Upload 1006 files to data/part_1

data/part_1/008777c1d937a4b9765c94eacc47a586.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"008777c1d937a4b9765c94eacc47a586","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/732b2d86-ef1a-445f-84b6-04f77e250826/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Objectives","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"To develop a phenotyping characterization of Cassava to obtain agronomic and physiological data, that allow measuring tolerance to drought To construct a genetic map and identify regions associated with drought using phenotypic and genotypic data"}]},{"head":"In vitro propagation","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Cassava culture tissue team "}]},{"head":"Greenhouse adaptation","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Preliminary Results","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Preliminary Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"A C B"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"First Propagation of 107 genotypes from CTS family by cuttings. B) plants grew for three months A) Soil hardening B) Plant lignification Daniel Encarnación -Field worker in charge of greenhouses t Field capacity tests and soil selection A) Soil type 1: 2 parts of sand x 1 of soil B) Soil type 2: 1 part of sand x 2 of soil o Better drainage o Less compact o Alike to arid soils Field capacity tests / Saturation of pots with 500 grams of soil A) Soil type 1 Planting of the CTS family in pots with 500 gr of soil type 1 and random location in a glass greenhouse Cut cuttings of the entire CTS family and growth in seedbeds for approximately 1 month Collection of initial data: weight, length and number of leaves evaluated for four weeks, and the humidity of each pot was measured by weighing daily and determining the amount of water lost Measurements were taken daily with the MultispeQ, which allows us to measure different variables such as: "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"ccf44b9c-710e-4229-acf6-eb8e9dcd2a73","abstract":"Drought in conjunction with salinity affect approximately 50% of the crops around the world o Production and the size of the leaves o Decrease in root yield and biomass in the plant o Transcription factor activity o Cell differentiation Cassava CTS family 107 Genotypes including both parents VEN77 from eastern Colombia (Drougth susceptible) COL1734 from northern Colombia (Drought tolerant)"}

data/part_1/012a6a296fc0b70f3b5ac99a30dcae6a.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"012a6a296fc0b70f3b5ac99a30dcae6a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/64835c75-da59-4baf-8984-19e4019324ed/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"What are the key factors influencing consumers' preference and willingness to pay for meat products in Eastern DRC?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":574,"text":"The projected increase in meat consumption is a sign of a better future with regard to malnutrition levels among the poor in lower-income countries who suffer from micronutrient deficiencies and mainly depend on high fiber and phytate plant-based staples (Neumann et al., 2003). The impact of malnutrition is globally estimated to be as high as US$3.5 trillion per year or US$500 per individual (FAO, 2013). The costs are opportunity costs of economic growth foregone and lost investments in human capital resulting from infections, impaired child development, and mortality (Hoddinott, 2016). In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), over 3.6 million children under five are affected by acute malnutrition annually and 2 million of them suffer from its most severe form (OCHA, 2016). This country is estimated to be losing more than a billion dollars a year to the effects of child undernutrition, which is equivalent 4.5 percent of GDP. Therefore, consumption of meat products could be one of the keys to reducing malnutrition costs in the DRC. However, as argued by Randolph et al. (2007), the negative publicity on livestock and their products is driven by health and food safety concerns related to outbreaks of diseases like avian influenza and the continued debates on the association between the saturated fats and cholesterol found in animal food sources and chronic diseases like heart disease and cancer, contributing to consumer nervousness about meat products. Consumer nervousness affects their WTP, purchase, and consumption of meat products, thus exacerbating the malnutrition level and related costs in developing countries. Nevertheless, consumers' choices are influenced by many factors that ultimately shape purchasing decisions. Font-i-Furnols and Guerrero (2014) identified consumers' behavior as depending on interrelated factors that included psychological influences (willingness, risk, expectations, sociocultural factors, lifestyle, and values), sensory qualities (visual appearance, texture, flavor, and odor), and marketing factors (price, label, brand, and availability). In addition, Grunert, Bredahl, and Brunsø (2004) used the Total Food Quality model to analyze consumers' perception and decision-making in determining meat quality. The model showed that consumers form expectations about quality at the point of purchase, based on their own experience and informational cues available in the shopping environment. These preferences are influenced not only by quality and consumer-related factors but also by context, culture, and information (Kanerva, 2013;York & Gossards, 2004). Alemu, Olsen, Vedel, Pambo, and Owino (2017) showed that preferences in Kenya are also influenced by context and information in addition to product attributes. Van Wezemael, Verbeke, de Barcellos, Scholderer, and Perez-Cueto (2010) also reported that European consumers considered label, brand, freshness, and leanness of beef as cues to indicate quality to purchase, whereas safety in Ghana and hygiene in Rwanda were purchasing attributes in purchasing meat products (Niyonzima et al., 2017;Owusu-Sekyere, Owusu, & Jordaan, 2014). However, most of the studies on consumers' preferences for meat products focus on developed countries (Tonsor et al., 2005;Reicks et al., 2011;Schumacher, Schroeder, & Tonsor, 2012;Zimmerman et al., 2012;Hung, de Kok, & Verbeke, 2016;Shan et al., 2017). Only a few studies focus on the African context where food quality and malnutrition remain huge challenges (Niyonzima et al., 2017;Owusu-Sekyere et al., 2014). Increasing incomes in developing countries together with the inherent market failures makes it vital to understand the factors driving consumers' meat consumption patterns and their WTP for such food products. Failure to understand the key determinants of consumers' preferences could lead to further market failure and the consumption of unwholesome meat products (Mockshell, Ilukor, & Birner, 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"The overall objective of this study is to evaluate the preferences for meat and meat products and WTP among consumers in Eastern DRC."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"Specifically, this study aims at: (a) identifying consumer and household characteristics influencing consumer preferences and WTP; (b) examining consumers' preferences for meat products; and (c) analyzing the effect of socio-demographics and product attributes on purchasing decisions and WTP by using linear and ordered multinomial logistic regression models. The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents the structure of the meat market in the DRC, and Section 3 presents the materials and methods. The results are presented in Section 4 and discussed in Section 5; the paper presents the conclusions in Section 6."}]},{"head":"| THE ME AT MARK E T IN THE DEMO CR ATI C REPUB LI C OF CONG O","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"The agricultural sector is an important sector in the economy of the DRC. Its accounts for 21% of GDP and employs about 70% of the population (KPMG, 2016). The proportion of livestock to the agricultural GDP is only 9%, and the livestock sector is largely undeveloped, with small numbers of cattle, pigs, goats, and chickens. The livestock population is estimated to be seven million, and 60% are goats, 15% pigs, 14% sheep, and 11% cattle (FAO, 2005). Livestock populations have suffered significantly since the civil war, when many farms were looted and the animals stolen. As an important source of dietary protein, consumption and sale of wild animals (\"bushmeat\"), including some primates, are widespread. This has been fueled partly by poor living conditions and the rise in the number of internally displaced people (IDPs) fleeing regional conflicts. As shown in Figure 1, wild meat is the most produced meat product in the DRC followed by pork and beef."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"The consumption of meat is higher than the production of meat in DRC, so the country is a net importer of food products   pigs, poultry, and rabbits, as their coping strategy (Maass et al., 2012). However, small animals are sold in the markets only when household needs arise, and the money raised is mostly invested in school fees (Zozo et al., 2012)."}]},{"head":"| MATERIAL S AND ME THODS","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Sampling and survey design","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"A consumer study survey was conducted between April and June quarter, a list of households was generated and random samples of 309 were selected for interview based on the probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling approach. This PPS approach was used because the household population is not the same in each Quarter."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Interviews were conducted with selected respondents face-toface by trained enumerators using a semi-structured questionnaire administered in Kiswahili, Mashi (local Congolese language), and French. To ensure that the respondents understood the concept, the enumerators were requested to explain the unfamiliar terms to the respondents, use illustrations, and test their understanding of key terms before administering the questionnaire. TA B L E 3 (Continued)"}]},{"head":"Meat products","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Variables","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The survey questionnaire was structured in three modules. The first module covered household composition and characteristics such as region of residence, gender, age, marital status, education level, occupation, and household size. The second module included questions on income, expenditure, and household decision-making."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Respondents were asked who was the main breadwinner in their household and who decides which food to purchase. In the third module, respondents were asked about their consumption and purchasing frequencies of meat products including beef, pork, goat, chicken, and rabbit. In the fourth module, respondents were asked how satisfied they were with the meat products and the factors influencing their purchasing decisions and WTP."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"To evaluate the willingness of consumers to pay, the revealed preference method was applied. The method was chosen because data obtained from revealed preference methods more truthfully reflect preferences and choice in the real market when compared to stated preference methods (Howard & Allen, 2008). Respondents were given the average prices based on the different markets for each meat product, and then they were asked to score the influence of product attributes (nutrition, color, texture, smell, harmful effect, price, availability, and quantity) on their perception (no = 0, yes = 1)."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"In addition, they were asked to rank the importance of these attributes on their purchasing decisions by using a five-point Likert scale (not important/definitely would not pay = 1, least important/ probably would not pay = 2, moderately important/might pay = 3, important/probably would pay = 4, and most important/definitely would pay = 5)."}]},{"head":"| Data analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Data analysis was performed using R software (version 3.2.3, R Core, 2015). Basic statistics (means, standard deviation, and frequencies)"},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"were computed to describe the responses. Chi-square (χ 2 ) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to examine the differences in the responses. In order to fit linear regression assumptions for ANOVA, BoxCox power transformations were applied to the continuous variables; the transformed variables were analyzed using ANOVA, and the mean comparisons were done on the back-transformed values (Box & CoX, 1964). Significantly different means were separated using least significant difference (LSD) with the appropriate error terms and a significance level at p < 0.05."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"To investigate the factors determining purchasing decisions and WTP among respondents, a logistic regression analysis was performed following a generalized linear regression with probit link."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"When Y is the dependent or response variable as Y is dichotomous, the use of probit link, f(Y), leads to the transformation of the response into a continuous variable, Y. The link function then maps the (0, 1) range probabilities onto (−∞, +∞), the range of linear predictors (Agresti, 2002;Fox, 2008). We then have a probit model as: "}]},{"head":"TA B L E 4 Preference of respondents on all meat products in the market","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The probit link function is given by Faraway (2006) as:"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"where Φ -1 is the inverse normal cumulative distribution function, such as N (0, 1) (Agresti, 2002)."}]},{"head":"And the regression equation becomes:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The model parameters were estimated using the maximumlikelihood method, with chi-square test of significance (Dodge, 2008). The following vector of independent variables was considered for their socio-demographic effects:"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"These are standard socio-demographic variables such as living area, gender, current age, marital status, education level, and employment status of household head, household size, and income."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Table 1 describes the independent variables used in the linear regression model."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"The effects of product attributes (nutrition, color, texture, harmful effect, price, availability, and quantity) on consumers' purchasing decisions and WTP were determined by performing an ordered multinomial logistic regression model, as the above dependent variables were nominal and polytomous, i.e. had more than two categories with an ordered structure (Engel, 1988;Menard, 2002)."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"When the following ordered probit model estimated using maximum-likelihood (ML) method is considered, we have with y * n is the unobserved dependent variable, x ′ n is the vector of independent variables, and β is the vector of regression coefficient to estimate. The latent random variable y * n for individuals n = 1,2,3…N, linearly depends on the independent variables x n and ε n is the error term. Therefore, If the errors ε n are logistically distributed, with distribution function Λ( i ) = 1 1+e − i produces an ordered logistic model given by Akshita, Ramyani, Sridevi, and Trishita (2013) as:"},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"With regard to household income, the influence of product attributes on purchasing decisions and WTP was explained by the gg plots."}]},{"head":"| RE SULTS","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Consumer and household characteristics","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Most of the respondents (86%) lived in urban areas, and the majority were female (56%) with an average age of 37 years (Table 2). The average household size was 6 persons, and the composition is characterized by 54% of children, 18% of the household head, 15% of the spouse. In this study, 87% had attained at least primary school, with an average of 8 years of formal education. Most of the respondents in Ibanda had completed higher education when compared to those in Kadutu and Bagira. The main occupation of respondents varied among communities. Self-employed business/services (26%) was observed as a main occupation in Ibanda, whereas many respondents in Kadutu (20%) and Bagira (20%) were unemployed."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Household income and expenditure profiles varied substantially (Table 2). Relating this to household size, the average per capita income was about US$1,039 in Ibanda, US$397 in Kadutu, and US$368 in Bagira. The main source of income in Ibanda was permanent employment (48%), whereas petty trading (37%) was reported as the main source of income in both Kadutu and Bagira. Food was the main item of household expenditure (44%), followed by medical fees (24%), and school fees (13%). The results also found that on average about 48% of households' income was spent on food. Most respondents in Bagira and Kadutu directly purchased food from farms, while various sources for purchasing food were observed in Ibanda."}]},{"head":"EMPLOYMENT, HOUSEHOLD SIZE, CHILDREN, INCOME}","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Although the main source of fuel for cooking was charcoal (86%), more households (16%) in Ibanda had access to electricity than in other communities. About 98% of the main household water supply was from RIGIDESO, the water supply authority in Bukavu."}]},{"head":"| Household consumption of meat products","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"In terms of frequency of meat consumption, results showed that beef was the most consumed product, with 83% of the household consuming it at least weekly (Table 3). Goat meat and pork were widely consumed too, with between 66% and 71% of the respondents, respectively, consuming these products weekly. The products least consumed were chicken and rabbit since these are less often produced and available. On average, 68% of the respondents consumed milk in a week, followed by sausage (53%), yogurt (48%), and cheese (45%). Households in Ibanda purchased more fresh meat and meat products than those in Kadutu and Bagira. The average daily consumption in Ibanda was 1.9 times higher for beef than in Kadutu and Bagira, 1.5 times higher for goat meat, 1.5 times higher for pork, and 3.5 times higher for chicken. In study, it was also found that the price of meat products varied by communities. For example, the price of processed products (sausage, milk, yogurt, and cheese) seemed to be higher in Ibanda than in Kadutu and Bagira."}]},{"head":"| Preference of meat products","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Only 47% of the respondents were satisfied with the meat products in the market (Table 4). When asked about the criteria that caused dissatisfaction, 24% claimed unhealthiness and high price as the main criteria, followed by low quantity (18%) and harmful effect (11%). It could be seen that the dissatisfaction can be divided into two groups. The respondents, especially in Kadutu and Bagira, used high price and low quantity as extrinsic criteria; unhealthiness and harmful effect were mainly perceived as intrinsic attributes by the respondents in Ibanda."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"When the reason for purchasing new, improved products is considered, the tendency to pay was more in Ibanda (66%) when compared to Kadutu (42%) and Bagira (44%). The result also showed that the respondents demanded more products from beef (40%) compared to pork (21%), goat meat (17%), poultry (15%), and rabbit (8%)."}]},{"head":"| Social factors influencing purchasing decision","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Regarding the association between socio-demographic and socioeconomic factors on purchasing decisions and WTP for meat products, it was observed that living area and gender have a positive significant effect on purchasing decisions but a negative significant effect on WTP (Table 5). Results of the logit model also indicate a negative correlation between age and purchasing decisions; a positive correlation was observed between age and WTP."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Although other variables were not found to affect purchasing decisions and WTP significantly, when the education level of the household head changes from low to high, the estimated coefficients of purchasing decisions increase by 2.3 times and of WTP by 2.9 times. Marital status and intrahousehold sharing of information were not found to affect purchasing decisions and WTP. Similarly, the employment status of a household head, household size, and the presence of children did not have a significant influence. Surprisingly, household annual income did not play a significant role."}]},{"head":"| Product attributes influencing purchasing decisions","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The results showed that although the respondents were dissatisfied about unhealthiness, harmful effect, high price, and low quantity, TA B L E 6 Ordered probit regression for product attributes determining consumer purchasing decision and willingness to pay for meat products these attributes did not exhibit a significant influence on their purchasing decisions and WTP for meat products but color, in-mouth texture, and availability were identified as significant attributes. The respondents selected availability as the only significant attribute for WTP (Table 6)."}]},{"head":"| D ISCUSS I ON","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":314,"text":"Consumers' preferences, behavior, and perception of meat and meat products depend on many factors, sensory (product-specific factor), psychological (individual factor), and marketing (environmental factor). These aspects might be altered owing to individual behavior, context, culture, available information (Font-i-Furnols & Guerrero, 2014), concerns, lifestyles, and socio-demographic characteristics (Bernués, Olaizola, & Corcoran, 2003;Grunert et al., 2004). Among sociodemographic variables, our findings demonstrated that, as expected, living area and gender had a positive significant effect on purchasing decisions but a negative significant effect for WTP. The positive significant effect of living area on purchasing decisions and WTP for meat products indicated that people living in rural areas make a decision to purchase meat products differently from those living in urban areas. While a higher rate of WTP among respondents for meat products was found in urban areas, price alone cannot be used to infer the actual WTP of respondents because they were aware of the artificial purchase situation. Consumers often claim that they would pay higher prices for certain product attributes than they actually do in real purchase situations (Feldmann & Hamm, 2015). For gender effect, Croson and Gneezy (2009) stated that men and women apparently vary in their emotional response to uncertain situations and this difference results in dissimilarities in risk taking. In food purchasing, women are more selective and tend to integrate multiple cues in the household more than men. In contrast, men are generally more confident and more willing to take risks in purchasing complex products/services than women (Erasmus, Donoghue, & Dobbelstein, 2014). Cavaliere, Ricci, and Banterle (2015) reported that women are more concerned about a healthy diet and have high levels of personal knowledge on food characteristics, and thus, they are more careful than men about what they eat. Dibb and Fitzpatrick (2014) also showed that men tend to consume more meat than women and are less willing to consider reducing their consumption."},{"index":2,"size":310,"text":"A negative correlation between age and purchasing decision suggests that younger people were less concerned in making decisions to purchase than older people. In contrast, a positive correlation between age and WTP shows that older and more experienced people tend to be more conscious about the meat products they buy. Although household income did not play a significant role in this study, pork and poultry products were mostly demanded by respondents from Kadutu and Bagira, while those from Ibanda rated beef and goat meat highly. This result can be explained by the fact that beef and goat are sold in large portions that require refrigeration: Pork and poultry are mostly sold in smaller portions that do not need it. People in Ibanda who have access to more electricity are likely to purchase and consume goat meat. Likewise, higher income and more educated consumers in Ibanda may prefer quality rather than quantity of products when compared to consumers in Kadutu and Bagira. This could be explained by the budget constraints of lower-income households that may be limited to cheaper choices (Morales & Higuchi, 2018). This is in agreement with the findings of Jolly, Bayard, Awuah, Fialor, and Williams (2009) and Sabran, Jamaluddin, Abdul Mutalib, and Abdul Rahman (2012) who mentioned that wealthier consumers are more likely to take precautions about food and are more willing to pay for high-quality products than those with lower incomes. Additionally, Silva, Caro, and Magana-Lemus (2016) also found that food-secure households with higher incomes purchase a wider variety of highquality food items than food-insecure households with lower incomes. However, this finding contrasts with the studies reported by Robert, Manolis, and Tanner (2003) who reported that lowerincome consumers are more concerned about the value of money and with not wasting their money on goods and services that do not meet their basic needs (Erasmus et al., 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"Moreover, it could be seen that the more educated people in Ibanda generally have higher incomes; thus, they might have more options than less educated people when purchasing meat products. Also, people in Ibanda might be sensitive to quality since meat products can be a risk factor for their health. In Ibanda, high blood pressure (57%), high cholesterol levels (21%), and incidence of diabetes (20%) were reported as a cause of specific dietary requirements, while in Kadutu and Bagira, the averages reported were 41% for high blood pressure, 16% for high cholesterol, and 14% for diabetes (data not shown). A study by Chen, Anders, and An (2013) showed that consumer willingness to purchase also increased with level of education; and the education level was positively linked to consumers' willingness to adopt new products (Huotilainen, Pirttila-Backman, & Tuorila, 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":181,"text":"However, these results are opposed to those of Dellaert, Arentze, and Timmermans (2008) who reported that less educated consumers might lack the cognitive ability to comprehend the implications of their purchasing decisions and might subsequently not be bothered about all functional and quality-related issues compared with more educated consumers. The meat consumption trends in Eastern DRC seem differ from the European trend. For example, Germans with higher education are more likely to consume less meat or follow a vegetarian diet than lower educated people (Pfeiler & Egloff, 2018). Luning, Marcelis, and Jongen (2002) mentioned that quality represents the features/properties of a product that result in satisfying the consumers' physiological and/or psychological needs. Dransfield (2005) also suggested that at least two attributes of appearance are normally used by consumers in quality judgements on meat. For instance, cut type, color, and fat structure and levels have been observed as influential in calculating quality expectations (Grunert et al., 2004). When the influence of product attributes on purchasing decisions in this study is considered, quality aspects such as color and in-mouth texture cannot be ignored."},{"index":5,"size":126,"text":"Color as an intrinsic quality attribute influences consumers' expectations of meat quality at the moment of purchase (Carpenter, Cornforth, & Whittier, 2001;Font-i-Furnols & Guerrero, 2014;Gracia & de Magistris, 2013;Verbeke et al., 2005;West, Larue, Touil, & Scott, 2001), probably because consumers normally use color to indicate wholesomeness or contamination of meat products (Mancini, 2009;Owusu-Sekyere et al., 2014). On the other hand, eating quality and in-mouth texture are found to be highly correlated with the overall experienced quality, attitude to purchase, and WTP for meat products (Lusk et al., 2001;Banović, Grunert, Barreira, & Aguiar Fontes, 2009). Robbins et al. (2003) reported consumers were most concerned with color, fat content, price, and type of cut when purchasing beef, whereas texture and flavor were most important in determining eating satisfaction."},{"index":6,"size":235,"text":"The findings from this study also suggest that availability (marketing factor) is one of the most important attributes that influences purchasing decisions and WTP of meat products. Availability is one reason that can explain, for instance, the lack of access to markets and market information that had a negative influence on consumers' WTP and purchase behavior toward food products (Zundel and Kilcher, 2007;Young, Hwang, McDonald, & Oates, 2010). Young et al. (2010) also mentioned that consumers generally do not like to spend much time searching for food products although perception, a psychological motivator for purchasing meat products, affects the process for consumers in selecting, organizing, and interpreting information related to meat products (Kotler, Armstrong, Harris, & Piercy, 2013). This factor is important in shaping consumers' acceptance, purchase, and future consumption, as stated by Grunert, Verbeke, Kügler, Saeed, and Scholderer (2011). The results in this study exhibited a significant effect on consumers' perception in both purchasing as presented in Figures 3,4), it appears that the higher the income, the better the consideration that is given to nutrition, harmful effect, and availability as important factors on purchasing decisions and WTP. This result agrees with the findings of Henchion, McCarthy, Resconi, and Troy (2014) who pointed out that the influence of factors such as income and price are likely to decline over time so that other factors, such as quality, will become more important in purchasing meat products."}]},{"head":"| CON CLUS IONS","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"This exploratory study investigated the preference and WTP for meat products of Congolese consumers in Eastern DRC. The study revealed that women and older consumers from urban areas were more likely to purchase meat products. Although the respondents were expected/hypothesized to rate healthiness, quantity, and the low price of products, consumers' decisions to purchase meat products are more often based on sensory factors such as color and in-mouth texture as well as on marketing factors such as availability. Availability played a prominent/key role on their WTP. However, nutrition, harmful effect, and availability tended to be taken into consideration in higher income groups."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"This result is related to personal WTP and is a consequence of consumers' poor access to information about meat quality."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"Therefore, public efforts are needed to address knowledge gaps through awareness campaigns that promote and disseminate information about meat quality. In summary, the empirical findings presented here reveal new and essential insights into consumers' preferences and their purchase of meat products (in a region where food insecurity is prevalent). These insights provide practical insights for actors in the meat value chain to better satisfy consumers' expectations, demands, and needs. The findings can be used to identify opportunities for livestock farmers to commercialize livestock enterprises for income and employment generation, thus contributing to improving nutrition and alleviating poverty. These insights can also be of relevance to countries with similar socioeconomic characteristics in low-income countries."