varíeties. Participalory breeding will generate greater crop diversity in fanners' fields Ihat can mee! the diverse needs and conditions offanners."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Approaches and methods in on-farm research Tbe Community Biodiversity Development and Conservation Program (CBDC) is a global undertaking aimed al halting or minímizing genetic erosion and strengthening the fanners' role in on-fann conservation and development of plant genetic resources (pGR). It al 50 aims to seek ways on how the fonnal and infonnal sectors can complement each other in on-fann conservation and development."},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":"Tbe Southeast Asia Regional Instítute for Community Education (SEARICE) is implementing the CBDC project in Bohol, Philippines. It started in 1994 and focuses on conservation and development of rice, coro, and rool crops, such as cassava, sweet potato, and yam (Dioscorea alota). The project' s general approach in conducting participatory on-fann research is shown in figure l. Tbe project, together with fanner-partners in the community, conduct workshops every season to identif'y researchable areas and to design experiments to be conducted in the field. On-fann research is evaluated al tbree levels: by the staff, by individual fanners, and by the fanners' group. Another community workshop is conducted al the end of each season to analyze research results and to identif'y new research problems for the succeeding season. Fanners decide whích varíeties or teehnology to adopt afier each season, based on their observation and eva!uation of the on-fann research."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"Tbe key players in the project' s approach participatory plant breeding (PPB) and participatory varieta! selection (PVS) are shown in figure 2. Tbe genetie materials distributed by the project to fanner-partners come mainly from three sources: local communities; fonnal institutions, such as   "},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"• \\oca! varn:.mes  1). The materials came from different sources and consisted ofboth white and red varieties. Boholanos are known to preferred rice varieties. Each farmer received three varíeties at 0.5 kg per variety. The farmers grew the varieties using their own management practíces in combination wíth organic fertilízation, The methods of distribution and trial arrangements with farmers were based on lessons gained by the projeet in previous years of eondueting on-farm experiinents and studies."},{"index":7,"size":99,"text":"The study doeumented the results oftwo types offarmers' evaluation ofthe varicties. In one evaluation, farmers who reeeived the same set of varieties ranked the varieties in eomparison with IR66, the most eornmonly planted variety in the village. Farmers ranked the varieties aeeording to different parameters they themselves identified. Ranking in eaeh parameter ranged from one to four, with four representing the highest preferenee by the farmers. In the other evaluation, the farmers participated in a field day to observe and evaluate all the varieties as standing erops. Farmers identified the varieties they preferred and the reasons for their preferenees."}]},{"head":"Objectives ofthe study","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The objeetives of the study were l. to inerease the genetie diversity of riee planted by farmers in Zamora village 2. to determine farmers' eriteria for evaluating and seleeting riee"}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Farmers' preferences in a variety","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Farmers identified at least 13 speeifie traits they look for in a variety (table 2). Their eriteria are very eomprehensive, ranging from pereent germination to yield. Farmers evaluated the varieties from seedling stage until harvest. Yield is one ofthe major eriteria, as shown by the identifieation of related traits sueh as big grains, long panicles, and high tillering ability. In addition to yield, maturity also matters to farmers sinee early maturation allows them to maintain at least two eropping seasons per year. From the evaluation results during the farmers' field day, farmers eited one addi-  "}]},{"head":"3<3 3<5 32","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"No/e: 4 = highly preferred; 1 = leas! preferre<i tional criterion not identified in the matrix ranking, namely, tolerance to water logging (table 3). This criterion is significant because certain areas oftbe village are waterlogged< This is a good example of selection by farmers for a very specific field conditíon. On the otber hand, formal breeding programs would be unable to capture such selection because varieties released from the formal sector are generalIy bred for broad adaptability < Culture, as it relates to diversity conservation and development, is also not addressed by the formal sector. For example, Bohol farmers maintain a diversity of red rice varieties, either traditíonal varieties or farmer-developed varieties (table 1). Boholanos are known to prefer red rice because it is generally equated with bettereating quality< Farmers also claím that they can work longer in the field after eating red rice (CBDC 1 996) In fact, local red rice is priced higherin the market than local white rice< Red rice ís also preferred by a number of ethnic groups in Luzon and Mindanao (Borromeo, personal comrnunication). However, the Philippine Seed Board bas not released any red rice variety since it was established in the 1950s (Borromeo, personal communication)."}]},{"head":"Increased genetic diversity","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Seven of the 15 varieties distributed were replanted by the farmers who participated in the tria!' Previous to the trial, farmers in Zamora were plantíng only three varieties (CBDC and CVSCAFT 1999)< This represents a significant increase in the number of varieties planted in the comrnunity after one season."},{"index":2,"size":214,"text":"The selected varietíes have diverse qualities. Two are farmers' selections, three carne from an NGO-farmer breeding program, one from the formal sector, and one is a locally adapted variety (table 4). The replanted varieties either ranked higher (in sets 1,3, and 5) or slightly lower (in sets 2 and 4) in comparison to IR 66, the check variety. Varieties that scored high in both the field day evaluation (table 3) and the matrix ranking (table 4) had a higher rate of adoption than the other varieties with lower scores. This implies that if farmers' criteria are be taken ínto consideration and varietal performance is evaluated in farmers' fields using farmers' practices, then varietal adoption rates could increase considerably. This could shorten the time for a material to be evaluated and adopted by farmers. Release of a new variety in  the Philippines normally takes about eight to 10 years, starting from the selection of parent materials (BoITomeo, personal cornmunication). Moreover, with farmers' participation in varietal trials, on-farm genetic diversity can be increased almost irnmediate1y. With their experience in doing PVS, farmers can later be trained to do PPB through handling of segregating generations or actual crossing ofvarieties. Through PPB, farmers can produce even more specifically adapted varieties that will contribute to overalllocal crop genetic diversíty."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"l. Providing díverse materials that suit farmers' criteria and conditions can enhance genetíc diversity in farmers' fields."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"2. PVS is a good entry point towards implementing PPB, where farmers play the central role in the development of new varieties."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"3. PVSIPPB approaches should continually evolve according to local farmers' needs and conditions."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"4. Feedback mechanisms between breeders and farmers should be established to ensure that appropriate material s are disseminated to farmers."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"5. In providing gennplasm to fanners, one should eonsider not only fanners' eriteria but al80 their capacity, skills, and resourees in order to detennine theír levels of participation."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Situated in the remote mountain regions of the eastem Himalayas, the \"Gender, Ethnicity and Agrobiodiversity Management\" project proposes to develop the research capabilities of selected local people in four sites: eastem Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Nagaland. The immediate objective of the project is to develop a local capacity lo conduct research to better understand the causallinks between ethnicity and gender and how these componenls affect and influence decisions related lo management of agro biodiversity, However, the broader, long-term goal ofthe project is to develop local capacities to effectively manage existing genetic resources through the development of skills that enhance crop improvement. Withín this latter context, a participatory seed management initiative is currentIy being implemented in one site (Nepal) with the objective ofbroadening the experiences gained ftom thís process lo other siles in the region."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"The participatory seed rnanagement project is being conducted in three adjoining \"village development committees\" (VDCs), which are víllage-level administrative units ofthe Sankhuwasabha Distriel of eastem NepaL In broader terms, the project aims to enhance and develop new technologies for seed management in marginal mountain communities that lack access to new seed sources. The following hypotheses articulate the more specific objectives of the research project:"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• The development and enhancement of seed-management technologies will occur most effectively through a process of interactive learning between indigenous and formal systems of agricultura! development."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"• Access to improved technologies can be most effectively sustained through community action. This necessitates the enhancement of existing technical skilIs for seed improvement, along with the orgaruzational capacity of cornmunity-based organizations to ensure community access to these improved technologies."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"Barun Gurung works with the CGlAR Systemwide Program on Partieipatory Research and Gender Ana1ysis for Teohnology Development and lnstitutional Innovat1Qn and is posted in Kathmandu, NepaL P. Gurung is with the Sysrem-wide Program on ｐ ｡ ｲ ｴ ｩ ｣ ｩ ｰ ｡ ｾ ＠ tory Research and Gender Analysis/ lntemational Cen\",r for Tropical Agriculture (PRGA-CIA 1),"},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"• Finally, the success of community action to manage development processes will depend fundamentally on the community' S ability to control the processes ofknowledge production, design, and implementation of actions."},{"index":7,"size":80,"text":"The practícal ímplícations ofthís methodology can be summarized as the need to search for ways in which partícipatory research can be part of an ongoing process. Inherent to the process is the acknowledgrnent that power relations between researchers and the researched is problematic and that there ís a need to develop a process of critical reflection that situates the production ofknowledge and action withín a specific context of a negotiated process, emphasizing community actíon (see also Koning and Martin 1996)."}]},{"head":"The setting","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The major ethnic group ínhabiting the research sites is an ethnically distínct but heterogeneous group ofpeople known as the Raí. Together with a related group of people known as the Limbu, the Raí refer to themselves as Kírals, a term employed as much to unify aH the various \"tríbes\" and c1ans as it is a political statement employed to dístinguísh them from the dominant Hindu majority."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Having until the recent past practiced a distinct system of cornmunal land tenure known as Idpat, the Kirats constitute one of the oldest ethnic components of the regíon. Yet in decades following their integration into Nepal after the \"unification\" in the mid-18th century, the Kírats have been confronted with numerous chaIlenges to their traditional way of life. Dominant lowland influences have resulted in changes in sociocultural practices associated with traditional land-management practices and given rise to the ubiquitous rain-fed and irrigated terraces (bari/khét) that suil wetland paddy and other lowland crops. In the process, engineered landscapes have replaced extensive areas of forest cover where traditional swídden (slash-and-burn clearing) was practiced."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Compounding the asymmetry ofhistorically derived center/periphery relations are constraints imposed by the harsh mountaín environment. Typical ofthe eastem Himalayan region (see Shrestha 1989), human sertlements are siruated in elevations ranging from 500-2000 melers, where landdistríbution partems combine with steep slopes and shallow soil depths lo severely constrain agricultura! activities. The land-distríbution figures ofTamku VDC (table 1), where the research sites are located, demonstrate the environmental constraints that the inhabitants are confronted with."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"From the total avaílable Jane!, ónly 10.6% is suitab!e for agriculture, and from this total arable area, 54% has slopes of 40 degrees and soil depths of not more than 20 cm (Goldsmith, 1982)."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"Asymmetrícal center/periphery relations embedded in historical processes have contríbuted significantly to the present deteriorating ｳ ｴ ｡ ｴ ｾ ＠ of local institutional capacities to negotiate and orlen!  1992)."},{"index":6,"size":135,"text":"development servíces to their benefit, espccially to counter the period of food deficít that typically lasts for four to five months ayear. Unable to support their subsistence needs through crop yields alone, many households have male family members migrating in increasing numbers to urban centers in search of employment, leaving women and children to manage and care for the farm. An additional outcome of prolonged periods of food deficit is the inabilíty of households to save seeds from consumption in times of stress. Thís, along with deteriorating local knowledge about seed-management practices and the absence of organizational capacíties to access external sources of improved seed technologies has profound implícations for the long-term subsistence of households in the region. It also significantly determines the narure and type of research methodology to be adopted for particular sites."}]},{"head":"The research process: An interactive methodology","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The objectives of the project evolved in several stages of a diagnostíc process that sought devolution by emphasizing cornrnunity participation in íncreasing stages during the research process. In order to facilitate cornrnunity control and ownership, the methodology was developed &om the principIes of problem posing, dialogue, and refleetion based on the Freirean (1972,1973,1978) notion that cornrnunity ínvolvement in the development process can be generated through developing a critical awareness of the causes of problems. The diagnostic process ínvolved the following steps:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"l. A survey was conducted to establish the need for a participatory seed-management initiatíve, based on the following research themes:"},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"• assessing the capacity oflocal cornrnunity-based organízatíons • determining existing pattems of food sufficiency • identifyíng appropriate crap(s) for enhancing improved seed-management strategies • determining factors for farmer participation through gender-differentiated varietal assessment ofidentified crop(s) • determining the source of germplasm, either in exísting local vaneties or through external means 2. Analysis was done through a critical examination ofbaseline data to determine how the prob-Iem of food deficit i5 contexrualized by cornmunity members. Ibat ís, are problems of food deficit línked to just econolTÚc issues of subsistence or are they affected by social dynamics of decision-making? And to what extent are these embedded in tbe value5 and cultural constructs of the cornrnunity? Conceprualized problems in this way necessítates posing the following questions:"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• Do the issues deal mainly with problems of subsistence, decision-making, or values? • Where will action most likeIy come from?"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"• What will most effectively motivate people?"},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"3. Problem-posing material was prepared through the development of codes, which are representations of existing problems in the form of stories, dramatized enactrnents, pictures, results of particípatory rural appraisal (PRA), etc. Fundamental to the preparation of codes is tbe need to ensure that they present a scene showing a concrete experience ofthe problem, which is familiar to the participants."},{"index":7,"size":67,"text":"4. Discussíon was dírected through an interactive workshop whereby cornmunity members participated in defming tbe problem offood deficit and searchíng for solutioos. The primary objective ofthis process was 10 develop a critical awareness oflhe problem offood deficit through tbe search for potential solutions. Additionally, the process also creates a context for the community 10 provide cornmenls on the research results and to define the direction oflhe process."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"The process begins witb a description ofcedes, followed by a firsl analysis, which is then related to reallife and followed by a deeper analysis, ending in self-reliant action planning."}]},{"head":"Farmer participation in the research process","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The degree and type of farmer participation depends principally on the objeclives for participation, as well as the context, as determined by the particular stage of tbe process. Thus, the diagnostic phase, consisting oftbe survey, anaiysis, code preparation, and discussion, involved varying levels of farmer participation. In tbe survey, three members of tbe cornmuníty and two projeet members comprised the researeh team. Clan elders and farmers selected on the basis tbeir knowledge related to seed managemen! were consulted abeu! tbe relevance of tbe project. In addition, tbe executive body of cornmunity-based organizations were consulted to establish interest in developing a working partnership to conduct the project."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"The survey was conducted to establish (1) a crop inventory, (2) to determine tbe needs and priorities of different groups, based on gender and wealth considerations, and (3) lo identify erop for improving seed-management technology. At tbe same time, farmers were selected for consultation on the basis of tbeir knowledge, financial.status, and gender. The subsequent analysis of the data lo develop appropriate cedes was conducted in collaboration witb local researchers and farmers."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"The main objective ofthe workshop !ha! followed was to present tbe codes to tbe larger cornmunity  to understand tbe root causes and potentíai solutions to problems of food deficit in the regíon. The selectíon of cornrnunity members was based on tbe eriteria developed in prior consultation witb local members of the research team. During this stage of tbe interface, farmers were more extensively involved in tbe direction of!he discussion of research findings, as well as decís ion making lo determine tbe level of participation in setting tbe agenda for future action."}]},{"head":"User differentiation","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The selectíon of participants was deterrnined by tbe following eritena:"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"• demonstrated instances of innovation in seed management and knowledge of causallinks between problems of food scarcity and gaps in existing seed-management practices"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• gender-differentiated knowledge and gendered experiences"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• farming for subsistence as a full-time subsistence activity"}]},{"head":"Innovatíon","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The participants selected for participation in the research process demonstrated varying degrees of innovation in crop management. The type of innovations ranged from pre-harvest selection practices to post-harvest storage practices. In sorne instances, the praetices were leamed from experienee gained extemally.asin the case of selecting for desired traits of rice during the pre-harvest period or experimentíng with new strategies as in the case of post-harvest storage of maize mixed with millet to reduce pest attack."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"While post-harvest selection practices were common for crops such as maize and millet, pre-harvest selectíon was practiced only on paddy, One farmer, selecting specifically for larger panicles, denser grain quality, and tal! height in a landrace (punche dhan) was successful in producing a \"variety\" subsequently named afier him (changkhu dhan,literally \"Changkhu's rice\"), This \"varieti' is currently widely adopted by other farmers in the commnnity, with Changkhu presently selecting for early maturation to coincide with the planting of winter wheat."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"In seed-storage technology, sorne innovative farmers experiment with the leaves of a locally available plant (bajo) to ward offpestattacks on maize seeds. Dried leaves ofthis plant are placed in the bottom of the seed container and altemately in several layers approximately every three to four inches, then fue container is sealed by additionalleaves at the topo Sealed in September or early October, the relatively airtight spaces and the toxic nature ofleaves sufficiently wards off pest attacks."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"In another example, one woman farmer, noticing that millet grains were free of pests that attacked maíze seeds, began mixing a handful of millet grains in the container where maize seeds were stored. This relatively simple practice was based on her observation that millet seeds were free from fue pests lhat attacked ｴ ｨ ｾ ＠ maize seeds that were stored in close proximity to fue millet."}]},{"head":"Knowledge and gendered experiences","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"In varietal assessments of maize, conducted separately between women and men farmers during the inÍtial research phase, women and men listed different categories of preferences based on their roles and experiences. Men listed four varieties of maize, mostly modem varieties that had been introdueed into the commnnity in the last several years. W omen, on the other hand,listed eight varietíes, mostly landraces whose use had been discontinued in the project site but existed in the women's natal villages. Women cited fodder quality, ease in grinding, and taste as fue primary eritecia for their preference oflandraces. Men, on fue other hand, cited high yields, early rnaturation, resistance to drought conditions, and market prices as important in their preference for modern varieties, An additional ranking of maize varieties among farmers revealed differential knowledge and preference priorities between women and men (table 3)."}]},{"head":"Farmingfor subsisten ce","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"That participating farmers be involved in farming as a full-time subsistence activity was an important eriteria for selection for two reasons: the first was prompted by fue project need for the uninterrupted involvement of participants for two production seasons (for most farmers in the area, 8. chepti seti"},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":". . -\" ----1 _ food-scarcity periods necessitated involvemcnt in off-farm activities for supplementing household ineomes); the second was because those farmers who were involved in farming as a \"full-time\" activity showed a greater inclinalion to be relative\\y self-sufficient in food production, even during the scarcity período Of the nine farmer participants in Tamku VDC who were included in the \"iunovative\" category, aIl claimed sufficient food security during the year and could be counted upon by other cornmunity members for food loans during periods of food deficit."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Out-migration ofmen to urban centers in search of employment is one ofthe primary strategies employed lo counter food deficits. In the past, it was cornmon for men and women to become involved in recíprocal arrangemenls within t/le corpmunity during times of food shortage. UsualIy this involved providing labor for wealthier farmers in return for food provisions during times of scarcity. Increasíngly, however, Ihe presenl trend is for!he majority ofyoung men to migrate to urban cenlers to work as porters for trekkíng companies, perform meníal jobs in restaurants and hotels, or migrate lo Ihe MiddIe East (arab) through the numerous employment agencies !hat have sprung up in Nepalese townships."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"In addition to out-migration, people a1so forage for a variety offorest foods (kandamul), although a degree of social stigma surrounds foraging activities, príncipally through the perceived notion that it ís part of the \"prímitive\" past."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"At the household level, food-preparation strategies a1so play an important role in \"making it lasl longer.\" Grains are boiled with excess water, creating a porridge-like consistency to ínerease !he quantity. \"Visitors and guests\" duríng !he time of scarcity are actively discouraged from visiting, though sorne women particípants cited visiting relatives (preferably fue natal home, for married women) as an option to combal food shortages."},{"index":6,"size":256,"text":"A seasonal calendar for food production reveals a period of severe food scarcity between !he monlhs begiuning in late February and lasting till early luIy. The relationship between food production and out-mígration, especially of males to urban centers in search of employment, is direct1y proportional to !he íncreasing number of female-headed households as well as the additional, \"gendered\" burden of farming responsibilities that this trend implies. Moreover, !here was a strong relationship between decreasing food produetion and poor aceess lO seed sources and deteriorating seed-savíng practices. Research suggested !hat !he deterioratíon of seed saving was not necessarily related lo loss ofknowledge but was, ralher, determined lO a large extent by food scarcity and the additional burden of farm households to do \"other things.\" Increasing trends in food scarcity over the last few generations have resulted in people consuming ínslead of saving seed materíaL Though there were many reasons for food scarcity, research demonstrated a causal relationshíp between decreased crop yíelds and the ínability to manage seed, in terms of both maíntaíning seed purity (saadha biyu) and poor seed storage practices. Moreover, access to the Agriculture Input Sector (AIC), a public-sector undertaking responsible for seed supplies was dífficult, sínce ít is situated in district headquarters a day' s walk from the village and using il ofien proves to be a dífficult bureaucratic process beyond the reach of individual farmers. The consequenees of low yields, the ínabílity lo maíntain seed purity, and lack of access to reliable sourees of new germplasm aH contribute to food scarcity in Tamk:u."}]},{"head":"Lessons learned: Reconceptualizing participation and knowledge","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"In order to address the objective of developing improved seed technologies in marginal mountain environments while emphasizing community control ofthe rnanagement of the process, it becomes important lo conceptualize farmer participation in the research process as an instrument of empowerment. Dne principie way forward in tlús direction is lo situate farmer participation in the context ofIocal knowledge. In doing so, however, it becomes important to view knowledge, or indigenous technical knowledge, beyond common representatíons of its beíng produced as a raliona! response to environmental contingencies (e.g., Matlúas-Mundy et al. 1991;Howes and Chambers 1980;Brokensha, Warren, and Werner 1980). Instead, it becomes important to sitnate indigenous technícal knowledge within cultural categories of meaning, which can then become an empowering base for participation in the interface with more powerful externa! categories of knowledge."},{"index":2,"size":215,"text":"The workshop discussions revealed how empírical experiences cannot be separated from cultural experience, especiaHy in the way Rai farmers talk about food scarcity and place the phenomenon in a mytlúc context. Local discourse offood scarcity finds expressíon both in the dominant Nepali language as well as the various díalects of the Raí group. The words to describe food scarcity range from anikal (foad shortage), bhakmari (to kilI hunger), mahamari (the great killer), and sisawa (famine) in the Kulung dialect ofthe Rai. lt also finds expression through simple expressions such as \"khana ka abab hunu\" (to be short of edíbles), \"dhayrailchitto bhok lagnu\" (lo experience hungerpangs sooner and more frequently than normal), \"chasum na hunu\" (to lack prosperity), as well as more abstraet expressions, such as in tlús lament in the Kulung dialect \"Etenay sisawa udanai [ay tay ha wumche \" (dear friends. and brothers, ... how do we survive the sisawa [food shortage] tlús year?) or the more common instructional verse admonishing people to save seeds to combat food shortages \"Almal ma jiyu bachhaunu, Aníkal ma biyu bachhaunu \" (save oneself in times of confusion, [but] save seeds in times of[food] shortage) or \"Chha geda sabai mera Chhaina geda sabai tenda\" (having seeds, all is mine, [not1 having seeds, all is not mine [Le., lost])."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"In the indigenous schema, food scarcity is a condition of cultural \"disorder\" that has its genesís in the curse that one warring ancestor castes upon another for perceived treachery. In cultural terms, the condition becomes inevitable and requires annual propitia!ion of the ancestor through ritual appeasement. The myth, consisting of ancestral deeds tbat include the settling of present territories, serves as a metaphor for the sacred relationship that exists between the Raí and the delimited territory they occupy. Traditional Kirati notions of ethnicity canno! be separated from this relationshíp and are symbolized by an ancestor stone that is sitnated in every village and propitiated in annual agricultura! ceremonies (ca:ri)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. CBDC Bobol Project's approach In on-farm participatory research "},{"text":" Varieties in bold letters were those replanted by farmer recipients: seven varieties replanted out of 15 vaneties distributed (41%). "},{"text":" Adapted from Biggs (l989lNote: A = contractualj B = consultative; e ｾ ＠ collaborative; D = collegiate. "},{"text":"Table lo Types ofVarieties Distributed to Farmer-Partners    Seedcoal No. ollarmer SeedcoalNo. ollarmer Sel Variely Name Origin/Sources color recipients SelVariely NameOrigin/Sourcescolorrecipients 1 MB Farmers' selection from Re 10 Red  1MBFarmers' selection from Re 10Red  08 Local variety While 3 08Local varietyWhile3  CC 13-3-4-3 NGO-bred and released lo farmers at F3 While  CC 13-3-4-3NGO-bred and released lo farmers at F3While 2 03 Local variety While  203Local varietyWhile  RC 28 Formal release While 4 RC 28Formal releaseWhile4  Los Baños Local variety While  Los BañosLocal varietyWhile 3 CFS-JR-06 Farmers' selection from Japanese variety Red  3CFS-JR-06Farmers' selection from Japanese varietyRed  MS 1-29 NGO/farmer-bred While 3 MS 1-29NGO/farmer-bredWhile3  RC4 Formal release While  RC4Formal releaseWhile 4 66 Puwa Farmers' seleclion from IR 66 Red  466 PuwaFarmers' seleclion from IR 66Red  MS 2-AV NGO/farmer-bred While 4 MS 2-AVNGO/farmer-bredWhile4  Japan Local variety While  JapanLocal varietyWhile 5 Ceres Local variety Red  5CeresLocal varietyRed  MS13 . NGO/farmer-bred While 3 MS13. NGO/farmer-bredWhile3  CC 13-3-4 NGO-bred and released lo farmers al F3 While  CC 13-3-4NGO-bred and released lo farmers al F3While  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Sample Matrix Ranking ofVarieties by Farmers Receiving Same Set Preferred Traits MB 08 ce IR Preferred TraitsMB08ceIR 1< High pereenl (%) germinalion     1< High pereenl (%) germinalion  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Result of Collective Farmers' Field Evaluation of Standing Crop   No. of farmers who pre- No. of farmers who pre- Variety llame Preferred traits ferred the variety Variety llamePreferred traitsferred the variety MS13 Uniform huI! color and absence of spots  MS13Uniform huI! color and absence of spots  Heal!hy, big and many spikelets  Heal!hy, big and many spikelets  White grains Long paniele 10 White grains Long paniele10  Strong eulm, lodging resistan!  Strong eulm, lodging resistan!  Toleran! to water I09\\l.\"in\"'9 ____________________ _ Toleran! to water I09\\l.\"in\"'9 ____________________ _ CFS-JR-06 Good panide  CFS-JR-06Good panide  Heal!hy and big spikelets  Heal!hy and big spikelets  Red grains 10 Red grains10  Strong culm, IOO91n9 resistant  Strong culm, IOO91n9 resistant  Tal!  Tal! MS2-AV Healthy and long panicles  MS2-AVHealthy and long panicles  Eariy maturing  Eariy maturing  Toleran! to leaf foIder and rice bug  Toleran! to leaf foIder and rice bug  Lodging resistan! 7 Lodging resistan!7  Reslstanl to diseases  Reslstanl to diseases  Uniform helght  Uniform helght  Shart  Shart MS 1-29 Healthy splkelets  MS 1-29Healthy splkelets  Many but small splkelets  Many but small splkelets  Uniform hull color, absence of spots 7 Uniform hull color, absence of spots7  Long panide  Long panide  lo dlseases  lo dlseases MB Big panides and gralns  MBBig panides and gralns  Unlform hull color, absence af spo!s  Unlform hull color, absence af spo!s  Hlgh tillering  Hlgh tillering  Tolerant !o water I0991ng Lodging reslstant 4 Tolerant !o water I0991ng Lodging reslstant4  BI9 culm  BI9 culm  Resistan! to leaf folder  Resistan! to leaf folder Los Baños Many spikelets and panicles  Los BañosMany spikelets and panicles  Heavy branchlng 3 Heavy branchlng3 66 Puwa  1 66 Puwa1  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Summary of Matrix Ranking by Farmers According to Set No. of fanners froro sama set No. of fanners froro sama set  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Land Clusification ofTamku VDC AgricuHurallands 10.6% AgricuHurallands10.6% Grazingl.ands 14.6% Grazingl.ands14.6% Shrubs 7.8% Shrubs7.8% Deciduous forests 35.6% Deciduous forests35.6% Subtropical forests 10.8% Subtropical forests10.8% Rack ice 20.6% Rack ice20.6%  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Types of Farmer Participatíon  "},{"text":"Table 3 . VarietaI Knowledge and Preference Ranking of Maize for Men and Women Women Men WomenMen 1. bhote' pahelí 1. manakamana-l (MV) 1. bhote' pahelí1. manakamana-l (MV) 2. pahelí 2. dhude' selí 2. pahelí2. dhude' selí 3. dudhe' selí 3. paheli 3. dudhe' selí3. paheli 4. bhole' selí  4. bhole' selí 5. lamlunge' seti  5. lamlunge' seti 6. arun-2 (MV)  6. arun-2 (MV) 7. manakamana-l (MV)  7. manakamana-l (MV)  "}],"sieverID":"cc628322-8e79-44b9-8b37-7d41a02c75ee","abstract":"It was generally leamed through the farmers' evaluation that farrners discard those material s that do not fulfill their selection critería, especially material s that are susceptible lO pests and diseases. Sometimes, however, rejeetion ean ¡cad to success. One ofthe farrner respondents rejected a seleetion that he then gave his neighbor. The neighbor grew the variety successfully and later multiplied the seeds for other farmers."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04ba7b944a7f01dc026356f425530877","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/46bedda2-68c8-49b9-a099-4595e963ff38/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Incorporation of Organic Growth Additives to Enhance In Vitro Tissue Culture for Producing Genetically Stable Plants","keywords":["in vitro","plant propagation","afforestation","organic growth additives","genetic stability","molecular markers","large scale restoration"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":450,"text":"Climate change and induced human activities have negatively impacted agro-silvopastoral ecosystems across the planet [1,2]. The global push to achieve ecosystem restoration targets has resulted in an increased demand for native plant material that current production systems are unable to satisfy [3]. Using native species in restoration efforts is critical for recreating or maintaining healthy, resistant, and resilient ecosystems and communities [4]. Therefore, the development of methods for the large-scale plantations of selected genotypes of medicinal, pastoral, and forest species has become increasingly important in view of the need for the rehabilitation of marginal and degraded rangelands [5][6][7]. Regeneration of plants via in vitro tissue culture is considered to be an efficient approach for clonal plant propagation. Developing protocols for successful plant tissue culture is complicated because there are various interacting factors. Plant raw material, culture conditions, and culture media composition are determining factors in the quality of the final product obtained in any plant cell culture protocol [8]. The choice of nutritional components and growth regulators is one of the most important factors governing the growth and morphogenesis of the plant tissues in culture [9]. There are many components and additives used in plant micropropagation media which vary according to the plant species, cultivar, or explant type and must be experimentally defined for each case [10]. For the optimal growth of tissues in vitro, nutritional requirements should be present in optimum concentrations [11]. Micropropagation media are generally made up of these components: macronutrients, micronutrients, vitamins, amino acids, sugar, gelling agents, and growth regulators [12]. However, these compounds are expensive and pose risks if added in inadequate amounts [13]. Therefore, many studies have been conducted to explore the modification of culture media composition by adding low-cost organic materials as an alternative to expensive materials without compromising the quality of the produced plants [14][15][16]. A variety of organic growth additives such as coconut water, banana pulp, yeast extract, tomato juice, papaya juice, potato homogenate, and pineapple pulp can be very effective in promoting plant growth and development [17,18]. Such organic growth additives provide undefined mixtures of organic nutrients and growth factors [19]. The reasons for applying organic growth additives to the culture medium, besides being a natural source of carbon, are because they contain natural vitamins, phenols, fiber, hormones, proteins, lipids, and minerals [10]. An overview of culture media composition modification for plant tissue propagation with special regard to organic growth additives and the importance of using PCR-based molecular markers to establish the genetic stability of in vitro regenerated plants are discussed in this paper. The literature was obtained through a keyword-based search on Science Direct, Scopus, Springer, JSTOR, onlinelibrary, and Google Scholar. All databases up to July 2022 are considered."}]},{"head":"Supplementation of Organic Growth Additives to Enhance In Vitro Culture Techniques","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Adding organic growth additives to culture media, individually or in combination, accelerates shoot initiation and proliferation. Depending on the species and genotype, different types and concentrations of organic nutrients are needed for the success of in vitro cultures (Table 1) [12,[20][21][22]. Several studies were conducted to evaluate the nutritional role of organic additives and their impact on shoot regeneration and growth to induce rhizogenesis and produce viable plantlets [17,23]."}]},{"head":"Vegetable, Fruit, and Plant Extracts","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The growth and development of tissues vary for different plants according to their nutritional requirements. Tissues from different parts of plants may also have different requirements for satisfactory growth. Commonly, culture media are supplemented with a variety of organic substances or extracts including coconut milk, pineapple pulp, papaya juice, banana homogenate, orange juice, and tomato juice, to test their effect on growth enhancement [49]. [44]"}]},{"head":"Essential oils","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Aloe vera Shoot tip MS AC: 0.5 g/L T. vulgaris EO: 0.1%, 0.2% R. officinalis EO: 0.025%, 0.05%, 0.075%, 0.1% Explant survival was 100% after 4 weeks of culture with R. officinalis EO concentrations of 0.05%, 0.075%, and 0.1% with no signs of browning. The lowest infection percentage (10%) was observed for media containing 0.075% and 0.1% of R. officinalis EO. The highest number of leaves per explant was 3.71 with 0.1% R. officinalis EO and the greatest leaf length was 3.18 cm with 0.05%."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"[45]"},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Fragaria × ananassa (Duch) Leaves MS Eugenol: 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.04%, 0.5%, 2.5%, 5% Carvacrol: 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.04%, 0.5%, 2.5%, 5% Thymol: 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.04%, 0.5%, 2.5%, 5%"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"All essential oil treatments resulted in sterile conditions of the medium. The growth of in vitro contaminations from fungi and bacteria was inhibited at 0.01% and 0.5% concentrations, respectively."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"[46]"}]},{"head":"Phoenix Dactylifera Node MS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Mentha piperita: 2% Thymus vulgaris: 2% Cinnamomum camphora: 2%"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"All the essential oils inhibited the mycelial growth and fungus contamination of tissue culture."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"[47]"}]},{"head":"Cynodon dactylon","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Node MS Thymol: 100, 200 mg/L (30, 60, and 120 min soaking time) Carvacrol:100, 200 mg/L (30, 60, and 120 min soaking time)"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Increasing the period of exposure (60-120 min) with thymol and carvacrol at 200 mg/L led to the appropriate control of fungi and bacterial infection of explants."},{"index":3,"size":390,"text":"Wiszniewska et al. [24] reported the successful micropropagation protocol of three Daphne species (Daphne caucasica, Daphne tangutica, and Daphne jasminea) on MS media supplemented with organic growth additives, including coconut water and pineapple pulp. Daud et al. [25], on in vitro regeneration of Celosia sp. using five kinds of organic growth additives, showed that young coconut juice (YCJ) at 70 mL/L induced the highest shoot regeneration (14.21), banana and tomato juices promoted the highest shoot regeneration of stem segments at 50 mL/L which produced 9.57 and 9.28 shoots per explants, and papaya juice, at the lowest concentration (20 mL/L), showed the highest shoot regeneration (10.5). Different organic growth additives such as coconut water, coconut milk, grind spinach leaves, grind potato tubers, grind carrot, rice flour, green gram, grind pumpkin, banana fruit, and orange juice were assayed by Manawadu et al. [14] to enhance in vitro regeneration of Raphanus sativus. The best response was observed in MS supplemented with 10% orange juice which produced the highest number of shoots (12 shoots/explant). Banana powder (BW), coconut water (CW), and potato dextrose (PD) were added to a basal seed sowing media of Epidendrum nocturnum. The culture medium with 10 mL/L CW showed the greatest germination percentage (71% and 76.75%) compared to 60 and 90 days after seed sowing. Media with 5 g/L BW + 5 mL/L CW showed greater values of plant length (19.80 mm), number of roots (2.1), and fresh weight (0.08 g) [16]. The effect of various organic additives (coconut water, birch sap, maple sap, and banana powder) on in vitro germination, protocorm formation, and seedling growth from Cypripedium macranthos on one-quarter MS medium was investigated during asymbiotic seed culture. The highest germination and protocorm formation percentages were achieved (70.8% and 74.2%) when 100 mL/L of coconut water was added to the basal medium. With 100 mL/L of birch sap or maple sap, the germination and protocorm formation percentages were over 65% and 68% [15]. Knudson C media supplemented with organic growth additives (coconut water, tomato juice, and banana pulp) at different concentrations for Dendrobium lowii in vitro propagation showed a notable protocorm development when treated with 25 g/L of banana pulp compared to the other supplements. It showed the highest growth index value of 593.3 with 100% of protocorms that successfully developed shoots and 93.3% of protocorms producing roots [26]."},{"index":4,"size":200,"text":"Supplementing coconut water (50 and 100 mL/L) for Musa cv. Rajabulu in vitro propagation showed the best results on the number of roots (9.33; 9) and root length (11.6; 10.76 cm). With CW concentrations from 50 to 200 mL/L, acclimatization was 100% [27]. Selakorn et al. [18] found that when CW (at 200 mL/L) was supplemented to MS medium, the highest number of shoots/explant (1.71), the highest shoot length (4.25 cm), and the highest number of leaves/explant (4) were recorded on Musa acuminata in vitro multiplication. For mass propagation of the endangered orchid Dendrobium chryseum, supplementing 10% CW to one-half MS medium resulted in the highest number of shoots as well as the longest [28]. The multiplication rate of Dianthus caryophyllus increased over four times when the shoot tip and nodal segment were used as explants on MS medium supplemented with 10% CW [29]. However, when 5% CW was added to one-half MS medium, the highest germination percentage for Gastrochilus matsuran was 93.3% [30]. Adding 4% coconut water with 3% sucrose increased the shoot elongation of Hylocereus polyrhizus to 2.45 cm [31]. MS media enriched with 2% CW enhanced shoot multiplication for Echinacea purpurea to 2.58 buds per explant [32]."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"Adding tomato juice (TJ) to promote shoot regeneration and multiplication of Physalis angulata produced the maximum shoot number (12.5) in MS supplemented with 5% TJ while the maximum shoot length (10.7 cm) was obtained with 7.5% TJ [33]. Phytamax media supplemented with 100 mL/L pineapple juice for in vitro propagation of Laelia rubescens resulted in the highest seedling height (1.31 cm), the number of leaves per seedling (3.33), and roots (2.33) [34]. However, at 200 mL/L, pineapple juice showed the highest results with 56% asymbiotic germination and 25.8 in seedling formation for in vitro development of xLaeliocattleya on MS medium [35]."},{"index":6,"size":190,"text":"Aloe vera gel (AvG) is the most commonly used part of the plant because of its biological effectiveness and chemical composition (carbohydrates, organic acids, proteins, phenolic compounds, vitamins, minerals, and amino acids) [49]. AvG has gained attention because of its interesting antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Nowadays, it is proposed as an alternative to conventional additives used in plant micropropagation media [36][37][38]. Hamdeni et al. [36] reported that AvG served as an organic nutritional supplement for the enhancement of A. vera in vitro propagation protocol. The work of Haque and Ghosh [37] on A. vera showed that the highest number of formed shoots per explant (length ≥ 2 cm) was 17.8 shoots on MS medium supplemented with 10% AvG. For root induction, adding AvG (20% and 30%) to one-third of MS increased the response to 100% rooting, the number of roots per shoot (9.8; 9.2), and the length of the roots (3.1; 2.8). The study on the in vitro micropropagation of Bacopa chamaedryoides reported that the best rooting response (100%), number (18.3), and length (2.3 cm) of the shoot were achieved on one-half strength MS medium supplemented with 50% AvG [38]."}]},{"head":"Amino Acids, Polyamines, and Proteins","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":428,"text":"Most plants can synthesize the essential requirements of amino acids for cell proliferation and regeneration. Despite this, the exogenous supply of amino acids to culture media plays an important role in stimulating cell growth and the morphogenesis of tissues. Unlike inorganic nitrogen, amino acids are easily assimilated by plant cells and tissues [50]. Saad and Elshahed [51] suggested that plant cells have a higher capacity to take up and transport nitrogen from organic sources rather than inorganic ones. Several studies have reported using amino acids as an organic nitrogen source during in vitro propagation of several species such as Fragaria × Ananassa duch cv. Chandler, Oryza sativa, Rosa centifolia, Carica papaya, and Hibiscus moscheutos to enhance plant tissue growth and increase their regeneration [52][53][54][55][56]. According to Mandal et al. [39], a combination of all amino acids (methionine, glutamic acid, glycine, tryptophane, proline, lycine, arginine, and glutamine) in 20 mg/L concentrations resulted in the best axillary shoot proliferation response (100%) on Aegle marmelos and average shoot number per explant (2.22) when cultured on MS medium supplemented with 2 mg/L BAP. Baskaran et al. [57] reported that the type and amount of amino acids used in the medium have a significant effect on growth and multiple shoot development. Khatri et al. [40] evaluated three nitrogen sources, adenine sulfate (Ads), casein hydrolysate (CH), and putrescine (PU) for their ability to enhance in vitro shoot multiplication of Chlorophytum borivilianum. It confirmed that including 20 mg/L of Ads to MS medium supplemented with 2 mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L NAA resulted in the best shoot induction response (96.67%). For rooting, one-half MS supplemented with 9 mg/L PU + 2 mg/L IBA was best with 83.33% root induction. Samiei et al. [41] found that adding 600 mg/L of casein hydrolysate to the Vander Salm medium resulted in the maximum shoot number (4.1 shoots/explant) while glutamic acid at 12 mg/L enhanced shoot regeneration and leaf number of Rosa canina. Glutamine at 30 mg/L and asparagine at 20 mg/L concentrations improved shoot multiplication of Orthosiphon aristatus on MS medium supplemented with 1 mg/L BAP and 0.5 mg/L Kn [42]. David et al. [43] reported the rapid development from the protocorms of Vanda helvola (99.5%) treated in Knudson C medium containing 0.1% peptone, which successfully produced 3.10 leaves with an average length of 10.97 mm per responsive explant after 90 days of culture. Casein hydrolysate at 0.05% was most effective on Stevia rebaudiana in vitro propagation, which resulted in 90% regeneration frequency, a maximum of 15 shoots, and a shoot length of 6 cm per explant [44]."}]},{"head":"Essential Oils","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":339,"text":"In vitro microbial contamination is one of the most serious problems when culturing tissue. Using plant extracts such as essential oils for explant disinfection and establishing an aseptic culture medium to replace autoclaving was found to be an alternative procedure for plant tissue culture [58]. Oxidative browning from the accumulation and oxidation of polyphenols in the media is another impediment to in vitro propagation. For the successful establishment of in vitro tissue cultures, it is necessary to limit the oxidation of phenolics, the source of enzymatic browning, and inhibit microbial growth [45]. In the study of Hamdeni et al. [45], Rosmarinus officinalis and Thymus vulgaris essential oils were assayed for their effectiveness in controlling enzymatic browning and contamination of cultures from Aloe vera. While T. vulgaris essential oil inhibited explant growth, R. officinalis induced the highest explant survival percentage (100%) with no signs of browning after four weeks of culture with concentrations of 0.05%, 0.075%, and 0.1%. The lowest infection percentage (10%) was observed for media containing 0.075% and 0.1% of R. officinalis. The highest average number of leaves per explant was 3.71 with 0.1% R. officinalis and the greatest leaf length was 3.18 cm with 0.05%. According to Taghizadeh et al. [46], sterile medium conditions were obtained by using eugenol, carvacrol, or thymol at 0.01% and 0.5% which inhibited the growth of fungi and bacteria contaminations respectively with no autoclaving of the medium and vessels. The inhibitory effect of essential oils from Mentha piperita, Thymus vulgaris, and Cinnamomum camphora against common fungal contamination affecting the tissue culture of Phoenix dactylifera was reported by Jasim et al. [47]. These essential oils at 2% each resulted in 100% inhibition of mycelium growth of fungi species (Alternaria spp., Fusarium spp., and Aspergillus spp.) compared to the control treatment (10% of fungal contamination) with no disinfecting agent. The disinfecting properties of thymol and carvacrol (at 200 mg/L each and for 60 to 120 min exposure time) led to the appropriate control of fungi and bacterial infection of Cynodon dactylon nodal explants [48]."}]},{"head":"Marker-Assisted Genetic Stability Assay","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":481,"text":"The unsustainable use of natural resources has harmful consequences that threaten biodiversity and multiple ecosystem services and negatively affect human well-being. Promoting conservation is recommended to halt the erosion of genetic resources and habitats and maintain ecosystem functions [59]. Where preserving the original gene pool is of primary importance, micropropagated plant materials are an appropriate tool for biodiversity restoration (conservation, re-introduction, and recovery) of rare, endangered, and threatened plant species [60,61]. Even though plant regeneration from organized meristems (shoot tips and axillary buds) is a reliable way to produce true-to-type plants compared with callus and somatic embryogenesis regeneration, in vitro culture environments can be mutagenic [62][63][64]. DNA methylation, point mutations, and chromosome rearrangements are the major causes of somaclonal variation, which arises due to in vitro stresses such as artificial lighting, nutrient compounds [64,65], plant growth regulators [66][67][68], explant source and genotype, culture duration, and subculture number [62,63,[69][70][71][72][73][74]. Hussien et al. [64] reported that the interaction between sucrose and minerals levels led to somaclonal variation (38.33%) among Populus alba propagated plants. The supplementation of high concentrations of copper sulphate to the MS medium showed polymorphism among Musa sp. in vitro regenerated plants when treated with 60 mg/L with an average of 1.8% [65]. Bhattacharyya et al. [66] indicated that plant growth regulators (BA and meta-topolin) showed clonal variability at various stages of sub-culturing as well as after successful acclimatization due to their residual toxicity which led to DNA damage and microsatellite instability within the micropropagated plantlets of Ansellia africana. A low level of genetic polymorphism of Lilium davidii occurred when BA and TDZ cytokinins were supplemented to the culture media [67]. The highest genetic variability (16%) of Rhododendron 'Kazimierz Odnowiciel' was found for both BA and TDZ compared to the other cytokinins combinations [68]. The maintaining of cultures for a long period and callus regeneration from Spondias pinnata resulted in slight polymorphism (12.5%), which may be due to the stress of in vitro culture conditions [63]. Micropropagated plantlets and callus-derived regenerants from Camellia sinensis showed molecular changes after 7 years of in vitro propagation with polymorphism percentages ranging from 43% to 67% [73]. Genetic variation occurred among two genotypes (Mississippi and SWD) of Anthurium andraeanum after callus induction and long-term maintenance [74]. Therefore, it is necessary to confirm true-to-type propagules at an early stage of development. Molecular, biochemical, and morphological analyses are the main approaches for determining the clonal stability of in vitro-generated plantlets [75][76][77][78][79]. PCR-based molecular markers such as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) have been found to be enormously helpful in ascertaining the genetic stability of in vivo cultivated as well as in vitro regenerated plants [80,81]. Although RAPD primers have been successfully used for assessing the genetic stability of several species, they have a number of limitations such as reproducibility and dominance [82,83]. Consequently, using a different molecular marker system is required to provide a more reliable result."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Recently, many DNA molecular markers have been developed to confirm genetic stability. Among them, the most advanced and reliable with high reproducibility rates are inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSR) and start codon targeted (SCoT) [84]. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers have also gained considerable importance in genetic stability assessment due to their high reproducibility, co-dominant inheritance nature, sensitivity, and strong discriminatory power [85]. A promotional effect of organic growth additives (amino acids, polyamines, proteins, plant, and fruits extracts) in stimulating cells proliferation, morphogenesis, and tissues development was reported by several authors, but the genetic stability of in vivo cultivated as well as in vitro regenerated plants needs to be ascertained [86][87][88] (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"RAPD Analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":414,"text":"The optimum development and maturation of somatic embryos from Sterculia alata were observed by the supplementation of 400 mg/L Gln to MS medium as a nitrogen source. The genetic analysis using 25 RAPD primers produced a total number of 181 amplification bands with an average of 7.24 bands per primer. The amplification profiles generated the same banding pattern in all the samples confirming that the supplementation of amino acids to the in vitro propagation protocol is reliable in producing true-to-type plants [89]. Thakur et al. [93] found that adding 10 mg/L of CH to the MS medium resulted in the best multiplication rate (5.08) and shoot elongation with an average shoot length of 2.94 cm of Prunus salicina. Out of 16 RAPD primers tested, 14 primers produced 43 amplification fragments ranging from 200 to 1500 bp in size. All banding profiles were monomorphic across all the tested plants and similar to those of the mother plant. The work of Al-Mayahi [90] indicates that adding polyamines (PU and Spd) to MS medium of Phoenix dactylifera is beneficial in producing genetically stable plants. All four RAPD primers showed amplifications with monomorphic bands among both in vitro-derived plants and the mother plant. The two types of polyamines at 75 mg/L each were the most effective treatments in root formation and number. Gurme et al. [91] reported that when 15% CW was supplemented to MS medium, the best shooting frequency (90%) and plant numbers (18) from Amorphophallus paeoniifolius were obtained. Among 10 RAPD primers tested, only 6 generated a total of 292 bands without any polymorphic bands between 10 in vitro regenerants and their mother plant. Ten RAPD primers were used to evaluate the genetic profile of Rhynchostylis retusa tissue cultured plantlets developed under CW and fungal elicitor treatments. The highest shoot numbers and lengths were found on MS medium supplemented with 10% CW while the fungal elicitor showed the best response for root number and length. All RAPD primers produced 23 amplification bands ranging in size from 275 to 1100 bp. The genetic stability among in vitro cultured plants and the mother plant was maintained [88]. Adding 1% AvLE to MS liquid media fully controlled culture contamination and enhanced shoot numbers and lengths of Bambusa balcooa. Out of 20 RAPD primers, only 8 yielded 22.44 reproducible and scorable bands with 2.8 bands per primer ranging in size from 100 to 1800 bp. All amplified bands were monomorphic revealing that Bambusa balcooa plants retained their genetic stability [92]."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Table 2. Molecular markers used for genetic stability assessment of in vitro propagated plants under organic growth addition."}]},{"head":"Molecular Marker Species Organic Growth Additives Main Results References","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RAPD","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sterculia alata","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Pro: 50, 100, 200, 300, 400 mg/L Gln: 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 mg/L"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"The optimum development and maturation of somatic embryos were observed by the supplementation of 400 mg/L Gln. All 25 RAPD primers generated distinct amplification profiles with the same banding pattern of all the samples. The total number of amplification products was 181 bands with an average of 7.24 bands per primer."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"[89]"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Phoenix dactylifera PU: 25, 75, 150 mg/L Spd: 25, 75, 150 mg/L"},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"The two types of polyamines (PU and Spd) at 75 mg/L each, were the most effective treatments in root formation and number. All four RAPD primers showed unambiguous amplifications with monomorphic bands among both in vitro-derived plants and the mother plant."},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"[90]"}]},{"head":"Amorphophallus paeoniifolius","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"CW: 15% Gln: 1.36, 3.42 µM CH: 0.05% MS medium supplemented with 15% CW in combination with 4.43 µM BAP resulted in the best shooting frequency (90%) and plant number (18). Among 10 RAPD primers tested, only 6 generated a total of 292 bands without any polymorphic bands between 10 in vitro regenerants and their mother plant."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"[91]"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Bambusa balcooa AvLE: 1%"},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"The addition of 1% AvLE to MS liquid media has fully controlled culture contamination and enhanced shoot number and length. Out of 20 RAPD primers, only 8 primers yielded 22.44 reproducible and scorable bands with 2.8 bands per primer ranging in size from 100 to 1800 bp. All amplified bands were monomorphic across the in vitro-raised plants and their mother plant."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"[92]"},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"Rhynchostylis retusa CW: 5%, 10% Fungal elicitors isolated from Vanda cristata"},{"index":7,"size":57,"text":"The highest shoot number and length were found on MS medium supplemented with 10% CW, while a fungal elicitor showed the best response for root number and length. All RAPD primers (10) produced 23 amplification bands ranging in size from 275 to 1100 bp. Genetic uniformity among in vitro cultured plants and the mother plant was maintained."},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"[88] The highest somatic embryo induction (85%) was observed when CH (100 mg/L) and Gln (150 mg/L) were supplemented to the media as compared to the control. No somaclonal variations were detected using 10 SSR primers among the embryogenic cell suspension-derived plants and their mother plant."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"[87]"}]},{"head":"Stipagrostis pennata","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Gln: 500 mg/L CH: 100 mg/L"},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"The highest embryogenic callus induction was observed when Gln and CH were supplemented to the culture media. In total, 10 SSR primes were tested, out of which 4 primers showed a single amplification band size of 185, 412, 243, and 210 bp for primers 1, 3, 7, and 8, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"[95]"}]},{"head":"RAPD and ISSR","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Oryza sativa SSE: 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"The SSE supplementation in a dose-dependent manner resulted in the highest shoot, root length, and root biomass. Only 2 RAPD (out of 6) and 4 ISSR (out of 11) primers produced stable amplicons with 11 and 26 monomorphic amplicons, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"[86] "}]},{"head":"ISSR Analysis","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Nandhakumar et al. [94] reported that 10 ISSR primers were used to assess the genetic stability of Musa spp. (Cultivars Grand Naine and Rasthali) when Pro and Gln were added to MS media. Gln (400 mg/L) significantly enhanced the number of both primary (1680, 1850) and secondary (3597, 3270) somatic embryos per culture from Grand Naine and Rasthali cultivars, respectively. ISSR primers generated a total of 1534 and 1488 bands ranging from 200 bp to 2500 bp in size in Grand Naine and Rasthali cultivars, respectively, giving rise to only monomorphic bands across all the tested plants in both cultivars."}]},{"head":"SSR Analysis","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Natarajan et al. [87] found that the highest somatic embryo induction (85%) was observed when CH (100 mg/L) and Gln (150 mg/L) were supplemented to the nutrient media of Musa AAB cultivar Chenichampa as compared to the control. No somaclonal variations were detected using 10 SSR primers among the embryogenic cell suspensionderived plants and their mother plant. Asadi-Aghbolaghi et al. [95] reported that the highest embryogenic callus induction was observed when CH (100 mg/L) and Gln (500 mg/L) were supplemented to the culture media of Stipagrostis pennata. Ten SSR primes were tested, out of which four showed a single amplification band size of 185, 412, 243, and 210 bp for primers 1, 3, 7, and 8, respectively. The regeneration protocols adding both CH and Gln as organic growth additives showed genetic stability using SSR primers which makes these protocols reliable."}]},{"head":"Combined Markers Analysis (RAPD, ISSR, and SCoT)","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"For better genetic stability analysis, it is highly recommended to use a combination of more than one type of molecular marker that amplifies different regions of the plant genome."}]},{"head":"RAPD and ISSR Analysis","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"RAPD and ISSR analysis confirmed the genetic stability of both Valeriana jatamansi [96] and Ranunculus wallichianus [97] in vitro regenerated plants on MS medium supplemented with 10% CW. For Valeriana jatamansi propagation protocol, CW supplementation resulted in the maximum response with regard to shoot and root numbers and lengths (13, 19.6, 6, and 7.5 cm), respectively. Out of 35 RAPD and 10 ISSR primers analyzed, only 10 RAPD and 5 ISSR primers produced a total of 32 and 12 similar banding patterns between in vitro raised plantlets and the mother plant, respectively [96]. For Ranunculus wallichianus, adding CW to MS medium resulted in the highest regeneration response (97%), the number of shoots formed (11.1 shoots/culture), and shoot length (9.2 cm). Nine RAPD and eight ISSR primers produced 56 and 47 bands with an average of six and five bands per primer ranging from 200 to 1500 bp and 200 to 1000 bp in size, respectively [97]. Krishnan et al. [86] approved the significant efficacy of incorporating plant extracts such as SSE into the culture medium. The SSE supplementation in a dose-dependent manner resulted in the highest shoot and root length and root biomass. Only two RAPD (out of six) and four ISSR (out of eleven) primers produced stable amplicons with 11 and 26 monomorphic amplicons, respectively."}]},{"head":"RAPD and SCoT Analysis","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"RAPD and SCoT markers proved the genetic stability of both Citrullus lanatus [98] and Pisum sativum [99] in vitro-raised plants when the two polyamines (Spd and PU) were supplemented to their nutrient media. Spd and PU at 10 mg/L each, increased the shoot induction response (93%), shoot number (46.43 shoots/explant), and shoot elongation (6.3 cm) for Citrullus lanatus. The highest rooting percentage (95%) with the production of 23.03 roots per shoot measuring 4.32 cm in length was also recorded. In total, 9 RAPD and 17 SCoT primers produced 41 and 47 monomorphic fragments in the size range of 200 to 1800 and 300 to 2000 bp, respectively [98]. However, Spd at 20 mg/L resulted in the highest multiple shoot numbers (65.1 shoots/explant) while PU at 30 mg/L produced the highest number of roots (33.66 roots/shoot) for Pisum sativum. Nine RAPD and 17 SCoT primers produced 34 and 38 monomorphic fragments with the ranges of 400 to 600 and 100 to 500 bp, respectively [99]."}]},{"head":"ISSR and SCoT Analysis","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Both ISSR and SCoT markers certified the genetic stability of Helicteres isora regenerated on MS medium supplemented with Gln. At 50 mg/L concentration, it produced the highest shoot numbers (21.3, 16.9) from both cotyledonary node and axillary node explants, respectively. Five ISSR primers (out of ten) produced 27 reproducible bands with 5.4 bands per primer varying in size from 0.3 to 2.2 kb. Out of the 17 SCoT primers tried, 13 produced 63 monomorphic bands with 4.8 bands per primer ranging in size from 0.3 to 3 kb. In both ISSR and SCoT techniques, all the resolved bands were monomorphic to all in vitro regenerated plants as well as their in vivo-based mother plant [100]."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The most recent results summarized in this review show that micropropagation techniques can be enhanced by supplementing organic growth additives for producing genetically stable plants to meet the increasing demand for planting raw materials. However, it is extremely important to understand the structure-mode of action relationship of these supplements. In this regard, mutual cooperation between biotechnologists, chemists, and biologists may play a major role in proposing adequate growth additives for each plant species. That strategy could be an efficient tool for the rehabilitation of degraded landscapes and biodiversity restoration via the large-scale production of selected genotypes of medicinal, pastoral, and forest species."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Effect of different organic growth additives on in vitro tissue culture. Type of Nutrients Species Explant Culture Media Organic Growth Additives Main Results References Type of NutrientsSpeciesExplantCulture MediaOrganic Growth AdditivesMain ResultsReferences      D. tangutica: Shoot proliferation was improved  D. tangutica: Shoot proliferation was improved  Daphne sp. (caucasica, tangutica, jasminea) Shoot MS CW: 10 mL/L PP: 10 mL/L AAN: 20 mg/L Desmodesmus subspicatus: 20%, 50% CHT: 15 mg/L by medium supplementation with CW and PP (micropropagation coefficient 16.6 and 13.4). D. jasminea: The rooting percentage was 14% tissues were cultured on MS + 10 mL/L PP. D. caucasica: The highest frequency of adventitious rhizogenesis (57.1%) occurred when [24] Daphne sp. (caucasica, tangutica, jasminea)ShootMSCW: 10 mL/L PP: 10 mL/L AAN: 20 mg/L Desmodesmus subspicatus: 20%, 50% CHT: 15 mg/Lby medium supplementation with CW and PP (micropropagation coefficient 16.6 and 13.4). D. jasminea: The rooting percentage was 14% tissues were cultured on MS + 10 mL/L PP. D. caucasica: The highest frequency of adventitious rhizogenesis (57.1%) occurred when[24]      and 8.9% for PP and CW.  and 8.9% for PP and CW.     MCJ: 20, 30, 50, 70 mL/L   MCJ: 20, 30, 50, 70 mL/L     YCJ: 20, 30, 50, 70 mL/L   YCJ: 20, 30, 50, 70 mL/L  Celosia sp. Stem MS   [25] Celosia sp.StemMS[25] Vegetable, fruit, and       Vegetable, fruit, and plant extracts       plant extracts     CW: 20%,   CW: 20%,     CM: 20%,   CM: 20%,     GSL: 10%, The highest number of shoots  GSL: 10%,The highest number of shoots     GPT: 10%, (12 shoots/explant) was observed in MS  GPT: 10%,(12 shoots/explant) was observed in MS  Raphunus sativus Hypocotyl MS GC: 10%, RF: 5%, supplemented with 2.5 mg/L BAP + 0.1 mg/L NAA + 10% OJ, whereas 8 shoots/explant [14] Raphunus sativusHypocotylMSGC: 10%, RF: 5%,supplemented with 2.5 mg/L BAP + 0.1 mg/L NAA + 10% OJ, whereas 8 shoots/explant[14]     GG: 10%, were obtained with 20% CW. Media with GSL,  GG: 10%,were obtained with 20% CW. Media with GSL,     GP: 10%, RF, GG, GPT, and BJ inhibit shoot regeneration.  GP: 10%,RF, GG, GPT, and BJ inhibit shoot regeneration.     BF: 10%,   BF: 10%,     OJ: 10%   OJ: 10%     BW: 10 g/L   BW: 10 g/L  Epidendrum nocturnum PBLs OSM CW: 10 mL/L 5 mL/L CW 5 g/L BW + Media with 5 g/L BW + 5 mL/L CW showed roots (2.1), and fresh weight (0.08 g). greater plant length (19.80 mm), the number of [16] Epidendrum nocturnumPBLsOSMCW: 10 mL/L 5 mL/L CW 5 g/L BW +Media with 5 g/L BW + 5 mL/L CW showed roots (2.1), and fresh weight (0.08 g). greater plant length (19.80 mm), the number of[16]     PD: 10 g/L   PD: 10 g/L  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cont.     Type of Nutrients Species Explant Culture Media Organic Growth Additives Main Results References Type of NutrientsSpeciesExplantCulture MediaOrganic Growth AdditivesMain ResultsReferences     CW: 50, 100, 200 mL/L   CW: 50, 100, 200 mL/L  Cypripedium macranthos PLBs 1 ⁄4 MS BSP: 50, 100, 200 mL/L BW: 15, 30, 60 g/L MSP: 50, 100, 200 mL/L The highest germination and protocorm obtained with 100 mL/L CW. formation percentages (70.8% and 74.2%) were [15] Cypripedium macranthosPLBs1 ⁄4 MSBSP: 50, 100, 200 mL/L BW: 15, 30, 60 g/L MSP: 50, 100, 200 mL/LThe highest germination and protocorm obtained with 100 mL/L CW. formation percentages (70.8% and 74.2%) were[15]     P: 1, 2, 4 g/L   P: 1, 2, 4 g/L     CW: 10%, 15%, 20% Protocorm treated with 25 g/L BP showed the  CW: 10%, 15%, 20%Protocorm treated with 25 g/L BP showed the  Dendrobium lowi Protocorms KC TJ: 10%, 15%, 20% BP: 25, 75, 125 g/L highest GI values of 593.3 with 100% protocorms successfully developing shoots and [26] Dendrobium lowiProtocormsKCTJ: 10%, 15%, 20% BP: 25, 75, 125 g/Lhighest GI values of 593.3 with 100% protocorms successfully developing shoots and[26]     P: 2 g/L 93.3% of protocorms producing root.  P: 2 g/L93.3% of protocorms producing root.  Musa cv. Rajabulu Shoots MS CW: 50, 100, 150, 200 mL/L  [27] Musa cv. RajabuluShootsMSCW: 50, 100, 150, 200 mL/L[27]  Musa acuminata Shoot MS CW: 200 mL/L PPJ: 200 mL/L OJ: 200 mL/L MS supplemented with 200 mL/L CW resulted highest number of leaves/explant (4). in the highest number of shoots/explant (1.71), the longest shoot length (4.25 cm), and the [18] Musa acuminataShootMSCW: 200 mL/L PPJ: 200 mL/L OJ: 200 mL/LMS supplemented with 200 mL/L CW resulted highest number of leaves/explant (4). in the highest number of shoots/explant (1.71), the longest shoot length (4.25 cm), and the[18]      The highest number of shoots developed on 1 ⁄2  The highest number of shoots developed on 1 ⁄2  Dendrobium chryseum Protocorms 1 ⁄2 MS CW: 5%, 10% MS fortified with 2 mg/L Kn + 10% CW and the longest shoots were obtained on 1 ⁄2 MS + [28] Dendrobium chryseum Protocorms1 ⁄2 MSCW: 5%, 10%MS fortified with 2 mg/L Kn + 10% CW and the longest shoots were obtained on 1 ⁄2 MS +[28]      1 mg/L GA 3 + 10% CW.  1 mg/L GA 3 + 10% CW.      The best regeneration was obtained on MS  The best regeneration was obtained on MS      supplemented with 1 mg/L BAP +10% CW  supplemented with 1 mg/L BAP +10% CW  Dianthus caryophyllus Shoot tip Node MS CW: 5%, 8%, 10%, 15%, 20% which increased the number of shoots per [29] Dianthus caryophyllus Shoot tip NodeMSCW: 5%, 8%, 10%, 15%, 20%which increased the number of shoots per[29]      culture (nodal explant:113.83 and, shoot tip  culture (nodal explant:113.83 and, shoot tip      explant: 93.33).  explant: 93.33).  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cont.     Type of Nutrients Species Explant Culture Media Organic Growth Additives Main Results References Type of NutrientsSpeciesExplantCulture MediaOrganic Growth AdditivesMain ResultsReferences      When 5% CW was added to 1 ⁄2 MS + 0.05% AC  When 5% CW was added to 1 ⁄2 MS + 0.05% AC  Gastrochilus matsuran PLBs 1 ⁄2 MS CW: 0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10% + 1% BP + 0.2% P + 1 µM NAA + 1.5 µM GA3. It produced the highest germination [30] Gastrochilus matsuran PLBs1 ⁄2 MSCW: 0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%+ 1% BP + 0.2% P + 1 µM NAA + 1.5 µM GA3. It produced the highest germination[30]      percentage at 93.3%.  percentage at 93.3%.  Hylocereus polyrhizus Stem MS MCW: 2%, 4%, 6% Adding 4% MCW and 3% sucrose in MS media increased the shoot elongation (2.45 cm). [31] Hylocereus polyrhizusStemMSMCW: 2%, 4%, 6%Adding 4% MCW and 3% sucrose in MS media increased the shoot elongation (2.45 cm).[31]  Echinacea purpurea Petiole MS LH: 100, 300, 900 mg/L P: 100, 300, 900 mg/L CW: 2%, 4%, 8% Y: 100, 300, 900 mg/L Shoot multiplication has been enhanced with mg/L NAA (2.58 buds/explant). 2% CW on MS containing 0.3 mg/L BA + 0.01 [32] Echinacea purpureaPetioleMSLH: 100, 300, 900 mg/L P: 100, 300, 900 mg/L CW: 2%, 4%, 8% Y: 100, 300, 900 mg/LShoot multiplication has been enhanced with mg/L NAA (2.58 buds/explant). 2% CW on MS containing 0.3 mg/L BA + 0.01[32]      The maximum shoot number (12.5) was  The maximum shoot number (12.5) was  Physalis angulata Node MS TJ: 5%, 7.5%, 10% B: 1.25%, 2.5%, 3.75% produced in MS + 2 mg/L BAP + 0.05 mg/L IAA + 5% TJ while the maximum shoot length [33] Physalis angulataNodeMSTJ: 5%, 7.5%, 10% B: 1.25%, 2.5%, 3.75%produced in MS + 2 mg/L BAP + 0.05 mg/L IAA + 5% TJ while the maximum shoot length[33]      (10.7 cm) was obtained with 7.5% TJ.  (10.7 cm) was obtained with 7.5% TJ.  Laelia rubescens PLBs Phy MS 1 ⁄2 MS CW: 100 mL/L PJ: 100 mL/L Phy media supplemented with 100 mL/L PJ and roots (2.33) resulted in the highest seedling height (1.31 cm), number of leaves per seedling (3.33), [34] Laelia rubescensPLBsPhy MS 1 ⁄2 MSCW: 100 mL/L PJ: 100 mL/LPhy media supplemented with 100 mL/L PJ and roots (2.33) resulted in the highest seedling height (1.31 cm), number of leaves per seedling (3.33),[34]  xLaeliocattleya PLBs OSM MS CW: 200 mL/L PJ: 200 mL/L MS supplemented with PJ produced the and seedlings formation (25.8). highest results in asymbiotic germination (56%) [35] xLaeliocattleyaPLBsOSM MSCW: 200 mL/L PJ: 200 mL/LMS supplemented with PJ produced the and seedlings formation (25.8). highest results in asymbiotic germination (56%)[35]      Adding AvG to MS media increased the  Adding AvG to MS media increased the      number of axillary shoots compared to the  number of axillary shoots compared to the  Aloe vera Shoot tip Shoot multiplication: MS AvG: 2.5%, 5%, 10% control. The highest axillary shoot number was recorded on a medium containing 5% AvG (13.27) and the highest shoot elongation [36] Aloe veraShoot tipShoot multiplication: MSAvG: 2.5%, 5%, 10%control. The highest axillary shoot number was recorded on a medium containing 5% AvG (13.27) and the highest shoot elongation[36]      (2.5 cm) was recorded on a medium  (2.5 cm) was recorded on a medium      supplemented with 2.5% AvG.  supplemented with 2.5% AvG.    Rooting: 1 ⁄2 MS AvG: 10%, 20%, 30% The highest root number and the greatest root length (5.73 and 5.90 cm) were recorded on MS medium supplemented with 10% AvG.  Rooting: 1 ⁄2 MSAvG: 10%, 20%, 30%The highest root number and the greatest root length (5.73 and 5.90 cm) were recorded on MS medium supplemented with 10% AvG.  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cont.     Type of Nutrients Species Explant Culture Media Organic Growth Additives Main Results References Type of NutrientsSpeciesExplantCulture MediaOrganic Growth AdditivesMain ResultsReferences    Shoot multiplication: MS AvG: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% The highest number of formed shoots per explant (length ≥ 2 cm) was 17.8 shoots on MS medium supplemented with 10% AvG. [37] Shoot multiplication: MSAvG: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%The highest number of formed shoots per explant (length ≥ 2 cm) was 17.8 shoots on MS medium supplemented with 10% AvG.[37]  Aloe vera Rhizomatous stem   Adding AvG (20% and 30%) to 1 ⁄3 MS increased  Aloe veraRhizomatous stemAdding AvG (20% and 30%) to 1 ⁄3 MS increased    Rooting: 1 ⁄3 MS AvG: 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% the rooting response to 100%, the number of roots per shoot (9.8 and 9.2), and the length of  Rooting: 1 ⁄3 MSAvG: 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%the rooting response to 100%, the number of roots per shoot (9.8 and 9.2), and the length of      the roots (3.1 and 2.8).  the roots (3.1 and 2.8).  Bacopa chamaedryoides Shoot tip, nodes Rooting: 1 ⁄2 MS AvG: 50% The best rooting response (100%), number (18.3), MS supplemented with 50% AvG. and length of shoots (2.3 cm) were achieved on 1 ⁄2 [38] Bacopa chamaedryoides Shoot tip, nodesRooting: 1 ⁄2 MSAvG: 50%The best rooting response (100%), number (18.3), MS supplemented with 50% AvG. and length of shoots (2.3 cm) were achieved on 1 ⁄2[38]  "},{"text":"Amino acids, polyamines, and proteins      MS medium containing 2 mg/L BAP and a  MS medium containing 2 mg/L BAP and a Aegle marmelos Nodes, internodes, shoot tip, leaves MS Amino acids (Met, Glu, Gly, Trp, mg/L Pro, Lys, Arg, Gln): 10, 20, 30, 40 combination of all amino acids in 20 mg/L proliferation response (100%) and average obtained the optimum axillary shoot [39] Aegle marmelosNodes, internodes, shoot tip, leavesMSAmino acids (Met, Glu, Gly, Trp, mg/L Pro, Lys, Arg, Gln): 10, 20, 30, 40combination of all amino acids in 20 mg/L proliferation response (100%) and average obtained the optimum axillary shoot[39]     shoot numbers per explant (2.22).  shoot numbers per explant (2.22).   Shoot Ads: 10, 20 mg/L The best response for shoot morphogenesis  ShootAds: 10, 20 mg/LThe best response for shoot morphogenesis Chlorophytum borivilianum Node morphogenesis: MS CH: 10, 20, 30 mg/L PU: 0, 10, 30, 50, 70, 100 mg/L (96.67%) was achieved on MS supplemented with 2 mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L NAA + 20 mg/L Ads. [40] Chlorophytum borivilianumNodemorphogenesis: MSCH: 10, 20, 30 mg/L PU: 0, 10, 30, 50, 70, 100 mg/L(96.67%) was achieved on MS supplemented with 2 mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L NAA + 20 mg/L Ads.[40]   Rooting: 1 ⁄2 MS PU: 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18 mg/L   Rooting: 1 ⁄2 MSPU: 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18 mg/L     The maximum shoot number  The maximum shoot number    CH: 200, 400, 600 mg/L (4.1 shoots/explant) was obtained in VS  CH: 200, 400, 600 mg/L(4.1 shoots/explant) was obtained in VS Rosa canina Node VS Glu: 2, 4, 8, 12 mg/L supplemented with 600 mg/L CH. Glu at [41] Rosa caninaNodeVSGlu: 2, 4, 8, 12 mg/Lsupplemented with 600 mg/L CH. Glu at[41]    Pro: 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 mg/L 12 mg/L enhanced shoot regeneration and leaf  Pro: 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 mg/L12 mg/L enhanced shoot regeneration and leaf     number compared to the control.  number compared to the control.    P: 50, 100, 150, 200 mg/L, MS supplemented with 1 mg/L BAP +  P: 50, 100, 150, 200 mg/L,MS supplemented with 1 mg/L BAP +    Asn: 10, 20, 30, 40 mg/L 0.5 mg/L KIN + 10% CW and Gln or Asn  Asn: 10, 20, 30, 40 mg/L0.5 mg/L KIN + 10% CW and Gln or Asn    Gln:10, 20, 30, 40 mg/L increased the number of shoots/explant. Gln at  Gln:10, 20, 30, 40 mg/Lincreased the number of shoots/explant. Gln at Orthosiphon aristatus Node MS WJ: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% 30 mg/L produced 44.04 shoots/explant with a [42] Orthosiphon aristatusNodeMSWJ: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%30 mg/L produced 44.04 shoots/explant with a[42]    CW: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% mean length of 7.47 cm, whereas 20 mg/L Asn  CW: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%mean length of 7.47 cm, whereas 20 mg/L Asn    CW (10%) + Gln: 20, 30 mg/L resulted in 40.43 shoots/explant and 6.89 cm  CW (10%) + Gln: 20, 30 mg/Lresulted in 40.43 shoots/explant and 6.89 cm    CW (10%) + Asn: 20, 30 mg/L shoot length after 8 weeks of culture.  CW (10%) + Asn: 20, 30 mg/Lshoot length after 8 weeks of culture.  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cont.     Type of Nutrients Species Explant Culture Media Organic Growth Additives Main Results References Type of NutrientsSpeciesExplantCulture MediaOrganic Growth AdditivesMain ResultsReferences     TJ: 10%, 20%, 40% Protocorms (99.50%) treated in KC containing  TJ: 10%, 20%, 40%Protocorms (99.50%) treated in KC containing  Vanda helvola Protocorms KC CW: 10%, 20%, 40% P: 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4% 0.1% P successfully produced 3.10 leaves with an average length of 10.97 mm per responsive [43] Vanda helvolaProtocormsKCCW: 10%, 20%, 40% P: 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%0.1% P successfully produced 3.10 leaves with an average length of 10.97 mm per responsive[43]     YE: 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4% explant after 90 days of culture.  YE: 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%explant after 90 days of culture.  Stevia rebaudiana Node MS CH: 0.025%, 0.05%, 0.075%, 0.1% CW: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% ME: 0.025%, 0.05%, 0.075%, 0.1% YE: 0.025%, 0.05%, 0.075%, 0.1% MS supplemented with 2 mg/L BAP + 0.5 mg/L Kin + 0.1 mg/L NAA + 0.05% CH resulted in a maximum of 15 shoots. A 90% regeneration frequency and shoot length of 6 cm were recorded per explant.  Stevia rebaudianaNodeMSCH: 0.025%, 0.05%, 0.075%, 0.1% CW: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% ME: 0.025%, 0.05%, 0.075%, 0.1% YE: 0.025%, 0.05%, 0.075%, 0.1%MS supplemented with 2 mg/L BAP + 0.5 mg/L Kin + 0.1 mg/L NAA + 0.05% CH resulted in a maximum of 15 shoots. A 90% regeneration frequency and shoot length of 6 cm were recorded per explant.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Cont.     Molecular Marker Species Organic Growth Additives Main Results References Molecular MarkerSpeciesOrganic Growth AdditivesMain ResultsReferences    CH (at 10 mg/L) resulted in the best multiplication rate  CH (at 10 mg/L) resulted in the best multiplication rate    (5.08) and shoot elongation with an average shoot length  (5.08) and shoot elongation with an average shoot length    of 2.94 cm.  of 2.94 cm.  Prunus salicina CH: 10, 50, 100 mg/L Out of 16 RAPD primers tested, 14 primers produced  Prunus salicinaCH: 10, 50, 100 mg/LOut of 16 RAPD primers tested, 14 primers produced    43 amplification fragments ranging from 200 to 1500 bp in  43 amplification fragments ranging from 200 to 1500 bp in    size. All banding profiles were monomorphic across all of  size. All banding profiles were monomorphic across all of    the tested plants and similar to those of the mother plant.  the tested plants and similar to those of the mother plant.    Gln (400 mg/L) significantly enhanced the number of both  Gln (400 mg/L) significantly enhanced the number of both    primary (1680, 1850) and secondary (3597, 3270) somatic  primary (1680, 1850) and secondary (3597, 3270) somatic    embryos per culture from Grand Naine and Rasthali  embryos per culture from Grand Naine and Rasthali  Musa spp. Pro: 100, 200, 300, 400 mg/L cultivars, respectively.  Musa spp.Pro: 100, 200, 300, 400 mg/Lcultivars, respectively. ISSR (Cultivars Grand Naine and Gln: 100, 200, 300, 400 mg/L All 10 ISSR primers generated a total of 1534 and [94] ISSR(Cultivars Grand Naine andGln: 100, 200, 300, 400 mg/LAll 10 ISSR primers generated a total of 1534 and[94]  Rasthali) Asn: 50, 100, 150, 200 mg/L 1488 bands ranging from 200 bp to 2500 bp in size in  Rasthali)Asn: 50, 100, 150, 200 mg/L1488 bands ranging from 200 bp to 2500 bp in size in    Grand Naine and Rasthali cultivars, respectively, giving  Grand Naine and Rasthali cultivars, respectively, giving    rise to only monomorphic bands across all the tested  rise to only monomorphic bands across all the tested    plants in both cultivars.  plants in both cultivars.   ME: 100 mg/L   ME: 100 mg/L  Musa AAB cultivar Chenichampa YE: 100 mg/L CH: 50, 100, 150 mg/L   Musa AAB cultivar ChenichampaYE: 100 mg/L CH: 50, 100, 150 mg/L   Gln: 50, 100, 150 mg/L   Gln: 50, 100, 150 mg/L SSR     SSR  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Cont.     Molecular Marker Species Organic Growth Additives Main Results References Molecular MarkerSpeciesOrganic Growth AdditivesMain ResultsReferences    The supplementation of 10% CW resulted in the maximum  The supplementation of 10% CW resulted in the maximum    response with regard to shoot and root numbers and  response with regard to shoot and root numbers and    lengths (13 cm, 19.6 cm, 6 cm, and 7.5 cm, respectively).  lengths (13 cm, 19.6 cm, 6 cm, and 7.5 cm, respectively).  Valeriana jatamansi CW: 10% Out of the 35 RAPD and 10 ISSR primers analyzed, only [96] Valeriana jatamansiCW: 10%Out of the 35 RAPD and 10 ISSR primers analyzed, only[96]    10 RAPD and 5 ISSR primers produced a total of 32 and  10 RAPD and 5 ISSR primers produced a total of 32 and    12 similar banding patterns between the in vitro raised  12 similar banding patterns between the in vitro raised    plantlets and the mother plant, respectively.  plantlets and the mother plant, respectively.    MS medium supplemented with 10% CW resulted in the  MS medium supplemented with 10% CW resulted in the    highest regeneration response (97%), number of shoot  highest regeneration response (97%), number of shoot  Ranunculus wallichianus CW: 10% formations (11.1 shoots/culture), and shoot length (9.2 cm). In total, 9 RAPD and 8 ISSR primers produced 56 and [97] Ranunculus wallichianusCW: 10%formations (11.1 shoots/culture), and shoot length (9.2 cm). In total, 9 RAPD and 8 ISSR primers produced 56 and[97]    47 bands with an average of 6 and 5 bands per primer ranging  47 bands with an average of 6 and 5 bands per primer ranging    from 200 to 1500 bp and 200 to 1000 bp in size, respectively.  from 200 to 1500 bp and 200 to 1000 bp in size, respectively.    Spd (10 mg/L) increased shoot induction response (93%),  Spd (10 mg/L) increased shoot induction response (93%),    shoot number (46.43 shoots per explant), and shoot  shoot number (46.43 shoots per explant), and shoot  Citrullus lanatus Spd: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 mg/L Spm: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 mg/L PU: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 mg/L elongation (6.3 cm). PU (10 mg/L) showed the highest In total, 9 RAPD and 17 SCoT primers produced 41 and rooting percentage (95%) with the production of 23.03 roots per shoot measuring 4.32 cm in length [98] Citrullus lanatusSpd: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 mg/L Spm: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 mg/L PU: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 mg/Lelongation (6.3 cm). PU (10 mg/L) showed the highest In total, 9 RAPD and 17 SCoT primers produced 41 and rooting percentage (95%) with the production of 23.03 roots per shoot measuring 4.32 cm in length[98] RAPD and SCoT   47 monomorphic fragments in the size range of 200-1800 and 300 to 2000 bp, respectively.  RAPD and SCoT47 monomorphic fragments in the size range of 200-1800 and 300 to 2000 bp, respectively.    The highest multiple shoots number (65.1 shoots/explant)  The highest multiple shoots number (65.1 shoots/explant)  Pisum sativum Spd: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 mg/L Spm: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 mg/L PU: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 mg/L was attained with 20 mg/L SPD while 30 mg/L PU 38 monomorphic fragments with the ranges of produced the highest number of roots (33.66 roots/shoot). In total, 9 RAPD and 17 SCoT primers produced 34 and [99] Pisum sativumSpd: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 mg/L Spm: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 mg/L PU: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 mg/Lwas attained with 20 mg/L SPD while 30 mg/L PU 38 monomorphic fragments with the ranges of produced the highest number of roots (33.66 roots/shoot). In total, 9 RAPD and 17 SCoT primers produced 34 and[99]    400 to 600 and 100 to 500 bp, respectively.  400 to 600 and 100 to 500 bp, respectively.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Cont.     Molecular Marker Species Organic Growth Additives Main Results References Molecular MarkerSpeciesOrganic Growth AdditivesMain ResultsReferences    Gln (50 mg/L) produced the highest shoot number  Gln (50 mg/L) produced the highest shoot number    (21.3, 16.9) from both cotyledonary node and axillary node  (21.3, 16.9) from both cotyledonary node and axillary node    explants, respectively.  explants, respectively.    In total, 5 ISSR primers (out of 10), produced  In total, 5 ISSR primers (out of 10), produced    27 reproducible bands with 5.4 bands per primer varying  27 reproducible bands with 5.4 bands per primer varying ISSR and SCoT Helicteres isora Gln: 25, 50, 75, 100 mg/L SC: 10, 20, 30, 40 mg/L in size from 0.3 to 2.2 kb. Out of the 17 SCoT primers tried, 13 produced  ISSR and SCoTHelicteres isoraGln: 25, 50, 75, 100 mg/L SC: 10, 20, 30, 40 mg/Lin size from 0.3 to 2.2 kb. Out of the 17 SCoT primers tried, 13 produced    63 monomorphic bands with 4.8 bands per primer  63 monomorphic bands with 4.8 bands per primer    ranging in size from 0.3 to 3 kb.  ranging in size from 0.3 to 3 kb.    In both ISSR and SCoT techniques, all the resolved bands  In both ISSR and SCoT techniques, all the resolved bands    were monomorphic to all in vitro regenerated plants as  were monomorphic to all in vitro regenerated plants as    well as their in vivo-based mother plant.  well as their in vivo-based mother plant.  "}],"sieverID":"2dba5172-9bb0-43c7-9a3e-b1d3882b6c16","abstract":"The growing demand for native planting material in ecological restoration and rehabilitation for agro-silvo-pastoral ecosystems has resulted in a major global industry in their sourcing, multiplication, and sale. Plant tissue culture is used for producing high-quality, disease-free, and true-to-type plants at a fast rate. Micropropagation can help to meet the increasing demand for planting material and afforestation programs. However, in vitro plant propagation is an expensive technique compared to conventional methods using suckers, seeds, and cuttings. Therefore, adopting measures to lower production costs without compromising plant quality is essential. This can be achieved by improving the culture media composition. Incorporating organic growth additives can stimulate tissue growth and increase the number of shoots, leaves, and roots in culture media. Organic growth supplementation speeds up the formation and development of cultures and yields vigorous plants. Plant regeneration from meristems (shoot tips and axillary buds) is a reliable way to produce true-to-type plants compared with callus and somatic embryogenesis regeneration, but in vitro culture environments can be mutagenic. Therefore, detecting somaclonal variations at an early stage of development is considered crucial in propagating plants. The genetic stability of in vitro regenerated plants needs to be ascertained by using DNA-based molecular markers. This review aims to provide up-to-date research progress on incorporating organic growth additives to enhance in vitro tissue culture protocols and to emphasize the importance of using PCR-based molecular markers such as RAPD, ISSR, SSR, and SCoT. The review was assessed based on the peer-reviewed works published in scientific databases including Science Direct, Scopus, Springer, JSTOR, onlinelibrary, and Google Scholar."}