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Note. *, **, and *** indicate statistical significance at the 0.1, 0.05, and 0.01 levels, respectively. TA B L E 2 (Continued) TA B L E 3 Household consumption levels, purchased quantity, and price of meat products "},{"text":" 2017 in three communities (Ibanda, Bagira, and Kadutu) of Bukavu city Eastern DRC. A multistage random sampling procedure was used to select respondents for the interviews. In the first stage the three communities were purposively selected, based on the consumers' different socioeconomic backgrounds. The list of Quarters (subunits) in the community was first obtained from the Provincial Inspection for Agriculture and Livestock (IPAPEL). Within each community, a list of Quarters was generated, and a representative proportion was randomly selected. The Quarters were Ndendere, Nyalukemba, and Panzi for Ibanda; Nkafu, Mosala, and Kasali for Kadutu; and Quarter A, Quarter B, Quarter C, and Quarter D for Bagira. Within each "},{"text":" monthly, 2 months, quarterly, biennially, annually. b Value is the mean (standard deviation). *, **, and *** indicate statistical significance at the 0.1, 0.05, and 0.01 levels, respectively. "},{"text":" decisions and WTP. Although income was not significant in the linear regression model, it was found that income played a significant role in WTP as analyzed by ordered multinomial logistic regression. From the household income results (gg plot F I G U R E 3 Influence of product attributes on consumers' purchasing decision according to the household income fluctuation "},{"text":" Meat production in the Democratic Republic of Congo by type of livestock. Source: FAOSTAT (2018)  100,000                           100,000  90,000                           90,000  80,000                           80,000 Quantity (Tonnes) 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000                           Quantity (Tonnes)30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000  20,000                           20,000  10,000                           10,000  0                           0  1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 1961196319651967196919711973197519771979198119831985198719891991199319951997199920012003200520072009201120132015               Year            Year       Beef   Chicken   Goat   Pork    Game  BeefChickenGoatPorkGame                         120,000  120,000                         100,000  100,000                       Value of imports (US$) 40,000 60,000 80,000  Value of imports (US$)40,000 60,000 80,000                         20,000  20,000                           0  0                           1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 19501960197019801990200020102020                             Year Year                             Beef Chicken Pork BeefChickenPork                       F I G U R E 2 Value of meat imports (US$1,000) in the Democratic F I G U R E 2 Value of meat imports (US$1,000) in the Democratic                       Republic of Congo between 1961 and 2016. Source: FAOSTAT Republic of Congo between 1961 and 2016. Source: FAOSTAT                       (2018)   (2018)  "},{"text":"Variables Community Total χ 2 p-value Ibanda (N = 99) Kadutu (N = 110) Bagira (N = 100)  TA B L E 1 Description of variables used in the model TA B L E 2 Socio-demographic characteristics of samples in Bukavu city, Eastern DRC Variable Description  TA B L E 1 Description of variables used in the model TA B L E 2 Socio-demographic characteristics of samples in Bukavu city, Eastern DRC Variable Description    Living area 1 if rural, 0 otherwise  Living area1 if rural, 0 otherwise    Gender  1 if female, 0 otherwise  Gender1 if female, 0 otherwise    Age  Years  AgeYears Living area (%)   Marital status 1 if married, 0 otherwise  Living area (%)Marital status1 if married, 0 otherwise Rural 0.0 0.9 Education level of 1.1 0 if none/primary school, 0.6 57.06 <0.001*** Rural0.00.9Education level of 1.10 if none/primary school, 0.657.06<0.001*** Urban Peri-urban Sex (%) 100.0 0.0 92.1 7.0 household head 64.9 Employment status of household head 34.0 1 if junior/secondary 85.7 2 if college/university 13.7 1 if employed/work, 0 otherwise Urban Peri-urban Sex (%)100.0 0.092.1 7.0household head 64.9 Employment status of household head 34.01 if junior/secondary 85.7 2 if college/university 13.7 1 if employed/work, 0 otherwise Male 48.0 38.3 Household size 44.6 Number of members in a household 43.6 2.15 0.341 Male48.038.3Household size 44.6Number of members in a household 43.6 2.150.341 Female 52.0 61.7 Children 55.4 1 if having children in the household, 0 otherwise 56.4 Female52.061.7Children55.41 if having children in the household, 0 otherwise 56.4 Age (years) a 35.6 (12.6) 37.0 (15.8) Household annual 37.2 (11.2) Household income for last 12 months (USD) 36.6 (13.5) 0.572 Age (years) a35.6 (12.6)37.0 (15.8)Household annual 37.2 (11.2)Household income for last 12 months (USD) 36.6 (13.5)0.572 Household composition (%)  income    Household composition (%)income Head 15.9 20.3 Nutritious 18.2 1 if nutritious of products influences on purchasing decision/ 18.1 53.99 <0.001*** Head15.920.3Nutritious 18.21 if nutritious of products influences on purchasing decision/ 18.1 53.99 <0.001*** Spouse 13.6 15.8  14.0 willingness to pay, 0 otherwise 14.5 Spouse13.615.814.0willingness to pay, 0 otherwise 14.5 Son/daughter Grandchild Hired worker 54.9 1.6 4.4 46.9 1.9 5.1 Color Texture 60.2 3.1 0.5 1 if color of products influences on purchasing decision/willingness 54.1 to pay, 0 otherwise 2.2 1 if texture of products influences on purchasing decision/ willingness to pay, 0 otherwise 3.3 Son/daughter Grandchild Hired worker54.9 1.6 4.446.9 1.9 5.1Color Texture60.2 3.1 0.51 if color of products influences on purchasing decision/willingness 54.1 to pay, 0 otherwise 2.2 1 if texture of products influences on purchasing decision/ willingness to pay, 0 otherwise 3.3 brother/sister) Other (parent, 9.6 10.0 Taste 4.0 to pay, 0 otherwise 1 if taste of products influences on purchasing decision/willingness 7.8 brother/sister) Other (parent,9.610.0Taste4.0to pay, 0 otherwise 1 if taste of products influences on purchasing decision/willingness 7.8 (number) a Household size 6.4 (2.8) 6.1 (2.1) Harmful effect 6.2 (2.2) willingness to pay, 0 otherwise 1 if harmful effect of products influences on purchasing decision/ 6.2 (2.4) 0.411 (number) a Household size6.4 (2.8)6.1 (2.1)Harmful effect 6.2 (2.2)willingness to pay, 0 otherwise 1 if harmful effect of products influences on purchasing decision/ 6.2 (2.4) 0.411 Marital status of respondents (%)  Price  1 if price of products influences on purchasing decision/willingness Marital status of respondents (%)Price1 if price of products influences on purchasing decision/willingness Never married 26.0 33.0  16.0 to pay, 0 otherwise 25.0 21.09 0.021* Never married26.033.016.0to pay, 0 otherwise 25.021.090.021* Married living 66.0 48.7 Availability 72.3 1 if availability of products influences on purchasing decision/ 62.3 Married living66.048.7Availability 72.31 if availability of products influences on purchasing decision/ 62.3 with spouse     willingness to pay, 0 otherwise with spousewillingness to pay, 0 otherwise Married but 2.0 7.0 Quantity 3.2 1 if quantity of products influences on purchasing decision/ 4.0 Married but2.07.0Quantity3.21 if quantity of products influences on purchasing decision/ 4.0 spouse away     willingness to pay, 0 otherwise spouse awaywillingness to pay, 0 otherwise Other 6.0 11.3 Perception 8.5 1 if perception of products influences on purchasing decision/ 8.7 Other6.011.3Perception 8.51 if perception of products influences on purchasing decision/ 8.7 (separated,     willingness to pay, 0 otherwise (separated,willingness to pay, 0 otherwise divorced,       divorced, widow/       widow/ widower)       widower) Household 8.8 (6.5) 8.0 (5.5)  7.9 (5.7) 8.2 (5.9)  0.027* Household8.8 (6.5)8.0 (5.5)7.9 (5.7)8.2 (5.9)0.027* education       education (years) a       (years) a Education level of respondents (%)      Education level of respondents (%) None 8.0 17.9  12.9 12.9 50.76 <0.001*** None8.017.912.912.950.76<0.001*** Primary 10.0 25.9  17.2 17.7  Primary10.025.917.217.7 Secondary 24.0 40.2  44.1 36.1  Secondary24.040.244.136.1 Graduate 27.0 8.0  15.1 16.7  Graduate27.08.015.116.7 Bachelor 26.0 7.1  10.7 14.6  Bachelor26.07.110.714.6 Other (master, 5.0 0.9  0.0 2.0  Other (master,5.00.90.02.0 doctorate)       doctorate) Main occupation of respondents (%) (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2005). The main ex- rehabilitation of some cattle farms that were destroyed by the Main occupation of respondents (%) (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2005). The main ex-rehabilitation of some cattle farms that were destroyed by the Crop farming porters of meat to the DRC are South Africa, India, and European 1.0 3.6 4.3 3.0 wars, particularly in Katanga Province and North and South 32.51 <0.001*** Crop farming porters of meat to the DRC are South Africa, India, and European 1.0 3.6 4.33.0 wars, particularly in Katanga Province and North and South 32.51 <0.001*** Self-employed Union (EU) countries like the Netherlands that is the largest ex-26.0 8.0 7.2 13.7 Kivu (Goma and Masisi) in the Northeast bordering Rwanda Self-employed Union (EU) countries like the Netherlands that is the largest ex-26.0 8.0 7.213.7 Kivu (Goma and Masisi) in the Northeast bordering Rwanda business/ porter of pork together with Belgium and Germany. As shown in and Burundi as well as the increased consumption and prefer- business/ porter of pork together with Belgium and Germany. As shown inand Burundi as well as the increased consumption and prefer- services Figure 2, the main imported meat is chicken followed by pork. ence of game (Yamaguchi, 2015). Another contributory factor services Figure 2, the main imported meat is chicken followed by pork.ence of game (Yamaguchi, 2015). Another contributory factor Meat imports have generally declined from the 1980s to date. The decline in beef imports can be linked to the deliberate ef- is increased concerns of meat quality especially contamination (Continues) with salmonella, which is a threat to human health (Mahangaiko, Meat imports have generally declined from the 1980s to date. The decline in beef imports can be linked to the deliberate ef-is increased concerns of meat quality especially contamination (Continues) with salmonella, which is a threat to human health (Mahangaiko, fort of government to promote cattle production through the Mabi, Bakana, & Nyonggombe, 2015). Makelele et al. (2015) in fort of government to promote cattle production through theMabi, Bakana, & Nyonggombe, 2015). Makelele et al. (2015) in  "},{"text":"Variables Community Total χ 2 p-value Ibanda (N = 99) Kadutu (N = 110) Bagira (N = 100)  Domestic work 7.3 16.2 18.7 14.1   Domestic work7.316.218.714.1 in own home       in own home Unemployed 12.5 19.6 20.2 17.4   Unemployed12.519.620.217.4 Student/pupil 20.8 8.0 6.5 11.8   Student/pupil20.88.06.511.8 Other (livestock 32.4 44.6 43.1 40.0   Other (livestock32.444.643.140.0 keeping)       keeping) Household income 528.0 (77.9) 201.6 (16.0) 190.3 (15.3) 306.6 (16.5) 84.34 <0.001*** Household income528.0 (77.9)201.6 (16.0)190.3 (15.3)306.6 (16.5)84.34<0.001*** (US$/month) a       (US$/month) a Main source of household income (%)      Main source of household income (%) Crop sales 0.0 1.8 4.4 2.1 46.26 <0.001*** Crop sales0.01.84.42.146.26<0.001*** Sales of 2.2 0.9 2.2 1.8   Sales of2.20.92.21.8 livestock       livestock Food processing 7.6 0.9 6.7 5.1   Food processing7.60.96.75.1 Petty trading 12.0 37.2 36.7 28.6   Petty trading12.037.236.728.6 Craftsmanship 6.5 0.9 5.6 4.3   Craftsmanship6.50.95.64.3 Part-time labor 17.4 10.6 11.1 13.0   Part-time labor17.410.611.113.0 Permanent 47.8 28.3 26.7 34.3   Permanent47.828.326.734.3 employment       employment Pension/ 4.3 8.9 2.2 5.1   Pension/4.38.92.25.1 remittances       remittances Other 2.2 10.6 4.4 5.7   Other2.210.64.45.7 Household expenditure (%)      Household expenditure (%) Staple foods 51.0 33.3 47.1 43.8 41.67 <0.001*** Staple foods51.033.347.143.841.67<0.001*** and snacks       and snacks School fee 14.3 14.2 11.5 13.3   School fee14.314.211.513.3 Medical fee 15.3 30.6 25.3 23.7   Medical fee15.330.625.323.7 Water 4.1 5.6 4.6 4.8   Water4.15.64.64.8 Transport 1.0 2.7 5.7 3.2   Transport1.02.75.73.2 Accommodation 4.1 7.2 1.1 4.1   Accommodation4.17.21.14.1 Income spending 45.0 (17.4) 51.6 (14.7) 48.1 (17.8) 48.2 (16.7) 2.93 0.018* Income spending45.0 (17.4)51.6 (14.7)48.1 (17.8)48.2 (16.7)2.930.018* on foods (%) a       on foods (%) a Main source of purchasing foods (%)      Main source of purchasing foods (%) Fresh market 29.9 20.7 9.6 20.1 16.58 0.034* Fresh market29.920.79.620.116.580.034* Supermarket 25.8 16.2 22.3 21.4   Supermarket25.816.222.321.4 Direct from 27.8 45.9 47.9 40.6   Direct from27.845.947.940.6 farm       farm Street 16.5 17.1 20.2 17.9   Street16.517.120.217.9  "},{"text":" TA B L E 5 Logistic regression for social factors determining consumer purchasing decisions and willingness to pay for meat products  Purchasing decision Willingness to pay Purchasing decisionWillingness to pay Variables Estimate Pr (>|z|) Estimate Pr (>|z|) VariablesEstimatePr (>|z|)EstimatePr (>|z|) (Intercept) −0.228 0.566 −0.268 0.502 (Intercept)−0.2280.566−0.2680.502 Living area 0.761 ** 0.003 −0.545 * 0.022 Living area0.761 ** 0.003−0.545 *0.022 Gender 0.059 * 0.048 0.371* 0.026 Gender0.059 * 0.0480.371*0.026 Age 0.016* 0.013 0.007* 0.041 Age0.016* 0.0130.007*0.041 Marital status −0.059 0.737 −0.344 0.054 Marital status−0.0590.737−0.3440.054 Low education level 0.052 0.791 0.110 0.581 Low education level0.0520.7910.1100.581 (junior/secondary)     (junior/secondary) High education level 0.120 0.926 0.322 0.140 High education level0.1200.9260.3220.140 (college/university)     (college/university) Employment status −0.228 0.164 −0.079 0.637 Employment status−0.2280.164−0.0790.637 of household head     of household head Household size 0.024 0.467 −0.067 0.060 Household size0.0240.467−0.0670.060 Household with −0.001 0.997 0.511 0.057 Household with−0.0010.9970.5110.057 children     children Household annual 0.000 0.360 0.000 0.182 Household annual0.0000.3600.0000.182 income     income AIC 397.6  388.5  AIC397.6388.5 Log likelihood −187.8  −183.3  Log likelihood−187.8−183.3 Chi-square 23.8  19.4  Chi-square23.819.4 Chisquare 0.008**  0.036*  Chisquare0.008**0.036* probability     probability Pseudo-R 2 0.0596  0.0502  Pseudo-R 20.05960.0502 Note.*, **, and *** indicate statistical significance at the 0.1, 0.05, and Note.*, **, and *** indicate statistical significance at the 0.1, 0.05, and 0.01 levels, respectively.    0.01 levels, respectively.  "},{"text":" Note. *, **, and *** indicate statistical significance at the 0.1, 0.05, and 0.01 levels, respectively.  Purchasing decision   Willingness to pay   Purchasing decisionWillingness to pay Product attributes Estimate Odd ratio p-value Estimate Odd ratio p-value Product attributesEstimateOdd ratiop-valueEstimateOdd ratiop-value Nutrition 0.309 1.362 0.059 0.213 1.238 0.188 Nutrition0.3091.3620.0590.2131.2380.188 Color −0.512 0.599 0.002** −0.163 0.850 0.314 Color−0.5120.5990.002**−0.1630.8500.314 Texture −0.399 0.671 0.019* −0.313 0.731 0.063 Texture−0.3990.6710.019*−0.3130.7310.063 Taste −0.248 0.780 0.134 −0.148 0.863 0.369 Taste−0.2480.7800.134−0.1480.8630.369 Harmful effect −0.100 0.905 0.553 −0.287 0.751 0.089 Harmful effect−0.1000.9050.553−0.2870.7510.089 Price 0.165 1.180 0.313 0.039 1.040 0.810 Price0.1651.1800.3130.0391.0400.810 Availability −0.526 0.591 0.002** −0.459 0.632 0.005** Availability−0.5260.5910.002**−0.4590.6320.005** Quantity −0.142 0.867 0.389 −0.233 0.792 0.150 Quantity−0.1420.8670.389−0.2330.7920.150 Perception 4.277 71.996 0.000*** 4.279 72.145 0.000*** Perception4.27771.9960.000***4.27972.1450.000*** Income 0.949 2.582 0.171 0.918 2.504 0.029* Income0.9492.5820.1710.9182.5040.029*  "}],"sieverID":"66455a7c-1e2a-4907-a2aa-873b2ec13590","abstract":"From the perspective of healthy nutrition and well-being, meat is a good source of protein, minerals (iron, zinc, calcium), and vitamins (A, B12 and other B vitamins) (Pereira & Vicente, 2013;Randolph et al., 2007). As part of a nutrition transition (Popkin, Adair, & Ng, 2012) and livestock revolution (Delgado, 2003), growth of meat consumption in developing countries is likely to increase. According to FAO (2014), average annual consumption of meat in developed countries is 75.5 kg/inhabitant, while consumption of 33.9 kg/inhabitant is estimated in developing countries. Worldwide, levels of meat consumption are projected to increase by 72% in 2030 compared to the situation in 2000 (Fiala, 2008). In sub-Saharan Africa, the demand for meat products is also growing rapidly, increasing by 140% between 2000 to 2030 (FAO, 2011)."}

data/part_1/016de34c863fbe6eb4b5d606d3a2e6b8.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"016de34c863fbe6eb4b5d606d3a2e6b8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d5e6333b-4220-4d91-ac48-d94af39cd1f4/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Collection Guides pratiques du CTA, N o 10 Pour de plus amples informations, prière de contacter","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Étendez une couche de 5 cm de gravillons ou de petites pierres sur le fond de la planche de • semis pour améliorer le drainage. Ajoutez une couche de 5 cm du mélange standard de sol au-dessus des gravillons. •"}]},{"head":"Semis des graines","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Pour des graines de grande taille, comme celles de maïs, le semis doit être fait dans des • sillons équidistants de 5-10 cm, tracés suivant la longueur de la planche."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Les graines plus petites, comme celles de niébé, doivent être semées à la volée sur la planche "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Sol En Afrique orientale, beaucoup de gens dépendent des forêts et des arbres pour satisfaire divers besoins. Avec des populations croissantes, ces ressources sont en train de s'épuiser. De nombreux paysans souhaiteraient planter des arbres, mais il leur est diffi cile d'obtenir des plants de haute qualité. La mise en place d'une pépinière d'arbres peut aider à résoudre le problème lié à cette demande et servir aussi de source de revenus supplémentaires.Avantages des pépinières d'sarbresSource de revenus par la vente des jeunes plants.• Production de plants de taille uniforme donnant lieu à des peuplements réguliers. • Disponibilité des plants quand vous et vos clients en avez besoin. • Production de plants sains. • Elles peuvent être établies sur de petites parcelles. • Elles peuvent valoriser des terres marginales pour la production végétale. • Coûts de mise en place peu élevés. • La plantation des arbres comporte beaucoup d'avantages. Augmentation de la production de produits tels que bois de chauffage, charbon de bois, • fruits, bois de construction, perches, fourrage et objets décoratifs. Rôle de brise-vent. • Amélioration de l'environnement par la réduction de l'érosion et l'accroissement de la • fertilité du sol. Procédé Choix du site Un bon site pour installer une pépinière devra avoir les caractéristiques suivantes : approvisionnement sûr en eau, proche du site ; • approvisionnement en terre ; • accès facile au marché pour de jeunes plants. • En outre, il est souhaitable que le site : soit bien drainé, avec une pente douce ; • dispose d'un ombrage naturel, comme des arbres, pour protéger les ouvriers de la pépinière • contre le soleil. 2 Un bon sol de pépinière peut s'obtenir en mélangeant : 3 cuvettes de sol collecté en dessous de la couverture végétale, comme dans les forêts ou sous • de grands arbres ; 2 cuvettes de sol argileux ; • 1 cuvette de sable. • Pour tester la qualité du mélange, roulez dans votre main un échantillon de ce sol humecté mais pas trop humide. Un bon mélange devra pouvoir se rouler et conserver sa forme mais casser si on le courbe. S'il ne se casse pas, le sol contient trop d'argile. • S'il tombe en morceaux avant que vous puissiez le rouler, il contient trop de sable. Pour • assurer une meilleure fertilité du sol, ajoutez une cuvette de fumier animal ou de compost tamisé à 3-4 cuvettes du mélange standard. Préparation de la planche de semis De préférence, installez la planche de semis sur un terrain en pente douce. • La largeur de la planche ne devra pas excéder 1 m afi n de faciliter le travail. La longueur de la • planche importe peu. Creusez une tranchée d'environ 10 cm de profondeur tout autour de la planche de semis. • Placez au fond de la tranchée de • grands morceaux de bambou ou de bois, ou bien des pierres plates, jusqu'à une hauteur d'au moins 15 cm au-dessus du sol. "},{"text":" • de semis, et ensuite enfoncées dans le sol à l'aide d'une planche plate. Les graines très petites, comme celles de sésame, devront être préalablement mélangées • avec du sable ou de la terre pour obtenir un espacement suffi sant lors de la germination. Couvrez les graines d'une couche mince de terre ou de sable fi n d'environ 5 mm d'épaisseur. • Arrosez deux fois par jour (le matin et tard dans l'après-midi). • Repiquage des plants Le repiquage est le transfert de jeunes plants de la planche de semis dans des pots. Le repiquage doit avoir lieu lorsque les plants ont trois ou quatre vraies feuilles. Choisissez un jour où il y a des nuages ou une heure tardive de l'après-midi, afi n d'éviter que • les plants ne fanent à cause du soleil. Arrosez les plants bien avant le repiquage. • Sortez les plants du sol en insérant un petit bâton plat passé en dessous et soulevez-les • doucement de la planche de semis. Prenez soin de ne pas casser les petites racines. Placez immédiatement les plants sur un plateau contenant de l'eau pour éviter qu'ils ne fanent. • 4 Mettez les plants dans des pots fabriqués à partir des matériaux locaux disponibles, tels que • des feuilles de bananier ou des tiges de bambou, ou bien des sachets en polythène noir, spécialement conçus pour cet usage. Remplissez les pots avec le mélange de sol et faites un trou au milieu du pot à l'aide d'un bâton • de la taille d'un crayon. La profondeur du trou devra légèrement dépasser la longueur des racines des plants. Introduisez délicatement le plant dans le trou puis remplissez celui-ci avec de la terre de façon • qu'il n'y ait aucun espace vide autour des racines. Compactez doucement. Placez les plants rempotés dans la pépinière à l'ombre. • Arrosez deux fois par jour pendant les journées • sèches et chaudes pour empêcher les jeunes plants de se faner. Taillez les racines qui se développent en dehors • des pots pour qu'elles ne se cassent pas quand les pots sont déplacés lors de la transplantation. Sarclez régulièrement pour éviter la compétition • entre les jeunes plants et les mauvaises herbes. Clôturez la pépinière pour prévenir des dégâts • causés par les animaux, les chèvres et les poules. Contrôlez la présence d'insectes et de maladies • comme la fonte de semis qui peuvent détruire les plants. La fonte de semis est provoquée essentiellement par un surnombre de jeunes plants. Pour parer à ceci, démariez les plants pour permettre une meilleure aération. Traitez les plants avec des pesticides appropriés en cas de problèmes parasitaires. Sevrez les jeunes plants en réduisant graduellement l'ombrage et le nombre d'arrosages. Cela • leur permet de s'habituer aux conditions naturelles avant leur transplantation. La majorité des jeunes plants seront prêts pour leur transplantation en milieu réel à l'âge de deux à six mois, selon le type d'arbre. Après le sevrage, les jeunes plants peuvent être transplantés dans des sites bien aménagés, de • préférence au début de la saison pluvieuse. Prenez soin de protéger les plants contre les herbivores comme les chèvres. Prélèvement des boutures Le bouturage permet aux paysans de produire des jeunes plants d'arbres pour lesquels il est diffi cile d'obtenir des graines. Parmi les espèces d'arbres qui devront être propagées par boutures, il y a le thé, l'euphorbe et l'arbre à pain. Prélevez les boutures sur les • branches ligneuses de la partie inférieure de la couronne, près du tronc principal. Ne coupez pas le tronc principal. Les boutures doivent avoir environ • 15-25 cm de longueur et 10-20 mm de diamètre. Les boutures doivent présenter au • moins deux bourgeons mais de préférence trois ou quatre. Enlevez les feuilles des boutures. • Plantez les boutures en position • inclinée dans le lit de la pépinière ou dans un pot. Voir dessin ci dessous. Prenez bien soin de vos jeunes plants Les dispositions suivantes sont recommandées pour garantir une bonne performance des jeunes plants : Construisez l'ombrage de la • pépinière suivant la direction estouest pour protéger les jeunes plants contre le soleil. L'ombrage protégera également les plants contre des vents forts et les grosses averses. Ne serrez pas trop les plants sur la • planche de semis afi n de réduire au maximum la compétition pour des ressources comme les nutriments et l'eau. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"8bee3561-eec6-4c53-be7b-49d9ecf3cf37","abstract":"L'information contenue dans ce guide peut être librement reproduite à condition de mentionner la source. Pour toute reproduction à des fi ns commerciales, l'autorisation préalable du CTA est nécessaire."}

data/part_1/017a33239a31e98c82db5e658086d0ad.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"017a33239a31e98c82db5e658086d0ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8086cbe0-fab2-4bc7-bd91-535c57bb8840/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers in Benin","keywords":["innovation platform","market access","paddy rice","impact assessment","Benin"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"In perfectly competitive markets, where producers and marketers are assumed to trade goods at publicly known prices, the allocation of goods in the economy is efficient. However, the reality of the sub-Saharan African (SSA) agricultural context is characterized by information asymmetries among various actors [1,2]. Smallholder farmers, who are mostly in rural areas, often do not have access to information regarding prices in urban areas. They mostly sell at farm-gate prices to local traders who do have access to price and information prevailing in other markets. Because of market imperfections, smallholder rice farmers in SSA face real difficulties in selling their products in the market. In some cases, it is the markets that do not exist, and in others, there are high transaction costs of participation [3]. In the case of food crops such as rice, the constraint of market access is more pronounced for smallholder producers in SSA than in other parts of the world. Smallholder rice producers receive low prices because they lack information on price and technologies, lack connection to established market actors, engage with distorted input and output markets, and lack access to both consumption and production credits."},{"index":2,"size":161,"text":"Transaction cost economics stipulates that information asymmetry is the main reason why markets perform poorly and why transaction costs are high [4]. There is increasing evidence that acting collectively offers one way for smallholders to participate more efficiently in the market. Collective actions have different forms but mainly involve collective marketing. Collective action refers to action taken by a group either directly or indirectly in pursuit of members' shared interest [5] and occurs when people collaborate in joint action and decisions to accomplish an outcome that involves their common interest. Modern theory of collective action was developed to overcome free-rider problems and to design cooperative solutions for the management of common resources. The notion of collective action has been applied to group activities to enhance production and marketing of agricultural and food products [6,7]. Thus, collective action is operationalized as an action by members of a group who come together to share market knowledge, sell together, and develop business opportunities [8]."},{"index":3,"size":294,"text":"In Benin, collective actions through innovation platforms (IPs) were developed as an organizational arrangement to link producers with traders and the private sector more efficiently by Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) and the national agricultural research institute (INRAB). Collective marketing actions in the rice value chain in Benin involve activities such as training of producer groups and other actors in value chain and business development practices, group dynamics, financial management, conflict management, and group marketing. This resulted in the creation and consolidation of group activities, increased negotiation and bargaining skills, and enhanced leadership and entrepreneurial capacity of producer groups. This has led to collective marketing of rice among other activities [9]. Collective marketing is a marketing system that coordinates agricultural production while lowering transaction costs. Collective marketing has the advantages of reducing transaction costs, ensuring a fair income for producers, improving product quality, and improving access to credit [10]. However, collective marketing among farmers is difficult to organize, coordinate, and manage. Organizing farmers face challenges such as establishing rules to guide the operations of groups, securing commitments on the part of the group members to abide by collectively agreed rules, and monitoring as well as enforcing compliance with the rules [10]. The literature has proposed guidelines and conditions to enhance the success of collective marketing. For instance, it is argued that, for it to be effective, voluntary action and cooperation among farmers are important for creating sustainable livelihood options [11]. Whereas much literature and many case studies exist on collective action as a means for increasing smallholder farmers' market access, these studies are most often qualitative and context specific [8,12]. This study aimed to identify the determinants of participation in collective rice marketing in Benin as well as its impact on income and food security."},{"index":4,"size":140,"text":"The contribution of this chapter to the literature is twofold. First, this study attempts to quantify the impact of the collective marketing on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. It is important to assess whether collective marketing adopted by the members of IPs helped improve their livelihood. Indeed, existing empirical studies have demonstrated the effect of collective marketing only through success stories, without an assessment of the effect of the participation in collective marketing on livelihood [11][12][13]. Second, this study identified both factors affecting the participation of smallholder rice farmers in collective marketing and the quantity of rice sales through the group. Indeed, factors affecting participation in collective marketing are important for both policymakers and development partners to efficiently increase market access of smallholder farmers. In addition, these factors offer opportunities for effective implementation of collective action to benefit smallholder farmers."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Assessing the impact assessment of collective marketing","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The objective of this study was to estimate what would have been the average situation of rice producers who participated in collective marketing if they would have not participated. Unfortunately, we cannot observe these two situations for the same farmer. One cannot observe what would have been the outcome for a participant if he did not participate. This missing value is known as the counterfactual and the impossibility of observing it constitutes the key challenge of impact assessment [14]. To resolve this problem, two approaches are proposed in the impact assessment literature, namely, the \"naive\" approach and the statistical and econometric approach."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"The \"naive\" approach directly compares participants and nonparticipants and is potentially biased [15] because it does not account for self-selection in the participation in collective marketing. Consequently, the statistical and econometric approach based on the counterfactual is used to evaluate the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice on income and household food security of rice farmers. In the counterfactual framework approach, some parameters of interest are defined as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"• ATE: Average treatment effect measures the average impact of an innovation on the entire population. It also represents the expected impact on a person selected randomly from the population."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"• ATE1: Average treatment effect on the treated determines the average impact of an innovation in the subpopulation of the treated. It also represents the expected impact on a person selected randomly from the subpopulation of the treated."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"• ATE0: Average treatment effect on nontreated is the average potential impact of an innovation in the subpopulation of the nontreated. It also represents the potential impact on a person selected randomly from the subpopulation of the nontreated."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"• LATE: Local average treatment effect is defined as the average impact of the treatment on persons who participate only after one or more of the participation determinants have been changed [16]. This subpopulation is named \"compliers.\""},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"To overcome the fundamental problem of the impact assessment (i.e., the inability to observe the counterfactual) and to have reliable results, two classes of methods are proposed in the literature: experimental methods and nonexperimental methods."},{"index":8,"size":85,"text":"Experimental methods entail gathering a group of persons who have agreed to participate in the treatment (collective marketing) and assigning them randomly to two groups: treatment group and non-beneficiaries group (control group). Participants in the experiment are therefore selected randomly and all differences with nonparticipants are only due to treatment. For this reason, experimental approaches are generally considered as being more reliable (unbiased estimates) and as giving the easiest-to-interpret results. However, in the case of social phenomena, the use of this method poses ethical challenges."},{"index":9,"size":33,"text":"Therefore, economists use the nonexperimental approach, relying on economic and econometric theories to guide the analysis and minimize potential bias in impact assessment. Parameters can be estimated by either parametric or semi-parametric methods."},{"index":10,"size":64,"text":"Suppose a binary variable is A i that indicates participation of a farmer i in collective marketing of rice with A i ¼ 1 for participants and A i ¼ 0 for nonparticipants. And y 1i and y 0i are two variables representing the level of outcome indicators (income and food security) for individual i if they participated or not in collective marketing, respectively."},{"index":11,"size":11,"text":"The semi-parametric method is based on the conditional independence assumption [17]."