data/part_1/04df9951151b965b867030fa6c946dc6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04df9951151b965b867030fa6c946dc6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fe5b9e27-c810-40a8-9bc8-a59ae609a6c4/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"CSVs as platforms for climate-resilient agriculture technologies and practices","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"CSA/CRA refers to environment friendly and sustainable agricultural practices that takes climate change and variability into consideration. Scaling-out CSA/CRA involves building adaptive models that provide practical guidance and serve as focal points for communities, organizations, and governments in the local level. CSA/CRA considerations should be included in local government plans. Projects must demonstrate impact and uptake at scale if local governments are to take notice. The new interest and investments are our best opportunity to deliver on our promises to end hunger, reduce poverty, and achieve the sustainable development goals."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"The key objectives of CSA/CRA include:"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Increase agriculture productivity and income in a sustainable, environmentally sound manner;"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• Build the capacity of households and food systems to adapt to climate change;"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• Ensure food safety and security while protecting lives and livelihoods; and"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• Promote low emission development (reduced green house gas emission and enhanced carbon capture)."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"To ensure lasting results, it is not enough to limit our work that address climate change impact on agriculture. We also need to address poverty and reduce climate vulnerabilities through the use of multiple benefit approaches (e.g. diversified farms, alternative livelihoods, and micro enterprises)."},{"index":8,"size":62,"text":"research is undertaken to learn how to adapt to climate change while reducing green house gas emission from agriculture. CSVs promote low emission development options and serve as focal point for developing such solutions. CSV serve as lighthouses for learning, providing an evidence base for similar location and context-specific adaptation efforts. Local and National Adaptation Planning efforts can benefit from such efforts."}]},{"head":"Examples of key CRA interventions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Knowledge Smart "}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Local adaptation platforms help empower sub-national and local government players, civil society organizations, and public-private partnerships in demonstrating the validity of agro-ecology-specifi c solutions to current and future climate change impacts. Such adaptation platforms are invariably diverse in their portfolio addressing multiple needs and purposes. Development-oriented CSVs feature scaling, social inclusiveness, and sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"CSVs serve as centers for discovery, adaptation, learning, and sharing. They serve as basis for documentation and fi eld level advocacy. Adaptation research, which is a basic element of a CSV, helps build and nurture local capacities at diff erent levels. Local communities of practice are encouraged to continue to innovate, experiment, and adapt (incrementally or step by step). Communities that have had a successful community-level adaptation management experience are likely to adapt better to future changes. In a CSV, we ultimately need to ask ourselves whose needs are being addressed. Achieving outcomes such as reduced poverty, enhanced resilience, improved livelihoods, and better nutrition should be the primary considerations. After all, CSVs are not about doing business as usual! CSVs feature ways of achieving both scale and sustainability in a socially inclusive manner."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Climate-Smart Village/Farm Weather Smart  help develop solutions to anticipated future impacts  help develop solutions to anticipated future impacts of climate change. No regret options are developed in CSVs consider not only the farms but the of climate change. No regret options are developed inCSVs consider not only the farms but the anticipation of climate change. landscapes as well anticipation of climate change.landscapes as well The objectives of any country's National Adaptation The CSV approach is a collaborative effort designed to but which compromise the coping capacities of CSA/CRA is usually best undertaken across The objectives of any country's National Adaptation The CSV approach is a collaborative effort designed tobut which compromise the coping capacities of CSA/CRA is usually best undertaken across Plan are to reduce the impacts of climate change by test and identify appropriate interventions, communities (in the long run). landscapes because ecosystems are interconnected. Plan are to reduce the impacts of climate change by test and identify appropriate interventions,communities (in the long run). landscapes because ecosystems are interconnected. building adaptive capacities and to facilitate the integration of climate change adaptation in a coherent manner into relevant policies and programmes and activities (UNFCC, 2012). Climate change can lead to a loss of assets, result in reduced income flows, and affect livelihoods and food security. There is a need for no regrets climate adaptation work (promoting climate resilience in agriculture in order to build innovations, and policies which are not only technically appropriate but also gender-and socially-sensitive. In CSVs, rural communities partner with local governments, national programs, and international research and development organizations to develop villages as models for local research and development. They provide platforms for multi-stakeholder participation and collaborative work in targeted, This can be referred to as mal-adaptation. National Adaptation Plans reduce vulnerability to climate change, help build capacities, and promote resilience. At local levels, CSVs (or other local adaptation platforms) can help serve as crucible for testing and developing solutions relevant to National Adaptation Plans. They facilitate climate change adaptation into By conserving and improving forest and water resources, nutrient flows to farms on lower slopes are likewise enhanced. Landscapes are useful organizing frameworks for operationalizing climate-smart/ resilient agriculture on the ground. Landscape approaches help us better understand the multi-functionality of agriculture and links to forests, water, and other natural resources. Climate, Environment, and Ecosystem elements interact with farms and building adaptive capacities and to facilitate the integration of climate change adaptation in a coherent manner into relevant policies and programmes and activities (UNFCC, 2012). Climate change can lead to a loss of assets, result in reduced income flows, and affect livelihoods and food security. There is a need for no regrets climate adaptation work (promoting climate resilience in agriculture in order to build innovations, and policies which are not only technically appropriate but also gender-and socially-sensitive. In CSVs, rural communities partner with local governments, national programs, and international research and development organizations to develop villages as models for local research and development. They provide platforms for multi-stakeholder participation and collaborative work in targeted,This can be referred to as mal-adaptation. National Adaptation Plans reduce vulnerability to climate change, help build capacities, and promote resilience. At local levels, CSVs (or other local adaptation platforms) can help serve as crucible for testing and developing solutions relevant to National Adaptation Plans. They facilitate climate change adaptation into By conserving and improving forest and water resources, nutrient flows to farms on lower slopes are likewise enhanced. Landscapes are useful organizing frameworks for operationalizing climate-smart/ resilient agriculture on the ground. Landscape approaches help us better understand the multi-functionality of agriculture and links to forests, water, and other natural resources. Climate, Environment, and Ecosystem elements interact with farms and capacities to cope with climate impacts even if the clearly delineated geographic areas (\"territories\" or local programs and plans. Climate change adaptation local communities in a small landscape or micro- capacities to cope with climate impacts even if the clearly delineated geographic areas (\"territories\" orlocal programs and plans. Climate change adaptation local communities in a small landscape or micro- worst fears do not materialize). There are risks in \"small landscapes\"). process and approaches are developed in these watershed setting. These natural resource boundaries worst fears do not materialize). There are risks in \"small landscapes\").process and approaches are developed in these watershed setting. These natural resource boundaries promoting measures that deliver on short term gains, community-based platforms. are important because of the ecosystem influences promoting measures that deliver on short term gains,community-based platforms. are important because of the ecosystem influences CSVs are \"lighthouses\" where communities strengthen on climate adaptation and resilience building CSVs are \"lighthouses\" where communities strengthenon climate adaptation and resilience building existing farming systems and enrich them with CSA objectives of a CSVs. existing farming systems and enrich them with CSAobjectives of a CSVs. practices and technologies. Climate resilience thinking  practices and technologies. Climate resilience thinking is already noted in communities as demonstrated by  is already noted in communities as demonstrated by farmers The approach rides and builds on mcurrent  farmers The approach rides and builds on mcurrent systems, enhancing diversification, nutrient cycling,  systems, enhancing diversification, nutrient cycling, food safety, and market linkages.  food safety, and market linkages. CSVs feature incremental development and adaptation CSVs feature incremental development and adaptation approaches  approaches Collective action on a wider scale is usually necessary Building resilient smallholder farms and communities testing of shortlisted options (derived from on-station Collective action on a wider scale is usually necessaryBuilding resilient smallholder farms and communities testing of shortlisted options (derived from on-station for successful local adaptation programs (e.g., no entails understanding the complexities that contribute research, local indigenous and technical knowledge, for successful local adaptation programs (e.g., noentails understanding the complexities that contribute research, local indigenous and technical knowledge, burning of rice straw campaign, watershed to vulnerabilities and risks; and developing multiple etc.). This eventually leads to the prioritization of best burning of rice straw campaign, watershedto vulnerabilities and risks; and developing multiple etc.). This eventually leads to the prioritization of best rehabilitation, etc.). The interface between forestry scales and levels of strategies that all contribute to options for particular geographic areas. CSVs also help rehabilitation, etc.). The interface between forestryscales and levels of strategies that all contribute to options for particular geographic areas. CSVs also help Water and Soil Smart multidisciplinary and convergence approaches. Carbon Smart and agriculture is blurred in such approaches requiring Nutrient & Pest Smart nutrition and livelihood insecurities. Energy Smart addressing the multi-dimensional challenges of food, generate methodological innovations. Water and Soil Smart multidisciplinary and convergence approaches. Carbon Smart and agriculture is blurred in such approaches requiringNutrient & Pest Smart nutrition and livelihood insecurities. Energy Smart addressing the multi-dimensional challenges of food, generate methodological innovations. • Seasonal weather forecast • Information and Communications Groups processes are involved. Learning methods • Aquifer recharge • Rainwater harvesting farm ponds • Agroforestry enhancement • Conservation tillage • Land use systems recognize that farmers and local communities have limited time for a series of structured courses. Instead, • Farmer-to-farmer learning • Farmer networks on adaptation Though CSVs are focal points for action research (or • Site-specific nutrient management • Precision fertilizers • Biofuels • Fuel efficient lighthouses for learning and sharing), they should not engines • Residue remain as islands of innovations. Wider adoption of • Seasonal weather forecast • Information and Communications Groups processes are involved. Learning methods • Aquifer recharge • Rainwater harvesting farm ponds • Agroforestry enhancement • Conservation tillage • Land use systems recognize that farmers and local communities have limited time for a series of structured courses. Instead,• Farmer-to-farmer learning • Farmer networks on adaptation Though CSVs are focal points for action research (or • Site-specific nutrient management • Precision fertilizers • Biofuels • Fuel efficient lighthouses for learning and sharing), they should not engines • Residue remain as islands of innovations. Wider adoption of Technology (ICT)-based agro-advisories • Climate analogues experiential learning and sharing is featured. With a • Community management of water • On-farm water Management • Natural vegetative strips • Residue management • Livestock management • Reintroduction of native breeds of livestock under better feeding regimes • Alternate wetting and drying • Multi-storied cropping deepening engagement, more sophisticated methods Individual action is not enough to cope with climate change. CSVs provide venues where different stakeholders collectively participate in the program/ project planning and implementation. Here, they can generate practical adaptation and mitigation options to improve their food security, nutrition, and climate resilience. Concerted actions in the CSVs operate at the community level and its surrounding landscape. of learning might be considered. CSVs at local levels (villages and municipalities) are ideal locations for harmonising and converging agricultural and natural resource management and governance inputs. Using participatory land use related risk. develop local adaptation plans to address climate-planning approaches, communities can be assisted to technologies • Seed and fodder banks • Market info • Off-farm risk management kitchen garden • Learning groups innovations needs to be ensured. They should \"not • Catch cropping/ legumes • Biodiverse farms • Intra species and inter species diversity management/ biochar [be] a showcase but a pattern\". The integrity of the • Minimum tillage • Boundary planting of multi-purpose trees CSV as a unit for action research should not be CSVs are primarily focal points for deriving or/and compromised. Otherwise, its emphasis on generating testing location-specific adaptation options in local evidence is lost. It is important for the CSV agriculture, livestock, aquaculture, and in allied natural proponent to clarify the role and purpose of doing resource management sectors (agroforestry, agro-CSVs and specify their intended scope and scale of biodiversity, community forestry, etc). Multiple CSV application. The question of scale must be understood sites represent different agroecologies, climate risks, extrapolation, climate analogue research, etc. CSVs etc. This diversity in context is useful for comparison, in the context of what is driving the need for a CSV. Technology (ICT)-based agro-advisories • Climate analogues experiential learning and sharing is featured. With a • Community management of water • On-farm water Management • Natural vegetative strips • Residue management • Livestock management • Reintroduction of native breeds of livestock under better feeding regimes • Alternate wetting and drying • Multi-storied cropping deepening engagement, more sophisticated methods Individual action is not enough to cope with climate change. CSVs provide venues where different stakeholders collectively participate in the program/ project planning and implementation. Here, they can generate practical adaptation and mitigation options to improve their food security, nutrition, and climate resilience. Concerted actions in the CSVs operate at the community level and its surrounding landscape. of learning might be considered. CSVs at local levels (villages and municipalities) are ideal locations for harmonising and converging agricultural and natural resource management and governance inputs. Using participatory land use related risk. develop local adaptation plans to address climate-planning approaches, communities can be assisted totechnologies • Seed and fodder banks • Market info • Off-farm risk management kitchen garden • Learning groups innovations needs to be ensured. They should \"not • Catch cropping/ legumes • Biodiverse farms • Intra species and inter species diversity management/ biochar [be] a showcase but a pattern\". The integrity of the • Minimum tillage • Boundary planting of multi-purpose trees CSV as a unit for action research should not be CSVs are primarily focal points for deriving or/and compromised. Otherwise, its emphasis on generating testing location-specific adaptation options in local evidence is lost. It is important for the CSV agriculture, livestock, aquaculture, and in allied natural proponent to clarify the role and purpose of doing resource management sectors (agroforestry, agro-CSVs and specify their intended scope and scale of biodiversity, community forestry, etc). Multiple CSV application. The question of scale must be understood sites represent different agroecologies, climate risks, extrapolation, climate analogue research, etc. CSVs etc. This diversity in context is useful for comparison, in the context of what is driving the need for a CSV. CSVs are unique in that they provide space for the  CSVs are unique in that they provide space for the  "}],"sieverID":"9f084bca-c818-4506-ac81-0022eb6f89b7","abstract":"Adaptation is often considered a high priority and a primary consideration for policy makers and planners because of the current and projected impacts of climate change on agriculture and natural resources. Communities that lack the capacity to respond to climate variability are at great risk. The impacts of climate change on agriculture include the loss of agrobiodiversity, soil degradation, reduction in crop, fi sh, and livestock productivity, water shortages, reduction of nutritional quality of foods, and possible increases in destructive pests and diseases. With a large population reliant on farming, it is important to fi nd ways of building resilience to climate change. Fostering local adaptation platforms for agriculture: How context specifi c climate-smart villages (CSVs) can relate to local adaptation efforts Adapting to climate change requires adjusting agricultural practices to meet changing and more difficult environmental conditions. Traditional and newly introduced practices can help farmers cope with current variability and future climate risks. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)/Climate Resilient Agriculture (CRA) is one way of helping farmers prepare for the future.Climate change affects different communities in diff erent ways. Adaptation eff orts must therefore be localized and context-specifi c. Various studies have already shown that smallholder farmers are most vulnerable to adverse impacts of climate change. Interventions that support them in building their resilience are not only necessary but urgent.Building the resilience of smallholder farming and fishing communities requires interventions that provide them greater access to a portfolio of technologies, information, support services, market linkage, and fi nance/credit. These would enable them to adjust, modify, or change their current production systems and practices in an environmentally friendly way. This process is community-based adaptation. Climate smart villages (CSV) are platforms that nurture adaptation efforts and build local adaptation capacities. CSVs are geographic locations where action Climate Resilience in Agriculture: How context-specifi c climate-smart villages (CSVs) could help Climate change is expected to adversely aff ect lives, livelihoods, nutrition, and food security in the future. If we start NOW, we can do a lot to reduce the impacts of climate change, build resilience in our food systems, ensure food safety, reduce risks and vulnerabilities of farming communities, and protect agriculture and smallholder farmers."}

data/part_1/0526ecac741ab52814b5bbf41804ca43.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0526ecac741ab52814b5bbf41804ca43","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/58093b1d-367a-487e-a731-f55f9e092964/retrieve"},"pageCount":50,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Bottom line 100 billion 25 billion +++","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"A business case for One Health"}]},{"head":"Disease impacts","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Disease impacts","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Disease impacts","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Disease impacts   Better lives through livestock ilri.org"}]},{"head":"Prevalence and control","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Priority List Diseases","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Roth et al. 2003, Bulletin WHO'Combining the total societal benefits, the intervention in the animal sector saves cost, provides the economic argument and thus opens new approaches for the control of zoonoses in developing countries through cost contributions from multiple sectors.' "},{"text":" compare to other estimates? "},{"text":" Unlimited wants in a world of limited resources  Vital few and trivial many: Pareto principle  The multiple burdens of animal disease  What cannot be measured, cannot be managed  Foreseen is forearmed Ways Forward  An Africa list of \"neglected animal diseases\"?  More detailed disease impact studies?  Sharing & harmonisation of contingency plans?  Pilot novel ways to improve reporting?  A One Health system for monitoring animal use of antimicrobials? Norms for informal food markets? Conclusion  Good progress has been made on disease control, priority lists, contingency plans, and vaccination  SVS have broad-based, equitable, development-oriented approach to disease control  But diseases have multiple, heavy burdens and trends are upwards  While new and important threats emerge (climate sensitive disease, EIDs, FBD and AMR)  And limited quantification of impacts may chill investment in disease control Therefore improved reporting, more information, stronger engagement, and deeper co-operation, is needed to tackle neglected animal disease in Africa. The presentation has a Creative Commons licence. You are free to re-use or distribute this work, provided credit is given to ILRI. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"challenge Bovine brucellosis Predicted cases annual Bovine brucellosis Cases reported 2010   Bovine    Bovine  brucellosis according to Million USD Value sector brucellosis according toMillion USD Value sector WLDA 440 surveys $39 0.03% WLDA440 surveys$390.03% SVS estimate $9,000 6% SVS estimate$9,0006% Literature BMGF $30,000 $35,000 21% or control Bovine brucellosis Only death reported 2008-2012 Literature BMGF$30,000 $35,00021%or control Bovine brucellosis Only death reported 2008-2012  2/3 from death   2/3 from death  1/3 production East Africa  Million USD Value sector 21,104,976 12 1/3 production East AfricaMillion USD Value sector 21,104,976 12   West Africa Australia 30,646,060 979 37 16% West AfricaAustralia 30,646,0609793716%   UK South Africa North Africa 8,492,555 7,952,853 1,178 6305 8% 1073 41 UK South Africa North Africa8,492,555 7,952,8531,1786305 8% 107341  "}],"sieverID":"5bda3a37-f9c7-4a25-8742-1412e12a8d41","abstract":""}

data/part_1/06163c3bc0046b9b506a8b4a6fad01f0.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06163c3bc0046b9b506a8b4a6fad01f0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f76a0976-5506-4f23-8c20-c48a7d8501dc/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"STATEMENT OF THE BOARD CHAIR","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31 ST , 2008   The Board of Trustees of the Africa Rice Center is pleased with the continued improvement in the financial health and stability of the Center during the financial year ended on 31 st December, 2008 in spite of challenges posed by some unexpected reductions in unrestricted funding and the continued weakening of the US dollar during the course of the year. The Board wishes to commend Management for the sound and prudent manner in which it has managed the center resources in accordance with Board approved program of work and budget."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Total core revenue during the year increased by US$ 2.43 million to US$13.11 million, up from US$10.68 million in 2007. The net expenditure also increased by US$ 690,000 to US$11.21 million up from US$10.52 million in 2007. This resulted in a surplus of US$ 1,9 million and increased the Center's net assets. The Center's operating reserves increased from US$4.07 million at end of 2007 to US$5.97 million at end of 2008. This significant increase was mainly due to the recognition of receipts of past member states contributions in 2008."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"The Center's liquidity and reserve levels have risen to 181 days, up from 114 days in 2007, making it the third consecutive year that this financial indicator is above CGIAR recommended level."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"The Board approved a risk management statement at its 26 th session in March, 2006 and continues to monitor and manage identified risks having regard to their likely impact and probability of occurrence. The Board in close consultation with the Director General sets the risk appetite of the center."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"The Board recognizes its fiduciary responsibility for the financial statements of the center as well as in setting overall strategy for the center and following up on its implementation in accordance with agreed policies, time lines and output/ outcomes."},{"index":6,"size":115,"text":"On behalf of the Board of Trustees, I would like to thank management and staff for their dedication and commitment in continuing the provision of Corporate Services to IITA and Bioversity International during the year, with a possibility of other CG centers which may be setting up their activities in our Cotonou Research Station in the near future. I would like also to put on record our sincere appreciation to our Member States, donors, collaborating national and international institutions and the CGIAR partners for their continued support and cooperation towards meeting the mission of the Center, which is aimed at alleviating poverty and enhancing income of resource-poor farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. farmers in sub-Saharan Africa."}]},{"head":"Getachew Engida Chairman, Board of Trustees","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"BOARD STATEMENT ON RISK MANAGEMENT YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31 ST , 2008","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"The Board of Trustees of WARDA has responsibility for ensuring that an appropriate strategy is in place for centre-wide risk management. in order to ensure the achievement of the Centre's research objectives, and to ensure alignment with CGIAR principles and guidelines. These risks include operational, financial and reputational that are inherent in the nature, modus operandi and locations of the Centre's activities. They are dynamic owing to the environment in which the Centre operates. There is potential for negative impact arising from inadequate or failed internal processes or systems, human factors or external events."}]},{"head":"Risks include:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"• low impact science (and therefore irrelevance); The Board has adopted a risk management policy -communicated to all staff -that includes a framework by which the Centre's management identifies, evaluates and prioritises risks and opportunities across the organization; develops risk mitigation strategies which balance benefits with costs; monitors the implementation of these strategies; and periodically reports to the Board on results. This process draws upon risk assessments and analysis prepared by staff of the Centre's business unit, internal auditors, Centre-commissioned external reviewers and the external auditor."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"The risk assessments also incorporate the results of collaborative risk assessments with other CGIAR Centres, System Office components, and other entities in relation to shared risks arising from jointly managed activities. The risk management framework seeks to draw upon best practices, as promoted in codes and standards promulgated in a number of CGIAR member countries. It is subject to ongoing review as part of the Centre's continuous improvement efforts."},{"index":3,"size":152,"text":"Risk mitigation strategies include the implementation of systems of internal controls, which, by their nature, are designed to manage rather than eliminate risk. The Centre endeavours to manage risk by ensuring that the appropriate infrastructure, controls, systems and people are in place throughout the organization. Key practices employed in managing risks and opportunities include business environmental scans, clear policies and accountabilities, transaction approval frameworks, financial and management reporting, and the monitoring of metrics designed to highlight positive or negative performance of individuals and business processes across a broad range of key performance areas. The design and effectiveness of the risk management system and internal controls is subject to coordination through a Risk Management committee and ongoing review by the Centre's internal audit service, which is independent of the business units, and which reports on the results of its audits directly to the Director General and to the Board through its Audit Committee."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"The WARDA Board and management have reviewed the implementation of the risk management process during 2008 and the Board is satisfied with the progress made."}]},{"head":"Getachew Engida","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Chairman, Board of Trustees In accordance with the requirement of Financial Guideline Number 2, the undersigned certify that:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"(i) the financial records of Africa Rice Center have been properly maintained;"},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"(ii) the financial statements, together with the explanatory notes thereto, comply in full with the provisions of the manual; and that (iii) the financial statements and the notes thereto give a true and fair view of the financial position, financial performance and cash flows of Africa Rice Center."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Aguibou D. "}]},{"head":"REPORT OF THE INDEPENDENT AUDITORS TO THE TRUSTEES OF AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA) Report on the Financial Statements","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"We have audited the accompanying financial statements of Africa Rice Center (WARDA), which comprise the Statement of Financial Position as at December 31, 2008, the Statement of Activities and Statement of Cash flows for the year then ended, and a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory notes."}]},{"head":"Management's Responsibility for the Financial Statements","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The management is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of these financial statements in accordance with policies and practices prescribed for International research center seeking assistance from Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) as described on page 4."}]},{"head":"Auditor's Responsibilities","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audit. We conducted our audit in accordance with International Standards on Auditing. Those standards require that we comply with ethical requirements, and plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"An audit involves performing procedures to obtain audit evidence about the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. The procedures selected depend on the auditor's judgment, including the assessment of the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to fraud or error. In making those risk assessments, the auditor considers internal control relevant to the entity's preparation and fair presentation of the financial statements in order to design audit procedures that are appropriate in the circumstances, but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the entity's internal control. An audit also includes evaluating the appropriateness of accounting policies used and the reasonableness of accounting estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"We believe that the audit evidence we have obtained is sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for our audit opinion."}]},{"head":"Opinion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"In our opinion, the financial statements give a true and fair view of the financial position of Africa Rice Center (WARDA) as at December 31, 2008, and of its surplus and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with CGIAR Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices Manual. WARDA receives funds and assistance from the CGIAR which comprises international and regional organizations, also from its Member States and International aid Agencies. "}]},{"head":"Lagos, Nigeria","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Since","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT ACCOUNTING POLICIES","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The accounts are prepared under the historical cost convention. The significant accounting policies, which have been applied consistently with the previous year, are set out below."}]},{"head":"(i) Basis of Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The Financial Statements are prepared and presented in accordance with the recommendations made in the CGIAR Financial Guidelines Series N°2: Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices Manual (March 2004-updated in February 2006) which are in conformity with International Accounting Standards (IAS) for not-for-profit organizations."}]},{"head":"(ii) Revenue Recognition","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The Financial statements of WARDA are presented using the accrual basis of accounting. Contributions from Member States in support of operational budget of WARDA are recognized as revenue in the fiscal year following the one in which the contributions are received."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"All grants whether restricted or unrestricted, are recognized as revenue upon fulfillment of the donor-imposed conditions, or the donor has explicitly waived the conditions."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"They are classified according to the type of donor-imposed restriction."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"* Unrestricted grants are funds made available to WARDA to meet normal operating costs or whatever other purpose WARDA may deem fit."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"* Restricted grants, which may be pledged for more than one year, are funds that are used to finance and support specific projects identified and agreed upon by their donors and WARDA -such projects may include fixed assets acquisitions and replacement funds as well as research and training activities, and are recognized as revenue only to the extent that related expenses have been incurred. They are labeled as permanently or temporarily restricted."}]},{"head":"(iii) Foreign Currency Transactions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Since the unit of account for WARDA is the US dollar, WARDA accounts are maintained in US dollars. Local currency of various Member States, and other countries in which WARDA operates are recorded in the books of WARDA at the rate of exchange prevailing on the dates of the transactions."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Pledges in currencies other than in US dollars are recorded at the exchange rates prevailing at the time of receipt or, if outstanding, at the rate of exchange prevailing at the year-end."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Monetary assets and liabilities in currencies other than the US dollars are restated at market rates of exchange prevailing at the year-end. Differences in exchange are accounted for in the statement of activities."}]},{"head":"(iv) Property, Plant, Equipment and Depreciation","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The introduction of revised CGIAR accounting Financial Guidelines No.2 effective from year 2004 and updated in February 2006 has resulted in a change in the treatment of Fixed Assets acquired through restricted project funds. The depreciation rates for all such purchases have been revised to 100% during the year of purchase in line with these guidelines."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Likewise, the treatment of Fixed Assets intended to revert to Host Countries in the event that WARDA ceases operations in that country have been revised. The assets constructed or purchased effective January 1 st , 2005 are now capitalized in accordance with the new guidelines."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"The annual depreciation rates are as follows:"}]},{"head":"Rates","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Land, buildings and installations* 1.67% "}]},{"head":"(v) Accrued Relocation Allowance","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"A provision is made to meet the terminal relocation allowance in accordance with the contracted amount for each international staff member. This provision takes into account a new Board approved policy that no allowance is payable before one full year of service, and is further prorated for the period between one and two years of service before attaining the full sum contracted."}]},{"head":"(vi) Inventories","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Inventories of materials and supplies are stated at the lower of acquisition cost or net realizable values. Acquisition cost is determined using the moving average method."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Materials in transit are stated at invoice cost."}]},{"head":"Tax sTaTus","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"In accordance with the agreements between WARDA and the Ivorian and Benin governments signed on September 26, 1989 and December 14, 2004 respectively, WARDA, its assets, income and any other property are exempted from any form of direct taxation in Côte d'Ivoire and Benin. WARDA may be reimbursed on its request value added tax on construction work for buildings, supplies and services used exclusively for official purposes, except for tax on services in the case of Benin. WARDA and its staff are not required to contribute to the social security plan of Côte d'Ivoire although in practice a certain number of staff are affiliated to the Social Security organization in Côte d'Ivoire. Certain WARDA staff are exempt from all taxes on salaries and benefits for their activities at WARDA."}]},{"head":"GranTs in-kind","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The financial statements do not include grants in-kind, but these are disclosed in as detailed below:"}]},{"head":"Seconded personnel","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The following countries and institutions provided support in the form of seconded scientific personnel to WARDA during the year. The costs were borne by the donors based on a fair valuation of the services provided by these personnel as shown below, whilst WARDA provided the necessary operational services and utilities. "}]},{"head":"indirecT cosT recovery","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The pooling of direct and indirect costs is based on the principle of attribution and assignability. Expenditures that are common to the different cost centers are allocated on the basis of resource drivers. Non-operating and non-recurring expenditures are excluded in the computation."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"The method of calcultating the indirect cost recovery rate is based in accordance with the CGIAR Financial Guidelines No.5 (refer to Annex 4)."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"The indirect cost rates on restricted projects may vary depending on the rates agreed upon in the terms and conditions of the relevant agreements.   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" January 2005, following the political crisis in Côte d'Ivoire in September 2002 and again in November 2004, WARDA's Headquarters have now been temporarily relocated to the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) research station at Calavi, near Cotonou, Benin. "},{"text":" As a result of adjustments which followed a change of Accounting Policy on Capitalization of Land, Buildings and Installations in year 2000 as described in other notes, Buildings and Installations amounting to $12,029,892 were excluded from the Fixed Assets Register and treated as 'Assets in Custody' This policy has been discontinued with effect from 1st January,2004 following the implementation of the revised Financial Guideline No. 2. The buildings constructed in Cotonou,Republic of Benin since 2005 are being depreciated over a period of 5 years in line with the Management decision to stay in the host country ,Benin for a period of 5 years by which period it is anticipated that peace will have been re-established in Côte d'Ivoire. (b) The Fixed Asset additions financed from restricted funds during the year amounted to US$ 297,228 and US$ 327,569 in 2007 AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA) NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS -(Cont'd) "},{"text":"CGIAR GCRAI Africa Rice Center Centre du riz pour l'Afrique  Address / Adresse Telephone / Téléphone Fax / Télécopieur E-mail / Courriel électronique Web Site / Site Internet Address / AdresseTelephone / TéléphoneFax / TélécopieurE-mail / Courriel électroniqueWeb Site / Site Internet 01 B.P. 2031 (229) 21 35 01 88 (229) 21 35 05 56 [email protected] www.warda.org 01 B.P. 2031(229) 21 35 01 88(229) 21 35 05 [email protected] Cotonou     Cotonou Bénin     Bénin  "},{"text":"CGIAR GCRAI Africa Rice Center Centre du riz pour l'Afrique  Address / Adresse Telephone / Téléphone Fax / Télécopieur E-mail / Courriel électronique Web Site / Site Internet Address / AdresseTelephone / TéléphoneFax / TélécopieurE-mail / Courriel électroniqueWeb Site / Site Internet 01 B.P. 2031 (229) 21 35 01 88 (229) 21 35 05 56 [email protected] www.warda.org 01 B.P. 2031(229) 21 35 01 88(229) 21 35 05 [email protected] Cotonou     Cotonou Bénin     Bénin  "},{"text":"CERTIFICATE BY CENTER MANAGEMENT YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31 ST , 2008 We have prepared the accompanying financial statements of Africa Rice Center (WARDA) as of December 31 st , 2008. These financial statements are the responsibility of The Africa Rice Center Management, and have been duly presented to the Center's External Auditors, Ernst and Young for review. The Center's Management have worked closely with Internal and External Auditors to ensure that the financial statements are presented in compliance with the CGIAR manual, Financial Guideline Number 2.  "},{"text":"Tall Papa Abdoulaye Seck Director of Administration and Finance Director General CGIAR GCRAI Africa Rice Center Centre du riz pour l'Afrique  Address / Adresse Telephone / Téléphone Fax / Télécopieur E-mail / Courriel électronique Web Site / Site Internet Address / AdresseTelephone / TéléphoneFax / TélécopieurE-mail / Courriel électroniqueWeb Site / Site Internet 01 B.P. 2031 (229) 21 35 01 88 (229) 21 35 05 56 [email protected] www.warda.org 01 B.P. 2031(229) 21 35 01 88(229) 21 35 05 [email protected] Cotonou     Cotonou Bénin     Bénin  "},{"text":"WARDA) STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION AS AT DECEMBER 31, 2008  ASSETS Note Ernst & Young 2008 2A Bayo Kuku Road, Ikoyi Lagos US $ 2007 US $ ASSETSNoteErnst & Young 2008 2A Bayo Kuku Road, Ikoyi Lagos US $2007 US $ Current Assets  P.O. Box 22, Marina, Current AssetsP.O. Box 22, Marina, Cash and Cash Equivalent 3 Lagos, Nigeria 4,435,284 4,327,667 Cash and Cash Equivalent3Lagos, Nigeria 4,435,2844,327,667 Accounts Receivable:  Tel: +2 (0) 6 079-80 Accounts Receivable:Tel:+2 (0) 6 079-80 Donors 4 Fax: 4,016,102 +2 (0) 6 08 2,858,076 Donors4Fax: 4,016,102 +2 (0) 6 08 2,858,076 Employees 5  255,151 186,659 Employees5255,151186,659 Others 6  930,598 351,378 Others6930,598351,378 Inventories 14  437,780 435,825 Inventories14437,780435,825 Prepaid Expenses 7  255,673 172,258 Prepaid Expenses7255,673172,258 Total Current Assets  10,330,588 8,331,863 Total Current Assets10,330,5888,331,863 Property and Equipment    Property and Equipment Property and Equipment 8 8,231,407 8,053,504 Property and Equipment88,231,4078,053,504 Less:Accumulated Depreciation 8 (7,518,141) (7,056,849) Less:Accumulated Depreciation8(7,518,141)(7,056,849) Total Property and Equipment-Net  713,266 996,655 Total Property and Equipment-Net713,266996,655 TOTAL ASSETS  11,043,854 9,328,518 TOTAL ASSETS11,043,8549,328,518 LIABILITIES AND NET ASSETS    LIABILITIES AND NET ASSETS Current Liabilities    Current Liabilities Accounts Payable:    Accounts Payable: Donors 9 2,479,114 3,009,870 Donors92,479,1143,009,870 Employees 10(a)  306,699 190,745 Employees10(a)306,699190,745 Others 11  486,514 593,074 Others11486,514593,074 Employees Investment Account 10(b)  214,000 214,000 Employees Investment Account10(b)214,000214,000 Provisions and Accruals 12 1,590,273 1,248,600 Provisions and Accruals121,590,2731,248,600  "},{"text":"Total Current Liabilities 5,076,600 5,256,289 TOTAL LIABILITIES 5,076,600 5,256,289  Net Assets    Net Assets Unrestricted Net Assets:-    Unrestricted Net Assets:- Undesignated 13 5,253,988 3,075,574 Undesignated135,253,9883,075,574 Designated 13 713,266 996,655 Designated13713,266996,655  "},{"text":"TOTAL NET ASSETS 5,967,254 4,072,229 TOTAL LIABILITIES & NET ASSETS 11,043,854 9,328,518   "},{"text":"WARDA) STATEMENT OF ACTIVITIES AS AT DECEMBER 31, 2008  AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA) AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA)      AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA) AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA) STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN NET ASSETS STATEMENT OF CASHFLOWS    STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN NET ASSETS STATEMENT OF CASHFLOWS AS AT DECEMBER 31, 2008 AS AT DECEMBER 31, 2008      AS AT DECEMBER 31, 2008 AS AT DECEMBER 31, 2008  Unrestricted Restricted Undesignated Total Designated 1/ Total Total UnrestrictedRestricted UndesignatedTotal Designated 1/ TotalTotal UNRESTRICTED NET ASSETS  Temporarily Challenge US $ 2008 US $ US $ 2007 UNRESTRICTED NET ASSETSTemporarilyChallenge US $ 2008US $US $2007 Note CASHFLOWS PROVIDED (USED) IN OPERATING ACTIVITIES Restricted Balance as at January 1 2007  Programs US $ 3,964,344 2008 US $ 3,964,344 2007 Note CASHFLOWS PROVIDED (USED) IN OPERATING ACTIVITIES Restricted Balance as at January 1 2007Programs US $ 3,964,3442008US $ 3,964,344 2007 REVENUES, GAINS AND OTHER Change in Net Assets  US $ US $  1,895,024 US $ US $ 165,924 REVENUES, GAINS AND OTHER Change in Net AssetsUS $US $1,895,024US $US $ 165,924 SUPPORT Net Surplus(Deficit) for the year     165,924 165,924 SUPPORT Net Surplus(Deficit) for the year165,924165,924 15 Adjustments to Reconcile Change in Net Assets to Net Cash Provided 4,521,219 6,151,744 Net Gain and Losses not recongnised in Statement of (Used) by Operating Activities : 227,209 10,900,172 10,384,612 15 Adjustments to Reconcile Change in Net Assets to Net Cash Provided 4,521,219 6,151,744 Net Gain and Losses not recongnised in Statement of (Used) by Operating Activities :227,20910,900,17210,384,612 16(a) 16(b) Prior Period Adjustments 1,894,367 Prior Period Adjustments (a) Activities: Depreciation 17 314,835 Net Changes in Investment in Fixed Assets Gain on Disposal of Fixed Assets Decrease(Increase) in Assets   (58,038) (996,655) 1,894,367 597,144 314,835 (45,299) 996,655 39,476 (58,038) (58,038) 646,647 16,907 (30,064) 243,201 16(a) 16(b) Prior Period Adjustments 1,894,367 Prior Period Adjustments (a) Activities: Depreciation 17 314,835 Net Changes in Investment in Fixed Assets Gain on Disposal of Fixed Assets Decrease(Increase) in Assets(58,038) (996,655)1,894,367 597,144 314,835 (45,299) 996,65539,476 (58,038) (58,038) 646,647 16,907 (30,064) 243,201 Total Revenue,Gains and Other Support Balance as at December 31, 2007 Accounts Receivable: 6,730,421 Donors 6,151,744  227,209 3,075,574 (1,158,026) 13,109,374 996,655 10,684,196 4,072,230 290,652 Total Revenue,Gains and Other Support Balance as at December 31, 2007 Accounts Receivable:6,730,421 Donors6,151,744227,209 3,075,574 (1,158,026) 13,109,374 996,65510,684,196 4,072,230 290,652   Employees    (68,492) (14,481) Employees(68,492)(14,481) EXPENSES AND LOSSES  Others   (579,220) (68,435) EXPENSES AND LOSSESOthers(579,220)(68,435) Net Surplus(Deficit) for the year     1,895,024 1,895,024 Net Surplus(Deficit) for the year1,895,0241,895,024 Program Related Expenses Inventories 18(a)  2,655,444 5,658,017  227,209 8,540,670 (1,954) 7,815,822 (96,464) Program Related Expenses Inventories 18(a)2,655,4445,658,017227,2098,540,670 (1,954)7,815,822 (96,464) Management and General Net Changes in Investment in Fixed Assets 18(b) 3,740,807 Prepaid Expenses Expenses Increase(Decrease) in Liabilities 493,727  -283,390 4,234,534 (83,416) (283,390) 3,653,655 109,160 Management and General Net Changes in Investment in Fixed Assets 18(b) 3,740,807 Prepaid Expenses Expenses Increase(Decrease) in Liabilities493,727-283,3904,234,534 (83,416) (283,390)3,653,655 109,160 Sub-Total Expenses and Losses Designated in an amount equal to the Investment in Net book 6,396,251 6,151,744 1/ Value of Property Plant and Equipment Accounts Payable: Donors  227,209 12,775,204 (530,754) 11,469,477 1,616,269 Sub-Total Expenses and Losses Designated in an amount equal to the Investment in Net book 6,396,251 6,151,744 1/ Value of Property Plant and Equipment Accounts Payable: Donors227,209 12,775,204 (530,754)11,469,477 1,616,269   Employees    115,954 8,478 Employees115,9548,478 Indirect Cost Recovery Balance as at December 31, 2008 Provisions and Accruals (1,560,854) Others   (1,560,854) 713,266 (106,560) 5,253,988 341,673 (951,204) (315,067) 5,967,254 124,443 Indirect Cost Recovery Balance as at December 31, 2008 Provisions and Accruals (1,560,854) Others(1,560,854) 713,266 (106,560) 5,253,988 341,673(951,204) (315,067) 5,967,254 124,443 Total Expenses and Losses Net Cash Provided in Operating Activities 4,835,397 6,151,744  227,209 11,214,350 376,073 10,518,272 2,379,023 Total Expenses and Losses Net Cash Provided in Operating Activities 4,835,3976,151,744227,20911,214,350 376,07310,518,272 2,379,023 Change in Net Assets: CASHFLOWS PROVIDED (USED) IN INVESTING ACTIVITIES   Change in Net Assets: CASHFLOWS PROVIDED (USED) IN INVESTING ACTIVITIES Net Surplus / (Deficit)  1,895,024    1,895,024 165,924 Net Surplus / (Deficit)1,895,0241,895,024165,924 Acquisition of Property and Equipment   (317,524) (564,899) Acquisition of Property and Equipment(317,524)(564,899) Total Expenses-by Natural Proceeds From Disposal of Property and Equipment    49,069 52,313 Total Expenses-by Natural Proceeds From Disposal of Property and Equipment49,06952,313 Classification      Classification  Unrestricted Restricted  Total UnrestrictedRestrictedTotal    Temporarily Challenge Temporarily Challenge    Restricted Programs 2008 2007 Restricted Programs20082007 Personnel Costs  4,106,294 1,370,269  48,214 5,524,778 5,428,943 Personnel Costs4,106,2941,370,26948,2145,524,7785,428,943 Supplies & Services  1,729,154 2,902,725  159,166 4,791,044 3,972,185 Supplies & Services1,729,1542,902,725159,1664,791,0443,972,185 Supplies & Services-Collaborators and Partnerships Costs  3,203 1,157,142   1,160,345 797,915 Supplies & Services-Collaborators and Partnerships Costs3,2031,157,1421,160,345797,915 Operational Travel  257,684 424,380  19,829 701,893 623,786 Operational Travel257,684424,38019,829701,893623,786 Depreciation  299,916 297,228   597,144 646,647 Depreciation299,916297,228597,144646,647 Sub-Total Expenses and Losses  6,396,251 6,151,744  227,209 12,775,204 11,469,477 Sub-Total Expenses and Losses6,396,2516,151,744227,20912,775,20411,469,477 Indirect Cost Recovery (1,560,854)    (1,560,854) (951,204) Indirect Cost Recovery(1,560,854)(1,560,854)(951,204) Total Expenses and Losses  4,835,397 6,151,744  227,209 11,214,350 10,518,272 Total Expenses and Losses4,835,3976,151,744227,20911,214,35010,518,272  "},{"text":"Net Cash Used in Investing Activities (268,456) (512,586) The Africa Rice Center (WARDA) is an international inter-governmental organization and a member of a network of centers supported by the Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) .It was established in 1970 to conduct research development and training in relation to all phases of rice production, management and distribution in West Africa, but has since enhanced the mandate to the whole of Africa. The objectives are to increase production levels throughout 22 African Countries and to improve the varieties of rice suitable to the continent. At present, activities are carried out in four countries in different ecologies. Various research activities are carried out in Ibadan, Nigeria using the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) campus as a station, the Sahel program is based at St. Louis in Senegal, and in March 2005, the East and Central Africa station started its activities in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania. The main research activities were formerly based at Bouaké in Côte d'Ivoire and physical presence at Rokupr ended in April 1993, but WARDA continues to carry out general maintenance activities as welll as some seed multiplication in the Mbé valley near Bouaké.  AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA0  AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA0  NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 1. ORGANIzATION AND OBjECTIVES  1.ORGANIzATION AND OBjECTIVES  CASHFLOWS PROVIDED (USED) IN FINANCING ACTIVITIES  CASHFLOWS PROVIDED (USED) IN FINANCING ACTIVITIES  Bank Overdraft  (146) Bank Overdraft(146)  Net Cash Used in Financing Activities  (146) Net Cash Used in Financing Activities(146)  Net Increase(Decrease) in Cash and Cash Equivalents  Net Increase(Decrease) in Cash and Cash Equivalents  Cash and Cash Equivalents at Beginning of Year 4,327,667 2,461,376 Cash and Cash Equivalents at Beginning of Year4,327,6672,461,376  Increase in Cash and Cash Equivalents 107,617 1,866,291 Increase in Cash and Cash Equivalents107,6171,866,291  Cash and Cash Equivalents at End of Year 4,435,284 4,327,667 Cash and Cash Equivalents at End of Year4,435,2844,327,667  "},{"text":" With an exception for Land Buildings and Installations constructed in Benin which have been depreciated at an accelerated rate of 20% in line with the Board approved decision to remain in the new temporary location for 5 years. Heavy duty equipment 10.00% Heavy duty equipment10.00% Agricultural equipment 10.00% Agricultural equipment10.00% Vehicles and tractors 14.29% Vehicles and tractors14.29% Furniture and office equipment 10.00% Furniture and office equipment10.00% Laboratory and Scientific equipment 10.00% Laboratory and Scientific equipment10.00% Computer equipment 20.00% Computer equipment20.00%  "},{"text":"Designated Net Assets These Interest earned during the year has been credited to the control account for the General Support Staff Provident Fund The prior-year adjustments relate to over-accrued grant revenue from Germany in 2006 and supplier invoices at St Louis Station relating to periods prior to 1st January 2007 that had not been expensed in the appropriate previous financial years.Net Assets are the residual interest in the Center's assets remaning after liabilities are deducted. represent that part of net assets that has been designated by Center Management for the future acquisitions and replacement of property and equipment in an amount equal to the net investment in fixed assets.This has been introduced during the current year in order to disclose this amount in line with the requirements of CG Financial Guideline series 11 ACCOUNT PAYABLE-OTHERS    11ACCOUNT PAYABLE-OTHERS NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS -(Cont'd) JICA/WARDA-Collaboration Project Apr'04-Open 18 EXPENSES AND LOSSES ANNEX 1 233,095  2008 233,095 2007 164,035 NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS -(Cont'd) JICA/WARDA-Collaboration Project Apr'04-Open 18 EXPENSES AND LOSSES ANNEX 1233,0952008 233,0952007 164,035  JIRCAS/WARDA-Drought Project Apr'05-Open 43,090  US $ 43,090 US $ 38,211 JIRCAS/WARDA-Drought ProjectApr'05-Open43,090US $ 43,090US $ 38,211 9 13 UNRESTRICTED NET ASSETS ACCOUNTS PAYABLE-DONORS Suppliers Payable Accounts Corporate Services Inter-Center Payables Sundry Payable Accounts Unrestricted Net Assets: UNDP Enhancing Capacity-NERICA Undesignated: Netherlands(APO/JPO Project) PDIM/WARDA/SONADER Collaborative Project AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA) Rockfeller(Drought Tollerance Project) UNDP-Liberia Seed Production Project UNDP New PVS Entension Project AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK December 31st (a) Program Related Expenses by Functional Classification as of Jun'06-Dec'08 2004-2007 Jan'06-Dec'07 Mar'04-Dec'07 Oct'08-June 2011 Jun'06-Apr'08 FINANCIAL REPORT: 2008 US $ 135,643 (1,235) (663) 985 64,124  2008 US $ 352,263 94,914 39,337 486,514 135,643 (1,235) (663) 985 64,124 2008 US $ 2007 US $ 267,850 178,894 146,330 593,074 2007 US $ 140,964 289,320 48,218 218,544 132,140 2007 US $ 9 13 UNRESTRICTED NET ASSETS ACCOUNTS PAYABLE-DONORS Suppliers Payable Accounts Corporate Services Inter-Center Payables Sundry Payable Accounts Unrestricted Net Assets: UNDP Enhancing Capacity-NERICA Undesignated: Netherlands(APO/JPO Project) PDIM/WARDA/SONADER Collaborative Project AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA) Rockfeller(Drought Tollerance Project) UNDP-Liberia Seed Production Project UNDP New PVS Entension Project AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK December 31st (a) Program Related Expenses by Functional Classification as of Jun'06-Dec'08 2004-2007 Jan'06-Dec'07 Mar'04-Dec'07 Oct'08-June 2011 Jun'06-Apr'08 FINANCIAL REPORT:2008 US $ 135,643 (1,235) (663) 985 64,1242008 US $ 352,263 94,914 39,337 486,514 135,643 (1,235) (663) 985 64,124 2008 US $2007 US $ 267,850 178,894 146,330 593,074 2007 US $ 140,964 289,320 48,218 218,544 132,140 2007 US $ 12 Restricted Grants:-Restricted Grants Received in Advance-See Note (a) below Restricted Grants Received in Advance Challenge Program Grants Received in Advance Net Assets at Beginning of Year USAID -RYMV Project Oct'06-Dec'09 USAID: INSAH1-ROCARIZ Networks Project Sept'06-Dec'07 Research PROVISIONS AND ACCRUALS Prior Period Adjustment 1/ USAID:INSAH2-RiceMaize Stratification Project Sept'06-Dec'07 Challenge Programs Germany 2006 Unrestricted Over-Accrual Sub-Total Restricted Grants Research Support Sub-Total Restricted Grants Payable as per 4,072,230 74,064 (3,993) -6,151,744 Schedule Accrued Expenses & Provisions St Louis Station-Prior-Year Unbooked Charges -CHALLENGE PROGRAMS: Training Information and Library Services  1,681,927 50,282 74,064 6,706,268 2008 (3,993) 227,209 US $ 6,151,744 1,280,480 1,732,209 961,548 326,713 656,576 3,964,344 131,155 130,026 6,333,779 147,782 2007 US $ (39,600) 5,725,370 1,146,273 104,003 760,579 524,419 (18,437) 335,770 12Restricted Grants:-Restricted Grants Received in Advance-See Note (a) below Restricted Grants Received in Advance Challenge Program Grants Received in Advance Net Assets at Beginning of Year USAID -RYMV Project Oct'06-Dec'09 USAID: INSAH1-ROCARIZ Networks Project Sept'06-Dec'07 Research PROVISIONS AND ACCRUALS Prior Period Adjustment 1/ USAID:INSAH2-RiceMaize Stratification Project Sept'06-Dec'07 Challenge Programs Germany 2006 Unrestricted Over-Accrual Sub-Total Restricted Grants Research Support Sub-Total Restricted Grants Payable as per 4,072,230 74,064 (3,993) -6,151,744 Schedule Accrued Expenses & Provisions St Louis Station-Prior-Year Unbooked Charges -CHALLENGE PROGRAMS: Training Information and Library Services1,681,927 50,282 74,064 6,706,268 2008 (3,993) 227,209 US $ 6,151,744 1,280,480 1,732,209 961,548 326,713656,576 3,964,344 131,155 130,026 6,333,779 147,782 2007 US $ (39,600) 5,725,370 1,146,273 104,003 760,579 524,419 (18,437) 335,770  USAID-OFDA Refundable Balance Staff Accrued Leave Accrued Relocation & Repartriation Allowances Transfer from Operating Result Harvest Plus 1,895,024  100,000 289,759 338,966 8,540,670 100,000 382,716 341,465 165,924 7,815,822 USAID-OFDA Refundable Balance Staff Accrued Leave Accrued Relocation & Repartriation Allowances Transfer from Operating Result Harvest Plus1,895,024100,000 289,759 338,966 8,540,670100,000 382,716 341,465 165,924 7,815,822 Sub-Total Restricted Grants Payable Member States and Other Contribution: Member States Contributions Received in Advance AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA) Transfer towards Designated Net Asets(Investment in Property Plant and Equipment) (713,266) CIAT-Agreement No. 5021 Nov '05-Dec'09 15,833 Sub-Total Undesignated Net Assets at End of Year 5,253,988 Water and Food WorldFish-Project M439 Apr '05-Mar 2010 81 Expenses and Losses by Functional and Natural Classification as (b) of December 31st Generation Challenge Program Sub-Total Member States Contributions CIMMYT-GCP-Project SP1-G4008-05 Jan '08-Dec 2008 8,982 2008 Designated: CIMMYT-GCP-Project SP3-G4007-08 Aug '07-Jul 2009 134,471 US $ Received in Advance Unrestricted Grants:-Transfer towards Designated Net Asets(Investment in Property Plant and Equipment) 713,266 CIAT-Agreement No. C-119-06 Jan '05-Dec 2008 10,826 GCP-I-Bridges-WARDA/IRD Aug'07-Dec'09 57,016 Program Related Management and General 1,832,209 556,905 1,590,273 15,833 81 556,905 8,982 2007 134,471 US $ 10,826 57,016 Program Related 860,579 1,248,600 (996,655) 3,075,574 1,894,367 1,894,367 996,655 Management and General Sub-Total Restricted Grants Payable Member States and Other Contribution: Member States Contributions Received in Advance AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA) Transfer towards Designated Net Asets(Investment in Property Plant and Equipment) (713,266) CIAT-Agreement No. 5021 Nov '05-Dec'09 15,833 Sub-Total Undesignated Net Assets at End of Year 5,253,988 Water and Food WorldFish-Project M439 Apr '05-Mar 2010 81 Expenses and Losses by Functional and Natural Classification as (b) of December 31st Generation Challenge Program Sub-Total Member States Contributions CIMMYT-GCP-Project SP1-G4008-05 Jan '08-Dec 2008 8,982 2008 Designated: CIMMYT-GCP-Project SP3-G4007-08 Aug '07-Jul 2009 134,471 US $ Received in Advance Unrestricted Grants:-Transfer towards Designated Net Asets(Investment in Property Plant and Equipment) 713,266 CIAT-Agreement No. C-119-06 Jan '05-Dec 2008 10,826 GCP-I-Bridges-WARDA/IRD Aug'07-Dec'09 57,016 Program Related Management and General1,832,209 556,905 1,590,273 15,833 81 556,905 8,982 2007 134,471 US $ 10,826 57,016 Program Related860,579 1,248,600 (996,655) 3,075,574 1,894,367 1,894,367 996,655 Management and General  World Bank Unrestricted Grant 2009 in Advance Sub-Total Challenge Program Grants Personnel Costs 3,545,320 227,209 1,979,457  90,000 227,209 3,618,871 1,810,073 World Bank Unrestricted Grant 2009 in Advance Sub-Total Challenge Program Grants Personnel Costs3,545,320227,209 1,979,45790,000 227,209 3,618,8711,810,073  Sweden Unrestricted Grant 2007 in Advance Sub-Total Designated Net Assets at End of Year Supplies & Services 3,232,845 713,266 1,558,199  2,723,696 254,924 996,655 1,248,490 Sweden Unrestricted Grant 2007 in Advance Sub-Total Designated Net Assets at End of Year Supplies & Services3,232,845713,266 1,558,1992,723,696254,924 996,655 1,248,490  Sub-Total Unrestricted Grants Payable 5,967,254 9,696,400 Supplies & Services-Collaborators and Net Assets at End of Year Total Grant Revenue Partnerships Costs 1,157,142 3,203 Operational Travel 466,645 235,248 1/ The use of these Grants has been restricted towards selected projects in CGIAR Approved Agenda for 1,203,772 10,900,172 90,000 795,973 367,737 WARDA Depreciation 138,718 458,427 309,545 254,924 10,384,612 1,941 4,072,229 256,050 337,101 Sub-Total Unrestricted Grants Payable 5,967,254 9,696,400 Supplies & Services-Collaborators and Net Assets at End of Year Total Grant Revenue Partnerships Costs 1,157,142 3,203 Operational Travel 466,645 235,248 1/ The use of these Grants has been restricted towards selected projects in CGIAR Approved Agenda for 1,203,772 10,900,172 90,000 795,973 367,737 WARDA Depreciation 138,718 458,427 309,545254,924 10,384,612 1,941 4,072,229 256,050 337,101       2,479,114 3,009,870 2,479,1143,009,870 (a) Details of amounts received in advance from restricted donors are given in the Schedule of Restricted Projects on pages 24 and 25. 1/ These are classified as follows:-Gross Operating Expenses 8,540,670 4,234,534 7,815,822 3,653,655 (a)Details of amounts received in advance from restricted donors are given in the Schedule of Restricted Projects on pages 24 and 25. 1/ These are classified as follows:-Gross Operating Expenses 8,540,670 4,234,5347,815,8223,653,655 10(a) ACCOUNTS PAYABLE-EMPLOYEES (a) Undesignated Net Assets    10(a) ACCOUNTS PAYABLE-EMPLOYEES (a) Undesignated Net Assets  2008 These represent that part of net assets accumulated from past and present surpluses of revenue over expenses that are not 2007 2008 These represent that part of net assets accumulated from past and present surpluses of revenue over expenses that are not 2007  designated by Center Management for specific purposes.   US $ US $ designated by Center Management for specific purposes.US $US $  Staff Provident Funds(Liberia) Staff Provident Funds(Cote D'Ivoire/St Louis/Cotonou) Due to Separated Staff Members Due to Staff Members (b) No.2   25,146 99,415 24,380 157,758 25,145 52,337 25,102 88,161 Staff Provident Funds(Liberia) Staff Provident Funds(Cote D'Ivoire/St Louis/Cotonou) Due to Separated Staff Members Due to Staff Members (b) No.225,146 99,415 24,380 157,75825,145 52,337 25,102 88,161 14 INVENTORIES     306,699 190,745 14 INVENTORIES306,699190,745     2008  2007 20082007 10(b) ACCOUNTS PAYABLE-EMPLOYEES INVESTMENT ACCOUNT US $  US $ 10(b) ACCOUNTS PAYABLE-EMPLOYEES INVESTMENT ACCOUNT US $US $  Stationery and Office Supplies Vehicle and Equipment Spare Parts  84,390 249,394  2008 US $ 2007 89,628 US $ 225,230 Stationery and Office Supplies Vehicle and Equipment Spare Parts84,390 249,3942008 US $2007 89,628 US $ 225,230  Building and Maintenance Supplies Amount Invested in Time Deposit for the General Support Staff Provident Fund 60,405 Fuel and Lubricants 12,606  19,147 16,960 Building and Maintenance Supplies Amount Invested in Time Deposit for the General Support Staff Provident Fund 60,405 Fuel and Lubricants 12,60619,147 16,960  Fuel Stocks -Cotonou Field and Farm Supplies Balance Brought Forward 1st January 2008 2,247 2,202  214,000 18,240 214,000 38,337 Fuel Stocks -Cotonou Field and Farm SuppliesBalance Brought Forward 1st January 20082,247 2,202214,00018,240 214,000 38,337  Laboratory Supplies Stocks -Health Post Capital Enhancements During the Year 2008 601 1,267  - 562 703 - Laboratory Supplies Stocks -Health PostCapital Enhancements During the Year 2008601 1,267-562 703-  General Stocks   18,407  22,554 General Stocks18,40722,554  St Louis Station Stores Balance Carried Forward 31st December 2008 6,261  214,000 214,000 4,464 St Louis Station StoresBalance Carried Forward 31st December 20086,261214,000214,000 4,464     437,780  435,825 437,780435,825  "},{"text":"Statement of Expenditure for the period 1st january to 31st December 2008 Project Title:-WARDA : NERICA DISSEMINATION PROjECT  ANNEX 2  ANNEX 2 AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA)  AFRICA RICE CENTER (WARDA) INTERNATIONAL FUND FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT (IFAD)  INTERNATIONAL FUND FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT (IFAD) (EUROPEAN UNION FUNDING)  (EUROPEAN UNION FUNDING) FINANCIAL REPORT:  FINANCIAL REPORT: DESCRIPTION AMOUNT DESCRIPTIONAMOUNT  (US$) (US$) Balance (Receivable) brought forward 1st January 2008 196,590 Balance (Receivable) brought forward 1st January 2008196,590 WARDA GRANT:  WARDA GRANT: -PERSONNEL COSTS 31,053 -PERSONNEL COSTS31,053 -SUPPLIES AND SERVICES 118,416 -SUPPLIES AND SERVICES118,416 -OPERATIONAL TRAVEL 12,478 -OPERATIONAL TRAVEL12,478 -CAPITAL - -CAPITAL- Total expenses on WARDA GRANT 161,947 Total expenses on WARDA GRANT161,947 NARS GRANT:  NARS GRANT: -OPERATIONAL FUNDS PAID OUT 313,466 -OPERATIONAL FUNDS PAID OUT313,466 Total expenses on NARS GRANT 313,466 Total expenses on NARS GRANT313,466 TOTAL EXPENDITURE FOR THE YEAR 475,413 TOTAL EXPENDITURE FOR THE YEAR475,413 Received from AFDB:  Received from AFDB: -January 2008 for WARDA Grant activities (160,385) -January 2008 for WARDA Grant activities(160,385) -September 2008 for NARS Grant activities (368,717) -September 2008 for NARS Grant activities(368,717) -September 2008 for WARDA Grant activities (222,219) -September 2008 for WARDA Grant activities(222,219) -Interest earned in 2008 in Ecobank account (5,978) -Interest earned in 2008 in Ecobank account(5,978) Total funds received (757,299) Total funds received(757,299) Balance (Receivable) carried forward as at December 31st, 2008 (85,297) Balance (Receivable) carried forward as at December 31st, 2008(85,297)  "},{"text":"Statement of Expenditure for the period 1st january to 31st December 2008 Project Title:-Rice Policy and Technology Impact for Food Security and Poverty Reduction   218,544  132,140 140,964 131,155 130,026 147,782 5,725,370 218,544132,140140,964131,155130,026147,7825,725,370   (663) 985 64,124 135,643 74,064  (3,993) 6,151,744 (663)98564,124135,64374,064(3,993)6,151,744 DESCRIPTION AMOUNT (US$)  8,215 AMOUNT (EURO) 0 0 1,272,769 1,681,927 DESCRIPTIONAMOUNT (US$)8,215AMOUNT (EURO) 0 0 1,272,7691,681,927 -PERSONNEL COSTS 182,322     127,990 -PERSONNEL COSTS182,322127,990 -SUPPLIES AND SERVICES 258,053 0   42 181,153 23,385 2,772,370 -SUPPLIES AND SERVICES258,053042181,153 23,3852,772,370 -OPERATIONAL TRAVEL -CAPITAL 70,251 7,893  9,200 54,285 139,700 62,388 49,316 5,541 26,401 85,336 1,272,769 6,358,391 -OPERATIONAL TRAVEL -CAPITAL70,251 7,8939,20054,285139,70062,38849,316 5,541 26,401 85,336 1,272,7696,358,391   (1)      8,270 (1,159) (1)8,270(1,159) TOTAL EXPENDITURE FOR THE YEAR 518,519     364,000 TOTAL EXPENDITURE FOR THE YEAR518,519364,000 Balance due from IFAD in December 2007 120,695   9,839  82,100 656,575 Balance due from IFAD in December 2007120,6959,83982,100656,575 Received from IFAD in January 2009 Balance due from IFAD (587,891) 51,324 662   (409,700) 36,400 4,099 11,708 26,401 97,600 1,952,507 Received from IFAD in January 2009 Balance due from IFAD(587,891) 51,324662(409,700) 36,400 4,099 11,708 26,401 97,6001,952,507   885,597  397,320 349,500 890,000 170,000 160,000 5,100,000 885,597397,320349,500890,000170,000160,0005,100,000   Mar'04-Dec'07 Oct'08-June 2011 Jun'06-Apr'08 Jun'06-Dec'08 Oct'06-Dec'09 Sept'06-Dec'07 Sept'06-Dec'07 Oct'08-Sept'09 Mar'04-Dec'07Oct'08-June 2011Jun'06-Apr'08Jun'06-Dec'08Oct'06-Dec'09Sept'06-Dec'07Sept'06-Dec'07Oct'08-Sept'09         (a) (a)    UNDP-Liberia Seed Production Project UNDP New PVS Entension Project UNDP Enhancing Capacity-NERICA USAID -RYMV Project USAID: INSAH1-ROCARIZ Networks Project USAID:INSAH2-RiceMaize Stratification Project USAID:West Africa Rice Initiative Project Sub-Total Restricted Grants UNDP-Liberia Seed Production ProjectUNDP New PVS Entension ProjectUNDP Enhancing Capacity-NERICAUSAID -RYMV ProjectUSAID: INSAH1-ROCARIZ Networks ProjectUSAID:INSAH2-RiceMaize Stratification ProjectUSAID:West Africa Rice Initiative ProjectSub-Total Restricted Grants  "}],"sieverID":"8447ac10-599e-4c73-961d-fbd791f711cc","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"066e395bed18efb1614c7e99f6ecc891","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7abe9989-122d-48c9-a171-ae2ea350023c/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"ACTIVITIES","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Pitch AgriHack competitions involve a boot camp followed by a pitching competition for existing e-agriculture start-ups. Winners get opportunities to consolidate, pilot or upscale their platforms and services."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Winners of previous Pitch AgriHack competitions have received mentoring and incubation support to bring their services to commercial fruition. Forthcoming Pitch AgriHacks offer grants, market linkage and networking opportunities to the participants."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"The project documents, shares and promotes awareness of the achievements of the best start-ups involved in the programme. This gives the promising businesses high profile and increases opportunities for them to attract investors and business partners to further their ambitions. Lessons learned about how young businesses involved in the programme address challenges they face are also analysed and shared."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"The Pitch AgriHack model is also used as a means to identify successful young businesses that can offer services to agricultural stakeholders involved in a specific project. This is the case in the iDeal Burkina project that is implemented by Yam-Pukri in Burkina Faso."}]},{"head":"AGRIHACK TALENT:","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ACCELERATING DIGITAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CTA PROJECTS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Read more: www.cta.int/en/projects/agrihack-talent This document was produced with the financial support of the European Union. Its contents are the sole responsibility of CTA and do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Union."}]},{"head":"IMPACT","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Up to 2018, some 1,000 young entrepreneurs (aged between 18 and 35 years) have taken part in the AgriHack Talent programme and about 30 ICT hubs or institutions from about 40 countries have been involved. Since the launch of the AgriHack Talent initiative, at least 1,000,000 farmers and agricultural stakeholders have been reached by services provided through the use of applications developed and start-ups involved have raised more than €2 million from other investors and partners. Half of the winners of the 2018 edition were women-led companies."}]},{"head":"COUNTRIES","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Applicants have come from the following countries: Benin, Burundi, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, eSwatini (formerly Swaziland), Ethiopia, Fiji,* Ghana, Grenada, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Jamaica, Kenya, Kiribati,* Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Senegal, Solomon Islands,* South Africa, Suriname, Tanzania, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe."}]},{"head":"PARTNER ORGANISATIONS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"African Development Bank Group Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa Suguba * Participants from these countries took part in the Pacific AgriHack Lab, in partnership with the International Fund for Agricultural Development."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"4f8d3147-0cdc-413f-b77c-7ea91c04b71b","abstract":"The main focus of the AgriHack Talent initiative is on Pitch AgriHack, a competition targeting young companies already offering e-agriculture services. This is supported by follow-up activities such as provision of capacity building, mentorship and incubation opportunities, promotional and networking opportunities and facilitation of access to grants and investments to scale-up services offered. The future of food production, marketing and supply-chain management increasingly lies in the realm of information and communication technologies (ICTs). ICTs contribute to the transformation of agricultural value chains in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries, improving productivity and market access in the agrifood sector. CTA's AgriHack Talent initiative aims to strengthen ICT innovation in agriculture, as well as to accelerate youth entrepreneurship."}

data/part_1/069da0b299e0d05e29f056534fae7400.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"069da0b299e0d05e29f056534fae7400","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8014baef-3267-4432-9f14-b4662ef423fb/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"De nouvelles variétés de haricot pour les agriculteurs éthiopiens","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Culture vivrière, culture de rente","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Le haricot est à la fois une culture vivrière et une source substantielle d'argent comptant. La culture du haricot sec à des fins commerciales est plus ou moins importante selon les régions de production et selon les différentes zones qui les composent. Dans la vallée du Rift, plus de 90% de la production de haricot est commercialisée, tandis que dans les régions de l'Est du pays la culture est à la fois vivrière et commerciale."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"De façon générale, on peut classifier les régions productrices de haricot en Ethiopie en quatre zones agro-écologiques : les zones correspondant au centre, l'est, le sud et l'ouest, regroupées en fonction de l'altitude, de la pluviométrie, des sols, des systèmes de production et de la localisation. Les contraintes de production, qu'elles soient biotiques ou abiotiques, sont spécifiques à chaque zone, bien qu'un certain nombre de problèmes, comme le faible rendement et la sensibilité aux ravageurs et aux maladies des variétés locales, se rencontrent dans toutes les zones. Parallèlement, les préférences et les types de haricot cultivés varient selon les zones."}]},{"head":"Mise au point des techniques de production","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Afin d'augmenter le rendement du haricot et de répondre aux divers besoins et préférences exprimés par les agriculteurs, le Programme national sur le haricot s'st consacré ces quinze dernières années, en collaboration avec l'ECABREN et le CIAT, à la mise au point de cultivars présentant un potentiel de rendement plus élevé et des qualités de résistance aux contraintes biotiques et abiotiques, ainsi qu'à leur diffusion auprès des agriculteurs. Des efforts complémentaires sont fournis en vue de mettre en place des méthodes de gestion, des techniques de lutte intégrée contre les ravageurs, des systèmes de gestion des sols axés sur l'amélioration de la fertilité et des pratiques culturales moins exigeantes en main d'oeuvre."}]},{"head":"Cultivars améliorés de haricot","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"La stratégie nationale visant à mettre au point des variétés améliorées de haricot a évolué au fil du temps. Dans le passé, les lignées de haricot "}]},{"head":"Multiplication des grains (photo du haut). Sélection participative des nouvelles variétés","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Nous remercions vivement l'Agence canadienne de développement international, la Direction Suisse du développement et de la coopération et l'Agence des Etats-Unis pour le développement international pour leur appui financier, fourni par l'intermédiaire de l'Alliance panafricaine de recherche sur le haricot. Les vues exprimées dans le présent document ne représentent pas nécessairement celles de ces institutions.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"EARO améliorées les plus prometteuses étaient évaluées dans plusieurs zones écologiques de production de manière à déterminer quelles variétés pouvaient s'adapter à différentes conditions de culture. Les variétés améliorées étaient introduites en nombre limité, parmi lesquelles figuraient les lignées Mexican 142 et Red Wolaita. Mais cette approche négligeait les besoins propres à chaque zone de production et risquait de laisser de côté des cultivars susceptibles de correspondre à des systèmes de production particuliers. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Le haricot commun (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) est un légume sec traditionnel de première importance en Ethiopie, en particulier dans la vallée du Rift, les montagnes d'Haraghe et le sud du pays. C'est un élément de base des systèmes culturaux des petites exploitations et du régime alimentaire des ménages éthiopiens, comme par ailleurs dans bien d'autres pays d'Afrique orientale, centrale et australe. "},{"text":" Les génotypes pouvant se conformer à tous les milieux de culture du haricot sont rares du fait des différentes préférences des consommateurs, et des spécificités d'adaptation aux conditions climatiques et aux systèmes culturaux. Ce faisant, un Atelier chargé d'élaborer une stratégie nationale de planification (1990) a décidé de décentraliser l'approche adoptée en matière d'amélioration du haricot en vue de réaliser des progrès génétiques plus rapides au moyen d'une sélection davantage orientée vers l'échelon local. Par la suite, plusieurs variétés ciblant différents types de zones écologiques ont été introduites. Des efforts ont également été fournis en vue de mesurer les avantages du concept de sélection participative des plantes et de son incorporation à la stratégie de sélection. Les résultats ont montré d'une part que les exploitants agricoles sont disposés à sélectionner les cultivars à partir d'un éventail relativement large de lignées et qu'ils sont en mesure de le faire, et d'autre part qu'ils sont intéressés par une gamme beaucoup plus large de semences que ne l'avait laissé supposer l'approche de sélection conventionnelle. L'une des quatre nouvelles variétés dont l'introduction est prévue pour 2003 est issue de cette initiative favorisant la sélection participative. Les nouvelles variétés introduites ciblent différents milieux et offrent une meilleure performance au niveau du rendement que les variétés locales, une bonne résistance aux maladies et d'autres qualités importantes. L'amélioration du rendement entre les nouveaux cultivars de haricot nain et les cultivars utilisés antérieurement varie de 5 à 9%. "}],"sieverID":"ddfc3d47-7750-418f-8f9b-aaa15d3849f6","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06b10497f549313cd8181e16ca6affd0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/956/3315.pdf"},"pageCount":7,"title":"New Species in the Old World: Europe as a Frontier in Biodiversity Exploration, a Test Bed for 21st Century Taxonomy","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"The number of described species on Earth is now about 1.9 million [1], with between 16,000 and 18,000 new species described every year [2]. The frontiers of biodiversity exploration and discovery are generally considered to be in the tropics [3,4] and if the actual number of species on the planet is 5-30 million [4], at the current rate several centuries will be necessary to describe and name them all. The insufficient availability of taxonomic expertise and the gaps of knowledge in our taxonomic system represent a politically acknowledged problem, known as the Taxonomic Impediment [5]. One of the side effects of the Taxonomic Impediment, already noticed by several authors [6,7,8], is the strong imbalance between developed, biodiversity-poor countries and developing, biodiversity-rich countries. Another characteristic of taxonomy is that it is one of the rare scientific disciplines where non-professionals are known to play a role [9,10,11]. However, this role is underestimated outside the taxonomic community [12,13], contrary to ecology [14] and astronomy [12], where amateurs are widely recognized as an essential part of the workforce."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Europe is one of the better known parts of the world in terms of biodiversity. As a testimony of this knowledge, the release of the Fauna Europaea database in 2004 was a landmark for European taxonomy, encapsulating the efforts of more than 450 taxonomists, coordinated by the University of Amsterdam, the University of Copenhagen and the National Museum of Natural History in Paris [15]. For the first time a comprehensive checklist was created that provided baseline reference to all the valid species of multicellular terrestrial and freshwater animals occurring in geographical Europe."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"In this context, the aim of our study was to measure the growth of the taxonomic inventory of Europe, and to assess the respective weight of professional and non-professional taxonomists in the completion of the inventory."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":453,"text":"At the time of its first release, Fauna Europaea recognized 125,854 species, starting from the publication of Linnaeus' Systema Naturae in 1758. Analysis of discovery rates through time showed that, despite the most formidable geographical concentration of taxonomic expertise over 250 years, a plateau had still not been reached in Europe. Three historical segments were recognized in the discovery curve of the European biota. The slope of each segment differed and most remarkably, each was significantly steeper than the previous one (Table 1 and Fig. 1a): today in Europe, more species are described each year than one century ago, and over four times more than two centuries ago. The lack of saturation in the cumulative curve indicated not only that the inventory of the European fauna was far from complete, but also that the data did not even permit an estimate of the total number of species [16]. The regular increase in the number of described species in Europe is the result of two antagonistic processes. On one hand, as more species become known it is more difficult to discover new ones, but on the other, collecting and, especially, discrimination techniques and tools are becoming more powerful, efficient and widely available, opening new avenues of species discovery in supposedly well-known faunas. When different animal groups were considered separately, discovery patterns varied (Fig. S1). Not unexpectedly, for some taxa it is increasingly rare to find new species, even with new discrimination techniques. In birds (Fig. 1b) and a few other groups such as dragonflies, saturation was reached several decades ago and the number of known species in the European fauna remains stable, except for isolated new discoveries. In other taxa, e.g. beetles (Fig. 1c), other holometabolous insects, insects as a whole, but also, perhaps more unexpectedly, freshwater fishes, the number of described species has been steadily increasing for more than 100 years. Still other groups, e.g. mites (Fig. 1d), nematodes and springtails are experiencing a modern explosion of species descriptions after a stasis that lasted until the first half of the 20th century. Rates of descriptions are decreasing for groups such as free-living flatworms (Fig. 1e) and thrips, suggesting that we are getting closer and closer to knowing them all. However, to some extent this could reflect the drying up of taxonomic expertise: if there is no specialist to recognize new species, we may gain the impression of a saturated inventory [17]. Indeed, a few groups show temporary plateaus, but these reflect the temporal variation in availability of a relevant taxonomic workforce [8] rather than the saturation of species discovery, as for instance for annelids from the 1930s to the 1950s (Fig. S1) and neuropterid insects from the 1930s to the 1960s (Fig. 1f)."},{"index":2,"size":303,"text":"As Fauna Europaea only recorded taxa up to 2004, current taxonomic activity in Europe was assessed with data extracted from the Zoological Record with reference to terrestrial and freshwater species. This extraction showed that between 1998 and 2007, 5,881 new species were described from European countries, i.e. an average of 643.8 new species per year. This figure was lower than the figure obtained from the Fauna Europaea database (778.3 n.sp.year 21 since 1955 [18]). This discrepancy was expected since the Zoological Record coverage is considered to be incomplete, covering ca. 90% of published names, the remaining being published in sources incompletely scanned by the Zoological Record [19]. Fauna Europaea coverage is more comprehensive because it is delivered by taxonomic specialists and includes species which were described from countries outside Europe, such as from North Africa and North America, and subsequently discovered in Europe. The taxonomic composition of species described in 1998-2007 is shown in Fig. 2: 4,287 (72.9%) of the new species were Hexapoda, and the mega-diverse insect orders Diptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Coleoptera taken together represented 63.3% of all the new species. After insects, arachnids were the second major taxon in terms of contributing numbers of new species in Europe. However, while newly named species represent the most visible part of taxonomy, revisions constitute another necessary aspect of this discipline as they allow taxa to be better characterized and reduce the number of unwarranted nominal species arising from taxonomic inflation [20]. Quite frequently, revisions lead to synonymization of nominal species, sometimes long after their original description [21]. In the European fauna, during the same time span (1998-2007), 1,998 species had been placed in synonymy, i.e. the net increase of the species inventory was 4,093 species. We defined two groups of taxonomists, according to their professional status (see details in Material and Methods):"},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"N Professional taxonomists: people paid to do taxonomy, either having a formal position in taxonomy, or students; N Non-professional taxonomists: people who do not hold a position in which they are remunerated for performing taxonomy, i.e. amateurs in the broad sense and retired professionals."},{"index":4,"size":152,"text":"This professional status was assessed for 1,000 unique authors (out of 1,323) who described new species in 1998-2007: 42.8% were professional taxonomists, (taxonomists with formal taxonomic positions: 41.2%; students: 1.6%). The others were nonprofessional: retired professional taxonomists (10.5%) and amateurs in the broad sense (46.7%). However, professional taxonomists described only 37.8% of the new species in the study period, i.e. non-professional taxonomists described proportionally more than those in formal taxonomic positions. Contrary to a common belief outside the taxonomic community, nonprofessional taxonomists do not focus only on charismatic groups: during the study period, they have described 52.7% of the new Diptera species and 26.7% of the new mite species (Fig. 2). Similarly, these non-professionals are fully involved in revisionary work: among the 1,186 species placed in synonymy in the study period and for which the professional status of the synonymising author was known, 46% were placed in synonymy by paid professional taxonomists."},{"index":5,"size":230,"text":"Results similar to those based on European terrestrial and freshwater multicellular animals may not be obtained for other branches of the tree of life or in other parts of the world. For instance, unicellular species are today probably only described by taxonomists having access to sophisticated laboratory equipment, therefore eliminating non-professional taxonomists. However, this has not always been the case, as shown by the case of Alfred Kahl, a non-professional ciliatologist who described 17 new ciliate families, 57 new genera and ca. 700 new species in the first half of the 20th century [22]. Similarly, deep-sea species can only be collected by academic teams using expensive boats or submersibles. But even in this case, non-professional taxonomists have their share in the description of collected marine species, as is known for instance for mollusks [10]. However, we do not know the importance of their contribution, for instance for marine crustaceans, nematodes or fish. Similarly, the weight of amateurs is probably more important in Europe, North America and Australia than in emerging countries which are very active in taxonomy, such as China or Brazil: this should be tested when data are available. For plants, non-professionals play a role in species description, especially in charismatic groups such as orchids and cacti which focus the attention of many garden clubs and collectors. However, no published data seem to be available to measure their contribution."},{"index":6,"size":242,"text":"Bearing in mind that our results indicate that it is not yet possible to reliably quantify the number of undiscovered species in Europe [18], taxonomy as a scientific discipline should be strengthened if we truly intend to document biodiversity and produce the tools needed for its conservation and sustainable use. Even in Linnaeus' own continent, narrow-range endemics and other rare species, such as habitat specialists, remain only partially documented, despite the obvious consequences in terms of conservation [23]. Legal restrictions on specimen sampling [24], inadequate funding [25] and poor recognition of taxonomic work through bibliometry [26] are known to hamper taxonomy. This discipline is in crisis where institutional support is concerned: funding is lacking for recruitment and training, and taxonomy positions in academic institutions are being replaced by positions dealing with ecology or conservation, and taxonomy in general loses weight in curricula. Taxonomy is usually downgraded by decision-makers, who think that the inventory of European biodiversity was completed at the end of the 19th century. However, paradoxically, taxonomy as a science is more dynamic than ever for several reasons: interest in and access to new ecological niches (e.g. deep caves, river underflows, interstitial layer between rock and soil, high-altitude ice-cracked rocks, glacial cryoconite holes or anchialine caves); increasing numbers of active taxonomists [27]; use of new techniques (molecular techniques of course, but other techniques as well such as sonograms for insects or bats, x-ray microtomography of amber fossils and arthropod skeleto-muscular anatomy)."},{"index":7,"size":320,"text":"However, several factors are limiting productivity in taxonomy. The first, raised during Fauna Europaea regional and thematic validation workshops, is the absence of an effective policysupported business plan to achieve a complete inventory of biodiversity at the European level, and even at a national level (with the exception of Sweden and its Swedish Taxonomy Initiative and Spain with Fauna Ibe ´rica). There are numerous global, regional and national initiatives to collate existing knowledge into taxonomic databases and provide access to this knowledge through web-based portals (e.g. Catalogue of Life, the Pan-European Species Directories Infrastructure, the World Register of Marine Species and the Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment, to name a few). In contrast, initiatives such as the Census of Marine Life, that set themselves the task of exploring the unknown and undocumented, are much less numerous and less well-supported [28]. In Europe, the 5th to 7th Framework Programs for Research and Technological Development have provided important funding to structure and manage taxonomic information at the European level, with projects such as Fauna Europaea and the European Register of Marine Species, but there is no coordinated European funding to explore biodiversity and produce taxonomic information. For European decision-makers, European biodiversity appears to be fully known and the main remaining task is to organize existing data. The situation is different in the United States, where the NSF program Planetary Biodiversity Inventories aim at funding ''research and collecting activities that are designed to discover and document the biological species diversity of all forms of life on Earth''. Similarly, the Australian Biological Resources Study program funds the production of knowledge on the biota of Australia. European funded programs to explore and document specific taxa or limited areas exist and are appreciated, but there is an urgent need for a comprehensive strategy for all of Europe, which should preferably target speciose and non-charismatic groups such as mites, rove beetles and nematodes, not to mention protists [29]."},{"index":8,"size":222,"text":"A second limiting factor preventing the completion of an inventory of European biodiversity is the non-availability of taxonomists, just as in the tropics. Professional taxonomists are not numerous enough, and they cannot spend all their time on species descriptions, as they also have to deal with administrative tasks, fund-raising and teaching. The attrition of the taxonomic workforce has been mourned in numerous position papers and blueprints [9,30], but rather than lament this state of affairs, we suggest that more attention should be given to ways of enhancing the scientific production of non-professional experts. Increasing access to cyber-infrastructures such as digitized literature, images of type specimens and nomenclatural databases benefits all taxonomists, regardless of their status: non-professionals have access to a wealth of taxonomic information. But to enhance their efficiency, it is also important to find ways of making literature of limited distribution more accessible online, to encourage them to publish their results in peer-reviewed journals, and to prompt deposition of types in public institutions. We also believe that All Taxa Biodiversity Inventories [31] and other large-scale inventory programs with defined and coordinated objectives can provide a framework within which nonprofessionals should be integrated. Several other recommendations have been made [11], e.g. facilitating specimen loans from academic collections, helping with collecting and research permits or providing educational opportunities on new procedures and techniques."},{"index":9,"size":254,"text":"Rising molecular techniques (e.g. barcoding), which are becoming an essential component of high-standard systematics, are another important issue in this context. They are largely outside the scope of the non-professional experts due to expense. Moreover, despite the democratization of sequencing, it is not a panacea, as interpretation of sequences is non trivial. Being able to interpret sequences implies academic training, which some of the non-professionals do not have. But expertise of highly proficient non-professional experts is needed to put names on specimens which are tested with molecular techniques. These experts should not be seen as second-class taxonomists: skills needed to generate high-standard morphological data are no more trivial than those needed to correctly interpret molecular data, as they imply testing a whole series of detailed hypotheses beginning with homology concepts and following through to hypotheses of synapomorphy, and understanding the abilities and limitations of the various theoretical criteria by which homology and homoplasy may be teased apart. This given, the challenge is to avoid a splitting of taxonomy in two parts: taxonomy based on molecular approaches only on one side, producing new concepts and hypotheses (i.e. phylogenetic trees), but which does not necessary lead to new species descriptions, and more traditional taxonomy, based solely on morphology, which is the only one accessible to amateurs in the traditional sense. Integrative taxonomy, including several tools ranging from morphology to molecular techniques, is unrealistic in many cases; therefore, we need both approaches, integrative and traditional, at an equally high standard, i.e. performed by educated and trained taxonomists."},{"index":10,"size":220,"text":"Networks linking paid professionals and non-professional taxonomists could be developed to facilitate more efficient combination of molecular methodologies with alpha taxonomy. Such enhanced cooperation between molecular-oriented professionals and morphology-oriented taxonomists could be organized through small grants (e.g. the SynTax grants jointly administered by the Linnean Society and Systematics Association), or by systematically incorporating taxonomic specialists (professionals or non-professionals) within larger more encompassing grants. This type of cooperation is already seen in astronomy, where access to high standard technology for amateurs has triggered a new era in the collaboration with professionals [12]. Nonprofessional astronomers who now use state of the art equipment are organized in networks, hold research grants and take part in large-scale projects in collaboration with professionals, a situation which has opened fruitful fields of research and should be transposed into taxonomy. An example of these collaborative efforts is found with the program Sphingidae Barcode of Life, where 87% of the 1,470 world hawkmoth species have already been barcoded. The barcoding is performed at the Biodiversity Institute of Ontario (University of Guelph, Canada), but the specimens are provided and identified by a team of taxonomists including several non-professional experts. One of the two cochairs of the program is an amateur, and only two out of the ten associated ''sphingid expert taxonomists'' have an academic position related to taxonomy [32]."},{"index":11,"size":153,"text":"However, good, traditional taxonomy should not be sold for a partnership in molecular studies. The most essential contribution of non-professionals is their broad, deep, long-term experience with their group, which is more than just a plausibility-control for the molecular analyses based on putting names on specimens. For instance, rare species are a widespread characteristic of biodiversity, and biodiversity surveys yield an important proportion of singletons (species represented by only one specimen) and uniques (species collected on only one locality) [33,34]. Despite the fact that the concept of rarity has not been integrated by molecular systematic techniques, it has been shown that as much as 17% of new species described are based on singletons [35]. This practice has been criticized [36], but it is nevertheless unavoidable if we aim at describing rare species. This situation leaves room for traditional, morphology-oriented taxonomists, often non-professionals, who describe species that cannot be dealt with by molecular techniques."},{"index":12,"size":208,"text":"Doing taxonomy implies being able to analyze and interpret complex data on a wide range of subjects, from morphology to molecular sequences, in an accurate, explicit, and testable way with sophisticated tools. In particular, collecting comparative morphology data is not trivial, and needs as much specific training as molecular taxonomy. However, professional status is not necessarily linked with the level of taxonomic skills needed to do comparative morphology and to produce sound revisionary studies: many non-professional taxonomists have a relevant PhD and continue doing taxonomy during their spare time while holding a position in a different branch of activities, e.g. biomedical industry, informatics, ecology or editorial work. With proper training, working on a voluntary basis does not imply second-class taxonomy. If the largest part of the work of nonprofessionals concerns alpha taxonomy, which is a precondition for comparative morphology, these non-professional experts can reach a high standard of excellence, and may produce information about biological complexity (anatomy, ecology, behaviour, phenology) of great evolutionary and environmental interest and which does not depend upon using molecular techniques. Involving non-professionals does not mean that taxonomy will deliver lower quality results to increase its productivity, but rather that the professional taxonomist community ensures that the non-professional colleagues are properly trained when needed."},{"index":13,"size":231,"text":"The results presented in this paper are common knowledge of the taxonomic community, but have rarely, if ever, been quantitatively assessed. Moreover, they have been completely ignored outside the taxonomic community. In particular, decisionmakers and experts in commissions, panels and boards where funding is allocated to research fields, who are rarely taxonomists, may not realize that European biodiversity is by no means a completed task but rather a frontier of exploration. This probably accounts for the fact that most European countries and organizations allocate more funds to organize and analyze already existing taxonomic information than to biodiversity exploration. It is thus important that our results reach a large audience outside the taxonomic community. However, the importance of the nonprofessional workforce could be poorly interpreted. Among tenured professionals, its weight can be underestimated, as they consider it as a danger for the discipline: a large non-professional workforce, working for free, could carry the wrong message to decision-makers that taxonomy does not need funding. This danger should not be underestimated, and taxonomists should advocate the better integration of non-professionals in their community. Non-professional taxonomists, who cannot resist doing descriptive work on their favorite group during their free time -they simply love it -, will always be there, with or without incentive from the professionals. It is an opportunity to strengthen this discipline, and efforts should be made to take advantage of this situation."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"We refer to Europe as a geographical entity, extending from the Ural Mountains to the Macaronesian islands, as defined for Fauna Europaea [15]."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"The Fauna Europaea database as of January 2005 was used to measure the growth of taxonomic discovery in Europe from 1758 to 2004. Only valid species were considered. Dates of publication of species names were used to calculate cumulative numbers of valid species, in order to show the increase due to genuine species discoveries and not to changes in species concept."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"The analysis of current trends (1998-2007) is based on a dataset extracted from the Zoological Record, with the keywords ''sp. nov.'', ''syn. nov.'' and European country names. From this dataset, we excluded marine species, unicellular organisms, fossils, and taxa from the Asiatic parts of Russia and Turkey, as being outside the remit of this paper. Taxa described in 2007 were not included in the average number of new species per year, because they were still incompletely captured in the Zoological Record when the research was performed in 2009."},{"index":4,"size":179,"text":"The professional status of authors having described European species in 1998-2007 was assessed by Fauna Europaea Group Coordinators. The relevant Group Coordinator was asked to assign the first authors to one of four categories: professional taxonomists (a scientist who gets a salary primarily for taxonomic work), students, retired professional taxonomists, volunteer taxonomist (i.e. unpaid taxonomist, getting his/her income from any other source, academic or not, i.e. amateur in conventional terminology -this does not carry any judgment on the quality of the work done). We then classified taxonomists based on whether or not they get their income from doing taxonomy. This income-based categorization gives two types of taxonomists: N Professional taxonomists, who are paid to do taxonomy: those having a formal taxonomic position in a research facility for instance, and students who benefit from grants to become professional taxonomists. An academic researcher dividing his or her working time between research on conservation biology (or other non-taxonomic biological discipline) and taxonomy would be categorized as a professional taxonomist, as long as taxonomy is not incidental in his or her official position;"},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"N Non-professional taxonomists, who do taxonomy on a volunteer basis: this include amateurs in the broad sense, i.e. people who do taxonomy for pleasure, during their spare time, and get their income from other occupations. Among these amateurs are people who followed curricula in taxonomy but did not get a position in this discipline. Retired taxonomists, who are often very active, are also included in this category because they do not rely on doing taxonomy to get their income."},{"index":6,"size":58,"text":"We acknowledge the fact that the status of non-financed Master/PhD candidates is in-between, as they are not paid but are nevertheless assigned to the ''professional taxonomists'' category. However, students (financed and non-financed) represent 1.6% of authors only, and trends and conclusions would not be significantly affected by an attribution of non-financed students to one or the other category."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"If the author was not known by the relevant Group Coordinator, and if no conclusive information could be found from other sources such as personal webpages or addresses given in recent publications, the author was discarded from the analysis. As a result, out of 1,323 different authors, the status of 323 could not be clarified."},{"index":8,"size":55,"text":"Testing of the variation in species description rates was carried out in two steps. First, the existence of breaking points in the relationships between cumulative numbers of species and year of description was tested with Davies' test [37], and secondly a segmented model [38] was fitted to the dataset using R Package segmented version 0.2-7."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Growth of the European taxonomic inventory. Cumulative number of valid species of European terrestrial and freshwater multicellular species since Linnaeus. A: All species. B: Birds, a virtually completely inventoried compartment of European biodiversity. C: Coleoptera, where the number of valid species has steadily increased and shows no sign of levelling. D: Acari, which remained neglected for two centuries, and are now exhibiting a high discovery rate. E: Platyhelminthes, where the impression of a saturated inventory could be due to a current lack of taxonomic workforce. F: Neuropterida orders, for which the rate of description is erratic and reflects bursts of activity by a handful of taxonomists. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036881.g001 "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure2. Current descriptions of new species in Europe. New species described from Europe in 1998-2007, expressed as percentages of the total of 5,881 species. Taxa representing less than 1% of the total are grouped. For each taxon, the percentages described by non-professional taxonomists (red), professional taxonomists (blue) and taxonomists whose status was unknown (grey) are indicated in histograms. Y-axis range on all histograms is 0-70%. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036881.g002 "},{"text":"Table 1 . Growth in European taxonomic inventory summary. Period Estimates (n.sp.year 21 ) 95% CI PeriodEstimates (n.sp.year 21 )95% CI 175821821 177.2 170.62183.8 175821821177.2170.62183.8 182221954 606.5 604.32608.7 182221954606.5604.32608.7 195522004 778.3 768.72787.9 195522004778.3768.72787.9  "}],"sieverID":"afd77494-1ec0-4d7e-bbf1-370dbe8c6055","abstract":"The number of described species on the planet is about 1.9 million, with ca. 17,000 new species described annually, mostly from the tropics. However, taxonomy is usually described as a science in crisis, lacking manpower and funding, a politically acknowledged problem known as the Taxonomic Impediment. Using data from the Fauna Europaea database and the Zoological Record, we show that contrary to general belief, developed and heavily-studied parts of the world are important reservoirs of unknown species. In Europe, new species of multicellular terrestrial and freshwater animals are being discovered and named at an unprecedented rate: since the 1950s, more than 770 new species are on average described each year from Europe, which add to the 125,000 terrestrial and freshwater multicellular species already known in this region. There is no sign of having reached a plateau that would allow for the assessment of the magnitude of European biodiversity. More remarkably, over 60% of these new species are described by non-professional taxonomists. Amateurs are recognized as an essential part of the workforce in ecology and astronomy, but the magnitude of non-professional taxonomist contributions to alpha-taxonomy has not been fully realized until now. Our results stress the importance of developing a system that better supports and guides this formidable workforce, as we seek to overcome the Taxonomic Impediment and speed up the process of describing the planetary biodiversity before it is too late."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07226d6804fe881392b03bf577b8e54f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/549754ab-6581-4daa-9eab-cf789d867db3/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Africa Food Safety Index (AFSI), tool for African countries to measure, monitor, and benchmark progress on key food safety indicators","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Outcome Impact Case Report: <Not Defined> Description of Stage reached: The African Union (AU) launched its second Comprehensive Africa Agriculture This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:46 (GMT+0) Geographic Scope: Regional Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Geographic Scope: RegionalNumber of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Region:  Region: • Sub-Saharan Africa  • Sub-Saharan Africa • Northern Africa  • Northern Africa Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: PACA -Partnership for Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: PACA -Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa  Aflatoxin Control in Africa Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • AU-IBAR -African Union -Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources • AU-IBAR -African Union -Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources • CTA -The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation • CTA -The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation • GFSP -Global Food Safety Partnership  • GFSP -Global Food Safety Partnership • ILRI -International Livestock Research Institute  • ILRI -International Livestock Research Institute Milestones:  Milestones: • Food Safety Index for multiple countries in Africa launched by AU-IBAR with technical inputs • Food Safety Index for multiple countries in Africa launched by AU-IBAR with technical inputs from A4NH  from A4NH  1 1  "}],"sieverID":"c1a825a6-4cbc-4559-8dd5-0af8e64d14d7","abstract":"P340 -Technological and institutional innovations for assessing, communicating and mitigating food safety risks designed and tested, with capacity building (Product Lines)"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0749f5e264483179458b7f120379d94a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8777b272-9459-4973-922d-4fb1aa94787f/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"28. Africa's growing risk of diseases that spread from animals to people","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"For centuries, East and Southeast Asia have been the hotspots of influenza and other emerging zoonotic diseases with pandemic potential, but in this century the region has also been the origin of novel coronaviruses causing both the 2002-2003 epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the 2019 coronavirus disease dubbed COVID-19. A major cause of the emergence of new influenzas is the increasing densities of people and their domestic animals. Greater human populations are also increasing human interactions with wild animals, which is speeding the acquisition of disease infections among people."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Africa is now catching up to Asia as an infectious disease hotspot. Africa now has the fastest-growing and youngest human population of any region in the world. In 1900, Africa south of the Sahara had around 100 million inhabitants; the population now stands at 1 billion and by 2100 is projected to grow to around 4 billion people. With increasing human populations and increasing demand for milk, meat, and eggs due to rising urbanization and incomes, the densities of humans and domestic animals are also increasing -particularly in coastal West Africa and North Africa and the highlands of East Africa. Figure 1 compares the current human, poultry, pig, and ruminant populations across Africa and Asia. Some regions of Africa are now approaching the high density levels seen in Asia."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"In past centuries in Africa, animal pathogens jumping to humans almost always caused limited outbreaks -reflecting the comparatively low densities of people and animals and their relative isolation. However, this pattern is changing, with increases in both frequency of emergence and expanded spread in human populations. Here, we highlight key changes in human, animal, and environmental health drivers contributing to more frequent emergence and greater spread of emerging zoonoses in Africa, now and in the future. Understanding these changes is critical in developing preventive and rapid response strategies and capacities to mitigate the increasing risk of epidemics of emerging diseases in Africa."}]},{"head":"Emergence and spread of zoonotic pathogens follow different patterns","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"While there are commonalities, each outbreak, epidemic, and pandemic has its own unique features."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"Tracing pathogen emergence from one host species to another has been greatly aided by the advent of genomic tools and improved but still limited sampling of the host species. These methods have helped us better understand the movement of pathogens from primates (HIV-AIDS), bats (Ebola), and rats (Lassa fever) to humans. Zoonotic pathogens can directly jump from an animal species to infect humans (HIV-AIDS from primates) or through other animal species that either act as an intermediate connector host or bridge (SARS-coronavirus and SARS-coronavirus 2 that causes COVID-19, from bats through other wildlife species then to humans) or as amplifier hosts of pathogens transmitted to humans (Nipah virus from bats, multiplied in pigs; influenza viruses mixing between human, pig, and poultry populations in East and Southeast Asia). While many new diseases originate in wildlife, for some of the most serious, livestock have been a connector or amplifier host."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Prevention or, failing that, rapid initial containment before an exponential growth of cases is the health goal. Low population density and stable societies serve as natural preventive measures. In Africa in  "}]},{"head":"125","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"the Future oF PandemIcS and Food SyStemS past centuries, infectious pathogens jumping from animals to humans almost always caused limited outbreaks or \"burned out.\" For example, simian immunodeficiency viruses have likely been transmitted from primates to humans from prehistoric times, but did not cause serious epidemics until the late 20th century. But the dramatic social, demographic, and health changes that began in late 19th century Africa helped to transform these occasional pathogenic wildlife-human spillovers into pandemics of human-to-human disease transmission, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"This new pattern of disease emergence is unfortunately likely to become increasingly common, given the dramatic rise in Africa's human population. "}]},{"head":"What might change regarding the frequency of pathogen emergence in primary animal hosts and subsequent transmission to humans and domestic animals?","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"This zoonotic pathogen and human disease pattern continues to evolve and change. Infectious zoonoses producing severe clinical illness and high mortality, such as Ebola and HIV-AIDS, are the most highly visible signs of emerging zoonoses in Africa. As in Asia, increasing changes in land use, including the expansion of human settlements and agricultural lands, are increasing contacts between humans and wild animal host species. That human disease outbreaks of yellow fever and other hemorrhagic fevers are associated with exposure to new pathogens through human incursions into forests has been well known for two centuries. But the routine exploitation of forests for mining and other resource extraction purposes in recent decades has created new opportunities for viral transmission."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Rising human populations in parts of Africa are accelerating the use of forests for hunting bushmeat for consumption and use in traditional medicines and trade. As in China, wet markets for bushmeat are also found in Africa and there is also considerable illegal international trade."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"Closer interfaces between dense human settlements and forests continue to expand. Many wildlife species -most worryingly, from a pathogen emergence perspective, bats -are increasingly adapting to peri-urban living. Accra, the capital of Ghana, is home to more than a million fruit bats and hunting and sales are important economic activities. One critical question is whether bat pathogens, including a range of bat coronaviruses, are also evolving to become more adapted to multiple animal hosts, including humans. Analyses of bat coronaviruses, including SARS-Cov-2, indicate that they may more easily mutate to infect humans than in the past."}]},{"head":"What might change in the frequency of zoonotic pathogen emergence and spread from intermediate or amplifier animal species?","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"For some emerging zoonoses, the spread of infections in domestic animal species is the key factor."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"For both Nipah and MERS (Middle East respiratory syndrome, caused by a coronavirus), the spread from bats to intermediate domestic animal hosts was important in the subsequent emergence of the disease in humans. These zoonoses are among those that continue to exist and could \"re-emerge\" at higher rates in humans with increasing human densities and poor management and hygiene of their main amplifier species -pigs for Nipah and camels for MERS."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Influenza viruses have been responsible for many epidemics over the past centuries, including the flu pandemic of 1918-19 that killed more people than any other documented pandemic -one-third of the world was infected and around 50 million people died. Interestingly, in the H5N1 (avian flu) epidemic of 2006-2011 that raised global animal and human health concerns, H5N1 infections became endemic in Indonesia but were relatively quickly eliminated following their introduction in West Africa, perhaps because Indonesia at that time had much greater poultry densities than West Africa. But West African poultry density is now catching up to Asia's."}]},{"head":"What is changing in human societies that facilitates the spread of emerging zoonotic pathogens?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Increasing human populations, urbanization, and rising incomes are changing Africa in fundamental ways. One major change is a dramatic increase in air travel between Africa and the rest of the world. While traditionally most African travel connections have been through Europe or the Middle East, in the past decade the number of African connections to Asia has been rising. The first \"African\" case of COVID-19 was diagnosed in Nigeria in a traveler coming from Italy."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"As in other developing regions, Africa's health and social support systems to serve the growing and more mobile human populations have lagged. This emerged as a critical issue in the AIDS epidemic in Africa. With regard to COVID-19, Marius Gilbert and colleagues combined data on Chinese air travel connections with available indices on health preparedness and infectious disease vulnerability indices to rank country risk. As noted above, Ebola outbreaks in Africa have usually been contained locally; the 2015 West Africa Ebola epidemic spread through countries with very weak health systems."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"In 2019, an Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo persisted as it occurred in a conflict zone. The combination of Africa's weak health systems, the expanding health needs of its growing populations, and its ongoing conflicts are a great concern for the continent's emerging zoonoses preparedness and response."}]},{"head":"Implications and opportunities for controlling emerging infectious diseases in Africa","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The rising risk of emergence and spread of zoonoses in Africa has significant consequences for the continent and the rest of the world. Epidemics in recent decades have varied in both their causes and effects and there are no common guidelines for the prevention or early control of zoonotic diseases."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"To increase Africa's resilience to the threat of emerging zoonoses, regional and global cooperation are essential. The continent's disease control capacity and preparedness programs should be increased and scarce resources should be transferred to where they are needed most. These require strengthening regional human (WHO regional office for Africa) and animal health (African Union-InterAfrican Bureau for Animal Resources) bodies. Governments and organizations should also adopt a coordinated One Health response across human, animal, and environmental health. Bringing these three disciplines together is essential to respond to the increasing threat of emerging zoonoses in Africa."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"The record thus far on COVID-19 and on past disease outbreaks shows that early, effective, and sustained response is essential to winning the battle over these diseases. Innovative use of information and communication tools and platforms and engagement of local communities are crucial to improved disease surveillance and effective response. Building these systems requires demand from the public and commitment from policymakers and investors. COVID-19 is a game-changer. It has shocked the world and continues to disrupt the daily lives of billions of people. Its eventual impacts on Africa are not yet fully apparent but may be enormous. But it will also provide important lessons in disease prevention and early response, the kind of lessons routinely ignored in the past, and point the way to combining effective disease-fighting practices linking human, animal, and environmental health."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 Population densities of humans, poultry, pigs, and ruminants in Africa and Asia "},{"text":"Humans Pigs Poultry Ruminants  Country boundary  Country boundary  Country boundaryCountry boundary People/1 km grid (2020) Birds/8 km grid (2010) People/1 km grid (2020)Birds/8 km grid (2010) 0   0   00 13,130   422,800   13,130422,800 26,260   845,600   26,260845,600 39,390 52,520 0 750 1,500 km 1,268,400 1,691,200 0 750 1,500 km 39,390 52,5200750 1,500 km1,268,400 1,691,2000750 1,500 km Country boundary  Country boundary  Country boundaryCountry boundary Pigs/8 km grid (2010) Animals/8 km grid (2010) Pigs/8 km grid (2010)Animals/8 km grid (2010) 0   0   00 2,270   25,390   2,27025,390 4,550   50,770   4,55050,770 6,820 9,100 0 750 1,500 km 76,150 101,530 0 750 1,500 km 6,820 9,1000750 1,500 km76,150 101,5300750 1,500 km  "},{"text":"table 1 Important examples of recent epidemic zoonoses not previously known EMERGING PRIMARY AMPLIFYING GEOGRAPHICAL APPROXIMATE EMERGINGPRIMARYAMPLIFYINGGEOGRAPHICALAPPROXIMATE ZOONOSIS ANIMAL HOST ANIMAL HOST IMPACT DATES ZOONOSISANIMAL HOSTANIMAL HOSTIMPACTDATES HIV-AIDS Primates  Global with major burden in Africa Late 1970s to present HIV-AIDSPrimatesGlobal with major burden in AfricaLate 1970s to present Ebola Bats* ? Africa (Central, East, West) Varied out-breaks; major epidemic in 2015 EbolaBats*?Africa (Central, East, West)Varied out-breaks; major epidemic in 2015 Nipah Bats Pigs SE Asia  NipahBatsPigsSE Asia Severe acute   Origin in China  Severe acuteOrigin in China respiratory syndrome Bats Civets to multiple other 2003 respiratory syndromeBatsCivetsto multiple other2003 (SARS)   countries  (SARS)countries Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) Bats Camels Middle East and East Africa 2008 to present Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)BatsCamelsMiddle East and East Africa2008 to present Covid-19 Bats tbd Origin in China to global December 2019 to present Covid-19BatstbdOrigin in China to globalDecember 2019 to present    East/Southeast  East/Southeast Avian flu (H5N1) Wild birds Poultry Asia to global (Americas 2005 to 2010 Avian flu (H5N1)Wild birdsPoultryAsia to global (Americas2005 to 2010    relatively spared)  relatively spared) Swine flu (H1N1) Pigs  Global 2009 Swine flu (H1N1)PigsGlobal2009  "}],"sieverID":"f99b29ce-60d1-4cca-841d-08b45fed1131","abstract":"Three-quarters of emerging human infectious disease outbreaks are \"zoonotic,\" meaning they originate from viruses and other pathogens infecting animals that then \"jump\" species to infect people. This \"species jump\" by pathogens is not new -it has occurred throughout pre-and recorded history. But in the last half of the last century, with the widespread use of antibiotics and vaccines, many had begun to believe that the era of infectious disease was ending. The story of epidemics, however, is always evolving. As we see clearly now with the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, which is believed to have originated from virus-infected meat or live animals sold in a traditional \"wet\" food market in Wuhan, China, our hopes for the end of infectious disease were badly misplaced. Over the last 100 years, in fact, there has been growing evidence of not less but more frequent emergence and greater spread of zoonotic pathogens in humans and animals. In recent decades, most of these zoonotic pathogens were reported in Europe and the United States. More recently still, Asia, Africa, and South America appear to be growing in importance as origins of zoonotic pathogens."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0756e078e61289e19806e9a8e3729365","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/irrigated_urban_vegetable_production_in_ghana-chapter-12.pdf"},"pageCount":16,"title":"2. Options for Local Financing in Urban Agriculture","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"raising animals -and few instances are found in subsequent phases such as (value-adding) processing and marketing of agro-products (for conventional markets as well as for innovative market niches such as 'fair-trade' or 'biological products or by direct sales to consumers (farmers' markets, pick-your-own fruit, home delivery schemes)."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Several studies carried out in Ghana to understand why people are marginalized in the financial system discuss the case of women and how to improve access (Akudugu et al. 2009;Egyir 2009;CMA 2008;and Onumah 2003). Limited access to credit is a key source of inefficiency that hampers trade and productivity enhancement. All the research mentions lack of collateral as the major contributor to the access problem. Other factors mentioned are lack of efficient storage facilities, poor transport, poorly developed systems of standard grades and measures and unreliable market information systems (Onumah, ibid)."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Due to the profit maximization goal of formal financial institutions any strategy that will not show a physical gain in the future is likely to be avoided. Lending to the entrepreneurial poor in urban agriculture may not be an option if the producers are not able to demonstrate that they have adequate capacity to mobilize resources for sufficient levels of production. Without support, such people remain under-empowered, both economically and socially."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"Economically, such people when engaged in agriculture rely mainly on natural resources such as rainfall. In the urban areas where treated water is expensive farmers who cannot afford it use wastewater as the key input for production; they have scant recourse to sophisticated machinery and improved seed; the quality of packaging materials is poor; and efficient postharvest handling and distribution processes are absent. Their sales are low so they have low income generation and cannot accumulate adequate savings, acquire assets or contribute to cooperatives when they join one. As they cannot contribute when they become members of cooperatives (or community-based organizations), they shy away from such groups and thus diminish their social empowerment. If urban producers would join legitimate and functional producer organizations they would improve their social capital and eventually obtain easier access to finance."}]},{"head":"The Current Situation of Financial Institutions in Accra","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"In Accra, universal banks dominate the operations of the financial system; there are also savings and loans companies, financial NGOs and projects, credit unions and rural/community banks. According to the register of licensed institutions, the Bank of Ghana showed in 2013 that after two decades of the Financial Sector Adjustment Programme (FINSAP), there are twenty-seven (27) universal banks (also referred to as the traditional commercial/development banks), 135 rural banks, and 58 non-bank financial institutions, which include 25 finance companies, 24 savings and loans companies, 3 credit reference bureau, 2 leasing, 3 finance and leasing and 1 mortgage finance company (http://www.bog.gov.gh/)."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The Ghana Microfinance Institutions Network (GHAMFIN) was established in 1998 to act as an umbrella organisation for currently about 80 regulated and non-regulated microcredit institutions which is however only a small fraction of the various microfinance institutions in the country. Most financial institutions were established between the 1980s and 2000s, especially after FINSAP was inaugurated in 1987. The vision, mission and objectives of all the financial institutions point to \"provision of efficient service and stakeholder satisfaction\"."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"However, the financial NGOs and rural banks specify that their core business is to contribute to the development of the marginalized 2 and poor (Box 12.1) although there is expected economic return on any loan offered. \"Institutions with microfinance products are not charities; the funds they operate belong to share holders who expect returns on their investments\" (Bank Manager, La Community Bank)."},{"index":4,"size":154,"text":"Clearly, the major objective of the banking institution is to minimize risk as much as possible. Rawlinson and Fehr (2002) observed that there is conflict between achieving maximum development impact and attaining profit. \"As with any company, the bottom line of sustainability through profit comes first, and development must take second place as a priority\" (ibid). It is noted that many of the institutions do not have any external support in the form of finance or infrastructure development. Funds are obtained from \"shareholders, the bigger banks or Bank of Ghana or generated from deposits, savings and interest on loans and 2 An example is ECLOF (Ecumenical Church Loan Fund) with its Ghana office in Accra which is the practical arm of the ecumenical community and reaches out through its network of churches with a focus on financing the development of people who have been economically and socially marginalized, independently of their particular faith (www.eclof.org)."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"Box 12.1: Generally, microfinance encompasses the provision of financial services and the management of small amounts of money through a range of products and a system of intermediary functions that are targeted at low income clients. It includes loans, savings, insurance, transfer services and other financial products and services. Microcredit is thus one of the critical dimensions of the broad range of financial tools for the poor (Asiama and Osei 2007)."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"on-lent to clients (Manager, UniCredit)\". There are a few (10%) institutions with external support but they also believe that \"in order to sustain oneself in the competitive market and improve the life of clients consistently we need to strive to become the preferred 'bank' of choice in future\" (Executive Director, ECLOF Ghana)."},{"index":7,"size":98,"text":"All the financing institutions are conscious of the riskiness of small businesses; business related to primary agriculture -the cultivation of crops, rearing of livestock and fishing -are deemed the riskiest. Some stakeholders believe that, \"our company has suffered greatly by lending funds to pineapple farmers in Nsawam. A large percentage of that loan remained unpaid for a long time and was written off. The farmers claimed the weather failed, they had poor yield, their buyers failed to pay back and they just will not make any effort to also pay the bank\" (Manager, Women's World Banking, Madina, Accra)."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"Agriculture in Ghana is perceived to be the highest-risk business because the management of water, soil fertility, pests and diseases is rarely dependent on improved technology."},{"index":9,"size":131,"text":"Dependence on natural rainfall and climatic elements makes production seasonal and the fresh produce highly perishable. Without effective soil fertility, weed, insect, disease and other pest control management, yields and the quality of produce remain low. This situation results in low farm income, particularly when the market prices cannot be controlled by farmers themselves and the amounts offered are low. In the survey, although all the microfinance institution (MFIs) (i.e. the savings and loans companies, credit unions and financial NGOs) agreed that they do not discriminate against farmers, they also added that farmers were not their preferred choice. They give loans to farmers who have title to land and can show regular flow of income. Indeed, about 90% of the universal banks (Agricultural Development Bank, Ghana Commercial Bank, Barclays Bank, etc.) "}]},{"head":"located in and around","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Accra admitted that they have never given any loans to smallholder farmers in the area. Most microfunds have been lent to traders of food commodities -retailers of eggs, vegetables and grains."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Many of the firms preferred to finance urban agricultural commerce -sale of vegetables, foodstuffs and eggs under their 'microfinance schemes'. They avoid primary agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Only three out of the 37 financial institutions surveyed had special loan products for agricultural activities in the city (Table 12.1). The three institutions that offered credit to urban producers included ECLOF Ghana, ProCredit Ltd. and the Micro Finance and Consultancy Services (MFCS) project. The producers were vegetable and livestock farmers and fish processors. Two of the three provided figures for the 2009 financial year. The total value of credit provided by them was about USD49 643 (GH₵ 3 69,500) and served only 46 farmers. "}]},{"head":"ECLOF's Akuapa loan","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"The Akuapa loan was created in 2009 and it served next to many other farmers and traders also 20 urban farmers in Accra. The lowest loan offered was GH₵200 and the highest was GH₵800 (USD 570). All the clients were given seven months to pay back the loan, they paid 4% per month as interest and another 3% per month as insurance. Each of them belonged to a group of five. At the time of discussion, 60% of the loan had been paid, about 30% had defaulted on repayment for one month; as the period of repayment was not up delinquency was not anticipated. Part of the principal loan amount and interest was collected each fortnight (range = GH₵20-80). About 50% of the clients did not keep to the scheduled payment dates but paid at their own convenience."}]},{"head":"The MFCS Multiple Agroloan","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"The MFCS agroloan was offered to two groups of farmers in 2009 -the Dzorwulu Vegetable Farmers Cooperative Society and Sowutuom Poultry Farmers Group. The project specified a loan ceiling of GH₵500 (USD 357) per person, therefore members could not apply for any higher amount. However, if a member applied for an amount lower than the ceiling figure the balance could be given to a group member who had requested more. Each of the group members was given a one-month moratorium, six-month repayment period, one-month default deferment after the six months and reprieve for 'within-period defaults'. The latter means that if one did not make payments on due dates, no penalties were considered. The project required group guarantee, individual guarantors and records of key activities (production volume and expenditure, sale, key purchasers, key market centers) of the past year."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"A special product was developed for poultry farmers because the GH₵500 was deemed inadequate in the context of the procurement cost anticipated for the end-of-year season. In October 2009, they were granted GH₵1,000 each for a three-month (no moratorium) period."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"They were required to show evidence of bank savings or checking accounts apart from the personal guarantors provided. Only two out of the six parties did not default on repayment; two of them defaulted throughout the period and made the total payment a fortnight after the expected final repayment date."}]},{"head":"Other Financial Services","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Savings, insurance and remittance finance services are available; savings is well-known and critical to micro-entrepreneurs, including urban agricultural producers. There is no indication of the practice among urban producers. There is minimum barrier to savings in both the formal and informal sectors. Apart from financing NGOs, all the financial institutions surveyed offered savings, insurance and money transfer services."}]},{"head":"Bottlenecks in Financing Poor Urban Farmers","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"There are three constraints that slow down or stop urban farmers from easy access to financial services, especially loans from the formal financial sector: farmer characteristics, organizational capacity of financial institutions and the macro-environment. The study found that irrespective of whether short-or longer-term financial support was required, farmer characteristics are the primary constraint to financing."}]},{"head":"Personal Characteristics of Urban Farmers","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Urban vegetable farming in Accra is dominated by adults of between 24 and 68 years of age."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Men (95%) dominated farming and women (99%) dominated commerce. Many have religious affiliations (Christianity or Islam) and many are migrants (Table 12.2). With respect to residential location, many urban producers are tenants in low-income areas of city suburbs."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"A few who claim they live in their own accommodation described incomplete buildings or makeshift (wooden) structures on parcels of land that belong to the government or families in the diaspora; some of the structures are on lands under dispute. Even though many of them owned mobile phones, indicating that they could be reached at any time, there is a growing phenomenon that can be described as if you do not want to be disturbed by those you owe, change your mobile phone chip. It is very easy to do this in Ghana; chips are not registered and it costs less than USD1.00 to replace one."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"In short, the urban agricultural producers, like many urban poor workers, have no permanent address. Agricultural production was the full-time occupation of a significant share of the respondents, while others had small side jobs, depending on traditional technologies with few associated benefits. Although exotic vegetables can lift them out of poverty (see chapter 4) others earn less than the minimum daily wage of USD2.91 (May 2013). Such low earnings are partly because many urban agricultural producers are not involved in wholesale trade."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"Many of the farmers sell on farm and depend on prices offered by their client traders (see chapter 3)."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"This implies that urban agricultural producers are high-risk cases. They have no permanent address, inconsistent flow of income and operate in weak networks. Aryeetey (2005) observed that projects with high repayment rates often include an appropriate sociocultural environment, that is, the population is not transient, which helps to reduce default as social sanctions are strongest in a stable population."},{"index":7,"size":85,"text":"Urban farmers mostly associate with the informal financial sector. In 2008/2009, many (60%) respondents received credit from informal sources, usually, friends, relatives and trading partners. Danso and Drechsel (2003) observed that \"while many agricultural activities in Ghana are financed either by the government or by external aid, the urban farmers producing for the market usually have to rely on self-financing (own funds) to start their businesses, or rely on credit from market women for the purchase of inputs (especially seeds and agrochemicals; see chapter 3)."},{"index":8,"size":28,"text":"In the 2009 study only six (5% of) respondents confirmed that they received credit from formal sources of finance such as savings and loans companies and microfinance NGOs."},{"index":9,"size":45,"text":"They obtained GH₵500; about 30% required more than 50% of the amounts they obtained but they were rationed. Lenders of credit are cautious about default so apart from sharing only what is available, some borrowers are denied the total amount applied for to minimize risks."},{"index":10,"size":147,"text":"The precautionary measures that lenders adopt in order to minimize the risks of default include screening of borrowers to ensure that those who cannot repay are excluded; creating incentives for successful borrowers to be able to repay; and developing various enforcement strategies to ensure that those who are able to repay do so (Nathan et al. 2004). Indeed, the six producers mentioned earlier were successful because they were prepared to save before the credit offer; they showed evidence of permanent business premises and provided guarantors whose income-generating capacity was high. In communities where microentrepreneurs have shown a high level of discipline and credit worthiness a higher access rate has been recorded. Akudugu et al. (2009) reported that about 81% of rural women farmers who applied for or demanded credit from rural banks in the Upper East region of Ghana were successful in their credit applications or demand."},{"index":11,"size":123,"text":"When producers were asked to list obstacles to formal credit access, they listed elements that showed that improvement in the system lies primarily with the producers themselves: poor business management skills and returns, inadequate knowledge of the financing system, high number of dependents and expenditure points, illiteracy, wrong perceptions about financial institutions and compulsory participation in producer organizations (Table 12.3). The 'difficult financing terms' (long processing period, group membership, short repayment period and in particular high interest rates between 10 and 60% per annum, average 37.6% in 2009) can be attributed to financial institutions. Nonetheless, high-risk borrowers cannot be given easy terms (Arnoud et al. 1991). At other times clients give erroneous information which needs to be clarified before the process is completed."},{"index":12,"size":11,"text":"TABLE 12.3. Obstacles to accessing formal credit for poor urban producers."}]},{"head":"Obstacle Rank (perception of researcher)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Poor business management skills and returns 1"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"High number of dependents and expenditure points 2"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Inadequate knowledge of the financing system 3"}]},{"head":"Illiteracy of producers 4","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Difficult financing terms offered by institutions 5"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Wrong perceptions about financial institutions 6"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Refusal to join or contribute to group dynamics 7"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Source: Survey data, 2009."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"The general indication is that even informal units deal with specific groups of people, ensuring that only those who can satisfy distinct selection criteria are able to either deposit with or borrow from them (Aryeetey 2005). Projects with high repayment rates often include many procedures: training programs for participants; nonsubsidized interest rates; integrated formal written membership requirements and screening measures; criteria in their bylaws to ensure discipline among members; a savings program concomitantly accompanies lending;"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"and an appropriate sociocultural environment, for example a fixed population, which helps to reduce default as social sanctions are strongest in a stable population (Aryeetey 2005)."}]},{"head":"Organizational Capacity of Financial Institutions","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Financial institutions are profit-making ventures. This means that they monitor phases such as return on investment, return on equity, turn over, debt, growth, success and sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Projects with high repayment rates will be preferred. If high repayment is to be achieved among poor urban agricultural producers then activities such as training programs for participants and facilitation of producer groups to ensure that they integrate formal written membership requirements and screening measures in their bylaws to ensure discipline among members are introduced."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"The default rates recorded by financial institutions that have micro-credit schemes are high at about 29% (Table 12.4); those with high recovery rates (say 75%) use the collateral or cash guarantee system. They follow the principle of high outreach activities and drive towards self-sustainability (Aryeetey 2005). Financial self-sustainability is achieved when the return on equity, net of any subsidy received, equals or exceeds the opportunity costs. Outreach is measured on the basis of the types of clientele served and the variety of financial services offered, including the value and number of loans extended, value and number of savings accounts, type of financial services offered, number of branches and village sub-branches, percentage of the total rural population served, real annual growth of the institution's assets over recent years and participation of women as clients."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"Most of the financial institutions have the technical capacity to train and carry out the facilitation processes. However, the cost of sustaining such programs which is expected to be fee-free cannot be sustained by the institutions. Many of the institutions that provide these facilities have grants and other social support for a brief period. When clients are not able to show in full all the necessary documents required (pay slip, bank statement, guarantors' identity cards among others), firms reduce the risk of slow pay back by rationing. Formal financial institutions also ration credit when they are overwhelmed by applications. Each bank may lend an amount equal to its excess reserves and not more. When the applications are excessive or the amounts requested are high the bank naturally reduces the amount offered."}]},{"head":"The Macro-environment of Poor Urban Farmers","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Ghana's macro-economy is characterized by high inflation (over 10% for the past decade), a falling cedi, high unemployment rates, high balance of payments deficits and low economic growth (about 6% in the last decade). The situation though said to be improving in the last few years, constrains financial institutional practice (Acemoglu et al. 2003). The current practices of local financial institutions can be traced to the liberalization of Ghana's financial sector in 1987. The liberalization strategy was part of the broader FINSAP; it led to the entry of new banks and nonbank financial institutions (NBFIs). As part of FINSAP, controls on bank interest rates were removed; capital bases, management and accounting information systems were also strengthened. In addition a legal and regulatory framework with effective supervision by the central bank, Bank of Ghana (BoG) was put in place. This means that the minimum capital requirements of the bank and NBFIs are reviewed from time to time and this can affect the outreach of financial institutions; banks tend to be protective and minimize risk."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"A key macro-environmental factor that serves as a bottleneck in credit access is poor road surface condition and inadequate road networks. This limits branch establishment and Reasons for Credit Rationing outreach. The mobile phone allows for information and communication technology (ICT)based transactions but the registration system is not effective. The law stipulated that by July 2011, all individuals should have their phones registered. However, the cost of replacing a chip remains low."}]},{"head":"Opportunities for Financing Urban Agriculture","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The aforesaid factors suggest that there are opportunities for financing urban agricultural producers: financing institutions exist, producers' demand is expressed, political will is there, the macro-economic indicators are improving and the sociological and technological environment can be addressed."}]},{"head":"Presence of financing institutions:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"There is a liberal financing system and there are several financing institutions with micro-and small financing schemes: all the financing institutions encountered have small and medium enterprise [SME] banking and microfinance desks (small loans units). A few have specific products for agriculture so with further sensitization and negotiation the special cases of urban agricultural producers can be packaged. The financial institutions recognize that as part of social responsibility well-organized urban producers' associations can be offered certain communal inputs as they often do towards the Farmers Awards Day in December each year."}]},{"head":"Producer Financing Needs Can Be Determined","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"The financing needs of urban agricultural producers can be determined   The sociological environment is suitable; there are no significant cultural barriers to savings and credit by any group of people. The financing institutions prefer economically active and business-minded clients. Many institutions have branches that are situated fairly close to the communities in which the poor live in and around Accra. This has improved (albeit slightly) the financing culture of the economy; the savings culture of the poor needs more work."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The ICT age allows the use of multimedia and gadgets to simplify the packaging of messages and training of groups and individuals whose literacy level is low. ICT is also improving the effectiveness of linkages of producers to markets. The openness of the economy allows importation of improved machinery, seeds/breeds, pesticides and fertilizers and other technologies to support intensive production."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"The only environment that needs critical attention is the macro-economy: as economic indicators such as inflation become unfavorable (double digit), the financial system retards and narrows its credit clientele base to include more secured ones. The inflation rate of the past decade has been between 10 and 18%. It puts the Central Bank prime rate at 20% and commercial bank base rate at 25%. Urban and peri-urban vegetable growers often use very intensive production systems to receive maximum outputs from small plots of land (FAO 2007, Obuobie et al. 2006). If not properly financed and advised farmers might miss the means needed to shift from improper use of maybe low-cost but harmful chemicals to safer products or invest in on-farm wastewater treatment."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"All financial institutions involved in SME banking and/or micro-financing need to participate in the mobilization of such micro-and small enterprises for training in sound business management. Sound business management will ensure that resources -land, labor and capital -are planned and controlled in a sustainable way for consistent profit making. With consistent profit-making saving, excess cash will not be difficult to find; once this prerequisite of many financial institutions is met other areas of discipline can be worked at through the dynamics of the cooperative strategy."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"This study has demonstrated that there is opportunity for providing financial support to poor urban farmers. There are different categories of financial institutions available in Accra and its environs. Many of the institutions have financial products that can serve the interest of the entrepreneurial poor so urban farmers can also benefit; much negotiation and learning is necessary. Key bottlenecks can be traced to the characteristics of the farmers, capacity of financial institutions and the macro-environment situation. In order to improve the access of small-scale urban producers to financial support, the following eight steps are recommended: they center on changes in attitudes of poor urban agricultural producers, policy changes of financial institutions and improvement of support by the District Assembly.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" FIGURE 12.1. Reasons why financial institutions refuse full loans. Source: CMA (2008). "},{"text":" . The examples of vegetable farmers and poultry farmers are shown in Figures 12.2 and 12.3. Concerning recent trends in the financing of vulnerable groups in Ghana, since the era of women's empowerment in the early 1980s and that of inclusiveness in the first decade of the twenty-first century, micro-finance for the rural poor and women has increased. Women and the poor who belong to credible groups have benefited from public financing projects with relatively low interest rate such as the Governmental Micro Finance And Small Loans Centre (MASLOC) and the Support Programme For Enterprise Employment And Development (SPEED), NGOs such as Sinapi Aba Trust and savings and loans companies such as ProCredit Ltd.. Urban farming was assumed to be a hobby and insignificant in terms of business activity. With the study's demonstration of the income-generating capacity of the venture, like open-space vegetable farming, nothing should stop these activities from being assisted by financing institutions. Improvement in the political, economic, sociological and technological environment in the past decade is an opportunity for improved financial systems. Countries pursuing poor macro-economic policies and with weak institutional capacity, including political institutions that do not constrain politicians and political elites, ineffective enforcement of property rights for investors, widespread corruption and a high degree of political instability suffer from slow growth (Acemoglu et al. 2003). "},{"text":"FIGURE FIGURE 12.2. Seasonal demand for credit by vegetable farmers in Dzorwulu, Accra, in 2009. "},{"text":"FIGURE FIGURE 12.3. Demand for credit by poultry farmers in Sowutuom (Ga South District). "},{"text":" 1. Agricultural producers should change their attitudes by participating in groups and associations formed to learn more about their trade (see chapter 11). They can then seek for sustainable external support once they obtain legitimization by registering with the Department of Cooperatives or the Registrar General's Department. 2. Urban farmers are squatters; they cannot own land so they should seek to obtain memoranda of understanding from their landlords. Partnering with them can generate confidence in the sustainability of their enterprises. 3. Urban agricultural producers should enrol in adult classes and improve their literacy status; exposure will improve their learning ability and information-seeking skills. 4. Urban farmers should secure permanent addresses to gain trustworthiness. 5. Financial institutions should involve urban agricultural producer groups during their outreach programs. The income-generating capacity of open-space vegetable farming is high enough to deserve any assistance by financing institutions. 6. Financial institutions should pilot urban agro-products. As part of the financial literacy training programs, modules on savings, insurance and money transfer operations should be prioritized. 7. Actions on conditioning of road surfaces by the Department of Feeder Roads should be expedited to make remote areas of urban centers and peri-urban communities more accessible to field officers of microfinance institutions and NGOs. "},{"text":"8. Additional resources should be provided to the statutory institutions of extension and group facilitation (the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Department of Cooperatives and Community Development) to improve their group facilitation operations. "},{"text":"TABLE 12 . 1 . Agroloan products of financial institutions. Financial Name of Value of loans Value of Type of Number of FinancialName ofValue of loansValue ofType ofNumber of institution product in 2009 (GH₵) loans in 2009 producer producers institutionproductin 2009 (GH₵)loans in 2009producerproducers    (GH₵)   (GH₵) ECLOF Akuapa 10,714 15,000 Poultry farmers 20 ECLOFAkuapa10,71415,000Poultry farmers20 Ghana    and fish  Ghanaand fish     processors  processors MFCS Multi- 13,929 19,500 Vegetable and 26 MFCSMulti-13,92919,500Vegetable and26 project agro loan   poultry farmers  projectagro loanpoultry farmers Total  24,643 34,500  46 Total24,64334,50046  "},{"text":"TABLE 12 . 2 . Summary of specific conditions of poor urban farmers.  General situation  General situation Characteristics Frequency Percentage Remark CharacteristicsFrequencyPercentageRemark Residential status   Diverse Residential statusDiverse Migrant 76 65  Migrant7665 Indigenous 41 35  Indigenous4135 Major occupation   Urban agricultural Major occupationUrban agricultural Agriculture only 105 90 producer Agriculture only10590producer Agriculture plus other 12 10  Agriculture plus other1210 Technologies employed   Mixed technology Technologies employedMixed technology Traditional inputs 117 100  Traditional inputs117100 Modern inputs 97 83  Modern inputs9783 Mobile phone 117 100  Mobile phone117100 Both traditional/modern 97 83  Both traditional/modern9783 Scale of operation   Micro-enterprise Scale of operationMicro-enterprise Micro 116 99  Micro11699 Small 1 1  Small11 Type of business (%)   Business depends solely Type of business (%)Business depends solely Sole owner 116 99 on one person Sole owner11699on one person Partnership 1 1  Partnership11 Membership of formal producer   Weak networking / Membership of formal producerWeak networking / organization (%)   interdependencies organization (%)interdependencies Yes 20 17  Yes2017 No 97 83  No9783 Gross income/month (USD)   Low to moderate Gross income/month (USD)Low to moderate 140-400 88 75 compared to the 140-4008875compared to the 400-500 25 22 minimum wage of USD 400-5002522minimum wage of USD >500 4 3 470 per month >50043470 per month Access to finance (2008/2009)   Informal finance Access to finance (2008/2009)Informal finance % Formal savings 6 5  % Formal savings65 % Informal savings 12 10  % Informal savings1210 % Received formal credit 6 5  % Received formal credit65 % Received informal credit 70 60  % Received informal credit7060 % Engaged in insurance 0 0  % Engaged in insurance00 % Received remittance 6 5  % Received remittance65 Source: Survey data, 2009 (Egyir, 2010).   Source: Survey data, 2009 (Egyir, 2010).  "},{"text":" observed by CMA 2008) (see Figure12.1): that the expected return on clients' investments was lower than declared; low savings capacity of clients; poor repayment history; poor social record; low show of client commitment to financial education and counseling prior to loan supply and refusal to show all necessary documents requested. Distribution of loan recovery and default rates of financial institutions. TABLE 12.4. Variable Frequency Percentage TABLE 12.4. VariableFrequencyPercentage Loan recovery rate   Loan recovery rate 40-50 3 8.1 40-5038.1 51-60 2 5.4 51-6025.4 61-70 1 5.4 61-7015.4 71-80 12 32.5 71-801232.5 81-90 10 27.0 81-901027.0 90-100 8 21.6 90-100821.6 Mode 75%  Mode75% Mean 79.8%  Mean79.8% Standard deviation 15.5%  Standard deviation15.5% Minimum 40%  Minimum40% Maximum 100%  Maximum100% Default rate   Default rate <21 19 51.4 <211951.4 21-40 7 18.9 21-40718.9 41-60 9 24.3 41-60924.3 61-80 2 5.4 61-8025.4 Mode 10%  Mode10% Mean 29.0%  Mean29.0% Standard deviation 20.6%  Standard deviation20.6% Minimum 0%  Minimum0% Maximum 72%  Maximum72% Source: Survey data, 2009.   Source: Survey data, 2009.  "}],"sieverID":"22462c5b-5a4f-423d-8fd3-186fdca5bc01","abstract":"Access to debt financing (credit) is crucial to the development of urban agricultural production, processing and marketing activities. This chapter is based on a 2009 study 1 carried out in Accra to assess the practices of institutions and programs that could finance urban agriculture as well as the existing bottlenecks and opportunities in financing.Information is based on surveys involving 179 respondents sampled from financial institutions; urban farmers (not limited to vegetable farmers), traders and processors; literature reviews, stakeholder mapping; focus group discussions; key informant interviews; and a validation workshop."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07de5a2d8a0892bfbf112feca7268473","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/49981b74-cbb5-4492-93b5-cf6540f4087d/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Guided Action Learning on Agricultural Innovation Systems, Integrating Gender and Youth and Nutrition in AR4D Coaching","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"and/or integration, and the facilitation of multistakeholder processes [MSP]). This calls for creative capacity development (CapDev) trajectories that address emerging capacity building needs in an iterative way."}]},{"head":"Description","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Coaching is a systematic approach to guided learning. It is a proven method based on adult learning principles, and has been effectively used to guide action learning for research or project teams (some-times individuals, sometimes several people) within research organizations involved in agricultural development and innovation."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"During the first phase of the CRPs, CapDev activities involved a mix of traditional approaches along with experimentation and innovation that has been recognized as good practice. However, instead of building on the experimental and innovative approaches in their second phase, many CRPs have taken a 'business-as-usual' approach to CapDev, with MSc/PhD training and 'one-off' workshops continuing to dominate activities and investments."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Coaching has been found to be an effective way to build understanding of process-oriented themes such as gender integration, facilitation of innovation, creation of conditions for integrating youth, and addressing behavioral change and intra-household dynamics to improve nutrition outcomes."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"Understanding of these themes needs to evolve, which requires continuous engagement with the context, and an awareness of emerging needs, concerns and future challenges. Training may be used to impart particular knowledge and skills but tailored trajectories involve face-to-face, as well as at-a-distance, coaching from thematic experts. The latter could take place alongside ongoing support from a partner organization's content specialists and/or in-country consultants, where applicable. The coaching team's role is to act as a sounding board: to introduce concepts, tools, methodologies and facilitate reflection on past experiences that may be helpful for research teams on a specific thematic area. A coach must also motivate and trouble-shoot, as well as make links between various options and projects underway."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"A typical coaching process will include the following elements:"},{"index":6,"size":104,"text":"Step 1: Making a tailor-made coaching action plan. An initial meeting (face-to-face or at-adistance) will take place with the potential learner(s) to tailor a coaching pathway that supports the realization of the research, project, or option being supported. The needs of the researcher/ development professional vis-à-vis the research/ development intervention and the role of the coach will be discussed and together they will work out a coaching plan-of-action. This will include a set of tailored objectives for the coaching team, the main areas to be supported, a timeline (including expected numbers of hours/days required), and a list of expected deliverables for the coaching team."},{"index":7,"size":95,"text":"Step 2: Coaching-at-a-distance. Through Skype , email and phone calls, coaches will ask questions, answer questions, and discuss the various challenges project teams are facing. Coaches will provide insights using their experience of on-going projects (i.e. the immediate context of the learner), the existing body of literature, and their thematic experiences that are of relevance to the coaching. The responsibility for a proposal or intervention lies with the project team, but the coaching team will provide ideas, inspiration, new literature and direction, where relevant. The team may also offer feedback on proposals, analyses and reports."}]},{"head":"C","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"o m m unity l e v e l O r g a n iz ationa l l e v e l S y st em le v e l"}]},{"head":"Individual level","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Capacity Development in Systems -Practice Brief # 3"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Step 3: Coaching on-site. In some cases face-toface support may be useful or necessary. This could be to develop proposals, introduce concepts, or to go into more depth on a particular project. On-site visits will be made where required."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Coaching individual researchers or development teams can be combined with elements of blended learning or serious games (see Brief 2 in this series for more information). Often there is also a need to build organizational and institutional capacity to create a conducive environment for the researchers or teams to apply their newly acquired knowledge or skills."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Four themes emerge as worthy of using coaching: Coaching trajectories on nutrition and youth integration have been piloted in several projects in Asia (Cambodia)"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"and Africa (Morocco and Zambia, among others)."}]},{"head":"Requirements","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Resources required for a coaching trajectory can vary."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"A coaching trajectory for a research or project team requires an estimated 25 to 40 coaching days per annum (US$1,000 per day). Additional costs include travel, accommodation of the coaching team, and training workshop costs."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"The aim of this practice is to strengthen the integration of gender into research. Start where the research team is at and explore ways to improve their work. Coaches will target research or project teams (sometimes individuals, sometimes several people)."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"The coaching team will be made up of gender experts. The gender integrated research agenda of the CRP offers direction for the coaching processes."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"∞ Balance gender with other objectives. ∞ Find entry points where gender is relevant and will add substantively to the outcome. ∞ Make links between various options and projects underway."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"The process will entail elaboration and implementation of a strategy for the application/operationalization of agricultural innovation systems (AIS) approaches to maximize the contribution of a CRP's research to socio-economic development at the local level, by strengthening capacities of concerned staff in AIS and coaching them to put this capacity into practice."},{"index":7,"size":45,"text":"∞ Build a shared understanding of the AIS approach, integrated AR4D and innovation dynamics. ∞ Reflect on the role of research in facilitating innovation and the function of innovation platforms. ∞ Help facilitate multi-stakeholder processes (MSP) that effectively contribute to local innovation and socio-economic development."},{"index":8,"size":96,"text":"This product aims at building the capacity of scientists (individuals and teams) to harness the opportunities and innovation capacities of resource-poor young women and men in targeted agri-food systems. This will allow young women and men to make a decent living through employment, setting up businesses or through other appropriate means, directly or indirectly linked to agri-food systems. For more information please contact: a. Gender integration in research [email protected] b. Applying the innovations systems approach [email protected] c. Integrating youth concerns and issues in research [email protected] d. Bringing agriculture and nutrition together using a gender lens [email protected]"}]},{"head":"Resources required:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Resources required for a coaching trajectory can vary. A coaching trajectory for a research or project team requires an estimated 25 to 40 coaching days per annum (@ US$ 1000). Additional costs include travel, accommodation of the coaching team, and training workshop costs. In addition, there is a need to make available:"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"• sufficient funds for the integration and application of new concepts in research for development projects (e.g., 50 000 USD/project) to ensure resourcing of the project itself; • organization's experts participation in the project."