},{"index":12,"size":48,"text":"According to this assumption, the adoption variable A i and the couple y i1 ; y i0 ÀÁ are independent to each other, given observable characteristics X i . This approach is used to reduce counterfactualrelated bias. Under the semi-parametric method, ATE and ATE1 are given by [16]:"},{"index":13,"size":53,"text":"where px ðÞis the conditional probability of participation in the collective marketing (i.e., the propensity score); A i indicates participation in collective marketing of rice with A i ¼ 1 for participants and A i ¼ 0 for nonparticipants; y is the outcome (income and food security); and E is the mathematical expectation."},{"index":14,"size":136,"text":"The parametric method comprises simple regression, propensity score regression, and the use of instrumental variables. The instrumental variable is used in this study because it helps avoid bias due to both observable and non-observable characteristics [18,19]. This method supposes the existence of at least one instrument (Z) which influences the participation in collective marketing but not the outcome variables (income and food security). In other words, the instrument influences income and food security only through participation to collective marketing. In this study, \"knowledge of the existence of collective marketing\" is used as an instrumental variable. Indeed, knowledge of the existence of collective marketing affects the participation in collective marketing, but it is directly related neither to income nor to food security of the household. Therefore, it can be used as an instrument to estimate the LATE."},{"index":15,"size":10,"text":"LATE through the instrumental variable method is estimated by [18]:"},{"index":16,"size":82,"text":"Two forms of estimates are used in calculating LATE. They differ in whether or not the instrumental variable Z (knowledge of collective marketing) is completely random. Wald estimator is used if Z is completely random and localized average response function (LARF) is used if the instrumental variable is not random. In this study, \"knowledge of the existence of collective marketing\" (instrumental variable) depends on membership of an IP and it is not random. Therefore, LATE in this study is estimated using LARF."},{"index":17,"size":71,"text":"There are two forms of LARF, namely ordinary least squares (OLS) LARF and exponential LARF. In this study, the OLS LARF fitted the data better. The OLS LARF may be estimated with or without interaction between participation variable and socioeconomic variables. A model with interaction of variables allows accounting for the heterogeneity in impact. OLS LARF both with and without interaction are tested. LATE estimation is based on the following regression:"},{"index":18,"size":39,"text":"where A is participation in the collective marketing of rice; X is the vector of other independent variables; α 0 , α 1 , and β are vectors of parameters to be estimated; and μ is the error term."}]},{"head":"Calculation of food consumption score","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"To analyze the food and nutrition situation of rice farmers, the food consumption score (FCS) was used as a proxy. The FCS, developed by the World Food Programme (WFP) [20], is a composite score used as a proxy of food security. It is a weighted score based on dietary diversity, food frequency, and the nutritional importance of the food groups consumed. It is an indicator that reflects availability of, access to, and consumption of food at the household level. The FCS is a score calculated using the weighted frequency of intake of eight food groups (cereals and tubers, pulses, vegetables, fruit, meat and fish, milk, sugar, and oil) during 7 days before the survey. The weighted FCS has a range of 0-112. WFP advises a recall of 7 days to ensure both good time coverage and reliability of respondents' memory [20]. Based on these groups of foods, the FCS is estimated as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"where i is the food group, x is the frequency of consumption of different food groups consumed by a household during 7 days before the survey, and a is the weight. Based on the nutritional importance of each food group, the weight assigned to each food group is presented in Table 1 [20]."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The study was conducted in the southwest of Benin where two IPs were installed by AfricaRice and INRAB in 2009. In total, five villages were selected for this study comprising three treatment villages and two control villages. The latter two villages were selected to be as similar as possible to the treated villages based on characteristics such as infrastructure, production systems, and population. Indeed, the control villages were also eligible for the IP, but they were not included because of funding restrictions. From the list of rice producers in each village, 300 rice farmers were randomly selected from the scope of this study with an average of 60 farmers per village. Finally, 257 rice farmers were surveyed in 2015 and used for analysis because some farmers had left the villages or were not available for interview."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Two structured questionnaires were used for data collection. A village-level questionnaire was used in the focus-group discussion to collect information on the general characteristics of the village, agricultural production, access to services, and infrastructure. A household questionnaire was used to interview households on participation in collective marketing of rice, demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, and inputs used in and outputs of rice production."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Socioeconomic characteristics of sampled households are presented in Table 2.D i f f e r e n c e s between participants in collective marketing and nonparticipants were tested using student's ttest. This test showed that there were significant differences between participants and nonparticipants for many variables. This shows that there is a self-selection in participation in collective marketing of rice. Therefore, a simple mean difference of the outcomes (naïve method) would yield biased estimation of the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"The experience in rice farming was 7 years; participants had slightly more experience in rice production (8 years cf. nonparticipants' 6 years). However, the average rice cultivated area was Source: Word Food Programme [20]."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Table 1. Food groups and weights for estimation of FCS."},{"index":6,"size":97,"text":"Rice Crop -Current Developments low (0.33 ha) for both participants and nonparticipants. The rice yield of participants was 3.5 t/ha, while that of nonparticipants was only 2.71 t/ha. Net annual income per hectare of participants in collective marketing of rice (USD 614 per ha) was higher than that of nonparticipants. The difference can be explained by both the yield and the price. Indeed, one of the advantages of collective marketing is the possibility of selling rice at a higher price compared to individual selling. However, this difference should not be interpreted as an impact of collective marketing."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Determinants of participation in collective marketing","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":271,"text":"Probit model was used to identify the determinants of farmers' participation in collective marketing of rice. Results showed that the model was significant at 1% ( Effect of membership of farmer group on participation in collective marketing was positive and significant at the 10% level. In addition, the marginal effect of membership in a farmer group was 0.24 meaning that membership in a farmer group increased the probability of participation in collective marketing by 24%. These results can be explained by the fact that groups are social networks where producers have access to information and can easily be informed about the existence and advantage of collective marketing opportunities. These results are similar to those obtained by other studies [21,22] who found that farmer groups are good platforms for social capital strengthening and by which smallholders can obtain information on the market. This information can help farmers reduce transaction costs and sell their products at a high price. Indeed, higher price is an important factor for farmers' decision to participate in collective marketing. The agreement on the price of paddy rice had a positive and significant influence on participation in collective marketing. This result showed that Rice Crop -Current Developments agreement on the price for collective marketing is an important criterion for producers. This can be explained by the fact that poor market access and low prices are the main reasons behind the collective marketing initiative. Therefore, collective marketing will only be interesting for rice farmers if higher price can be obtained. Therefore, farmers want to be confident of achieving a higher price before engaging in any collective marketing of paddy rice."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The type and condition of roads to the nearest market also had positive effects on the participation in collective marketing. Results showed that farmers living in villages with bad roads to markets are willing to participate in collective marketing. Bad road condition increases both travel time and transportation cost. To reduce these transaction costs, farmers preferred collective marketing."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"The rice yield had a significant effect on the participation of producers in collective marketing. This result is explained by the fact that high yield increases the market orientation of the farmers as they need to sell the surplus of their production. Farmers perceived collective marketing as an opportunity for them to increase their production to take part in this new marketing channel. This result confirmed the findings of many other empirical studies [23][24][25]."}]},{"head":"Determinants of the quantity of rice supply through collective marketing","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"When rice farmers decide to market rice through collective marketing, they have also to decide on the quantity they will supply. The quantity is an important determinant of the success of collective marketing: the greater the quantity of rice, the greater the bargaining power of the farmer group to get a high price. Therefore, it is important to analyze factors that affect the quantity of rice sold through the collective marketing by a given farmer. Tobit model was used to identify the determinants of quantity of rice supply through collective marketing. Results showed that important determinants of quantity of rice supply were quantity of paddy produced, existence of market, price of paddy, and experience in rice production (Table 4)."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The quantity of rice produced had a positive and significant effect on the quantity supplied through collective marketing. This shows that the more farmers produced, the more they sold through collective marketing. Indeed, with the increase in quantity produced, farmers have a large surplus, and collective marketing is a good opportunity for them. This result confirms findings by others [23,24]."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"The price of paddy in collective marketing had a significant effect on the quantity supplied. This means that when the agreed price via collective marketing is high, farmers will sell more rice through this channel. This shows that the price was not only an important factor for a farmer to participate in collective marketing but also a determinant of the quantity to be sold through the channel. Thus, the price agreed through collective marketing will determine the sustainability of this channel. This result confirms the findings by Omiti et al. [25] who found that output price is an incentive for sellers to supply more products to the market."}]},{"head":"Impact of participation in collective marketing on income","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Net rice income was used as a proxy for income to assess the impact of collective marketing of rice. Wald test for heterogeneity was significant showing that the impact of collective marketing was heterogeneous (Table 5). Consequently, the OLS-LARF function with interaction was used to estimate the impact of collective marketing. Four parameters were calculated: ATE, ATE1, ATE0, and LATE."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Results showed that the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice is estimated at USD 148/ha for a farmer randomly selected in the population. Considering only the population of actual participants, the collective marketing had bigger impact-estimated at USD 249/ha. The potential impact in the population of nonparticipants was USD 81/ha; thus, nonparticipants would benefit if they decided to participate in collective marketing of rice. This shows that both actual participants and nonparticipants had an advantage to engage in collective marketing. This result confirms findings by other studies [23,24]. However, the impact on actual participants in this study is bigger, showing that there is a good target of the collective marketing of rice in the study area."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"The LATE with interaction was significant at 1% (Table 5). This means that collective marketing had a positive impact on the income of compliers. Indeed, the potential impact of collective marketing was USD 179/ha for the population of those who would participate if they were aware. The high value of this impact showed that widespread awareness of collective marketing is likely to have most impact. This indicates that a widespread awareness campaign should Rice Crop -Current Developments be organized to increase the impact of collective marketing on the livelihood of smallholder rice producers."}]},{"head":"Impact on food security","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The impact of collective marketing on food consumption score (FCS) was estimated using the OLS-LARF function with interaction. The Wald test showed that the impact of collective marketing was heterogeneous (Table 6). This means that the impact of collective marketing on food consumption score varied from one rice farmer to another."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"The average treatment effect (ATE) was significant at 1% and estimated at 7.32. This shows that participation in collective marketing allowed farmers to increase their FCS by 7.32 points. Considering only the population of participants in the collective marketing, the impact on the FCS was 11.41. However, the potential impact on the subpopulation of nonparticipants (ATE0) was not significant."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Similar to ATE and ATE1, the LATE was significant at 1%. This means that participation in collective marketing had a positive impact on the FCS of compliers. Indeed, the impact of collective marketing was high in the subpopulation of those who would participate if they were aware. This confirms that large diffusion of collective marketing initiative will have a positive effect on food security. This result confirms the findings of other studies [26]."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":290,"text":"This study analyzed the determinants of participation of rice farmers in collective marketing and determined the impact of this new marketing channel on their livelihoods. Food security and income were used as proxies for livelihood. Results showed that the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice was positive and significant on both income and food security. Participation in collective marketing of rice allowed farmers to increase their income by USD 148/ha on average. In addition, using collective marketing helps farmers to increase their food consumption score. However, to take more advantage of these benefits, farmers need to participate in and supply large quantities of rice through collective marketing. Results showed that the main determinants of participation in collective marketing of paddy rice were membership in a farmer group, training, agreement on rice price, condition of roads to the nearest market, availability of suitable land for rice, and yield. In addition, the determinants of quantity of rice supply through collective marketing were rice production, price of paddy, and experience in rice production. These results showed that price is not only an important factor for a farmer to participate in collective marketing but also a determinant of the quantity to be supplied through collective marketing. Market access also influences both participation and quantity of paddy rice sold through collective marketing. Therefore, collective marketing will be sustainable if it allows farmers better access to markets and high prices. Better market access can be achieved through better training and well-functioning farmer groups. The training must include, in addition to rice production management, technical skills on value chain and business development practices, partnership, group dynamics, financial management, marketing and conflict management. Wide-scale awareness campaigns should be organized to increase the impact of collective marketing."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 3  Participants Non-participants All rice Difference between ParticipantsNon-participantsAll riceDifference between (n = 102) (n = 155) farmers participants and (n = 102)(n = 155)farmersparticipants and    nonparticipants nonparticipants  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Socioeconomic characteristics of rice producers. Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76112  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Determinants of participation in collective marketing. Variables Variables  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Determinants of the quantity of paddy sold through collective marketing. Variable Variable  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Impact of collective marketing on food consumption score (FCS). Parameter Estimation Z test ParameterEstimationZ test ATE (OLS) Double robust   ATE (OLS) Double robust ATE 7.32*** 1.73 ATE7.32***1.73 ATE1 11.41*** 3.21 ATE111.41***3.21 ATE0 4.66 0.55 ATE04.660.55 Selection bias 4.08*** 2.96 Selection bias4.08***2.96 Wald test (heterogeneous impact)  F (5, 442) = 3.10*** Wald test (heterogeneous impact)F (5, 442) = 3.10*** LARF (OLS) parametric   LARF (OLS) parametric LATE 12.33*** 3.34 LATE12.33***3.34 Wald test (heterogeneous impact)  F (2, 115) = 6.4e + 07*** Wald test (heterogeneous impact)F (2, 115) = 6.4e + 07*** ***Significant at 1%.   ***Significant at 1%.  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Impact of participation in collective marketing on income. Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76112  "}],"sieverID":"66a7d5c1-76de-4b92-af1d-1fae9ceaf8f2","abstract":"Market access is a major constraint of smallholder rice producers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). There is increasing evidence that acting collectively offers one way for smallholders to participate more efficiently in the market. This chapter aimed to identify the determinants of participation in collective marketing of rice in innovation platforms in Benin and quantify its impact on household income and food security. Unlike previous studies, we used the local average treatment effect parameter to assess the impact of collective marketing of rice. Data were collected from a random sample of 257 smallholder rice producers. Results showed that participation in collective marketing increased the income of rice farmers on average by USD 148/ha. Main determinants of participation in collective marketing of rice were membership in a farmer group, training, and agreement on price. This chapter concludes that better training and well-functioning farmer groups sustain the impact of collective marketing of rice on food security."}

data/part_1/020b1ef1d3527c95e390a7adfced04d0.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"020b1ef1d3527c95e390a7adfced04d0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/572f252e-95ae-4f87-a7d0-b0a30684cabd/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"OFERTA Y DEMANDA DE INNOVACIONES TECNOLÓGICAS EN UN CONTEXTO DE MERCADO CON AGRICULTORES ALTO ANDINOS DE BAJA ESCALA -CASO CONPAPA","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"El CIP y el INIAP han desarrollado metodologías para conectar a agricultores de baja escala a cadenas de valor como un enfoque para reducir su pobreza (PNRT, 2002(PNRT, -2006;;Devaux et al., 2006). En este contexto la innovación tecnológica debe en principio responder a las demandas de los distintos actores de la cadena, especialmente a las del eslabón más débil (los agricultores), con el fin de hacerlos más competitivos. Sin embargo, la experiencia muestra que la oferta tecnológica no siempre satisface la demanda, lo que se expresa en bajos niveles de adopción y se refleja en los bajos rendimientos y calidad del producto obtenidos. Para afrontar estos problemas y como resultado de las plataformas de concertación desarrolladas por el proyecto FORTIPAPA se creó el Consorcio de Productores de Papa de la Región Central del Ecuador (CONPAPA) (PNRT, 2002(PNRT, -2006))."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Este estudio analizó la relación entre la oferta y la demanda de innovación tecnológica entre el CONPAPA y las instituciones de investigación (INIAP y CIP), para desarrollar pautas que permitan, por un lado al CONPAPA y otras organizaciones de agricultores, expresar sus demandas de innovación tecnológica, y por otro, a las instituciones de investigación y desarrollo, satisfacer dichas demandas con una oferta adecuada a la realidad de los agricultores."}]},{"head":"MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"La investigación se llevó a cabo en las provincias de Tungurahua y Chimborazo, donde participaron agricultores, promotores y semilleristas pertenecientes al CONPAPA. Para la identificación de los mecanismos utilizados por los agricultores para expresar sus demandas de innovación tecnológica y de las instituciones para responder dichas demandas se realizaron siete talleres (100 asistentes), cinco con agricultores, semilleristas y promotores, uno con técnicos del INIAP, y un taller final con agricultores y técnicos del CONPAPA, INIAP y CIP. Para conducir los talleres de agricultores se utilizaron discusiones grupales en base a preguntas dirigidas y se utilizaron las técnicas de la \"araña\" y \"valoración de las 100 unidades\" (Gandarillas et al., 2005). También se realizaron encuestas a 16 miembros del CONPAPA (promotores y técnicos). Las encuestas se aplicaron de manera individual combinando preguntas abiertas y cerradas."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Para realizar el cruce de información entre la demanda de innovación tecnológica y la oferta se utilizó la información recogida en los talleres y se elaboró un inventario de tecnologías en el cultivo de papa. Se utilizó como base un inventario de publicaciones realizado por el INIAP. Además se determinó el uso de las innovaciones tecnológicas mediante una encuesta dirigida a 71 agricultores, que constó de 20 preguntas relacionadas a los cuatro temas más importantes de producción de papa: variedades, manejo de semilla, manejo de gusano blanco (Premnotrypes vorax) y manejo de tizón tardío (o lancha, Phytophthora infestans). De la información recogida en talleres y encuestas se elaboraron las propuestas para mejorar la conexión entre la demanda y oferta de tecnología."}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Mecanismos utilizados por los agricultores del CONPAPA para expresar sus demandas de innovación tecnológica y capacitación. La mayor parte de la demanda se expresa de manera verbal en los siguientes momentos: (1) reuniones del CONPAPA; (2) reuniones de sus comunidades (información es canalizada a través de un promotor); (3) Escuelas de Campo de Agricultores (ECAs); (4) días de campo; y (5) visitas a los lotes. En Tungurahua los agricultores realizan sus peticiones directamente al técnico y ciertos agricultores han desarrollado convenios con casas comerciales. Los promotores realizan visitas frecuentes a las oficinas del CONPAPA para expresar sus demandas de innovación."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"Mecanismos para responder a las demandas de innovación tecnológica y capacitación. Los técnicos del CONPAPA realizan talleres con especialistas del INIAP y han establecido convenios con casas comerciales para desarrollar capacitaciones. En tanto que los técnicos del INIAP realizan líneas de base, diagnósticos, talleres de trabajo y procesos de capacitación amplios a través de ECAs y cursos de capacitación a capacitadores (CDCs), la mayoría de los cuales está financiado por proyectos específicos. Inventario de tecnología. En colaboración con especialistas del INIAP y del CIP se elaboraron inventarios de innovación tecnológica en los siguientes temas: (1) variedades; (2) manejo de semilla; (3) manejo de tizón tardío; (4) manejo de gusano blanco; (5) manejo de malezas; (6) manejo de fertilización; (7) manejo de suelo; (8) manejo de plaguicidas; y (9) cosecha y poscosecha. Esta información está disponible en: http://www.quito.cipotato.org/ Identificación de la demanda de innovación tecnológica de los agricultores del CONPAPA. Las principales demandas de los agricultores en orden de importancia fueron: (1) mercado; (2) comercialización; (3) buen precio; (4) crédito; (5) insumos; y (6) asesoramiento técnico."},{"index":3,"size":169,"text":"Identificación de las innovaciones tecnológicas utilizadas por los agricultores. En el tema de variedades, las más sembradas son INIAP-Fripapa (93.0%), Superchola (57.7%), INIAP-Gabriela (32.4%), ICA-Única (22.9%), Chaucha amarilla (15.5%) y Uvilla (12.7%). En el tema de semilla, el 98.5% de los agricultores de ambas provincias mantienen su semilla. De estos el 45.0% selecciona la semilla en base a cuatro criterios (ausencia de daño de gusano blanco, de deformidades y de daños mecánicos, y características de la piel del tubérculo) y un 70.4% renueva su semilla cada 7 meses. El 76.1% asola su semilla y el 83.1% utiliza sacos ralos para almacenarla. En el tema de gusano blanco, el 83.1% de los agricultores controlan esta plaga, de estos el 76.1% utiliza trampas para adultos, el 66.2% aplican insecticidas al follaje y el 56.3% combina ambos controles (trampas y aplicaciones químicas). En relación a tizón tardío, el 95.8% de los agricultores de ambas provincias controlan esta enfermedad. De estos el 93.0% la controla con fungicidas y sólo el 2.8% con bioinsumos."}]},{"head":"DISCUSIÓN Y CONCLUSIÓN","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"De acuerdo a los datos de este estudio, los temas de acceso a mercado son los más importantes para los agricultores. Este tema está estrechamente relacionado con el grado de eficiencia de la organización de productores. Por lo tanto, mercado y organización son prerequisitos para que los agricultores demanden y adopten innovaciones tecnológicas."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"El alto nivel de adopción de varias tecnologías desarrolladas por INIAP y CIP (como es el caso de INIAP-Fripapa y varias técnicas de manejo de semilla, gusano blanco y tizón tardío) muestra que el CONPAPA hasta el momento ha sido eficiente en proveer de un mercado seguro a los agricultores, quienes tienen un incentivo para adoptar innovaciones tecnológicas. Sin embargo, este tema debe ser fortalecido a través de, por ejemplo, la reactivación de las plataformas de concertación como espacios para demandar y ofertar diversos servicios, entre ellos servicios de capacitación e innovación tecnológica. La forma de financiar estas plataformas puede ser a través de enfoques como el del Fondo Nacional del Agua (FONAG, www.fonag.org.ec) o a través de levys (http://www.idahopotato.com/; www.swisspatat.ch)."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"En relación a la demanda de innovaciones tecnológicas, se sugiere formalizar las demandas de los productores (por ejemplo, a través de medios escritos) para de esta manera dar seguimiento a dichas demandas, y usar metodologías apropiadas para identificar \"demandas implícitas\" (Bentley et al., 2004). En relación a la oferta de innovaciones tecnológicas, se sugiere dar a conocer la oferta a través de ferias tecnológicas (Bentley et al., 2004;2005a;2005b) y buscar mecanismos alternativos de financiamiento para INIAP y otros centros de generación de innovación tecnológica, similares a los ya descritos para las plataformas de concertación."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"94072fc6-01a7-40c7-9b14-0f3c8d856935","abstract":"Palabras clave: papa, inventario, Ecuador"}

data/part_1/022e845fad993b849d0229892d990a0a.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"022e845fad993b849d0229892d990a0a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/756e63f5-3b8e-4cc6-b672-1301ef707ab6/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"I dentify the main social groups, inter-group dynamics and sources of marginalization in the community. This may be achieved through prior knowledge of a place, observation, and key informant interviews, including informal conversations. Pay attention to intersectionality -or how different forms of social difference intersect to create unique social locations. This means that not all 'women' or 'men' are the same, for example, and that other forms of social differences (e.g. age, socio-economic status, ethnicity) play a role in determining how processes such as NRM are locally experienced. Bringing different groups together can not only increase the breadth of the knowledge that bears on the discussions and decisions made, but also enable consideration of the priorities and experiences of more marginalized members of the community."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"B uild rapport with different segments of the community. Building and maintaining good rapport can take time but is essential as it will influence the rest of the process. In rural communities, entry points for easing into new relationships may include discussions over agricultural practices and prices, rains, and positive and negative changes in the village over time."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The purpose of this tool is to stimulate thinking and offer guidance on a tested approach for enhancing social inclusion in and through natural resource management (NRM). It can be used to accompany processes of community engagement and community -based or -led deliberations on NRM or other topics of local importance."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Processes of social exclusion are historically and contextually rooted. Hence, this tool is not meant to be overly prescriptive, but rather to draw attention to the importance of representation, process as well as content in fostering inclusion in NRM or other community affairs."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"Below, we take the example of collective management of common property resources (CPR), such as forests, water, or pastures, to propose a facilitated process of community engagement to enhance social inclusion and cohesion, and the prospects of collective action. The elements outlined draw from 'contact theory' (Allport 1954), which stipulates that in situations of discrimination or conflict, inter-group contact under a set of predefined conditions can allow groups to better know and understand each other, work through their differences, and create group unity. The approach, which has been tested in different contexts, may also be applied to other fields than NRM."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"The approach described below is rooted in dialogue (i.e. dialogic) and represents a process of active engagement among participants, accompanied by both women and men facilitators, over time. Given the time and human resources involved, such a process must be adequately planned and budgeted for from its inception."}]},{"head":"Enhancing social inclusion through local dialogues on natural resource management (NRM)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Written by Marlène Elias, Pratiti Priyadarshini, Ruth Meinzen-Dick, Rucha Ghate, Jagdeesh Rao W hen bringing different groups together, try to balance numbers across groups to create a more comfortable atmosphere for marginalized members to speak."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"T ake care in selecting facilitators. They can be internal to the community (e.g. a community resource person) or external (e.g. NGO or CSO staff)."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"In either case, they should have good rapport with different participant groups of the community and be trusted to facilitate in a neutral and fair way. Consider the social attributes of facilitators, and whether they will be able to encourage equitable participation among the different groups. Matching the gender of facilitators to that of participants is often recommended to make participants feel more comfortable."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"S trengthen capacities of facilitators to recognize their own gender and social biases, and to obverse and manage exclusionary norms and unequal power relations."}]},{"head":"Process","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The process and terms of the dialogue across different social groups is just as important as the themes discussed."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"S ecuring the participation of all will require meeting times and places that are convenient and that make different participants feel comfortable. It may be necessary to accommodate special needs in terms of transportation, childcare, etc."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"E nsure that the location and seating arrangements for the meetings set a tone of equality. For example, the same seats (chairs or the floor) should be made available to all participants, unless their physical requirements differ. Arranging seating in a circle rather than having elites occupy front-row seats can help generate a space for more equitable participation."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"S eek the free, prior and informed consent of participants at the beginning of the process. This requires clearly explaining the purpose and modalities of the exercise to allow participants to make informed decisions about their participation."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"L evel power-relations within the contact situation by establishing clear ground rules that set a tone of inclusion. These can be determined in a participatory way, with the facilitator guiding the discussion to ensure that key elements are evoked: e.g. respect different opinions, listen actively, encourage less vocal participants to express themselves, make space for everyone to speak. The facilitator is then tasked with ensuring these rules are respected."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"G iven participants' different levels of experience and comfort speaking in a large group, and the imperative of hearing the perspectives of different participant groups, create sub-group discussions."},{"index":7,"size":70,"text":"Groups can be formed along gender and/or age, ethnic, or other lines; the idea being to create 'safe' and comfortable spaces for participants to express themselves. Although they are formed along some lines of similarity, smaller groups will also bring together participants from different social groups, e.g. women from different socio-economic classes or men from different ethnic groups. This allows for discussions and comradery to be established across social differences."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"Facilitators should encourage all members to actively participate in these small groups."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"H old additional gender-segregated meetings when needed to ensure that everyone has and understands relevant information and that sub-groups have time to process, discuss and come up with a shared position on issues at hand. This is especially important when there are important and complex decisions to be made."},{"index":10,"size":121,"text":"T he facilitator should adopt strategies to strengthen collaboration, teamwork, and relations within the smaller group. For example, facilitators can make a game out of seeing which groups know more about certain issues -and the outcomes of the game are likely to surprise everyone! F ollowing discussions in small groups, the groups can come together in plenary to present their ideas to each other. One or more representative from each group can present to the larger group. Pairing up the presenters can give them more confidence to present, particularly when they are not used to speaking in public in front of some of their fellow community members (e.g. young women may not be used to speaking in front of male elders)."},{"index":11,"size":94,"text":"F ollowing the presentations, groups are asked to reflect on the process: How did they feel working in their smaller group? How did they feel presenting in front of the larger group? How did they feel listening to the other groups present? Did anything surprise them? What did they learn from the discussions? R edressing historical power imbalances, discrimination and exclusions is a long-term process. Repeating these meetings and discussions at a regular frequency over time is essential to create inter-group friendships, understanding, and appreciation, and to generate a common vision for collective action."},{"index":12,"size":57,"text":"E ach session begins by recapping the activities of the previous session and any decisions taken, which allows participants to see how activities build on each other. If materials (e.g. flipcharts, drawings, text or photos) are available from previous sessions, these can be brought to bring everyone on the same page, and support the dialogue moving forward."}]},{"head":"Content","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"In this example, the content focuses on sustainable and equitable NRM. The manner and sequence in which participants discuss relevant topics are important to work through differences and support constructive discussions."},{"index":2,"size":220,"text":"W hen discussing sensitive and potentially divisive issues, begin by introducing more benign topics to create an atmosphere of comfort and common understanding. For example, the first topic with respect to NRM may be about the species that different groups depend on and value. Whatever the specific topic, the first exercise may draw attention to socially differentiated knowledge. Reflecting on the existence of different knowledge systems, and the fact that different groups bring different pieces of knowledge to bear on the issue at hand, helps participants to recognize the value of having these groups at the table during NRM-related deliberations and decisions. T o explore the main problems, challenges, barriers to sustainable and equitable NRM and the contribution of different actors to these problems, it is important to go beyond proximate causes to the deeper roots of unsustainable and inequitable resource use and management. Taking a historical perspective and identifying key turning points in resource management strategies can be valuable. The focus is on the entire (social, institutional, ecological, economic) ecosystem that shapes resource use strategies. Several tools can be employed to explicitly discuss social relations and gender roles at this time*. Careful facilitation is required to avoid blaming and shaming particular groups, and to contextualize resource use strategies within larger opportunity structures and livelihood strategies. The discussion ends with"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"W figures endorse the exercise. These third parties may be internal or external to the community. Sharing examples of other communities that have successfully engaged in a similar process can also motivate participation. "},{"text":"R elated to diverse knowledge systems, discussions can move to the specific needs and priorities of different groups with respect to NRM. Discussions on livelihood systems help participants empathize with different resource use strategies (and dependence on natural resources). "}],"sieverID":"4767fab7-8627-4dba-b6aa-77dd31b43008","abstract":""}

data/part_1/023025d91b284fe306227461cb709cc3.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"023025d91b284fe306227461cb709cc3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4c9a0caa-e231-40f5-8ca2-32c0e6b80ae6/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Descubren Biofungicida que Ayuda a Floricultores","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"El producto es fruto de la observación de un técnico agrícola del CIAT"}]},{"head":"Marzo de 2005","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"La observación y creatividad de un técnico agrícola del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) permitió encontrar un biofungicida muy eficaz para combatir algunos hongos que atacan el frijol, el café, la uva Isabella y algunas plantas ornamentales, entre ellas las rosas de exportación."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"El descubridor se llama Guillermo Castellanos, técnico del área de Patología de Frijol del CIAT, y el biofungicida es un extracto de swinglea (Swinglea glutinosa), un árbol introducido en Colombia por los productores de caña de azúcar para utilizar como cerco vivo."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Basándose en su sentido de observación, Castellanos notó que las plantas de swinglea crecían libres de patógenos, por eso empezó a ensayar con el extracto de esa planta hasta comprobar que combatía eficazmente el Oidio, también conocido como Cenicilla (Erysiphe poligoni) y algunos otros hongos que afectan al frijol."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Lo curioso de esta historia es que el descubrimiento se hizo hace casi dos décadas -en la época en la que dominaban los productos químicos-, pero apenas ahora se está reconociendo la eficacia del biofungicida, que ya ha sido probado con éxito en otros cultivos y que fue validado científicamente."},{"index":5,"size":109,"text":"\"Pienso que fue un producto visionario para su época, pues en ese entonces mandaban los agroquímicos\", comenta con modestia Castellanos, a quien el CIAT le reconoció su aporte durante un acto realizado a finales del 2004. \"Soy un vocero de la naturaleza; ella tiene las soluciones a muchos males, pero hay que saber observar y buscar sus enseñanzas\", dice. Además de combatir algunos hongos que atacan el frijol, el biofungicida es eficaz para controlar el Mildeo Polvoso (Sphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae) en la rosa -uno de los cultivos de exportación más importantes de Colombia que, junto con otras variedades de flores, genera más de 140.000 empleos, principalmente para mujeres."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"Justamente fue la Asociación Colombiana de Exportadores de Flores (Asocolflores) la que contactó a la fitopatóloga Elizabeth Álvarez, jefe de Patología de Yuca del CIAT, para encontrarle solución al problema del Mildeo Polvoso."},{"index":7,"size":40,"text":"La investigadora, quien conocía del trabajo de Castellanos, decidió someter el extracto de swinglea a rigurosos ensayos en diferentes zonas de la sabana de Bogotá, buscando una alternativa biológica más segura para el ambiente y más económica para los floricultores."},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"\"Es importante resaltar que a partir de un conocimiento empírico y la observación de una persona motivada por la investigación, sin ser especialista, se logró a través de la experimentación científica, la obtención de un producto ecológico que contribuye a solucionar problemas importantes de los agricultores\", anotó la Dra. Álvarez."},{"index":9,"size":47,"text":"Con base en el trabajo científico que el CIAT ha venido adelantando sobre este producto, se ha derivado su uso por parte de agricultores, en cultivos donde el biofungicida mostró su eficacia. Dentro de esos cultivos se encuentran el café, la uva Isabella y algunas plantas ornamentales."},{"index":10,"size":61,"text":"El biofungicida posee varias características que lo hacen importante para la actividad agropecuaria de hoy; por un lado, no requiere componentes químicos y eso es benéfico para el medio ambiente y para las personas que lo aplican; por otro lado, el costo de elaboración a nivel de finca, es significativamente más bajo que los productos químicos que cumplen la misma función."},{"index":11,"size":60,"text":"En la actualidad, el extracto se está comercializando con floricultores de Antioquia y la sabana de Bogotá. Paralelamente, se están adelantando más investigaciones para conocer el efecto del biofungicida sobre enfermedades en otros cultivos y, de paso, reivindicar la imagen de la swinglea ante algunos ecologistas, que la miran como una estorbosa planta intrusa que está invadiendo el paisaje colombiano."},{"index":12,"size":35,"text":"Contactos: Guillermo Castellanos ([email protected]), Técnico de investigación Patología de Frijol, CIAT. Tel.: (2) 44 50 000, ext. 3388. Elizabeth Álvarez ([email protected]), Fitopatóloga, Jefe Patología de Yuca. Tel.: (2) 44 50 000, ext. 3385. Cali, Colombia."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"a40e4cca-34df-4c68-82ba-88270b9090be","abstract":""}

data/part_1/02391d4b85845c567efb1fa5e56970c1.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"02391d4b85845c567efb1fa5e56970c1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a8ddd0bf-562f-4963-ac29-93746317b768/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"Benchmarking crop nitrogen requirements, nitrogen-use efficiencies and associated greenhouse gas mitigation potential Methodology exploration for cereal production in sub-Saharan Africa Working Paper No. 333 CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS)","keywords":["Crop production","nitrogen","efficiency","benchmarking","methodology","greenhouse gas"],"chapters":[{"head":"Acronyms","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"GHG","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Benchmarks are needed to gain insight into the sustainability of farming systems."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Benchmarks can be used to compare environmental or socio-economic performance between different agricultural production systems or compare a particular production system to its potential. Agricultural benchmarks can be related to a number of dimensions such as yield (i.e., potential yield), land requirement, water productivity or biodiversity conservation. As such, benchmarks can give guidance on priority areas or types of actions needed. Since nutrient cycling is at the core of several agri-environmental issues (e.g., greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, soil fertility, nitrate leaching), a benchmark on nitrogen (N) use or N-use efficiency (NUE) is particularly useful. Practices meeting the benchmark minimize nitrous oxide emissions. Such a benchmark can be used as a practical indicator for meeting best practice, certification, sustainable finance and meeting regulatory requirements."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"Within the different directions suggested for sustainable farming systems (e.g., agroecological, intensive, organic, regenerative, circular or conservation agriculture), nutrient (e.g., N, phosphorus (P), and potassium (K)) inputs often play a key role. Some approaches suggest using fewer nutrients as a way forward (i.e., agro-ecological and regenerative agriculture). However, others recommend using more nutrients per ha (e.g., intensive agriculture) or changing the source of nutrient inputs (from mineral to organic inputs -e.g., organic and conservation agriculture). The approach most likely to improve a farming system's sustainability will depend on its specific context, including its current state. While low-input systems could benefit from using more external nutrient inputs to prevent soil mining, others (i.e., high input systems) could benefit from using fewer external inputs and increasing on-farm nutrient cycling to prevent nitrate leaching and reduce GHG emissions."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Depending on the geographical scale and time horizon, an N-use benchmark may provide guidance to move in the desired direction (either increasing or decreasing nutrient inputs)"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"and the distance to a more desired situation."},{"index":6,"size":120,"text":"There is a wide variety of nutrient use indicators (such as output/input ratios agronomic Nuse efficiency), but there is currently a lack of benchmarks for these indicators. One notable exception is the conceptual framework for the NUE indicator of the European Union Nitrogen Expert Panel (Oenema et al. 2015). This framework relates N output to N input and compares their difference and ratio versus certain target ranges. Outside the target ranges, soil N mining, nutrient accumulation or environmental losses may occur. Despite this approach's appeal, this framework is conceptual regarding how specified values require local soil fertility adjustments, and soil N supply remains unknown. Simultaneously, within a region and a certain time frame, this framework allows for comparisons between farms."},{"index":7,"size":107,"text":"In this working paper, we propose an N-benchmarking method focused on agronomic nitrogen-use efficiency (N-AE, defined as additional grain yield over an unfertilized control, divided by the total dose of N applied, kilogram (kg)/kg), and N input requirement (kg N/ha) for a given target yield. We propose two types of benchmarks for each indicator: 1) a shortterm benchmark and 2) a long-term benchmark. We relate these benchmarks to current N inputs, observed N-AE achieved under current management and GHG mitigation potentials for five cereal types in sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, we explore implications for the current situation and towards 2050, thereby testing the usefulness of our proposed methodology."}]},{"head":"Two types of N benchmarking: short-term and longterm","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The current relation between N input and crop yield must be assessed and then compared to a (theoretical) potential relation used as the benchmark to benchmark the N input requirement. In this case, we define the potential as the minimum N inputs needed to achieve the same crop yield while maintaining soil fertility. This potential can be expressed in the total N input requirement (kg N per ha) or in the N-AE (kg additional grain yield per kg N applied), either using a short-timeframe or a long-timeframe."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"The theoretical potential depends on the time horizon taken. For shorter-term assessments, soil N supply is at a given value, and changes in the soil N pool are ignored. For longer-term assessments, soil fertility should be maintained by replenishing the soil N pool."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"The N input requirement is based on the current soil fertility status for short-term assessments while assuming either current or best crop management. Best management is defined as a package of existing crop management practices (e.g., tillage, cultivars, water and nutrient management and crop protection), resulting in the highest feasible N-AE. For longer-term assessments, the 'minimum N input requirement' (ten Berge et al. 2019) seems to be a suitable benchmark. It is the minimum amount of N input needed to sustain a target crop yield over the longer term, as well as soil fertility, given best management practices (Table 1). The minimum N input requirement can be used to identify cases where soil N mining might occur or where N application is excessive in the light of environmental emissions."}]},{"head":"How to calculate the short-term, current N input requirement","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"To calculate the current N input requirement, two factors are taken into account: a) the current N-AE by which applied N is converted into harvestable products (i.e., grain yield for cereals); and b) current grain N uptake from soil N supply."}]},{"head":"Current Agronomic N-use efficiency","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"N-AE may vary widely across regions and countries for a particular crop, depending on soil type, climate, and crop management especially. For a certain region of interest, N-AE can be estimated by collecting data from multiple fertilizer field experiments (preferably on-farm)"},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"where yield obtained with a certain N fertilizer application (YN) is compared to yield obtained without N fertilizer application (Y0). To account for other yield-limiting factors, both plots (with and without N) should receive sufficient P and K. The N-AE is then calculated by dividing the additional grain yield by the applied N (Eq. 1)."}]},{"head":"N-AE= (YN -Y0) / N (Eq. 1)","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Current soil N supply","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Soil N supply varies widely across sites, depending on previous management of a field."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Depending on the investigation's objective, current soil N supply can be estimated by assessing yield in control plots of fertilizer experiments, preferably with no N and only P and K application. However, yield in control plots might not be representative of a wider region."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Alternatively, based on country or agricultural statistical data, current crop yield data (Ya) can be combined with current N inputs and N-AE to estimate soil N supply following Eq. 2. If current N input is derived from multiple sources, the N added as organic amendments should be multiplied with the N fertilizer replacement value (NFRV). Soil N supply is then given in mineral fertilizer equivalents."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"the field 1 . This is probably a very conservative (low) estimate of losses and, consequently, the minimum N requirement should be viewed as a bare minimum. In cases where crop residues are removed, this long-term minimum requirement will be insufficient to sustain the target yield. ten Berge et al. (2019) applied this method to maize, where 25% to 40% of the total aboveground N uptake was in crop residues. Well-managed long-term maize experiments show that such a percentage of N loss might be unavoidable, as lower values"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"were not encountered in the literature."},{"index":6,"size":72,"text":"Here, we assume that similar relations will hold for the other four cereals investigated (rice, wheat, sorghum and millet). With N inputs equaling N uptake, the N-AE is equal to the internal N-use efficiency. This means that each kg of N applied on average and is taken up only once in the long run. Thus, N losses are fully compensated for by the re-use of N retained and recycled through the system."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"N content of cereals varies with yield level. Under a given attainable yield ceiling, crops accumulate N as actual yield is pushed towards its upper limit by N application. Based on the literature, we assume that accumulation (increasing N concentration in biomass) starts from around 60% of the potential yield upwards. This reduces internal N-use efficiency."},{"index":8,"size":88,"text":"The internal N-use efficiency thus depends on the closeness of a target yield to the local yield potential. In Table 2, standardized values for internal NUEs are given for yield levels up to ~ 60% of the yield potential in a location and (accounting for a parabolic decrease of yield response to N uptake) also the values for 70% and 80% of potential yield. Eq. 4 can then be used to calculate the minimum N input requirement (kg N/ha) for a certain target yield (Y T , t/ha)."}]},{"head":"Long-term N input requirement= N aboveground biomass= (1000 / internal NUE) x Y T (Eq. 4)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The data needs mentioned in the sections above can be obtained from a wide variety of sources, depending on the study scope. A potential list of possible data sources is given in Table 3. "}]},{"head":"Benchmark case: cereal production in Sub Saharan","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Africa","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Here, we present an application of the introduced benchmarking method for five cereals."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"We apply the methodology to assess current N-AE and N input requirements for ten countries in sub-Saharan Africa and relate these to the benchmarks, at present and towards 2050."}]},{"head":"Benchmarking actual and potential agronomic N-use efficiency","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"Using short-term fertilizer experiment data across sub-Saharan Africa as documented by OFRA (OFRA 2017; van Dam 2020), current N-AE for the respective cereals were calculated (Fig. 1). Scientific literature was searched for estimates of internal N-use efficiencies (kg grain N per kg N uptake; Table 2). These were used to calculate the short-and long-term benchmark N-AE values (Table 4). For the short-term benchmark, we used the mean fertilizer recovery value of Dobermann (2005) for well-managed cereal cultivation (i.e., 0.65). The current N-AE for rice is similar to the short-term benchmark N-AE and is also closest to its potential (Table 4). For all cereals, the current N-AE is at least two times smaller than the long-term benchmark (i.e., 3.7, 3.6, 2.2, 4.2 and 2.8 times, respectively, for maize, millet, rice, sorghum and wheat). For all cereals, the current observed N-AE is closer to the shortterm benchmark (i.e., 2.4, 2.3, 1.4, 2.7 and 1.8 times smaller, respectively), where ratios vary widely. The range in these figures suggests that, while for all five cereals large efficiency gains can be made, priority could be given to increase the efficiency of currently 'poor' performing crops or support production of currently 'good' performers. "}]},{"head":"Benchmarking current N application rates","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"For current yields (Figure 2), we compared current N input rates with the long-term benchmark (Figure 3). Current N application rates were not specified per cereal type (FAO 2019); therefore, we used average values of fertilizer use per hectare of cropland.  With a growing population and increases in food demands, yields will need to increase. To achieve cereal self-sufficiency in 2050, cereal yield must approach 80% of its water-limited yield potential (Fig. 2). Figure 4 shows the N input requirement for current management, the short-term and long-term benchmark per cereal across the ten countries for current yields, yield trends and 80% Yw. The bars show that N inputs will need to increase substantially. Albeit with current nutrient management, N inputs will lead to much higher N input requirements than the short-and long-term benchmark, both based on more optimal management.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Current distribution of agronomic N-use efficiencies (N-AE) for maize, millet, rice, sorghum and wheat in sub-Saharan Africa (curves) with current mean values (dashed vertical lines). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Average current cereal yield, yield when historical yield trends are extrapolated towards 2050 and 80% of water-limited potential yield (Yw) for the different cereals. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. (a) Average current N input; (b) long term benchmark N input for current yield levels; (c) bar plot showing exact levels per country. "},{"text":" Cereal demands are projected to increase nearly three times between 2015 and 2050 (van Ittersum et al. 2016, updated to 2015 as baseline). "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Benchmarking N input requirement towards 2050. N input requirements to obtain target yields (either current yield, 2050 yield based on yield trends or 80% Yw), based on the current NAE (red colors), short-term benchmark (purple colors) or longterm N-AE (green colors). "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. GHG emissions for five cereals and ten countries in sub-Saharan Africa in the year 2050 if a) historical yield trends are extrapolated (Yield trend) and current N management is used, or b) long term best N management is used (N benchmark), or c) cereal yields are 80% of water-limited potential (80% Yw), and current N management is "},{"text":"Table 1 . Characteristics of the two proposed benchmarks regarding soil fertility and nutrient management, related to the current situation.   Soil N supply Management type Soil N supplyManagement type 1. Current nutrient Current soil N supply Current 1. Current nutrientCurrent soil N supplyCurrent management   management 2. Short-term benchmark Current soil N supply Best 2. Short-term benchmarkCurrent soil N supplyBest 3. Long term benchmark Future equilibrium soil N supply Best 3. Long term benchmarkFuture equilibrium soil N supplyBest  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Data needs and sources to calculate current N inputs and N-AE, the short-term benchmark and the long-term benchmark (3)  Data need Possible sources Data needPossible sources Potential or water-limited potential yield Crop models, Global Yield Gap Atlas (GYGA) Potential or water-limited potential yield Crop models, Global Yield Gap Atlas (GYGA) Internal NUE Scientific literature, GYGA Internal NUEScientific literature, GYGA Agronomic N-AE Regional fertilizer experiments with at least a NPK Agronomic N-AERegional fertilizer experiments with at least a NPK  treatment and a PK treatment treatment and a PK treatment Current soil N supply A) Based on crop yield in regional field experiments in Current soil N supplyA) Based on crop yield in regional field experiments in  absence of N application. absence of N application.  B) Based on national or other statistics, using current B) Based on national or other statistics, using current  yield (GYGA, national or other agricultural statistical yield (GYGA, national or other agricultural statistical  data); current N inputs (FAOstat); current N-AE data); current N inputs (FAOstat); current N-AE  "},{"text":"Table 4 . N-AE (kg grain yield/kg N applied) for five cereals. Current N-AE values are based on OFRA (2017), literature used to estimate the internal N-use efficiencies can be found at yieldgap.org, while the mean value of a fertilizer recovery under good management was obtained from Dobermann (2005).   Maize Millet Rice Sorghum Wheat MaizeMilletRiceSorghumWheat Short-term current N-AE (SSA) 14 9 24 10 16 Short-term current N-AE (SSA)149241016 Short-term benchmark N-AE 34 21 33 27 29 Short-term benchmark N-AE3421332729 Long-term benchmark N-AE 52 32 50 42 45 Long-term benchmark N-AE5232504245  "}],"sieverID":"79fff0f5-c7c7-49a2-ac9b-bcd02626394e","abstract":"To cite this working paper Hijbeek R, van Loon MP, van Ittersum MK, ten Berge HFM. 2020. Benchmarking crop nitrogen requirements, nitrogen-use efficiencies and associated greenhouse gas mitigation potential. CCAFS Working Paper no. 333. Wageningen, the Netherlands: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS)."}

data/part_1/02d2639ab32e639462804b905d5a8f5e.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"02d2639ab32e639462804b905d5a8f5e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/97827e7b-0a2b-48a3-96ea-061360832429/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"RESEARCH IMPLEMENTED IN COLLABORATION WITH: CCAFS IS LED BY: PHOTO","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"a6083bf2-f4e8-40ac-9565-3fb4529dc37a","abstract":""}