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Capacity Development in Systems -Practice Brief # 3"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" offerings of each theme are detailed below. Capacity Development in Systems -Practice Brief # 3 Coaching trajectories on 'gender integration in research' and 'facilitation of agricultural innovation' has been successfully implemented in several projects in Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, including projects under the Maize and Livestock and Fish CRPs. "}],"sieverID":"ac153c70-128a-467a-b4cf-63d45f74e492","abstract":"Most recent agricultural research for development (AR4D) programs, including the second phase of CGIAR's Research Programs (CRP), have a strong focus on addressing the drivers of poverty and malnutrition by tailoring interventions using an integrated systems approach. This approach also addresses existing social and gendered norms that may affect the ability of the poor to access and benefit from research resources and outcomes. Using an integrated systems approach has strong implications for the required capacities of researchers, who are experts in their own technical areas but may need help to integrate systems approaches in their work (i.e. gender and youth analysis"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07f5141c0185f87522be12a9b5718acb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c22c8317-9b7f-4c70-9be9-36b71e413bf2/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Scaling of Different Innovations from SI-MFS (WP4)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The SI-MFS initiative in Bangladesh working on different innovations such as intensifying and diversifying cropping systems for better crop-livestock integration, intensifying and diversifying homestead gardens for improved nutrition, and sustainable intensification of livestock production within MFS. Under these initiatives, SI-MFS has done several scaling activities in 2023."}]},{"head":"Scaling activities","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"➢ Fodder crop distribution to >900 farmers ➢ Year-round homestead vegetable seed distribution >3000 farmers ➢ Short duration Aman rice seed distribution > 1000 farmers ➢ Awareness creating on different SI-MFS initiatives by organizing farmers' field days > 600 farmers."}]},{"head":"Fodder crop distribution","index":3,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"b53e9422-1f76-4615-a604-9bbcd149a6b2","abstract":"to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07fbfeb3beacdbd073ff52c9f29119c8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3fe5a71e-1a3b-4192-88d7-ffe07270d56d/retrieve"},"pageCount":57,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"vi","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Facilitating knowledge management for adaptation planning in Africa: Final project report Tables Table 1: Summary of prioritized tools and frameworks for adaptation planning in Kenya   "}]},{"head":"Background","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Climate change is increasingly threatening food systems and livelihoods in Africa, a continent with some of the most vulnerable populations in the world. The rate of surface temperature increase in Africa has generally been more rapid than the global average. Rising temperatures increase the possibility of extreme weather events occurring in multiple locations at the same time, posing a great risk to the global food supply chain and amplifying threats to global food security. Adaptation planning is crucial to reduce climate related risks in Africa. Addressing climatic shocks requires suitable tools, frameworks and methodologies to coordinate the actions of different actors and develop effective responses to climate change across different time horizons, geographies and sociopolitical structures."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Acting not only implies the need to identify strategies and responses that are practical, sound and meet the actors' varied interests but also requires careful and flexible planning. By increasing awareness and knowledge exposure of national stakeholders to decision support tools and frameworks, the project titled 'Facilitating knowledge management for adaptation planning in Africa' aims to greatly increase capacity for adaptation planning in Africa."}]},{"head":"Highlighting activities and findings","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The project (1) produced an inventory of adaptation planning tools and frameworks, (2) assessed the suitability of prioritized adaptation decision support tools and frameworks, (3) promoted disseminating prioritized adaptation decision support tools and frameworks, (4) built the capacity of national stakeholders in implementing adaptation decision support tools and frameworks. The project was implemented in Kenya (representing East Africa), Zambia (representing southern Africa) and Senegal (representing West Africa). Developed through a careful review and documentation process, the inventory identifies nine categories of adaptation planning tools and frameworks: "}]},{"head":"Conclusion and recommendations","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"While different tools and frameworks for adaptation planning are available, their access and use by national stakeholders for adaptation planning are often hindered by a lack of awareness and knowledge. Moreover, many frameworks require work in making them more gender adaptive, inclusive and finally transformative for better social representation and inclusion. The activities and outputs of the project are an important step towards unlocking Africa's adaptive potential to enhance resilience of farming systems and livelihoods to climate change. There is a need for further training on the inventory. The Food Security pillar of the Africa Adaptation Acceleration Program (AAAP) offers an opportunity to expand the capacity building efforts started by the project. The AAAP is mobilizing USD 25 billion to accelerate and scale climate adaptation action across the African continent through interventions in four priority areas: food security, resilient infrastructure, youth entrepreneurship and job creation. Mainstreaming and adapting the inventory to different African contexts will accelerate the goal of enhancing resilience of farming systems and livelihoods to climate change through wide-scale use of suitable adaptation planning tools. Therefore, in terms of future work aimed at increased dissemination of adaptation planning tools and frameworks and capacity building of national stakeholders, the following specific recommendations are made:"},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"1. While several tools were identified and documented in the inventory, the time required to carefully assess them was short given the duration and size of the project. Our dissemination and prioritization workshops required participants to rank the top three tools within each of the nine categories. This process yielded prioritized 27 tools in each country. Future work should consider providing national stakeholders more time to review and come down to a set of recommended tools."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"2. Further assessing the tools should consider ways to make them more socially inclusive and gender accommodative."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"3. Relatedly, the project team observed significant differences in the prioritized tools by the different countries. This reflects important differences both in terms of the climatic shocks facing the different regions as well as the needs and capacities of the countries. Therefore, to ensure accurate representation of the continent, we recommend conducting dissemination, prioritization and capacity building activities and efforts in more countries in Africa."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"4. We recommend that capacity building activities and efforts should be focused at both the national level and regions within a specific country. This again is in recognition of the heterogeneity that exists even within a country, meaning that priorities will vary considerably by region. For example, in Kenya, there was strong interest among the county governments to conduct capacity building activities at the decentralized level."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"5. There is a need for further training on the inventory. Following feedback received from the three workshops held so far in Kenya, Zambia and Senegal, we recommend organizing similar activities in northern Africa."},{"index":7,"size":60,"text":"6. Due to budgetary and time limitations, Zambia (southern Africa) had not been considered for the in person capacity building workshops. While the project was able to support developing the climate smart agriculture (CSA) manual and guidelines, the project team recommends conducting in person training workshops in Zambia (for southern Africa) in response to the demand by the national stakeholders."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Climate change including increases in frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, rising temperatures and erratic rainfall patterns has already taken a toll on the highly vulnerable human populations in Africa by affecting their livelihoods and putting a strain on their already limited adaptive capacities (IPCC 2021). Global surface temperature has increased by 1.09°C from 1850-1900 to 2011-2020 (Arias et al. 2021). Global warming trends observed in recent decades are projected to continue over the 21st century and over most land regions at a rate higher than the global average. In Africa, the rate of surface temperature increase has generally been more rapid than the global average (see, for example, the IPCC regional factsheet for Africa). 1 The IPCC fifth assessment (AR5) projects 'more frequent and longer heatwaves and warm spells in Africa' in addition to 'likely surface drying in southern Africa by the end of the 21st century'. Mean precipitation changes have been observed all over Africa as well (Almazroui et al. 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"Research suggests that there is a strong spatial dependence of climate extremes which has led to frequently concurrent climate extremes in different parts of the world (Zhou et al. 2023). The adverse impacts of climate change are expected to substantially increase in an accelerated way over the course of this century (Fischer and Knutti 2015;Magnan et al. 2021). Changing temperature and precipitation patterns associated with climate change are expected to disrupt food systems across the world through impacts on agricultural production, as well as on the health and socio-economic status of agricultural labourers and consumers (Bosello et al. 2006;McMichael et al. 2006;Dell et al. 2012;Myers et al. 2014;Nelson et al. 2014). Both the crop and livestock sectors are increasingly threatened by climate change (Rojas-Downing et al. 2017). Spatially concurrent climate extremes impose a great risk to the global food supply chain and amplify threats to global food security (Tigchelaar et al. 2018;Anderson et al. 2019;Gaupp et al. 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"Therefore, there is an urgent need of developing and implementing adequate and effective adaptation plans to reduce vulnerability and build resilience to withstand the current and future impacts of climate change (UNEP 2021). Developing and implementing adaptation plans is particularly important given the reliance of many African countries on the sectors most vulnerable to climate change, such as crop agriculture and livestock. All Parties to the Paris Agreement commit to engage in adaptation planning processes and implementing actions with a view to contributing to the global goal on adaptation of enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability (UNEP 2021). To ensure efficient programming and targeted support, it is crucial to harness and share lessons learnt from country's experiences with developing and implementing the national adaptation plans. Furthermore, good collaboration among affected stakeholders is crucial for effective adaptation action. However, there is little information about suitable methods and frameworks for coordinating the actions of different actors and developing responses to climate change across different time horizons, geographies and sociopolitical structures."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"To address this gap, the project titled 'Facilitating knowledge management for adaptation planning in Africa' implemented several activities aimed at achieving the main outcome of knowledge exchange and increased capacity to use cross cutting tools and methodologies for adaptation planning."}]},{"head":"Overall goal and objectives","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The overall goal was to enhance resilience of farming systems and livelihoods to climate change through wide-scale use of suitable adaptation planning tools. Specific project objectives took a continental approach but with a deeper dive focused geographically on Kenya (representing East Africa), Zambia (representing southern Africa) and Senegal (representing West Africa) as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Objective 1: Review existing frameworks, tools and methodologies and assess their potential and effectiveness for adaptation planning."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Objective 2: Promote wide-scale disseminating adaptation planning frameworks, tools and methodologies through enhanced organizational and individual capacity for applying the frameworks, tools and methodologies."}]},{"head":"Approach: Outputs and activities","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"The two objectives were achieved through two main outputs:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Output 1: Tools and methodologies for adaptation planning are identified and disseminated"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"To ensure availability of tools and methodologies for adaptation planning, the following specific activities were implemented:"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Activity 1.1: A review of existing frameworks, tools and methodologies"},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Several efforts have been implemented in the past to develop tools and methodologies for supporting adaptation planning in Africa. Building on such efforts, the project reviewed and produced an inventory of existing evidence, frameworks, tools and methodologies and provided a careful documentation of the lessons learnt in their development and application in Africa."},{"index":6,"size":221,"text":"Searches were conducted in English language peer-reviewed journals, grey literature such as institutional reports and briefs accessible on the internet and organizational websites. We focused on articles, reports and briefs that describe an adaptation planning tool, framework or database. The titles and abstracts of these references were screened and duplicate records were removed. A two stage screening strategy was used to determine the relevance of articles returned from search strings to the research objective. In stage one, article abstracts and titles were screened. In stage two, the full texts for those abstracts meeting the initial inclusion criteria were downloaded and screened by the same eligibility criteria. In addition to the literature review, we consulted researchers and projects in the CGIAR. Shikuku et al. (2023) documents the inventory. The complete report is accessible online at https://hdl.handle. net/10568/131222. The report further provides a description of each of the identified tools, explains how it works and suggests potential users. Three workshops were conducted to share the knowledge of the identified tools and frameworks for adaptation planning and to connect the stakeholders to the existing knowledge sharing platform and networks. The workshops were conducted in three countries to ensure representation from across the continent: Kenya (represented East Africa), Zambia (represented southern Africa) and Senegal (represented West Africa). The workshops were held on the following dates:"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"• 18 July 2023 in Nairobi, Kenya"},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"• 09 August 2023 in Lusaka, Zambia"},{"index":9,"size":7,"text":"• 29 August 2023 in Dakar, Senegal"},{"index":10,"size":24,"text":"The workshops aimed at linking the national stakeholders to the identified tools and frameworks for adaptation planning, to promote wide-scale use for resilience building."},{"index":11,"size":8,"text":"The specific objectives of the workshop were to:"},{"index":12,"size":10,"text":"• Disseminate knowledge about tools and frameworks for adaptation planning."},{"index":13,"size":15,"text":"• Discuss the suitability of adaptation planning tools and frameworks for application in each country."},{"index":14,"size":195,"text":"• Identify and prioritize adaptation planning tools and frameworks for dissemination in each country. During the workshop an inventory of adaptation planning tools and frameworks produced in Activity 1.1 was presented to the national stakeholders. This was followed by a participatory exercise that engaged participants in evaluating and prioritizing the tools and frameworks most suitable for adaptation planning in their respective countries. The research team grouped the identified tools and frameworks into nine main categories. The participants were then divided into three groups (for Kenya) and five groups (for Zambia and Senegal). Each group was assigned two or three categories of tools/frameworks, depending on the number of groups. The groups were tasked to identify and prioritize at least three tools/frameworks from each tool category. For each of the prioritized tool, participants provided the reasons for choosing the tool/framework, identified the likely users of the tool, indicated the geography, sector or department where the tool is most applicable and discussed how it can be applied (including the needed capacity/resources for the tool to be applied). Finally, every group chose one member to document the outputs from the group discussions and to present back in the plenary. "}]},{"head":"Prioritized adaptation decision support tools and frameworks for Zambia","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"In Zambia, the most prioritized tool for land use planning and conservation was the Conservation Standards. The reasons for ranking this framework highest were that it provides a clear systematic approach for monitoring, planning and learning from past conservation efforts; promotes use of best practices; is easy for communities to apply; allows for easy sharing of data; helps to further refine conservation standards; and facilitates real time decision-making because data is available on real time basis. The Stocktaking for National Adaptation Planning framework (SNAP) was the most prioritized for adaptation tracking. National stakeholders indicated that SNAP targets a wide range of stakeholders, generates a comprehensive database used for many stakeholders (NGOs), highlights the country's capacity, is a familiar tool that has been tested making easier to adopt and adapt."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"In terms of tools and frameworks for modelling and simulating climate change impacts, the Climate Adaptation in Rural Development (CARD) Assessment Tool was identified as the most prioritized because it provides qualitative and quantitative information for decision-making on yield of major crops, identifies priority areas for investment, indicates alternative enterprises for famers. The Climate Adaptation Knowledge Exchange (CAKE) was the most prioritized knowledge exchange platform. Through knowledge sharing, CAKE can facilitate better preparation for disasters and enhances the ability to adapt. CAKE can also encourage learning through other experiences. The Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) tool ranked highest for monitoring climatic shocks and disseminating climate information services. The main reason for selecting PICSA is that it has the potential to enhance weather information systems."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"For climate risk vulnerability assessment, the most prioritized tool was the Community Based Risk screening tool adaptation and livelihoods (CRiSTAL), which equips project planners and manager with the capacity to design strategies for addressing potential future hazards. CRiSTAL can also facilitate the mapping of local livelihood resources. Like Kenya, the Climate Smart Agriculture Prioritization Framework (CSAPF) ranked highest for the prioritization of CSA and adaptation interventions. Stakeholders indicated that the framework is helpful in identifying and prioritizing options following a step-by-step process. The CSAPF guarantees community participation, maps out all the value chain actors and provides them with the relevant information for choosing the viable options. In terms of adaptation decision support, the Climate Canvas was the most prioritized. "}]},{"head":"Prioritized adaptation decision support tools and frameworks for Senegal","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"In Senegal, the most prioritized tool for land use planning and conservation was the Northeast Climate Data (NCD)."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"The reasons for ranking this framework highest were that it considers many natural resources at the same time (land, water, etc.); allows for monitoring, prediction and adaptation to climate change using many variables such as temperature, relative humidity, sunlight, precipitation and wind; and the results are presented in an easy to understand and usable format. The Adaptation Monitoring and Assessment Tool (AMAT) was the most prioritized for adaptation tracking. National stakeholders indicated that AMAT is multisectoral, allows regular updating of indicators over years and provides instructions and methodologies used to develop each indicator. In terms of tools and frameworks for modelling and simulation of climate change impacts, the Land Use Portfolio Modeler (LUPM) was identified as the most prioritized because it can help to understand the cost:efficacy ratio of adaptation options, predicts the effects of adaptation strategies and allows monitoring."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"Like Kenya, the Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP) was the most prioritized knowledge exchange platform. CCKP generates data to inform planning decisions at multiple levels and integrates past data with projections. The highest ranked tool for natural resource management was the Spatial Trends in Coastal Socio-economics (STICS). Stakeholders in Senegal found this tool relevant because of the country's long and vulnerable coastline and its importance in monitoring the fishing and tourism sectors (which are among the largest contributors to the country's economy. The CCAFS Regional Agricultural Forecasting Toolbox (CRAFT) tool ranked highest for monitoring climatic shocks and disseminating climate information services. The main reasons for selecting CRAFT were that it can support decisions in agricultural seasons including the choice of crop varieties and application of agricultural inputs."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"For climate risk vulnerability assessment, the most prioritized tool was the Climate Change Vulnerability Index (CCVI) because it covers all dimensions of vulnerability (environmental, economic, social), is multisectoral and looks at multiple risks."},{"index":5,"size":120,"text":"The Participatory Social Return on Investment (PSROI) ranked highest for prioritizing CSA and adaptation interventions. Stakeholders indicated that the tool is aligned on the principles of locally led adaptation, considers endogenous practices and facilitates capacity building of community planning. In terms of adaptation decision support, the Adaptation Support Tool (AST) was the most prioritized because it has all sequential steps that enables adaptation (i.e. from conception, evaluation of strategies and development of adaptation plans to climate change); enables mitigation of the risks linked to climate change by controlling the pollution of bodies of water, drought and floods; considers the efficiency and costs of interventions. Output 2: The capacity of countries to use adaptation planning tools, frameworks and methodologies is built"},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"To build the capacity of countries in using adaptation planning tools and methodologies, the following activities were undertaken:"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Activity 2.1: Review existing capacities to identify capacity gaps/needs in adaptation planning."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"Activity 2.2: Produce a report documenting good practices and case studies for medium to long-term adaptation planning."},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"Activity 2.3: Linking national stakeholders to existing knowledge sharing platforms and networks."},{"index":10,"size":138,"text":"There have been efforts under the Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security program of the CGIAR to establish learning alliances and multistakeholder platforms in East Africa (Acosta et al. 2019). In West Africa, several innovation platforms were established to promote learning and disseminating CSA practices (Kizito et al. 2019). To promote thematic discussions and enable South-South peer technical capacity enhancement while ensuring representation from across the continent, we organized three seminars with national stakeholders in Kenya (representing East Africa), Senegal (representing West Africa) and Zambia (representing southern Africa). The seminars targeted to share knowledge on tools, frameworks and methodologies for adaptation planning. The seminars brought together researchers, policymakers, NGOs and practitioners working on adaptation as well as representatives of the regional initiatives. Like Activity 1.2, the selection criteria for seminar participants will ensure sectoral balance and gender inclusivity."},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"Activity 2.4: Training workshops on protocols for data collection, analysis and application of knowledge for adaptation planning"},{"index":12,"size":232,"text":"Based on the existing frameworks, tools and methodologies, two in person workshops were organized (one in Kenya and another one in Senegal) to train national stakeholders in their use for data collection, analysis and application of the generated knowledge in adaptation planning. In addition to the in person workshops and to ensure wide participation by countries across the continent, a webinar was organized to train national stakeholders. Webinar participants were drawn from across the continent with representation from East, West, South and North Africa. The in person workshops and webinar aimed to familiarize participants with the tools, highlight the key results generated using the tools and their significance, develop participants' understanding of the principles underlying the design of the tools and collectively identify options for adaptation of the tools to suit the respective countries' contexts.  2 was about prioritizing investment from the long list generated in Phase 1 to develop a short list of CSA investments with the highest potential. The process involves organizing a stakeholder workshop, analysing the criteria and indicators of the potential investment and using the agreed criteria to shortlist the potential investments. In the third phase, the training provided detailed information about how project concepts are developed from the shortlisted investment to help in decision-making. The last phase involved designing a monitoring and evaluation strategy, analysing the theory of change and developing indicators for the monitoring and evaluation."}]},{"head":"Capacity building workshop sessions and discussions in Kenya","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Questions/remarks on the CSAIP"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"• Participants were interested to know if the CSAIP can further unpacked other adaptation planning tools that are used in the different phases, such as tools for assessing vulnerability in the situation analysis phase."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• Some participants showed interest in using CSAIP and enquired if their respective organizations could be allowed to own the CSAIP for their planning purposes."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"• Other issues raised in the discussion include barriers to the use of CSAIP, the problem of land fragmentation and weak government extension services not adequately supported to have the capacity to use such tools in the adaptation planning process."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"• A discussion was held on how to get buy-in from the political class, who are usually responsible for funding or setting up a policy framework that can support the use of these tools. There was interest in detailed training in the counties on the CSAIP framework. "}]},{"head":"Training on KAZNET and discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Training on KAZNET was led by a team of researchers at ILRI including Kelvin Shikuku, Watson Lepariyo and Meshack Baraza. The facilitators introduced the KAZNET tool to the participants, providing an overview of KAZNET and its application. KAZNET was developed by ILRI as a digital platform for crowdsourcing data in remote and complex environments in pastoralist regions in Kenya, as a way of addressing the challenge of availability of near real time and reliable data from the drylands. The participants were then taken through the process of setting up the sentinel zones for the weekly data collection of rangelands, markets and household data."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"The participants further learnt about micro-tasking process within the KAZNET tool. The administrator designs the tasks on the website, including developing a survey tool and embedding controls. The administrator activates the tasks for the data collection team, also called the contributors, who can download the survey fork, perform available tasks and upload them after completion."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"The participants were shown the indicators that KAZNET monitors at the rangeland, household and market levels."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"When looking at the rangeland conditions, the indicators were vegetation cover and forage suitability. Indicators at the household level include livestock production and human nutrition. The indicators for livestock production were livestock weight and body condition, livestock births and death rates and milk production. For human nutrition, KAZNET monitors the reduced coping strategy index (rCSI), household dietary diversity (HDDS) and Mid-Upper Arm circumference (MUAC). At the market level, indicators include market prices by animal type and the body condition by age and gender of the animal."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"Question/remarks on KAZNET"},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"• Some participants were interested in knowing how different KAZNET is from a government digital platform called the Kenya Integrated Agriculture Management Information System (KIAMIS)."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"• Another question was about the expansion of KAZNET to the agropastoral setup, such as Kajiado County."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"• There were questions about the indicators used in KAZNET, how they are measured, how the prices of different livestock are determined and the quality control of the KAZNET application."},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"• Some participants were interested in using KAZNET beyond the current tasks of monitoring grassland conditions, livestock production and livestock markets. There was interest to implement KAZNET in mixed croplivestock systems and to even use it for the KIAMIS."}]},{"head":"Capacity building workshop sessions and discussions in Senegal","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Training on CLEANED and discussions "}]},{"head":"Questions/remarks on CLEANED tool","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"• There was a discussion about input data to the CLEANED tool: what methods can be used to integrate climate data into the CLEANED tool and what models are used to assess the climate change scenarios."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"• On the implementation of tools, participants were keen to know if the tool is linked to the existing policies and strategies, if it is open to collaboration and stakeholder engagement and if there are strategies in place for implementing CLEANED."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• What are the socio-economic and political considerations in implementing CLEANED driven adaptation plans?"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• Who should administer and manage the tool? What level of training is required for the end users to use CLEANED?"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"• Since the tool's entry point is on livestock systems, is it easy to implement on crop systems?"}]},{"head":"Training on iSAT and discussions","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Jacob Emanuel from ILRI introduced the concept of climate information services and how such services can help farmers in making informed decisions and adopting CSA practices to mitigate climate change risks. The participants learnt about the design and development of the Intelligent Agricultural System Advisory Tool (iSAT). The process includes data analytics, developing decision trees, creating relevant messages from the decision trees and dissemination. Using a study of a project implemented by AICCRA, the trainer demonstrated how iSAT is being implemented in Senegal."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The study, in which 2,700 farmers participated, showed that farmers made timely production decisions, did better management practices and resulted in better yields. The study also highlighted barriers to decision-making among farmers who received advice, such as financial constraints and belief in traditional methods."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Facilitating knowledge management for adaptation planning in Africa: Final project report"}]},{"head":"Questions raised on iSAT","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"• The participants asked about the effectiveness of the tool in delivering advisory services, any success stories from the experience of the areas it is implemented in Senegal, does it facilitate the adoption of CSA practices and whether the days of delivery information affect the effectiveness of the advisory."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"• There was a question on the gender perspective and social inclusion of the tool: does it equally enhance access to climate information services to both women and men and does it consider other social aspects of the community during the design?"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• Since climate information services are mainly based on trust by the end users, have there been any trust issues during disseminating the information, how does it complement the traditional methods?"},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• Apart from rainfall information, are there plans to give information on other weather aspects, such as winds and heat? "}]},{"head":"Training on CSAIP and discussions","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"In Senegal, training about the CSAIP tool was provided by Philippe Chabot from the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT. The trainer introduced participants to the CSAIP tool, which has been implemented in some African countries and other parts of the world, particularly countries where they have established country climate profiles. The participants went through the framework for climate smart investment in the agricultural sector. After that, the process for developing a CSAIP was explained to the participants, including the four main phases of CSAIP development. The trainer took time to explain the prioritization process of the CSAIP."}]},{"head":"Questions/remarks raised on CSAIP","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• What is the rationale for developing the CSAIP Framework?"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Does CSAIP involve capacity building and extension services?"},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Does CSAIP promote sustainable resource management on soil health and fertility, water use and management and biodiversity conservation?"},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"• What is the development and implementation process in terms of, stakeholder engagement and consultation, data collection and analysis, setting priorities and targets and resource allocation and budgeting?"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"• On monitoring and evaluation, what are the indicators for assessing the impacts of CSAIP and what are the lessons learned from previous evaluations?"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• What are the common obstacles in implementing CSAIP, with socio-economic and political considerations?"},{"index":7,"size":140,"text":"Training on GTP and Maproom GTP-Groupe de travail pluridisciplinaire is a working group that draws members from different organizations working together with ANACIM to monitor and provide an early warning system to reduce the impacts of climate risk on agriculture. Diabel Ndiaye explained to the participants about ANACIM's map room, an interactive online mapping service tool for showing climate information products, historical, current and forecast climate conditions based on precipitation and temperature. There was an interactive session where the participants were shown how to navigate the map room website to access important climate information. The stakeholders in agriculture, water and health can use the map room for climate analyses and monitoring. Lastly, the participants learned the procedure that ANACIM used to develop seasonal forecasts, including how different sea variables can influence Senegalese weather and how they use it for forecasting."}]},{"head":"Questions on GTP Maproom ANACIM tool","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"• The question on reliability came up and participants asked about the level of accuracy that the tool must enhance trust to users and how the uncertainty of rainfall is communicated to users."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• There was a discussion about how the tool can complement other tools and other methods such as indigenous/ traditional methods."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• A question was asked about forecasting for the end of rains, because most of the time they receive forecasts at the beginning of the rainy season and not the end."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Does the tool have adequate government support for its adaptation planning process?  "}]},{"head":"Conclusion and recommendations","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":284,"text":"While different tools and frameworks for adaptation planning are available, their access and use by national stakeholders for adaptation planning are often hindered by a lack of awareness and knowledge. Moreover, the tools and frameworks, where applicable, must be more socially inclusive and gender accommodative. The activities and outputs of the project are an important step towards unlocking Africa's adaptive potential to enhance resilience of farming systems and livelihoods to climate change. The aim is to have a wider portfolio of tools for different purposes. The inventory that was produced by the project was able to document the tools. Some are for policymakers (e.g. for tracking adaptation and NDCs) while others are for tactical risk management (e.g. iSAT and many other model based tools) or education (e.g. CRMAE). KAZNET is more of a data collection and dissemination approach for multidimensional tracking of resilience indicators. Given the short duration, the project team could only do a preliminary assessment of the identified adaptation planning tools and frameworks. The Food Security pillar of the Africa Adaptation Acceleration Program (AAAP) offers an opportunity to expand the capacity building efforts started by the project. The AAAP is mobilizing USD 25 billion to accelerate and scale climate adaptation action across the African continent through interventions in four priority areas: food security, resilient infrastructure, youth entrepreneurship and job creation. Mainstreaming, adapting and making the inventory more inclusive to different African contexts will accelerate the goal of enhancing resilience of farming systems and livelihoods to climate change through wide-scale use of suitable adaptation planning tools. Therefore, in terms of future work aimed at increased disseminating adaptation planning tools and frameworks and capacity building of national stakeholders, the following specific recommendations are made:"},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"1. While several tools were identified and documented in the inventory, the time required to carefully assess them was short given the duration and size of the project. Our disseminating and prioritizing workshops required participants to rank the top three tools within each of the nine categories. This process yielded prioritized 27 tools in each country. Future work should consider providing national stakeholders more time to review and come down to a set of recommended tools."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"2. Further assessing the tools should consider ways to make them more socially inclusive and gender accommodative."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"3. Relatedly, the project team observed significant differences in the prioritized tools by the different countries. This reflects important differences both in terms of the climatic shocks facing the different regions as well as the needs and capacities of the countries. Therefore, to ensure accurate representation of the continent, we recommend conducting disseminating, prioritizing and capacity building activities and efforts in more countries in Africa."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"4. We recommend that capacity building activities and efforts should be focused at both the national level and regions within a specific country. This again is in recognition of the heterogeneity that exists even within a country, meaning that priorities will vary considerably by region. For example, in Kenya, there was strong interest among the county governments to conduct capacity building activities at the decentralized level."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"5. There is a need for further training on the inventory. Following feedback received from the three workshops held so far in Kenya, Zambia and Senegal, we recommend organizing similar activities in northern Africa."},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":"6. Due to budgetary and time limitations, Zambia (southern Africa) had not been considered for the in person capacity building workshops. While the project was able to support the development of the climate smart agriculture (CSA) manual and guidelines, the project team recommends conducting in person training workshops in Zambia (for southern Africa) in response to the demand by the national stakeholders. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figures Figures "},{"text":"Figure 1 :Figure 2 :Figure 6 :Figure 8 : Figure 1: Photo of the front page of the report documenting the inventory of adaptation planning tools and frameworks Figure 2: Presenting the project and workshop objectives to national stakeholders during a workshop Figure 3: A project team member presenting the outcome of disseminating and prioritizing workshop to national stakeholders Figure 4: Presenting the climate risk assessment module of the CSAIP tool Figure 5: A national stakeholder from the Kenya Meteorological Department providing input during a capacity building workshop Figure 6: Presenting the climate risk profile for Senegal during a capacity building workshop Figure 7: ILRI researcher presenting about the decisions that farmers make and how the iSAT tool can support Figure 8: Researchers from ILRI and ANACIM explaining the interpretation of climate information during a capacity building workshop Figure 9: A researcher from ANACIM presenting about climate information services in Senegal Figure 10: A researcher from ILRI talking about the Climate Smart Agriculture manual and guidelines for application in Zambia Figure 11: A group photo of participants during the dissemination workshop in Kenya Figure 12: A group photo of national stakeholders during a capacity building workshop in Senegal Figure 13: A group photo of participants during a capacity building workshop in Kenya "},{"text":" (1) modelling and simulation of climate change impacts; (2) land use planning and conservation; (3) adaptation tracking; (4) monitoring climatic shocks, forecasting and early warning and disseminating climate information services; (5) natural resource management; (6) prioritizing climate smart agriculture and adaptation interventions; (7) assessing climate risk and vulnerability; (8) adaptation decision support; and (9) knowledge exchange platforms. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Photo of the front page of the report documenting the inventory of adaptation planning tools and frameworks "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Presenting the project and workshop objectives to national stakeholders during a workshop "},{"text":" Training about the Climate Smart Agriculture Investment Plans (CSAIP) tool Training on the CSAIP tool was conducted in collaboration with researchers at the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT. The training was held in Naivasha. Participants included representatives of county governments, Kenya Meteorological Department, South Rift Association of Land Owners (SORALO), Kenya Livestock Marketing Council (KLMC), Joint Agriculture Sector Consultation and Cooperation Mechanism (JASCCM), the Adaptation Consortium, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoALD) and representatives of the Kenya National Farmers' Federation (KENAFF). The trainer, Jamleck Osiemo, introduced basic concepts of the CSAIP tool and gave a summary of how the CSAIP can be used in prioritizing climate change adaptation activities and help in unlocking funds needed for climate change financing. The process of developing the CSAIP involves four major phases: (1) situational analysis, (2) prioritizing investments, (3) developing project concepts and (4) identifying monitoring and evaluation elements. The training materials are included in the Appendix and attached to this report. "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Presenting the climate risk assessment module of the CSAIP tool "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: A national stakeholder from the Kenya Meteorological Department providing input during a capacity building workshop "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Presenting the climate risk profile for Senegal during a capacity building workshop "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: Researchers from ILRI and ANACIM explaining the interpretation of climate information during a capacity building workshop "},{"text":"Figure 10 : Figure 10: A researcher from ILRI talking about the Climate Smart Agriculture manual and guidelines for application in Zambia "},{"text":"Figure 11 : Figure 11: A group photo of participants during the dissemination workshop in Kenya "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Summary of prioritized tools and framework for adaptation planning in Zambia  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Summary of prioritized tools and frameworks for adaptation planning in Senegal  "},{"text":"Table 5 : List of knowledge products generated by the project  "},{"text":"Table 6 : List of Powerpoint presentations and other training materials  "},{"text":" The workshop drew participants drawn from across different sectors including relevant government ministries, NGOs, universities, CGIAR and other international research organizations, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), National Agricultural Research Institutes including the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Center for Minority Rights Development (CEMIRIDE), academia, farmer organizations and the private sector. Facilitating knowledge management for adaptation planning in Africa: Final project report  Facilitating knowledge management for adaptation planning in Africa: Final project report Table 1: Summary of prioritized tools and frameworks for adaptation planning in Kenya 3. Tools and frameworks for modelling and simulation of climate change impacts Adaptation Useful for planning •Government, private Specific government Intelligent Mobile based Farmers, agriculture Agriculture sector Climate Prioritizes the understanding County level, national level, Local leaders, Climate Smart Uses mixed methods to assess County level, national level, Local leaders, Translating Builds capacity of technical National level, subnational Local leaders, Requires internet A lot of Available expertise Available expertise Available expertise Table 1: Summary of prioritized tools and frameworks for adaptation planning in Kenya 3. Tools and frameworks for modelling and simulation of climate change impacts Adaptation Useful for planning •Government, private Specific government Intelligent Mobile based Farmers, agriculture Agriculture sector Climate Prioritizes the understanding County level, national level, Local leaders, Climate Smart Uses mixed methods to assess County level, national level, Local leaders, Translating Builds capacity of technical National level, subnational Local leaders,Requires internet A lot of Available expertise Available expertise Available expertise Figure 3: A project team member presenting the outcome of disseminating and prioritizing workshops to national stakeholders Photo by Lamine Diedhiou/ILRI Prioritized adaptation decision support tools and frameworks for Kenya In Kenya, the most prioritized tool for land use planning and conservation was the framework for categorizing the relative vulnerability of threatened and endangered species. The reasons for ranking this framework highest were that it provides an understanding of vulnerability based on a broad range of drivers including behavioural, demographic, habitat usage, psychological and ecological. The Tracking Adaptation in the Agricultural Sectors (TAAS) framework was the most prioritized for adaptation tracking. National stakeholders indicated that TAAS provided a holistic single framework for tracking adaptation interventions in the agriculture sector. In terms of tools and frameworks for modelling and simulation of climate change impacts, the ClimateWizard was identified as the most prioritized because it provided easy access by both experts and nonexperts to global climate change research and outputs. The Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP) was the most prioritized knowledge exchange platform. CCKP provides a comprehensive repository of knowledge products, contains quality and updated data, offers various levels of complexity and serves specific needs of diverse users. The highest ranked tool for natural resource management was the Climate Change Response Framework (CCRF). This tool was prioritized because it is collaborative, focuses on forestry resources, can be adapted to different locations and landscapes and integrates a monitoring and evaluation component. The KAZNET tool ranked highest for monitoring climatic shocks and disseminating climate information services. The main reasons for selecting KAZNET were that it is an open source platform, allows mobile and web application, has data quality control mechanisms, is accessible in remote locations, provides data on near real time basis. For climate risk vulnerability assessment, the most prioritized tool was the Platform for Agricultural Risk Management (PARM) not only because it is applicable in developing countries, but also because it has potential to contribute to sustainable agricultural growth, increased rural investment, reduced food insecurity and improved resilience to climate and market shocks of poor rural households through better management of risks. The Climate Smart Agriculture Prioritization Framework (CSAPF) ranked highest for prioritizing CSA and adaptation interventions. Stakeholders indicated that the framework is helpful in determining the best ways to prioritize adaptation options and in guiding resource allocation among various alternatives in different value chains. The CSAPF takes a multidimensional approach to identify manageable and feasible portfolio options. It Is also applicable to various value chain actors within all sectors. In terms of adaptation decision support, the Robust Adaptation Planning (RAP) framework was the most prioritized because it builds a robust action approach that allows for long-term actions, is useful in planning adaptation intervention in climate vulnerable multisector and multi-level settings and reduces the complexity of implementing chosen adaptations. 1. Tools and frameworks for land use planning and conservation Tool/framework identified Why? For whom? Where? How/what is needed? Framework for categorizing the relative vulnerability of threatened and endangered species Provides a comprehensive understanding of the drivers of vulnerability including behavioural, demographic, habitat usage, psychological, ecological and endangered species Wildlife conservationists, tour guides, orphanage, academia, natural resource managers Wildlife, forestry, conservancies Capacity building for the stakeholders to understand vulnerability of the threatened species Prioritizing investment in conservation of the endangered species Climate Change Resilience and Adaptation Planning Tool (CC-RAPT) Embraces a rights based approach to conservation through targeting the associated cultural, social and economic benefits Provides a basis for adaptation actions for marine biodiversity conservation Conservationists, local communities, government, researchers, fisheries department, academia Coastal areas/ ecosystems, Ministry of mining and blue economy and fisheries units It informs priority interventions areas for adaptation building of marine ecosystems Northeast climate data Regional specificity Provides a broad range of climate data for analysis to inform climate risk management and gender specific needs Provides complementary data to fill data gaps in observed climate data Researchers e.g. KMFRI, academia, government, managers and planners in land, water, wildlife and cultural resources, Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD), community based organizations Wildlife, Ministry of water and irrigation, culture and heritage, Ministry of mining and blue economy, Ministry of environment, climate change and forestry, agriculture sector, building and construction Enhancement in monitoring and evaluating resilience adaptation initiatives by managers Forecasting climate extremes and planning 2. Tools and frameworks for adaptation tracking Tracking Adaptation in the Agricultural Sectors (TAAS) It is a single tool for holistic tracking of agriculture sector adaptation interventions Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoALD), researchers, Ministry of water and irrigation, Ministry of trade, investment and industry, Ministry of labour and social protection, Ministry of public service and gender MoALD, Ministry of water and irrigation, Ministry of trade, investment and industry, academia, research institutes Enhanced capacity for tracking adaptation interventions Informing adaptation relevant agriculture policies Tracking adaptation and measuring development (TAMD) It captures both climate change action and development It is already proven in Kenya and ready for scaling up Government officials, MoALD (climate change unit), NGOs, development partners, researchers, Ministry of labour and social protection. MoALD, Ministry of water and irrigation, Ministry of trade, investment and industry, academia, research institutes, Ministry of labour and social protection Improved capacity for tracking of adaptation, resilience and development Resilience index measurement and analysis (RIMA) It targets households It recognizes the diversity of vulnerable population and their respective needs Government officials, policymakers, community planners, researchers, academia MoALD, Ministry of treasury and planning, risk transfer institutions (insurance firms), private sector Informs on targeted investment across geographies Increases capacity for prioritizing resilience building assessment of vulnerability by bringing onboard the policymakers, researchers and stakeholders in agriculture capacity to identify adaptation strategies and develop appropriate policies to mitigate advanced impacts on climate change on agriculture Climate adaptation in rural development (CARD) assessment tool It targets the grassroots level where farming is undertaken County governments, development partners, NGOs, researchers, academia, minority and disadvantaged groups, council of governors, civil society organizations, community based organizations County governments, MoALD, Ministry of devolution and ASALs, national gender and equality commission Enhances capacity to mainstream climate related risks in agriculture sector and rural Tools and frameworks for knowledge exchange platforms Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP) Comprehensive repository High data quality Offers various levels of complexity Specific for user needs Allows for diverse users Offers links for referral usage Government, private sector, donors Multi sectoral Requires internet connectivity and skills in data analysis weADAPT Multistakeholder engagement Knowledge diversity Open source Allows sharing of verified case studies and projects Allows historical and futuristic climate data Government, private sector, researchers, donors and policymakers All inclusive and multisectoral Requires internet connectivity and basic skills Supports land and water management Generates possible solution for different scenarios Tools and frameworks for monitoring climatic shocks, forecasting and early warning and dissemination of climate information services KAZNET Open source Allows mobile and web application Data quality control mechanism Accessible in remote locations and pastoralist regions Low level data collection Data is available on real time basis allows real time decision-making Pastoral community, government, private sector, researchers, donors, policymakers ASAL areas, pastoral regions, rangelands Data collectors, contributors of risks The specific objective of PARM is to strengthen agricultural risk management (ARM) in developing countries in a holistic manner and on a demand driven basis by supporting partner countries in making ARM an institutional policy Climate Change Vulnerability Index (CCVI) An online tool that aids in assessing the susceptibility of different areas to adverse climate change It empowers disaster managers and policymakers by enabling them to evaluate the relative vulnerability of populations and the relative significance of factors that contribute to such assessments Allows users to prioritize strategies for adapting to climate change and develop actions that enhance resilience County level, national level, community level, household level Local leaders, researchers, local level agricultural experts, private sector actors, donor organizations, policy implementors, women groups, farmer organizations, private sector, community based NGOs adaptation strategies NGOs in creating and monitoring organizations, Aid national coordinators community based organizations, Available expertise Easy to understand for rural communities Feasibility of applicable in the country It is multidimensional Gives manageable and feasible portfolio options and takes the value chain options chain actors within all sectors. organizations, NGOs Controlling pollution of water bodies by monitoring the quality of water in selected private sector, areas organizations, country groups, farmer applicable in the women Feasibility of implementors, Applicable to various value community based change risks organizations, policy communities private sector, Works on mitigating climate sector actors, donor for rural organizations, country experts, private Easy to understand groups, farmer (AST) strategies created in other tools level agricultural applicable in the women Support Tool designing and evaluating level, local communities researchers, local by professionals Feasibility of implementors, Adaptation It provides an option for National level, subnational Local leaders, Available expertise by professionals Prioritization Framework options and resource allocation among various alternatives in different value chains level, ASAL regions level agricultural experts, private sector actors, donor organizations, policy Easy to understand for rural communities adaptation options NGOs of implementing chosen organizations, Reduces the complexity community based component of agricultural private sector, community based NGOs vulnerability assessment Tools and frameworks for prioritization of Climate smart agriculture interventions Climate Smart Agriculture Helps in determining the best ways to prioritize adaptation County level, national level, community level, household Local leaders, researchers, local Available expertise by professionals multilevel settings Can visualize the adaptation private sector, space organizations, country groups, farmer applicable in the women Feasibility of implementors, vulnerable multisector and consideration through the interventions in climate organizations, policy communities Identifies priority issues for Useful in planning adaptation sector actors, donor for rural organizations, Framework experts, private Easy to understand ecosystems Planning (RAP) actions regions level agricultural Applicable in coastal Adaptation that allows for long-term community level, ASAL researchers, local by professionals development Climate Change Response Framework (CCRF) Collaborative Focused on forestry resources Adaptive to different locations and landscapes Integrates monitoring and evaluation Land managers, community forest associations, government, private sector Forest, national reserves Uses already existing resources and capacity NatureServe Vista It enables modelling and scenario analysis of ecosystems Inclusive tool as it captures different stakeholder views Land managers, conservation organizations, government agencies and researchers Land and water sector, not limited geographically •Highly skilled personnel, data availability policymakers 7. Tools and frameworks for climate risk vulnerability assessment Platform for Agricultural Risk Management (PARM) Applicable in developing countries Contributes to sustainable agricultural growth, boost food insecurity and improves resilience to climate and market shocks of poor rural households through better management organizations, policy implementors, women organizations, Robust Builds a robust action approach County level, national level, Local leaders, Available expertise regional action plan groups, farmer Feasibility of applicable in the country reduction and developing a Adaptation decision support tools and frameworks NGOs opportunities for coastal risk organizations, climate change and planning Identifies commonalities and community based agriculture rural development rural investment, reduce •County level, national level, community level, household level Local leaders, researchers, local level agricultural experts, private sector actors, donor Readily available expertise by professionals, easy to understand for rural communities, identifying priority issues for consideration through the vulnerability assessments Addresses climate threats and climate change vulnerability through rapid assessment of private sector, to align diverse stakeholders in NGOs communities experts, private sector actors, donor organizations, policy implementors, women groups, farmer organizations, for rural communities Feasibility of applicable in the Ensures diverse representation organizations, country Concept to Action Results in capacity building by conducting situation analysis community based investments private sector, Helps in prioritizing organizations, country groups, farmer applicable in the women Feasibility of implementors, Easy to understand warning to farmers and community goals and level level agricultural guide: From projects organizations, policy communities Offers monitoring and early RoadMap approach in defining community level, household researchers, local by professionals development agricultural development sector actors, donor for rural and resilience Climate wizard Simplicity of access by experts and nonexperts to global climate change research and outputs Combines the whole spectrum of climatic history KMD, researchers, NGOs, private sector, policymakers, land managers, local authorities, natural resource managers, engineers, community members, water utility managers MoALD, Ministry of environment, climate change and forestry, Ministry of Water and irrigation, Ministry of devolution and ASALs Community sector, researchers, sector, specific connectivity, Agricultural stakeholders complimentary data Vulnerability and of climate change risks community level, household researchers, local by professionals Agriculture Rapid heterogeneity of local contexts community level, household researchers, local by professionals climate smart officers and policymakers at level, local communities researchers, local by professionals Increase Platform Community based platform policymakers private sector, relevant skills, System Advisory Provides real advisory Capacity Analysis impacts and adaptation at the level level agricultural Appraisal level, ASAL regions level agricultural agriculture various levels level agricultural understanding of trends in the current climate Increase capacity to envision future climate Assessment of impacts and risks of climate change on agriculture (AIRCCA) It gives a holistic view of the drivers of vulnerability by combining biophysical and socio-economic analysis Provides room for continuous improvement Provide comprehensive Policymakers, researchers, NGOs, development partners, private sector MoALD, Ministry of environment, climate change and forestry, Ministry of water and irrigation Increase understanding of the impact of climate change on and agricultural productivity Increase the Offers additional information and references Tools and frameworks for natural resource management Customizes recommendations NOOA SCS It uses a more participatory County level, national level, Local leaders, Available expertise plan (CSAIP) potential and highly suitable experts, private Easy to understand Suggests optimal crop variety investment Opportunity for picking high level, ASAL regions level agricultural pathways for target areas agriculture community level, household researchers, local by professionals capacity and potential Climate smart Stakeholder capacity building County level, national level, Local leaders, Available expertise vulnerabilities adaptive water resources communities training fees Tool (ISAT) information that is location Framework community level experts, private Easy to understand Employs gender disaggregated experts, private Easy to understand policies into Easy to understand experts, private Uses monitoring and evaluation specific (CVCA) sector actors, donor for rural methods sector actors, donor for rural action: a Supports development of new for rural sector actors, donor for adaptation Digital Coast It contains verified and vetted information Highly useable by all persons Inclusive of trainings, manuals and webinars Focused on emerging sector of interest Coastal planners/managers, researchers, academic institutions Coastal regions Requires highly skilled personnel It blends climate analysis, forecasts and real time local soil, crop and management NextGen Agricultural Drought Monitoring Warning System (NADMWS) Remote sensing technology It is comprehensive as it uses various data sources User friendly for users that are not remote sensing experts Farmers, government, private sector, researchers, donors, policymakers Agriculture sector, drought management agencies A lot of complimentary data Data management and analysis of the community context methodology expertise Promotes participation of local communities, governments and other stakeholders It is prescriptive in nature It explores themes and collects information under each category to provide comprehensive understanding organizations, policy implementors, women groups, farmer organizations, private sector, community based organizations, NGOs communities Feasibility of applicable in the country organizations, policy communities guidebook for policy guidelines commitments communities organizations, policy Narrows down to assessing the household, biophysical, sociocultural, economic and technological characteristics participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and rapid rural appraisal (RRA) tools into one community based organizations, NGOs policymaking NGOs implementation more than just organizations, It emphasizes on community based Combines common implementors, women groups, farmer organizations, private sector, Feasibility of applicable in the country operationalizing climate smart agriculture into local action planning and strategies Helps translate international and national objectives and private sector, commitments into local actions implementors, Feasibility of women applicable in the groups, farmer organizations, country Figure 3: A project team member presenting the outcome of disseminating and prioritizing workshops to national stakeholders Photo by Lamine Diedhiou/ILRI Prioritized adaptation decision support tools and frameworks for Kenya In Kenya, the most prioritized tool for land use planning and conservation was the framework for categorizing the relative vulnerability of threatened and endangered species. The reasons for ranking this framework highest were that it provides an understanding of vulnerability based on a broad range of drivers including behavioural, demographic, habitat usage, psychological and ecological. The Tracking Adaptation in the Agricultural Sectors (TAAS) framework was the most prioritized for adaptation tracking. National stakeholders indicated that TAAS provided a holistic single framework for tracking adaptation interventions in the agriculture sector. In terms of tools and frameworks for modelling and simulation of climate change impacts, the ClimateWizard was identified as the most prioritized because it provided easy access by both experts and nonexperts to global climate change research and outputs. The Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP) was the most prioritized knowledge exchange platform. CCKP provides a comprehensive repository of knowledge products, contains quality and updated data, offers various levels of complexity and serves specific needs of diverse users. The highest ranked tool for natural resource management was the Climate Change Response Framework (CCRF). This tool was prioritized because it is collaborative, focuses on forestry resources, can be adapted to different locations and landscapes and integrates a monitoring and evaluation component. The KAZNET tool ranked highest for monitoring climatic shocks and disseminating climate information services. The main reasons for selecting KAZNET were that it is an open source platform, allows mobile and web application, has data quality control mechanisms, is accessible in remote locations, provides data on near real time basis. For climate risk vulnerability assessment, the most prioritized tool was the Platform for Agricultural Risk Management (PARM) not only because it is applicable in developing countries, but also because it has potential to contribute to sustainable agricultural growth, increased rural investment, reduced food insecurity and improved resilience to climate and market shocks of poor rural households through better management of risks. The Climate Smart Agriculture Prioritization Framework (CSAPF) ranked highest for prioritizing CSA and adaptation interventions. Stakeholders indicated that the framework is helpful in determining the best ways to prioritize adaptation options and in guiding resource allocation among various alternatives in different value chains. The CSAPF takes a multidimensional approach to identify manageable and feasible portfolio options. It Is also applicable to various value chain actors within all sectors. In terms of adaptation decision support, the Robust Adaptation Planning (RAP) framework was the most prioritized because it builds a robust action approach that allows for long-term actions, is useful in planning adaptation intervention in climate vulnerable multisector and multi-level settings and reduces the complexity of implementing chosen adaptations. 1. Tools and frameworks for land use planning and conservation Tool/framework identified Why? For whom? Where? How/what is needed? Framework for categorizing the relative vulnerability of threatened and endangered species Provides a comprehensive understanding of the drivers of vulnerability including behavioural, demographic, habitat usage, psychological, ecological and endangered species Wildlife conservationists, tour guides, orphanage, academia, natural resource managers Wildlife, forestry, conservancies Capacity building for the stakeholders to understand vulnerability of the threatened species Prioritizing investment in conservation of the endangered species Climate Change Resilience and Adaptation Planning Tool (CC-RAPT) Embraces a rights based approach to conservation through targeting the associated cultural, social and economic benefits Provides a basis for adaptation actions for marine biodiversity conservation Conservationists, local communities, government, researchers, fisheries department, academia Coastal areas/ ecosystems, Ministry of mining and blue economy and fisheries units It informs priority interventions areas for adaptation building of marine ecosystems Northeast climate data Regional specificity Provides a broad range of climate data for analysis to inform climate risk management and gender specific needs Provides complementary data to fill data gaps in observed climate data Researchers e.g. KMFRI, academia, government, managers and planners in land, water, wildlife and cultural resources, Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD), community based organizations Wildlife, Ministry of water and irrigation, culture and heritage, Ministry of mining and blue economy, Ministry of environment, climate change and forestry, agriculture sector, building and construction Enhancement in monitoring and evaluating resilience adaptation initiatives by managers Forecasting climate extremes and planning 2. Tools and frameworks for adaptation tracking Tracking Adaptation in the Agricultural Sectors (TAAS) It is a single tool for holistic tracking of agriculture sector adaptation interventions Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoALD), researchers, Ministry of water and irrigation, Ministry of trade, investment and industry, Ministry of labour and social protection, Ministry of public service and gender MoALD, Ministry of water and irrigation, Ministry of trade, investment and industry, academia, research institutes Enhanced capacity for tracking adaptation interventions Informing adaptation relevant agriculture policies Tracking adaptation and measuring development (TAMD) It captures both climate change action and development It is already proven in Kenya and ready for scaling up Government officials, MoALD (climate change unit), NGOs, development partners, researchers, Ministry of labour and social protection. MoALD, Ministry of water and irrigation, Ministry of trade, investment and industry, academia, research institutes, Ministry of labour and social protection Improved capacity for tracking of adaptation, resilience and development Resilience index measurement and analysis (RIMA) It targets households It recognizes the diversity of vulnerable population and their respective needs Government officials, policymakers, community planners, researchers, academia MoALD, Ministry of treasury and planning, risk transfer institutions (insurance firms), private sector Informs on targeted investment across geographies Increases capacity for prioritizing resilience building assessment of vulnerability by bringing onboard the policymakers, researchers and stakeholders in agriculture capacity to identify adaptation strategies and develop appropriate policies to mitigate advanced impacts on climate change on agriculture Climate adaptation in rural development (CARD) assessment tool It targets the grassroots level where farming is undertaken County governments, development partners, NGOs, researchers, academia, minority and disadvantaged groups, council of governors, civil society organizations, community based organizations County governments, MoALD, Ministry of devolution and ASALs, national gender and equality commission Enhances capacity to mainstream climate related risks in agriculture sector and rural Tools and frameworks for knowledge exchange platforms Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP) Comprehensive repository High data quality Offers various levels of complexity Specific for user needs Allows for diverse users Offers links for referral usage Government, private sector, donors Multi sectoral Requires internet connectivity and skills in data analysis weADAPT Multistakeholder engagement Knowledge diversity Open source Allows sharing of verified case studies and projects Allows historical and futuristic climate data Government, private sector, researchers, donors and policymakers All inclusive and multisectoral Requires internet connectivity and basic skills Supports land and water management Generates possible solution for different scenarios Tools and frameworks for monitoring climatic shocks, forecasting and early warning and dissemination of climate information services KAZNET Open source Allows mobile and web application Data quality control mechanism Accessible in remote locations and pastoralist regions Low level data collection Data is available on real time basis allows real time decision-making Pastoral community, government, private sector, researchers, donors, policymakers ASAL areas, pastoral regions, rangelands Data collectors, contributors of risks The specific objective of PARM is to strengthen agricultural risk management (ARM) in developing countries in a holistic manner and on a demand driven basis by supporting partner countries in making ARM an institutional policy Climate Change Vulnerability Index (CCVI) An online tool that aids in assessing the susceptibility of different areas to adverse climate change It empowers disaster managers and policymakers by enabling them to evaluate the relative vulnerability of populations and the relative significance of factors that contribute to such assessments Allows users to prioritize strategies for adapting to climate change and develop actions that enhance resilience County level, national level, community level, household level Local leaders, researchers, local level agricultural experts, private sector actors, donor organizations, policy implementors, women groups, farmer organizations, private sector, community based NGOs adaptation strategies NGOs in creating and monitoring organizations, Aid national coordinators community based organizations, Available expertise Easy to understand for rural communities Feasibility of applicable in the country It is multidimensional Gives manageable and feasible portfolio options and takes the value chain options chain actors within all sectors. organizations, NGOs Controlling pollution of water bodies by monitoring the quality of water in selected private sector, areas organizations, country groups, farmer applicable in the women Feasibility of implementors, Applicable to various value community based change risks organizations, policy communities private sector, Works on mitigating climate sector actors, donor for rural organizations, country experts, private Easy to understand groups, farmer (AST) strategies created in other tools level agricultural applicable in the women Support Tool designing and evaluating level, local communities researchers, local by professionals Feasibility of implementors, Adaptation It provides an option for National level, subnational Local leaders, Available expertise by professionals Prioritization Framework options and resource allocation among various alternatives in different value chains level, ASAL regions level agricultural experts, private sector actors, donor organizations, policy Easy to understand for rural communities adaptation options NGOs of implementing chosen organizations, Reduces the complexity community based component of agricultural private sector, community based NGOs vulnerability assessment Tools and frameworks for prioritization of Climate smart agriculture interventions Climate Smart Agriculture Helps in determining the best ways to prioritize adaptation County level, national level, community level, household Local leaders, researchers, local Available expertise by professionals multilevel settings Can visualize the adaptation private sector, space organizations, country groups, farmer applicable in the women Feasibility of implementors, vulnerable multisector and consideration through the interventions in climate organizations, policy communities Identifies priority issues for Useful in planning adaptation sector actors, donor for rural organizations, Framework experts, private Easy to understand ecosystems Planning (RAP) actions regions level agricultural Applicable in coastal Adaptation that allows for long-term community level, ASAL researchers, local by professionals development Climate Change Response Framework (CCRF) Collaborative Focused on forestry resources Adaptive to different locations and landscapes Integrates monitoring and evaluation Land managers, community forest associations, government, private sector Forest, national reserves Uses already existing resources and capacity NatureServe Vista It enables modelling and scenario analysis of ecosystems Inclusive tool as it captures different stakeholder views Land managers, conservation organizations, government agencies and researchers Land and water sector, not limited geographically •Highly skilled personnel, data availability policymakers 7. Tools and frameworks for climate risk vulnerability assessment Platform for Agricultural Risk Management (PARM) Applicable in developing countries Contributes to sustainable agricultural growth, boost food insecurity and improves resilience to climate and market shocks of poor rural households through better management organizations, policy implementors, women organizations, Robust Builds a robust action approach County level, national level, Local leaders, Available expertise regional action plan groups, farmer Feasibility of applicable in the country reduction and developing a Adaptation decision support tools and frameworks NGOs opportunities for coastal risk organizations, climate change and planning Identifies commonalities and community based agriculture rural development rural investment, reduce •County level, national level, community level, household level Local leaders, researchers, local level agricultural experts, private sector actors, donor Readily available expertise by professionals, easy to understand for rural communities, identifying priority issues for consideration through the vulnerability assessments Addresses climate threats and climate change vulnerability through rapid assessment of private sector, to align diverse stakeholders in NGOs communities experts, private sector actors, donor organizations, policy implementors, women groups, farmer organizations, for rural communities Feasibility of applicable in the Ensures diverse representation organizations, country Concept to Action Results in capacity building by conducting situation analysis community based investments private sector, Helps in prioritizing organizations, country groups, farmer applicable in the women Feasibility of implementors, Easy to understand warning to farmers and community goals and level level agricultural guide: From projects organizations, policy communities Offers monitoring and early RoadMap approach in defining community level, household researchers, local by professionals development agricultural development sector actors, donor for rural and resilience Climate wizard Simplicity of access by experts and nonexperts to global climate change research and outputs Combines the whole spectrum of climatic history KMD, researchers, NGOs, private sector, policymakers, land managers, local authorities, natural resource managers, engineers, community members, water utility managers MoALD, Ministry of environment, climate change and forestry, Ministry of Water and irrigation, Ministry of devolution and ASALs Community sector, researchers, sector, specific connectivity, Agricultural stakeholders complimentary data Vulnerability and of climate change risks community level, household researchers, local by professionals Agriculture Rapid heterogeneity of local contexts community level, household researchers, local by professionals climate smart officers and policymakers at level, local communities researchers, local by professionals Increase Platform Community based platform policymakers private sector, relevant skills, System Advisory Provides real advisory Capacity Analysis impacts and adaptation at the level level agricultural Appraisal level, ASAL regions level agricultural agriculture various levels level agricultural understanding of trends in the current climate Increase capacity to envision future climate Assessment of impacts and risks of climate change on agriculture (AIRCCA) It gives a holistic view of the drivers of vulnerability by combining biophysical and socio-economic analysis Provides room for continuous improvement Provide comprehensive Policymakers, researchers, NGOs, development partners, private sector MoALD, Ministry of environment, climate change and forestry, Ministry of water and irrigation Increase understanding of the impact of climate change on and agricultural productivity Increase the Offers additional information and references Tools and frameworks for natural resource management Customizes recommendations NOOA SCS It uses a more participatory County level, national level, Local leaders, Available expertise plan (CSAIP) potential and highly suitable experts, private Easy to understand Suggests optimal crop variety investment Opportunity for picking high level, ASAL regions level agricultural pathways for target areas agriculture community level, household researchers, local by professionals capacity and potential Climate smart Stakeholder capacity building County level, national level, Local leaders, Available expertise vulnerabilities adaptive water resources communities training fees Tool (ISAT) information that is location Framework community level experts, private Easy to understand Employs gender disaggregated experts, private Easy to understand policies into Easy to understand experts, private Uses monitoring and evaluation specific (CVCA) sector actors, donor for rural methods sector actors, donor for rural action: a Supports development of new for rural sector actors, donor for adaptation Digital Coast It contains verified and vetted information Highly useable by all persons Inclusive of trainings, manuals and webinars Focused on emerging sector of interest Coastal planners/managers, researchers, academic institutions Coastal regions Requires highly skilled personnel It blends climate analysis, forecasts and real time local soil, crop and management NextGen Agricultural Drought Monitoring Warning System (NADMWS) Remote sensing technology It is comprehensive as it uses various data sources User friendly for users that are not remote sensing experts Farmers, government, private sector, researchers, donors, policymakers Agriculture sector, drought management agencies A lot of complimentary data Data management and analysis of the community context methodology expertise Promotes participation of local communities, governments and other stakeholders It is prescriptive in nature It explores themes and collects information under each category to provide comprehensive understanding organizations, policy implementors, women groups, farmer organizations, private sector, community based organizations, NGOs communities Feasibility of applicable in the country organizations, policy communities guidebook for policy guidelines commitments communities organizations, policy Narrows down to assessing the household, biophysical, sociocultural, economic and technological characteristics participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and rapid rural appraisal (RRA) tools into one community based organizations, NGOs policymaking NGOs implementation more than just organizations, It emphasizes on community based Combines common implementors, women groups, farmer organizations, private sector, Feasibility of applicable in the country operationalizing climate smart agriculture into local action planning and strategies Helps translate international and national objectives and private sector, commitments into local actions implementors, Feasibility of women applicable in the groups, farmer organizations, country of the human population in the Assess effectiveness and cost phase of climate change of the interventions selected for actions for support of the human population in the Assess effectiveness and cost phase of climate change of the interventions selected foractions for support the target area  the target area  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Summary of prioritized tools and framework for adaptation planning in Zambia Tool category 1: Land use planning and conservation   Tool category 1: Land use planning and conservation Tool/Framework     Tool/Framework identified Why? For Whom? Where? How? identifiedWhy?For Whom?Where?How? Conservation Clear systematic approach Communities Community level Review national ConservationClear systematic approachCommunitiesCommunity levelReview national Standards for managing, monitoring   conservation policies Standardsfor managing, monitoringconservation policies  planning and learning from NGOs Development program to align with the tool planning and learning fromNGOsDevelopment programto align with the tool  past conservation efforts Development partners implementors Identify how to past conservation effortsDevelopment partnersimplementorsIdentify how to  Promotes using best practices Private sector Public sector e.g. water and sewerage enforce/craft the policy for adoption by Promotes using best practicesPrivate sectorPublic sector e.g. water and sewerageenforce/craft the policy for adoption by  Easier for communities All stakeholders Private sector different stakeholders Easier for communitiesAll stakeholdersPrivate sectordifferent stakeholders  to apply e.g. for self assessment  Agricultural research players Standardization through stakeholder engagements to apply e.g. for self assessmentAgricultural research playersStandardization through stakeholder engagements  Data can be shared easily   sensitization Data can be shared easilysensitization  Helps to further refine   Capacity building/ Helps to further refineCapacity building/  conservation standards   training of trainers/ conservation standardstraining of trainers/  Data is available on real   training manual Data is available on realtraining manual  time basis   Budget (funds to time basisBudget (funds to     roll out application roll out application     of conservation of conservation     standards) standards) Framework for Very little done on planning Resource managers Protected areas (PA)- Review species Framework forVery little done on planningResource managersProtected areas (PA)-Review species categorizing for adaptation in the wildlife  game parks facing extinction/ categorizingfor adaptation in the wildlifegame parksfacing extinction/ the relative sector e.g. which species Traditional leaders  endangerment the relativesector e.g. which speciesTraditional leadersendangerment vulnerability of threatened and are endangered Farmers populations Livestock and wildlife high (baseline) vulnerability of threatened andare endangeredFarmerspopulations Livestock and wildlife high(baseline) endangered species Government push to go towards livestock as it is more resilient to climate Tourism players (Ministry) Protected forests Trainings Review national endangered speciesGovernment push to go towards livestock as it is more resilient to climateTourism players (Ministry)Protected forestsTrainings Review national  changes (integration) It blends climate analysis, Researchers and development projects  conservation policies to align with the tool changes (integration) It blends climate analysis,Researchers and development projectsconservation policies to align with the tool  forecasts and real time local soil, crop and management Community resource boards  Budget (funds to roll out application of conservation forecasts and real time local soil, crop and managementCommunity resource boardsBudget (funds to roll out application of conservation     standards) standards) Northeast Climate Variables relevant for Scientists Country wide • Aligning the data Northeast ClimateVariables relevant forScientistsCountry wide• Aligning the data Data forecasts for the Zambian   set to Zambian Dataforecasts for the Zambianset to Zambian  context Farmers Academia research context contextFarmersAcademia researchcontext  Relevant for planning and Meteorology Meteorology departments  Relevant for planning andMeteorologyMeteorology departments  interventions department Department of National  interventionsdepartmentDepartment of National   Mangers and planners Park and Wildlife  Mangers and plannersPark and Wildlife   (land, water, wildlife)   (land, water, wildlife)   Private sector   Private sector  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Summary of prioritized tools and frameworks for adaptation planning in Senegal Tools/frameworks category 1: Land use planning and conservation   Tools/frameworks category 1: Land use planning and conservation What tool/ Why? For whom? Where? How? What tool/Why?For whom?Where?How? framework?     