data/part_1/02ddc4a7d0b4dae02f24348593a47f20.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"02ddc4a7d0b4dae02f24348593a47f20","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4824877d-be6f-4bfe-93ad-30c48656a93c/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"coffee variety and is currently providing the seed for multiplication by farmers. Hence, improvement of this production system will be supported by IPMS. Areas suitable for coffee are located in a relatively higher altitudes and slopes. Rainfall in these areas is higher and hence more reliable than the low lying areas. As a result, many rivers start from this area. There are a number of coffee pulping and washing plants in the wereda. It is expected that as a result of government's and IPMS's encouragement in improved coffee production and the current higher prices of coffee, new coffee washing plants will be added."}]},{"head":"Peri-Urban Dairy Development","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"There are many dairy cows in urban and peri-urban areas in Dale. Many farmers also have the experience in dairying because of a previous project \"Smallholder Dairy Development Project (SDDP)\". They have benefited through purchase of crossbred dairy animals, forage development, artificial insemination and bull station services, animal health services, milk marketing through formation of milk units with some milk processing facilities, training and other related activities. Capitalising on these experiences, IPMS is supporting dairy development efforts in the outskirts of Yirgalem in order to invigorate it. On the other hand the wereda has a high biomass production capacity because of mainly the high rainfall and the use of cut and carry system by the farmers in this farming system. Farmers in the coffee/livestock system practice tethering of livestock which helps to reduce land degradation (erosion, overgrazing). However the potentials are exploited as yet. When the dairy sector develops in Dale, it is expected to a good source of milk to the fast growing town of Awasa."}]},{"head":"Cultivation with Agrochemicals","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"The haricot bean expansion programme will be accompanied by the use of agrochemicals. Expansion of this crop may require a more modest use of agrochemicals."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The coffee, fruit and vegetable expansion programme will be based on organic fertilizers, and will not involve the use of agrochemicals. Traditionally, coffee is grown using manure and this system will be encouraged but improved ways of doing this will be explored in the future."}]},{"head":"Use of Livestock Veterinary Drugs and Chemicals","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Trypanosomosis has been identified as a major problem in the low lying areas adjacent to Lake Abaya. Cattle have been suffering and number declining as a result of this disease."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Control measures using pour-on will be implemented based on experiences of ILRI in Ghibe lowlands. On the other hand, improved dairy as well as cattle fattening programmes in other parts of the wereda will be accompanied by modest utilisation of veterinary drugs and chemicals. Supply of these chemicals will come from private suppliers in towns. However, the intention of the project is to encourage farmers/traders in and around the Farmer Training Centres (FTCs) to supply veterinary drugs and chemicals. However, none of the FTCs are yet functional in the woreda."}]},{"head":"Description of Project Surroundings","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Dale Woreda is located about 330 km south of Addis Ababa on the Ethio-Kenya road."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The Woreda is subdivided into 76 PAs and has a total area of 1,411 km 2 . In 2003, the human population was estimated at 369,548 and 57.6% of this were women (CSA, 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"In Dale, altitude ranges from 1170, around Lake Abaya, in the west to about 3200 m asl in the east. Coffee Improvement Project was very active in Dale. Road networking between PAs, Service cooperatives and coffee washing and pulping plants are all well connected which makes access to any part of the coffee growing areas very easy. Mean annual rainfall (1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998) at Awada Agricultural Research sub-Centre in Yirgalem is 1314 mm."},{"index":4,"size":218,"text":"Intensive agricultural production system is practised in the highlands where coffee is grown. The terrain is also hilly and soils are red (Nitosols). As a result of higher rainfall in these areas, vegetative cover is very high. Consequently, erosion hazard is very low. Even though rainfall is high in the highland it declines as one goes away westwards, in which case undulation of the terrain also decreases. Based on these natural variations there are two major farming systems. In the highlands where rainfall is high and reliable garden coffee and enset are mainly grown, while livestock mainly cattle are kept. Other crops in the system also include haricot beans (as an intercrop), yam, cereals, fruits, mainly avocado and bananas. Because of the perennial nature of the crops and the small holding size which is between 0.25-0.5 ha per household, hand hoeing is the predominant method of cultivation. Livestock are tethered and mainly dairy cows kept for their milk and manure. Manure is commonly applied to enset and coffee in this farming system. In the other farming system where rainfall is less reliable farmers mainly grow haricot bean and maize. The terrain in this farming system varies from relatively flat to hilly. Black soils (Pellic Vertisols) are commonly found on the flat areas and red soils on the slopes."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"Rainfall is lower and more erratic than in the coffee system. This system is dominated by cereals (maize, teff) rotated with haricot beans. Enset is cultivated near the homesteads. Garden coffee is grown in small patches, on the red soils. Extensive grazing areas are found, which are used for herding the oxen, cattle and goats. Average farm size is estimated at 1.5 ha and oxen are used for cultivation. Livestock production in this system is extensive. Besides these 2 major systems, two smaller systems can be found, one in the extreme east at the high altitude where farmers grow horticultural crops (shallots) and one in the extreme west, near Lake Abaya where a pastoralist system is found."},{"index":6,"size":135,"text":"There are two cropping seasons, namely, Belg (short rainy season) and Meher (main rainy season). The short rainy season starts from March to April while the main rain season is from June to September. In Dale, the short rains are mainly used for land preparation, planting long cycle crops such as maize and seedbed preparation for the long rainy season crops. The main rains are used for planting cereal crops like barley, teff, wheat and vegetable crops and the growth and development of perennial crops such as enset, coffee and chat. Even though crops grown in Dale are few, the rainfall and soils conditions are suitable to support the growth of a variety of crops. The five project activities considered above will be focused and activities related will be carried out in both farming systems."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"Livestock are the main sources of draught power in the haricot bean/livestock farming system. This is in addition to milk and meat production and prestige."},{"index":8,"size":59,"text":"Fuel wood is the main source of household energy in the wereda. Majority of the trees in Dale are bushes and shrubs but eucalyptus constitutes a major share. Woodlots of eucalyptus are common in Dale and even are good cash sources. Similarly, a substantial amount of natural forest also exist which is mainly composed of Juniperus and Podocarpus species."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"Fauna is limited mainly to the coffee/livestock farming system in the mountainous areas."},{"index":10,"size":31,"text":"Cultural sites are principally churches, mosques and burial grounds, which will remain unaffected by the project. It is not considered likely that there are unregistered significant cultural sites in the PLW."}]},{"head":"Existing Environmental Issues","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The principal environmental issues in the PLW are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":" Malaria in humans and trypanosomosis on livestock in the haricot bean/livestock farming system are increasingly common in the PLW."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":" Shortage and poor distribution of rainfall is also a problem in the haricot bean/livestock farming system."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":" Shortage of land and continuous cultivation and hence low productivity as a result of poor fertility is common in wereda."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":" Over grazing/ land degradation in the haricot bean/livestock farming system and hence shortage of feed during the dry season is common."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":" Pollution of rivers and streams by coffee pulping plants.  Expanded cultivation of vegetables and fruits will be accompanied by organic fertilizer and composting programmes, thus producing a positive environmental impact."}]},{"head":"Environmental Effects and Public Concerns associated with Planned Initiatives","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Public Concerns","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Pollution of rivers and streams as a result of the coffee pulping plants has been raised by the community. (Currently, there are 24 cooperative and 34 private coffee /pulping dehulling plants in the wereda with a capacity of 30 million kg of coffee beans)."}]},{"head":"Project Phases","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Table (i) relates to the operations phase of the project. There is no pre-construction phase, construction or closure phase. Accidents and malfunctions are covered within the Integrated Pesticide Management (IPM) Plan."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Table (i) incorporates both direct and indirect impacts."}]},{"head":"Significance of Adverse Environmental Effects (after implementation of Mitigating Measures)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"No significant adverse effects are likely to occur."}]},{"head":"Mitigation Measures","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Technically and economically feasible mitigation measures are set out in Table (i)."}]},{"head":"Table (i) Matrix of Mitigating Measures and Likely Impacts after taking Mitigating Measures into account","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Activities:"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"1. Reintroduction of Improved Native Sidama/Yirgachefe Coffee Types"}]},{"head":"Peri-Urban Dairy Development 3. Cultivation under Agrochemicals","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Use of Livestock Drugs & Chemicals Likely Impacts before Mitigating Measures","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"(i) As a result of dumping coffee pulp and waste water onto rivers human and animal health will be affected."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"(ii) It is also affecting the fauna in the rivers and streams in the wereda."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"(iii) Public Concern: Pollution of streams and rivers; and pungent smell as a result of coffee processing in the upper slopes has been raised."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"(i) Uncontrolled adoption of Peri-Urban Dairy development may lead to expansion of the system to high density urban areas. This may lead to health hazards, noise and smell pollution."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"(i) Uncontrolled or careless use of agrochemicals may pollute the soil and groundwater, resulting long term health hazards for human and animal life, and may pose a hazard for bees and other insects as well."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"(i) Uncontrolled or careless use of livestock veterinary drugs or chemicals may pollute the groundwater, resulting in health hazards for human and animal life in the long term (ii) As a result of improved health conditions of livestock, the number may increase and hence enhance overgrazing of natural pastures."}]},{"head":"Mitigating Measures","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"(i) Training will be given to coffee de-hulling and pulping plant managers/owners, Wereda NRM and Environment experts and farmers on the side effects of dumping on to rivers. The experts will then enforce environmental safety in the wereda (ii) Alternative uses of these by-products will also be demonstrated, like composting, use dried pulp for brickettes making and modern construction materials, (iii) Growing bamboos is also another means of cleaning polluted water. Hence, encouragements to growing these trees will be made after sufficient information regarding this is obtained from ICRAF and others."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"(iv) Use of eco-friendly coffee processing plants (example: less water use, like the one around Dilla) will be encouraged ( (i) IPMS will work closely with urban public health workers and other relevant bodies to create awareness."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"(ii) Health workers, herd owners and town adminstrators will be trained on health hazards of livestock keeping in high density urban areas."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"(ii) It is expected that Health workers, herd owners and town adminstrators will be able to develop rules and regulations about livestock keeping in high density urban areas. There are already existing environmental laws (rules) in the country. These experts will be able to enforce these rules and regulations and avoid/minimize health problems."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"(i) An Integrated Pesticide Management (IPM) plan covering use of a combination of natural methods and agrochemicals will be drawn up and implemented, covering acquisition, application, accidents, storage and disposal of agrochemicals. In addition, the location of use will take into account proximity to PAs dependent on apiculture."},{"index":6,"size":122,"text":"(i) Drugs and Chemicals Management plan will be drawn up and implemented, covering acquisition, application, accidents, storage and disposal of livestock veterinary drugs and chemicals. (ii) Livestock marketing is being enhanced in the country. It is therefore expected that take off by the market will be increased and intensive livestock management will be encouraged. As a result overgrazing will not be a problem (iii) Through enhanced community based sustainable veterinary service delivery mechanism, enhanced awareness and market linkages, it will improve production of marketable livestock while maintaining a balance between the environment and sustainable livelihood of farm families (iv) Donkey traction is also being encouraged to possibly replace the function of oxen and hence oxen could be intensively managed for market purposes"}]},{"head":"Likely Impacts (after mitigating measures)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, no adverse environmental impacts are expected."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, no adverse environmental impacts are expected."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, no adverse environmental impacts are expected."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, no adverse environmental impacts are expected."}]},{"head":"Cumulative or Interactive Environmental Effects","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"The following potential long-term cumulative effects could be postulated:"}]},{"head":"Pollution of Rivers and streams","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The reintroduction of improved native Sidama/Yirgachefe coffee types per se does not bring about negative impacts. However, as a result of the encouragement of this sector and current high prices, it is expected that rivers will be contaminated by waste produced from coffee processing (water used in pulping, flushing the residue and discarding pulp) from coffee washing and pulping plants. Currently, Dale produces about 30 million kg of red coffee cherries and it is easy to quantify the amount of waste that could be produced."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Wereda and other experts are expected to encourage the use of this byproduct for composting and hence reuse it as a source of fertilization for their coffee and other plants."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"On the other hand, bamboos are used as a means of cleaning polluted water in Kenya. IPMS will make efforts to verify and introduce this technology to Dale. In addition to cleaning water it is expected to significantly contribute as a source of income to many farmers. In addition, it can also be used to encourage expansion of pine apple production in Dale. Nonetheless, the wereda agricultural office will closely monitor these plants and will control any further dumping of coffee pulps, use of less water, filtering solid pulp waste and sedimentation of smaller material or other viable measures to avoid undesirable negative impacts on the rivers and streams. Training will be given to all stakeholders to minimize the magnitude of the problem."}]},{"head":"Ratio of Cash: Food Crop Production","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"If the cultivation of cash crops like white haricot beans becomes so popular that it displaces the red haricot bean types to a significant extent, it could produce an imbalance that might lead to food shortages within, or outside, the PLW. However, the wereda Agriculture Office and the Regional Food Security Bureau have planning systems to address such a trend before it becomes a problem. Moreover, as opposed to previous market situations, the red types are also becoming equally important. Hence, the likelihood of the red types becoming out of production will be very low."}]},{"head":"Loss of Species Diversity","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Uncontrolled adoption throughout the PLW and beyond of a newly introduced haricot bean variety and forage species into some of the natural pastures could lead to a situation whereby the genetic base of the crop and forages concerned is unduly narrowed. This could mean, for example, that in the event of an outbreak of disease, there is no alternative strain available. It is thus recommended that the regional or wereda agricultural office should monitor production rates of new crop varieties and forage species, and should liaise with the Biodiversity Institute to ensure that the gene banks contain alternative varieties."}]},{"head":"Possible health Hazards due to Expansion of Dairying","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"The zero-grazing based dairy production being promoted (which by reducing grazing and often livestock numbers is generally environmentally beneficial) may eventually lead to uncontrolled adoption of zero-grazing in high-density urban areas. This has resultant health hazards, noise and smell pollution. To avoid this happening, the project will work closely with urban public health workers and other relevant bodies to create awareness. Hence health workers, herd owners and town administrators will be trained on health hazards of livestock keeping in high density urban areas. As a result, it is expected that those trained will develop rules and regulations on livestock keeping in high density urban areas. There are already existing environmental laws (rules) in the country. These experts will be able to enforce these and locally developed rules and regulations and avoid/minimize health problems."}]},{"head":"6.","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Effects of the Environment on the Project"}]},{"head":"Extended periods of drought","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The lowlands of Dale wereda are almost always prone to drought. The fact that the area has extended periods of drought would mean reduced rainfall for cultivating haricot bean. However, training of trainers has been conducted in in-situ water harvesting methods to wereda level experts who are expected to train DAs so that farmers are then trained."}]},{"head":"Small land holdings","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Dale is one of the highly populated weredas in the south. Average land holding is very small and is about 0.25-0.5 ha per household. This is especially so in the coffee/livestock system. This could be a problem for introducing new technologies due to lack of space."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"In addition, because of the scale, farm operations are also carried out by hoe. For this reason, farmers tend to stick to what they already know and do not want to accept new interventions. These call for appropriate interventions taking into consideration these problems during planning."}]},{"head":"Prevalence of livestock diseases, mainly tryposomiasis","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Livestock diseases are prevalent in Dale. This is particularly so in the low-lying areas of the wereda (haricot bean/livestock farming system) where extensive agriculture is practiced. Trypanosomosis and other diseases (pasurellosis, blackleg, etc.) are the major livestock killer diseases the in rural lowland areas of Dale. Introduction of trypanasomosis control measures, based experiences from ILRI Ghibe project, with the availability of credit schemes for purchase of drugs and possible introduction of single ox/donkey traction are possible solutions."}]},{"head":"Nature of Public Participation","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"There has been extensive public participation in the design of the IPMS interventions in this PLW, including a two-day workshop on 6-7, September, 2004 In addition, a number of training sessions for farmers and Development Agents (DAs) and visits to various areas for training purposes have been conducted since the launching of the project."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Issues and discussion points provided in public participation workshops are included in this EASR as the writer of this report was part of this exercise. In addition, consultation of other IPMS staff in both Addis and Dale was made and referred to in Section 10 below."}]},{"head":"Follow-up Program","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"A follow-up program to ensure that the recommended mitigating measures are implemented as required will be conducted by the staff of the Environment and Natural Resources Unit in the wereda agricultural office, with support from IPMS as required."}]},{"head":"Relevant Matters","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"In the project design workshops, it was agreed by the community and the wereda agricultural office that there are no viable alternative means for conducting the project, other than by supporting the Wereda Agricultural Office and the Development Agents (DAs)."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"There are no transboundary effects anticipated."}]},{"head":"Sources for the Screening Report","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The sources of information used for this Screening Report are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":" "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table ( It should be noted new crop varieties will be limited to those produced and approved by government public bodies, notably the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE) and the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR). No varieties involving any form of genetic engineering, or likely to introduce new environmental impacts, will be introduced. Notes Notes   i) sets out: i) sets out:  Possible negative environmental impacts before the introduction of mitigating  Possible negative environmental impacts before the introduction of mitigating measures; measures;  Planned mitigating measures;  Planned mitigating measures;  Expected negative environmental impacts after implementation of mitigating  Expected negative environmental impacts after implementation of mitigating measures. measures.  "},{"text":" The environmental overviews in the IPMS Project Implementation Report, March, 2005,  The IPMS Environmental Framework,  Dale Pilot Learning Woerda Diagnosis Program Design, 10.01.05,  Consultations with IPMS Project Manager, Dr. Azage Tegegne and Dr. Berhanu Gebremedhin  Joint PLW environmental reconnaissance by Kahsay Berhe (IPMS Technology/Environment Officer) and Ketema Yilma (IPMS RDO),  Consultation with Addis Ababa-based CIDA Environmental Officer, Ato Tamene Tiruneh,  Consultation with:  Ato Shitaye Yumura, (OoARD Head, NR and Land Use)  "}],"sieverID":"b8db0f5b-b7b0-4552-9f90-6c59e4e72b14","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0302701567f9712ccd315e4b6a2df046.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0302701567f9712ccd315e4b6a2df046","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5e094a49-31f1-4978-8d80-dff43b78fb65/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Use of modeling tools to simulate the impact of climate change on wheat and barley production","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Project Title: P2013 -Henan Agricultural University Collaboration Description of the innovation: The studies used an ensemble of crop simulation models to estimate yield and phenology of wheat and barley in all regions of the world that are suitable for the production of these 2 crops. The models take into account actual weather data (historic) as well as different climate change scenarios in order to estimate their impact on phenology and yield, and the uncertainty of these estimations. "}]},{"head":"New Innovation: No","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Research and Communication Methodologies and Tools Stage of innovation: Stage 1: discovery/proof of concept (PC -end of research phase) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Description of Stage reached: Papers have been published and strengths and weaknesses of models to simulate the impact of climate change on yield and phenology have been documented. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: <Not Defined> Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • IFPRI -International Food Policy Research Institute • UF -University of Florida Milestones: No milestones associated Sub-IDOs: • 11 -Adoption of CGIAR materials with enhanced genetic gains Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • CIMMYT -Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo / International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center Evidence link: • https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-019-0004-2 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:48 (GMT+0) "}],"sieverID":"86817609-c0d3-42db-8674-3e7f8cbb0381","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0344a2407837cd6955c75f3fa30e9280.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0344a2407837cd6955c75f3fa30e9280","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5eebfa9f-5750-436e-8a8e-f8a1630f7d17/retrieve"},"pageCount":33,"title":"CSIR/SARI The Savannah Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) is a research institute mandated to conduct agricultural research, on food and fiber crops in northern Ghana. For the purpose of introducing improved technologies to enhance agricultural productivity, the institute, in close collaboration with typical farm households, in the various agro-eclogical zones, develops options of production techniques which are compatible with farm households and which enhance the capacity of farm families to increase crop production per unit area without injury to the environment. Given its farming systems orientation, the institute has programs for all the major crops cultivated in northern Ghana, including sorghum, millet, maize, rice, groundnut, cowpea, bambara beans, pigeon pea, soybean, yam, cassava, cotton, and vegetables","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":376,"text":"The characterization of households for the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) project in the Northern Region of Ghana was implemented to provide a profile of maize producing households in the project area, and assess the rate of adoption of existing maize varieties and their impact on the welfare of maize producing farm households. Maize is indeed an important food and cash crop, therefore, improving the production and productivity of the crop will enhance food self-sufficiency among the households. About two thirds of the of the sampled households are less endowed, as indicated by the wealth indices computed using principal component analysis (PCA) which gives an indication of the incidence of poverty. The few well endowed farm households have access to large areas of land resources. Despite the numerous constraints associated with maize production in the study area, the estimated rate of adoption of existing improved maize varieties is about 95%. However, low level of farmer participation in field demonstrations is a source of concern for the newly improved DT maize varieties that are yet to be released. High rates of adoption of the DT maize varieties are assured if proper targeting is undertaken. For this project to be successful there is a need to foster strong linkages between the DTMA working group in the country and the associated development agencies to identify synergies to ensure the effective dissemination of the DT maize varieties through intensive field demonstrations. Farmers from Tolon-Kumbungu, by virtue of their proximity to research and development agencies, are more likely to adopt newly improved maize varieties. From the Probit adoption regression model, the area allocated to improved maize, the cost of fertilizer, and household income all have significant effects on the adoption of improved maize varieties. The results also suggest that farmers with high incomes tend to invest in off-farm activities. Moreover, the high cost of fertilizer is a disincentive for the adoption of improved maize varieties. The technology development process must therefore consider the cost implications in terms of the fertilizer and labor requirements to enable the farmers with a lower income to adopt the technologies. Finally, since the technology development process and dissemination occur simultaneously, it is also necessary to progressively track the rate of diffusion and the potential impact."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"As climate change progresses with recurrent droughts and floods, lives and livelihoods are threatened and sometimes destroyed. In fact, huge production losses have already been a formidable component of the livelihoods of resource-poor rural farm households in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Hodson et al. 2002). To contribute to the global and continental efforts to adapt vulnerable livelihoods to the consequences of climate change, the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) initiative aims at developing and disseminating DT maize varieties to farm households in SSA. The development, distribution, and cultivation of DT maize varieties will make a significant contribution towards reducing hunger and vulnerability in SSA."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Among the sets of activities to be implemented under the DTMA project is assessment and targeting research, which seeks to create knowledge on the delivery pathways and identify the necessary modifications to DT maize technologies required to increase livelihood impacts. In this regard, household and community surveys have been implemented to assess baseline conditions and the potential for the adoption of improved DT varieties. Characterizing the status quo of the target households will help in the later assessment of changes that can be attributed to the adoption and use of DTMA technologies at the household level."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"This report presents the results from the household survey for the DTMA project in the northern region of Ghana. The principal objective of the household assessment is to describe and explain current conditions in the project area."},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"Farmers' demo plot."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"This will allow the estimation of the adoption of existing maize varieties and assess impacts on the welfare of producers. The baseline survey can be repeated to provide a panel data set for impact assessment during the follow-up phase of the project and to analyze the dynamics of adoption and impact."},{"index":6,"size":152,"text":"Section 2 of this report presents a description of the sample location and the sampling and data collection procedure. In Section 3, the agroclimatic characteristics of the survey locations are briefly described. The demographic characteristics of the households involved in the study are described in Section 4; the agricultural production systems and livelihood strategies of the households are discussed in Section 5. In Section 6, the resource endowments and the wealth status of the households are discussed. Section 7 presents the discussion on the adoption incidence and the determinants of adoption of improved maize varieties among the households. The impact of shocks on household livelihood outcomes is discussed in Section 8. Further discussions on agricultural production and price risk are given in Section 9, with a summary of impact indicators among wealth categories in Section 10. Section 11 provides a synthesis of the outcomes of the study and draws conclusions on them."}]},{"head":"Sampling and data collection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The study began with familiarization visits to the Northern Regional Directorate of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) to enlighten the officers about the project and its objectives. The visits provided a platform for generating information on key maize-producing zones, and also for identifying sources of relevant secondary data. In consultation with the regional directors of the MoFA and other collaborators in the DTMA project, Karaga and Tolon-Kumbungu districts were selected for the survey (Fig. 1). The districts fall in areas with drought probability risks between 20 and 40% 1 and are among the districts in northern Ghana selected for the testing of DT maize genotypes."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"1 See maps of failed seasons in Ghana (n.p). DTMA Community Survey Site Selection by Dave Hodson, CIMMYT.  For the purpose of this assessment study, 150 farm households (75/district) were interviewed from randomly selected maize producing communities and households in the two districts. The interviews were guided by pretested structured questionnaires and the global position coordinates of households were also recorded for easy identification."}]},{"head":"Agroclimatic characteristics of survey locations","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Karaga and Tolon-Kumbungu are located in the Guinea savanna agroecological zone. The zone experiences a mono-modal rainfall pattern, beginning in May and ending in October, with annual rainfall ranging between 900 and 1000 mm. Temperatures are high throughout most of the year with the highest of 36 o C in March and April. Lower temperatures are experienced between November and February, the harmattan period (Table 1). The savanna agroecology is characterized by drought tolerant plant species. Shea tree (Butyrospermum parkii), parkia (Parkia biglobosa) and mango (Mangifera indica) are common tree crops that form an integral part of the people's livelihood. The major arable crops cultivated in the zone include maize, rice, millet, sorghum, cassava, yam, groundnut, cowpea, and soybean. "}]},{"head":"Demographic characterization of households","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Traditionally, the rural households in northern Ghana are male-headed. The role of females can be observed within the household, where they are mostly involved in household chores. Almost all the household heads are married. This highlights the importance of the marriage institution, a highly cherished institution that also serves as a source of family labor."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Apart from ensuring the general well-being of the members of the household, the head also serves as the official spokesman of the family. In fact, most of the sampled households rely on their heads for decisions on farming activities. However, a significant proportion, about 30% of the households in Tolon-Kumbungu, makes collective decisions, taking into account the contributions and interests of all members (Table 2)."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"The head of a farm household in the study area is, on average, 52 years old. This provides an indication of the level of experience in agriculture and maize cultivation among the sampled households. However, there is a low level of literacy with only 6.41% of the farm households having a background of formal education. Despite this gap, more than half of the respondents have been members of farmer-based organizations (FBOs) for about three years. Membership of FBOs varies greatly between the districts. While about 41% of the households in Tolon-Kumbungu belong to FBOs, in Karaga, about 61% of the households are members of FBOs. The FBOs are critical sources of education on the types and availability of inputs and markets. In addition, the farm households benefit as members of the association from a wide variety of training programs in group formation, farm planning and budgeting, good agricultural practices (GAP), postharvest management, and marketing strategies (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Production system/livelihood strategies","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Agriculture, arable crop production, and livestock rearing are the main sources of livelihood for rural farm households in the Northern Region and in Ghana as a whole. Some members of the rural communities also engage in off-farm income-generating activities. These include food processing, petty trading, and craftsmanship."}]},{"head":"Crop production","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Northern Ghana accounts for a greater proportion of the grain produced in the country and can be described as the grain basket of the national economy. Maize, sorghum, millet, and rice are the common cereal crops produced in the north (Fig. 2a)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Leguminous grains, including groundnut, cowpea, and soybean, are also produced."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The three Northern Regions are also known for the production of significant quantities of root and tuber crops, such as yam, potato, and cassava (Fig. 2b). Additionally, horticultural produce, such as pepper, egg plant, tomato, and onion, are common in the north (SRID, MoFA 2007)."}]},{"head":"Distribution of farm lands among crops","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The distribution of farm lands among food crops depends greatly on the food needs of the household, the availability of cash, and the suitability of the crop to the soil conditions. Certainly, slight variations exist in the distribution of land among crops in the two surveyed districts."}]},{"head":"Input use by farm households","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Apart from seeds, the farm households in the surveyed districts use other inputs, mainly fertilizers. Low fertility, a typical characteristic of soils in Northern Ghana, explains the heavy use of inorganic fertilizers in the study area. A typical household applies about 87 kg of NPK and 50 kg of urea on one hectare of soil. Farmers in Tolon-Kumbungu apply organic manure, herbicides, and pesticides on their farm lands (Table 3).    For most of the farm households in Tolon-Kumbungu, input dealers are the major source of non-seed inputs. However, some farmers in the district obtain inputs from their own sources. In addition, farmers in Karaga obtain non-seed inputs from the markets, input dealers, and NGOs (Fig. 3)."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"In both districts, most farm households recycle their seeds from previous harvests. Input dealers, traders in the market, MoFA, NGOs, and research institutions are all important sources of seeds (Fig. 4)."}]},{"head":"Maize production","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"All the sampled farm households cultivate a local variety of yellow maize. Discussions with farmers revealed that local varieties provide security against huge yield losses as they are relatively tolerant to unfavorable climate and poor soil conditions. The local varieties are also palatable and suitable for the preparation of local dishes."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Apart from the local yellow maize variety, almost all the farm households cultivate at least one improved variety. The improved varieties identified by the households include Okomasa, Obaatanpa, Popcorn, Dorke, Dobidi, Laposta, and Dodzi. Laposta and Dodzi are absent from the list of varieties identified with the farm households in Tolon-Kumbungu district. Popcorn is also absent from the list of varieties cultivated in Karaga district. According to collaborating breeders on the project, all the improved varieties identified are open pollinated varieties (OPVs). They indicated that the absence of hybrids easily allows farmers to recycle seeds from the existing varieties. Dodzi is identified by the breeders as early maturing and possibly a drought-escaping variety (Table 4)."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Further analysis of the maize production systems in the two districts underscores the importance of improved varieties. Overall, the farm households cultivate an average of 0.61 ha of improved maize varieties and use  Tolon Karaga Tolon Karaga about 91 kg/ha of improved maize seeds. This represents about three times the amount of local varieties. Yields from improved 1 maize varieties are obviously higher than from the local varieties. On average, the yield from improved maize varieties for both districts is estimated at 0.92 t/ha while that of the local varieties is 0.02 t/ha (Table 5)."}]},{"head":"Crop marketing decisions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Household consumption and cash requirements influence household crop production and marketing decisions. On average, nearly half of the harvested agricultural produce (about 47%) is for home consumption. The remainder is sold, given out as gifts, stored for future use, or destroyed by disease and pest infestation while in store (Table 6)."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Crops that are produced mainly for home consumption include maize, millet, and sorghum. Rice, groundnut, cowpea, soybean, and yam are produced for sale. The revenue from the sales of harvested agricultural produce is spent on education, health care, clothing, shelter, and other domestic needs (Table 6)."}]},{"head":"Livestock production and marketing","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Livestock rearing is an important source of livelihood for the rural farm households in the study area. The ease of keeping a particular animal determines the number kept. There is minimal variation in the size of the livestock enterprises operated by households in the two districts. In general, the sampled farm households keep large numbers of free-range chickens, which are far easier to rear and require little or no capital investment. The numbers of small ruminants reared also outnumber the large ruminants, as the former are relatively easier to handle."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"On average, households in the two districts rear 18 birds, 6 goats, 7 sheep, and 2 cows. All these are kept under a free-range system with minimal investment. The results further suggest that the farm households in Tolon-Kumbungu have slightly larger numbers of livestock, except for those with bulls (Fig. 5)."}]},{"head":"Income and expenditure profiles of households","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Income from agriculture and off-farm activities","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"The sale of crops is a major source of income for farm households in the study area. Cattle are seen as a kind of medium to long-term investment, hence these are sold only in dire circumstances. Poultry are, however, readily sold as a source of income. Sales of fruits and vegetables and petty trading are also common sources of income (Table 7).   In addition to the sale of farm produce, all the farm households interviewed in Karaga district are involved in other off-farm activities as additional sources of income and food security. Some respondents are selfemployed or employed in the formal sector, while others are engaged in casual work in addition to receiving remittances from family and friends abroad (Fig. 6)."}]},{"head":"Expenditure profiles","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Given the wide range of needs and the limited availability of resources, farm households must make rational decisions on the components and volumes of expenditure. The expenditure baskets of farm households in the study area can be broadly classified as necessities and lifestyle commodities. A large proportion of farmers' income is spent on household necessities, including the purchase of staple food items and snacks. The farm households also spend a considerable amount on education, medical bills, clothing, fuel, transportation, and accommodation. It is worth noting that the farmers also contribute some of their income to the society in the form of remittances and social contributions. Some lifestyle expenditure items of the farm households include tobacco and alcohol (Table 8).  "}]},{"head":"Household resource endowments and wealth status","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Various forms of resources were identified with the farm households involved in the study. Access to these resources varies across households and across districts. The level of resource endowment is a useful measure of the wealth status of a given household."}]},{"head":"Access to capital assets","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Access to human capital assets Agricultural activities in the surveyed districts are largely carried out using manual labor. The farm family is actually the key source of labor in farm operations. The results suggest a relatively better access to labor resources among households in Karaga district than for those in Tolon-Kumbungu (Table 9). Focus group discussions in some selected communities further showed that females constitute a significant part of the household labor resource endowment. They are mainly responsible for sowing seeds, applying fertilizer, harvesting, and transporting harvested produce. The tasks of their male counterparts are more laborintensive and include land preparation, weed control, as well as harvesting."}]},{"head":"Access to natural/land capital assets","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Despite the increasing pressure on land resources due to the increasing population, farmers continue to allow their lands to lie fallow to regain lost nutrients, while inaccessible lands are abandoned. Forest lands with shea trees and Parkia are an important source of livelihood for women in the study area."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"In addition to crop production, the sampled households also raise farm animals. Pasture lands therefore constitute an important natural resource, serving primarily as grazing lands for livestock. Among the various forms of land use, crop cultivation claims the largest portion (Table 10)."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"The results further suggest changes in land allocation to maize. These changes, however, vary by district."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"The majority of the farmers in Karaga have increased the land area allocated to maize while in Tolon-Kumbungu, the majority have maintained the same area. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that the percentage of households that have increased their land area for maize cultivation in Karaga district is about twice that of Tolon-Kumbungu (Fig. 7). The decisions on land use within the districts are influenced by the food needs of households, cash availability, expected amount of family labor, and the prevailing market price of grain, in that order. The results are quite obvious for rural farm households whose primary objective in any agricultural enterprise is to satisfy their food needs (Table 11)."}]},{"head":"Access to physical capital assets","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"Mud huts, roofed with thatch or asbestos sheets, are the common forms of dwelling in the study area. Mud huts roofed with thatch are employing a very old traditional housing technology and are widely used by households in the study area. Although these are relatively cheaper to construct they are easily destroyed during the dry season (Table 12). In any case, households who can afford mud huts roofed with asbestos sheets are regarded as well endowed.  Bicycles are predominantly used for transport in the Northern Region. About 96% of the households in the study area own at least one bicycle. Radio is an important source of information and entertainment for a majority of the sampled households. Another important information and communication tool is the cellular phone, which is becoming very popular among rural households. Although not common in the sampled households in Tolon-Kumbungu, about 47% of households in Karaga own at least one cellular phone. Their use facilitates communication among farmers and also serves as a means of sharing up-to-date market information (Table 12)."}]},{"head":"Access to financial capital assets","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"As mentioned above, the status of financial resources is a key determinant of the size of arable crop lands in the study area. Access to credit or the availability of financial resources facilitates timely access to adequate inputs for the implementation of all field operations. Access to credit can motivate farmers to invest adequately in newly improved technologies. Results from the study, however, show minimal access to credit and credit facilities in the two districts. Although a relative higher proportion of the farm households in Karaga have access to credit, the average amount of credit received by farm households in the district is far lower than for those in Tolon-Kumbungu district (Table 13)."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Further interactions with key informants (KI) revealed that some of the households that do not have access to credit are not aware of the availability of credit facilities. Others intentionally make no effort to search for such facilities. The latter may sometimes be due to the perceived bureaucratic processes associated with credit delivery, the high interest rates charged on credit, and the need for collateral."}]},{"head":"Access to institutional and social capital assets","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"A wide range of development agencies exists and provides institutional, technical, and social support to households in Karaga and Tolon-Kumbungu districts. They include parastatals, such as the extension division of MoFA, research institutions, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs)."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"These institutions implement programs that seek to distribute quality inputs (such as seeds), demonstrate time-tested technologies, and train farmers in appropriate and improved agricultural practices. The results of the study, however, suggest low levels of participation in such programs. On the whole, less than 20% of the sampled farm households have received support from the above-mentioned institutions. Only 33% of the households have participated in field demonstrations (Table 14)."}]},{"head":"Household wealth indices","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The physical, human, and social capital endowments of households that have been described in earlier sections are key indicators of wealth. Based on these asset endowments, wealth indices were generated for the households in the study area. Following the basic steps outlined by Langyintuo (2008), the wealth indices were computed with the principal component analytic (PCA) procedure. The procedure involved the identification of the relevant weight for each asset indicator by extracting from a set of variables those few with orthogonal linear combinations that capture the common information (Langyintuo 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Given that the levels of endowment vary across the households and to ease comparison, there was the need first to normalize the assets by weighting to avoid distortions. Assets such as farm size and household size which are measured in absolute values were also scaled from 0 to 1. Scaling was done as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"where i represents the index, xl represents the level, while x min and x max represent the minimum and maximum values of x, , taken from the actual data collected. Once these were scaled (or normalized), it was easier to aggregate the indicators without distortion. Secondly, descriptive statistics (i.e., mean and standard deviation) and the component score coefficient matrix for the normalized variables were generated using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). With these, the wealth indices were computed as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"where Wj represents a standardized wealth index for each household 'j'; bi represents the weights (scores) assigned to the (k) variables on the first principal component; aji represents the value of each household 'j' on each of the k variables; xi represents the mean of each of the k variables; and 's'i the standard deviations."}]},{"head":"Household wealth ranking","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"A graphical exposition of the distribution of the wealth ranking of the households and the probability distribution of households within wealth groups provides both qualitative and quantitative evidence of the incidence of poverty in the study area. The results suggest a high incidence of poverty and confirm the human poverty indices (HPI) estimates of the Ghana Statistical Services (GSS 2005)."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Specifically, the computed wealth indices range between -1.14 and 4.26. From these estimates, two main wealth groups have been identified within the area. Well endowed households have indices above zero and are shown by the upward section of the distribution of wealth ranking. The well endowed group is heterogeneous, as shown by the relatively steeper side of their end of the curve. About 64% of the households are less endowed and are shown by the relatively longer section of the curve below the zero mark. On average, a farmer in the survey districts is less endowed with an estimated wealth index of -0.001 (Survey data 2008; Figs 8  and 9). There is minimal variation in the distribution of wealth groups within the districts. In both cases, more than 60% of the sampled households are less endowed."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Farm families show off maize produce. Obviously, the well endowed households have access to human, physical, and institutional resources. However, very little variations exist in the characteristics of the household heads of the wealth groups. The well endowed household heads slightly dominate in terms of age, joint decision-making processes, literacy, and years of membership of FBOs. Most of the less endowed household heads make their own decisions about farm operations, are illiterate, and are members of FBOs (Table 15)."}]},{"head":"Determinants of adoption of improved maize seeds","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"As indicated earlier, almost all the farm households involved in the study use at least one improved variety, in addition to the local yellow maize variety. Minimal variations exist in the rates of adoption of existing maize varieties among the wealth groups. Overall, the less endowed farmers have adopted at least one of the improved varieties, while the well endowed have not adopted varieties such as Popcorn, Laposta, and Dodzi. In fact, the less endowed farm households have a relatively higher adoption rate than the well endowed farmers. They are also dominant in the adoption of Obaatanpa. The well endowed are dominant in the adoption of Okomasa, the most popular improved variety in the study area, as well as Dorke and Dobidi (Table 16)."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"The high rate of adoption of existing improved maize varieties suggests a high adoption potential for promising DT varieties. Effective and efficient dissemination of new DT maize varieties, therefore, requires a better appreciation of the adoption behavior of the targeted farm households. The adoption behavior of farm households in the study area is analyzed using the Probit regression model. The Probit model was used to capture the factors that affect the probability that a farmer adopts an improved variety. Since almost all the farmers have adopted at least one of the existing improved varieties, the analysis was limited to the adoption of Okomasa, the most popular variety in the study area (Tables 4 and 16)."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"In order to describe the probability of adoption of Okomasa, variables that describe the farmers' characteristics, farm-level characteristics, and institutional characteristics were used as explanatory variables. Older farmers, who have vast experience in agricultural operations and are aware of the benefits of improved technologies, were expected to be more likely to adopt Okomasa, also households with large families since they have much better access to free labor. The well endowed farmers and farmers with high incomes were expected to have the ability to finance the extra expenses associated with the use of improved varieties and were therefore expected to be more likely to adopt Okomasa."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Considering the farm-level characteristics, farmers with access to large plots of land were expected to be more likely to adopt Okomasa. However, the high cost of fertilizers was expected to deter farmers from adoption. Institutionally, proximity to research and development institutions suggests access to information on improved technologies. The farm households in Tolon-Kumbungu, who are more closely located to CSIR-SARI and the University for Development Studies (UDS) in the Northern Region of Ghana, were expected to be more likely to adopt Okomasa."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"With the exception of income, all the variables in the model bear the expected sign. Although not significant, the size of household, age of the household head, and wealth status were all positively related to the adoption of Okomasa. The probability of adoption was significantly affected by the location of the household, area allocated to improved maize varieties, and cost of fertilizer at 5% alpha level. The income of the farm household also had a significant effect on adoption at 10% alpha level."},{"index":6,"size":86,"text":"The outcome of the model confirms the fact that farmers in Tolon-Kumbungu are relatively exposed to improved technologies by virtue of their proximity to research and development organizations, such as SARI and UDS) Given access to information about the benefits of improved maize varieties, rational farmers will adopt these to ensure the food security of their households. It is therefore certain from the model that the level of adoption of Okomasa will increase by over 100% if farmers in Karaga are also exposed to the variety."},{"index":7,"size":83,"text":"The adoption model also shows the larger the area of improved maize varieties, the higher the likelihood of adoption of Okomasa. Farmers with access to large areas of land are more likely to commit some of their land resources to improved varieties without altering the allocation to other crops. As indicated in the model, a unit increase in land area allocated to improved maize varieties will increase adoption of Okomasa by about 25% (Table 17). Farmer who has adopted the improved maize varieties."},{"index":8,"size":131,"text":"Agricultural interventions are usually introduced as a package. Thus, the dissemination of improved maize varieties comes with a number of practices (complementary technologies) such as the use of fertilizer, row planting, and other GAP. The use of fertilizers is a key component of the maize technology package. This also has cost implications that may deter adoption. As revealed by the Probit model, the cost of fertilizers actually has a negative effect on the adoption of Okomasa. Maize is a heavy feeder, and cultivation requires the use of appreciable quantities of fertilizer. Besides, the soils in the study area are poor in nutrients, thus to cultivate a large area implies accepting a heavy burden of fertilizer costs. Therefore, farmers are not motivated to adopt improved maize varieties which need fertilizer to survive."},{"index":9,"size":53,"text":"Although not significant, the adoption of Okomasa is shown to be negatively affected by income. This suggests that farmers are less willing to plow back gains from agriculture (which is their largest contributor to income). It also affirms the idea that, as incomes increase, households tend to shift their investments to non-agricultural activities."},{"index":10,"size":64,"text":"The insignificant effect of wealth on adoption may be due to the minimal variation of the characteristics of the farm households between the wealth categories. Moreover, the computation of the wealth indices of the households may not be very accurate, and may have omitted necessary variables or included those that are unnecessary. Perhaps further refinement of the estimation procedure may result in significant effects. "}]},{"head":"Impact of shocks on household livelihood outcomes","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Increasing food production and food security, enhancing access to quality health care and education, and reducing asset and market risks constitute the major livelihood concerns of the farm households in the study areas. The farm households have developed strategies for achieving these livelihood objectives. To increase food production, the farm households seek to adopt GAP, such as early planting and the use of improved technologies inter alia. In addition to the adoption of GAP, farmers are also considering safe postharvest handling practices to ensure that the food harvested is properly secure in storage to sustain household food needs during and after the main season. They have also decided to adopt a positive attitude towards savings so as to reserve some of their income for satisfying future food needs (Table 18)."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"To ensure healthy living, the farm households are considering the intake of hygienic and nutritious food."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"According to a KI, regular visits by community health nurses have enlightened them on the need to consume a balanced diet and also to keep the environment clean and healthy. Acknowledging the need for education, they intend to invest significant amounts of their incomes to fund the education of children. Farmers also intend to participate actively in all extension training activities to be educated in the application of new technologies. The farmers are also considering the reduction of asset and marketing risks as an important source of livelihood."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"To safeguard asset risk, the farmers seek to develop a positive attitude towards savings. They also intend to undertake effective price targeting to minimize market risk (Table 18)."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"Among the list of shocks that pose threats to the livelihood of farmers, droughts, floods, and input prices have been identified as the most important. Drought and input price shocks are annual phenomena. Floods may occur annually or every other year. Other threats to the livelihood of farm households include livestock diseases, weeds, and loss of livestock. These may occur annually, or at two-or three-year intervals (Table 18). "}]},{"head":"Production and price risk analysis","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Households' perception about production risk and their coping mechanisms"},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"As mentioned, farmers perceive droughts and floods as the most important livelihood risks. These risk factors also have severe impacts on the crop and livestock production activities of most of the farm households. Coupled with livestock diseases and weeds, they have dire consequences on the livelihoods of farmers (Table 19)."},{"index":3,"size":179,"text":"Unlike the less endowed farm households, the well endowed households have a wide range of coping mechanisms against crop and livestock production risks. In addition to reducing their levels of consumption, using GAP, and crop diversification, well endowed farm households also undertake timely operations as well as the cultivation of improved crop varieties on their fields. Timely operations enable the farm households to escape harsh environmental conditions, such as terminal droughts and subsequent floods. Again, the adoption of improved technologies which are much more tolerant of harsh climatic conditions also saves the well endowed farm households from huge production losses (Fig. 10).   It is generally agreed that low produce prices and high fertilizer prices are serious challenges to farm households (Table 20). During the peak of harvest, the prices of farm produce are so low that farmers are sometimes unable to recoup their investment capital. Yet during the production periods, the prices of inputs, especially fertilizers, inflate the cost of operations. These occurrences serve as a disincentive for farmers to invest completely in the entire package of improved technologies."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"The risk coping strategies of farm households vary by wealth groups. In all cases, the majority of the farm households will either maintain or increase their crop production portfolio. When prices are low, the majority of farm households maintain the same crop area. When prices are high, some will increase the farming area while those who are risk-averse maintain the same area. The same is true for all other conditions except in situations where there is ready credit for investment. Here, the majority of the farmers from both wealth classes will increase their land area (Table 21). Certainly, the availability of ready credit is expected to stimulate investment on improved technologies. Unfortunately, access to credit facilities is limited in the study area. "}]},{"head":"Households' perception on price risk and their coping mechanisms","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"One of the coping strategies used by farmers against price risk is to vary the allocation of land to maize in general and improved maize varieties in particular. The change might be increasing, decreasing, or maintaining the same proportion of land under improved maize varieties. The study has identified variations in the behavior of farmers by wealth groups. To make up for low product prices, more than half (55%) of the well endowed farmers intend to increase the area cultivated. This increases their volume of production and revenue without necessarily increasing their profit. On the contrary, the majority of the less endowed farmers (72%), intend to decrease the land area allocated to maize when the price of the harvested produce is low."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"In terms of input prices, the majority (87%) of well endowed farm households have no option other than to maintain the same size of their lands. The rest tend to decrease the area they allocate to maize production. Almost all the less endowed households intend to decrease their crop area to minimize the cost of operations (Table 22)."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"The wealthy farmers usually diversify their crops and produce those that are more marketable and have attractive prices. A few well endowed farmers also engage in collective marketing as a strategy for strengthening their bargaining power (Tables 22 and 23)."},{"index":4,"size":132,"text":"Apart from these adjustment processes, the farmers also adopt other forms of coping mechanisms. These include crop diversification, collective marketing, bulk purchase, and the sale of some assets. In this instance, the well endowed are more versatile in coping with risk situations. They adopt all the outlined strategies. Apart from engaging themselves in collective marketing to mitigate the effect of low produce prices, they also diversify their crops base to produce high value crops, such as groundnut, soybean, and pepper. To mitigate the effect of high fertilizer prices, they buy inputs in bulk and also sell some of their assets. On the other hand, the less endowed farmers participate in collective marketing to cope with low produce prices and sell some of their assets to cope with high input prices (Table 23)."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"Scientists visiting demo plot."}]},{"head":"Distribution of summary impact indicators by household wealth category","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"The study was implemented to characterize households in the DTMA project zone in the Northern Region of Ghana. The study area, Karaga and Tolon-Kumbungu districts, is the zone where DT maize varieties are being tested and has a drought probability risk lying between 20 and 40%."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"A wide range of development agencies exists and provides institutional, technical, and social support to households in Karaga and Tolon-Kumbungu districts. These institutions implement programs that seek to distribute quality inputs (such as seeds), demonstrate time-tested technologies, and train farmers in appropriate and improved agricultural practices. However, there is a low level of participation in such programs."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"Traditionally, the rural households in the study are headed by males who serve as the official spokesmen of their families and also make decisions on agricultural activities. The farm family is a key source of labor for farm operations, and females are a significant part of the household labor resource. Agriculture, arable crop production, and livestock rearing, are the main livelihood sources for rural farm households in the study area. Some members of the rural communities also engage in off-farm income generating activities. These include food processing, petty trading, and craftsmanship. Almost all the households in the study area own at least one bicycle, which is an important means of transport. Radios and cellular phones are important sources of information and entertainment for a majority of the sampled households. The analysis of wealth status revealed that the majority of the households are poorly endowed. However, there is little variation in the household characteristics of the wealth groups."