framework? Northeast It considers many natural Research institutions, central All Agro-ecological Build capacity NortheastIt considers many naturalResearch institutions, centralAll Agro-ecologicalBuild capacity Climate Data resources at the same time administration (politics), zones, agriculture, of users and Climate Dataresources at the same timeadministration (politics),zones, agriculture,of users and (NCD) (land, water, fauna, flora) technical services (water and livestock, forests beneficiaries (NCD)(land, water, fauna, flora)technical services (water andlivestock, forestsbeneficiaries   forest, agriculture, livestock),   forest, agriculture, livestock),  Allows for monitoring, projects and programs,  Build and improve Allows for monitoring,projects and programs,Build and improve  predicting and adaptation to NGOs, communities  the databases predicting and adaptation toNGOs, communitiesthe databases  climate change using many    climate change using many  variables such as temperature,   Adapt the tool to variables such as temperature,Adapt the tool to  relative humidity, sunlight,   the Senegalese relative humidity, sunlight,the Senegalese  precipitation, wind   context precipitation, windcontext  The results are presented in an    The results are presented in an  easy to understand and usable    easy to understand and usable  format    format Framework for The framework is relevant to Research institutions Protected zones: Put into place Framework forThe framework is relevant toResearch institutionsProtected zones:Put into place categorizing the current situation (Department of Waters, forests, classified a multisectoral categorizingthe current situation(Department of Waters,forests, classifieda multisectoral the relative  Forests, Hunting and Soil forests, rangelands framework the relativeForests, Hunting and Soilforests, rangelandsframework vulnerability of Classification of vulnerability Conservation, Department of   vulnerability ofClassification of vulnerabilityConservation, Department of threatened and by zone and species Planning and Environmental  Participatory threatened andby zone and speciesPlanning and EnvironmentalParticipatory endangered species Time based classification of vulnerability (present and future) with respect to climate change estimation of vulnerability when it comes to the Determination of uncertainty Watch, Direction of environment and classified projects and programs, forest, agriculture, livestock), technical services (water and establishments-DEEC, IUCN, Centre for ecological monitoring-CSE, etc.), central administration,  approach to ensure inclusivity Institutionalize the framework for sustainability endangered speciesTime based classification of vulnerability (present and future) with respect to climate change estimation of vulnerability when it comes to the Determination of uncertaintyWatch, Direction of environment and classified projects and programs, forest, agriculture, livestock), technical services (water and establishments-DEEC, IUCN, Centre for ecological monitoring-CSE, etc.), central administration,approach to ensure inclusivity Institutionalize the framework for sustainability   NGO, farmers, livestock   NGO, farmers, livestock   producers, fishermen,   producers, fishermen,   timber producers   timber producers Climate Change It is specific to marine Directorate of communal Protected marine Reinforce the Climate ChangeIt is specific to marineDirectorate of communalProtected marineReinforce the Resilience and ecosystems facing different protected marine areas areas, fish zones capacity of Resilience andecosystems facing differentprotected marine areasareas, fish zonescapacity of adaptation crises (DAMCP), IUCN, Ministry of  protected marine adaptationcrises(DAMCP), IUCN, Ministry ofprotected marine Planning Tool  fisheries, fishermen  area and fish areas Planning Toolfisheries, fishermenarea and fish areas (CC-RAPT) It allows for better planning for   conservationists (CC-RAPT)It allows for better planning forconservationists  resilience and adaptation to    resilience and adaptation to  the climate crisis    the climate crisis  It is online and accessible    It is online and accessible Tools and frameworks category 2: Adaptation tracking   Tools and frameworks category 2: Adaptation tracking AMAT Evaluating vulnerability Government agencies and All sectors Projects eligible AMATEvaluating vulnerabilityGovernment agencies andAll sectorsProjects eligible (Adaptation  institutions (biodiversity, for special funds (Adaptationinstitutions(biodiversity,for special funds Monitoring and Considers sustainable land  agriculture, marine, for climate change Monitoring andConsiders sustainable landagriculture, marine,for climate change Assessment Tool) management Specific programs and etc.) and Global Assessment Tool)managementSpecific programs andetc.)and Global  Multisectorial projects Geography: environment funds MultisectorialprojectsGeography:environment funds  Regular updating of indicators over the years  everywhere Carried by a national institution (e.g. ANACIM) Regular updating of indicators over the yearseverywhereCarried by a national institution (e.g. ANACIM)  Instructions and methodologies for each indicator promotes adoption   Complements existing tools Instructions and methodologies for each indicator promotes adoptionComplements existing tools     Need capacity Need capacity     building building  "},{"text":" Training about the 'Comprehensive Livestock Environment Assessment for Improved Nutrition, a Secured Environment and Sustainable Development along Livestock and Fish Value Chains (CLEANED)' tool was led by Rein Van der Hoek from the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT. The CLEANED tool was developed by the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT and ILRI. The facilitator illustrated how the CLEANED tool works by simulating various scenarios to evaluate the impacts of a new technology or a change in the livestock production system on the environment. Using examples, the participants were shown how different input data is incorporated into the model to predict impacts on the environment.  "}],"sieverID":"95b2766d-2a57-4517-be98-7563196b48f9","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08b4e93707e5572d661f172659ffa79d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d18cf127-75a7-4cd1-be0b-abef977f3fe1/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"I","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"t is with great pleasure that we bring to you this month's issue of the East Africa Dairy Development Project-Uganda office e-bulletin, \"Voices from the field\"."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"August saw the climax of the Mid Term Evaluation so we bring you part of the action from the exercise as well as an excerpt from the debrief."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Masaka cluster took this month by storm with five field days in one week, we bring you a brief on the happenings A lot is expected for the month of September, most importantly the OPB planning retreat and the launch of the first ever farmers' training radio program, this and more can be seen in \"the month ahead\"."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"We bring \"you food for thought\" and coffee break to ease your stress as you struggle to tick those milestones I hope you enjoy your reading and feel free to get back incase you have any comments and / or suggestions."}]},{"head":"Brian Kawuma Communications Officer","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Editor's Note \"...........Mistakes are lessons of wisdom, when you make a mistake, don't look back at it for long. Take the lesson and move forward, although the past cannot be changed; how to shape the future is still in your hands............\" \"Failure is simply the opportunity to begin again, this time more intelligently\" Henry Ford, Founder Ford Motors."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"\" As we look ahead into the next century, leaders will be those who empower others\" Bill Gates, Chairman Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, CEO Microsoft ."}]},{"head":"William Matovu Country Project Manager","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Voices from the field -Issue 2; August 2010","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"A word from the CPM"}]},{"head":"COVER PAGE: Jane Kugonza leads ToTs in a lesson on dairymeal formulation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The second bulletin of the 'Voices from the field' provides progress and status of the project within the month of August."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"The major highlight of the month was the midterm evaluation (MTE). The exercise went on well and from the preliminary findings, it was clear that the hard work you are doing is beginning to bear fruits -Great work, team!. The evaluation identified the project's strengths and challenges. Key point for us is to consolidate the gains and, importantly, address the challenges."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"Great team work was exhibited during the evaluation process by you and our stakeholders; thanks very much! With such a spirit, the future is bright and I am sure we shall be able to achieve the project vision of doubling household incomes of smallholder farmers. Moving forward will be the need to focus on implementing interventions/ activities that impact on the smallholder dairy farming. All what we do should be geared at building dairy hubs. We drew a lot of lesson from the exercise and the key is to move forward with zeal. The project is working closely with the Cooperative Society Management to have this CP officially launched and all hopes are high that this is the sustainable solution to the milk market access challenges the farmers have previously faced."}]},{"head":"NOTICE BOARD NEW STAFF AT EADD","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Voices from the field -Issue 2; August 2010"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Fresh from the field T he winds of change seem to be blowing over Nabitanga. There is a certain feeling of optimism among the dairy farmers in this area, who for a long time have been faced with the problem of fluctuating prices for their milk and a largely unstable market."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"In June 2010, Nabitanga Dairy Farmers Cooperative Society marked another of its many accomplishments. The long awaited milk Chilling Plant was finally installed and is up and running. The cooperative currently has a membership of "}]},{"head":"Placing destiny in the farmers' hands","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The newly installed cooler at the Nabitanga Dairy Farmers' Cooperative","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A SAMEER Truck collecting milk at the CP","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A trainee takes a go at proper milking techniques","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Dr. Lumu Richard of NARO (extreme left) explains the formulation of dairymeal at MUZARDI","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The pulverizer, which is a grinder in layman's speak is a machine that is steadily gaining popularity among several small holder dairy farmers that the EADD project is working with. In Masaka district, the pulverizer was yet again a spectacle at the farmer field day organized in Ggulama at Nakateete Trading Centre by the EADD Masaka cluster team."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The pulverizer is being promoted by the EADD project as an effective tool in aiding proper feed formulation . This wonder machine is widely accepted among the dairy farmers because of its multi-purpose functionality. Ronald Wabwire of the EADD feeds team was on site to demonstrate its usage to the awestruck farmers present."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Farmers were linked to a local fabricator of the machine."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Fresh from the field"}]},{"head":"Pulveriser marvels Ggulama","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The field day that was attended by 224 farmers of Ggulama Dairy Farmer Business Association (DFBa) aimed at enabling the farmers boost farm dairy productivity by utilizing various production technologies such as standard milk quality and hygiene practices, animal health care, pasture conservation and breed improvement through Artificial Insemination."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The EADD team also encouraged farmers to maintain proper records of their dairy farm production and supplied them with books to enable them achieve this."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Farmers were given an opportunity to interact with various farm input suppliers that include Eram Uganda Ltd and Kwewayo Vet Pharmacy both suppliers of veterinary drugs. The project's feeds team also displayed various samples of pasture seeds and encouraged farmers to plant pasture gardens to uphold standard animal nutrition practices."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"To help them effectively manage communication in their cooperatives, the farmers requested the project to aid them with outdoor notice boards that will be placed within the reach of farmer groups to further streamline communication with the farmers. In related news, the Masaka cluster team held four extra field days in Kalungu-KADIPEFA , SALL Sembabule, Kyabi and maddu that attracted a total of 321 farmers."}]},{"head":"A supplier displays aluminium milking pails","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ronald wabwire shows farmers how the pulverizer works","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"In its bid to promote sustainable commercial dairy farming, the East Africa Dairy Development Project organized a Business Opportunity Seminar in Kirinya, Mukono district."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"The seminar aimed at creating sustainable linkages between dairy farmers and various service providers that included suppliers of farm inputs, animal health service providers, transporters and credit finance institutions and attracted upto 46 dairy farmers in the area."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Speaking at the seminar, the credit officer of centenary bank presented the different products the bank has tailored to meet farmers' finance needs with special emphasis to the agricultural loans."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Farmers were enlightened on how to access credit financing individually and as groups."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"In line with the project's objective of improving dairy productivity through improved dairy breeds and better animal health management, Mr. Silver Turyahikayo of EADD urged the farmers present to"},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Fresh from the field EADD Holds Business Opportunity Seminar in Kirinya take up artificial insemination (AI) as one of the reliable ways of improving the breeds of their dairy herds. Farmers were also given catalogues on the different available breeds to choose from and informed about the different centres where this semen can be accessed. He further stressed that the project had trained over 100 AI technicians and Community Animal Health Service Providers to offer these services on-farm ."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"Other service providers that attended included Kwewayo (U) Vet Pharmacy limited, dealers in Bayer vet products, Rid-off Organics, a Jinjabased organic pesticide manufacturer and REHOBOTH Centre Ltd a farm supply shop from Mukono."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"Credit goes to all Mukono-Jinja TM cluster staff that made this BOS a success."}]},{"head":"More cow Facts:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"A Holsteins spots are like fingerprints. No two cows have the same spots. A cow's heart weighs about 11kgs and pumps 400 pints of blood through the udder to produce 1 pint of milk. That means nearly 10,000 pints of blood are pumped through a cow's udder daily to produce 11 litres of milk."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"A cow gives nearly 200,000 glasses of milk in her lifetime."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"A cow weighs about 600kgs."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Cows drink 100litres of water a day."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"A cow has about 207 bones in its body. Top producing Holsteins, milking twice a day, have been know to produce up to 67,914lbs of milk in 365 days."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"The average cow produces 30lbs of urine and 65lbs pounds of feces daily. It takes 340 squirts of milk to fill a milk pail."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"A cow doesn't bite the grass that feeds her, she curls her tongue around it. It is possible to lead a cow upstairs but not downstairs, because a cow's knees cannot bend properly to walk back down."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"Voices from the field -Issue 2; August 2010 FEATURES T he much anticipated phase II of the EADD Project Mid-Term Evaluation (MTE) finally came to pass."},{"index":9,"size":107,"text":"The exercise that was punctuated by a frenzy of activity at the country office and in the field aimed at gathering and documenting evidence on livelihood and productivity changes among project beneficiaries to date, as per established impact indicators, establishing successfulness and efficiency of project processes and delivery mechanisms and determining the likelihood of achieving project objectives within the anticipated timeframe and was executed by a team of consultants from TANGO International with support from the EADD project staff. The evaluation also aimed at conducting an indepth analysis of the information collected so as to generate conclusions and a set of actionable recommendations for EADD project management."},{"index":10,"size":94,"text":"To achieve this the team carried out a household survey to gather data from dairy farmers working with the EADD project that are members of the DFBAs, those that are non-members within the catchment areas and those that are non-members located outside the catchment areas. The team also conducted Focus Group Discussions with dairy producers in both CP and TM sites and key informant interviews with EADD staff and representatives of institutional partners. However despite the numerous achievements the project has made in its maiden phase, there are still challenges to overcome. These include;"},{"index":11,"size":11,"text":"Pastoralists are slow to adopt EADD's model for improving milk production."},{"index":12,"size":13,"text":"Female participants in pastoral areas are not directly benefitting from the dairy training."},{"index":13,"size":33,"text":"Men who are trained are not passing on the information to their wives. Despite farmer uptake of improved fodder cultivation, relatively few farmers have adequate access to processing equipment (pulverizes) or feed storage."},{"index":14,"size":32,"text":"In light of all these findings, the Consultants made the following recommendations to the project management and staff for consideration in the rest of the first phase and implementation of the next;"},{"index":15,"size":33,"text":"The project should develop clear models and guidelines on how to work with TMs. Greater attention should be paid to documenting and disseminating learnings for the Ugandan context within and outside the partnership."}]},{"head":"EADD PROJECT MID-TERM EVALUATION: Findings and Lessons learnt","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Voices from the field -Issue 2; August 2010"}]},{"head":"EADD MIDTERM EVALUATION","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Continued from page 8","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Continue to identify ways to ensure that women (especially in pastoral areas) have greater access to the project."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Look for ways to help TM and individual participants, especially women, engage in higher level valueadded activities (ghee, cheese, yoghurt making). Expand the geographical coverage and frequency of community mobilization to reach more communities and continue to attract new members."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"(More details can be extracted from the EADD MTE Preliminary Debrief)"}]},{"head":"FOOD FOR THOUGHT","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"O ne day, a poor boy who was selling goods from door to door to pay his way through school, found he had only one thin dime left, and he was hungry. He decided he would ask for a meal at the next house. However, he lost his nerve when a lovely young woman opened the door. Instead of a meal he asked for a drink of water. She thought he looked hungry so brought him a large glass of milk. He drank it slowly, and then asked, How much do I owe you?\" \"You don't owe me anything,\" she replied. \"Mother has taught us never to accept pay for a kindness.\" He said..... \"Then I thank you from my heart.\" As Howard Kelly left that house, he not only felt stronger physically, but his faith in God and man was strong also. He had been ready to give up and quit."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Year's later that young woman became critically ill. The local doctors were baffled. They finally sent her to the big city, where they called in specialists to study her rare disease. Dr. Howard Kelly was called in for the consultation. When he heard the name of the town she came from, a strange light filled his eyes. Immediately he rose and went down the hall of the hospital to her room. Dressed in his doctor's gown he went in to see her. He recognized her at once. He went back to the consultation room determined to do his best to save her life. From that day he gave special attention to the case. After a long struggle, the battle was won. Dr. Kelly requested the business office to pass the final bill to him for approval."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"He looked at it, then wrote something on the edge and the bill was sent to her room. She feared to open it, for she was sure it would take the rest of her life to pay for it all. Finally she looked, and something caught her attention on the side of the bill. She read these words..... "}]},{"head":"Paid in full with one glass of Milk","index":20,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fresh T he EADD production team recently passed out 53 Trainers of Trainers (ToTs) at the end of two seperate workshops at Mukono Zonal Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MUZARDI) and Masaka Social Centre.The training workshop aimed at improving the capacity of the new ToTs to effectively train farmers in livestock production related topics and particularly improving animal healthcare, breeding , hygienic milk production and handling and animal nutrition, to farmers in the cooperative societies and Dairy Interest Groups (DIGs) Additionally, the training provided the ToTs with an opportunity to acquire/ refresh their knowledge in livestock production related issues that EADD promotes to enable farmers improve dairy production skills and improve on the attitude of farmers towards adoption of EADD technologies being promoted Increasing knowledge acquisition and application among small holder dairy farmers is among the key objectives of the EADD project thus the need to equip ToTs with technical skills in an effort to increase farmer access to advisory services in DIGs / DFBAs for efficient use of on-farm resources.The ultimate goal of the ToT model is to builds a sustainable Business Development Services (BDS) model linking farmers , service providers and input suppliers such as Agrovet shops, milk handling equipment etc It is expected that each ToT shall meet the training needs of the farmers in the DIG he/she is linked to and shall be in constant liaison with the Extension Services Assistants and / or coopera-tive society for monitoring and feedback . The ToTs will be a reliable resource in developing model farmers in their various sites of operation. The project 's mandate is to carryout routine field visits to support the ToTs in the field during follow ups. "},{"text":" Signed: Dr. Howard KellyPAID WITH AGLASS OF MILK "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" The EADD project welcomes four new members of staff to the EADD family; Mr. Livingstone Nshemereirwe is the new Business Advisor for MAsindi Cluster , Dr. Moses Muyaka the new Business Advisor for Kiboga Cluster, Mr. Ivan Kushemererwa and Ms. Carol Asiimwe.  618 dairy farmers, with over 500 618 dairy farmers, with over 500  paid up shareholders among these. paid up shareholders among these.  With the support of the East Africa With the support of the East Africa  dairy Development Project ,dairy dairy Development Project ,dairy  farmers in this site especially the farmers in this site especially the  members of this cooperative soci- members of this cooperative soci-  ety seem to have their destiny in ety seem to have their destiny in  their own hands with the installa- their own hands with the installa-  tion of the farmer-owned milk tion of the farmer-owned milk  chilling plant of maximum capac- chilling plant of maximum capac-  ity; 6000 litres. ity; 6000 litres.  Just two months after installation, Just two months after installation,  the cooler is bulking over 2000 the cooler is bulking over 2000  litres of milk daily and it is easy to litres of milk daily and it is easy to  tell from the frequent trips made to tell from the frequent trips made to  the plant by the farmers and milk the plant by the farmers and milk  transporters that there is a height- transporters that there is a height-  ened urge to have the cooler oper- ened urge to have the cooler oper-  ating at full capacity. ating at full capacity.  The Chairman of the cooperative, The Chairman of the cooperative,  Mr. Tugume bears witness to a Mr. Tugume bears witness to a  gradual improvement in the farm- gradual improvement in the farm-  ers' dairy incomes. \"Initially, we ers' dairy incomes. \"Initially, we  sold our milk to local milk traders sold our milk to local milk traders  at a paltry 150 Ug. shillings per at a paltry 150 Ug. shillings per  litre, the traders often re-sold it at a litre, the traders often re-sold it at a profit of 100 Ug. shillings per litre. We welcome you to EADD and look forward to Now, we are directly in touch with profit of 100 Ug. shillings per litre. We welcome you to EADD and look forward to Now, we are directly in touch with workin g with you! Sameer (a major milk processor) \" he says. workin g with you!Sameer (a major milk processor) \" he says.  The farmers sell their milk jointly The farmers sell their milk jointly  through the cooperative to Sameer through the cooperative to Sameer  Agricultural and Livestock Co Ltd Agricultural and Livestock Co Ltd  at 480 Ug. Shillings per litre of at 480 Ug. Shillings per litre of  which 350 goes back to the farmer which 350 goes back to the farmer  and the rest is retained by the Co- and the rest is retained by the Co-  operative to cater for operational operative to cater for operational  costs. costs.  "}],"sieverID":"5ed6e613-0e43-4ee4-ac22-500977ea7276","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08dcc29c5cd1e93cb91262be8a62e12d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b8262618-6463-4c54-a84f-501ef0fd2fc2/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Bringing together the scientists from different national agricultural institutes, district extension agents, farmers and international research scientists to discuss appropriate Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for the CCAFS Benchmark site: Lushoto, Tanzania allowed for knowledge sharing!","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"4f985945-2ec7-416d-94f1-ec2bbc1fc29a","abstract":"SARI) opened the workshop and highlighted the importance of implementating Climate Change Adaptation Strategies and scaling up activities beyond Lushoto. Ndeshi Munisi from SARI and Elizabeth Msoka and Moses Elieza (from Lushoto District Office) shared past and current activites in Lushoto.Several climate change adaptation strategies were suggested for the Lushoto site. Including engaging community groups to build terraces (matuta ya ngazi) to stop soil erosion; knowledge sharing on best practices for composting farm yard manure for application on the farm to increase soil organic matter; working with the national tree planting program and provide input on contour planting; increasing awareness on zero-grazing; introduce legumious cover crops to improve soil health and reduce erosion; among others. Increased knowledge sharing between researchers, farmers and extension agents was highlighted as an important activity.An implementation plan was developed to mobilize communites to build terraces in the seven villages within the Lushoto site for 2013! We hope to work together to improve the ecological resilience of farming practices in Lushoto as a viable climate change adaptation strategy in the region."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"094b769d8478bf602ad5cc62c5dd7022","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1166/WF_2998.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"The 3 rd International Forum on Water and Food","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"cfceadb3-2d31-4aa6-a287-a21eebf6bbaa","abstract":"Private lands in floodplains are vital components of inland natural fisheries but they are increasingly converted to culture-based systems. This raises fish productivity but can adversely affect the poor and biodiversity. Poor rural households can work together using innovative technologies to optimize overall seasonal floodplain productivity incorporating culture-based systems and/or by conserving natural fish, but this needs equitable institutions (floodplain committees"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0971f2d61bfc5f03862aebd3367d2c89","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a7c4e3a1-6751-4ba2-8891-7ed5f340ee73/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #3686 Contributing Projects: • P567 -WLE Program Management Unit","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"• Enhanced institutional capacity of partner research organizations Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: No Description of activity / study: Measuring the impact of integrated systems research has been a challenge for the CGIAR since it expanded into natural resources management research in the early 1990s. Demand for evidence of impact on development outcomes has only increased, as have calls for greater methodological rigor in impact assessment. At the same time, there is greater recognition of the complex, systemic nature of many problems facing society today. The emerging field of \"sustainability science\" raises new questions about the way that we think about and implement impact evaluations. To provide pragmatic guidance to One CGIAR and others on how to address these issues, WLE and its partners held the workshop Measuring the Impact of Integrated Systems Research in September 2021. Participants took stock of past experiences and reviewed existing and new tools and approaches with the potential to overcome conceptual and empirical challenges."}]},{"head":"Geographic scope: • Global","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Comments: <Not Defined> Links to MELIA publications:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• https://wle.cgiar.org/event/measuring-impact-integrated-systems-research 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:16 (GMT+0)"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"d6d19cf8-b043-4891-9acd-e06ace189a01","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"098ae38e45722beccfd28829120094c2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87504515-b47d-48f0-883e-9106ab11e560/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Jiridenw ni legimu (nakɔkɔnɔfɛnw) suguyawn'u sɔrɔ wagati kunafoni walasa ka balocogo ɲuma sabati ni dumuni fɛn suguya caama duniye","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Gafe ɲɛnfɔli kumaw","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Ni dumuni suguya gafe labɛn na ni Dumboro (Tomian sɛrikili) ni Somo (San sɛrikili) dugu ye, san 2017 Zuwɛnkalo kɔnɔ. A bɛ sigidala Jiridenwni legimu bɛɛ kungokɔnɔmaw ni sɛnɛtaw bɛ kofɔminu bɛ sɔrɔsan kalo tanifila. U sigira kulu naani ye walassa ka sinsi u bɛ jɔyɔkɛrɛkɛrɛlen kan balokolo. Tɛrɛ bɛ minu kɔrɔolu bɛ sɔrɔka caaya kosɔbɛ. A bɛsekakɛ suguya wɛrɛw bɛ sɔrɔsan minu tɛ gafe ni kɔnɔ. I bɛ se k'olu fara' kan. K'I ni hɛrɛ bɛn/k'a dumuni ja I da! Sigidala Jiridenw ni nakɔkɔnɔfɛnw (legimu) dun walasa farikolo ka balofɛn suguya caama sɔrɔ Ka kɛɲɛn ni san wagati ye, jiriden ni nakɔkɔnɔfɛn suguya caama bɛ sɔrɔ Segu erezon kungow kɔnɔ, forow la ani sukuw kɔnɔ. Gafe ni dayɛlɛ i k'a lajɛ minu kɛnɛ bɛ sɔrɔ san wagati bɛɛ la. Nakɔkɔnɔfɛnw (legimu) k'i ka na la ka caaya walasa k'i ka to ni dumuni wɛrɛw nafan sankɔrɔta balo kola I ka nakɔ kɔnɔ sɛnɛ boloda ka ɲɛn walasa jiridenw ni legimu ka sɔrɔ I bolo san wagati bɛla Fɛrɛw tikɛ walasa I ka dukɔnɔ mɔkɔw bɛ jiriden ni legimu duni matarafa do o do, kɛrɛgɛrɛlenyala legimu bulukɛnɛw ni legimu minu soko kulɛri (ɲɛn) ye bilema ye. Bioversity ni IER ka ni gafe labɛnna Gaia Lochetti fɛ. Yara Koréissi, Jessica Raneri, Gennifer Meldrum, Amadou Sidibe, Gina Kennedy, Stefano Padulosi et Nina Lauridsen ye dɛmɛ kɛ ni hakilinaw ye porozɛ «Lier les chaînes de valeur de l'agro biodiversité, l'adaptation au climat, et la nutrition: Donner aux pauvres les moyens de gérer les risɛues» hukumu kɔnɔ mi musakaw bɔra FIDA ni erɔpu kaw ka jɛkuluba fɛ. Division nutrition du Ministère de la Sante et de l'Hygiène Publique. "}],"sieverID":"ce9e58b3-d30a-40ff-af70-9fa8fdb6e99c","abstract":"Sɛkɛsɛkɛli baara dɔw kɛra muso210 ka dumuni ko kanTominian ni San sɛrikiliw la,sans 2015kɔnɔ. O jabiw la, a yera ko:Muso tan(10) ootan(10), saba(3) kadumuni dun ta suguya tu ma ca Kɛrɛgɛrɛlenyala, farikololakana dumuniw dunni fagan tun ka dɔgɔkosɔbɛ A yera ko muso sigiyɔrɔma tan(10) ootan(10),jiriden dunbagahakɛ tun tɛ hali kelen bɔ Muso tan (10) oo tan(10), wolofila (7) ɲɔgon de tun ye nakɔkɔnɔfɛn bulu ɲugujikɛnɛmaw dun Dumunifɛn sukuya caama walasa ka balocogo ɲuma ni kɛnɛya sabati Balo kɛcogo ɲuma bɛ sinsi balofɛn suguya caaya n'u hakɛw bɛrɛbɛnni kan. Balo fɛnw sigilendo kulu saba ye: 1) Futɛnidonaw, farikolo futɛnidona sukaroma n'atunuma caama b'o lu la 2) Farikolo sinsinaw , balofɛn caama b'u la minu bɛ do farikolo dilanila 3) Kɛnɛya sabatilanw, witaminiw ani kɔkɔw hakɛ caama b'olula. U jɔyɔrɔka bo kosɔbɛ kɛnɛya sabatili ni banaw kumbɛnila Ni kulu saba bɛɛ dumunifɛnw dunni a hakɛla don o don b'a to farikolo bɛ lamɔ kaɲan, k'a lasabati, k'a lakana ani k'a labɛn ni tiɲɛnli y'a sɔrɔ.Dumunifɛn kulɛri(ɲɛn) suguya caama kɛ ɲɔgonka i ka dumunini minɛ kɔlɔ! Dumuni kulɛri suguya caaya bɛ balofɛn suguya caaya kofɔ dumunila."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09ee4c784aef25b6162912aadb5df389","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/12f872fd-35a7-4b67-96b9-67f969a3c789/retrieve"},"pageCount":36,"title":"Helping Small Farmers Cash in on the Global Appetite for High-Value Products","keywords":["Alfredo Caldas","Coordinator","Training and Conferences Edith Hesse","Head","Information and Capacity Strengthening Unit Carlos Meneses","Head","Information Systems Unit Nathan Russell","Head","Communications Unit"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"ike young adults whose tastebuds have finally awakened, world consumers have become daring in their daily diet. They hunger for novel foods, partial substitutes for traditional low-cost staples like rice, wheat, and cassava. For those with cash to spare, paying a premium for a specialty coffee, aromatic honey, organic greens, or perhaps a fruit punch flavored with Andean blackberries is no deterrent."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Globalization is driving this trend, and consolidated supermarket chains, always looking for economies of scale, are the delivery vehicle. With staple commodity prices in long-term decline, these niche markets are an attractive way for tropical farmers to diversify their production and earn a fair living. But the strategy is as risky as it is necessary for survival in the global economy."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"This publication, CIAT in Focus (formerly CIAT in Perspective), is the 2004-2005 annual report of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). In the following pages, we examine the obstacles to, and rewards of, diversifying into higher value crops or growing traditional commodities that have been transformed into money earners through value adding or sales to niche markets. We also present examples of CIAT research to help small farmers make the difficult transition to these alternative crops, production technologies, and markets."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Getting a Handle on Getting a Handle on Getting a Handle on Getting a Handle on Getting a Handle on High-High-High-High-V V V Value Agriculture alue Agriculture alue Agriculture alue Agriculture High-Value Agriculture"}]},{"head":"L","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"In short, there is a huge and growing global market for high-value products, particularly niche crops, such as fruits, specialty coffees, flowers, medicinal plants, and nontimber forest resources whose production or harvest can't be mechanized. We're also talking about more conventional crops (cassava, for example) and livestock, to which value has been added along the market chain-through inspection, grading, processing, or perhaps packaging. As a Filipino friend and former colleague of mine often tells the indigenous farmers with whom he works: \"Don't sell your pigs for cash. Sell ham and sausage.\""},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"As for the role of food supply chains in meeting demand, procurement specialists make suppliers jump through many hoops. These include minimum weight or volume of supply, timing and frequency of delivery, product traits like color and shape, sanitary measures, and packaging and traceability. And when it comes to quality and safety, today's private industry standards are typically more onerous than public ones."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"One-stop supermarket shopping has, of course, been a fixture of economic life in the richer countries for more than half a century. But the forces of globalization are now accelerating the integration of food procurement and retailing in the vastly larger markets of the populous tropics."}]},{"head":"W","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The downside of economic globalization for smallscale farmers has mostly to do with their dwindling competitiveness in cultivating conventional staples like rice, maize, wheat, barley, potato, and soybean. The same applies to milk production. More liberalized trading regimes and better international transport and communications have made it exceedingly difficult for smallholders to continue making a living from such traditional commodities."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Clearly, the growing demand for high-value products-in step with what one US economist has dubbed the \"supermarketization\" trend-can serve as a counterbalance to the livelihood dilemma facing smallscale farmers due to foreign competition on traditional commodities. Recognizing the great potential of highvalue products as an antidote to rural poverty, the Science Council of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) explicitly covered this topic under two of its five recently stated priority research areas for the next decade."}]},{"head":"Three lessons","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Since its creation, CIAT has devoted great effort to improving production and protection of our four mandate crops-beans, cassava, forages, and rice-as well as to the management of soils needed for their production. But in recent years we have also recognized the urgent need to help poor farmers add value to their conventional crops and to diversify into higher value products, such as fruits and livestock."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"In working with our clients on diversification, CIAT emphasizes three lessons or guidelines. First, in selecting new crops or products, small farmers should focus on those requiring specialized labor rather than on capital-intensive crops. An example of this is naranjillo (Solanum quitoense). Known as lulo in Colombia, it is a popular crop among the country's hillside communities, some of which are currently working with CIAT and private industry to exploit the fruit commercially. Lulo is a high-value semiperennial well suited to small-scale production for the fruit juice market. The economic return doesn't come from heavy capital investment. Rather it accrues from the farm family's \"tender loving care\"-in staking and pruning the plants and in selective harvesting."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"The second guideline can be summed up in three words: organize, organize, organize. While any new crop or product must of course suit on-farm resources and agroecological conditions, farmers also must work together to master the technological, regulatory, and marketing aspects. This is an area to which CIAT has devoted significant resources, particularly through its projects on participatory research and agroenterprise development."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"Finally, a key factor to be considered by developing country farmers, and by the R&D organizations supporting them, is their overall comparative advantage. Producers should regularly step back and analyze where and how they fit into the global agricultural picture. One of the watchwords here is \"tropical.\" There are numerous crops-mangoes and cassava, to name just two-for which tropical locations are especially advantageous to commercial production. In this sense, climate can be seen as a resource. Software tools such as CIAT's Homologue, which uses climate and soil data to associate crops with locations where they might grow well, is designed to help tropical farmers exploit their competitive advantages."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"When food commerce is left solely to market forces, it is nearly always the large players who win. For small farmers in developing countries to benefit from diversifying into high-value products, they need to be supported by good organization, information, and policies. If donors, research organizations, and development agencies can help small producers participate competitively in market chains, then we will have helped them find new escape routes from poverty. As our annual report for 2004-2005 demonstrates, this is a fundamental social investment to which CIAT is devoting significant research effort."}]},{"head":"Joachim Voss","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"Director General, CIAT lobally speaking, changes in the human diet over the past few decades have been nothing short of remarkable. We now eat more vegetables, fruits, meat, dairy products, and fish than ever before, relying far less on traditional staple grains and other commodities like wheat, rice, maize, potatoes, and cassava. This largely positive nutritional trend is expected to continue strongly for many years. It will, on the whole, improve our health status as a species. But beyond that, increased consumption of these higher value products is resculpting our agricultural landscape and will indelibly alter economic relations among continents, countries, and communities. The crucial task for CIAT is to help the rural poor actively exploit these changes in economically and environmentally sustainable ways rather than become passive bystanders or, worse, victims of the entrepreneurial success of others."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"A diverse human diet is just the tip of the iceberg. It is one of the more obvious signs of the much broader dynamic we loosely refer to as globalization-changes in international trade, corporate structure, commodity prices, methods of buying and selling, and information and communication technologies. In this new reality, the world's food consumers, their voices ventriloquized for better or worse by supermarket chains, now call the shots. For their part producers must listen carefully to consumers' requirements for product variety as well as quality and safety."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"In the next few pages, we look at recent trends in global food production, marketing, and consumption, and what they mean for tropical farmers, scientists, and their development partners. We also review recent research by CIAT to help farmers make the difficult but necessary transition to producing higher value products and linking to existing or newly emerging domestic and export markets for those products. As we will see, this research is fully consistent with CGIAR priorities and with CIAT's pursuit of the three global research-for-development challenges that guide its work: Agrobiodiversity, Agroecosystem Management, and Rural Innovation."}]},{"head":"More trade but declining commodity prices","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"From 1980 to 2003, world trade in food, expressed as the value of exports, more than doubled. And the annual value of world trade in agricultural products is now approaching US$600 billion. The industrialized world exports slightly more than the developing countries combined, but it imports substantially more. For tropical producers it is a huge and potentially lucrative market. But with the last vestiges of pure subsistence farming now vanishing, developing country markets too are on the rise and present substantial opportunities for raising farmers' incomes."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"What's of special significance here is the product balance. Bulk commodities like grains and oilseeds have dwindled in economic importance, now making up only one-sixth of global trade in agricultural products. Their place has been taken by a range of processed and high-value food items, which now account for more than 80 percent of trade. For example, exports of fruits and vegetables rose 330 percent during the post-1980 period; in Latin America, they shot up 400 percent, with Central America becoming a major supplier. World meat exports also rose dramatically, by some 250 percent, with the increase reaching 300 percent in Latin America."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"The growth of trade has been accompanied by rising pressure on prices. World prices for wheat, maize, and rice, adjusted for inflation, are the lowest they have been over the past century. And prices for commodity pulses (dried legumes) are about half what they were in 1989-90. Producers of traditional cash crops, such as coffee and tea, have also faced severe price declines. In all these cases, the reasons are a mix of increased supply and sluggish demand, leading to market saturation."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"\"Prices of the top 20 or so commodities are at historic lows,\" says Shaun Ferris, manager of CIAT's agroenterprise development project. \"If we continue to focus just on the productivity of those commodities, we lock rural people into poverty. We're arguing for much greater investment in helping farmers diversify into different sectors, so they have a range of options in supplying high-value products.\""},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"Globalization has increased both the supply of and demand for food, and altered the product mix. In particular, it has simultaneously created both threats to traditional field-crop production in tropical countries, due to stiff competition from efficiently produced cheap foreign imports, and an array of new opportunities due to consumer hunger-in the good sense-for variety and quality. Globalization, then, supports market supply from new sources. Among the commercial trends that can link tropical farmers to new markets, we note the rise of trade houses, supermarkets, and niche markets (for specialty coffees, for example), as well as the Fair Trade movement and the growing popularity of organic produce."}]},{"head":"A stated research priority","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Anyone who listens to agricultural scientists talk about shifting tropical research to high-value crops and other products is bound to hear the word diversification. It is closely linked to the economics of survival in the rural tropics. The connection is spelled out in research priorities for the period 2005-2015, set out by the CGIAR's Science Council (see box on page 6)."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"The five CG priorities were selected to contribute directly or indirectly to seven of the eight UN millennium development goals. The Science Council proposes that within 3 years 80 percent of the CGIAR budget be devoted to the five priorities, one of which is \"reducing rural poverty through agricultural diversification and emerging opportunities for highvalue commodities and products.\" The Council sees the added income for farm families coming from several sources: fruits, vegetables, livestock, fish, and nontimber forest products. Pursuing this priority is expected to contribute directly to the first two millennium goals: curtailing extreme poverty and hunger, and reducing gender disparity. The CGIAR also sees diversification as contributing indirectly to the goals of lowered child mortality, better maternal health, and environmental sustainability."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"The priorities document calls for the CGIAR's research on fruit and vegetables, currently at a low level, to be expanded significantly. CIAT's project on tropical fruits, launched 3 years ago, as well as its longer-standing focus on value added and marketing, through its agroenterprise project, are already in step with this thinking."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"A group of about 40 experts in diverse aspects of high-value agriculture gathered recently at CIAT headquarters to examine how the poor, especially neglected groups such as rural women, can benefit from growing markets for these products. Convened by the Global Forum on Agricultural Research (GFAR) and the CGIAR Science Council, the workshop was organized by the secretariats of these groups in collaboration with CIAT, the World Vegetable Center (AVRDC), International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), and International Federation of Agricultural Producers (IFAP)."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"The meeting was an important first joint initiative following the Science Council's recent decision to prioritize agricultural diversification and high-value products, such as fruits, flowers, vegetables, and livestock products. The experts were quick to acknowledge that, while small farmers enjoy some advantages, such as the limited economies of scale in markets for high-value products, they also face significant challenges, including the need to organize, acquire new knowledge and skills, and gain access to business support services."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"Workshop participants made a good start toward doing a better job of helping farmers meet those challenges. Specifically, they reached a shared understanding of what high-value products are, reviewed strategies used in different regions for linking smallholders to markets, identified highpriority issues for a shared research agenda, and began creating informal networks and alliances for addressing key themes. The CGIAR and key partners now have the makings of a solid framework for realistic action."}]},{"head":"Diversification in coffee zones","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"One obvious entry point for research on high-value products is the coffee supply chain. Coffee has suffered a slow decline as a cash crop in recent decades. International prices fell on average a little more than 5 percent a year from 1977 to 2001. The trend jeopardizes the livelihoods of some 25 million growers in about 70 countries, particularly poor hillside farm families working small plots of environmentally vulnerable land."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Under a 3-year project, CIAT is designing a threepart research strategy to help coffee and other smallholder farmers find viable higher value crop replacements that match demand from markets. In some cases, the recommended diversification will include continued coffee production but aimed at specialty markets that appreciate specific quality traits and are willing to pay a premium for them. In addition to specialty coffee, the project is working on tropical fruits, medicinal plants, high-value fodder crops, and specialty honeys, with the aim of developing concepts and methods to facilitate the participation of small farmers in high-value product supply chains."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"At the heart of the diversification strategy is a triad of activities: market analysis, use of geographic information, and crop management tailored to match products from particular environmental niches with specific markets. Together, these activities can help bridge the gap between what farmers might successfully grow, given local climate and soils, and what buyers want-a gap that has plagued earlier crop diversification schemes."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Tropical fruits are another promising option for smallholders (see box). Their cultivation is generally well suited to the intensive management that can be readily provided at a small scale-such as coffee farms, 70 percent of which are less than 5 hectares. And Flower production at Tunía in Cauca Department, Colombia."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Coffee producer in Cauca Department, Colombia."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"Since its establishment several years ago, CIAT's tropical fruits project has channeled its efforts mainly in two directions. First, it is creating information tools that help partners decide what species can best be grown where. And second, it is developing methodologies and technologies that can be applied with numerous fruit species to accomplish key tasks or solve major problems."},{"index":7,"size":41,"text":"One of the main obstacles to expanding and improving production of some high-potential tropical fruits, such as lulo (Solanum quitoense) and soursop (Annona muricata L.; guanábana in Spanish) is the difficulty farmers face in obtaining high-quality planting materials for clonal propagation."},{"index":8,"size":78,"text":"To support our partners' search for solutions to this problem, we are developing, to cite just one example, participatory methodologies that enable lulo growers to select elite clones as well as tissue culture methodologies for rapid in vitro multiplication of these elite materials on a large scale. \"In vitro propagation can provide farmers with a source of healthy plant material. Some of them have reported increased productivity with these materials,\" comments geneticist Zaida Lentini, who coordinates this work."},{"index":9,"size":67,"text":"A second major challenge for small farmers is how to manage major diseases and pests attacking diverse fruit species. \"A serious attack, by reducing both the quantity and quality of fruit, can quickly wipe out producers' investment,\" notes Alonso González, manager of CIAT's tropical fruits project. For that reason the project will put increased effort into integrated management of diseases and pests like fruit flies, he explains."},{"index":10,"size":127,"text":"Another promising but challenging line of research is aimed at developing practical means for genetic control of flowering in mango as a model for other tropical fruit species. If farmers were to gain the ability to control flowering in fruits, they could better target their produce to markets with narrow windows of opportunity. Recent ground-breaking research on this theme, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation, focuses on achieving in vitro regeneration of plantlets, using tissue culture techniques. This is required for developing an efficient protocol for genetic transformation, which would make it possible to splice in genes for flowering control and other valuable traits. since many fruits are perennials, they fit well into coffee production systems from an environmental standpoint: They ensure continuous groundcover, protecting slopes from erosion."},{"index":11,"size":109,"text":"\"To fully benefit from growing and selling such higher value crops, you need more specialized knowledge, such as production requirements and market intelligence,\" says Thomas Oberthür, a GIS specialist with CIAT's land use project. This is important not only for the smooth operation of production and distribution, but also for ensuring an equitable distribution of benefits along the supply chain. The slice of the pie that goes to the tropical farmer is small and shrinking. An analysis of the distribution of benefits from African coffee production, for example, showed that the farmer got only US$0.12 of the $26 for which one kilogram of coffee retailed in London in 2002."}]},{"head":"Fulfilling the promise of tropical fruits","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"CIAT has worked for many years with numerous farmer groups on such nontraditional uses of cassava and has increasingly incorporated industrial requirements into its cassava breeding strategy. Its collaboration with the Latin American and Caribbean Consortium to Support Cassava Research and Development (CLAYUCA), headquartered in the Agronatura Science Park on CIAT's campus, has helped stimulate and maintain a creative dialog between the R and the D in the consortium's name."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Following major yield improvements in recent years, Hernán Ceballos, manager of CIAT's cassava project, says that the crop can now compete with other sources of starch at commercial levels. This has fueled scientific and commercial interest in complementary qualitative improvements. \"We are interacting closely with the industry to find out exactly what it is they want.\""},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"One opportunity is protein enhancement for improved nutrition of both people and livestock. While the leaves of cassava are rich in protein, the bulk of the edible portion of the plant, the roots, is not. Root protein is generally only 2 to 3 percent. But Ceballos notes that promising exceptions to the rule have recently been observed in some Central American cultivars, which have protein levels as high as 8 percent and more than twice the normal levels of pro-vitamin A carotenoids."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Improving the quality of cassava starch will also add value to a field crop produced mainly by poor people. Starch consists of two compounds, amylose and amylopectin, the latter being the more abundant and also responsible for the texture of \"waxy\" starch, which fetches a high price. One CIAT strategy, then, is to select for lower amylose content. In decades past"},{"index":5,"size":136,"text":"The CIAT strategy, which combines expertise from several disciplines and four on-going research projects, recognizes that agroecological conditions vary widely in the highlands, between farms and even between fields within the same farm. So, not all farmers in an area may be able to grow the same crop and a single smallholder may need to diversify into other products. In these environments, regional one-size-fits-all strategies won't work, says Oberthür, and fragmentation of supply is a risk. Successful diversification, then, requires farmers to cooperate among themselves, as well as with service providers and other actors, to build a viable market chain. They must know their clientele and their tastes, the technical requirements of the supply chain, such as product quality, volume, and timing of delivery, and the specific characteristics of the higher value crop they are selling."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"As a Colombian exporter told Oberthür: \"We've got to learn more about our product at both ends. These producers want to know where their product is going.\""}]},{"head":"Higher value through commodity rejuvenation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The drive to raise rural incomes may take the form of direct diversification into new, higher value crops, or even off-farm activities, related or not to agriculture. But changes in the production, grading, processing, and marketing of the crops farmers already grow may also open economic doors. A traditional food staple like cassava, for example, can also be grown as a source of industrial starch or processed into chips for animal feed. Both types of alternative product, typically involving a switch to new cassava varieties, will provide higher and more stable incomes than if the roots are merely sold fresh in local markets."}]},{"head":"Cassava starch processing in Colombia's Cauca Department.","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Analysis of cassava starch quality at CIAT headquarters.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"CIAT cassava researchers analyzed only about 300 cassava samples a year for starch quality. In 2005 the Center began to beef up its analytical capacity."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Throughput is expected to reach 300 samples a week during 2005."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Perhaps the most novel aspect of CIAT's new cassava breeding strategy is the introduction of mutagenesis to induce new value-adding traits. \"Inbreeding allows you to push for the appearance of recessive genes, most of which will be bad for the plant but which can be easily bred out,\" says Ceballos. The key is to increase the chances that useful recessive genes-such as ones coding for quality starch traitswill express themselves. With support from CIAT, national research programs in India, Thailand, Vietnam, Uganda, Ghana, Cuba, and Brazil began projects in 2004 to incorporate inbreeding into their cassava research."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"The message is clear. Even with a traditional food staple like cassava, there is excellent potential to add value, thus rejuvenating the commodity."}]},{"head":"Better buffaloes from improved forages","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"CIAT's work with smallholders in Southeast Asia to improve the supply of forages is also a good example of the economic power of quality improvement. The forage technologies, developed with support from the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB), help farmers raise healthier animals, with less investment of time and energy (especially in collecting fodder and herding animals). When farmers adopt such technologies, says Rod Lefroy, CIAT's regional coordinator for Asia, \"they cease being livestock keepers and become livestock producers.\" It is a change in both outlook and behavior. Instead of keeping animals mainly as an insurance policy, to be sold for cash to cope with emergencies like crop failure or family funeral expenses, the farmers begin to see their animals as a source of income, of products they can market on a regular basis."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"Lefroy cites the case of Hmong highland farmers in Laos and their draft animals. After buying a single buffalo at the beginning of the cropping season, a farmer would typically see the animal's physical condition slowly deteriorate due to inadequate nutrition. But now, with good-quality forages available, the buffalo can be properly fed with less investment of family time and labor. As animals are in better health and show significant weight gain instead of loss, some farmers are buying and selling more than one animal per year, providing a welcome boost to their income. Traders coming to the village, explains Lefroy, are willing to pay more per kilo of live buffalo thanks to simpler marketing (i.e., buying more animals in one visit) and better quality animals. \"This amounts to improvements in livestock production and the overall livestock marketing chain.\""}]},{"head":"Potato farmers enter the fast-food lane","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Good planning and organization by farmers is another means of boosting the de facto value of agricultural products, whether traditional commodities or new high-value niche crops. For example, pooling research, technology, production, equipment, transport, and support services, as well as working out clear delivery timetables with customers, yield economies of scale and other efficiencies that put money directly into producers' pockets. The same is true of business development strategies, such as formal contract farming and the use of information services. CIAT is actively investigating various organizational options, notably through its projects on participatory research and agroenterprise development."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"An enterprise in Uganda demonstrates how good planning and organization can help bring farmers financial success with a traditional product. In the country's hilly southwest, the Nyabyumba Farmers' Group, originally set up in 1998 as a spinoff from a Farmer Field School, now supplies high-quality, pregraded chipping potatoes to a fast-food restaurant in Kampala, part of the Nandos chain."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"CIAT trained staff of the NGO Africare in market facilitation methods; Africare in turn helped the farmers plan and set up their business. The group set out strict planting schedules for members to synchronize their production with the client's needs. The group also changed their planting density to obtain the required size of potato for this market. These and other technical innovations were designed with the help of Uganda's National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO). With Africare's help the group also sorted out conditions of sale with Nandos. These related to price, terms of payment, potato variety, timing of delivery, volume, and quality. Deliveries of 190 tons per month as of May 2005 have earned the group the equivalent of US$33,000."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"Several lessons from this experience stand out. First, while a market orientation does enable smallholder farmers to plug into higher value markets, the process requires long-term support from research and development partners. Second, access to innovations at critical points, such as production, postharvest handling, and marketing, are vital to success. Third, participatory methods allow market chain participants and service providers to better understand each other's needs and challenges. Finally, by consolidating relationships with buyers and opening communication channels with all market chain participants, farmers gain confidence and improve their negotiating power."}]},{"head":"The high road to high value: Hurdles and rewards","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Diversification into novel high-value crops, or at least ones the farmer has never grown before, may be the boldest strategy for raising farm revenues. But it is also a strategy prone to great uncertainty. While traditional commodity production also carries with it certain risks, like a poor harvest due to a pest outbreak, experienced farmers can anticipate the threat and make plans to cope with it. It is the devil they know. With crops that are new to them, the uncertainty, even about the production risks involved, is high. And on top of these are the risks associated with marketing."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"On the supply side, information and knowledge bases may be weak (see box), and relevant technical expertise and business services scarce. Farmers may also lack sufficient investment capital and inputs, and face technical constraints such as inappropriate germplasm. Other obstacles have to do with a \"demanding\" demand side-buyers who impose increasingly stringent quality, safety, and traceability requirements, especially in industrial countries. As CIAT's director of research, Douglas Pachico, notes, \"We're seeing that market entry issues are often more important than production problems.\""},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Agroenterprise service providers may need to alter objectives and retool. With a history of largely unsuccessful supply-driven agricultural development haunting them, their learning curve can be as steep as the farmers'. A pitfall any new support strategies must avoid is loss of service to the poorest. Since high-value crops generally require more technology, knowledge, organization, communication, and cash investment than standard food staples, there is a risk that those who lack such resources will be left on the sidelines. Furthermore, R&D organizations must not become too enamored of their favorite product list, since today's high-value crop may be tomorrow's loss maker."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"So the road to high-value cropping is strewn with many obstacles. But the rewards are enticing."}]},{"head":"10","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Delivering a load of agave fiber in Cauca Department, Colombia."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Development partners, farmer groups, and other actors in chains for high-value products are keenly aware of the need for stronger links with multiple sources of market-related information. Exciting opportunities to strengthen information services are being created by the gradual spread of Internet access and other new information and communications technologies (ICTs) in developing countries."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"In order for rural communities and organizations to reap the potential benefits of ICT use, further interventions are required beyond the initial investment in connectivity and training. One of these involves the creation of local content that responds to rural people's needs. During recent years CIAT has gained valuable experience in determining how to promote the generation of market-related content at the regional, national, and local levels."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"A notable example is CIAT's relationship with the African software developer Busylab, with whom we have developed market information systems for Africa (www.tradenet.biz) and Central America (www.agroemprendedor.org)."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Through complementary research in Colombia and Bolivia, the Center has also developed an approach for creating local information systems for rural agroenterprise development, or SIDERs"}]},{"head":"Cyberspace and the rural marketplace","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"(their acronym in Spanish). These systems are constructed in a participatory manner with community-based stakeholder groups, representing farmer associations, other chain actors, and local organizations. Trained to act as \"information and communications promoters,\" the groups develop and disseminate market-related content, using Web sites (see, for example, www.caucasider.org) and diverse conventional media, such as radio, printed bulletins, and local drama."}]},{"head":"What to grow? Ask Homologue","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The first question asked by farmers wanting to diversify into higher value crops is, \"What can we grow profitably in our fields?\" Choosing an appropriate highvalue product is critical, but the decision may not come easily, especially if the producer has been growing the same mix of crops for many years and has little marketing experience. The first step is to find out which new high-value crops will thrive in the farmer's agroecological zone. In highland areas, where soil and climate conditions vary widely over short distances, what's suitable for one farmer may be inappropriate for another."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"CIAT has designed a computer tool called Homologue that can provide part of the answer. Homologue is a Windows application that uses climate and soil information about one or more locations to identify other places with similar characteristics. An agroenterprise service provider could use Homologue to answer these questions: \"Where on earth are there farms like ours? What high-value crops are being grown there that we too could try out?\" Similarly, researchers or development agencies looking to put improved crop varieties into farmers' hands can use Homologue as a targeting tool."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The result of collaboration between CIAT's tropical fruits and land use projects, Homologue is a selfcontained, user-friendly mapping system. The user simply points the cursor to a target site on the screen to generate a display of homologous locations elsewhere on the continental or world map. Future releases will have high enough resolution to allow a specific farm field to be selected as the input point."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"CIAT is also helping to reinforce the global knowledge base on high-value crops through various information services, including the recently launched New World Fruits Database. This is a joint effort with the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). The database, which allows for Web-enabled searches, holds information on more than 1,200 fruit species from the Americas. In addition to pictures, this resource covers taxonomy, common names, uses of the species, and geographic distribution. It also provides bibliographic references for further research and links to information on the availability of germplasm. Work was under way in 2005 to allow the database to be used in tandem with Homologue and other geographic information systems (GIS) tools."}]},{"head":"Learning alliances for agroenterprise development","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"While good crop information tools are essential to highvalue production, farmers need direct assistance with many other aspects of agroenterprise development as well, especially organizational and economic aspects. Through \"learning alliances\" with Catholic Relief Services (CRS), CARE International, SNV Netherlands Development Organisation, and other major international development agencies, CIAT and its partners are developing and testing a comprehensive participatory approach to helping farmers design, set up, and manage small agroenterprises."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"As the approach is refined through action research conducted across different locations and products, it is being widely implemented through development projects. In Central America, for example, CIAT's international partners work with more than 30 local organizations in four countries, who, in turn, support enterprise development for more than 125,000 rural families. The learning alliance thus provides a strong leverage point for achieving impact on a large scale."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"The alliances have already allowed CIAT to help thousands of rural entrepreneurs in Latin America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Shaun Ferris, manager of CIAT's agroenterprise development project, comments that the alliances are \"an incredibly useful way to build capacity around the relatively complicated task of enterprise development.\""},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"In addition to building the capacity of local business service providers, the learning alliances provide a platform for demand-driven action research carried out by CIAT and its partners. Through such research we can help development practitioners, the private sector, and policy makers design or adapt new approaches and tools that support enterprise development. Moreover, this work enables CIAT scientists to draw on a wealth of field cases for strategic research resulting in international public goods that help create new options for small farmers in high-value agriculture."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"In Southeast Asia, with support from the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), CIAT and local partners are helping farmer groups in six districts of Vietnam to diversify into higher value products using its four-step agroenterprise development process. A major success to date has been a significant increase in peanut production. This was achieved through a technique known as market chain analysis, which brings all players in the chain together in a participatory approach to problem solving."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"Mark Lundy is an agroenterprise specialist and the main architect of CIAT's learning alliances. He notes that in Central America, where the learning alliance is supported by Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC), there is strong consumer interest in high-value products, including organically grown produce."},{"index":7,"size":119,"text":"Many poor farmers in Central America live in environmentally sensitive highland areas, where they try to make a living from tiny holdings, often just a hectare or two. Together, the farmers and service organizations with which CIAT has worked decided that, with so little land available, intensive vegetable production would be a good bet. But the big urban supermarket buyers are very demanding about quality and also about the use of ecologically sound production practices. So the farmers, says Lundy, have to consider many factors as they switch into or enhance vegetable production. Besides economic feasibility, they have to decide on the types of inputs they will use and how they are going to manage their natural resources sustainably."},{"index":8,"size":91,"text":"There's also the issue of product volume. Fortunately, scaling up to provide a sufficient quantity of quality products creates postproduction jobs-sorting, grading, washing, and packing-which tend to benefit women. \"It's a simple kind of value adding, but it's occurring at or near the farm level,\" says Lundy. He cites the example of a project in El Salvador, where farmers produce high-quality vegetables for a city supermarket with backing from CRS. \"This project has generated livelihoods, not just for smallholders, but also for family members who help prepare the vegetables for delivery.\""}]},{"head":"The high-value horn of plenty","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"That and the other experiences and achievements described in this report reflect a conviction that CIAT shares with growing numbers of scientists, development practitioners, and rural people: The journey toward sustainable livelihoods depends, not just on the staple foods that sustain life, but also on a cornucopia (the \"horn of plenty\" from Greek mythology) of higher value products that could improve life's quality."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Based on its work and accomplishments so far, what has CIAT learned about tapping the potential of such products for reducing rural poverty? One clear lesson is that, while building on our traditional strengths in crop improvement, we must learn to exercise those strengths differently."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"In research on cassava and tropical forages, for example, this means developing new traits or promoting uses of crops that better enable farmers to seize emerging market opportunities. Another challenge is to derive generic tools and approaches (sometimes from work that originally centered on staple foods), which our development partners can adapt and apply to a wide range of tropical products. For example, the robust participatory methods devised by CIAT's agroenterprise project build on our experience in developing new markets for cassava."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"To guarantee that such methods are widely implemented and can achieve large-scale impact, we must also create more effective models of collaboration, such as CLAYUCA and the learning alliances described above, which involve traditional and nontraditional partners. Precisely because the high-value horn of plenty offers so many possibilities, it will take an unprecedented collaborative effort to identify and develop options that can deliver on the promise of high-value products."}]},{"head":"13","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Producers and other actors in the chili supply chain in Chuquisaca Department, Bolivia."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"The marketplace at Punata, Cochabamba Department, Bolivia."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"n the sections that follow, we present highlights from the three global research-for-development challenges-Agrobiodiversity, Agroecosystem Management, and Rural Innovation-that guide the work of CIAT's projects. Each of the stories told here represents a step forward on the road to a more competitive agriculture that is economically and socially sustainable."}]},{"head":"\"Smart\" fertilizers and nitrogen-efficient crops","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Researchers at CIAT and the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS) are moving full steam ahead to exploit a rare biochemical phenomenon from some tropical pasture grassesbiological nitrification inhibition (BNI). Triggered by chemical compounds released from the roots of an African grass widely grown in South America, this natural process, once harnessed, is expected to make nitrogen fertilizer use far more efficient."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Nitrification is a process in which soil bacteria convert ammonium-the nitrogen form in most commercial fertilizers-into nitrite, and then into nitrate, releasing nitrous oxide, a powerful greenhouse gas, in the process. Although nitrate is crucial to the growth of nearly all crops, most of it leaches down to the subsoil and often pollutes surface and groundwater. So, finding a way to slow down nitrification to a rate compatible with good crop growth would both reduce fertilizer requirements and minimize the deleterious impacts of agriculture on the environment."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"In 1982, CIAT scientist Rosemary Sylvester-Bradley noticed that soil in which the forage grass Brachiaria humidicola was growing had more ammonium and less nitrate than would normally be expected. This observation has led to research collaboration between CIAT and JIRCAS on BNI."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"A joint JIRCAS-CIAT project, launched in January 2002, aims to get to the bottom of the BNI phenomenon and put it to practical use. The incentive to combat nitrification is strong. The direct economic cost of nitrogen losses in cereal production alone is estimated at US$16.4 billion per year. Moreover, global agriculture continues to be an important source of the greenhouse gases implicated in global warming, and nitrate pollution of water is a growing threat to the environment and human health."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"Recent advances are highly promising. The JIRCAS team has perfected a test that identifies and measures the BNI trait. Joint work by JIRCAS and CIAT in 2004 also proved that B. humidicola root exudates are highly effective at inhibiting nitrification in soil and that the effect is long-lasting. JIRCAS researchers G.V. Subbarao and Osamu Ito believe that unravelling the mechanisms of BNI in B. humidicola will have important implications for developing \"smart\" nitrogen fertilizers that do not undergo rapid nitrification in soils."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"The work to date suggests several promising strategies to harness BNI, some of which are currently being pursued. During 2004 the CIAT team used the JIRCAS assay to screen 10 samples of B. humidicola from the Center's seed bank. \"We found three accessions of B. humidicola that have significantly greater capacity for BNI than the standard cultivar Tully, and we're now testing these in the field,\" says Marco Rondón, a biogeochemist with CIAT's Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility (TSBF) Institute."},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"Apart from conventional breeding to enhance BNI, it should also be possible, over the longer term, to isolate, sequence, and clone BNI genes from B. humidicola and introduce them into economically important field crops through genetic transformation. Building \"fuel efficiency\" right into the very genomes of major crops has enormous potential to cut both production costs and global agriculture's share of greenhouse gas emissions and nitrate pollution of water."}]},{"head":"Research-for-Development Highlights","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Stories about progress toward a more competitive and sustainable agriculture I 15 An experiment at CIAT headquarters aimed at better understanding the mechanisms involved in nitrification inhibition."}]},{"head":"Integrating folk and formal soil ecology","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"For Kenya's small farmers, soil fertility management is not just a matter of maintaining a chemical balance in the topsoil but rather brings into play their knowledge of soil ecology. With support from Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC), researchers in CIAT's Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility (TSBF) Institute are testing an interactive learning strategy with four communities in western Kenya to promote dialog between farmers' \"folk\" ecology and formal scientific knowledge. This approach contrasts with conventional agronomic research methods, which often ignore local knowledge systems. While not a panacea, farmers' knowledge about factors such as soil types, nutrient content, composting, and crop response to organic and inorganic amendments is vital, since it guides their decisions about farming."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Through dialog, experiment design and implementation, evaluation, and knowledge sharing between farmers, researchers, and extensionists, CIAT researchers are creating a more dynamic approach to solve soil fertility problems."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"\"Our project results dispel the idea that integrated soil fertility management is somehow too complicated a topic for participatory research with farmers,\" says CIAT anthropologist Joshua Ramisch. \"Yes, it's complex, but farmers deal with complexity all the time -with weather, pests, diseases, soils, and multiple crops. You can use soil management as an entry point for participatory research on natural resource issues.\""},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"The challenge now, he says, is to scale up the use of community-based learning strategies so that knowledge sharing can take place among larger numbers of farmers and development partners. This is a key aim of the second 3-year phase of the project, which has continuing support from IDRC."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"Strong community interest is driving the push to scale up the process. Since 2001 participating farmer groups have grown from four to twelve. Today, the groups conduct eight collective experiments and over 200 individual ones. And they're applying soil fertility management concepts, not just to maize and beans (the region's main staples), but also to women's highvalue vegetable crops and to other staples like millet and cassava."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"Documenting the process and its results is crucial. The project team has produced a manual outlining the use of interactive learning techniques. The farmer groups have also been busy documenting their work and creating communications products, such as local language data sheets giving soil experiment results, calendars with photos and descriptions of successful practices, and short dramas, poems, and songs for building community awareness."