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"There is also minimal access to credit among the farm households. The farm families are either ignorant of the availability of credit facilities or make no effort to search for such facilities. There is also the perception of excessive bureaucratic measures in the credit delivery process, high interest rates, and the need for collateral."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"The dynamics and distribution of land allocation among the crops under production are informed by cash availability, the food needs of households, grain price, and the expected amount of family labor. Among the various forms of land resources, arable lands form the largest resource. Apart from seed inputs, the farm households in the survey districts use other non-seed inputs, mainly fertilizers. Input dealers located in the farm communities Maize harvesting in northern Ghana."},{"index":6,"size":100,"text":"Moreover, high adoption rates of the DT maize varieties can be achieved if proper targeting is undertaken. Essentially, farmers in Tolon-Kumbungu district are more likely to adopt newly improved maize varieties. The results also suggest that the farmers in the lower income category are more likely to adopt the DT varieties. Therefore, to achieve a massive impact, the poorly endowed farmers should also be targeted. The technology development process must also take into account the cost implications in terms of the fertilizer and labor requirements to allow the poorly endowed to have the opportunity to adopt and use the technologies."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"Since the technology development process and dissemination occur simultaneously, it is also necessary to progressively track the rate of diffusion and the potential impact. Progressive impact assessment can provide an opportunity to capture information that has not been well considered in this baseline study."},{"index":8,"size":104,"text":"Droughts, floods, low produce prices, and high input prices continue to pose a threat to the rural farm households who are generally poor and less endowed. In many instances, the less endowed households will have to reduce their crop land area and engage in collective marketing to mitigate the effect of low produce prices. They also sell some of their assets to purchase farm inputs in situations where prices of inputs are high. In addition to these coping strategies, the well endowed farm households also diversify their crops when produce prices are high and engage in bulk purchases when they expect high input prices."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FiguresFigure 1 .Figure 3 .Figure 4 .Figure 5 . Figures Figure 1. District map of the Northern Region of Ghana. ......................................................................................................2 Figure 2a. Distribution of land area among crops in Tolon-Kumbungu district. .....................................................................5 Figure 2b. Distribution of land area among crops in Karaga district. .....................................................................................5 Figure 3. Sources of crop inputs............................................................................................................................................6 Figure 4. Sources of crop seeds............................................................................................................................................6 Figure 5. Distribution of mean livestock ownership by district. ..............................................................................................8 Figure 6. Proportion of households engaged in off-farm activities. .......................................................................................9 Figure 7. Dynamics of farm size over time. .........................................................................................................................11 Figure 8. Distribution of wealth index ranking of households. .............................................................................................14 Figure 9. Probability distribution of households within wealth categories. ..........................................................................14 Figure 10. Production risk coping strategies by wealth groups. ..........................................................................................19 "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. District map of the Northern Region of Ghana. "},{"text":"Figure 2a . Figure 2a. Distribution of land area among crops in Tolon-Kumbungu district. "},{"text":"Figure 2b . Figure 2b. Distribution of land area among crops in Karaga district. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Sources of crop inputs.Figure4. Sources of crop seeds. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 3. Sources of crop inputs.Figure4. Sources of crop seeds. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Distribution of mean livestock ownership by district. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Proportion of households engaged in off-farm activities. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Dynamics of farm size over time. "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Production risk coping strategies by wealth groups. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Tolon-Kumbungu district is a relatively older district, created in 1988 with Tolon as its capital. The district is located closer to the center of the region and is bordered in the north by the West Mamprusi district, and in the west by the West Gonja district. In the south, it is bordered by the Savelugu-Nanton district and in the east by the Tamale Municipal Assembly. The district lies between 10 o N and 20 o N latitude and between 10 o W and 50 o W longitude. The average elevation of the district is 163.43 masl and it covers an area of about 2741 km 2 which is equivalent to 274,100 ha (MoFA: Tolon-Kumbungu District Profile 2007). The PHC in 2000 placed the population for the district at 132,338, but 2006 estimates put it at 145,876(GLSS 2006), at a growth rate of about 3%. The population density is approximately 50 inhabitants/km 2 . The dominant ethnic group in the area is the Dagomba. Also present are the Frafras, Akans, Ewes, and Gas who live harmoniously among the Dagomba (MoFA: Tolon-Kumbungu District Profile 2007).  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Annual climatic data for the savanna agroecological zone.  Climatic factor Minimum Maximum Average Climatic factorMinimumMaximumAverage Rainfall (mm) 900 1000 948.23 Rainfall (mm)9001000948.23 Temperature ( o C) 25 36 28 Temperature ( o C)253628  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Descriptive statistics of heads of sampled households.  Characteristics Tolon-Kumbungu Karaga Overall CharacteristicsTolon-KumbunguKaragaOverall Av. age (years) 49.57 54.24 52.13 Av. age (years)49.5754.2452.13 Gender (%)    Gender (%) Male 100 100 100 Male100100100 Decision-maker (%)    Decision-maker (%) Head 70.49 86.49 79.26 Head70.4986.4979.26 Family 29.51 13.51 20.74 Family29.5113.5120.74 Marital status (%)    Marital status (%) Married 96.72 100 98.52 Married96.7210098.52 Widowed 3.28 0 1.48 Widowed3.2801.48 Literacy level (%)    Literacy level (%) Literate 16.39 0 6.41 Literate16.3906.41 Illiterate 83.61 100 92.59 Illiterate83.6110092.59 Association    Association Members of FBO (%) 40.98 60.81 51.85 Members of FBO (%)40.9860.8151.85 Av. years of membership 3.31 2.7 2.9 Av. years of membership3.312.72.9 Sample size 61 74 135 Sample size6174135  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Non-seed input use by households in selected districts.  Input Tolon Karaga Overall InputTolonKaragaOverall NPK (kg/ha) 130 51.35 86.89 NPK (kg/ha)13051.3586.89 Urea (kg/ha) 61.92 40.54 50.20 Urea (kg/ha)61.9240.5450.20 Manure (cart/ha) 0.69 0.15 0.39 Manure (cart/ha)0.690.150.39 Herbicide (L/ha) 1.59 0.95 1.24 Herbicide (L/ha)1.590.951.24 Insecticide (L/ha) 0.51 0 0.23 Insecticide (L/ha)0.5100.23  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Identified maize varieties in the surveyed districts.  Soybean Soybean  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Maize production parameters.   Tolon-Kumbungu Karaga Overall Tolon-KumbunguKaragaOverall Land size (ha)    Land size (ha) Local 0.42 0.11 0.23 Local0.420.110.23 Improved 1.23 1.92 1.61 Improved1.231.921.61 Seeds (kg/ha)    Seeds (kg/ha) Local 33.27 12.26 19.34 Local33.2712.2619.34 Improved 114.69 88.82 91.71 Improved114.6988.8291.71 Yield (t/ha)    Yield (t/ha) Local 0.04 0.02 0.02 Local0.040.020.02 Improved 1.16 0.76 0.92 Improved1.160.760.92 Source: Household survey data, Ghana, 2008.   Source: Household survey data, Ghana, 2008.  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Disposal of crop harvested.   Proportion of harvest     Proportion of harvest Crop Consumed Sold Gift Reserved Lost CropConsumedSoldGiftReservedLost Local maize 86.19 2.41 3.11 3.52 4.77 Local maize86.192.413.113.524.77 Improved maize 79.06 14.5 3.66 2.27 0.51 Improved maize79.0614.53.662.270.51 Millet 61.98 34.27 1.37 2.22 0.16 Millet61.9834.271.372.220.16 Sorghum 74.84 15.33 4.21 5.53 0.09 Sorghum74.8415.334.215.530.09 Rice 10.71 75.22 2.94 8.03 3.10 Rice10.7175.222.948.033.10 Groundnut 11.10 72.03 4.38 12.23 0.26 Groundnut11.1072.034.3812.230.26 Cowpea 39.62 54.10 2.26 0.56 3.46 Cowpea39.6254.102.260.563.46 Soybean 5.51 82.48 7.88 3.81 0.32 Soybean5.5182.487.883.810.32 Yam 49.83 17.34 2.56 30.16 0.11 Yam49.8317.342.5630.160.11 Average 46.54 40.85 3.6 7.59 1.42 Average46.5440.853.67.591.42  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Sources of household income.  Income sources Tolon Karaga Overall Income sourcesTolonKaragaOverall Average income (GH ¢) 502.89 1,438.92 1,015.98 Average income (GH ¢)502.891,438.921,015.98 Crop sales (%) 50.45 69.31 61.36 Crop sales (%)50.4569.3161.36 Fruit/vegetable sales (%) 5.58 3.93 4.62 Fruit/vegetable sales (%)5.583.934.62 Livestock/fish sales (%) 19.83 12.45 15.56 Livestock/fish sales (%)19.8312.4515.56 Petty trading (%) 12.12 10.03 10.91 Petty trading (%)12.1210.0310.91 Paid employment (%) 4.9 1.26 2.79 Paid employment (%)4.91.262.79 Self-employment (%) 4.28 2.87 3.46 Self-employment (%)4.282.873.46 Remittances (%) 0.47 0.13 0.28 Remittances (%)0.470.130.28 Casual labor (%) 2.37 0 1.00 Casual labor (%)2.3701.00  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Expenditure patterns of households.   "},{"text":"Table 9 . Household labor force.   Tolon Karaga Overall TolonKaragaOverall Av. man-days 1343.43 1481.51 1418.67 Av. man-days1343.431481.511418.67 Av. months 55.93 61.73 59.11 Av. months55.9361.7359.11  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Land use by households (ha).  Land type Tolon-Kumbungu Karaga Overall Land typeTolon-KumbunguKaragaOverall Arable 6.40 17.24 12.34 Arable6.4017.2412.34 Forest 0.83 2.11 1.53 Forest0.832.111.53 Pasture 0.32 0.24 0.28 Pasture0.320.240.28 Fallow 0.61 2.27 1.52 Fallow0.612.271.52 Abandoned 0.30 0.34 0.32 Abandoned0.300.340.32 Total 8.46 22.20 15.99 Total8.4622.2015.99  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Factors influencing land use.  Factors Tolon Karaga Overall FactorsTolonKaragaOverall Cash availability 2 2 2 Cash availability222 Food needs 1 1 1 Food needs111 Current grain price 3 4 3 Current grain price343 Expected family labor 3 3 3 Expected family labor333  "},{"text":"Table 12 . Proportional distribution of assets by households.  Assets Tolon-Kumbungu Karaga Overall AssetsTolon-KumbunguKaragaOverall  Percentage Mean Percentage Mean Percentage Mean PercentageMeanPercentageMeanPercentageMean Asbestos roof 73.77 1 81.08 1 77.78 1 Asbestos roof73.77181.08177.781 Bicycle 93.44 3 97.30 3 95.56 3 Bicycle93.44397.30395.563 Radio 90.16 2 79.73 2 84.44 2 Radio90.16279.73284.442 Mobile phone   47.3 1 40.74 1 Mobile phone47.3140.741  "},{"text":"Table 13 . Access to credit by households.  District Percentage Amount (GH ¢) DistrictPercentageAmount (GH ¢) Tolon 14.75 101.48 Tolon14.75101.48 Karaga 18.92 20.54 Karaga18.9220.54 Overall 17.04 57.11 Overall17.0457.11  "},{"text":"Table 14 . Sources of institutional support to households.  Institutions Tolon-Kumbungu Karaga Overall InstitutionsTolon-KumbunguKaragaOverall World Vision 7.24 12.98 12.22 World Vision7.2412.9812.22 Agric Dev Proj.  2.43 1.44 Agric Dev Proj.2.431.44 ADRA 22.96  13.37 ADRA22.9613.37 Government 8.02 7.88 7.98 Government8.027.887.98 Demonstrations 21.31 43.24 33.33 Demonstrations21.3143.2433.33  "},{"text":"Table 15 . Descriptive statistics of heads of wealth groups.  Characteristics Characteristics  "},{"text":"Table 16 . Identified maize varieties in the survey districts.  Variety Well endowed Less endowed VarietyWell endowedLess endowed Local 100 100 Local100100 Improved 91.84 96.51 Improved91.8496.51 Okomasa 65.31 54.65 Okomasa65.3154.65 Obaatanpa 38.78 40.70 Obaatanpa38.7840.70 Popcorn 0 1.16 Popcorn01.16 Dorke 14.29 8.14 Dorke14.298.14 Dobidi 5.81 2.04 Dobidi5.812.04 Laposta 0 2 Laposta02 Dodzi 0 2.33 Dodzi02.33  "},{"text":"Table 17 . Factors affecting the adoption of Okomasa.  Ext_adopt Marginal effects Standard Error Ext_adoptMarginal effectsStandard Error Household size .0015018 0.0399242 Household size.00150180.0399242 Age .0075525 0.0086085 Age.00755250.0086085 Tolon-Kumbungu 1.080613* 0.2771453 Tolon-Kumbungu1.080613*0.2771453 Area of improved maize .2483763* 0.1222708 Area of improved maize.2483763*0.1222708 Cost of fertilizer -.0042871* 0.0021323 Cost of fertilizer-.0042871*0.0021323 Total income -.0001735** 0.0000968 Total income-.0001735**0.0000968 Well endowed .4077203 0.2791469 Well endowed.40772030.2791469  "},{"text":"Table 18 . Perceived shocks to household livelihoods.  Shock  Well endowed  Less endowed  Overall ShockWell endowedLess endowedOverall  Rank Occurrence Rank Occurrence Rank Occurrence RankOccurrenceRankOccurrenceRankOccurrence Drought 1 Yearly 1 Yearly 1 Yearly Drought1Yearly1Yearly1Yearly Flood 2 Two yrs 2 Yearly/two yrs 2 Yearly/two yrs Flood2Two yrs2Yearly/two yrs2Yearly/two yrs Input prices 3 Yearly 4 Yearly 3 Yearly Input prices3Yearly4Yearly3Yearly Livestock 4 Two/three yrs 3 Two yrs 3 Two and three Livestock4Two/three yrs3Two yrs3Two and three disease      yrs diseaseyrs Weeds - Yearly 5 Yearly 6 Yearly Weeds-Yearly5Yearly6Yearly Loss of livestock 5 Yearly/three yrs - Yearly/three yrs 5 Yearly/three yrs Loss of livestock 5Yearly/three yrs -Yearly/three yrs 5Yearly/three yrs Source: Household survey data, Ghana, 2008.     Source: Household survey data, Ghana, 2008.  "},{"text":"Table 19 . Major crop and livestock production risks farmers face.   Well endowed Less endowed Overall Well endowedLess endowedOverall Drought 59.5 71.4 63.07 Drought59.571.463.07 Flood 87.1 80.7 85.18 Flood87.180.785.18 Input prices 27.5 53.8 35.39 Input prices27.553.835.39 Livestock disease 27.5 29.6 28.13 Livestock disease27.529.628.13 Weeds 15 50.9 25.77 Weeds1550.925.77 Loss of livestock 10.5 56.6 24.33 Loss of livestock10.556.624.33  "},{"text":"Table 20 . Major crop and livestock price risks farmers face.  Risk Well endowed Less endowed Overall RiskWell endowedLess endowedOverall Low produce price 100 100 100 Low produce price100100100 High fertilizer price 76 90 80.2 High fertilizer price769080.2  "},{"text":"Table 21 . Adjustment in crop portfolio to mitigate selected production risks.  Risk situation Low price Strategy Decrease Less endowed 9.12 Well endowed 17.65 Overall 15.09 Risk situation Low priceStrategy DecreaseLess endowed 9.12Well endowed 17.65Overall 15.09  Same 73.22 67.94 69.52 Same73.2267.9469.52  Increase 18.59 17.95 18.14 Increase18.5917.9518.14 High price Decrease 4.89 7.65 6.82 High priceDecrease4.897.656.82  Same 47.79 46.8 47.10 Same47.7946.847.10  Increase 47.3 45.59 46.10 Increase47.345.5946.10 Low yield Decrease 13.78 14.09 14.00 Low yieldDecrease13.7814.0914.00  Same 78.09 75.05 75.96 Same78.0975.0575.96  Increase 8.15 10.86 10.05 Increase8.1510.8610.05 High yield Decrease 5.55 33.3 24.98 High yieldDecrease5.5533.324.98  Same 46.41 44.73 45.23 Same46.4144.7345.23  Increase 54.63 53.61 53.92 Increase54.6353.6153.92 Access to fertilizer Decrease 9.73 6.02 7.13 Access to fertilizerDecrease9.736.027.13  Same 48.5 49.01 48.86 Same48.549.0148.86  Increase 55.64 52.99 53.79 Increase55.6452.9953.79 Scarce fertilizer Decrease 19.57 12.82 14.85 Scarce fertilizerDecrease19.5712.8214.85  Same 70.59 67.65 68.53 Same70.5967.6568.53  Increase 4.49 14.3 11.36 Increase4.4914.311.36 Ready credit Decrease 12.98 14.55 14.08 Ready creditDecrease12.9814.5514.08  Same 37.23 35.85 36.26 Same37.2335.8536.26  Increase 54.42 64.8 61.69 Increase54.4264.861.69  "},{"text":"Table 22 . Adjustment in crop portfolio to mitigate selected price risks.  Risk situation Risk situation  "},{"text":"Table 23 . Price risk coping strategies adopted by well endowed farmers.  Risk situation Risk situation  "}],"sieverID":"09b8a0f4-7620-4179-9a66-854336db340d","abstract":"Africa has complex problems that plague agriculture and people's lives. We develop agricultural solutions with our partners to tackle hunger and poverty. Our award-winning research for development (R4D) is based on focused, authoritative thinking anchored on the development needs of sub-Saharan Africa. We work with partners in Africa and beyond to reduce producer and consumer risks, enhance crop quality and productivity, and generate wealth from agriculture. IITA is an international nonprofit R4D organization established in 1967, governed by a Board of Trustees, and supported primarily by the CGIAR."}

data/part_1/03ed84537cc65f08c6cdc2da54f5828e.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"03ed84537cc65f08c6cdc2da54f5828e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fc2c3b8d-1cb1-4ec4-a42f-6f6f494851d5/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"East Africa Soil Carbon Workshop Science to Inform Policy","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Acronyms and abbreviations","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction and rationale","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Global soils contain about 2344 billion tons of organic carbon. This is the largest terrestrial pool of organic carbon. Small changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks could result in significant impacts on the global carbon balance. Trapping carbon in the soil contributes to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture. Managing our soils better can also help us to adapt to a changing climate by improving soil health, soil productivity (and crop yields) and agro-ecosystem resilience. However, not all soils are the same."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Geography, climate, and land use play a crucial role in how much carbon soils can potentially absorb, or how much they lose. While expectations are high -especially for degraded soils of sub-Saharan Africa -that soils can play crucial role in mitigating climate change, details on the where, how, and potential costs are missing."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"The East Africa Soil Carbon Workshop -Science to Inform Policy brought together 28 participants from 11 countries: Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania, South Africa, Madagascar, Germany, France, Netherlands, and Sweden (10 women and 18 men). Participants included decision makers, practitioners and implementers, and researchers in the fields of biophysical and social science. The aim was to exchange state-of-the art knowledge; review and discuss latest methods, metrics and tools for assessing SOC and mapping & monitoring SOC dynamic hotspots; and to discuss entry points for shaping gender-sensitive policies towards a green economy where carbon sequestration in soils is a recognized component. During group work sessions, the participants discussed and developed key messages that are relevant for policymaking on SOC sequestration in East Africa and beyond. This report summarizes contributions from participants, lessons learnt and action points."}]},{"head":"Workshop objectives","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Review and discuss latest methods, metrics and tools for assessing SOC, and mapping & monitoring SOC dynamics and sequestration potentials."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Identify knowledge gaps that limit our understanding of SOC dynamics in the East Africa region."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Review and discuss existing policies and actions related to SOC sequestration."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• Develop key recommendations on the next steps for SOC interventions, policymaking, action campaigns and investment opportunities for East Africa."}]},{"head":"DAY 1","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Workshop presentations in a nutshell SOC dynamics observed in two CIAT long-term trials in Western Kenya highlighted that despite some efforts to conserve and improve soil fertility and agricultural productivity -implementing components of conservation agriculture (CA) and integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) -top-SOC could not be increased. The contrary: almost all treatments in these two trials lost significant amounts of carbon over time. CA and ISFM could avoid losses, i.e. slow down the trend of carbon losses over time as compared to conventional farmers' practices. On the other hand, land use history, visible through different contents of SOC at the onset of the two trials, was the major driver of losses. The insights from these trials highlight the complexity of the issue of sequestering carbon -vs. \"merely\" avoiding losses -and associated difficulties in assessing carbon sequestration potentials in a predictive fashion, when detail knowledge of land use history is usually unavailable."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Presentation: Analysis of carbon sequestration potential in selected land use systems in Uganda"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Presenter: Patrick Musinguzi (Makerere University)"},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"Clear evidence was provided for high SOC levels translating into higher grain yields, the more so when P and K nutrient deficiencies are taken care off by application of fertilizer (significant yield response to the amount of fertilizer added). The presentation also highlighted that losses of SOC are to be expected when pristine forest land is converted into farmland, with perennial and grassland systems loosing less than annual systems. In turn however, if traditional Banana-bases (mono) cropping systems were enriched by adding agroforestry species, this lead to an increase of SOC. Likewise, reducing tillage was also observed to improve SOC levels in annual cropping systems. Prof Musinguzi concluded with the remark that despite empirical knowledge available for Uganda about changes of SOC in response to the adoption of certain land management practices, understanding and, especially, quantifying drivers of SOC still remains a challenge."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Presentation: Soil organic carbon sequestration in Ethiopia"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Presenter: Ambachew Demissie (Hawassa University)"},{"index":7,"size":95,"text":"Prof Demissie stressed the importance of deforestation and associated environmental degradation in Ethiopia, causing soil erosion and loss of soil fertility (including a loss of SOC). In addition, in the absence of sufficient fuel wood, use of cow dung and crop residues for fuel instead of return to farm lands, excessive tillage and overgrazing of grasslands leads to more soil degradation. Agroforestry, afforestation, and temporary area enclosure from grazing are important pathways for soil restoration. Increasing carbon in soils by such means has been proven to also increase crop yields of wheat, maize and cowpea."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"Presentation: Literature review -SOC sequestration in East Africa"},{"index":9,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Sylvia Nyawira (CIAT)"},{"index":10,"size":170,"text":"Two literature reviews on SOC sequestration East-African cropland and agricultural systems were funded by AgriFoSe2030 and implemented by CIAT scientists and two consultants in 2017. Results from these reviews showed the current gap in quantifying observations-based SOC sequestration potentials in the region due to the limited availability of data. Implementing agronomic management practices, such as crop residues and manure, showed the potential to increase SOC sequestration in the region. However, to quantify the long-term impacts of such management practices on SOC, more long-term experiments covering large cropland areas are still needed. There is a need to move from sampling specific research hotspots to larger landscapes, including blind spots, where little to no sampling had been done so far, because sampling only a few spots limits our understanding of SOC dynamics in the region and the quantification of the sequestration potentials. The workshop participants noted that in future a systematic protocol, detailing the aspects to consider in the literature studies, should be established to come-up with conclusive results from such reviews."},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"Presentation: Evidence (?) of increased soil organic carbon sequestration under conservation agriculture"},{"index":12,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Leonard Rusinamhodzi (CIMMYT)"},{"index":13,"size":176,"text":"While conservation agriculture (CA) clearly has the potential to sequester SOC, published results for sub-Saharan African land use systems are inconclusive, with a significant number of published cases witnessing no measurable increase. Tillage often reduces SOC contents relative to no-till in the topsoil, while increasing carbon thereunder (mixing of soil in the plough layer). Many factors influence SOC dynamics under CA, such as actual amounts of aboveground biomass/residue inputs and associated crop rotations implemented, root development and rhizodeposits, baseline SOC content, soil bulk density and porosity, climate, landscape position, and erosion/deposition history. Furthermore, methodological constraints hamper our ability to clearly delineate SOC sequestration: For instance, baseline values are often unavailable, but are required to show if a system is indeed sequestering carbon. Similarly, bulk density data are necessary for equivalent mass calculations of carbon for an unbiased comparison of land use systems, but are often not reported/measured. Yet, even though CA may not qualify as a key option for SOC sequestration, without doubt it improves soil health and fosters associated ecosystem services while boosting crop yields."},{"index":14,"size":16,"text":"Presentation: Mapping hotspots for SOC sequestration potentials at multiple scales -a case study in Western Kenya"},{"index":15,"size":5,"text":"Presenter: Mats Söderström (SLU; CIAT)"},{"index":16,"size":130,"text":"The delineation and mapping of hotspots of SOC sequestration -i.e. areas where it can be assumed that significant amounts of carbon could be sequestered in a short period of time -requires revisiting the concept itself, including the identification of suitable indicators. Defining realistic upper (saturation) boundaries of SOC contents seems a useful concept, whereas soil texture (above all clay content) is a prime candidate against which such boundaries can be defined. A hotspot pinpoints the difference between such boundary and measured/actual carbon contents. First attempts of applying such approach for a watershed in Western Kenya produced some promising results. Input datasets of different scales yielded similar predictions. There is also scope for bypassing tedious field sampling and analysis of soils in the lab by use of mobile proximal sensing equipment."}]},{"head":"Presentation: To what extent did we change our soils? A global comparison of natural and current conditions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Presenter: Jetse Stoorvogel (Wageningen University)"},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Dr. Stoorvogel showed a novel model-based approach (S-World) that was applied to derive global soil properties, mainly soil organic matter and carbon, under current and natural conditions to quantify the human-induced changes on these properties. S-world uses basic information of land use, vegetation, topography, precipitation and temperature to quantify soil properties. Quantitative assessments of soil organic matter and carbon under the two vegetation conditions revealed substantial changes associated with land cover and land use changes. Revisiting the concept of \"window of opportunity\", in the context of soil properties, shows that while land use is a clear driver of soil carbon losses, the potential to sequester more carbon is much stronger when considering other variables like soil type, topography and climate. The introduced S-World methodological framework can be used for making future possible trajectories. However, quantifying global soil properties remains a challenge due to the limited information on land management practices, such as manure application, tillage, etc."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Presentation: Toward next generation SOM models"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Marc Corbeels (CIRAD)"},{"index":5,"size":216,"text":"The majority of widely available and used soil organic matter (SOM) models are using a set of SOM pools that describe organic matter breakdown by first-order kinetic equations, with varying (chemical) decomposition constants. This poses a challenge as a) these theoretical pools cannot be measured directly but need to be approximated, and b) over-parameterization is common. Also, models that have been developed based on a limited range of climatic and soils conditions are now used globally. Hence, SOM models are more uncertain than most would have thought. Next-generation models are developed with a stronger emphasis on microbes and their crucial role in SOM stabilization, but also considering physical protection of SOM from breakdown (importance of soil aggregates). There are also attempts to add SOC saturation principles to these models, and to improve algorithms that describe SOM dynamics in deeper soil layers, including the movement of dissolved organic matter or OM transport by physical or biological means. These new attempts should improve our ability to predict the impact of a changing climate on soil organic matter and carbon dynamics. Open, accessible, and usable data are still a bottleneck, and more extensive datasets are needed to develop and test models for more reliable, robust simulations. This will require collaborative networks for data sharing and data-model integration and inter-comparison."}]},{"head":"Workshop Theme 2 -Methods, metrics and scaling","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Presentation: How does tillage intensity affect soil organic carbon? A systematic review protocol"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Thomas Kätterer (SLU)"},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"A systematic review protocol was developed for analysing the effect of agricultural practices on SOC in the boreo-temperate agricultural systems based on data presented in the literature. A systematic map was presented containing meta-data from 735 long-term (>10 years) field experiments. Several reviews are presently conducted based on this dataset focusing on specific agricultural management practices. Results from a recently published review on tillage effect on SOC were presented. Higher SOC stocks were observed in the top soil (0-30 cm) under no-tillage compared to high-intensity tillage systems. However, the inclusion of the subsoil resulted in very minor differences between no-tillage and high-intensity systems. When assessing the benefits of implementing improved management practices, besides SOC there is also a need to consider yields, which have been reported to decrease in average under the no-tillage systems. Strict procedures for conducting meta-analysis and review studies allow for making reliable conclusions. Future literature reviews and meta-analysis conducted in the East Africa region would greatly benefit by using such systematic review protocols in their analysis."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Presentation: Monitoring, reporting and verification of soil organic carbon"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Presenter: Herintsitohaina Razakamanarivo (Laboratoire des RadioIsotopes/Antananarivo University)"},{"index":6,"size":160,"text":"Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) of SOC was discussed within the current framework set by UNFCC. An example of the REDD+ activities in Madagascar showed that above-and below-ground biomass are included in the MRV of carbon stocks, while soils are omitted due to their complexities. Several needs still have to be met to develop a MRV approach of SOC sequestration in the region. They include: organizing freely available datasets, improving our knowledge on SOC sequestration, and the need to have robust ex-ante tools for designing adequate programs or policies. The e-learning course on \"the national greenhouse gas inventory for agriculture\", provides more details on the MRV process. The setup and aims of the \"Soil Carbon Network for Sustainable agriculture in Africa (CASA)\" was highlighted, a network that brings together 11 African French-speaking countries and France. Workshop participants discussed the possibility of East-African countries to be included into CASA and benefit from trainings, data-exchange and research collaboration between the participating institutes."