}]},{"head":"Estimating future health gains from biofortified crops","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"In a study of the potential human health benefits of breeding cassava and beans with higher micronutrient content, CIAT social scientists have come up with a wide range of possible benefit levels for the scenarios they modelled. The analysis behind these \"educated guesses,\" they say, suggests that the size of the benefit per population is highly context-specific, depending especially on postharvest losses of micronutrients (such as iron and vitamin A), on people's eating habits, and on existing levels of micronutrient deficiency."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Under an optimistic scenario for Northeast Brazil, cassava rich in vitamin A could curtail ill health and deaths due to deficiency in that vitamin by 19 percent. Under a pessimistic scenario, the reduction would be only 4 percent. In the case of iron-rich beans, optimistic and pessimistic scenarios were modelled for Nicaragua as well as Northeast Brazil. In Brazil the reduction in health problems would range from 24 to 47 percent and in Nicaragua from 19 to 45 percent. The yardstick used by the researchers is called disability adjusted life years, or DALYs. Commonly used to evaluate health interventions, this system of measurement incorporates both mortality and morbidity (sickness) into a single index of human health-related well-being."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Estimates of two key variables were used to set out the optimistic and pessimistic scenarios. These were the projected postharvest losses of the micronutrients-for example, through processing of cassava into flour-and estimates of future varietal adoption rates among farmers."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Besides that, the scenarios took account of breeders' views as to the potential increases in micronutrients they might be able to achieve under the HarvestPlus Challenge Program of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). In the case of beans, CIAT breeders expect to be able to raise iron content by 80 percent. As for cassava, specially bred varieties will likely end up having around 15 parts per million of beta-carotene, the precursor of vitamin A, versus a near-complete lack of that compound in the cassava varieties currently eaten by most people."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"CIAT coordinates the crop breeding component of HarvestPlus, which is a global program. For the breeding work, it has responsibility for micronutrient biofortification of beans and cassava."}]},{"head":"Strategies for seed security during African emergencies","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Like many of the natural and human-made disasters that afflict Africa over and over, seed aid given in response to crisis has itself become chronic. So much so that several countries have seen the rapid and dramatic rise of \"relief seed systems,\" offering entrepreneurs opportunities to profit from the misfortune of others. These seed systems, explains a 2004 report prepared jointly by CIAT, Catholic Relief Services (CRS), and CARE Norway, emerge from a simple sequence of events. \"A disaster is declared, seed need is assumed, and then a well-established chain of suppliers moves into action.\" But the automatic assumption about farmers' need for seed, according to the researchers who conducted eight case studies in seven African countries, is faulty."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"This \"knee-jerk reaction,\" as CIAT social scientist and study leader Louise Sperling calls it, is generally the result of lack of diagnosis and analysis at the outset of an emergency. The research results show that during events such as drought, floods, and war, farmers actually get most of their seed from local channels. The study confirms the \"availability of seed on a large scale\" even when outside aid is being offered, suggesting that local seed systems are more resilient than governments and relief agencies have generally thought."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"\"We now know that sometimes doing nothing is better than doing something,\" says Sperling. \"There are ways of responding that may undermine agricultural systems, and there are ways to stabilize and strengthen them.\" By adding a learning component to seed aid, she adds, practitioners increase the probability of long-term benefits from current and future interventions."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"The case studies were conducted jointly with public and private organizations involved in seed relief work in Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. Funding was provided by the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance of the US Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"A series of 12 \"practice briefs\"-on topics such as seed system security assessment, agrobiodiversity and relief, the introduction of new crop varieties, and a checklist for preparing seed security proposals-has been produced for seed aid practitioners. These will be available in print and on the World Wide Web from CIAT and other organizations by late 2005. A manual for rapidly assessing seed system security in the field during or before an emergency is also near completion."}]},{"head":"Fighting food insecurity through agroenterprise development in Haiti","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Haiti's chronic vulnerability to political and other types of upheaval is accompanied by the unfortunate distinction of being the poorest country of the Americas. The causal links among grinding poverty, loss of forest cover, the effects of natural disasters (such as deadly flooding in 2004), the shoe-horning of 8.5 million people into the western third of an island that covers only 76,000 square kilometers, an intense dry season that bakes the soil, and lack of economic opportunity are hard to untangle. But together they spell a perennial threat: food insecurity for millions of poor people."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"CIAT is working closely with World Vision to tackle this issue by assisting farmer groups in three target areas with the establishment of seed production systems and other agroenterprises. In cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture, CIAT staff are also building R&D capacity among government institutions and community groups."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"A continuing concern about food security is the need for a timely and large enough supply of goodquality seed. \"There's always a shortage during the planting season,\" says Aart van Schoonhoven, former director of CIAT's Agronatura Science Park. \"Aid agencies are always worried that farmers will be forced to eat their seed rather than plant it.\""},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"In the case of dry beans, a key source of dietary protein, farmers usually buy seed at local food markets and therefore have little idea of the nonobvious traits that the resulting crop will display. Under a 2-year project that began in mid-2004, CIAT is working with local community groups to set up bean seed production systems. The first farmer cooperative was formed in late 2004. Technicians and farmers have been trained to establish and manage local seed production and commercialization."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"CIAT and World Vision are also helping community groups set up solar cassava-drying enterprises to supply the animal feed market. Inexpensive and easy to manage, the drying plants provide a model for development in other communities."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"To enhance the effectiveness of these efforts, CIAT is introducing participatory extension methods, which help fuse local knowledge with formal science. In the hands of technicians with World Vision and other NGOs, these methods contribute to wider adoption of technical innovations."}]},{"head":"Combining disease resistance with consumer tastes in cassava","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"With funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, CIAT began an ambitious 6-year effort in 2003 to help Tanzania exploit recent genetic improvements to cassava, an important food staple. The idea was to transfer new disease-and pest-resistant cassava genotypes from CIAT in Colombia to Africa and then cross them with local cultivars to produce cassava suited to African conditions. Now, 2 years later, hundreds of plants are growing in the Tanzanian crossing block. The symptoms of cassava mosaic disease (CMD), which appeared shortly after planting and had scientists worried about a possible breakdown of their germplasm's CMD resistance, have vanished. The plants are strong and healthy."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The CMD resistance is particularly important since this disease is found only in Africa and is highly destructive. Moreover, an aggressive strain of the plant virus that causes CMD, spread by whiteflies, has been devastating crops in eastern Africa for more than a decade. In Uganda in the mid-1990s, it even triggered deadly famine in some areas. About 12 years ago, a new source of CMD resistance was discovered by CIAT's sister center, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)."}]},{"head":"18","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The harvest from cassava variety trials in Haiti."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Cassava improvement in collaboration with CIAT and IITA's national partners in Tanzania."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Later, CIAT identified molecular markers for the gene responsible for the resistance. The markers allow for accelerated breeding, a big plus given the long growth cycle of cassava. Under the Tanzanian project, national scientists are being trained in marker-assisted selection methods."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"The experimental cassava also possesses New World genetic diversity, which African breeders can now exploit for various purposes-to alter plant architecture for easier weeding, boost the protein content, or improve nutrition, for example. Broadening the gene pool will create alternatives for both African breeders and farmers, such as cassava production for industrial starch. \"We're giving the farmers not only new materials but new economic opportunities,\" says CIAT molecular geneticist Martin Fregene."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"But breeding cassava for home consumption and to meet consumer food preferences is also important. \"The local varieties are very good for giving the right quality of flour,\" notes Edward Kanju, an IITA cassava breeder working in a Rockefeller Foundation-funded project on resistance to cassava brown streak disease in eastern Africa. \"What we will do now is select genotypes that combine both sets of traits.\""},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"The final test of success, though, will be acceptance of new varieties by producers. To ensure research relevance, the project calls for strong farmer participation through varietal testing and selection of crosses."}]},{"head":"Participatory rice research: An entry point for crop diversification","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"For many people rice conjures up the image of a big internationally traded commodity, a cash crop produced on large tracts of irrigated land using modern mechanized methods. But in Central America, as in many other parts of the world, this image doesn't fit reality. In Nicaragua, for example, about two-thirds of rice production is cultivated under rainfed conditions, most often by small farmers using traditional techniques."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"CIAT's rice research project focuses on these small producers and, to a lesser extent, on medium-scale producers in Latin America. While upland rice provides them with some cash and a measure of food security, the international price is so low that earnings are rarely enough to pull rural families out of poverty."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"In collaboration with France's Center for International Cooperation in Agricultural Research for Development (CIRAD), CIAT has been working since May 2002 with more than 100 farmers and farmer groups in Nicaragua to improve and select varieties of upland rice. \"Nicaragua is a good laboratory and testing ground,\" says rice breeder Gilles Trouche, who coordinates CIAT and CIRAD's participatory rice research in that country. \"It is very representative of Central America, where upland rice is grown under a range of agroecological conditions using diverse cultural practices.\""},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"Part of the poverty-alleviation rationale for the participatory research is that improved rice production -made possible by varieties that yield better, mature earlier, or tolerate drought-will give farmers greater flexibility in their use of land and labor. This in turn will allow them to more easily diversify into higher value crops, without losing the food security provided by rice. Participatory research on rice (as well as sorghum) also provides a practical entry point for building farmers' capacity to innovate and organize, says CIAT's rice research project manager Lee Calvert."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"Varietal selections were made from a range of available CIAT and CIRAD germplasm by participating farmer-researchers during 2003 and 2004 in four different rice ecosystems. In 2005, six promising rice lines entered the validation phase, in which they will be evaluated in commercial plots by larger groups of farmers-the final step before new varieties are officially released by INTA, Nicaragua's National Institute of Agricultural Technology."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"The project has helped, in a modest but real way, to strengthen these farmer groups. \"In addition to the new skills they have acquired,\" says Trouche, \"they are also better now at interacting with scientists and presenting experiment results to other farmers.\""},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"Participatory selection of upland rice varieties in Nicaragua."}]},{"head":"Prize-winning collaboration to protect plantain","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Smallholder farmers in Colombia have been working with international and national scientists and extension agents for the past 3 years to save their stands of plantain from bacterial wilt-\"moko\" in Spanish. Among the promising weapons in the emerging arsenal is a liquid biocide that does double duty as an organic fertilizer."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Called a lixivium, the liquid is produced inexpensively on-farm by composting plantain residues, specifically the hanging, spine-like shafts called rachises from which the flowers and fruit protrude. This is the part of the plant that farmers routinely discard after harvest."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"\"We wanted to give the farmers simple, easy-to-use solutions because they don't like complex technology,\" says Silverio González, director of Colombia's National Federation of Plantain Producers (FEDEPLATANO) and chief designer of the composting system. \"Our members prefer to solve problems using their own local resources.\" The lixivium biocide is much more environmentally friendly than the formaldehyde farmers typically use to disinfect soils."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"CIAT's collaborative work with FEDEPLATANO and other organizations over the past 3 years, via a broad alliance called Club del Moko, was one of three winners at Innovation Marketplace 2004. The exhibition-cumcompetition is designed to strengthen partnerships between centers of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and civil society organizations. The winners were announced during the CGIAR's annual general meeting at Mexico City in October 2004."},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"CIAT plant pathologist Elizabeth Alvarez, who has long experience in farmer participatory research, has worked with FEDEPLATANO on several aspects of moko control. She has also collaborated with the Colombian Corporation for Agricultural Research (CORPOICA), a Club del Moko member, to study the genetic diversity of the bacterium that causes moko, Ralstonia solanacearum. Using molecular markers, Alvarez and colleagues identified 68 strains in samples of plant tissues, soil, water, and insects. However, detecting the bacteria not only in the laboratory but also in farmers' fields is essential to make best use of control measures like the lixivium. Development of an on-farm diagnostic kit is therefore a priority in the next research phase."}]},{"head":"Indigenous agroforestry: A bright spot in land management","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"A form of agroforestry practiced by 6,000 hillside farm families in Honduras has proven highly successful at not only protecting land and water resources but also improving rural livelihoods. Known as Quesungual agroforestry, this indigenous farming system was enhanced and promoted under a project launched by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in the early 1990s."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"In a recent evaluation of that experience, scientists from CIAT and FAO conclude that the Quesungual system, or elements of it, could be successfully adapted for use in highland areas of Africa, Asia, and South America. Their evaluation was part of the \"Bright Spots\" Project, carried out by a consortium of nine institutions, including CIAT."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Quesungual is the village in western Honduras from which the agroforestry system takes its name. Under this form of natural resource management and cropping, native trees share space with field crops such as beans, maize, sorghum, millet, and forage grasses, as well as newer high-value crops, mostly fruits and vegetables. The hillside trees are carefully pruned to reduce nutrient competition with food and forage crops and to provide mulch."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"The system contrasts strongly with the slash-andburn shifting agriculture typically practiced in the highlands of Central America. Under the Quesungual system, farmers never burn the hillside vegetation as a way to prepare land. And they use no-till and direct seeding methods for food crop cultivation. That way the land is permanently covered, protecting soil from two extremes to which the region is prone: torrential rains, which cause severe erosion, and drought, which saps soil moisture."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"The evaluation report notes that farmers were able to double both bean and maize yields. This allowed them to meet their own household food needs and still have a surplus to sell. Their higher incomes have allowed farmers to invest in higher value crops like vegetables and fruits, and to buy chickens and pigs. The evaluation study authors also comment that enhanced access to credit, along with policies on burning, overgrazing, and water management, were essential to the project's success."}]},{"head":"Building an arable layer of soil in the savannas","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and other countries endowed with vast tropical savannas have great expectations for these resources. They see them as a last frontier of arable land, a means of expanding crop production and generating regional economic wealth within their borders. But, as the research experience of CIAT and other scientists has demonstrated, this will be nothing but a pipe dream unless the currently infertile, degraded soils of the savannas can first be built up-almost from scratch."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Savanna soils are often acidic, high in aluminum (which is toxic to plants), and low in organic matter. Without dramatic improvements in the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of these Oxisols and Ultisols, it won't be possible to introduce sustainable, no-till crop agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"CIAT has worked on the problems of savanna soils for about 30 years, using an area of Colombia's Eastern Plains called the Altillanura as its living laboratory. With Colombian partner organizations, it has designed a two-phase set of soil management practices for building an arable layer."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"In the first phase, aimed at improving the soil's physical and chemical properties, the earth is cultivated with a rigid set of curved chisels that reach a depth of 30 centimeters. This tillage system replaces traditional disk harrowing, which penetrates the native savanna only 5 to 8 centimeters. This first phase also includes the application of chemical fertilizers to build up essential nutrients."},{"index":5,"size":206,"text":"Next is the biological phase. Forage grasses and legumes adapted to tropical savanna conditions are planted. Taking advantage of the loosened soil and nutrient bonus, these plants produce abundant root systems that penetrate the full profile of the topsoil. As the soil improves in fertility and structure, it becomes more suitable for direct sowing of commercial crops such as maize, soybean, and rice. In the cropping phase of this soil-building exercise, farmers are advised to follow specific crop and pasture rotations in their newly emerging agropastoral systems, based on improved germplasm. \"We're making productive an area that has been unproductive for so many years,\" says CIAT soil physicist Edgar Amézquita. He adds that the arable layer system is not only technically feasible but also economically attractive to farmers. In a 2004 study of the potential impact of these technologies, the three agropastoral options evaluated by Amézquita and colleagues all scored high for potential profitability. Expressed as internal rates of return, scores ranged from 20 to 57 percent.   One of the reasons Vitelio and his neighbors haven't responded more strongly to market signals is the lack of high-quality planting materials. When they sow seed from superior plants, only some offspring express the desirable traits of the parent."},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"In search of an alternative, 20 Colombian lulo growers are working with CIAT scientists to develop a tissue culture procedure for rapid in vitro multiplication of elite clones selected by farmers. Vitelio hopes that, with support from a local NGO, they will be able to create a steady supply of diverse but genetically stable clones that are a hit in the marketplace."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"A"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" dried chilies on its way to Sucre, Chuquisaca Department, Bolivia. "},{"text":"9 Water buffaloes at Ta Village in Pek District, northern Laos.Potato production near Kabale in southwestern Uganda. "},{"text":"16 Members of theMukhome farmer field school, which seeks to improve soil fertility management in western Kenya's Vihiga District. Members of the Mukhome farmer field school, which seeks to improve soil fertility management in western Kenya's Vihiga District. Participants in a workshop on bean improvement for nutritional value and drought tolerance, held at CIAT headquarters. Participants in a workshop on bean improvement for nutritional value and drought tolerance, held at CIAT headquarters. "},{"text":" CIAT's principal partners in this work are CORPOICA, the National Program for the Transfer of Agricultural Technology (PRONATTA), the Colombian Institute for the Development of Science and Technology (COLCIENCIAS), and the Colombian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. "},{"text":"CIAT's Statement of Activity (thousand US$) to Vitelio Menza, his 2-hectare farm in southwestern Colombia provides him and his family with everything they need. Obviously proud of his coffee, avocado, plantain, and other crops, Vitelio is especially grateful to the semiannual fruit lulo. \"It always helps me out,\" he says. He can harvest and sell lulo more quickly than coffee, and there's scope for expansion, since fruit juice processors in Colombia are clamoring for the fruit. 2004 11,197 6,011 Total Multiplying the Benefits of Restricted Assets Current assets Cash and cash equivalents Accounts receivable Donors Challenge Total Total Unrestricted Temporary Programs 2004 2003 2002 Revenue Grants 11,832 22,670 1,506 36,008 31,723 30,670 Tropical Fruits 2003 12,749 7,988 2002 5,267 7,063 2004 11,197 6,011 Total Multiplying the Benefits of Restricted Assets Current assets Cash and cash equivalents Accounts receivable Donors Challenge Total Total Unrestricted Temporary Programs 2004 2003 2002 Revenue Grants 11,832 22,670 1,506 36,008 31,723 30,670 Tropical Fruits2003 12,749 7,9882002 5,267 7,063 Other revenues and     Employees  259 350 234 Other revenues andEmployees259350234 support, net 968 - -  Others 968 968 3,104 1,324 2,016 1,754 support, net968--Others 9689683,104 1,3242,0161,754 Total revenues 12,800 22,670 Inventories 1,506 36,976 32,691 334 31,994 227 326 Total revenues12,80022,670Inventories 1,506 36,97632,691334 31,994227326     Prepaid expenses  173 196 210 Prepaid expenses173196210 Expenses and losses     Total current assets 21,078 23,526 14,854 Expenses and lossesTotal current assets21,07823,526 14,854 Program-related expenses 7,958 22,261 Noncurrent assets 1,469 31,688 28,205 27,770 Program-related expenses7,95822,261Noncurrent assets 1,469 31,688 28,20527,770 Management and    Property and equipment 10,093 9,701 10,015 Management andProperty and equipment10,0939,701 10,015 general expenses 5,974 409 Other assets 37 6,420 5,613 11 5,831 18 38 general expenses5,974409Other assets 37 6,4205,61311 5,8311838 Other expenses 358 - -  Total noncurrent assets 10,104 358 599 622 9,719 10,053 Other expenses358--Total noncurrent assets 10,104 358 599 6229,719 10,053 Subtotal expenses and    Total assets  31,182 33,245 24,907 Subtotal expenses andTotal assets31,18233,245 24,907 losses 14,290 22,670 1,506 38,466 34,417 34,223 losses14,29022,6701,50638,46634,41734,223 Indirect cost recovery (2,025) - - Liabilities and net assets (2,025) (1,794) (1,623) Indirect cost recovery(2,025)--Liabilities and net assets (2,025) (1,794)(1,623) Total expenses and    Current liabilities  Total expenses andCurrent liabilities losses, net 12,265 22,670 Accounts payable 1,506 36,441 32,623 32,600 losses, net12,26522,670Accounts payable 1,506 36,44132,62332,600 Net surplus (deficit) 535 - -  Donors 535 68 7,179 (606) 8,374 5,706 Net surplus (deficit)535--Donors 535687,179 (606)8,3745,706 Transfer from accruals     Employees  595 495 375 Transfer from accrualsEmployees595495375 and provisions 37 - -  Others 37 2,637 4,643 - 2,366 2,523 and provisions37--Others 372,6374,643 -2,3662,523 Net assets at beginning of    Accruals and provisions 163 126 119 Net assets at beginning ofAccruals and provisions163126119 the year 15,515 - - Support to partners, Challenge 15,515 12,810 13,416 the year15,515--Support to partners, Challenge 15,515 12,810 13,416 Net assets at end of year 16,087 - -  Programs 16,087 15,515 852 12,810 2,932 - Net assets at end of year 16,087--Programs 16,08715,515852 12,8102,932-     Funds in trust  267 2,739 302 Funds in trust2672,739302 Operating expenses by     Total current liabilities 13,699 17,032 9,025 Operating expenses byTotal current liabilities13,69917,0329,025 natural classification    Noncurrent liabilities  natural classificationNoncurrent liabilities Personnel costs 9,682 8,358 Accruals and provisions 544 18,584 17,422 860 17,164 698 3,072 Personnel costs9,6828,358Accruals and provisions 544 18,584 17,422860 17,1646983,072 Supplies and services 725 7,387 Others 728 8,840 8,543 536 9,046 - - Supplies and services7257,387Others 7288,8408,543536 9,046-- Collaborators-partnership     Total noncurrent  Collaborators-partnershipTotal noncurrent costs - 4,144 104 liabilities 4,248 2,730 1,396 3,012 698 3,072 costs-4,144104liabilities 4,2482,7301,396 3,0126983,072 Operational travel 826 2,372 Total liabilities 93 3,291 2,781 15,095 2,312 17,730 12,097 Operational travel8262,372Total liabilities 93 3,2912,78115,095 2,31217,730 12,097 Depreciation of fixed assets 1,032 409 Net assets 37 1,478 1,147 1,066 Depreciation of fixed assets 1,032409Net assets 37 1,4781,1471,066 Total operating expenses,     Undesignated 5,041 4,368 2,079 Total operating expenses,Undesignated5,0414,3682,079 net 12,265 22,670 1,506 Designated 36,441 32,623 11,046 32,600 11,147 10,731 net12,26522,6701,506Designated 36,44132,62311,046 32,60011,147 10,731      Total net assets 16,087 15,515 12,810 Total net assets16,08715,515 12,810     Total liabilities and net  Total liabilities and net      assets  31,182 33,245 24,907 assets31,18233,245 24,907 Claudio Wernli, Chile         Claudio Wernli, Chile Executive Director Millennium Science Initiative Ministry of Planning and Cooperation   Yves Savidan, France Scientific Advisor and International Relations Officer, Life Sciences Executive Director Millennium Science Initiative Ministry of Planning and CooperationYves Savidan, France Scientific Advisor and International Relations Officer, Life Sciences Term ended in the reporting period:   Agropolis   Term ended in the reporting period:Agropolis Elizabeth Sibale (Vice-Chair), Malawi Program Officer Delegation of the European Commission to Malawi  Victoria Tauli-Corpuz, Philippines Founder and Executive Director Tebtebba Foundation Elizabeth Sibale (Vice-Chair), Malawi Program Officer Delegation of the European Commission to MalawiVictoria Tauli-Corpuz, Philippines Founder and Executive Director Tebtebba Foundation Luis Arango, Colombia Executive Director Colombian Corporation for Agricultural Research (CORPOICA) Anna Kajumulo Tibaijuka, Kenya Under-Secretary General and Executive Director United Nations Centre for Human Settlement (UN-HABITAT) Luis Arango, Colombia Executive Director Colombian Corporation for Agricultural Research (CORPOICA)Anna Kajumulo Tibaijuka, Kenya Under-Secretary General and Executive Director United Nations Centre for Human Settlement (UN-HABITAT) Carlos Gustavo Cano, Colombia Minister of Agriculture   Barbara Valent, USA University Distinguished Professor Department of Plant Pathology Carlos Gustavo Cano, Colombia Minister of AgricultureBarbara Valent, USA University Distinguished Professor Department of Plant Pathology Marco Palacios Rozo, Colombia   Kansas State University  Marco Palacios Rozo, ColombiaKansas State University Rector, National University    Arturo E. Vega, Colombia  Rector, National UniversityArturo E. Vega, Colombia M. Graciela Pantin, Venezuela General Manager   Executive Director Colombian Corporation for Agricultural Research (CORPOICA) M. Graciela Pantin, Venezuela General ManagerExecutive Director Colombian Corporation for Agricultural Research (CORPOICA) Polar Foundation    Joachim Voss   Polar FoundationJoachim Voss     Director General, CIAT  Director General, CIAT  "}],"sieverID":"a54b7acd-1756-41c3-90c3-bc40863e7fc2","abstract":"ith their neatly organized shelves of dry goods, beverages, vegetables, bread, fruits, meat, fish, and dairy products, today's supermarkets offer consumers in both the industrial and developing countries an amazing range of fresh, frozen, and processed products. The choice-all in one location too-is something their grandparents never dreamed of. The revolution in global food sourcing and retailing that supermarket chains embody is largely driven by consumer demand, in turn influenced by rising incomes and changing lifestyles.Apart from a wider selection of products, what exactly do consumers want and what are the coordinated food supply chains doing to satisfy those appetites? Most important from CIAT's perspective, what room is there for small farmers in developing countries to tap into those supply chains to boost their family incomes?"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a416bc74d3ec8ae8bd46b7c9ed1ba4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fd8a49b1-0b84-409e-9ea8-933189647671/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The Daily Tail gives a snapshot of the sessions, discussions and other activities this week. We hope it will remind you of the various conversations and help you track down anything -or anyone -you may have missed. We welcome your contributions, comments and ideas; look out for members of the editorial team -reporting, blogging, and taking pictures -or contact the conference secretariat."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Just a reminder, the objective of the three-day scientific conference is to create a platform for regional collaboration and information and experience sharing on biosciences innovation and bio-policy."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Project implementing partners and collaborators will use the opportunity to showcase their work and network with peers from within and outside the region."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"The idea is that the conference will foster closer regional cooperation among the various actors in biosciences research for development."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"In this issue, we spotlight interviews and a roundup of vital information on the program and your visit to Addis Ababa."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"You can trail the conference by following the tag #Bioinnovate on the web."}]},{"head":"መልካም ስብሰባ!","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"3fba00e9-c12c-4763-80b2-57ad6fa61874","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ac95c32fb374956fa2d25cca0667916","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/69a4091f-443f-435e-92bd-a9cb29b05b47/retrieve"},"pageCount":48,"title":"Soil fertility regulates invasive herbivore performance and top-down control in tropical agroecosystems of Southeast Asia","keywords":["classical biological control","trophic dynamics","soil fertility","biotic resistance","invasive species"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":324,"text":"Around the globe, impacts of human-mediated biodiversity loss, land-use change, and global warming are proceeding at an unrelenting pace, with profound effects on ecosystems and associated food webs (e.g., Vitousek et al., 1997;Newbold et al., 2016). Such changes are particularly relevant for smallholder agriculture in the tropics, where soil fertility (and resulting plant communities) is drastically altered by a variety of management practices and larger-scale patterns in land-use change. In Southeast Asia, cassava (Manihot esculenta) production has expanded considerably over the past few decades and now occupies more than 4 million ha throughout the region (Cramb et al., 2016;Mahanty & Milne, 2016). Cassava is typically managed as an annual crop and grown under a range of biophysical and socio-economic conditions, from shifting cultivation in the uplands of Laos and Cambodia, to large-scale monocultures in the lowlands of southern Vietnam (e.g., Howeler et al., 2011). This crop produced especially well in the early years of cultivation, due to an overall absence of limiting pests and diseases. However, over the past decade, a series of non-native mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) species have colonized Asia's prime cassava-growing regions (Graziosi et al., 2016). These include (1) Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero, a Neotropical parthenogenetic, oligophagous herbivore (9 host records) with broad climatic adaptability (Yonow et al., 2017) and global distribution (33 countries); (2) Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink, a Nearctic sexual, polyphagous herbivore (133 host genera), reported from 33 different countries; and (3) Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi Gimpel & Miller, a Neotropical polyphagous species (98 host genera), found in 46 countries worldwide. Invasion history is variable between species, with respective colonization processes in mainland SE Asia presumably initiated around 2008, 2010, and 1987respectively (Ben-Dov et al., 2016), and biological control with parasitic wasps such as Anagyrus lopezi De Santis (for P. manihoti, released in 2009), Acerophagus papayae Noyes & Schauff (for P. marginatus, colonized post-2010) and a set of endemic and exotic generalists wasps for P. jackbeardsleyi (Muniappan et al., 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Soil fertility and overall quality has been shown to be a principal determinant of plant health and resistance to pests and disease (e.g., Amtmann et al. 2008), however, the impact of belowground processes on aboveground interactions is varied and often difficult to predict (Wardle et al. 2004). Understanding how these invasive herbivores and their associated parasitoids interact and respond to soil fertility conditions offers a number of possible benefits for managing pests. For example, such information could help target parasitoid releases, identify context-specific needs for integrated pest management and help improve our overall understanding of linkages between above and below-ground processes. So far, little research has been conducted on trophic regulation and associated invader success along gradients of ecosystem productivity or soil fertility (e.g., Zarnetske et al., 2013). While some suggest that highly fertile sites disproportionately favor invaders, regardless of top-down forces such as parasitoids (see Hovick & Carson, 2015), evidence also exists to the contrary."},{"index":3,"size":201,"text":"Alterations in resource availability or species abundance are transmitted through trophic chains, and affect the relative role of resource (\"bottom-up\") versus consumer (\"top-down\") forces in the structuring of ecological communities (Hunter & Price, 1992;Ives & Carpenter, 2007). Changes in top predators or basal resources, e.g., through fertilizer addition, can shift the equilibrium abundances of various trophic levels and affect the relative success of certain species (native or exotic) Comparatively few empirical studies have concurrently assessed the relative effect of top-down, bottom-up and interactive processes on ecological communities (Moran & Scheidler, 2002;Gruner, 2004;Garibaldi et al., 2010) and population-level processes under field conditions are rarely considered in addressing such issues (Walker et al., 2008;Zaugg et al., 2013;Rzanny et al., 2013). Success rates of invasive species are explained through a range of hypotheses linked to trophic processes, in which community productivity, disturbance, species diversity and natural enemy action are all posed as important determinants. As these hypotheses are non-exclusive, interactions between mechanisms are increasingly employed to predict invasion outcomes and invader success (e.g., Parepa et al., 2013;Mallon et al., 2015;Peltzer et al., 2016). Certain theories simultaneously account for the role of resource availability (e.g., soil fertility) and natural enemies (Blumenthal, 2005;Center et al., 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"Particularly for sessile invasive herbivores, such as mealybugs, plant nutritional quality strongly determines species abundance and performance, shaping entire herbivore feeding guilds (Shurin et al., 2002;Carcamo et al., 2005;Rzanny et al., 2013). Also, soil fertility and plant nutrients may lead to differential, species-specific responses amongst invaders (Peltzer et al., 2016). Invader success and trophic regulation have previously been linked to single-nutrient (e.g., soil N, P, K, Zn) measures (e.g., Walter & DiFonzo, 2007;Chen et al., 2010). However, increasing attention is being paid to overall plant quality and more universal measures of soil fertility (e.g., Ode, 2006;Bardgett & van der Putten, 2014). Thus, composite soil fertility indices potentially can help explain relative success of invasive mealybugs and associated biological control processes in fields with differing resource availability."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"In this study, we assess soil-plant-herbivore-parasitoid interactions through both manipulative and observational approaches to better understand the relative influence of top-down vs. bottom up forces on herbivore pest performance. We evaluate the effect of resource quality on the success of invasive mealybug species, in a controlled laboratory setting as well as, in cassava fields along a soil fertility gradient. More specifically, we address the following three research questions: (1) do fertilizer supplement studies reveal the effects of single-element additions of nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) on P. manihoti performance and top-down forces (i.e., parasitism by a recently-introduced natural enemy); (2) does abundance of different invasive species vary along a soil fertility gradient, and do particular measures of soil fertility explain invader success;"},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"(3) do top-down forces (i.e., parasitism by a recently-introduced natural enemy) shift in importance between contexts of varying resource quality, as determined by soil fertility."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Potted plant fertilizer trials","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant cultivation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":351,"text":"In this set of trials, we assessed the extent to which single-element nutrient additions affected different development parameters of P. manihoti, and its primary parasitoid, A. lopezi. During 2014-2015, assays were established at Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry (HUAF), in Hue, Vietnam. Soil was collected from an uncultivated plot at the HUAF experimental campus, and was homogenized for use in a controlled pot experiment. A sub-sample of this soil analyzed at the HUAF laboratory of Agronomy was determined to have a pH of 5.2, an organic carbon (C) content of 1.5%, and available concentrations of K2O, N and P2O5 of 4.59 mg, 0.65 mg and 10.5 mg per 100 g of soil, respectively. Approximately 10 kg of this soil was placed in pots (30 dia. x 20 cm deep) and a single vegetative cutting (approx. 20 cm in length) of cassava (variety KM94, a popular cassava variety, widely cultivated across the region) was planted vertically in each pot. KM94 is. Pots were placed outside in a screen-house and watered daily. After two weeks, plants were randomly assigned to five fertilizer treatments: 1) no fertilizer (i.e., untreated controls), 2) low N addition (90 kg N ha -1 ), 3) high N addition (180 kg N ha -1 ), 4) low K addition (90 kg K2O ha -1 ), and 5) high K addition (180 kg K2O ha -1 ). This was equivalent to application rates of 0.65 g and 1.30 g N and 0.50 and 1.00 g K2O per pot (respectively for medium and high fertilizer treatments) and represents fertilizer rates commonly applied by Asian cassava growers (e.g., Howeler, 2011). We focused on N and K additions in the potted plant fertilizer trials, as cassava is most responsive to these nutrients and has comparatively high capacity to mobilize P from tropical soils via root association with mycorrhizae and other mechanisms (Nguyen et al., 2007;Howeler, 2011). Both N (as urea) and K (as K2O) were dissolved in water and applied in liquid form. After six weeks, the plants were moved into a climate-controlled chamber (ambient RH, 30 ± 1°C and 12L: 12D)."}]},{"head":"Mealybug and parasitoid colony maintenance","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"In mid-2014, a starter laboratory culture of P. manihoti was established from field-collected individuals from Hue and Quang Tri, central Vietnam and reared on cassava stems grown in glass jars with a diluted fertilizer solution inside 60 x 160 x 180 cm cages. Prior to initiation of the trials, a total of five P. manihoti sub-colonies were concurrently established in a climatecontrolled chamber, on plants subjected to each of the above five experimental fertilizer treatments. Each sub-colony was initiated at the same time with approx. 100 mealybugs (mixedage population), as obtained from the starter colony. Mealybug populations were maintained on these plants for two to three generations prior to use in experiments, to mitigate the influence of parental trophic feeding history and eventual other maternal effects. A colony of A. lopezi was established with field collected individuals obtained in mid-2015 from fields near Hue, Vietnam."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"The laboratory colony was kept on cassava plantlets infected with P. manihoti in cages with the following dimensions: 40 x 50 x 60 cm. All of the mealybug and parasitoid colonies were maintained at 30 ± 1°C and 12L: 12D photoperiod, and colonies were regularly refreshed by adding (unspecified, yet small numbers of) field-collected individuals. Voucher specimens of mealybugs and A. lopezi wasps were deposited at Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry (VNUA), Vietnam."}]},{"head":"Experimental assays & data processing","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"At the onset of the experiment, a P. manihoti ovisac (egg batch) was collected from each mealybug sub-colony and allowed to hatch. Upon emergence, ten first-instar nymphs were transferred to the 3rd youngest leaf of an experimental plant grown in the same fertilizer treatment as the sub-colony. We used 20 un-fertilized control plants and 10 plants for each of the N and K-addition treatments (N= 60). Nymphs on each experimental plant were enclosed in one single 5 x 10 x 20 cm clip-cage. Clip-cages were constructed out of transparent, plastic polypropylene (PP) containers and equipped with a mesh lid to allow sufficient ventilation."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Development and embryonic mortality of all nymphs (N= 600) was thus assessed within each fertility regime, following protocols by Tertuliano et al. (1993). Development parameters were thus recorded for ten different cohorts (i.e., replicate clip-cages) under each fertilizer treatment, and cohort trials for the separate treatments were run simultaneously. Size and weight measures were recorded for young females (stage L4, prior to oviposition) obtained from ten unfertilized plants and five plants for each of the N and K-addition treatments (N= 300)."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"Adult reproduction and mortality were recorded for each of the plant fertilizer treatments in a separate experiment, using a new set of experimental potted cassava plants. Young females (stage L4) were collected from each of the five sub-colonies, and transferred to clip cages on the 3 rd youngest leaf of an experimental plant with the same fertilizer treatment as the sub-colony, thus establishing a cohort of 10 females per clip-cage. Daily reproduction and mortality were recorded for all females per fertilizer treatment (N= 600). Furthermore, duration of the prereproductive period, fecundity and adult weight were assessed on 10 unfertilized control plants and five plants for each of the fertilizer treatments (N= 300) (e.g., Tertuliano et al., 1993)."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Reproductive output for each adult was recorded on a daily basis by removing newly-laid ovisacs from the clip cage and counting the number of eggs under a stereomicroscope."},{"index":5,"size":266,"text":"In a second set of laboratory assays, we assessed A. lopezi parasitoid fitness, development and survival rates under the same fertilizer treatments used above. P. manihoti ovisacs were collected from each mealybug colony/fertilizer treatment combination, and one ovisac was placed in a 5 x 10 x 20 cm clip-cage on 10 unfertilized control plants and five plants for each of the fertilization treatments (N= 300). At nymphal emergence, a total of 70 first-instar nymphs were allowed to establish within the cage, and the number was then reduced to 50 at the L3 stage (e.g., Van Driesche et al., 1987). Subsequently, a 1-day old adult, mated and naïve female A. lopezi wasp was introduced into each clip-cage together with one adult male A. lopezi for a 24 h period and allowed to oviposit. After the allotted time, the adult female parasitoid was transferred to another clip cage with another 50 third-instar nymphs on a different plant, but at the same fertilizer treatment. By transferring each parasitoid on a daily basis to a new clip-cage with ample new hosts, we were able to assess total lifetime reproductive output. A total of 20 female A. lopezi were assessed on unfertilized controls, and 10 for each of the fertilization treatments (N= 60). This process was repeated on a daily basis until death of the female, regularly replacing male wasps that had died. Daily parasitism rate was calculated as the average parasitism (number of mummies/50 nymphs) within each cage every day, until death of the female. For each wasp, lifetime fecundity (# mummies), oviposition period (d) and rate (mummy/d) were calculated."},{"index":6,"size":103,"text":"After removal of the parasitoid from the clip-cage, each cassava plant was incubated at 30˚C and mealybug mortality, parasitoid development time (egg deposition-mummification, and adult emergence) and sex ratio were recorded. A total of 10 replicate female wasps were assayed from each fertilizer treatment and 20 replicates for the non-fertilized controls. Upon offspring emergence, a subset of 60 wasps of each sex for the fertilized treatments, and 120 for the controls, were isolated in Eppendorf vials and provided daily access to honey mixed with water (50%). To assess longevity of wasps from each fertilizer treatment, we recorded daily mortality rates 2.2. Observational studies"}]},{"head":"Field-level arthropod survey","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":335,"text":"In a second experiment, a geographically widespread survey was conducted to assess the extent to which mealybug abundance relates to soil fertility in a set of cassava fields, representative of each of the target regions. During February-March 2015, a total of 65 fields were randomly chosen across three countries, with 20 fields in southern Vietnam, 18 in eastern Cambodia, and 27 in southern and south-central Laos. Fields were chosen within primary cassava-growing regions in each of the above countries, with assistance from local extension personnel. Plants within each field were 6-9 months old, and were located in the countries' primary cassavagrowing regions. Survey activities covered two provinces in Vietnam (Binh Thuan / Ba Ria Vung Tau, Dak Lak), two in Cambodia (Kracheh, Tboung Khmum), and four in Laos (Bolikhamxay, Vientiane, Salavanh, Champasak). All survey work was carried out during the region's main dry season, when mealybug populations are generally increasing (e.g., Graziosi et al., 2016). Nearly 80% of the fields were planted with one of two popular cassava varieties (KM94 and Rayong 72), while in the other fields, less common varieties were cultivated or varietal mixes were used. Five representative linear transects (approx. 10 m in length; covering 10 plants) were assessed for the presence of arthropods, and the number of resident mealybug species per field transect. We also examined plants for symptoms of cassava witches broom disease (CWB), a phytoplasma disease that is commonly found in local fields (Alvarez et al., 2013;Graziosi et al., 2016). Mealybug species identity was determined according to morphological characteristics such as coloration and presence of abdominal waxy filaments (i.e., short-or long-tailed). This permitted field identifications of the most common invasive mealybugs in Asia's cassava crops, including P. manihoti, P. marginatus, and P. jackbeardsleyi. Also, in mixed-species infestations of long-tailed mealybugs, P. jackbeardsleyi tends to be the prevalent species in Vietnam and Laos (Graziosi et al., 2016). Average abundance or incidence levels for each of the different species were then calculated at a field level and used for subsequent analyses."}]},{"head":"Soil sampling and sample analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"Leaf chemistry of mid-to late-season cassava is largely reflective of soil fertility status at early growth stages (e.g., Schulthess et al., 1997). In this experiment, we relate mealybug abundance to soil texture and fertility measures from samples collected at the time of the arthropod surveys (see Section 2.2.1; on 7-9 month old plants in the dry season). By doing so, we likely overlook eventual impacts of fertilizer supplementation at the time of planting, but do capture the effect of background soil fertility. This approach though is suitable given that fertilization practices are relatively uniform across the study region (except for Tay Ninh, Vietnam). One soil sample was collected along each of the five survey transects in each field. For each transect, two soil subsamples were collected from within the planting row (5-10 m apart) at two depths (0-20, 20-40 cm) using a 5 cm dia. corer. Soils from each transect were composited by depth, while rocks, roots and other debris were removed prior to air-drying of each composite sample. Once all samples were collected and dry, they were submitted to the soil diagnostics laboratory of the Soil and Fertilizer Research Institute (SFRI) in the Vietnam Academy of Agricultural Sciences (VAAS), in Hanoi, for nutrient analysis."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"A suite of measurements of soil fertility and texture were conducted. Soil texture was assessed according to the Bouyoucos method (Gee & Bauder, 1986). Other variables include pH (1:1, soil:water solution), electrical conductivity (EC; 1:5, soil:water solution), and exchangeable Ca, Mg and K (extracted with ammonium acetate (NH4CH3CO2) at pH 7 and measured by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS, Perkin Elmer 3100; Perkin Elmer, Norwalk, CT) and flame photometry (Elex 6361; Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany) (Herrmann, 2005). Additionally, we measured total organic C using the Walkley-Black method and total N using the Kjeldahl method. Total P was measured using sulfuric acid-hydrogen peroxide-hydrofluoric acid digestion with 18M H2SO4, while total K was determined using hydrofluoric acid (HF) and either H2SO4 or HClO4 (Sparks, 1996). Finally, available P was determined using Bray and Kurt (Bray II) method and acidity (Al3+, H+) was measured through titration with a KCl 1M solution (Sparks, 1996)."}]},{"head":"2.3.Comparative evaluation of P. manihoti parasitism","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Field sites","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":248,"text":"In a third set of experiments, we conducted a comparative field-level assessment of the strength of top-down regulation of P. manihoti by parasitism. Cassava fields of different developmental stages and varying soil fertility were selected. During 2014 and 2016, targeted sampling was performed during the dry season (January-March) in plots in Tay Ninh, Ba Ria Vung Tau and Binh Thuan (Vietnam) and Kracheh (Cambodia). In 2014, fields were visited as part of a larger, region-wide survey of P. manihoti parasitism, in which no particular attention was paid to soil variables. Fields that were visited in 2016 took into account observed trends in soil texture and fertility from earlier site visits (Section 2.2). In these surveys, soil fertility and crop intensification schemes were not specifically evaluated but rather inferred based on province-or district-level trends (as equally reflected in the PCA; Fig. 1). Cassava crops in Ba Ria Vung Tau and Binh Thuan were 7-9 months old, established at low-fertility sites with sandy soils. Cassava crops in Tay Ninh were either 2-3 months old (crop development status similar to the potted plant fertilizer assays) or 7-9 months old, and established at intermediate-fertility sites under intensified cropping schemes (i.e., with substantial input of fertilizer and herbicides). Lastly, crops in Kracheh were 7-9 months old, established under relatively high soil fertility conditions and with low-intensity management schemes (i.e., little or no fertilizer supplementation at planting). Multiple of the fields in Kracheh were equally visited for the 2015 arthropod survey (see Section 2.2)."}]},{"head":"Sample collection and assessment of parasitism levels","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":275,"text":"Within each region, up to eight different fields were visited and 10-20 mealybug-infested tips were collected from each field. Plant tips were placed in sealed paper bags and transferred to the laboratory. Before bagging, apparent predators such as ladybeetles and lacewing larvae were removed (see Meyhofer & Klug, 2002). Sample bags with plant material were kept in a cooler while being transported to the laboratory. In the laboratory, cassava tips were examined, the total number of P. manihoti was counted, and tips with >10 individuals were further processed. Other mealybug species were discarded. Mealybug individuals from each tip were gently brushed onto a young cassava plant, placed in a transparent, 40 x 25 cm polypropylene (PP) plastic container that was provided with a mesh screen on the side. Daily collections of emerging parasitoids were made with an aspirator for 18 days. In Ba Ria Vung Tau and Binh Thuan, local collaborators adopted a slightly modified methodology to record field-level parasitism rates that proved equally effective. Specifically, field-collected cassava tips were transferred to 95 mm diameter transparent PET plastic cups (390 ml), with each tip inserted into humidified floral foam. Each cup was closed with a lid, provided with a mesh screen to permit air circulation. Cassava tips with >10 P. manihoti individuals were transferred to the cups, placed within a field laboratory at ambient temperature, and kept for 14 days (until full emergence of parasitoids). Parasitoid emergence was evaluated on a regular basis, and emerged wasps were removed from cups. For each site and field, P. manihoti abundance on field-collected cassava tips was recorded, and field-level parasitism rates and parasitoid sex ratio were subsequently computed."}]},{"head":"2.4.Statistics","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"In experiment #1, P. manihoti and A. lopezi development, reproductive and survival measures were tested for normality (PROC UNIVAR) and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) on logtransformed data was used to evaluate the effect of fertilization on these parameters (PROC GLM; SAS version 9.4)."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"In the first field study, bivariate relationships between each mealybug species, corresponding soil fertility parameters and CWB infection status were investigated (using Kendall's rank correlation analysis). Next, regression was performed to model the combined effect of soil fertility parameters and plant quality measures on the incidence of individual mealybug species."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"For P. manihoti, a general linear model based on negative binomial distribution was adopted, as the incidence data for this species was significantly zero-inflated. Simultaneous forward and reverse stepwise selection on all 14 parameters up to 2-way interaction was performed on a saturated model, starting with a null model (i.e., a model containing only the intercept), so as to select the best models for each species. This analysis yielded only two models in total for P. marginatus and P. manihoti, while for P. jackbeardsleyi, three models were identified. To select the best model, among the ones identified in the previous step, we employed a similar strategy as in Noma et al. (2010). A model with the lowest Akaike information criterion (AIC) (Model 1, i.e."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"\"best-fit\" model in Table 4), and another model (Model 2, i.e. \"competing-model\" in Table 4), with an AIC score that is within 2 units of the AIC score of Model 1 were selected. Diagnostic checks such as assessment of heteroscedasticity (using Non-constant Variance Score Test) and auto-correlating factors was also performed on the selected models. Correlation analysis, was performed using the base function \"cor\" with the Kendall tau b method in R (version 3.3.1) statistics environment (R Development Core Team, 2016). Regression modeling and the associated model fitting diagnostics was performed using the base function \"step\", the MASS package (http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/MASS) and the CAR package (https://cran.rproject.org/web/packages/car) in R (version 3.3.1) statistics environment (R Development Core"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"Team, 2016)."},{"index":6,"size":183,"text":"Since individual soil fertility measures tend to be strongly correlated (e.g., Fujita et al., 2013), we conducted Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to extract the main axes of variation. The dataset that was subjected to multivariate analysis was composed of a total of 13 soil fertility measures (i.e., crude sand, W silt, fine sand, pH, EC, Al, K, Ca, Mg, C, N, P, avail P) and fieldlevel incidence of cassava witches broom (CWB) disease, the latter as an additional index for plant resource quality. Systemic pathogens can bring about important shifts in plant quality and secondary chemistry, which rarely get taken into account (Tack & Dicke, 2013). From the PCA, factor loading scores (i.e. scores for each field) were extracted for the two main axes of variation (PCA axis 1 and 2). A general linear model based on negative binomial distribution was used to relate field-level abundance measures of P. manihoti, P. jackbearsleyi and P. marginatus with the factor loading scores. In addition, a Chi-square based test was performed on residual deviance measures from the selected models, in order to obtain a goodness-of-fit measure."},{"index":7,"size":99,"text":"Multivariate analyses were performed using the base function \"princomp\", and the resulting biplot was visualized with the ggbiplot package (https://github.com/vqv/ggbiplot), within the R statistical environment. Eigen values for each component were extracted using the nFactors package (https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/nFactors/). Components with an Eigen value lower than 2 were disregarded for further analysis. Regression modelling and model visualization was performed using the MASS and CAR packages within the R statistical environment. In order to identify the effect of aggregated groups, each consisting of multiple fertility measures on mealybug abundance, multivariate analysis of the 13 soil fertility measures and CWB incidence was performed."},{"index":8,"size":53,"text":"In experiment #3, ANOVA or non-parametric tests (e.g., Kruskal-Wallis, for data that did not meet normality assumptions) was used to compare parasitism rates, sex ratio and mealybug abundance rates between different sites. Normality and homoscedasticity of the dataset was checked, and the necessary data transformations (i.e., SQRT) were conducted prior to statistical analysis."}]},{"head":"Results","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Potted plant fertilizer trials","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Mealybugs feeding on fertilized plants developed more rapidly than those reared on the controls, with the high N and medium K addition treatments having the strongest effects (Table 1a)."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Nutrient addition did not affect P. manihoti survival, but N and the lower K regimes had positive effects on both insect weight and length. Total fecundity was highest for females on plants treated with the lower N dose and lowest on control plants (Table 1a), while oviposition rate did not vary among treatments. However, both pre-oviposition and oviposition periods were strongly affected by nutrient additions. Nitrogen additions led to the shortest pre-oviposition, followed by K and then the controls, but no differences were observed between the two application rates for either nutrient. Similarly, N applications extended the insects' oviposition period, but no clear impact of K on this parameter was recorded (Table 1a)."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"On N-fertilized plants, parasitism rates were significantly higher than for control or K-amended treatments (Table 1b). Parasitoid females in the fertilized treatments attained higher fecundity levels than with the un-fertilized controls, regardless of nutrient type and application rate. Parasitoid oviposition rate was significantly higher on N-fertilized plants. Fertilizer treatments also affected A. lopezi offspring, such that emergence rates were significantly higher in all fertilizer treatments, and sex ratio was far more female-biased for either nutrient supplement, particularly on N-fertilized plants (Table 1b)."}]},{"head":"3.2.Observational studies","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"All three species of mealybug were found in cassava fields across the surveyed region, with field-level incidence and abundance exhibiting significant differences between fields and countries. Mealybug incidence significantly varied between countries for P. jackbeardsleyi (F2, 62= 7.431, p<0.001) and P. marginatus (F2, 62= 11.832, p<0.001), while plant-level abundance differed between countries only for P. marginatus (F2, 58= 3.532, p= 0.036) (Table 2). On average, 31.2 ± 27.9 plants per field were affected and symptomatic for CWB, with disease incidence levels significantly different between countries (F2,62 = 7.556, p= 0.001)."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Bivariate correlations were found between field-level abundance levels of a given mealybug species, and a set of single soil fertility measures (Table 3). More specifically, statisticallysignificant negative correlations were found between P. manihoti abundance and silt content, organic C, N and available P, while crude sand content demonstrated a significant positive relationship. For P. jackbeardsleyi, in-field abundance was positively correlated with CWB incidence, soil pH, EC, and available P, but negatively correlated with Al 3+ content. For P. marginatus, significant negative correlations were observed with Ca 2+ content, Mg 2+ content, soil organic C and total N. Above values correspond to Kendall tau b (τB) correlation coefficients (Table 3), indicating a measure of concordance between the measured variables."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"When evaluating the combined effect of multiple soil fertility and plant quality measures, different species-specific patterns were found (Table 4). Both the best-fitting model, and the competing model showed that abundance of P. marginatus was negatively related to total soil N, available P and the fine sand soil fraction, and positively related to CWB incidence. Similar to P. marginatus, both CWB incidence (positive) and N (negative) were found to be related to P."},{"index":4,"size":144,"text":"The second PCA axis represented 19.5% of variance, and was largely reflective of Ca, Mg, Al, EC, sand content and pH. Fields in the upper side of the biplot (i.e., positive values) were characterized by sandy soils with high EC and high levels of elements such as Ca or Mg, while more weathered fine textured (silt or clay) soils with high levels of Al oxides were found in the lower part of the PCA panel. Incidence of CWB (as additional determinant of plant resource quality) was associated with N content, organic C levels and % silt and clay fractions. The PCA analysis also differentiated fields from the different countries, with Cambodia's flat alluvial soils generally high pH, Ca and Mg content, Vietnamese plots typified by sandy texture and low soil fertility, and Lao soil differentiated by comparatively higher levels of Al oxides (Fig. 1)."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"Principal component regression was then carried out on aggregate measure of soil fertility (as reflected by PC1 and PC2 axes). Given that several soil fertility measures (and plant disease infection status) exhibited high levels of correlation, abundance of specific mealybug invaders appears to be associated with a combination of several variables. Field-level incidence patterns of all three mealybug species were significantly related to the first PCA axis (Fig. 2), with positive relationships for P. marginatus and P. manihoti, and negative trends for P."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"jackbeardsleyi. The second PCA axis showed significantly positive relationship with only P. manihoti abundance and not with the other mealybug species."}]},{"head":"3.3.Comparative evaluation of top-down pressures","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"In the third experiment, we specifically examined parasitism rates of P. manihoti for three different sites as positioned along the soil fertility spectrum, reflective of the PC1 axis. Nearly 400 P. manihoti-infected cassava tips were collected over the course of the 2014 and 2016 dry seasons. Out of these, 205 tips had >10 mealybug individuals and were monitored for parasitoid emergence. In 2-month old crops at intermediate soil fertility, mealybug abundance showed high levels of variability between individual tips, with a coefficient of variation (CV) of 1.77, especially as compared to the CV values of 0.73 in fields in low-fertility settings. Mealybugs reached average abundance levels of 41.0 ± 30. 0, 50.6 ± 89.7, 71.5 ± 123.7 and 101.2 ± 158.9 individuals per tip in Binh Thuan on 7-9 month old cassava, Tay Ninh on 2-3 month old cassava, Tay Ninh on 7-8 month cassava, and Kracheh on 7-9 month old cassava, respectively. Associated parasitism levels (proportion) were 0.10 ± 0.15, 0.52 ± 0.40, 0.57 ± 0.32 and 0.32 ± 0.27, respectively, for the four samplings. Parasitoid communities were largely dominated by the parasitic wasp A. lopezi. Mealybug numbers did not differ between sites and field conditions (Kruskal-Wallis, Χ 2 = 5.96, p=0.114), but parasitism rates were significantly higher in the intermediate fertility site (i.e., Tay Ninh), than at other locales (Kruskal-Wallis, Χ 2 = 74.41, p<0.001; Fig. 3)."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"Total number of parasitoids (per tip) significantly differed between sites (Kruskal-Wallis, Χ 2 = 52.05, p<0.001). Regression analyses revealed that parasitoid abundance was closely related to P. manihoti infestation pressure, with different patterns of density-dependence for each of the soil fertility conditions as such: Kracheh (F1,18= 10.781, p< 0.01), Tay Ninh 2 months (F1,85= 77.183, p< 0.01), Tay Ninh 8 months (F1,38= 83.602, p<0.001) and Binh Thuan (F1,54= 8.625, p< 0.01; Fig. 3). Positive density dependence was recorded in all sites, with the strongest parasitoid response at intermediate fertility sites (i.e., Tay Ninh). Although no data were obtained from Binh Thuan and Ba Ria Vung Tau provinces, parasitoid sex ratio from sites in Cambodia and Tay Ninh were not significantly different (Kruskal-Wallis, Χ 2 = 3.13, p=0.209)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Much remains to be learned about the regulatory forces that shape ecological communities in terrestrial systems (Gruner, 2004;Borer et al., 2006;Allen & Wesner, 2016). The agroecosystems studied here provide a unique and highly-relevant opportunity to evaluate trophic regulation processes. In tropical agroecosystems in particular, soils tend to be highly weathered and thus plant resource or bottom-up effects can exert strong effects on herbivore communities that may either overshadow the role of top-down regulation (Ritchie, 2000) or influence herbivores by affecting the strength of top-down forces. While past research has examined how fertilizer addition impacts particular feeding guilds and plant-herbivore interactions (Sipura, 1999;Forkner & Hunter, 2000;Ritchie, 2000;Garibaldi et al., 2010;Rzanny et al., 2013), much of this work has been conducted in perennial ecosystems. Our study is unique in the extent to which it relies upon community ecology approaches, to assess invader success mitigated by plant resource constraints in a rapidly-expanding tropical agricultural system."}]},{"head":"Soil fertility impacts on herbivore and parasitoid performance","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":378,"text":"Plant chemistry, largely determined by soil fertility, affects life history and physical characteristics of herbivores as well as higher trophic orders (Ode, 2006;Chen et al., 2010;Stam et al., 2014). Plant stoichiometry, defense mechanisms (constitutive or induced), and primary productivity are all factors that affect plant-herbivore interactions and impacts on parasitoids or predators. Through our manipulated \"microcosm\" studies, we gained an initial appreciation of how soil fertility and/or availability of key limiting nutrients impacts such interactions between plants, the herbivore, P. manihoti, and the parasitoid, A. lopezi. Nitrogen fertilization led to a reduction in P. manihoti development time along with an increase in body size, adult weight and total fecundity. Meanwhile, K addition had less pronounced effects, and only intermediate fertilization levels seemed to benefit P. manihoti growth and reproduction. These findings are in line with results from other herbivore-plant systems, in which sap-feeders such as aphids increase their populations on short-season crops when soils are deficient in K, or under N supplements (Noma et al., 2010). While both nutrients influence phloem content of dietary N, a limiting nutrient for the development of homopterans such as mealybugs (Dixon, 1998), the effect of K fertilization may only be apparent when plants are K-stressed (e.g., Walter & DiFonzo, 2007). For A. lopezi, laboratory trials corroborate previous findings that its development rate and sex ratio are shaped by the size of its host (van Dijken et al., 1991;Schulthess et al., 1997). The microcosm studies conducted here, thus indicate that P. manihoti (and indirectly A. lopezi) abide to Price's (1991) 'plant vigor hypothesis', in which vigorouslygrowing plants are better hosts for herbivores and N disproportionally supports herbivore growth as it is the basis for protein synthesis. This is aligned with P. manihoti feeding habits, as this insect prefers nutrient-rich, actively growing tissues (White, 2009). Laboratory findings reported here are also reflected by the strong parasitoid response to high P. manihoti population levels that was evident from the field samplings in Tay Ninh (i.e., at settings with intermediate soil fertility and N enrichment, based on farmer discussions; Fig. 3). Our microcosm studies could thus constitute a first step towards defining a crop-specific range of N concentrations that benefit plant growth and boost a plant's immune responses or optimize biological control (Chen et al., 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"While microcosm studies are valuable and informative, it's often difficult to extrapolate their results to field conditions particularly when considering short-term pot assays for semi-perennial woody plants, such as cassava, which can have 2-m long roots (Connor et al., 1981). Also, performance of herbivores such as mealybugs is determined by the nutritional content and quality of above-ground plant parts, but addition of single-element fertilizer does not necessarily affect those. For example, K fertilization regularly causes minor variation in leaf nutrient content, while leaf N content can concurrently be controlled by multiple soil fertility parameters, e.g., soil pH, P content or water availability (e.g., Lower & Orians, 2003;Fujita et al., 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":191,"text":"Hence, the effect of a single nutrient addition on host-parasitoid systems can easily be obscured by other plant growth-limiting factors. In fertilizer supplement studies, the strongest effects are often found when nutrient limitation is alleviated (see Elser et al., 2007). As our microcosm studies were conducted using relatively fertile, nutrient-rich soil instead of inert media (e.g., sand), thus some of the envisaged effects on herbivore-parasitoid complexes may have been dampened (see Gutierrez et al., 1988). Similar to work by Denno et al. (2002), we observe a correspondence between laboratory studies and field surveys for P. manihoti, both of which suggest a dominance of bottom-up controls. While we cannot draw conclusions for the other two species of mealybugs, bottom-up impacts are likely determined by their particular traits and associated parasitoid (complex). We can infer that improved mealybug performance is related to increased leaf N content, though this was not measured, so this conclusion is somewhat speculative. In the meantime, it should be noted that individual-level measurements of the effect of soil fertility and plant nutritional quality on herbivore or parasitoid performance may not necessarily translate into population effects (Zaugg et al., 2013)."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"In our study, field observations indicated that population levels for the three invasive herbivores across the various sampling sites were correlated to a soil fertility with distinct soil fertility parameters. Our findings suggest species-specific relationships with single measures of soil fertility, texture and disease infection status. While correlations don't necessarily entail causality, observed patterns do differ substantially between the three invaders. For P. manihoti, in-field incidence was positively correlated with sand content, and negatively with silt, soil C, N and P (Table 3). This supports previous work in Africa suggesting that P. manihoti achieves high population levels on low-fertility, sandy soils, even in the presence of effective parasitoids (Neuenschwander et al., 1990). On the other hand, the abundance of P. jackbeardsleyi appeared to follow a distinct pattern and was largely associated with pH, EC and CWB-infestation status."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"Given the multi-dimensional usage of resources by plants, herbivores and parasitoids, an aggregate measure (e.g., obtained through PCA) may be more suitable to capture species' responses to soil-or resource-based conditions (see also Drenovsky et al., 2012;Fujita et al., 2013). Nevertheless, various single soil fertility measures did correlate significantly with fieldlevel abundance for all three mealybug species (Table 3) and both approaches are likely valuable for understanding soil impacts on herbivore performance."}]},{"head":"Life history and field management drivers for invader success","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Differential life history traits and invasion history of the three invaders might help explain some of observed disparate response trends. As globally successful invaders, all three mealybug species could benefit from similar high phenotypic plasticity or adaptation potential (e.g., Dawson et al., 2012), but may still differ in myriad other aspects. Although there's no single trait that reflects invasiveness, so-called 'invader attributes' tend to comprise competitive ability, phenotypic plasticity, niche construction and phenological niche separation (e.g., Perkins & Nowak, 2013). Amongst others, the outcome of invasions is set by the interaction of the above species' traits with nutrient availability over short and long time periods (Mata et al., 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":295,"text":"Competitively-inferior invaders capable of rapid population growth, such as P. manihoti, can capitalize on short-term nutrient pulses, while competitively-superior or dominant invaders are easily disrupted by disturbance-related resource heterogeneity. In our study, such disturbancerelated heterogeneity was indirectly measured through the soil fertility measurements in the field survey, but only qualitatively inferred for the specific case of P. manihoti and A. lopezi. Life history traits and feeding behavior can also explain comparative performance of specific herbivores in given varying resource quality or soil fertility (White, 2009). For P. manihoti, the 'plant vigor hypothesis' possibly may apply, with this species benefiting greatly under crop management schemes with important levels of nutrient addition. On the other hand, species such as P. jackbeardsleyi that feed preferentially on older senescing tissues and on CWB-affected plants, might follow the 'plant stress hypothesis' and experience a niche opportunity on debilitated plants with sub-optimum nutrition for other mealybug species. In studies with plant hoppers, Denno et al. (2002) also pointed at mobility as a prime mediator of top-down vs. bottom-up impacts for a given species. However, for largely sedentary species such as mealybugs, mobility and specifically a species' ability to elude aggregative responses of natural enemies may be of limited relevance. Lastly, history of the invasion process can bring about species-specific shifts in top-down forces. For a long-time invader such as P. jackbeardsleyi (first reported from Asia in 1987), parasitoid communities possibly have had comparatively more time to assemble, diversify or adapt (e.g., Shea & Chesson, 2002), and exert stronger top-down pressures. Also, recent invaders relatively less burdened by natural enemies, such as P. manihoti or P. marginatus, may outperform long-time invaders in high-resource settings (Blumenthal, 2005), or cassava might simply be a far superior host for them as compared to P. jackbeardsleyi."},{"index":3,"size":495,"text":"Sites along the soil fertility continuum vary in historic land-use, current management practices, as well as a range of important environmental parameters (e.g., climate, landscape heterogeneity). More specifically, sites on the left side of the continuum (Fig. 1) include recently-cleared swidden agriculture plots and fields under rotation with other crops (e.g., soybean). Under less intensive agricultural systems, C storage and soil quality can be substantially higher than under continuous annual cropping systems (Bruun et al., 2009), although these patterns can also be greatly influenced by soil fertility management and inherent properties, such as soil texture. Land-use legacies can persist for decades and have profound impacts on herbaceous species composition, biodiversity and resulting parasitoid communities (Stahlheber et al., 2015;Stuhler & Orrock, 2016). This may be particularly relevant, as Lao and Cambodian fields under swidden agriculture regimes and less intensive management had far greater weed cover (Wyckhuys, unpublished). On the other hand, several plots in the central portion of the soil fertility continuum (Fig. 1) were under more intensive crop management practices (e.g., tillage, herbicide use, high-quality planting materials) and frequent additions of N-P-K fertilizers. Actions such as N fertilization are not necessarily reflected in soil fertility metrics, and fertilizer N additions are even likely to amplify N-loss pathways (see Lu et al., 2011). Nevertheless, they can augment plant nutritional status, and subsequent herbivore population growth and/or parasitoid development. Invader performance appeared to differ under these varying contexts, and suggests that soil fertility (measured), disturbance frequency (inferred, but not measured), and community composition or maturity (inferred, but not measured) all contributed to shape invasion and invader dynamics (e.g., Mattingly & Orrock, 2013). While certain species were more successful in plots with high soil fertility, others thrived under more resource-limited settings (see also Funk & Vitousek, 2007). Increased abundance of P. marginatus and P. manihoti at sites with intensified agro-production and intermediate (or low) soil fertility (Fig. 2) may hint that these species benefit primarily from nutrient pulses (inferred from pot trials, but not measured in the field) and disturbance regimes (largely inferred, but not measured). In contrast, enhanced presence of P. jackbeardsleyi in high-fertility settings suggests a strong bottom-up effect and a substantially shortened \"window of vulnerability\" to resident natural enemies (see 'slow growthhigh mortality' phenomenon; Benrey & Denno, 1997). For P. manihoti, bottom-up effects were evident and top-down forces appeared to be strengthened in high-fertility soils or plots with external nutrient enrichment (Fig. 3). Such increases of top-down forces with resource inputs have been recorded in several other systems (e.g., Hunter & Price, 1992;Forkner & Hunter, 2000;Walker et al., 2008). Our results also echo those of Ritchie (2000), in which bottom-up influences are quite pronounced in resource-limited settings, while some herbivores can experience far stronger top-down forces within environments with fertile soils and N-rich plant tissue. Though patterns are highly species-specific, soil nutrient profiles and fertilizer additions shape host plant quality and either enhance or reduce an individual mealybug's relative niche opportunity (Stiling & Moon, 2005)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"Our work points at differential trophic regulation for three invasive mealybugs in tropical agroecosystems, and elucidates important species-specific and context patterns. The findings presented here emphasize how biological control is strongly dependent upon site fertility for the particular case of P. manihoti (see Hovick & Carson, 2015), and illuminate resource-mediated performance of two other key mealybug invaders. Microcosm experiments clearly emphasized the potential of plant nutrient availability, N in particular, for regulating the performance of multiple trophic levels in cassava systems. Meanwhile, results from regional field studies show important species-specific responses of invasive herbivores (and their parasitoids) to a gradient in soil fertility and management intensity. Our results support the notion that soil fertility and plant quality variables, either singly or as composite indices, should be taken into consideration when setting priorities for invasive species management or planning biological control interventions (Mace & Mills, 2016). Last but not least, our findings from smallholder systems in the developing-world tropics provide renewed impetus for earlier calls to address agricultural pest management in a more holistic and integrated fashion (e.g., Lewis et al., 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Table 2. Incidence frequency (% sampled plants) and plant-level infestation rates (mealybug densities per plant) of three invasive mealybug species (P. jackbeardsleyi, P. manihoti, P. marginatus) for 65 cassava plots that were visited during the 2015 dry season in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. Incidence and infestation levels are indicated as mean ± SD. Means followed by the same letter do not differ between countries (ANOVA, α = 0.05; Tukey post-hoc test).  *** Multiple R 2 values for the selected models of P. manihoti are not available, as the models were built using a negative binomial regression approach (see Materials & Methods section for more details). "},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Figure 1. Principal component analysis (PCA) of 65 cassava fields, based upon soil fertility status and CWB pathogen-infection of host plants. Soil fertility status was determined through a total of 13 different measures, and CWB infection was assessed by recording disease symptomatology. Fields are classified per country, and soil fertility measures are abbreviates as follows: crude sand (% particles 630µm -2mm); W silt (well-graded silt + clay); fine sand (% particles 63µm -200µm); pH (pH of soil suspension); EC (soil electron conductivity); Al (Al 3+ mg/100 g soil); K (K+ mg/100 g soil); Ca (Ca2+ mg/100 g soil); Mg (Mg2+ mg/100 g soil); OC (% soil organic carbon); N (% nitrogen); P (% P2O5); P2O5 (mg P2O5 / 100 g soil)."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"Figure 2. Relationships between field-level abundance of P. jackbeardsleyi, P. marginatus and P. manihoti, as obtained through principal component regression. For each mealybug species, regression patterns are represented with the first and second PCA axis (i.e., PC1, PC2). Lines represent regression curves, with associated p values. Goodness-of-fit was assessed for each regression model, by testing for significant difference between the residual deviances of an ideal model (where the predicted values are identical to the observed) and the selected model using a chi-square test. None of the models yielded a significant p-value in the chi-square test, indicating that the selected model fit the data well.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" : N: nitrogen %; fine_sand: (0.02-0.2 mm fraction)%; P: P2O5 %; CWB: field-level incidence of cassava witches broom disease; EC: soil electron conductivity; OC: soil organic carbon %; silt: W silt + clay ** Model 1 corresponds to the model with the least AIC score (\"best-fit model\"), and model 2 (\"competing model\") corresponds to the model that obtained an AIC score, that is within 2 units of the AIC score of the \"best-fit model\". "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure3. Relationship between per-plant P. manihoti infestation level and parasitism rate in three different soil fertility contexts in four locations, as positioned along the PC1 axis. Locations include Kracheh (Cambodia) and Tay Ninh, Binh Thuan / Ba Ria Vung Tau (Vietnam), covering a high-fertility and intermediate fertility site, and a low-fertility site with sandy soils respectively. For the site in Tay Ninh, P. manihoti abundance and A. lopezi parasitism rates were assessed on 2-month and 8-months old crops. Regression curves represent statistically significant patterns, with the following coefficients of determination: Kracheh 7-9 months (R 2 = 0.375), Tay Ninh 2 months (R 2 = 0.476), Tay Ninh 8 months (R 2 = 0.688), and Binh Thuan 7-9 months (R 2 = 0.138). Parameter estimates for slopes of the regression curves were as follows:56.44, 43.35,  24.87, and 7.95 respectively.     "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Mealybug species Field-level incidence (% sampled plants)   Vietnam Cambodia Lao PDR Regional VietnamCambodiaLao PDRRegional  n= 20 n= 18 n= 27 n=65 n= 20n= 18n= 27n=65 P. jackbeardsleyi 12.8 ± 9.1a 33.7 ± 24.3b 15.6 ± 18.4a 19.7 ± 20.0 P. jackbeardsleyi12.8 ± 9.1a33.7 ± 24.3b15.6 ± 18.4a19.7 ± 20.0 P. manihoti 10.4 ± 10.9a 3.2 ± 5.0a 8.6 ± 13.7a 7.7 ± 11.3 P. manihoti10.4 ± 10.9a3.2 ± 5.0a8.6 ± 13.7a7.7 ± 11.3 P. marginatus 56.5 ± 25.7a 24.0 ± 23.5b 26.9 ± 21.9b 35.2 ± 27.3 P. marginatus56.5 ± 25.7a24.0 ± 23.5b26.9 ± 21.9b35.2 ± 27.3  Plant-level infestation (individuals/plant)  Plant-level infestation (individuals/plant) P. jackbeardsleyi 3.2 ± 3.5a 61.6 ± 137.1a 2.6 ± 2.1a 10.1 ± 47.8 P. jackbeardsleyi3.2 ± 3.5a61.6 ± 137.1a2.6 ± 2.1a10.1 ± 47.8 P. manihoti 5.1 ± 8.2a 56.8 ± 136.8a 14.6 ± 21.5a 17.4 ± 57.3 P. manihoti5.1 ± 8.2a56.8 ± 136.8a14.6 ± 21.5a17.4 ± 57.3 P. marginatus 29.0 ± 21.6a 38.7 ± 76.4ab 5.7 ± 11.3b 22.0 ± 43.2 P. marginatus29.0 ± 21.6a38.7 ± 76.4ab5.7 ± 11.3b22.0 ± 43.2  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Stepwise multiple regression models for abundance of three different species of mealybug, in relation to soil fertility measures and pathogen-infection status (both measures reflecting plant resource quality). For each of the invasive mealybug species, two statistical models are represented, with their respective Akaike information criterion (AIC) and R 2 . Mealybug Model equation* AIC Multiple MealybugModel equation*AICMultiple species   R 2 value speciesR 2 value Paracoccus Model I**: 45.02 -125.46 x N -0.36 x fine_sand -40.37 315.47 36.1% ParacoccusModel I**: 45.02 -125.46 x N -0.36 x fine_sand -40.37315.4736.1% marginatus x P + 0.26 x CWB + 184.63 x EC -1.09 x Ca   marginatusx P + 0.26 x CWB + 184.63 x EC -1.09 x Ca  Model II**: 48.61 -153.53 x N -0.37 x fine_sand -41.36 316.27 33.1% Model II**: 48.61 -153.53 x N -0.37 x fine_sand -41.36316.2733.1%  x P + 0.25 x CWB + 139.79 x EC   x P + 0.25 x CWB + 139.79 x EC Pseudococcus Model I**: 10.27 -102.78 x N + 0.29 x CWB + 5.39 x OC + 270.27 41.0% PseudococcusModel I**: 10.27 -102.78 x N + 0.29 x CWB + 5.39 x OC +270.2741.0% jackbeardsleyi 21.42 x K 270.42 38.9% jackbeardsleyi21.42 x K270.4238.9%  Model II**: 12.55 -10.54 X Al + 0.27 x CWB + 24.77 x P -   Model II**: 12.55 -10.54 X Al + 0.27 x CWB + 24.77 x P -  87.75 x N + 4.61 x OC   87.75 x N + 4.61 x OC  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Loading values of all the measured soil variables and cassava witches broom -CWBinfestation (per field) obtained from the first two PCA components (PC1 and PC2) (see Figure1legend for explanation of the variables) Variables PC1 PC2 VariablesPC1PC2 CWB 0.192 0.141 CWB0.1920.141 Crude sand (>0.02mm) -0.133 -0.225 Crude sand (>0.02mm)-0.133-0.225 Wsilt and clay 0.326 0.355 Wsilt and clay0.3260.355 Fine sand (0.02-0.2mm) -0.302 -0.278 Fine sand (0.02-0.2mm)-0.302-0.278 pH 0.302 -0.335 pH0.302-0.335 EC -0.341 0.161 EC-0.3410.161 Al -0.206 0.429 Al-0.2060.429 K 0.226 -0.157 K0.226-0.157 Ca 0.324 -0.29 Ca0.324-0.29 Mg 0.362 -0.275 Mg0.362-0.275 OC 0.35 0.171 OC0.350.171 N 0.359 0.231 N0.3590.231 P 0.272 0.49 P0.2720.49 mgP2O5 -0.201 0.668 mgP2O5-0.2010.668  "}],"sieverID":"a197725d-02ed-4ac4-a5b1-d8553a489fb6","abstract":"Soil fertility regulates invasive herbivore performance and top-down control in tropical agroecosystems of Southeast AsiaThe International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ace10eb457ea4d7be0e3a2487440eba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Other/Reports/PDF/improving-water-management-in-myanmars-dry-zone-for-food-security-livelihoods-and-health.pdf"},"pageCount":54,"title":"","keywords":["Carolyn Fry","Copy editor: Mahen Chandrasoma","Designer: Mario Bahar, Gracewinds Advertising","Cartographer: John Plumer","and Printer: Gunaratne O set (Private) Ltd"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"schemes is very low; less than 5% of water abstracted is transpired by crops. ere is, therefore, signi cant scope for improving irrigation e ciency and crop water productivity. Farmers need better agronomic advice to help them make the best use of irrigation water."}]},{"head":"Farmers are using pumps to take water management into their own hands","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Some farmers in the Dry Zone are adopting small-scale individual pumping of surface water and groundwater to overcome the vagaries of rainfall and shortfalls in existing formal irrigation schemes."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"ey typically use small, motorized pumps to access water from shallow wells or streams. e best returns come from cultivating high-value crops. is can be an important means for farmers to improve their livelihoods, particularly during the dry season when alternative livelihood options are limited. Careful management and regulation of individual pumping is needed to prevent over-extraction of water resources."}]},{"head":"Small-scale water management technologies can bring many benefits","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Supporting small-scale agriculture is essential. Farmermanaged technologies, such as rainwater harvesting ponds and small-scale pumping, have signi cant advantages in terms of their exibility, reliability, ease of use and simple maintenance. All villagers bene t from having assured access to water for domestic uses and livestock watering, while those without land gain opportunities to work within irrigated farming systems. Across Asia, small-scale agricultural water management technologies have been demonstrated to improve yields, reduce risks associated with climate variability and increase incomes. In many countries, water management by smallholders is overtaking the public irrigation sector, in terms of the number of farmers involved, the area covered and the value of production."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"\"All farmer types, including the landless, considered rehabilitating or constructing rainwater harvesting ponds to be a high priority\""},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"It is important to consider multiple uses of water when planning A community-level qualitative survey, conducted in 24 villages, identi ed the water management approaches preferred by communities. All farmer types, including the landless, considered rehabilitating or constructing rainwater harvesting ponds to be a high priority, since these ponds provide access to water for drinking, other domestic uses and livestock watering. Landed and marginal farmers favored rehabilitating or extending existing irrigation infrastructure, but further investigations are needed to nd ways of making these options more cost-e ective. Groundwater wells were also popular options for many people. It is important that water interventions are embedded into broader village livelihood strategies and that they provide for multiple uses, rather than simply focusing on supplying water for irrigation. Priority should be given to interventions that will improve the livelihoods and well-being of the poorest people and those without land."}]},{"head":"Simple solutions, but no single solution","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"e Dry Zone's diversity of physical environments, farming systems, water access and irrigation infrastructure creates signi cantly di erent development opportunities and priorities between villages, even over quite small distances. A strategic water resources plan could avoid the largely piecemeal, non-sustainable development of water resources that has occurred in the past. Such a plan must recognize that there are no blanket solutions; rather, water-related interventions must be tailored to individual settlements. Local communities and agencies have a good understanding of the issues a ecting particular villages and the potential solutions that could help to resolve those problems."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"e need is not so much for new technologies but for approaches that can re ne, target and more e ectively implement known technologies."}]},{"head":"Priority investments","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Studies conducted by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) identi ed the following key methods to target investments in agricultural water management in the Dry Zone."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"• Review the water and energy productivity of existing irrigation schemes before undertaking major rehabilitation programs or constructing new schemes. • Support sustainable development of groundwater using tube wells to secure village supplies and provide for small-scale supplementary irrigation. • Invest in improved design and maintenance of small reservoirs for rainwater harvesting and storage. • Promote soil and water conservation approaches to repair and revitalize degraded land; protect infrastructure from sediment damage; and manage water at eld and watershed scales. • Strengthen water resources planning and generate information that can guide future development. • An assessment of surface water and groundwater resources, considering availability, current uses, patterns, trends and variability at di erent spatial and temporal scales (Box 1). • A community-level qualitative survey to evaluate issues of water availability, access and management for people with di erent livelihoods in 24 villages (Box 2). • Analysis of existing irrigation programs, investment patterns and outcomes, including recommendations on where to prioritize future investments."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"e study encompassed: (i) a review of existing information and published literature on water resources in the Dry Zone of Myanmar; (ii) meetings and interviews held with government agencies and development partners, including nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), with water-related programs in villages in the Dry Zone; and (iii) a village-based survey. Particular attention was given to evolving patterns of groundwater use for irrigation, in light of its increasing importance and concerns about sustainable use of the resource."}]},{"head":"Myanmar's central Dry Zone","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"e Dry Zone lies within Myanmar's central plains, which are bounded by mountains to the east and west. Encompassing parts of Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing, it covers more than 75,000 km and represents 13% of the country's land area. e population of the Dry Zone is estimated to be around 10 million people, out of a total national population of 51.4 million (LIFT 2015; Department of Population 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI Teams from IWMI and NEPS evaluated existing water resources, describing sources and availability of water, and the context in which decisions about water management are made. The research team obtained information, including hydrometeorological records, and data on groundwater availability, quality and use, from the Irrigation Department (ID), Water Resources Utilization Department (WRUD) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI), and the Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (within the Ministry of Transport). Other data were sourced from publicly available regional and global datasets. Data are not consolidated centrally in Myanmar, and the way data are reported varies between agencies and regions. IWMI scientists analyzed the following:"},{"index":3,"size":156,"text":"• Spatial and temporal variability in rainfall patterns based on historical records and global synthetic datasets. Box 1: Assessing water resources of Myanmar's Dry Zone IWMI and its national partners carried out a community-level qualitative survey in 24 villages across the three divisions of Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing. The research team undertook three mixed-gender focus group discussions in each village (a total of 72), at which three types of farmers were interviewed: (i) landed -those who owned between 5 and 15 acres (2.0 and 6.1 ha) of farming land; (ii) marginal -those who owned less than 5 acres (2.0 ha) and were not food-secure throughout the year; and (iii) landless -those who neither owned nor rented land for farming and were not food-secure throughout the year. The aim of the focus group discussions was to gain a better understanding of the relationships between water-related issues and local livelihood strategies, especially for the marginal and landless farmers."},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"Villagers were asked about (i) the sources of water available to them; (ii) how they used that water (e.g., irrigation, livestock and domestic purposes); (iii) key constraints to availability and access, and how this affected their livelihood strategies and food security; (iv) coping strategies adopted by households and communities in the event of weather-related shocks, such as droughts; (v) perceived solutions and opportunities; (vi) interventions that had worked; (vii) lessons learned; and (viii) perspectives on priority measures and investments for the future. Institutional arrangements were examined at village or community level to identify how they related to farming strategies, water management practices and domestic water use. The focus group discussions highlighted a wide disparity between villages in terms of: (i) sources of water; (ii) availability of water spatially and through time; and (iii) how they were able to access water for different purposes."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"For more information, see Senaratna Sellamuttu et al. 2013."}]},{"head":"Box 2: IWMI's community-level survey","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"e Dry Zone is mostly at, with the Irrawaddy River (joined by the Chindwin River) owing through it from north to south (Figure 1). e Bago Hills range runs parallel to the Irrawaddy River in the southern part of the Dry Zone, gaining altitude towards the north and ending in southeast Mandalay. Fertile alluvial soil is found along the banks of the major rivers, but the Bago Hills are sandstone and have less fertile sandy soil. As its name suggests, the Dry Zone is the driest region of the country, with annual rainfall between 500 and 1,000 mm."}]},{"head":"Agricultural livelihoods dominate","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Agriculture, primarily rainfed, provides livelihoods for a large proportion of the rural population, including many of the country's poorest people. According to JICA (2010), 58% of those living in the region are farmers and 25% are farm laborers. Similarly, other studies (World Bank 2012) also indicate that farming and casual labor in the agriculture sector are the two key livelihood activities in the Dry Zone."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"is evidence matches the ndings of IWMI's community-level survey."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"e distribution of cultivable land is highly skewed. Although estimates of landlessness di er widely, most available evidence suggests that approximately half of all rural households have no rights to use any cultivable land (Haggblade et al. 2013). ey rely on casual labor to earn an income, primarily from agriculture or other activities, such as raising livestock. Pronounced seasonality of agricultural employment, a paucity of alternative jobs and low wages constrain annual earnings. Faced with lower incomes and higher poverty rates than land-owning families, landless households are more likely to go hungry and borrow money to purchase food. However, because land serves as collateral in informal lending, landless households typically have less access to credit than those that own land."},{"index":4,"size":177,"text":"Food insecurity and malnutrition are very common in the Dry Zone. A survey conducted by LIFT (2013) found that 18% of households had inadequate food for consumption, and more than a quarter of children under the age of ve were underweight. Households with poor access to land and markets, and those relying on casual labor, are the most likely to have insu cient food. Farming households are more likely to be food-secure, but food security is precarious even for these families. In 2010, the food security of 41% of farming households was adversely a ected by dry spells (WFP 2011). e experiences of other developing agricultural economies indicate that improving water management is an important rst step to increasing smallholder production. Better water management reduces the risk of crop failure, allows for cultivation of a second crop, and enables farmers to invest in improved crop varieties and fertilizers. With less than 16% of the cultivated land presently irrigated, increasing the productivity of rainfed agricultural systems will be key to achieving food security, raising incomes and improving livelihoods."}]},{"head":"Water for livelihoods","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"e Dry Zone is the most water-stressed region of the country. Around 70% of households have access to safe water for domestic use, which is close to the national average, but seasonal water scarcity is very common (MNPED and MOH 2011). A quarter of all households reported having insu cient water during the dry summer season (WFP 2011). About a third of people draw their drinking water from protected wells, and another third from tube wells. More than one-third of the population does not have access to sanitation facilities."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Access to water varies greatly between communities. Villagers derive water for farming and domestic use from a combination of sources, including rivers and streams, large and small reservoirs, village ponds and groundwater. Even within a single village, access to agricultural and domestic water can vary very widely. IWMI's community-level survey found that, of the water collected for use in villages (excluding irrigation), about 15-20% was allocated for drinking purposes, about 50% for other domestic uses and 30-40% for livestock watering. e relative proportions allocated between di erent uses did not appear to change signi cantly between seasons, during droughts or for the di erent types of farm households identi ed."}]},{"head":"Agro-ecosystems of the Dry Zone","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"e Dry Zone's agricultural systems are complex; farmers cultivate paddy and non-rice crops (pulses, oilseeds, cotton, tobacco, vegetables and others), as well as raising large and small livestock (Figure 2). Traditionally, land in Myanmar is described in terms of its suitability for di erent types of cultivation, with the main distinction between le (paddy) and ya (dryland) lands (Box 3). e Dry Zone is vital to Myanmar's agriculture sector, producing most of the country's sesame, groundnuts and pulses (a major export earner), and 22% of its rice. Almost half of all the cattle, and more than two-thirds of all the sheep and goats in Myanmar are raised in the Dry Zone."}]},{"head":"Box 3: Traditional land types in Myanmar's Dry Zone","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Le (paddy land): Flat land suitable for paddy cultivation, often with impermeable heavy soils. Level terraces on hill slopes for paddy are also classified as le lands. Paddy is cultivated in the wet season, with a second crop of rice or other crops (oilseeds, pulses) also grown, depending on the availability of water."}]},{"head":"Ya (dryland):","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Cropland not suitable for paddy cultivation. In the rainy season, farmers grow groundnut, sesame, sunflower and pulses."}]},{"head":"Kaing-kyung (alluvial land/island):","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Land near rivers, flooded during the rainy season, including areas within riverbeds. Soils are generally fine, sandy loams or loamy sands, and very fertile. Oilseeds, pulses, vegetables and tobacco are grown in the dry season."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"Taung-ya (shifting cultivation): Shifting cultivation takes place on land in hilly areas. Crops are grown only in the rainy season. Upland rice is a major crop, but maize, sesame, soybean and vegetables are also grown. For the majority of farmers growing rainfed crops, decision making around planting is exible, and the cropping calendar varies from year to year. On le and ya lands, farmers prepare the land between February and May. ey then plant their monsoon crop between mid-May and mid-June, when soil moisture is considered to be su cient. Pulses, such as green gram or chickpea, and oilseeds, such as sun ower, are cultivated until August or September. A second crop, such as groundnuts, chickpea or cotton, may follow, using residual soil moisture (Figure 3)."},{"index":3,"size":186,"text":"Irrigated areas with year-round access to water lie mainly within formal irrigation schemes. ese include major schemes, such as those in Minbu, Kyaukse and Ye-U, and smaller schemes -pumped irrigation systems, in particular -along the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers. Irrigation is usually developed on le lands that have higher agricultural potential, although some schemes report problems with sandy soils. Small-scale groundwater irrigation is found in some areas, generally supporting small-scale horticulture, which provides a high nancial return and is usually implemented by wealthier households. e farming calendar on irrigated landholdings includes a summer crop of paddy, which is fully irrigated from mid-February to May. Some farmers also plant a fast-growing crop, such as green gram or green pea, in early March or April for harvesting in May or June. is is followed by a primarily rainfed monsoon crop, such as paddy, which reaches maturity in October or November. Irrigation is used to secure the monsoon crop, protecting the plants from dry spells and low rainfall.  e Dry Zone is characterized by erratic rainfall. Rainfall patterns di er widely between neighboring districts and from year to year."},{"index":4,"size":254,"text":"ere is a widespread perception that, over the last 20 years, the duration of the monsoon has reduced while rainfall events have become shorter but more intense. IWMI conducted a rigorous statistical analysis of past rainfall trends, using a 56-year record  from the APHRODITE dataset (Yatagai et al. 2012) (see McCartney et al. 2013 for a detailed description of the methods used). IWMI's analyses (as outlined in Chapter 1, Box 1) con rmed the high spatial and temporal variability of rainfall in the Dry Zone. e central area receives, on average, less than 500 mm of rainfall during the wet season and less than 600 mm per year, while the periphery receives up to 1,000 mm annually. Despite this, the dry season is relatively wetter in the center of the Dry Zone. is paradox arises because the wet season is shorter here, and more light rainfall events occur during the onset and retreat of the monsoon. It is too risky for farmers to try and use this rainfall to cultivate crops, as it comprises many light rainfall events interspersed with long dry periods. e date on which the wet season begins each year is much more variable than the date on which it starts to retreat. is presents a major challenge for those farmers who rely exclusively on rainfall for water. Dry spells within the wet season are particularly long in the center of the Dry Zone. e longest dry periods, of up to 14 days, generally occur in late July or early August."},{"index":5,"size":103,"text":"In recent decades, in northern parts of the Dry Zone, there has been a statistically signi cant decline in rainfall during June. It diminished by 50 mm (around half of the mean rainfall during June) over the period 1966-2002 (Figure 5). Combined with the very high variability in the onset date of the wet season, and its relatively short duration, this change has increased the risk of early drought at the beginning of the rainfed crop cycle. e central part of the Dry Zone is particularly vulnerable. Observations of weather patterns made by farmers largely tally with the scienti c evidence (Box 4)."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"No statistically signi cant trends were found in the rainfall during the dry season, the start and end of the wet season, or the length of the longest dry spell during the wet season. However, the results con rm that relatively low and variable rainfall are key constraints to rainfed agriculture, particularly in the center of the Dry Zone."},{"index":7,"size":117,"text":"Historical data on Myanmar's climate over the past 60 years indicate that temperatures have risen, on average, by 0.8 °C per decade. According to regional climate modelling, Myanmar is likely to experience a warmer climate in the future, with a longer summertime, heavier rainfall during the rainy season in some areas and higher annual precipitation overall. Additional climate change scenarios are needed to address the uncertainty of these long-term climate predictions (Han Swe 2014).  As part of IWMI's community-level survey, farmers were asked to recall extreme climatic events (such as droughts, floods and shifts in the timing of the monsoon) and to explain any impacts such events had had on their livelihoods. Their experiences are presented here."}]},{"head":"Dry spells","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"The most frequent weather phenomenon reported by farmers was the 'dry spell' (defined as a short period without rainfall), which usually occurs around July during the early part of the monsoon. Of the 24 villages in the sample, 20 reported dry spells. Dry spells are normal during the monsoon. However, if they last for prolonged periods (i.e., more than 2 to 3 weeks), this can cause problems for farmers. During such times, in situations where community water sources are limited to rainwater collection or shallow wells, even access to water for domestic use can be affected. This was the case for Kha Ku Yan village in July 2012. Water for domestic use and livestock became severely limited; villagers reported that many animals died. In Kan Du Ma village, the weather turned dry after the first two rains of the year. Some farmers had to delay cultivating their crops; others suffered losses due to the lack of water after sowing."}]},{"head":"Droughts","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Droughts (defined as low rainfall for the entire season) were less frequent, with only three villages affected during the last decade. In 2004, a drought hit Ta Ein Tel village when the monsoon was late and rainfall lasted for only 2 months. Farmers could not cultivate rice paddy, wheat produced a low yield, and chickpeas could not be harvested. All types of farmers were affected, and households were compelled to obtain loans to invest in a post-monsoon winter crop or to purchase seeds with credit. In some cases, farmers sold their land and, where there was a lack of forage, also their cattle. Landless people suffered from a lack of access to forage areas for their livestock, and could not find employment opportunities in the village. Accessing drinking water was difficult; supplies had to be brought in by cart from outside the village."}]},{"head":"Early retreat of the monsoon","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Although the end of the monsoon is generally more predictable than the onset, it sometimes ends earlier than expected, leaving crops without water before they are ready for harvesting. In Taung Yinn village, respondents described an occasion when the monsoon ended at least 4 weeks earlier than usual. This affected the post-monsoon winter crop because there was less water available in the soil and the temperature was higher. Lower production led farmers to sell livestock or land to repay loans they had obtained to grow the crop. Unusually extensive infestation by pests increased farming costs. Meanwhile, casual labor opportunities were hard to find, compelling landless farmers to obtain loans or migrate seasonally to find employment."}]},{"head":"Flooding","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Floods often affect farmers' monsoon crops. Both paddy and dryland crops can be damaged, if flooding is sufficiently severe. This results in food insecurity and financial problems for households. In Taung Yinn village, some land was submerged for up to 7 weeks during one monsoon season and farmers could not cultivate their fields at this time. It particularly affected marginal farmers with limited access to other land. Landless farmers had to seek casual labor outside of the village."}]},{"head":"Cyclone Giri","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"This powerful tropical cyclone struck Myanmar in October 2010. In Kan Ma village, it seriously damaged the main rainfed crop. Farmers sold their assets or obtained loans to support their households. Casual workers could not find any work locally and had to migrate. Livestock were affected, especially goats. In Thae Pyin Taw village, the storm severely damaged the second monsoon crop and affected the supply of forage for livestock. Household members migrated to the cities of Mandalay and Yangon to find work."}]},{"head":"Box 4: Impacts of climatic events on villagers","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Surface water resources","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rivers and runoff","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"e Irrawaddy River and its tributaries dominate surface water resources in the Dry Zone. e Chindwin River is the major tributary of the Irrawaddy River; other signi cant tributaries are the Mu, Shweli and Myitnge. ese rivers provide water for irrigation and, in some places, recession agriculture, where farmers capitalize on natural ows and sediments to irrigate and fertilize crops on oodplains. However, some of the river courses are deeply incised into the landscape, so water for irrigation can only be obtained by pumping."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"River ows are highly seasonal. e larger rivers ow all year-round, but many of the smaller streams are ephemeral. In some cases, when water levels fall below the level of the riverbed, ows continue in the sandy aquifers of the river channel, and can be accessed through shallow wells and sand dams. Cultivation in dry streambeds during the dry season is common, but carries a high risk of losing crops to early oods."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Water levels are measured at key locations in the Dry Zone during the wet season to provide ood-warning alerts, but few measurements are made during the dry season. Seasonal variation in water ow is very high: on average, around 85% of the ow in both the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers occurs during the wet season between May and October. e ow of the Irrawaddy River in February, the month with the lowest ow, is less than 2% of the total annual ow (Figure 6)."}]},{"head":"Storage in large and small reservoirs","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Given the seasonal nature of rainfall, communities need to retain and store rainwater and runo received during the wet season for use in the dry season. In the Dry Zone, existing facilities for this range from large reservoirs, for irrigation schemes, to small village ponds. e Government of Myanmar has constructed more than 60 large reservoirs (> 1 Mm ), mainly within irrigation schemes (Figure 7). e total storage capacity of these large reservoirs is estimated to be 7,760 Mm .   Runo captured in small storage facilities (< 1 Mm ) provides a valuable water source for villagers. At present, the total water storage capacity in approximately 2,000 small reservoirs is estimated to be 1,020 Mm . In the past 20 years, many small reservoirs, ponds and tanks have been constructed by MOAI to provide water for domestic use, small-scale irrigation and livestock. NGOs, including ActionAid, Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) and Proximity, have also worked to construct and rehabilitate many such structures. Rehabilitation is required, as small reservoirs in the Dry Zone are often prone to siltation and embankment failure."}]},{"head":"Groundwater resources","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"e four major aquifer groups across the Dry Zone vary considerably in the quantity and quality of groundwater they yield (Figure 8). e Irrawaddy and Alluvial groups constitute the most important aquifers, supplying groundwater that is of su cient quality for both domestic and irrigation use. Suitable resources are less common in areas underlain by Pegu and Eocene aquifers (Drury 1986)."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"ere is a widespread view that the groundwater reserves of the Dry Zone are vast and largely unexploited (e.g., ESCAP 1995). e Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimated a groundwater potential of 150 km for the Upper Irrawaddy and Chindwin river basins (Le Huu Ti and Facon 2004). However, the hydrogeology of the area is complex, and little is known about the recharge and transmission dynamics of the groundwater systems."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"IWMI collated and analyzed data from MOAI on district-level estimates of rainfall-derived groundwater recharge. is data indicated annual recharge rates to be around 30 mm to 90 mm, giving a total annual recharge volume of 4,777 Mm for the Dry Zone. us, the annual replenishable volume that can be safely used without diminishing the resource is around 2% of the total surface water resources and about 50% of the total surface water storage. is does not indicate great abundance; rather, it points to a moderate resource that must be planned and developed carefully to facilitate long-term use. Shallow alluvial aquifers situated adjacent to the rivers may be supplemented by recharge from seasonal high ows, but the magnitude and extent of this component of recharge must be evaluated."},{"index":4,"size":169,"text":"Groundwater quality would appear to be t for general purposes over large parts of the Dry Zone. It is generally of low to moderate salinity (typically 1,000 to 2,000 µScm ), although brackish to saline groundwater is found, in particular, in the Pegu aquifer in the western and central areas. High levels of iron and manganese in the water are commonly reported, but this does not usually constrain use. e extent of arsenic contamination in the Dry Zone is not well established. Data from WRUD, based on studies carried out between 1952 and 2013, indicate that around 80% of 30,000 samples from Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing have arsenic concentrations lower than the World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water guideline value of 10 µgl . However, more than 100,000 people in the region could potentially be exposed to arsenic concentrations that exceed the level of 10 µgl . Future projects to exploit groundwater must ensure that arsenic levels are acceptably low (Mr. Kyi Htut Win, WRUD, pers. comm.). CHAPTER 3:"}]},{"head":"Improving irrigation infrastructure","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Irrigation began in the Dry Zone in the eleventh century under the reign of Anawrahta Minsaw, the rst king of all of Myanmar. He constructed a series of weirs and tanks to provide water for paddy rice cultivation. Under the British, who ruled between 1824 and 1948, some of the ancient weirs were replaced with permanent brick and concrete diversions. However, these only functioned when the feeder streams were in full ow, thus limiting irrigation to one crop a year. During the period from independence until 1962, irrigation weirs and tanks were built."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Since 1988, the Government of Myanmar has made considerable e orts to expand irrigation, with much of this investment being made in the Dry Zone. According to MOAI, the area covered by irrigation infrastructure in the region is now around 515,000 ha (combined estimates from ID and WRUD). is is equivalent to around 5% of the total area and 12% of cultivated land (JICA 2010). In 2000, the government set a national target to make irrigation available for 25% of agricultural land, with the emphasis on providing water for cultivating summer paddy."}]},{"head":"Types of irrigation","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"e majority of irrigation schemes in the Dry Zone are gravity-fed canal systems that draw water from storage dams or weirs and are managed by ID (Figure 9). ese canal irrigation schemes were designed mainly for irrigating paddy elds. ID reports 89 schemes in Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing , with a total command area of around 344,000 ha. ese include major schemes (> 10,000 ha) at Kinde and Sinthe (Mandalay); Natmauk, Kyiohn-kyiwa, Mann Caung and Salin (Magway); and Ye-U, downstream of the aphanseik Dam (Sagaing)."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Since 2000, there has been a focus on developing large pump irrigation projects that draw water from rivers using high-discharge pumps. WRUD has implemented 18 schemes covering more than 71,000 ha in Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing; another seven projects with a total command area of almost 50,000 ha are either planned or under construction. WRUD also lists 165 completed smaller schemes, Figures are for the Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing regions; the Dry Zone lies within these regions, but covers a smaller area."}]},{"head":"PHOTO: MATTHEW McCARTNEY/IWMI","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"with an irrigable area of 67,000 ha, along with nine additional projects covering 5,800 ha, which are planned or under construction (WRUD 2013). Pump irrigation projects usually provide water for both rice and non-rice crops. Spate irrigation, which makes use of seasonal oods, has also been trialed, for example, at Shwe Hlan Bo in Mandalay Division, as well as in small village schemes (Spate Irrigation Network 2013). ese gures do not include informal, small-scale pumping from private tube wells, which is becoming increasingly widespread, particularly for growing horticultural crops (see Chapter 4). Although groundwater currently represents only around 5% of formal irrigation, its use is increasing more rapidly than that of other water sources, in part, due to informal use."}]},{"head":"\\","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Irrigated areas and water use","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":378,"text":"e extent of irrigation within the Dry Zone is not well established. e MOAI estimate of 515,000 ha for the total command area excludes farmer-managed irrigation outside of formal schemes. Estimates from other sources range from 386,110 ha (JICA 2010) to 685,246 ha (FAO 2008). Current irrigation is primarily used to extend the wet season growing period or to safeguard wet-season crops, rather than for full irrigation of dry-season crops. Previous government programs mandated production of rice on le (paddy) lands, and promoted production of summer paddy in irrigation systems. Most formal irrigation systems have areas designated for paddy and other crops, although control over the types of crops cultivated has now been relaxed. e actual area irrigated is likely to be much lower than the estimates of the total command area. For example, WRUD reported that, in 2012-2013, only 26% of the nominal area of the Nyaung-U Pumped Irrigation Project was actually irrigated in the wet season and 15% in the dry season. A government report released by the Auditor General's O ce in 2012 found that, nationally, \"Sixty-seven river water pumping stations have achieved 16.3% of their target, providing water to 48,833 acres out of the 299,895 acres originally planned.\" ey concluded that some reservoirs and diversion dams could not supply water at all. IWMI scientists mapped the actual irrigated area of the Dry Zone during the dry season from November 2011 to April 2012 using Google Earth images. Areas actually irrigated were generally distinguishable from non-irrigated dry elds by their green color (Figure 10). Riverbank recession agriculture and any areas of cropland growing on residual moisture were indistinguishable from irrigated crops, and were hence included in the analysis. IWMI calculated the total delineated area to be 260,000 ha, including both formal and informal irrigation. is work con rmed that the actual area irrigated in the dry season is considerably less than the o cial command area of formal irrigation schemes. is situation does not, on the whole, re ect a physical shortage of water. ID estimates withdrawals for the 344,000-ha canal command area in the Dry Zone to be 7,536 Mm y . is is a very small amount compared to river ow, representing less than 3% of the total ow of the Irrawaddy River."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Currently, the availability of surface water from rivers and storage is less limiting than access; infrastructure is scarce in remote areas located away from the major rivers, and the costs of pumping are often prohibitive.  To estimate irrigation water requirements across the Dry Zone, IWMI scientists compared evapotranspiration (ET) from irrigated fields and nearby rainfed crops identified from Google Earth images."},{"index":3,"size":163,"text":"Monthly ET during the period 2011-2012 was estimated using MODIS 16 global ET data. For fully irrigated fields, actual ET should be close to potential evapotranspiration (PET). During the height of the wet season, between June and August, irrigated and rainfed areas around the edges of the Dry Zone exhibited actual ET rates close to PET. This indicates that irrigation was not significantly beneficial to wet-season crops in these areas in 2011 and 2012, presumably because rainfall was sufficient to enable crop growth. In contrast, in the center of the Dry Zone, rates of actual ET from irrigated areas remained above those from rainfed areas throughout July to September, highlighting the important role of irrigation in supporting wet-season crop growth in this region (Figure 11). The incremental ET due to irrigation was apparent during September to November, but actual ET of both rainfed and irrigated areas during December to April was significantly below PET, indicating that there was negligible irrigation during these months."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"Over the years 2011 and 2012, irrigation enabled between 22 mm and 106 mm of additional ET depending on the location. This equates to a maximum estimate of 386 Mm³ of irrigation water over the 340,000 ha of irrigated canal command areas managed by ID. Compared to its estimate of 7,536 Mm³ for irrigation withdrawals, this indicates that, at best, only about 5% of the water diverted for irrigation is effective in contributing to crop transpiration. In addition, current irrigation e ciency is very low (Box 5). IWMI's calculation that, at best, only about 5% of the water diverted for irrigation is e ective in contributing to crop transpiration suggests that there is scope for improving the e ciency of irrigation schemes within the Dry Zone."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"MMK 1 = USD 0.00089 (exchange rate as at June 2015)."}]},{"head":"Constraints to irrigation","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"So, why are the actual irrigated areas and overall e ciency of irrigation so low? A major issue for pumped irrigation projects is the availability and cost of energy for pumping, although many other factors also a ect the performance of formal irrigation schemes. ese include: (i) problems with the design, operation and maintenance; (ii) inappropriate siting of infrastructure and soil characteristics; and (iii) lack of agronomic advice to help farmers make the best use of irrigation. ese issues are compounded by inadequate funding, and by communities having insu cient technical capacity to operate and maintain facilities in the long term."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Irrigation is highly subsidized; although there are charges for water, these are not su cient to cover operational costs. Farmers pay a standard MMK 9,000 per acre per season for full irrigation of paddy in the dry season; MMK 6,000 per acre per season for irrigation of non-paddy crops in the dry season; and MMK 3,000 per acre per season for irrigation during the wet season, regardless of the type of crop. WRUD sta in Nyaung-U estimated the actual operational cost for pumped irrigation projects (including pumping and maintenance, but excluding capital costs) to be around MMK 40,000-45,000 per acre."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"How water is managed and distributed within irrigation schemes is critical. IWMI's community-level survey indicated that unequal distribution of water, which causes crop failure, and leads to con icts between head-and tail-end farmers, often resulted from a lack of clear and transparent institutional arrangements. Without a coherent structure in place, water management committees and WRUD are not able to regulate and coordinate water distribution adequately."}]},{"head":"Using irrigation wisely in the future","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Where farmers have access to formal irrigation infrastructure, repairing and improving the systems is a high priority. IWMI's community-level survey showed that, for villages practicing year-round irrigation, rehabilitating or extending existing irrigation infrastructure was the most preferred water management option for landed farmers, and the second-most popular option for marginal and landless farmers. is re ects the fact that agriculture represents 33% of the income portfolio of marginal farmers in irrigated areas, and between 38% and 58% of the income of landless villagers through casual labor."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"e government and development partners have explored options for rehabilitating formal irrigation infrastructure. For example, Anderson Irrigation and Engineering Services Ltd. ( 2012), on behalf of the United States O ce for Project Services (UNOPS), looked at increasing the e ciency and e ectiveness of pumped irrigation schemes. While they seem like obvious targets for investment, rehabilitating and expanding formal irrigation schemes should be approached with caution. e costs are high and, until the factors constraining the performance of current irrigation schemes are better understood and managed, the risks are also high."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"For example, unless the energy required for pumping can be guaranteed, investments in rehabilitating or constructing pumped irrigation projects may be lost. e report by the Auditor General's O ce quoted previously recommended that ine cient irrigation schemes should be abandoned, not rehabilitated."}]},{"head":"Assessing the effectiveness of irrigation","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Before investments are made, interested parties should assess the relative e ectiveness of the di erent modes of irrigation (gravity schemes, pumped irrigation projects, groundwater, and small-scale, farmer-managed pumping from surface water and groundwater) in terms of the impacts on water and energy productivity, as well as yields, farm incomes and livelihoods. It is important that irrigation is analyzed for its role in increasing living standards and reducing poverty, as well as determining whether it is economically and technically viable."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Formal irrigation schemes are not necessarily an e cient way of addressing rural poverty, since bene ts tend to accrue most to larger, semi-commercial farms. In livelihood terms, formal irrigation schemes serve only a small proportion of households (since they cover, at most, 16% of cultivated land). However, as IWMI's community-level survey preferences indicated, the landless also bene t through employment."},{"index":3,"size":203,"text":"Experience from other countries suggests that irrigation alone is unlikely to make a big di erence to the incomes and livelihoods of farmers. Investments are needed to structure input and output market chains, so that farmers have access to high-quality seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, and are able to procure a fair price for their crops. Also, if farmers are to make the best use of irrigation through good crop choices, and employing suitable in-eld soil and water management techniques, they require extension services providing sound agronomic advice. Commodity exchange centers, wholesale warehouses and storage facilities are also important. e government's agricultural policies related to summer paddy production and crop diversi cation have been important drivers of irrigation development and management. As Myanmar moves from centralized to decentralized policies, reforming and revitalizing formal irrigation systems will require rede ning the roles, responsibilities, tasks and expectations of the government and communities around operating and maintaining these systems. Past irrigation developments have not necessarily re ected farmers' needs and priorities. Future approaches must allow local communities to represent their aspirations for irrigation development, and to in uence the type of schemes implemented and how they are managed. is will likely require some capacity building within communities. "}]},{"head":"Investing in groundwater Groundwater for domestic use and livestock watering","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Groundwater is a critical resource for domestic and village use in Myanmar. Nationally, about 45% of people draw their drinking water from protected or unprotected dug wells, and another third from tube wells. WRUD estimate that, in Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing, 6.65 million people have access to domestic water supplies from more than 13,700 wells, two-thirds of which are deep (WRUD 2013). In many villages, multiple sources are used to access domestic water supplies seasonally. Drinking water is primarily accessed from wells, but water for livestock and washing is drawn from open ponds in the wet season or shallow wells in the dry season."},{"index":2,"size":298,"text":"Village ponds often dry out early in the dry season and villagers will then revert to more reliable subsurface supplies. Substantial gains have been made in developing safe water supplies since the mid-1980s, when only one-fth of village domestic supplies were derived from tube wells, but unprotected shallow dug wells are still a relatively important source of water within villages in the Dry Zone. e high mortality rate of children under 5 years old (38 per 1,000 live births [JICA 2010]) is partly attributed to waterborne diseases from unprotected sources. IWMI's community-level survey con rmed the success and importance of deep tube wells for village water supplies. Such wells, with motorized pumps providing a ow at 6.8 m /h, can supply domestic water for an average village with 800-1,000 inhabitants (JICA 2007). e wells provide reliable, high-quality water during all the seasons, bene ting the entire community. After installing deep tube wells in villages, JICA (2007) reported a reduced time for fetching water, fewer cases of diarrhea, dysentery and skin diseases, and increased water consumption in poor households. In most cases, deep wells are used exclusively for domestic and livestock purposes (and often primarily for drinking water) due to the cost of pumping. e cost of installing a well and electric pump for a village system can be as high as USD 40,000 (JICA 2010). However, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) reported a high success rate in drilling, with all 49 wells in their study capable of delivering the required volume of water. Maintenance of pumps is an ongoing concern, requiring support. JICA addressed this by training engineers, and establishing village water committees to manage the water supply and maintain pumps (JICA 2007). IWMI's study only identi ed one community where drilling for water had been unsuccessful."}]},{"head":"PHOTO: MATTHEW McCARTNEY/IWMI","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"e high cost of wells can drive communities to seek alternative lower-cost water supplies, such as shallow wells or rainwater collection from rooftops. Shallow tube wells using manual or motorized lifting equipment are important for village supplies, but the quality and quantity of water from shallow aquifers are less reliable. For shallow wells, the NGO Proximity has developed cheap, plastic (so-called 'baby elephant') foot pumps that, at USD 13, are a fraction of the price of conventional treadle pumps."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"ese are limited to water tables within 8 m of the surface, although pressure pump models are available that can lift water from greater depths. Solidarités International has had success with implementing village-level solar pumps for domestic water supplies under a payback scheme."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"e United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and ADRA have also undertaken trials of using solar pumps for supplying water for domestic purposes."}]},{"head":"Groundwater for irrigation","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Large-and medium-scale groundwater irrigation projects have been developed at multiple locations in the Dry Zone, based on both pumped and artesian systems. Around 33,000 ha are already irrigated under groundwater schemes, with plans to expand this to almost 100,000 ha (Johnston et al. 2013). However, this is only part of the story. As in other parts of Asia (Mukherji et al. 2009), the advent of a ordable small, motorized pumps is resulting in the rapid expansion of small-scale, individually managed pumping in Myanmar. Pumping groundwater for irrigation is emerging not only in rainfed areas, where expected, but also within irrigation command areas where there are shortfalls in supply."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"Small-scale, farmer-managed pumping has signi cant advantages over formal irrigation in terms of its exibility, reliability, ease of use and simple maintenance. Where groundwater supplies are available and sustainable, it has proved to be an a ordable and e ective way of increasing production. As an added bene t, the water is also commonly used for domestic and livestock purposes. In IWMI's community-level survey, all types of farmers (landed, marginal and landless) expressed a strong preference for shallow wells with diesel pumps over communal deep wells with electric pumps to access water for irrigation, presumably on the grounds of cost, exibility and autonomy."}]},{"head":"Existing groundwater infrastructure","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"A study tour to the Dry Zone in February 2013 identi ed four main types of groundwater use for agriculture:"}]},{"head":"• Deep tube wells","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Typically drilled to more than 30 m in depth, deep tube wells are used in formal irrigation schemes implemented by WRUD, usually with funding or support from international donors. Examples are the Monywa Groundwater Irrigation Project and the 99-pond Yinmarbin Artesian Zone Project, both in Sagaing Division. ese systems typically draw water from deep tube wells and rely on dedicated multi-phase power supplies for large electric pumps. In some cases, such as at Yinmarbin, naturally 'free-owing' artesian groundwater occurs. ey support command areas fed by a distribution network of lined and un-lined canals."}]},{"head":"• Shallow tube wells and permanent dug wells","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Typically less than 30 m deep, these wells require much lower upfront and ongoing capital investments, and are mostly nanced and managed by farmers, either individually or in small groups."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Small motorized pumps are used to lift the water. Usually, these wells irrigate small areas of high-value crops, such as vegetables, which are grown to supply local or regional markets. In some cases, a mixture of surface water and shallow groundwater sources is used, dictated by seasonal availability."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"• Shallow dug wells ese wells are constructed annually in alluvial riverbeds (kaing-kyung lands) when water levels recede during the pre-monsoon season. Villagers construct rudimentary wells or pits and then extract water using ropes and buckets, human or animal-operated mechanical pumps or, occasionally, treadle or motorized pumps."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"• Indirect pumping is is opportunistic dry-season irrigation, where farmers draw water from the open pools present in irrigation canals using small, motorized pumps. ese pools re ect the local groundwater table, and are sourced mainly from in ltrated canal water and subsurface return ows from nearby elds. In the wet season, the same infrastructure is used to draw surface water from the canals."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"At district level, current withdrawals relative to annual replenishment levels vary from 5% in Monywa to 55% in Sagaing, with a district average of 23%. is highlights the potential to extend the area being irrigated by exploiting groundwater. Assuming that around 50% of the annual recharge should be retained to underpin ecosystems and environmental services (Pavelic et al. 2012), IWMI estimates that a further 110,000 to 330,000 ha of land could be irrigated, depending on the water demand associated with the crops selected and local climatic conditions (Table 1)."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"Almost two-thirds of that potential lies in the districts of Monywa, Shwebo and Pakokku, where the most prospective Alluvial and Irrawaddy group aquifers predominate. Monywa and Pakokku, in particular, have limited surface water irrigation, and a high proportion of rainfed lands. e viability of groundwater irrigation from relatively shallow aquifers (8-20 m) has already been amply demonstrated in Monywa."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"ese districts are thus a logical starting point for further investments in groundwater irrigation."}]},{"head":"Constraints to developing groundwater supplies","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"ere are areas where it will not be appropriate to develop groundwater resources, because of poor water quality or excessive depths to access the water. Groundwater quality is suitable for general purposes over large parts of the Dry Zone, but salinity and arsenic contamination have caused problems in some areas. For example, in the Monywa irrigation scheme, high salinity precluded the use of some wells and WRUD has documented high arsenic levels in some drinking water wells in the Dry Zone (WRUD 2013). ese examples emphasize the need to assess water quantity and quality before implementing major groundwater development projects.  7) and assuming annual irrigation water demands of 500, 1,000 and 1,500 mmy‫¹-‬ \"Developing surface water and groundwater conjunctively is important to ensure the resources are used sustainably\""},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Ensuring sustainable use of groundwater"},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Developing surface water and groundwater conjunctively is important to ensure the resources are used sustainably. Surface water infrastructure, if developed strategically, can enhance recharge to shallow aquifers during the wet season. For example, villagers in Ta Ein Tel, in Sagaing, reported that supplementary pumping to their village pond had improved both the quantity and quality of water in the nearby local well. us, if the dynamics of recharge are well understood, shallow groundwater can be used as de facto 'natural storage', with the additional bene t of minimal losses to evaporation."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"Before major investments are made, it is essential to gain a better understanding of the sustainability of withdrawals in di erent systems, recharge dynamics, and impacts of pumping on groundwater inputs to wetlands and base ow in streams. Community monitoring of wells (Box 6), as part of their routine operation, would provide valuable information in this regard. Assessment of groundwater potential must take into account the possibility of increasing urban and industrial uses. e heavy reliance on groundwater for drinking water means that its depletion could have severe consequences for communities."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"If future irrigation strategies rely more on groundwater, new regulatory and institutional mechanisms will be needed. e challenge is to develop locally adapted forms of groundwater governance that include both the government and communities in managing the resource."},{"index":6,"size":103,"text":"U Shwe Myaing of Tanpinkan village in Taungtha township constructed a new well 4 months before IWMI's community survey. After years of rainfed farming, he had received a family inheritance, which he invested in improving the water management of his farm. Its upland location called for a deep well. So, he installed a large diameter well from the surface to 6 m, and a tube well from 6 m to 55 m. The total cost was around MMK 1 million. U Shwe Myaing paid MMK 300,000 for drilling, MMK 350,000 for the down-hole pump and MMK 350,000 for a large second-hand diesel engine."},{"index":7,"size":134,"text":"The well irrigates a field of 0.5 ha. For his first irrigated crop, U Shwe Myaing planted onions. Preparing the land took 1 month and cost MMK 100,000. He also incurred diesel costs, which other surveys indicate were likely to be around MMK 30,000 for the season. The soils on his land are calcareous sands with low fertility. So, they required an application of cow dung and urea. The crop was 1 month old when surveyed. U Shwe Myaing anticipated obtaining a yield of 3,000 viss (4,890 kg) from this harvest. The selling price at the time was MMK 300-400 per viss. He previously produced sesame and mung beans under rainfed conditions. When there was sufficient rainfall, he was able to harvest 10 baskets (about 370 kg) at most, but the crop often failed."},{"index":8,"size":87,"text":"Having access to irrigation means that U Shwe Myaing could now grow watermelons for export to China, with much higher potential returns. However, he chose to initially plant onions, like many other farmers in the area, due to his lack of experience and the relatively lower risk of onion cultivation. He had previously pumped water from open pools to supplement rainfall, but chose to invest in groundwater pumping so that he could irrigate his crops in the dry season and be more assured of a successful harvest."}]},{"head":"Box 6: Livelihood benefits of tapping into groundwater","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Ponds and small dams for rainwater harvesting emerge as the preferred option for improving water supplies for villages in many contexts in the Dry Zone. ey represent a simple, proven technology that is already common throughout the Dry Zone. In many cases, they only provide a seasonal resource for 7-8 months a year and dry up during the dry season, but they are a critical component of water security."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Of the 24 villages included in IWMI's community-level survey, 17 used ponds as a seasonal resource that provided water between 2 and 12 months a year. Most villages had more than one pond, which they used for domestic and livestock supplies. Some had multiple ponds (more than 30 in one village); these were used for various purposes, including irrigation."}]},{"head":"Planning appropriate ponds","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Village ponds are usually formed by earthen, stone or cement dams. ey can vary greatly in size and type, and provide for multiple uses including domestic, livestock, small-scale irrigation, and small businesses such as brick-making and handicrafts. e type, design and siting of such ponds are very speci c to each location and to their potential uses. Dug earth dams are very common, but do not suit all contexts. Other options include subsurface and sand dams (formed by embankments in streambeds), and ring/turkey nest dams (built above the ground and lled by pumping water from rivers). Ponds may be coupled with systems to improve access, such as pipes, pumps or access points, and livestock watering troughs."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Village ponds can be used for supplementary irrigation, particularly in the wet season when they are regularly replenished. In the dry season, the imperative to conserve water for domestic uses and livestock watering often overrides agricultural uses, unless the pond is large. Negotiation as to what constitutes appropriate use of water from village ponds requires collaboration between multiple users and social groups."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"If using pond water for irrigation is planned, dedicated ponds for this purpose may be preferable to using multiple-use facilities, in order to reduce water-use con icts and because of the relatively larger volumes of water required. ese dedicated ponds can be situated in the elds, close to the point of use. Individually owned, small farm reservoirs have proven to be an e ective way of providing supplementary irrigation in rainfed areas of ailand and India with similar agro-ecosystems to Myanmar's Dry Zone. Such systems make it more viable for farmers to plant two crops in a season, rather than one."},{"index":4,"size":172,"text":"In areas with landholdings larger than 2 ha, a commonly used model in ailand and India is for farmers to sacri ce around 10% of their land to construct a small irrigation water storage facility. Where farm sizes are smaller, communal facilities constructed and managed by a group of farmers may be more appropriate. ese are analogous to village ponds, but have a smaller group of users. e size (and number of farmers involved) can vary, but a typical pond serves around 10 ha. e cost of building a pond varies considerably depending on its size and type. e cost for a small irrigation dam serving 10 ha in the Dry Zone is estimated to be around USD 6,000. In Dewas District of Madhya Pradesh, India, a very successful program of small dam irrigation has been carried out; over 5,000 dams were constructed, with signi cant gains in farm incomes. e average cost of these ponds was USD 2,600, the payback period was 3 years and the cost-bene t ratio was 1.5-1.9."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"e local administration o ered a subsidy of USD 900-1,400 to encourage uptake (Malik et al. 2012)."},{"index":6,"size":114,"text":"In most cases, communities already have the skills to construct and maintain water storage structures, but they may need technical advice, community payments for labor or access to machinery. In Myanmar, ID provides technical assistance for constructing ponds, and has a eet of equipment and sta that PHOTO: PAUL PAVELIC/IWMI \"Constructing, managing and maintaining village ponds and their catchments may provide income opportunities for poor and landless people\" can carry out the work. In 2012, ID helped to renovate or construct 200 ponds in the Mandalay Division. NGOs such as ActionAid, ADRA, Solidarités International, and Proximity also have considerable experience of constructing and rehabilitating village ponds. For example, Proximity renovated 260 ponds during 2012."}]},{"head":"Potential issues when harvesting rainwater","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Evaporation is a major problem when harvesting rainwater, with losses between 50% and 100% commonly experienced. ese losses can be reduced by constructing deeper ponds. Seepage losses can be reduced by siting dams on areas of clay soils, compacting the base during construction or lining the pond with clay. Because seepage recharges shallow groundwater, it is also possible to capitalize on these losses by constructing wells nearby."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Spillways, which carry away excessive water, must be well designed and maintained. Many small dams fail because they are overtopped in a ood, often because the spillway is inappropriately designed or because it has been neglected or become overgrown with vegetation. In 2010, Cyclone Giri destroyed a large number of rainwater harvesting structures in both the Mandalay and Magway divisions, as they were not built to withstand such heavy rainfall."},{"index":3,"size":152,"text":"Maintenance, including the removal of silt and repairing walls, is required at least every 2 or 3 years and, in many cases, annually. Village ponds are usually managed by the community, but may be managed by ID or collaboratively between ID and the community. Unless the community commits to maintaining the structures, investments will be lost. Some organizations, such as Solidarités International and iDE, have set up water management groups within villages to maintain rainwater harvesting storage infrastructure. e viability of ponds and small dams often declines due to siltation or because embankments collapse during oods. Many soil and water conservation techniques have been developed to reduce runo and erosion, including hillside terraces, stone or vegetation bunds, gully plugs, and earthen or stone banks. Planting trees, grasses and shrubs can also help to stabilize soils. Relevant techniques for the Dry Zone are described in detail in Carucci (2001) (see also Chapter 6)."}]},{"head":"Ensuring long-term viability","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"e fact that so many small reservoirs in the Dry Zone require rehabilitation is a testament to the di culty of ensuring long-term maintenance. Programs to construct and maintain village ponds need to explore technical and social approaches to ensuring long-term viability."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"On the technical side, guidelines can highlight appropriate designs for rainwater harvesting structures in di erent contexts. Before construction, site analysis is vital to ascertain the capacity, cost, risk of siltation, potential life span, and interactions between surface water and shallow groundwater, including the potential to use small reservoirs or sand dams to recharge aquifers."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Roles and responsibilities for managing and maintaining rainwater infrastructure at the village level must be clearly de ned. Currently, community water user groups are the most common model for management, but other approaches could be explored. Management extends beyond the pond; it should include watershed management programs in catchment areas of ponds to protect in ows and water quality. Constructing, managing and maintaining village ponds and their catchments may provide income opportunities for poor and landless people within the community."}]},{"head":"CHAPTER 6:","index":43,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Managing water in the landscape","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Soil erosion and land degradation are widespread in the Dry Zone. e main causes are poor farming practices, overgrazing, deforestation due to agricultural expansion, commercial and illicit logging, excessive cutting of trees for charcoal and fuelwood, and shifting cultivation. All of these are exacerbated by population growth. Land degradation results in decreased production (through loss of topsoil and nutrients), loss of productive land (through gullying and reduced vegetation cover) and impacts on infrastructure (through silting up of ponds, sedimentation in canals and damage to pumps from high sediment loads in the water). High sediment loads also pose a major challenge for navigation on rivers, particularly in the dry season."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Slowing the rate at which water moves through the landscape can help reduce erosion, improve soil water availability, and increase recharge (the so-called Recharge, Retention and Reuse [3R] approach of van Steenbergen et al. [2011]). At the core of this approach is the bu er function provided by integrated management and storage of groundwater, soil water and rainwater. It is important because, even if the Government of Myanmar is able to ful ll its target for expanding irrigation to 25% of cultivated land, the majority of farmers in the Dry Zone will continue to be reliant on rainfall."}]},{"head":"The problem of degraded land","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"Myanmar has one of the highest rates of deforestation in the world (BEWG 2011). Dry forests around the periphery of the Dry Zone are particularly threatened, by agricultural encroachment and the intensi cation of shifting cultivation (Leimgruber et al. 2005). Although shifting cultivation is often cited as a major cause of deforestation, evidence indicates that it is shortening of the fallow period (usually due to population pressure) that causes problems, rather than shifting cultivation per se. Traditional taung-ya methods of shifting cultivation, with su ciently long rotations, can help to conserve natural forest ecosystems and biodiversity much more e ectively than plantation monocultures (Khin Htun 2009;Valentin et al. 2008). e problem of land degradation in the Dry Zone was identi ed as early as the 1950s, when a government project was initiated to plant trees on degraded lands. e United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and FAO undertook watershed management programs during the 1990s (Cools 1995;Carucci 2001;Kahan 2001). In 1997, the Dry Zone Greening Department (DZGD) was established to manage land degradation. Despite these initiatives, and a proposed DZGD-integrated plan for the years 2001-2031 covering forest conservation and land management, it is not clear that these programs have been e ectively implemented or that there has been a signi cant change in the rates of land degradation."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Land degradation has reached critical levels in upland areas around Pauk in Magway Division, with widespread gullying and topsoil depletion (Karin Luke, Welthungerhilfe [WHH], pers. comm.). Changes in river morphology, caused by large volumes of sand, have clogged irrigation canals, making them unusable. Community forest conservation and agroforestry projects have had some success, but these were at a small scale. ere is an urgent need to scale up such successes to a regional level, since degradation has spiraled beyond the extent at which it can be tackled by small projects."}]},{"head":"Retaining water in the landscape","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"At the eld scale, techniques to reduce erosion enhance in ltration and water retention in the soil pro le, and increase the e ectiveness of rainfall. Cools (1995) reported the use of a range of traditional Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) practices in the Dry Zone, including over ow bunds, gully plugging with rocks or crop residues, strip cropping and agroforestry techniques. Other promising approaches include deep tillage, reduced tillage, zero tillage, mulching, planting basins and growing crops that require little water. FAO has developed a detailed manual of SWC techniques speci cally targeted for the Dry Zone (Kahan 2001). As agronomic practices, they need to be introduced to uninitiated farmers as part of agricultural extension services."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"At landscape scales, similar approaches can be used to prevent erosion, improve water retention and in ltration, and enhance recharge to shallow aquifers. Approaches include check dams, vegetated strips, in ltration basins and ood spreading (see van Steenbergen et al. 2011). Increasing vegetation cover is a key component of watershed management, which is achieved by conserving existing forest patches, planting new vegetation, employing agroforestry methods, and building enclosures to reduce grazing pressure. Free grazing can be a signi cant driver of erosion, particularly in the uplands, where sheep and goats are common."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"Conservation zones protect riparian vegetation and reduce riverbank erosion. A 30 m exclusion zone along streams was previously enforced in the Dry Zone, but has been abandoned in the past 20 years (Karin Luke, Welthungerhilfe (WHH), pers. comm.). Such catchment-scale approaches are vital to reduce sedimentation in small reservoirs. When planning SWC projects, it is essential to match interventions and incentives to local conditions. For example, farmers consulted during IWMI's community-level survey recalled that contour banks had been unsuccessful because livestock had destroyed them, while hedgerows and vetiver grass banks had been much more e ective. In their experience, successful programs usually had a dual focus on retaining water and preventing erosion."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"Programs to address sediment issues will not be successful unless they address ongoing land degradation and deforestation in the mountainous headwaters of the major rivers (including the Irrawaddy), which lie outside the Dry Zone. e Irrawaddy River has one of the highest sediment loads of all the rivers globally, but the extent to which current sediment levels are natural (and hence must be managed) or anthropogenic (and could potentially be mitigated or reduced) is not clear. A basin-scale analysis of sediment sources and dynamics is needed to support planning, since approaches to managing and mitigating sediment in the river will vary signi cantly depending on its source and distribution."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"\"It is important that the 'public good' nature of soil and water conservation initiatives is recognized and the costs are shared\""}]}],"figures":[{"text":" PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: The demographics of Myanmar's Dry Zone, showing the population density of townships and distribution of landless households. (Source: Boundary/townships as defined by the Myanmar Information Management Unit [MIMU] [Map Id.: MIMU983V01], March 2013 [www.themimu.info/]; Statistics on population density, poverty and landless households from JICA 2010). "},{"text":"Figure 2 : PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Sample cropping patterns in the Dry Zone (Source: LIFT 2012; Note: G.nut = Groundnut). "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Mean monthly rainfall and potential evapotranspiration (PET) at Pakokku, close to the center of Myanmar's Dry Zone (Source: FAO LocClim: Local Climate Estimator [http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/pub/en0201_en.asp]). "},{"text":" Asian Precipitation-Highly Resolved Observational Data Integration Towards Evaluation of Water Resources Statistical significance > 90%. "},{"text":"Figure 5 : PHOTO: ISTOCKPHOTO "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Mean monthly flow of the Chindwin River at Monywa, and the Irrawaddy River at Sagaing and Magway (Source: derived from data provided by ID, Myanmar). "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: The locations of large reservoirs (> 1 Mm³), total volume of water held in small reservoirs for each Dry Zone district, and the annual rate of groundwater recharge for each district (Source: Groundwater recharge figures from MOAI 2003). "},{"text":"Figure 8 : PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI "},{"text":"Figure 9 : Figure 9: Areal extent of different irrigation types across Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing.(Source:WRUD 2013)  "},{"text":"Figure 10 : Figure 10: Satellite image captured during 2015 around Kyauktan in the Dry Zone, showing the clear greening effect of irrigation (Source: Google Earth, image © 2015 CNES/Astrium). "},{"text":"Figure 11 : Figure 11: Average monthly actual evapotranspiration (ET) rates (mmd⁻¹) during 2012 for rainfed and irrigated locations in the Dry Zone (around the confluence of the Chindwin and Irrawaddy rivers), showing enhanced ET from irrigation during July to December. Note: Error bars correspond to standard deviation between the five points used to compute ET. "},{"text":" PHOTO: ROBYN JOHNSTON/IWMI "},{"text":" PHOTO: MATTHEW McCARTNEY/IWMI "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" • River flows from (limited) records available at three gauging stations. • Available water storage (based on government records of large and small reservoirs) compared to potential runoff (based on standardized rainfall-runoff relationships derived by MOAI). • Irrigable areas based on estimates from MOAI and previous studies. • Actual irrigated area in the dry season of 2012, based on high-resolution satellite imagery. • Water volumes consumed in irrigation, using estimates of evapotranspiration (ET) derived from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite data. • Groundwater availability and quality, and current rates of extraction based on government estimates and compilation of existing studies. • Potential for groundwater development, based on comparison of estimated levels of extraction relative to recharge.  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Groundwater use as a percentage of annual recharge (2000/2001) and the potential for expanding irrigation.  Division District Groundwater utilization (%)¹ Potential new groundwater irrigation area (ha)² 500 mmy‫¹-‬ 1,000 mmy‫¹-‬ 1,500 mmy‫¹-‬ DivisionDistrictGroundwater utilization (%)¹Potential new groundwater irrigation area (ha)² 500 mmy‫¹-‬ 1,000 mmy‫¹-‬ 1,500 mmy‫¹-‬  Monywa 4.8 52,752 26,376 17,584 Monywa4.852,75226,37617,584  Shwebo 8.7 90,146 45,073 30,049 Shwebo8.790,14645,07330,049 Sagaing Sagaing 54.9 0 0 0 SagaingSagaing54.9000  Magway 17.5 38,600 19,300 12,867 Magway17.538,60019,30012,867  Thayet 13.8 24,702 12,351 8,234 Thayet13.824,70212,3518,234  Minbu 19.2 16,376 8,188 5,459 Minbu19.216,3768,1885,459 Magway Pakokku 9.8 61,951 30,975 20,650 MagwayPakokku9.861,95130,97520,650  Kyaukse 36.8 3,395 1,698 1,132 Kyaukse36.83,3951,6981,132  Meiktila 30.7 7,245 3,623 2,415 Meiktila30.77,2453,6232,415  Yamethin 23.4 20,607 10,304 6,869 Yamethin23.420,60710,3046,869  Myingyan 28.4 10,608 5,304 3,536 Myingyan28.410,6085,3043,536 Mandalay Nyaung-U 26.9 2,414 1,207 805 MandalayNyaung-U26.92,4141,207805  District total  328,796 164,399 109,600 District total328,796164,399109,600 ¹ Adapted from MOAI 2003     ¹ Adapted from MOAI 2003 ² Using figures in previous column supplemented by recharge values (as in Figure   ² Using figures in previous column supplemented by recharge values (as in Figure  "}],"sieverID":"79948952-5606-4f1c-a46b-c8c7aa21c735","abstract":"watermanagement-in-myanmars-dry-zone-for-food-security-livelihoods-and-health.pdf"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0af0ab6ca6d7fae1b0c0c8051ec5f9f0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1f3dfe5a-d514-43d1-aa8a-301e1b5ddf0f/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Characterisation of the livestock production system and potential for enhancing productivity through improved feeding at Mitala Maria in Mpigi district of Uganda","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Farming system","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"The farming system is primarily a subsistence based, mixed crop/livestock system. Farm sizes in the area are around 3 acres (1.2 ha) on average with most of the land being used for cropping. A typical household size is 6 people who live permanently on farm on average per year. Households in the area commonly grow a variety of food crops including; maize (Zea mays), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), bananas (Musa acuminate) and cassava (Manihot esculenta). Most farmers grow Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) as the main forage crop. Calliandra calothyrsus has become the main fodder tree and shrub in addition to fodder legumes such as Lablab purpureus and Mucuna pruriens grown on a small scale. The average area of land used for production of food crops is shown in Figure 1 and fodder crops in Figure 2."},{"index":2,"size":272,"text":"Each household also raises a variety of livestock species including cattle, sheep, goats and pigs for various purposes. Cattle are kept mainly for milk, cash income from animal sales and manure. On average most households have two or three milking cows. In addition, many households have 3-4 sheep and/or goats. Indigenous chickens are kept by households to meet household meat, egg and cash needs. Nganda type cattle are kept by more than 80% of households but they are not popular with farmers due to their low milk production capabilities. Improved cross bred cattle are kept by about 30% of the households. Cross breds comprise mainly of Friesian, Jersey breeds and the local Nganda cattle. Sheep and goats are also raised by 20-50% of the households for quick sale when funds are required. Labour is generally available all the time at approximately 60,000 Uganda shillings per month. In addition to this price workers are given meals, milk and some health care cover. This total price package is considered very expensive. Livestock oriented labour is mainly needed during the dry season while the crop oriented labour is required mainly required in the wet season. Herding labour is more costly in the dry season because herds are moved over longer distances in search of pastures and water. This high cost of labour is considered to be due to many rural people migrating to town to look for better paying jobs. Rainfall levels are generally adequate to support cropping activities; however, rainfall unreliability is increasingly becoming common (Table 1). Water is not a major constraint in the area and no large scale irrigation is carried out.  "}]},{"head":"Major income sources","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Off-farm activities for example salaries contribute the primary household income. An average of 71% of all household income comes from the salaries earned from the jobs. Business makes an important contribution of approximately 22% to household income. The contribution from livestock sales of considered relatively minor at 7% collectively for some households (Figure 3). The contribution of these sales varies substantially throughout the year based on climatic conditions. Sale of animals generally occurs in an ad-hoc manner when funds are required quickly or undesirable animals such as bull calves and unproductive old cows need to be culled."}]},{"head":"Figure 3: The primary contributors to household income in the area","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Livestock production system","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"The livestock production system is focused on milk production. Improved dairy breeds, namely Friesians and a few Jerseys dominate livestock holdings as shown in Figure 4. Milk produced on the farm is sold to Maddo dairies an average price of 800 Ugandan shilling (UGS), (0.33 USD; ranging from 500-1000; 0.21-0.38 USD) per litre. The average milk production per cow per day in the area is 4litres. Management of the cows varies with type of cattle. Indigenous local breeds are normally grazed while improved cows are confined and fed in cattle sheds throughout day and night. Generally households with larger land holdings tend to graze cows while those with smaller land holdings confine their cows in a small fenced area (sometimes with a cattle shed). Sheep and goats are normally tethered in homesteads and along the road side for grazing. The common feeding strategies in the area include grazing, feeding chopped green fodder and or crop residues especially maize stover. Hay and silage is fed by a few farmers."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Artificial Insemination (AI) services are readily accessible for all farmers in the area from MADDO dairies and it is the preferred method of reproduction. Improved bull services are also available from large farms (MADDO dairies) and the National Agricultural AdvisoryServices (NAADS) bull scheme at a cost of UGS 20,000 (8 USD) per successful service. The price of semen varies significantly and AI services cost UGS 30,000 -40,000 (13-17 USD per service) per service. Farmers pay UGS 30,000 for any repeats. Farmers consider this price expensive. Farmers would like to be trained on heat detection to improve conception rates. Service providers use bull catalogues to decide which semen to give. The type and quality of semen is given to farmers depending on the provider's perception of the farmer's management capabilities."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"Veterinary services are not easily accessed. The price of veterinary treatments depends largely on the nature of the problem. For example east coast fever (ECF) vaccination costs UGS 90,000 (38 USD) which is considered unaffordable to most farmers. Farmers vaccinate animals against common diseases such as trypanosomosis, caprine bovine pleural pneumonia (CBPP), foot and mouth disease (FMD) tuberculosis, and lumpy skin disease (LSD). Veterinary services are provided by private health technicians and government animal health workers. Farmers individually buy acaricide and spray animals themselves to control ticks. "}]},{"head":"Major feed sources through the year","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"The diet is primarily composed of grazing, concentrates, crop residues and legumes as shown in Figure 5. The contribution made by these feed sources to the diet varies throughout the year. During the main part of the wet season (April-June) and (September -November), grazing, green forages, legumes compose the largest part of the diet. During the dry season (January -March and July-August) crop residues are found in the diet in larger quantities. Surprisingly, larger quantities of Average livestock holdings per household -dominant species (TLU) concentrate feeds are fed during periods when there is plenty of forage. Grazing, purchased feeds, naturally occurring and collected feeds, cultivated fodder and crop residues contribute major proportions of the total diet on farms. Grazing, concentrates and green forages contribute over 70% of the of total ME (MJ/kg) and crude protein (CP; %)to the total diet. Supplements such as maize bran and dairy meal can be purchased for 200 UGS (0.1 USD) per kg and 40,000 UGS shillings (17 USD) per 70 kg bag respectively. "}]},{"head":"Problems, issues and opportunities","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"According to farmers, the main constraint to production in this area is insufficient forage seed for establishing high yielding forages. Animal diseases, especially tick borne diseases and lumpy skin disease, is the second most important problem in the area. Water scarcity is the third most important problem especially in the dry season. Other problems include unavailability of animal health providers. Farmers also consider fluctuation of milk prices in the dry and wet season as a major problem to sustainable incomes. Farmers attribute price fluctuation to the monopoly of the milk processor in the area. Although not listed as a major problem concentrate feeds are considered to be very expensive and significantly increase the cost of milk production. A summary of problems and farmer proposed solutions are shown the (Table 2). -Service provider should separate personal and animal heath roles -Service provider should specialise in technical roles such as A.I., clinical and animal husbandry services rather than mixing them."}]},{"head":"Potential interventions","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"One way of mitigating the effects of feed constraints is to produce more feed biomass per hectare. Farmers consider that the main reason limiting this is lack of forage during the dry season. As most farmers have not committed large proportions of their holdings to fodder, there is still scope for producing more fodder from available land. To mitigate the effects of lack of forage, efforts will have to be made to catalyse community forage conservation either through groups or interested people as a business through hay and silage. There is also an avenue of training farmers on crop residue utilization."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"The variation in price received for milk indicates an oversupply of fresh milk in the area, particularly during the wet season. There is potential to conserve the excess forage that occurs during the wet season through silage making. This will help alleviate dry season feed shortages and enable farmers produce more milk during the dry season when milk prices are high hence to earn more money. Simple on-farm methods of silage production should be considered. The use of polythene bags or small scale silage pits may be viable options. Grazing forms a substantial amount of forage to households. Improving pasture quality can significantly increase DM available for feeding. Simple methods of improving pasture such as bush clearing, strip and circular sowing are viable options given that farmers own small portions of land."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"Currently most of the purchased feeds are concentrates and feed ingredients. As a result attempts to make delivery chains effective and improve access of concentrates will enhance usage amongst farmers. However, as the price received per litre of milk is relatively low, the extra expense of additional concentrate feeds is unlikely to be off-set by the potential increases in milk yields that may be achieved with higher levels of concentrate feeding. Improvement of animal health services will required a top down approach as it is unlikely the farmers can instigate the necessary changes themselves on-farm. Such changes include creating attractive incentives that should attract more service providers and make them concentrate on providing animal health services. Other changes are that service providers should specialise in technical roles such as A.I., clinical and animal husbandry services rather than mixing them. However, this would require farmers to show the willingness to pay for better services."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"To mitigate the high incidences of animal diseases attempts need to be made to increase the number of local drug shops, increase the number of service providers and enhance education on control of diseases and vaccinations. Again some of these are outside the scope of what farmers can change themselves and will need institutional interventions to solve them."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Off-farm activities contribute the primary source of household income. Livestock sales are second main contributors to household income in this subsistence based mixed/crop livestock system. Farm sizes in the area are an average size of 3 acres (1.2 ha) most of which is used for cropping. Every household has at least 2-3 milking cows. The primary crops of importance are maize and beans. The main constraint to the further intensification and development of dairying in the area is a lack of feed especially in the dry season. Napier grass is the main type of fodder. Most farmers keep improved cattle. Milk prices are generally unstable and vary throughout the year due to an oversupply in the wet season. The major constraints are lack of pasture for feeding the lactating animals and limited animal health service providers."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: The average area of land utilised for the various food crops grown in Mitala Miria, Mpigi district "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Average livestock holdings per household in Mitala Miria, in Tropical Livestock Units (TLUs) "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: The dietary composition of cattle in Mitala Miria, throughout the year in relation to rainfall pattern. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Cropping seasons that occur in the area  Name of season Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Name of seasonJan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Long wet season (Togo)  Long wet season (Togo) Short wet season (Dumbi)  Short wet season (Dumbi) Dry season months  Dry season months  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Problems, issues and proposed farmer solutions within the production systems  Problem (in Main problem Proposed farmer solutions Problem (inMain problemProposed farmer solutions order of   order of importance)   importance) 1 Unavailability of feeds -Pasture conservation through hay and silage 1Unavailability of feeds-Pasture conservation through hay and silage  especially during the dry -Enhance network between farmers so that especially during the dry-Enhance network between farmers so that  season those who have e.g. demo farmers share seasonthose who have e.g. demo farmers share   with others with others   -Help farmers to start community feed -Help farmers to start community feed   conservation in their group. conservation in their group.   -Training on utilization of crop residues -Training on utilization of crop residues   should be intensified should be intensified 2 Animal diseases -Increase number of local drug shops 2Animal diseases-Increase number of local drug shops   -Increase number of service providers -Increase number of service providers   -Education on control of diseases and -Education on control of diseases and   vaccinations vaccinations 3 Unavailability of water - -Education on water harvesting technologies 3Unavailability of water --Education on water harvesting technologies  especially in the dry season such as valley dams, underground water especially in the dry seasonsuch as valley dams, underground water   tanks etc. tanks etc. 4 Limited animal health services.  4Limited animal health services.  Farmer consider the causes as:  Farmer consider the causes as:  -Farmers reluctance to pay  -Farmers reluctance to pay  for services  for services  -Service providers are  -Service providers are  overloaded with many  overloaded with many  cases hence slow in  cases hence slow in  responding to cases  responding to cases  -They are occupied with  -They are occupied with  other personal tasks such  other personal tasks such  as business.  as business.  "}],"sieverID":"7197568f-21ed-49d8-ac86-1af708bd0215","abstract":"The Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) is a systematic method to assess local feed resource availability and use. It helps in the design of intervention strategies aiming to optimize feed utilization and animal production. More information and the manual can be obtained at www.ilri.org/feast FEAST is a tool in constant development and improvement. Feedback is welcome and should be directed [email protected]. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is not responsible for the quality and validity of results obtained using the FEAST methodology.The Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) was used to characterize the feed-related aspects of the livestock production system in Mitala Miria, Mpigi district of Uganda. The assessment was carried out through focused group discussions and completion of short questionnaires by three key farmer representatives owning small, medium and large scale farms. The following are the findings of the assessment and conclusions for further action."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b817650063fe9531af88d9a51889c70","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H012019.pdf"},"pageCount":22,"title":"Policy and Research Issues in Irrigation Management for Crop Diversification with Special Reference to Sri Lanka","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":224,"text":"I x u c A n o N MANAGEMENT FOR diversified cropping, or crop diversification of rice-based agriculture in general, is an important research and policy issue which has been anractirig a lot of attention in Sri Laiika as well as elsewhere in tropical Asia. The rapidly growing body of literature it1 the field best testifies to this increasing attention in recent years (IIMI 1987;Schuh aiid Barghouti 1987;World Bank 1988;Bhuiyan 1989;Miranda 1989;Valera 1989;IIMI 1990a). A basic factor, among others, behind such a rather abrupt proliferation of research in this field is the fact that the rice sector of many countries in this part of the world has come to a tuniiiig pnint; the introduction and diffusion of new rice seed-fertilizer technology coupled with the expansion of irrigated rice land in the last two decades or so has helped a number of countries in the regioii to either approach or attain self-sufficiency in rice, with a consequence of a long-term declining trend in the world rice price. The farmers i n rice-based irrigation system aeed to diversify their income sources, while the demand fnr agricultural products diversifies from the major staple to various non-staple items as the economy grows. A logical deduction is that diversification of rice-based agriculture iii general aiid crop diversification of rice-based irrigation systems in particular, and research thereof, are a necessity."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"It is well-recognizc.d that the nature of this issue of irrigation management for crop diversification in rice-based systems is so multifaceted that multidisciplinary approaches, embracing eogineering, agronomy, soil science, economics, tnanagemeut, and other social as well as natural sciences, are necessary in its research. h fact, research in this field, as any other farming-system research, has usually been carried out in this multidisciplinary mode."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"Generally speaking, however, this multifaceted nature of the issue, coupled with its very location specific nature, often leaves research in this field at loose ends, e.g., partiality in analyses with certain ad hoc assumptions in facets that are not in main focus, difficulty in 153 deriving general conclusioiislprinciples that could be applicable under different settings, research-based recommendations that are rarely followed by farmers in actual farmiug, aiid the like. In other words, the multifaceted nature inherently makes the issue/subje.ct of crop diversification elusive, which means that, whenever certain research in this field is undertaken, it is always important to keep in mind lhe entire StrUcNre of the issue in ils full spectrum while identifying clearly the specific problems to be addressed in the research."},{"index":4,"size":128,"text":"The purpose of this paper is to reexamine briefly, mainly based on recent literature in the field in general, and experiences in Sri Lanka in particular, the structure of crop diversification of rice-based irrigation systems as an object of research and policy in order to facilitate understanding of the coiifiguratioii and weak (often missing) links in this multifaceted researchlpolicy topic. The primary intention of doing such a \"thought exercise\" is to help refine research subjects to be studied under this research aehvork. It is further hoped that the exercise would be useful h proinoting successful crop diversification in tire irrigation systems in Asia where few countries, iiicludiiig the fast-developing east h i a n countries, have been fully successful so far in attaining it oii a sustainable basis."}]},{"head":"BACKGROUND AND DIMENSIONS OF THE lSSUE","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"If crop diversification, or, more generally, agricultural diversification is defined as the process of broadening and maintaining the sources of iucomes of rural households, as defined in a World Bank report (World Bank 1988; Schuh and Barghouti 1987), it is not a new issue. The origin of the issue could be traced back at least lo the eighteenth-celiNry Agricultural Revolution in England, if not to the early civilizations in Mesopotamia and the Nile Delta."}]},{"head":"Structural Transformation and Agricultural Diversification","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"As an economy s t a m growing from a static, traditional agriculture-based society to a dynamic, industrial one, the traditional agriculture, which is characterized by producing a limited list of traditional staple food crops, is bound to be diversified, in order to meet the increasing demand for lion-traditional food commodities. This process begins with increases in the productivity of traditional agriculture due to technological advances. Accompanying this is a relative decline in the iinportaiice of the agricultural sector as a whole in the total economy, which process is called \"structural transformation.\" In this broadest framework or dimension, agricultural diversification and structural transformation are two sides of a coin; as an economy develops, rural households are forced to maintain and increase their incomes through diversifying their farming while transferring some of their resources, especially labor, to other income generating activities in the nonfarm sectors."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"At the dawn of the industrial revolution, British crop agriculNre experienced a major transformation in which the old cropping pattern was replaced by the Norfolk crop rotation with such new strategic fodder crops as clover and turnip. In nineteenth-century Denmark, Danish agriculture successfully transformed itself through diversification from the old grain-based pattern to the one based on a new aop-livestock combination. I s the early twentieth century, Japanese rice fanners succeeded in introducing sericulture production into the rice production cycle with a result of significantly diversifying their income sources."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"All these early examples of agricultural diversification occurred in response to changes in productand factormarketswithin a broader framework of structural transformation (Hayami 1989)."},{"index":4,"size":152,"text":"Of course, we do not always have lo go so far in dealing with the contemporary issue of crop diversification in Asia, which emerged in sharp profile in the 1980s because of the historic low level of world rice (and wheat, to a lesser extent) pric.es in the early 1980s, which in turn was partly a result of the successes in \"Green Revolution\" technology in Asian developing countries. In pursuing crop diversification, governments in these countries (which have promoted self-sufficiency programs in staple foods). donor agencies (such as the World Bank and ADB, which have invested in crop specific agricultural projects), and practitioners of iiiternational agricultural research institutes (who have been niostly crop specific), arc concerned inainly about low levels ofworld prices and the surplus sitnatioii iii production of staple food crops, resulting in low incomes for the fanners producing these crops,aiid low ratesofreturnson the investinent5 that have beeninade thus far inagriculture."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"particularly in irrigation ilifrastructure."},{"index":6,"size":108,"text":"In such a context, agricultural crop diversification tends to be considered as a problem within the agricultural sector, or even within the snialler sector of \"irrigated agriculture.\" In the case of this research network on crop diversification, the focus is naturally confined to the '\"irrigated agriculture\" sector. The issue can be dealtwith at each level, from the fanners' field level to the macro-economic level. However, it should always be recognized that, since crop diversification in Asia is inevitably a part of the structural transforination process of the economies, policies for diversification at each level must be consistent with each other and with the broadest fraiiiework of structural transforination."},{"index":7,"size":66,"text":"The process of structural traiisfonnation is nothing but the process of economic developintiit that requires efficient resource allocation. One immediate implication of this understanding is, therefore. that policies for agricultural diversification at the macro-economic level aud at any lower level should be such that efficient resource allocations among the sectors of the. econoniy as well as within the agricultural sector and betwcen its subsectors are facilitated."}]},{"head":"Rural Poverty and Diversification","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"011 tlie other hand, the process of structural transforniation is nothing but the process of adjustinent in which the agricultural sector adjusts itself to new economic conditions that arc created by eronoinir development. This adjustment is not cost free, but rather entails paiiiSul costs to the agriculture sector. Most distinct amoag thein would be increases in income inequity in the society, which is an inevitable consequence of the development, the intrinsic nature of which is unbalanced growth among the sectors. There has been a growing conccrii ainoiiggoveriiiiiciits and dotior agencies about this problem, and, as a coilsequence, existiiig policies for agricultural divenificatioii at any level vcry often aim at allcviating poverty or improviiig the inconic distribution in rural areas."},{"index":2,"size":210,"text":"Difficulties arise if the relationship between these two basic problems, efficiency and equity, is not one-to-one, and unfortunately this is often indeed the case. At l a s t in the short run, the potential solutions to these problem do not necessarily correspond. The best example to illustrate this difficulty can he found in pricing policy, which is always central to any policy framework for agricultural diversification at any level. Price support for a certain crop is obviously the easiest and most effective way to maintain or improve the income level of the farmers who grow the crop, and therefore it is always a strong tcinptation for policyinakers to resort to this measure. It is also obvious, however, that, by keeping the price ofa crop higher than the equilibrium level it1 the market, the resources that otherwise leave for other sectors remaia in thr crop sector, thus impinging against the efficient resource allocation and thereby structural transforination. Although huge budgetary costs that are to he home by the governments if price support is extended beyond a staple crop lo othrr subsidiary crops virtually negate this optioii ia diversification policy, econoinists arr. usually not in Savor of price support maialy on account of efficiency consideration in the loiig run (Tinnner 1986)."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Conventional wisdoiii among economists as to this trade-off betwccii cificiency and equity is that economic developlnent based ou efficient resource allocatioii in the long run solves the illcome distribution problem; this is the U-Curvr Hypothesis found by Kuznrts (Kuznets 1955) and further evidenced einpirically by others (e.g., Ahluwalia 1976). Taking this wisdom as granted, a practical solution to this trade-off is to introduce explicit timr dimensions into the argument; when changes are so abrupt and adjustnient costs are so high that the welfare of the losiilg party is intolerably endangered, adopt suinc kind or pricrstabilizing incasurcs iii the short run, while not losing the sight for efficiency in the long run."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"This argument directly implies that thr issue of agricultural diversification involves difkreiit time dimensions; divcrsificatioii policies intended to mitigate adjustment difficultirs in tlic short run InUSt lint override the efficiency perspective in struc.tural adjustinelits in thr long run."}]},{"head":"Diversification and Changing Role of Irrigated Agriculture","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":262,"text":"The recognition that the problem of rural poverty could he solved oidy through the development of the entire economy reminds us of thr role of the agriculture srctor in economic dcvelopnient. As explained ill development ecoiioniics textbooks, an importaut role of agriculture a t ancarly stage ofeconoinic development is tosupply resources, financial as well as human, to the rest of the economy. I n developing countries in Asia, rxcrpt iii traditional rice exporting countries, this role has been inaiiily playrd by the plantation scctnr (Thorbecke and Svejiiar 1987, for the Sri Lailkail case), and the irrigation sector has heen absorbing from lhe other sectors resources mainly ill the form of irrigation iiivrstIncIits. This direction has been right; it was imperative for the development of a country to estahlish a prnductive domestic food production sector. Many countries whicli neglected their fnod sector iii the past paid a high price in ternis of lost drvelopment. However, now that the irrigated land base has beeii well-established in niany of thrsc countries with near or full ricr. sr.lf-suflicieiicy. the role of the irrigation srctor should hr changed from a resource takrr to a rrsourcc contributor to the rest of the economy. Thr shift from the traditional \"construction\" phase to the \"management\" phase, which has been going on in the irrigation sector in Asia (Aluwihare and Kikuchi 1990), releases a bulk of resources from the sector. Crop diversification iii the sector with import-substituting andlor export promoting noiuice crops will further strengthen this role of the irrigation sector to the econoinic developrnent of the economy as a whole."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Crop diversification in the irrigation sector thus considered, therefore, precludes any policy which envisages a continuous net inflow of resources to the irrigatioii sector on a secular basis. The introduction of price support incasures at a significant scale for nonrice crops is one such policy which naturally ends up absorbing, not supplying, resources from the rest of the economy in an unproductive inaiiuer. It should always he clear that, when cmisidered in the broader context, crop dive.rsification is inore a means or process to attain econoinic development, rather than a n objective by itself."}]},{"head":"Diversification as an Endless Process","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"A inore crucial implication of the whole arguiiieiitabove is ~atagriculturallrropdiversifi~atioii is a precess of dynamic adjustinrnt rather than a static target of establishing certain cropping patterns. Tlie elusiveness as a policy issue largely stenis from this characteristic of crop diversification. How it makes diwrsificatioii policy difficult to deal with is appare.nt if coinparrd to the pnlicy for rice sell-sufficiency which offers a very clear-cut stationary target. In diversification policy, there caiinot be such a target, or, if any, it is at best a \"moving\" target. Since racb couutry has heterogeueous agricultural regions, it is not possible, iinr feasible, to set up a certaiii cropping patterii for the muiitry as a whole. Certaiii cropping pattrrns may be established specific to a certaiii region or area o f a country, but they keep clianging according to changes in the outside world. In certain agricultural regionalareas, the best opportunity for divrrsificatioti inay exist i s switching a part of the rural labor force froin the nonfarni sectors while an increase in the size of operation is being required iii the farm scctnr."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"Given such a distiiict nature of the issue, the only definite policy target that caii he cstahlishrd. cutting across the full range of the issuc, would he to build flexibility into agriculture in geiicml, and the traditional staple crop production system ill particular, by which the iievrr-ending adjustnient proccss is niadc smoother. This should he the strategic target for wliatever policy related 11) agrirulturallcrop diversification: price and income policy, iiivrstmriit policy, land and labor policy, market and credit policy, research and extensioii policy. and so on. A good exaniple of-the need to build in the flexibility is found ill the irrigation systems iii Asia which are constructed and operated solely forgrowiiig rice. An attempt to make such rigid system amenable to diversified crop production, which is thc major re.se.arch t h e m of this research network, is nothing hut an effort to bring about llexibility iii irrigated agriculture."}]},{"head":"Horizontal and Vertical Diversification","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Finally, in this section, a short reinark should be made on geometric dimensions of the issue; horizontal and vertical diversification. Agriculturalicrop diversificatioii intended in the preseut Asian context is primarily horizontal diversification; diversification through the introduction of nonrice crops in replacement of, or in addition to, rice."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"It should be noted that at the natioual level, horizontal diversification can he attained through regional '\"specialization.\" Because of possible regioual comparative advaleages resulting from soil-climatic couditions and otber location-specific factors, and of the economies of srale, this could he a n efficient route to national level diversification. 111 fact, this method has been the major oue adopted by developed countries, such as the U.S.A. and Japan, in their diversification processes. Among the developing countries in Asia, Thailand is the country that is most often nientioned as successful in diversifying agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Although crop diversification in the rice-based farming system has been iu progress in some regions of Thailaud (Plusquellec and Wickhain 198.5), the major stream of agricultural diversification has been through \"specialization\" away from rice (World Bank 1988). There. is a serious implication for attempts to diversify crops in rice-based farniing systems while keeping rice as a major crop; such attempts are handicapped ia terms of exploitiiigefficieiicy to the exteut that comparative advantage and scale economies ofsuch a system diverge from those in \"specialized\" systems."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"Vertical diversification refers to a process iii which value-added of certain crops is iucreased through processing the mops iuto otber commodities, e.g., rice to rice cake, soybeaii to soybean curd, niaugo to mango juice, etc. Since the potential of diversil-icatioii in this direction i n iucreasing the income-earning opportunities of rural population is no doubt large, any policy towards agricultural diversification should take this potential into account. Here too, howevcr, the ecouon)y of scale through specialii.ation would work critically in many fronts; marketing, processing plants, quality control of raw niatcrials, etc."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"We, have to recoguize that diversificatioii in rice-based farming system may have disadvantages in this respect too."}]},{"head":"RESEARCH FACETS AND THEIR LINKS: DIVERSIFICATION IN RICE-BASED SYSTEMS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The issue of crop diversific.atioii is multifaceted, and so, any general discussion on this issue iucludes some kind of cnumeratioii of the farcts involved. For instance, the World Bank report referred to ill the previous section, categorizes the facets into agronomic, technical, and economic factors (World Bauk 1988), while Moya and Miranda (1989), dealiiig specifically with crop diversificatioii iii rice-based irrigatioii systems, orgaiiix their discussions into technical, ecouomic, and social and iiistitutional issues."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"A similar aneinpt to show research facets involved in the issue of crop divrrsificatioir in rice-based irrigation systems. and liriks brhveeii the,m, is presented i n  "}]},{"head":"Facets","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Engineering facers. The engineering issues can be classified into a few compoiienls of different dimensioiis: structural c.apacity of irrigation schemes at different levels from the iiiaiii system down to the fanners' field, aiid water rnanageinent at respective levels."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"Since nonrice crops generally require water in ways that are different from rice, the structural capacity of irrigation systems which were designed and constructed solely for growing rice may iiot he adequate for irrigatiiig iioiirice crops. Continuous delivery ofwater at low tlow rates in the iiiaiii part of the systems is typical for rice irrigation, whereas inaiiy noiuice crops require intermittent water supply with high flow rates. The capacity of a conveyance system for rice may iiotbe adequate. The intennitteitt water supply may require inore controlled water release, which may, in Nm, necessitate better measureinelit devices at various levels of the systems. Some argue that substantial costs will be entailed iii converting rice-based system into multiple-cropping systems (World Bank 1986, 1988 Bhuiyaii 1989). The issue of how to make rice-based irrigation system flexible to accorniitodate nonrice crops in relation lo their physical capacity coines under the heading of \"physical infrastructure\" i n Figure 1."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Recent research carried out by llM1 and others suggests that rice-based irrigation systeiiis indeed have the flexibility to make it reasonably possible to grow nourice crops in the dry scasoii (Miranda 1989;Bbuiyaii 1989). If this is taken forgranted, then conies the questioii of how to inailage the systems towards tionrice crop cultivatioii which generally rcquires furrow irrigatioii as opposed to hasiii irrigatioii for rice cultivation. The inauagemeat issues associated with the shift from rice to nmuice crops may be dealt with according to different levels in the systems, froin the inaiii system down to the farmers' fields."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"At tlic main system level, water availability iii a system for a certain seasoii is deteriniiied by the physical structure of the system, and hy rainfall and other associated factors; givcii the water availability, water release and distrihutioit plans at the nniii, secondary, and tertiary levels are made, and, at the on-farm level, proper methods of irrigation and drainage for nonrirr crops are deterininrd. The issues at each level, needless to say, are closely related 10 each other. For iiistance. the availability of water and the type of rotation needed for intennittent irrigatioii depend on the type of crop to be grown."},{"index":5,"size":93,"text":"Considered along this line, oil-farin water inanagemelit seems to be an issue which has been relatively better researched as coinpared to inaiii system inaiiageinent for diversified cropping. It is ofteii said, for instance, that diversified cropping could save the water in the systrin which can be utilized to expand the planted area in the same season or in the following scasoiis. If this wcrc the case, crop diversification would be instruinental in eihancing the efficient use of scarce water (Moya aiid Miraiida 1989). Little evidence, however, has been accuinulated to denionstrate this iinpact."},{"index":6,"size":126,"text":"Agronomic fiicets. Issues such as crop water requirements and soil-water-plant relatioiis come under this facet. Rice is the plant that is best grown with wet puddled soil andlor with ponded water, while nonrice crops fit lighter soil textures, and can withstand neither waterlogging nor prolonged water stress. Cultivation of nonrice crops on lowland soils has inherent disadvantages relative to lowland rice. On the research side, agronomy of lowland rice cultivation has been one of the best-researched fields, and that of nonrice crops under upland conditions also has a long research history. Reflecting the disadvantages, agronomy of upland crops to be grown in lowland paddies has been a relatively neglected field of research, though efforts have been made in recent years in this field (FA0 1984(FA0 ,1986))."},{"index":7,"size":107,"text":"Institutional facets. Noiuice crops, if grown in rice-based irrigation systems, generally require more deliberate delivery, distribution, and management of water than rice does. Diversified cropping is more demanding in terms ofsystem operation and management. The management practices adopted in rice cultivation, typically top-down planning and i nplementation, are in most cases not congruent with diversified cropping (Stone 1987). The deep-rooted rice monoculture pattern in these systems has brought about among the managers of the systems a n ingrained mentality of low-intcnsity, safety-first type of management (Moya and Miranda 1989). All issues related to inakiug irrigation syslern management flexible and accountable to farmers' needs fall under this facet."},{"index":8,"size":79,"text":"Examples of the issues iii this facet, among others, are: the role of farmers' organizations and their participation in system management; fanner-agency interaction and interface; information channels and control; agcncy motivation; and so on. It should he noted that many issues in this facet are not specific tocrop diversification. Most of them are issues that are applicable to the systems where rice is the sole crop lo be grown. Diversified crops only make the issues more acute than otherwise."},{"index":9,"size":84,"text":"Economicfncets. The issues in this facet revolve around the profitability of nonrice crops which are supposed to replace, or be added to, rice in rice-based systems. When reviewins the literature on crop diversification in general, not necessarily limited to that of rice-based systems and even excluding that written by economists, it is rather difficult to find a paper which has no mention of market and marketing problems, profitability of nonrice crops relative to rice, lhe needs of credit provisions, and other related economic issues."},{"index":10,"size":58,"text":"These economic issues can be arranged according to the flow of the issues as showii in Figure 1. First, the markets, both for outputs and inputs, determine tlic prices. Second, these prices together with production technology available lo the farmers determine the profitability of crops. And, third, the farmers choose crops to be grown depending OII the profitability."},{"index":11,"size":121,"text":"Some qualifications are necessary along this line. First, the issue of '\"marketing\" is an important part of '\"market issues.\" The market is tbe mechanism through which price signals are transmitted. There are cases where the market is either not working well or even nonexistent. For instance, it is an often heard problem in the crop diversificatios business that crops grown by farmers cannot find buyers, or that some inputs for nonrice crops, such as seeds and fertilizers, are nnt available to farmers in time. These are typical marketing problems in which high \"traiisactioiici~sts\" due to imperfect markets are involved; the '\"real'' prices to the farmers are lower for outputs and higher forthe. inputs than the \"nominal\" prices by the transaction costs."},{"index":12,"size":165,"text":"The second qualification is that the tenn \"profitability\" here is a loosely defined one; it does not uecessarily imply that the farmer is a \"profit\" maximizer. He may be so, or he may he an \"income\" maximizer. What he iiiaxiinizes may depend oii the basis on which he operates his fami. This leads to the third qualification that farmers' decision on crop choice may be restricted not only by economic consideration of their own but also by other factors such as their status in the farniing community. The fourth qualification, also related to this, is on distributive impacts of diversified cropping, which are determined by crops to be grown, prices in output and input markets, production technology, and the ownership of the inputs used in the production process. Crop selections made by individual farmers imply certaio income distribution consequences to the farming community. Their selections could diverge froin the oues which give the highest income increase to, and the best income distribution in, the community."}]},{"head":"Links","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Apparent and obvious links exist among the facets. It could be said that crop diversification ill rirc-based irrigation syste.ms is a research issue which should be studied in its entirety to observe how these facets are closely re1ate.d lo each other, rather than study each facet independently."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"For examplc, the issues of \"owfarin water management,\" classified as a part of tlic \"engineering\" facet in Figure 1, largely overlap those. of the \"agronomic\" facet. Without kilowledge 011 soil-water-plant relations for a certain noilrice crop or a sequence of crops, inigatioii and drainage ine.thods to he adopted 011 farmers' fields cannot be detennined. Similarly, given specific characteristics of a n irrigation syskin, such as soil, water availability, and possible water dclivrry plan, the best cultivatioii inethods for nonricc crops must he sought. Water maoagement at the farin level aiid agronoinic pote.iitials together dctermiiie the level of \"crop production technology,\" or production functions iii economic terms, available t o the farmers. Water availahility at the fariii level may al.fect even more directly \"farmers' crop choice,\" as pointed out by soiiic. observers (Miranda 1989, Bhuiyaii 1989)."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"The issues in the \"institutioual\" facet are also associated iiitiiiiately with other facets. Plaiiiiiiig and iinpleiiieiitatioiI of water delivery and distribution in a system for diversified crops are issues more of iiiaiiageineiit (therefore institutional) tlian ofeagineering. in which agency 's iiiotivatioii arid accouiitability 10 fanncn' needs, fanner-agency interaction, aiid inlbrmation control are all iiiore deiiianding than iii the rice monoculture system. Needs exist no1 o i l l y 011 the side of the inanaging agency but also oil the side of farmers to be better organized for ensuring more prccise water management at tertiary as well as on-farm levels. More often thaii not, diversified cropping iii an irrigation system rcquires collective actions ofcerlaiii degrees among the farmers iii the system, evcn for the choice of crops to be grown."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"1150, h e choice of crnps becomes ail iiistitutional issue rather than a narrow economic issur J f all ilidividual fanner's decisioii making."},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"111 addition to the facets explained thus far, two inore facets are. shown in Figure 1; cxtctisioii service and socioecnnoiiiic factors. The importance ofthe foruier is obvious. The Lariiiers i n rice-based irrigatioii systeins are used to growing rice, atid iioiuice crops to he growi~ inay be exotic fur thein. 111 such cases, productioii trrhiiology for nonrice crops, without effective extension services, remains as potential, not available to the farmers. I1 may play a critical role, if the choice of crops is to be made collectively."},{"index":6,"size":148,"text":"In Figure 1, socioeconomic factors are distinguished from \"economic\" factors in order to make the flow of issues in the latter clearer. If the related markets and production technology are given, and if fanners are profit maximizers, the issue of economic profitability and crop choice is fairly straightforward, even though risk and uncertainty inherent in noiuice crop cultivation, as compared to rice, complicate the issue. However, farinen operate in a certain cultural domain wherein class struclure and other social traits restrict the process of agricultural production and the distribution of generated and are endowedwith cultural and institutional traits, the factors here give more decisive impacts and effects to the \"economic\" factors. The socioeconomic factors as such are also closely related to the '\"institutional\" issues. Without due understanding of the basic cultural characteristics of the community, it is rather difficult to think of sustainable solutions to the institutional issues."}]},{"head":"WEAK AND MISSING LINKS THE MARKET","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Central to the interlocking issue of crop diversification in rice-based systems in Figure 1 is \"crops to be grown,\" which replace rice. Unless a list of substitute c r o p is specified, neither agronomic nor engine.ering research on-farm water inaiiagemeiit can hr designed. Ever1 if some crops are recommended by authorities, farmers may iiot adopt them for economic or other reasons. Without viable nonrice crops, the whole business of crop divrrsificatioii docs not go ahead at all, which would be the worst nightinare crop diversificatioii advocates can c.ver have. All this means that a series of issues in the \"ecnnomir\" facet of Figure 1 are vital to the whole issue."}]},{"head":"Output Markets","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"First of all, it should be pointcd out that the issue network in Figure 1 is open-ended toward the northeast corner of the figure. That is, the output markets in general lie out of the control of the system ~nanage~neiit and of the fanners in the systems, and in most cases, even of the goveminent policymakers. All changes, which occur in the markets outside the systems, de.pending on changes in demand and supply, domestic as well as international, are brought into the system and affect directly the profitability of crops, and hence the list of crops to be grown. The input markets have similar characteristics, but to a much lesser extent. Fnr instance, a clrange in fertilizer price affects the agricultural income, through the productiori process, of certain crops growii. However, the. cost of fertilizer is oiily a part of the total production cost, and the price. change affects, more or less alike, all crops that need the fertilizer."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"This open-ended nature makes the issue ofcropdiversificationelusive and keeps its target moving. There exists some uncertainty in other facets of the issue too. For instance, water availability in a system depends on rainfall which is beyond the control of managing agency and farmers. However, this problem of stochastic nature can, or should, be dealt with at the system level, and does not the end. With less available water, for instance, crops which require less water can be selected, provided that such crops are economically viable, which depends eventually on the output markets."},{"index":3,"size":163,"text":"The fact that crop selection at the system level is subject the system means that crop diversification in rice-based systems as a research and policy issue comprises at least two different levels: the national and the system levels. Since any attempt at the system level to establish the list of crops is constrained by the conditions a t the national level, and not vice versa, it is critical to have a clear understanding on the markets and a clear policy at the national level as to crop diversification. Although policies at the national level affect not only rice-based irrigation systems but also other subsectors of agriculture, such as rain-fed agriculture, firm policies at the system level cannot be spelled out without them. In most of the countries where effons have be.eii made to diversify crops in rice-based systen~s, the most serious gap seems to exist in this macro-level policy/understanding, in general, and interactioii bctween the macro-national level and the micro-system level. in particular."},{"index":4,"size":209,"text":"Thc literature in the field, available at hand, gives a mixed picture about the nonrice. crops tbal perform better than rice in terms olcconoinic returns and which can, thereby, replace it in rice-based systems. Some of the literature show that there are nonrice crops which are niore profitable than rice (e.g., Adriaiio and Cabezon 1987, for the Philippines, Miranda 1989, for Indonesia, the Philippines and Sri Laoka). Some others fail to identify such crops (c.g., World Bank 1986 for Thailasd). Our study in Sri Lanka reveals that possible nonrice crops for rice-based systems can be grouped into two broad categories: low-value crops which generate value-added at best as high as, or generally lower than ric.e, and high-value crops ofwhich value-addcd is far better than rice (IIMI 199Ob). Most traditional food crops sucli as corn aiid various legumes fall in the Sirst category. The second group consisb of traditiooal high-value crops, such as chili aiid onion, and exotic exportable crops, such as gherkin and asparagus. Il~nonrice crops were to be substituted for instead of adding to, rice 111 crop diversilication, only those in the second group could be candidate crops F a b l e 1). It shouldhenoted tliatthesc high-valuecropsarecharacterized by very highlaborand capital intrnsity as coinpared to rice production."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"It should be noted further that thesr results are obtained using micro-level data. It is suggested therefore that, given the present price structurc and technology, there are some noiuirc crops that can be substituted for rice, though the list of such crops is rather short. What is 1101 known is the list of nonrict. crops in the mediumto long-run where both price a i d tcclmology are variable."},{"index":6,"size":218,"text":"Chili, iii Sri Lanka, would be a good case to illustrate the nature of the problem, particularly of traditional higli-value crops which are produced mainly for domestic consumption. This is thc crop which has traditionally been planted, mostly in the Northern Province of the country, but, because of its high substitutability for rice, it has become an important noiirirc crop iii recent years in rice-based irrigation systems in Sri Lanka, particularly in the North-Central Province.. The statistics iii Table 2 are from the Agricultural Resrarrli and Trainiiig Institute (ARTI) of Sri Laiika (1989). The domestic production of chili bas been increasing quite rapidly due mainly to the increase in its cultivation in rice-based systems. As a result, it is estimated that the domestic production the however emerges, if we look a i the shows that the imports have also been increasing, makmg the total supply-demand ratio around or more than 1.5. Had these statistics been reliable, and should the demand elasticity of chili been rather low as slated in ARTl (1989), the domestic price of chili would have declined drastically. However, such a drastic decline in the price due to this oversupply has, fortunately to the farmers, not been reported yet, though !he real price to the farmers has declined slightly from the end of 1987 lo 1989."},{"index":7,"size":114,"text":"The puzzle is why the oversupply bas not resulted in a sharp price fall. There are three possible explanations: first, the data on production are not reliable; second, the data on consumption are not reliable or the domestic demand for chili is more elastic than expected; and third, a part of domestic production was exported (this means that the demand curve is highly elastic). Unless the right answer to this question is given through further research, it is too dangerous to promote chili cultivation beyond the present level. If the first explanation is right and if the demand curve for chili is indeed inelastic, the result of overproduction could be disastrous to the fanners."},{"index":8,"size":60,"text":"Whatthis \"chiliproblem\"suggests istheneed to havegood knowledgeonoulputmarkets, international as well as domestic. Without it, no firm national policy for crop diversification can be established. In this sense, it was a quite legitimate approach that was taken for crop diversification research in the Philippines, in which IIMI-ADB irrigation management research was preceded by 1FPR'-ADB food crop sector research (Rosegrant et al. 1987)."},{"index":9,"size":91,"text":"The type. of analysis made in this study using the domestic resouice cost approach (e.g., comparative advantage, import substitution, and export promotion), are quite useful and essential for realizing the configuration of nourice crops to be adopted for crop diversification, although this approach itself is static in nature so that it has certain limitations. Going into crop diversification without this kind of information is just like sailing in an ocean without a compass. Not only in Sri Lanka but also in other countries, this kind of research should be done periodically."},{"index":10,"size":153,"text":"It may he interesting to note that this Philippine study by IFPRI shows that rice still has a comparative advantage and is one of the most efficient crops to be grown in irrigation systems (Rosegrant el al. 1987: Gonzales 1989). This could he the case for other countries loo, implying that, if crop diversification is to be promoted, more research to improve the productivity of candidate nonrice crops relative to rice would be a prerequisite. A basic contention of promoting crop diversification in rice-based systems is that many developing countries in Asia have attained or are approaching self-sufficiency in rice. This study and some others (Bhuiyan 1989) suggest a need to reexamine this contenlion periodically in the light of rapid changes in demand due to population increase and general economic development, and in agricultural technology. The national policy on crop diversification in ricebased systems canna1 be independelit of the national policy on rice."}]},{"head":"' lnlemalional Fwd Policy Research Institule","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Marketing","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Marketing is the most often mentioned weak or missing link in crop diversification. This pertains to the issue of the '\"market\" as explained earlier. The existence of a \"marketing\" insufficient in the market. More often however, to the underdevelopment of market channels through which price signals are transmitted from the markets to the fields and through which crop products are marketed the other way around. The agricultnral/rural marketing systems in developing countries are complex, comprising numerous actors, such as middlemen, local traders, transportagents, processors, export agents, and governmental or semi-governmental marketing agencies. In spite that an efficient marketing system is critical not only for diversification but also for agricultural development in general, linle attention, beyond the mere mentioning of its importance (Schuh and Barghouti 1987, World Bank 198s), has been paid to this sector."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"This negligence of rural marketing systems can be explained partly by the traditional, stereotype image of middlemen and merchants: the ones who exploit peasants through the practice of monopolistic pricing and usury. The fact that most of rural marketing systems in developing countries belong to the informal sector has also made it difficult lo study this sector. However, recent studies have been accumulating evidence that indicate that iiidigenous rural marketing systems are quite competitive and thereby efficient in transmitting price incentives (Siamwalla 1978, Unnevehr 1984, Hayami et al. 1987). It should be remarked that these studies were done in the areas where crop diversification has been most"},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"progressive, such as Thailand and Java, Indonesia. This evidence, coupled with the evidence that governmental organizations are typically less efficient in the field of marketing, imply that the role of the government with respect to rural marketing lies not in direct iiitervention in the markets through controls on prices and profits but in providing conditions under which the markets are well-developed and functioning."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"It seeins that Sri Lanka is a country where the traditional negative image of middlemen and traders has rather been prevalent and government intervention into the rural markets has been pervasive. If so, the first policy step necessary for a long-term success in crop diversification would be to foster efficient rural marketing systems, no inaner how long it takes. Without it, any effort at crop diversification is bound to face failure in the long run. Crop diversification is synonymous with building flexibility into traditional agriculture, and it hinges on the flexible, efficient marketing sector. The so-called \"dependency syndrome.\" in agriculture and other sectors of the economy is the antonym of flexibility as such."}]},{"head":"Credit","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"Credit is another problem quite often mentioned in the crop diversification business. Although credit is not an input in an ordinary sense, this is a part of the market problem. It is said that while market-oriented iionrice crops require high cash inputs, credit is not available to farmers, or if available, it is at too high rates of interest. Provided that there is a well-functioning marketing sector. nonavailability of credit could be an obvious sign that the crops are not economically viableandiortoo risky togrow. High interest rates in informal lending are nothing but a sign that opporlmiity costs of money, loan-default risk, and costs involved in financial transactions are all high. Negative image of, or prejudice against, informal money has traders, and this has given way to cheap sector adopted in almost all developing countries. Confusion among policymakers on the role and functioii of rural financial markets has been widespread. Just as in the case of middlemen and traders, however, the empirical evidences from recent studies indicate that the informal financial market in rural areas in developing countries are much more efficient than ever thought, importantly, that the credit policies adopted in these countries have contributed negatively to rural development, in spite of all good intentions envisaged in these policies (Howell 1980(Howell , A d a m et al. 1984))."},{"index":2,"size":237,"text":"This does not necessarily mean that a government must not intervene in the financial markets. Under the condition of underdeveloped financial markers, a government would do so in such a way to help the markets develop. The introduction of a formal credit system may be one of them, but it should be implemented so as to be effective in mobilizing rural financial markets. The traditional cheap credit policy has little economic ground to be justified even as a means of infant industry protection. If there exist good economic OpporNnities for noiuice crops, credit would become available to farmers in one way or another. As a matter of fact, it is a widespread practice in rural Asia that middlemen and traders advance credit to farmers to purchase cash inputs in exchange for the exclusive right to purchase crops to be marketed from the farmers (Siamwalla 1978;Hayami el al. 1987;Pingali et al. 1989). This kind of credit is usually interest-free. It should also be noted that, contrary to the popular view, this kind of credit arraugeinents emcrge when the market is fairly competitive; it is neither exploitative nor of the feudal bondage type. A typical case is reported by Pingali et a]. (1989) for an irrigation system in Central Luzon, the Philippines, in that middlemen and traders advance interest-free loans to the rice farmers who grow onion in the dry season. If crops are \"economically viable,\" then, credit follows."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"It may seem that the situation in Sri Lanka i n this respec.t too is not so encouraging. However, there are signs indicating that the rural financial market is working. For example, IIMI (1990b) reports that fairly large amounts of infonnal loans are available to fanners in an irrigation system in the southern part of the country. Bouman (1984) reports that informal financial arrangements i n Sri Lanka provide very valuable services to many rural people. Although much research needs to be done in this field, it is certain that there is a potential. What is important for policymakers is not to demolish such a potential but to set up policies that will help develop efficient and flexible rural financial markets."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"As pointed out by Schuh andBarghouti (1987) andWorld Bank (1988), an important and dfcclive policy towards this end would be credit programs for middlemen and traders. Since the primary bottleneck for crop divrrsification could be in marketing the output, not in getting fanners to grow the crop when profitable, such programs could be instrumental in building flexibility in the marketing system in general and for speeding up the crop diversification process in particular. In this sense, the two-step loail now envisioned in Sri Lanka, if implemented properly, could be a n effective ineaiu to mobilize rural markets."}]},{"head":"Input Markets","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The need to make rural markets flexible applies to the input markets as well. As complaints in Sri Lanka are often heard that seeds, fertilizers, and agrochemicals are in markets is presumably relatively well-recognized. be through the development of efficient markets for these inputs. What is are the workings of other input markets such as labor, land, and draft power."},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"Farmers in developing countries in Asia, unlike the typical peasant described by Chayanov, are integrated with the market economy not only in the output side but also in the input side. They purchase inputs in the market. Labor and land are not the exception. Particularly in well-irrigated of landless laborers, whose income on hired labor in rice farming, is substantial. It is not uncommon in many Asian countries to find rice villages where the population of the landless laborers is much more than that of \"farmers\" who cultivate land as owners or as tenants of some sort. A significant portion of the income generated in rice farming is eanied by these landless laborers. Sri Lanka is not an exception in this respect. The percentage of rice income earned by hired laborers is as high as 20-30 percent of the total rice income generated in many irrigation systems. In some areas, more than 90 percent of the total labor requirements in rice production is met by hued laborers."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Crop diversification under such conditions would have profound implications in the local labor markets. One implication is its impact on income distribution among rural people. It is often said that crop diversification is necessary in order to increase \"fanners' income.\" In many rice growing areas, this should always be restated as including landless laborers' income. Should the income of rural households be of concern, more emphasis should be put on landless laborers who are the poorest of the poor in rural communities. This point of view seems to be usually lacking in policy consideration for crop diversification."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Anolher implication is changes in labor requirements due to crop diversification. In Asia, rice is a labor-intensive crop. Some nonrice crops are, however. more labor-intensive than rice. Although the labor is generally a relatively abundant resource in these countries, there could be a case in which seasonal boalenecks in labor supply emerge with new cropping patterns. The solution to this depends critically on how flexibly and efficiently the labor market works."},{"index":5,"size":333,"text":"As to the income distribution implication, the land market is even more important than labor, becauseland is the resource that ismostscarce in Asiancountries,and because tenancy arrangements are pervasive in many rice growing regions there. It is also imprtant in tenns of efficient resource allocation. Even if legal restrictions to tenancy arrangements exist, tenancy transactions are popularly practiced by fanners. There is a tendency for the incidence of tenancy in rice growing regions to be more in the dry season than in the wet season, and that diversified cropping in these regions increases it even further (Kasryno el al. 1982; Pingali el al. 1989). For example, Pingali el al. (19891, studying an irrigation system in the Philippines where crop diversification is in progress in the dry season, reports that farmers adopt seasonal tenancy arrangements tocope with labor constraints and inherent risks in the nonrice crops grown. This suggests that the flexible land market helps crop diversification, and that rigidity in it. if any, should be minimized. It is counterproductive to treat the land market as if no tenancy problem exists. In order to maximize the efficient use of the land resource, crop diversification should be promoted on the basis of a flexible land Mechanization is nowadays popular to see tractors and threshing in this region. A distinct characteristic of this kind of input. as compared to inputs like fertilizer, is its indivisibility which could bring a scale economy into peasant production. Once this comes in, farm size becomes an important issue not only io terms of income distribution but in terms of efficiency. However, it is fairly comnioii throughout the rice growing areas in the Asian tropics to see well-developed custom service markets for these agricultural machines (Siregar and Kikuchi 1988). if there is a bonleneck in these services, as in Sri Lanka where such bottlenecks reportedly exist in many irrigation systems, in relation to the time allowable for land preparation, the reasons why the markets are not working properly should be looked into."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"I n essence, how these input markets work is crucial to a successful promotion of crop diversification. It determines not only the supply of inputs necessary for diversified cropping, but also how the income generated is distributed among the agents involved in the production process. The flexibility of these markets is an integral part of the flexibility that is needed for crop diversification. Understanding of the role lo be played by the markets is grossly iiwfficient both in research and iii policy arenas related to crop diversification."}]},{"head":"Market and Collective Action","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Mention should be made of the link between the markets and the nonmarket elements inherent in the management of irrigation systems. Irrigation water could be \"marketed\" under certain technological conditions, which the irrigation system in Asia generally lack. This elitails the free supply and utilization ofwater in an irrigation system in this part of the world which makes the market mechanism inoperative and which necessitates collective action among the agents involved in the system. For instance, such matters as the ensuring of adequate water distribution, regulation of timing of water supply, and prevention of excess water use can only be dealt with by coordination among the agents through collective action, not through the market in a narrowly defined sense (Pingali 1990). A shift from a rice monoculture Qattenl to diversified cropping makes this need for collective action more imperative."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"In almost all the countries under consideration, a major means of attaining this collective action is through the fonnation of strong water users' associations or farmers' organizations. As shown in Figure 1, the facets of \"Institutional issues\" and '\"Socioeconomic factors\" are all related to the issues of farmers' organizations and their linkages with the managing agencies, if any. These are the facet? that constitute the links where the markets outside as well as inside irrigation systems meet with the nonmarket elements of system management."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Although it is well-recognized that the institutional aspects of irrigation management are of critical importance for better system performance, particularly when diversified cropping is envisaged, what is not clearly understood is how they are related to the markets."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"These market and lionmarket linkages in system management range over a wide spectrum; some need collective action more than others. Moreover, even fora certaiii aspect, the degree of need could differ from one system lo the other, depending on the prevailing socioeconomic and sociocultural environmenls. For instance, solutions to conflicts in water distribution between the may collective action, in the absence market some market, may exist under othercircumstances where waterrights are clearly specified and some compensation paymenls to losers can be enforced."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"There seems to be a tendency among those involved in irrigation management in Sri Lanka, as well as elsewhere, to consider that market mechanism and system management are two independent things which never go together. Needless to say, the market is not always for collective action. It is counterproductive lo assume that institutions such as farmers' organizations can always be a better substitute for the market. The need is for certain amicable combinations of these two extremes. which is perhaps the most serious challenge that research has to confront in paving the way for successful crop diversification in rice-based systems in the long run."}]},{"head":"CONCLUDING REMARKS","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Crop diversification in rice-based irrigation systems is often treated as if problems in it can be solved by government or system management directives; if there is a need to diversify crops, the need should be there; if certain crops are to be substituted for rice, farmers should plant the crops; ifcertain inputs are needed to these crops, they should be there; and so forth. Crop diversification is an inevitable process that the agriculture sector has to adopt as the economy grows; it is a part of the structural transformation process of the economy. This process is designed to build flexibility into agriculture. Acommand type mode of operation is furthermost to this approach. Instead, the success of crop diversification critically hiiiges on the markets. Only with well-functioning markets could its objectives be attained, while being consistent with the long-run need of structural transformation and efficient resource allocation."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"Crop diversification in rice-based systems is not easy to attain. Timmer (1989, which is an earlier version of the World Bank (1988) report, mentions Thailand and Japan as the countries where agricultural diversification has been successful; Thailand without government intervention, and Japan with heavy intervention. It should be noted that the major type of diversification that has progressed in both countries is not the one in rice-based systems but that through regional specialization away from rice. In the case of postwar Japan, agriculture as a whole has been diversified adding livestock and horticulture production lo staple food production, butthe rice sector itselfhas failed to diversify. The failure is twofold: rice farming has remained largely as monoculture despite all policy efforts made by the government lo promote diversification, and it has totally lost its economic viability because of too heavy protection through rice price-support. This experience in Japan clearly suggests that crop diversification policy is not independent ofrice policy. Both should be consistent with each other and with long-run needs of the economy."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Unlike policies to attain rice self-sufficiency, policy targets for crop diversification keep moving, and the issue sttucture of crop diversification is open-ended towards the output markets. Research, that makes clear conditions both rice and nonrice, needs to be carried out periodically. The comparative advantage of producing certain crops domestically relative to imports should be examined carefully according to changes in the markets and in the economy, in order to keep renewing the list of crops to be grown in rice-based systems."},{"index":4,"size":252,"text":"It is worth remembering that major success cases of agricultural diversification in the past accompanied technological as well as institutional innovations consistent with the conditions of product and factor markers. In the case of the eighteenth-century English Agricultural Revolution, new technology in the form of new crop rotation systems was the technological basis with the enclosure as the institutional basis; the consolidation of communal pasture and farmland into single private units facilitated the introduction of an integrated system of crop-livestock production. At the turn of the century in Denmark, small grain farmers succeeded in introducing efficient dairy farming; accompanied were the technological innovation in the fonn of the centrifugal cream separator and the institutional innovation in the form of the cooperative creamery. Similarly, in Meiji, Japan, the introduction of sericulture alongside rice fanning was made possible by the invention of the summer-fall cocoon rearing technology supported by a series of institutional innovations such as the establishment of silk inspection stations, national and prefectural silkworm egg inultiplicatioii stations, sericulture colleges, and sericulture cooperatives. As stated by Hayaini (1989), \"the scope of success for agricultural diversification strategy is but limited if it simply attempts lo divert resources from the production of basic cereals to other crops and livestock products with no major technological innovation in either farm production or processing and marketing. If this resource reallocation would be enforced by government programs such as price supports and inputlcredit subsidies, it would prove to be counterproductive for the purpose that agricultural diversification tries to achieve."},{"index":5,"size":113,"text":"In spite of all difficulties, crop diversification will be the direction that many rice-based irrigation systems have to take in the long ruii as well as in the short run, if they are to be a part of the agricultural sector which is bound to diversify as the economy develops. Research efforts in irrigation management for crop diversification should all be aimed at the ultimate objective of making rice-based systems as flexible as possible. To build flexibility into the systems is nothing but to provide necessary conditions for diversification. A part of sufficient conditions for diversification is coming from outside the systems, but necessary conditions can be prepared within the systems as well."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Here, thr issue is divided into fourgroups of sub-issues: a)engineering; b)agronomic; c) institutional;Engineering agronomic, institurioMIondeconomic issues relatedto crop diversification. "},{"text":" Figure 1. "}],"sieverID":"d1943923-a96a-4f3e-99ad-5bbb8006ed31","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c0613ed78ed4b4da216e4b79189aa1c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/57ae356e-03c7-4168-88a2-7bd2ed2b3554/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Diseño de un mecanismo financiero mixto y evaluación del potencial de carbono para sistemas sostenibles de cacao en Caquetá y Cesar: necesidades, barreras y recomendaciones 0 Diseño de un mecanismo financiero mixto y evaluación del potencial de carbono para sistemas sostenibles de cacao en Caquetá y Cesar: necesidades, barreras y recomendaciones","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Participantes","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introducción al Grupo Focal","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introducción y presentación de la agenda","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Para comenzar, se hizo una presentación del objetivo general del proyecto: \"diseñar un mecanismo financiero mixto dirigido a la adopción y escalamiento de sistemas de producción de cacao bajo en emisiones y que contribuya a la paz para los departamentos de Caquetá y Cesar\"."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Además, se compartió la agenda de la reunión presentada a continuación. "}]},{"head":"Facilitador","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Dentro de la contextualización general se presentaron los objetivos del grupo focal que fueron:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Identificar las necesidades de financiamiento para sistemas sostenibles de cacao en Caquetá y Cesar."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Identificar las barreras de financiamiento para sistemas sostenibles de cacao en Caquetá y Cesar."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Sobre la consolidación de información cualitativa sobre las actividades que requerían financiación, se mencionó que estas podían incluir, por ejemplo, la reconversión de fincas, ampliación de sistemas existentes o certificación hacia sistemas agroforestales de cacao sostenible, y que, además, se buscaba comprender las condiciones necesarias para esta financiación en términos de plazos, montos y tipo de financiamiento."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"Por otro lado, se profundizó en que se pretendía recopilar información sobre las barreras que enfrentan los actores de la cadena de valor del cacao sostenible, incluyendo tanto factores externos como circunstancias de orden público, falta de claridad en la información o tenencia de tierras, como barreras inherentes al acceso a recursos financieros, como requisitos excesivos, montos y plazos inadecuados, falta de asistencia técnica y capacidades, así como la falta de mercados rentables."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"Finalmente, el facilitador destacó que el punto de partida era el conocimiento y la experiencia de los colaboradores en la adopción de sistemas de cacao sostenible, considerando su trabajo en el Proyecto SLUS y otros programas relacionados."}]},{"head":"Presentación del Proyecto SLUS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"A modo de introducción del grupo focal se realizó una corta presentación sobre el proyecto SLUS, cuyo objetivo es implementar sistemas productivos sostenibles agrícolas y pecuarios para simultáneamente alcanzar la conservación de los bosques para la mitigación del cambio climático (REDD+) y la construcción de la paz en Colombia. El proyecto busca conectar enfoques territoriales con enfoques económicos, financieros y de mercado, para poder construir sistemas sostenibles escalables. Para esto, existen cuatro paquetes de trabajo que son: i) integración de políticas, ii) sistemas sostenibles de uso del suelo (SLUS), iii) estrategias de cadenas de valor, y iv) modelos de negocio. Sus logros, en resumidas cuentas, han sido: a nivel académico, 23 artículos publicados sobre acción climática y paz, un artículo sobre sistemas alimentarios bajos en carbono, y 4 herramientas que permiten integrar co-beneficios de paz a través de la acción climática. Además, se ha acompañado el acuerdo cero deforestación de la cadena láctea y de cacao, y se ha apoyado el fortalecimiento de capacidades a través de 4 estudiantes de maestría y 8 de doctorado."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"3. Desarrollo del grupo focal En Cesar se identificó la necesidad de financiamiento para la asistencia técnica con el objetivo de aumentar la productividad dentro del marco de la sostenibilidad. Esta necesidad se destacó especialmente, ya que la asistencia técnica había sido limitada en el departamento. Además, se señaló la importancia de implementar la renovación de cacaotales para incrementar la productividad, así como la instalación de sistemas de riego."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"En el ámbito de la asociatividad, se reconoció que esta era fuerte hacia el norte, pero de regular a nula hacia el centro y sur. Los procesos de comercialización, especialmente en esas zonas, se caracterizaban por ser muy individuales. La existencia de barreras de titulación de predios, principalmente debido a la inclusión en la ley segunda reserva forestal y zonas de resguardo indígena, se identificó como un desafío significativo para la obtención de financiamiento por parte de los productores."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Se resaltó la importancia de financiar la trazabilidad y el monitoreo en el contexto de la iniciativa Cacao cero deforestación. Otro aspecto mencionado fue el costo asociado con la certificación orgánica y sus correspondientes auditorías."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"En relación con el mercado de la Unión Europea, se discutió su importancia en ese momento. A pesar de las perspectivas comerciales positivas con el apoyo de ProColombia, se indicó que México y Malasia eran mercados objetivos más fuertes en ese momento, junto con Brasil, Perú y Argentina. En el caso específico de ASPROBELEN en Caquetá, se destacó que la mayor parte de la exportación se dirigía a Alemania, y se mencionó el tema del Chocolate del Jaguar."},{"index":6,"size":72,"text":"Se señalaron dificultades en el financiamiento debido a la informalidad en la tenencia de tierras y la limitación de la asistencia técnica a productos asociados a través de asociaciones. Además, se destacó el problema del cadmio como una limitante para la exportación, lo que obligaba a vender en el mercado nacional. La urgencia por aumentar la producción con variantes que tenían restricciones en el mercado internacional también fue mencionada como un desafío."}]},{"head":"Características y experiencias sobre el acceso a financiación","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"A continuación, el grupo focal se enfocó en responder a las siguientes preguntas: De acuerdo con la experiencia de su programa, De acuerdo con la experiencia de su programa, ¿cuáles son las características que necesita tener [esa financiación] en términos de montos, plazos y tipo de financiación? ¿Ha tenido financiación suficiente para adoptar los sistemas avanzados de cacao sostenible? ¿El plazo de financiación es adecuado? ¿Qué tipo de financiación ha tenido?"},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Las respuestas por parte de los participantes en esta sección estuvieron mucho más enfocadas en las barreras y en la necesidad de generar mecanismos que permitan superarlas. Se destacó que estas están relacionadas, entre otras, con los plazos prolongados que el cultivo de cacao requiere para comenzar a producir. Esta demora genera desafíos en los flujos de caja, ya que los ingresos se ven postergados. Además, se subrayó la necesidad de contar con un bien transitorio durante el período inicial de producción de cacao, lo cual complica la alineación con los plazos de los flujos de caja estandarizados, como los ofrecidos por el banco agrario, que trabaja con un flujo de caja a 5 años."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"La informalidad en el gremio también se identificó como un problema, especialmente en las relaciones con entidades financieras. La dependencia significativa de la cooperación internacional fue señalada como una tendencia preocupante. Se observó que, al finalizar los proyectos de cooperación, falta un seguimiento continuo tanto a las organizaciones como a los productores, lo que dificulta la obtención de financiamiento público o privado en etapas posteriores."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"En relación con la oferta de la banca comercial, se discutió que en Caquetá es limitada, y los productores muestran resistencia a solicitar préstamos, en parte debido a la informalidad de la tenencia de tierras. La dificultad para obtener préstamos también se atribuyó a la falta de garantías y a la reticencia de las entidades financieras debido a la informalidad en la propiedad de la tierra. Estos factores se identificaron como obstáculos adicionales para el acceso efectivo a la financiación en la región."}]},{"head":"Bloque 2: Identificación de barreras para el financimiento","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experiencias para la implementación, acceso o ejecución de financiación","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Para iniciar con este bloque se preguntó: ¿Cuáles son las principales barreras que han enfrentado sus socios para acceder a una financiación adecuada y oportuna?"},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Durante la discusión en el grupo focal, se subrayó nuevamente la significativa barrera que representan las restricciones asociadas con la ubicación en zonas de reserva forestal, especialmente pronunciadas en el departamento de Cesar. La falta de claridad en cuanto a los conflictos entre las regulaciones y el cultivo de cacao, que contribuye al sistema agroforestal y a la reforestación, fue destacada como un desafío considerable."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Otro obstáculo identificado fue la conectividad y las barreras de comunicación derivadas de las condiciones de las vías. La infraestructura vial deficiente afecta la movilidad y, por ende, la eficiencia en la cadena de suministro, generando desafíos adicionales para los productores de cacao."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Adicionalmente, se resaltó la alta edad promedio de los productores en Cesar como una barrera importante, evidenciando un bajo acoplamiento generacional en la actividad cacaotera. Este fenómeno plantea preocupaciones sobre la sostenibilidad a largo plazo y la transferencia de conocimientos y experiencias a las generaciones más jóvenes."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"La dimensión de género también fue mencionada como una barrera relevante. La necesidad de abordar desafíos específicos relacionados con el género en la cadena de valor del cacao, tanto en términos de participación como de acceso a recursos, se presentó como una consideración clave para lograr una mayor equidad y sostenibilidad en el sector."}]},{"head":"Información sobre alternativas de financiación","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"A continuación, se realizó la siguiente pregunta: ¿A quién acude el productor en busca de información sobre alternativas de financiación o de asistencia técnica para implementar esas necesidades?"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Inicialmente, se señaló que, para abordar consultas o inquietudes, la comunidad tiende a recurrir a los vecinos, quienes suelen redirigirlos hacia asociaciones, secretarías de agricultura municipales o regionales. El método del \"voz a voz\" se destacó como un medio efectivo de comunicación en la región."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Además, se mencionaron canales de apoyo técnico a través de equipos de federaciones, entidades como Casa Luker o Nacional de Chocolate, que cuentan con oficinas regionales. Asimismo, se destacaron las granjas que sirven como espacios para jornadas de capacitación, formación, y viveros para la propagación y distribución de material vegetal. Aunque la atención ideal se centra en los productores a través de asociaciones, también se reconoció la importancia de llegar a productores individuales. Diversas entidades, en colaboración con Agrosavia y universidades, han desplegado esfuerzos significativos en actividades de extensión."},{"index":4,"size":128,"text":"En relación con el desafío del cadmio, se abordó la pregunta sobre prácticas o variantes que podrían solucionar el problema. Se indicó que, aunque hay investigaciones en curso y acciones para mejorar aspectos postcosecha o remediar la situación, aún no existe una solución contundente. La problemática se relaciona con la génesis del suelo, y aunque hay claridad sobre prácticas problemáticas, como el uso de ciertos fertilizantes, no hay una solución rápida. La precaución en el contexto orgánico también se destacó, ya que, a veces, las prácticas sostenibles se abandonan una vez finalizados los proyectos. Se enfatizó la necesidad de un trabajo articulado para garantizar la calidad del producto, y se señaló la falta de un protocolo estandarizado, especialmente considerando que los volúmenes ofertables de cacao especial son limitados."}]},{"head":"Programas que apoyan la adopción de sistemas de cacao sostenibles o tradicionales","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Para cerrar este bloque se indagó sobre ¿Cuáles son los programas (incluyendo cooperación internacional) adicionales a los que representan que apoyan la adopción de sistemas productivos de cacao en su región, sostenibles o tradicionales? ¿Qué tipo de apoyo proveen estos programas?"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"En Cesar, se destacaron múltiples iniciativas respaldadas por entidades como el Ministerio de Agricultura, Colombia Sostenible, ocho municipios PDET donde el cacao fue priorizado, el proyecto C4D del USDA, Socodevi y el grupo Drummond. Sin embargo, se planteó la crucial interrogante sobre qué sucede cuando estos proyectos finalizan."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"Luego se discutió sonre la necesidad de evaluar la articulación de los diversos proyectos y se preguntó si los PDET y otros instrumentos de planificación han logrado organizar eficazmente este tema. Se planteó la pregunta sobre cómo se percibe la llegada de estos proyectos y se señaló la importancia de trabajar en un sistema de consultoría que permita una integración efectiva entre las entidades involucradas, mejorando así la formulación y ejecución de los proyectos. Este enfoque refleja la preocupación por garantizar la continuidad y sostenibilidad de las iniciativas más allá de su periodo de implementación inicial."}]},{"head":"Bloque 3: Recomendaciones","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Para el desarrollo de la sección de recomendación se plantearon las siguientes cinco preguntas:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"1. ¿Cómo podría mejorarse el financiamiento para lograr la adopción de sistemas productivos sostenibles de cacao?"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"2. ¿Cómo podría mejorarse la asistencia técnica y el acompañamiento para lograr la adopción de sistemas productivos sostenibles de cacao?"}]},{"head":"3.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"¿Cómo podría mejorarse el financiamiento de los bancos o privado de las empresas ancla?"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"4. ¿Cuál debería ser el rol de las asociaciones en un modelo mixto de financiamiento y asistencia técnica?"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"5. ¿Cuál debería ser el rol de las entidades públicas regionales y municipales del sector rural y ambiental?"},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Es esencial avanzar en la mejora de la asociatividad y fortalecer la confianza en las entidades financieras. Aprovechar los fondos rotatorios de las asociaciones emerge como una estrategia clave para garantizar un acceso más sostenible a los recursos financieros, evitando que los productores se conviertan simplemente en cazadores de proyectos."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"La divulgación de los pagos por servicios ambientales se presenta como una herramienta valiosa, contribuyendo a sensibilizar tanto a los productores como a las entidades financieras sobre el valor ambiental del cultivo de cacao."},{"index":6,"size":57,"text":"Para impulsar la calidad del producto y la productividad, es fundamental mejorar la difusión de información sobre créditos y formas de financiación. Además, se requiere una mayor participación de los gobiernos nacionales y regionales en las centrales de beneficios con propósito, y es necesario trabajar intensamente en el aspecto social de los productores para fortalecer la asociatividad."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"La renovación generacional de productores se destaca como un aspecto crítico. Para retener a los jóvenes en el campo, es esencial crear condiciones favorables. Sin embargo, se enfrentan desafíos significativos, como problemas de conectividad y acceso a la educación."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"La integración entre municipios y departamentos se presenta como una oportunidad estratégica que puede beneficiar el desarrollo sostenible del sector cacaotero, fomentando colaboraciones efectivas y compartiendo mejores prácticas entre las distintas localidades."}]},{"head":"Cierre del grupo focal","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"El grupo focal concluyó con un agradecimiento a la participación de todos los presentes cuyas contribuciones son fundamentales para la formulación de la propuesta mecanismo financiero mixto para cultivos de cacao sostenible en Caquetá y Cesar. "}]},{"head":"Carlos","index":14,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" focal (120 min) Conclusiones y cierre (15 min) "},{"text":" actividades o inversions de los sistemas sostenibles de cacao que requieren financiaciónPara comenzar con este bloque se preguntó ¿Cuáles son las principales actividades o inversiones de los sistemas sostenibles de cacao que requieren financiación y por qué? "},{"text":" Borda, Senior research associate, [email protected] CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. www.cgiar.org We would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders. To learn more about this Initiative, please visit this webpage. To learn more about this and other Initiatives in the CGIAR Research Portfolio, please visit www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio © 2023 CGIAR System Organization. Some rights reserved. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International Licence (CC BYNC 4.0). | | | "}],"sieverID":"bc80ff08-03c4-44f3-97a0-b19a3490c247","abstract":"Diseño de un mecanismo financiero mixto y evaluación del potencial de carbono para sistemas sostenibles de cacao en Caquetá y Cesar: necesidades, barreras y recomendaciones 1 El presente informe técnico fue redactado con base a un entregable de la Consultoría No. No 13075659 suscrito entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) y la Corporación Ecoversa.El CGIAR es una asociación mundial de investigación para un futuro con seguridad alimentaria. La ciencia del CGIAR se dedica a transformar los sistemas de alimentos, tierra y agua en una crisis climática. Su investigación la llevan a cabo 13 Centros/Alianzas del CGIAR en estrecha colaboración con cientos de socios, entre los que se incluyen institutos de investigación nacionales y regionales, organizaciones de la sociedad civil, el mundo académico, organizaciones de desarrollo y el sector privado. www.cgiar.org Agradecemos a todos los financiadores que apoyan esta investigación a través de sus contribuciones al Fondo Fiduciario del CGIAR: www.cgiar.org/funders. Para saber más sobre esta Iniciativa, visite esta página web.Para obtener más información sobre esta y otras iniciativas de la cartera de investigación del CGIAR, visite www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio.2023 Organización del Sistema CGIAR. Algunos derechos reservados. Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional (CC BYNC 4.0).El CGIAR es una asociación mundial de investigación para un futuro con seguridad alimentaria. La ciencia del CGIAR se dedica a transformar los sistemas de alimentos, tierra y agua en una crisis climática. Su investigación la llevan a cabo 13 Centros/Alianzas del CGIAR en estrecha colaboración con cientos de socios, entre los que se incluyen institutos de investigación nacionales y regionales, organizaciones de la sociedad civil, el mundo académico, organizaciones de desarrollo y el sector privado. www.cgiar.org Agradecemos a todos los financiadores que apoyan esta investigación a través de sus contribuciones al Fondo Fiduciario del CGIAR: www.cgiar.org/funders. Para saber más sobre esta Iniciativa, visite esta página web.Para obtener más información sobre esta y otras iniciativas de la cartera de investigación del CGIAR, visite www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio.2023 Organización del Sistema CGIAR. Algunos derechos reservados. Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional (CC BYNC 4.0)."}