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"Presentation: Need for spatially explicit, robust assessments of soil organic carbon"}]},{"head":"Presenter: Leigh Winowiecki & Tor-Gunnar Vågen (ICRAF)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Indicators for the assessment and monitoring of ecosystem health should be science-based, rapidly quantifiable, applicable at multiple scale, and representative of the complex landscape processes. The Land Degradation Surveillance Framework (LDSF) addresses the issue. It is a systematic field-based assessments of multiple variables at the same geo-referenced location. Implemented in numerous regions of Africa, LDSF data now allow deducting biophysical drivers and processes of land and soil degradation. For instances, density plots of δ 13 C help understanding vegetation patterns and changes in response to land use change. Also, data show that soil erosion is a major cause of the loss of SOC in African landscapes. Very-high resolution mapping (5 m) of various soil properties in combination with socio-demographic data allow for deducting also socio-economic and social impacts and feedback loops. Open access/data sharing (e.g. via dashboards or data-driven networks), archiving and data standardization are still issues that require much closer attention."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Presentation: Metrics of soil health relevant to quantifying SOC critical levels for ecosystem service functions and carbon sequestration potentials"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Presenter: Andrew Margenot (University of Illinois) and Keith Shepherd (ICRAF)"},{"index":4,"size":194,"text":"Even though SOC is a commonly accepted and fundamental indicator of soil health, thresholds and ranges of what constitutes a satisfactory SOC level are not available, and are likely to be context-specific (e.g., edaphic and climate variables). Upper limits of SOC (i.e., C saturation) are driven by texture, whereas limits can be distinguished further based on predominant clay minerals (1:1 vs. 2:1 phyllosilicates, vs. allophanic). To improve comparability and standardization, an index of SOC is suggested, which reads [actual level -lower limit] / [upper limit -lower limit] (0 to 1 scale). Near-infrared (NIR) and mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy is a well-established method for measuring and monitoring soil characteristics and essential functional properties, including total SOC and SOC fractions proposed to represent pools of differing turnover rates (e.g., light fraction vs clay-associated). Far-infrared (FIR) spectroscopy could offer additional analytical benefits that yet remain to be fully explored and is increasingly possible with the advent of commercially available, sensitive FIR detectors. Targeting carbon sequestration may in some cases entail trade-offs with other ecosystem service function of soils, e.g. the supply of nutrients for crop production which relies on the breakdown of organic matter (\"hoarding vs. using\" dilemma)."}]},{"head":"Workshop Theme 3 -Monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Presentation: Gender matters in land restoration / Gender matters in climate policies that have an effect on carbon"}]},{"head":"Presenter: Markus Ihalainen (CIFOR)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Two examples outlined how gender analyses can be conducted prior to implementing agroforestry and soil enhancing practices. For such analysis, a holistic consideration of the physical, social, economic, financial and natural factors that have an impact on human capitals would need to be considered. Gender should form a key component of analyses assessing the cost & benefits of different management interventions, which are aimed at improving SOC sequestration. In addition, innovations and practices related to SOC need to be informed by a gender analysis that highlights differentiated needs and preferences as well as constraints and opportunities. By not including gender, there is a considerable risk that women farmers or female resource managers will not implement the proposed management practices when recommendation collide with vital aspects of women's livelihoods that are easily overlooked. The outlined examples provide insights for soil carbon experts and social scientists to collaborate in ensuring that gender issues are well addressed in policies aimed at enhancing mitigation through SOC sequestration. Excellent research is always gender-sensitive!"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Presentation: The international SOC initiatives -CIRCASA"},{"index":3,"size":242,"text":"The presentation introduced and discussed the EU-funded Coordination of International Research Cooperation on Soil Carbon Sequestration in Agriculture (CIRCASA) project, which brings together various organizations, projects and initiatives working on SOC. A growing trend in ongoing research on SOC sequestration in agriculture, both at the international and interdisciplinary point of view, acted as the key driver of initiating this project. The project goals and the various working packages of the 3-year project were outlined and discussed. A clear gap was noted in the involvement of national organizations, where the representation of the East Africa region is only limited to very few non-governmental research organizations. The presentation highlighted the governing structure and four pillars of the 4p1000 initiative and addressed common misconceptions. Example on-going projects supporting 4p1000 from Uruguay, Germany and the members of Economic Community of West-African States (ECOWAS) were presented. The 4p1000 initiative aims to increase success of these projects by a project assessment through the scientific technical committee of the initiative and enhanced networking with and awareness raising of funding agencies. The East-Africa region is yet to be more actively involved in the implementation of the 4 per 1000 initiative. Workshop participants representing national research organizations expressed interest in closer collaboration and participation in major meetings and workshops -such as the forthcoming 4p1000 meeting in Johannesburg later this year, but stressed the importance that without some humble funds to support attending meetings, such collaboration would be extremely difficult to implement."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Presentation: Unlocking the potential of SOC, what's next after GSOC17?"},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"Presenter: Liesl Wiese (GSP)"},{"index":6,"size":169,"text":"The East-Africa region is well represented in the development of global SOC maps as part of the Global Soil Partnership (GSP). The global map still is to overcome the lack of continuity at country boundaries associated with the independent, country-led mapping exercises, maps of which were then stitched together. GSP is currently working towards releasing a new version of the GSOC map that addresses some of the data limitations. GSP is also in the process of developing two sets of guidelines related to SOC. The first are guidelines for soil organic matter management which will be launched in August this year during the World Congress of Soil Science in Brazil. The second are guidelines for measuring, mapping, monitoring and reporting on SOC for which the working group is currently being developed. The talk highlighted the many digital soil mapping training workshops which have been conducted since the inception of GSP. Such workshops only provide for one participant per country, while countries generally have a need for more national expertise."}]},{"head":"Workshop Theme 4 -Soil carbon and gender","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Workshop Theme 5 -Policies and actions","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"• The crucial importance of maintaining long-term trial experiments was pointed out: these are the only systematic evidence that we have in terms of tracing the dynamics of SOC long-term and associated benefits in terms of soil health and agricultural productivity. The group also discussed the challenge to secure funding for these trials."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Relating SOC dynamics to management practices remains difficult as often major C inputs are not well quantified / easily quantifiable."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"• Measuring SOC in chronosequences was seen as a good -yet not ideal -alternative to long-term trials, with the challenge that impacting factors often cannot be captured in their entireness leading to fuzziness of the data set and unknown compounding factors."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• The value of open access of data was appreciated by all group members. Yet, this is by far not common practice in the national system of the East African countries."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"• It was noted that benefits of CA depend much on the scale of implementation; for instance, smallholder farmers may see little benefit in the cost-saving aspect of no-till, when opportunity costs for tillage are very low (tillage by hand done by family members). Carbon sequestration is most likely not a factor triggering spontaneous adoption of CA by farmers, rather incentive mechanisms may have to be put in place."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"• To increase awareness and action of regional (county) policy makers and governments in terms of supporting soil carbon conserving farming practices, a bottom-up approach was discussed as a good option, where farmer representatives voice their needs directly. This however requires strong evidence (\"seeing is believing\") with pilots (e.g. long-term trials!) available and farmer-field-days or exchange visits to showcase results."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"• Policy makers will be more easily convinced if they have clear, brief, and easy-to-understand evidence, e.g. on the costs and benefits (e.g. SOCyield relationships), the short-term investments and concrete actions required. Scientists need to make sure that a consistent message is provided in terms of the principles of SOC management (managing the organic matter inputs)."},{"index":8,"size":58,"text":"• Broadly speaking, any practice or technology that leads to an increased input of organic matter into the soil should be considered in the carbon sequestration debate. In mixed crop-livestock smallholder farms, forages have a big role to play as they can alleviate the pressure on organic resources and allow retaining or adding manure, compost or crop residues."},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":"• Biophysical/economic modelling of agro-ecosystems and practices that improve SOC was considered an important component for spelling out site-specificity of promoted technologies."}]},{"head":"Break-out group 2:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Mapping and monitoring (at field and national scale)"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"• Members acknowledged the range of different methods for mapping C stock, e.g. random forest statistics used to create the SOC map for Rwanda (Kabirigi), or multi-variate adaptive regression splines for Western Kenya (Söderström)."}]},{"head":"Issues/challenges around mapping & monitoring:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"• The importance of good quality high resolution data and the relevance of co-variates was discussed. It was noted that despite the efforts to derive fine scale and high resolution data the quality of these data-sets still remains a major challenge."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• The methods applied in data collection are often not standardized. They are developed for different purposes and they contain different units and scales."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"• It was noted that there are a wide-range of existing global datasets. However, they are often hard to access and in most cases the data sets are at a risk of being misused or misinterpreted."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"• In developing the GSOC map, different methods were used by different countries which makes it difficult to compare different country maps. Ideally, better/ more efficient coordination and joint training is required to ensure that a single methodology is used across countries."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"• While the Land Degradation Neutrality Target Setting under UNCCD has a monitoring component, details on its implementation remain scarce. The monitoring component is not yet implemented in Rwanda and in other East Africa countries its implementation is project-based and therefore short-term."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"• The practical use of (different) guidelines is a challenge and needs to be more consistent."},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"• There is not sufficient national capacity in EA to implement the necessary mapping and monitoring (expertise, computing). There is a need for more training, as well as creation of regional networks also for standardizing methodologies."}]},{"head":"Requirements for policy makers","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• Produce SOC trends and predictions/scenarios related to soil and land management practices or maps of hotspots (e.g. areas going out of production if not restored)."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Derive messages that inform investment options that pay off in the relatively short term (5 yrs)."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Link to practical interventions with demonstrated evidence of change."}]},{"head":"Break-out group 3: Biophysical modelling","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Biophysical SOM/SOC models have not been widely used in the past in East Africa, but they are recently gaining usage."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• Blind use (no calibration or validation) of models is an issue, which may lead to the wrong interpretation of the model-based results or wrong results."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Low availability, limited data sharing and poor data quality is hindering wider application of models. Limited human power in East Africa adds to the issue."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"• The group reiterated that absence of the large role of microbes in SOM decomposition and stabilization (mechanisms of protection in available models) is a serious concern."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"• The group agreed that models add value to the debate -globally and regionally -and can/should be used for making a convincing case for influencing policies."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"On day 2, three parallel groups reviewed the summaries from day 1 and included lessons learnt from theme 4 and 5 (day 2). Based on these discussions, some major action points were formulated on how science can inform policy."}]},{"head":"Action points -Science to Inform Policy","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"1. Agronomic long-term trials are essential tools for monitoring changes of slow variables like soil carbon, and to deduct rigorous evidence of the impact of agricultural land use on soil carbon, soil health and agricultural productivity. Given the limited data availability in East-Africa, existing long-term trials should therefore be better supported."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"2. Methods for quantifying SOC should be standardized."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"The Global Soil Partnership (GSP) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) seems the right platform to address this issue through ensuring that the guidelines and methods for SOC monitoring are well outlined and detailed by their regional and country representatives. 6. East African research organizations -including CGIAR centres -and institutions of higher learning need to organize more frequent networking events and specific workshops offering adequate knowledge exchange and training on latest methods, tools and models."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"DAY 2"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"3. Research scientists and policy makers need to collaborate more closely to a) make research, tools and maps more demand-driven, and b) illustrate how model based results, including ex-ante, forecasting or uncertainty assessments, can be used for informing the policy and decision making processes.4. Soil carbon initiatives and projects, such as CASA, CIRCASA and 4 per 1000, should motivate and support increased participation of target countries and organizations. 5. Open access of primary data, methods and maps is an issue. East African countries should support open access by endorsing data sharing of their national research centres. International donors should demand open data access in projects that they fund. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" CA Conservation agriculture CASA Soil Carbon Network for Sustainable Agriculture in Africa CCAFS CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security CIFOR Centre for International Forestry Research CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center CIRCASA Coordination of International Research Cooperation on Soil Carbon Sequestration in Agriculture ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States FIR Far-Infrared FIR Far-Infrared GSOC Global soil organic carbon GSOC Global soil organic carbon GSP Global Soil Partnership GSP Global Soil Partnership ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre ISFM Integrated Soil Fertility Management ISFM Integrated Soil Fertility Management LDSF Land Degradation Surveillance Framework LDSF Land Degradation Surveillance Framework MIR Mid-Infrared MIR Mid-Infrared MRV Monitoring, reporting and verification MRV Monitoring, reporting and verification NIR Near-Infrared NIR Near-Infrared RAB Rwanda Agriculture Board RAB Rwanda Agriculture Board SLM Sustainable land management SLM Sustainable land management SLU Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences SLU Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences SOC Soil organic carbon SOC Soil organic carbon SOM Soil organic matter SOM Soil organic matter  "},{"text":"Workshop Theme 1 -Evidence for, and testing of, promising SOC management practices Presentation: Avoided losses versus true sequestration: Evidence from CIAT's long-term trials in Western Kenya   "}],"sieverID":"50972bd3-2f20-4f8c-a388-ebe85ef34f71","abstract":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) -a CGIAR Research Center -develops technologies, innovative methods, and new knowledge that better enable farmers, especially smallholders, to make agriculture eco-efficient -that is, competitive and profitable as well as sustainable and resilient. Headquartered near Cali, Colombia, CIAT conducts research for development in tropical regions of Latin America, Africa, and Asia. www.ciat.cgiar.org CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. Its science is carried out by 15 Research Centers in collaboration with hundreds of partners across the globe."}

data/part_1/04edaaced27281c42c99aaeeb866f464.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"04edaaced27281c42c99aaeeb866f464","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5ef12bed-4924-4f9b-9c89-30245e6765ca/retrieve"},"pageCount":39,"title":"Cost-Effective Cassava Processing: Case Study of Small-Scale Flash-Dryer Reengineering","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"Postharvest processing is a key link between cassava crops and end products, determining the quality and food safety for consumers. Postharvest processing also contributes to food security by stabilizing and increasing the shelf life of perishable crops such as cassava and other roots, tubers, and bananas. Beyond product quality and safety, processing is also crucial for improving the sustainability of cassava value chains: by optimizing processing technologies, it is possible to reuse product waste while reducing energy and water consumption, product losses, production costs, and the overall environmental footprint of cassava industries. Processing is a crucial way for many small and medium farmerprocessors to add value to their crops. From a gender perspective, especially in Africa, women are important in processing roles, so improving processing technologies can potentially improve their working conditions and increase their incomes. Women can benefit from processing innovations that match their dominant type of technology, i.e., small and medium scale (Taiwo and Fasoyiro 2015;Teeken et al. 2018Teeken et al. , 2021;;Ndjouenkeu et al. 2021;Thiele et al. 2021). Processing innovations may also influence gender roles if new technologies change the processing scale or the level of involvement of different stakeholders in the value chain (Forsythe et al. 2015(Forsythe et al. , 2016))."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"Postharvest processing of cassava involves several steps, called unit operations, to transform fresh roots into several finished products. Some unit operations are common to most cassava products, including washing, peeling, rasping/grating, and dewatering (pressing). Other unit operations are specific to certain products, particularly the cooking or drying operations such as toasting for gari, steaming for attiéké, sun drying for fufu and conventional cassava flour, and flash drying for high-quality cassava flour (HQCF) and starch. Lactic fermentation is also a specific unit operation used to preserve and confer a desirable sour taste to the end products (gari, fufu, chikwangue). Cassava processing generates large amounts of by-products (e.g., peels, fiber bagasse, and wastewater), which typically accumulate around the processing sites or pollute local water systems (Tran et al. 2015). Expansion of postharvest technologies must therefore include strategies for by-product management and processing to reduce environmental impacts and to create additional income streams for processors, most commonly animal feed, but also biomass to energy, such as solid fuel and biogas (Okudoh et al. 2014;Ozoegwu et al. 2017;Patrizi et al. 2020;Yank et al. 2016;Zvinavashe et al. 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":208,"text":"Over the past 20 years, research for development projects has identified the high potential of interventions in postharvest processing to improve working conditions and reduce inefficiencies in cassava value chains across Africa, Latin America, and Asia (Abass et al. 2013(Abass et al. , 2017(Abass et al. , 2018;;Awoyale et al. 2017;Kuye et al. 2011;Dufour et al. 2002). Cassava processing is mainly a small-scale operation, in particular in Africa, at factories handling less than 5 tons of fresh roots per day or at household level. Current small-scale technologies are often suboptimal, resulting in high use of resources (energy, water, firewood, product losses) and high production costs (Adenle et al. 2017;Da et al. 2013;Kitinoja et al. 2011;Nzudie et al. 2020). Improving the efficiency of small-scale equipment, their design, safety, and ergonomics is therefore essential for the competitiveness of cassava value chains (Abass et al. 2018;Edeh et al. 2020;Oni and Oyelade 2014;Taiwo 2006;Nweke 1994), together with the ability of small-scale processors to access investment capital (Taborda 2018). The potential impacts of such interventions are to empower smallscale processors and farming communities to process more of their crops close to the production areas, resulting in more affordable products and increased food security and resilience against fluctuations in the prices of imported foods."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Improving cassava processing also encompasses food safety. African food products tend to have high microbiological and chemical contamination levels exceeding regulatory limits. Relative to industrialized countries, various deficiencies at government, sector, retail, and company levels affect performance of food safety management systems. Collective efforts needed to address food safety include developing stringent certification standards and product specifications, improving hygiene and control of raw materials, enhancing monitoring systems, developing quality assurance and supportive administrative structures, developing risk-based legislative frameworks, and strengthening food safety authorities (Kussaga et al. 2014)."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"As a staple crop, cassava cultivation and processing tend to expand in lockstep with growing populations in developing countries. From this perspective, improving the efficiency of cassava processing technologies is crucial to minimize resource consumption and environmental footprint and to avoid a business-as-usual scenario whereby current inefficient technologies multiply to handle increasing volumes of cassava, leading to unsustainable levels of pollution and resource depletion in the face of climate change and other environmental risks. This issue also has important gender ramifications: \"An analysis of distributive impacts of the environment on human well-being cannot ignore features such as gender. […] Women and girls often carry a disproportionate burden from environmental degradation compared to men\" (UNEP 2007, p 15)."},{"index":6,"size":81,"text":"In recent years, researchers federated under CGIAR's Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) have made vital contributions to a range of products and to the links between processing, product quality, and consumer expectations (Escobar et al. 2021;Adinsi et al. 2019;Alamu et al. 2019;Bouniol et al. 2021;Luna et al. 2021). This chapter presents the reengineering and scaling out of flashdrying technology for small-scale cassava processing, supported by the development of a methodological framework for R&D on postharvest processing of cassava."}]},{"head":"Optimization of Energy Efficiency for Drying of Starch and Flours","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":214,"text":"In countries with industrial production of cassava starch, such as Thailand, Vietnam, Brazil, and Paraguay, large factories produce 50-400 tons of starch per day. These factories use large, highly efficient pneumatic-conveying dryers known as flash dryers (Brennan 2011;Sriroth et al. 2000;Aichayawanich et al. 2011). Even so, drying often has the highest processing cost due to the energy needed for heating. In contrast, in most cassava-producing countries, less intensive cassava production, limited transport infrastructure, and a tradition of small-scale household or familybased working units predominantly using manual labor do not permit the development of large factories. As a result, most cassava processing into flour and starch for food consumption or industrial applications is done at small scale, with an average production capacity of 1-3 tons/day (Adegbite et al. 2019). Such processing systems are beneficial in providing jobs for many in the community, including women, thus contributing to social stability and reducing migration to cities. From that perspective, proposed technical innovations and related efficiency gains imply a tradeoff between the risk of job losses and the prospect of lower production costs and consequently higher incomes for processors and lower food prices for consumers. At any rate, small-scale processing is often affected by low investment capacity and limited repair-and-maintenance services, slowing down the adoption of technical innovations."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"For drying, many processors still rely on sun drying, which is low cost but has limitations, including being subject to the weather, the limited availability of flat surfaces, and contamination from animals, dust, or microbes (Precoppe et al. 2020;Alonso et al. 2012). This is a particular disadvantage to access larger markets that need regular, all-year-round supply and consistent quality (Dziedzoave et al. 2006). Attempts to solve these limitations in the past 20 years have involved scaling down the design of large-scale flash dryers. However, so far, there has been little use of the resulting models of locally built, small-scale flash dryers due to high energy consumption related to suboptimal design and consequently high production costs incompatible with market prices of final products. For instance, in Nigeria between 2006 and 2016, 157 cassava processors have invested in \"first-generation\" flash dryers to produce HQCF, most of which are no longer in use in spite of some improvements (Ojide et al. 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Taking stock of this situation and given the strategic importance of efficient postharvest processing for the sustainable expansion of cassava value chains, research initiated in 2013 by RTB identified several critical points to optimize energy efficiency and minimize the operating costs of small-scale flash dryers. This research was based on numerical modelling of flash drying (Chapuis et al. 2017) and validated through the construction and testing of a pilot-scale dryer (capacity, 100 kg/h) at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT, Colombia) that achieves the same energy efficiency as large-scale industrial flash dryers. The Scaling Readiness framework was then applied to scale out this innovation to cassava processors."}]},{"head":"What Is an Efficient Dryer? Definition and Expression of Drying Efficiency and Affecting Factors","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Drying of flour and starch consists of removing water by thermal treatment, inducing a phase change, generally from liquid to gas. Flash dryers use convective drying, i.e., applying a hot air stream to the product. Evaporation of liquid water requires an important quantity of energy, called latent heat of vaporization. Its value of 2500 kJ/ kg of water is thermodynamically incompressible and sets the minimum energy requirement for drying. In real drying systems, energy losses are unavoidable, so an energy consumption of 3000-4000 kJ/kg water is considered efficient."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"In practice, energy is delivered to the dryer by heating the air flowing into the system. Gas burners are convenient because they produce combustion gases clean enough to be in contact with the product, even food. Otherwise, heating systems using fuels such as diesel, fuel oil, or biomass require a burner coupled to a heat exchanger. These systems are more common because they allow using cheaper and widely available fuels, thus reducing operating costs."},{"index":3,"size":185,"text":"During drying, the hot air releases heat to evaporate water and cools down as it absorbs water vapor. Efficient drying, i.e., maximum water evaporation, requires good exchange area and contact time between the air and the product and good mixing (turbulence) to promote heat exchanges. Many drying technologies are available depending on the product to dry. Flash dryers are among the most efficient for granular materials (Crapiste and Rotstein 1997), as they maximize the exchange area between air and suspended solids (Saravacos and Kostaropoulos 2016). The capacity of air to hold water vapor is limited by phase equilibrium and increases with temperature (hot air can hold more water). Therefore, the higher the initial temperature of the drying air, the better, without damaging the product. As an illustration, air heated to 200 °C can absorb 60 g water/kg air, three times more than at 80 °C (20 g water/kg air). Under optimum drying conditions, the exhaust air is saturated with moisture, and the product has reached the target moisture for a long shelf life, i.e., 12-13% wet basis (wb) in the case of starch and flour."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"Finally, mechanical dewatering to reduce the water content before drying is also important, as it requires much less energy and is more cost-effective than drying by evaporation (Mujumdar 2006). As an illustration, drying HQCF to 12% moisture content from an initial 40% (after good dewatering) requires 1860 kJ/kg of final product, assuming a dryer using 3500 kJ/kg of water evaporated. If starting from an initial 50% moisture content (after inefficient dewatering), drying requires markedly more energy at 3020 kJ/kg of product."}]},{"head":"Key Design Components for Efficient Small-Scale","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Flash Drying"}]},{"head":"Surveys on Flash-Dryer Designs and Energy Efficiency","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"The first action of the RTB initiative to improve energy efficiency of small-scale flash drying consisted of a survey of processors owning flash dryers in various countries (Thailand, Vietnam, Tanzania, Nigeria, Colombia, and Paraguay) to identify common design features underpinning energy efficiency, such as dimensions and operating conditions (Tran et al. 2015a, b, c;Saengchan et al. 2015). The physical properties of cassava particles before and after flash drying were also studied (Romuli et al. 2017). While the drying principle and key components remained the same across all flash dryers (Fig. 4.1), important variations in designs, dimensions, and operating conditions were observed (Fig. 4.2, Table 4.1). Large-scale dryers had longer drying pipes (20-57 meters) than small-scale ones (7-15 m). The quantity of air used for drying varied more than tenfold between dryers, with air-to-product ratio ranging from 6 to 75 kg of air/kg of product (Table 4.1). Small-scale dryers tended to use more hot air per kg of product, resulting in higher energy use and drying costs."},{"index":2,"size":229,"text":"Standardized drying costs ranged from 23 USD up to 400 USD/t of product (Table 4.1), assuming for comparison purpose that all the flash dryers used diesel fuel (energy density, 40 MJ/L; price, 1 USD/L). In reality, flash dryers are powered by various fuels, renewable or nonrenewable, including wood, biogas, agricultural biomass (palm oil kernel, cashew nut kernels), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), heavy fuel oil, diesel, black oil (a mixture of kerosene and used motor oil), and coal. Processors owning flash dryers with high fuel consumption manage to keep drying operations profitable by using cheaper fuels than diesel. Nevertheless, flash dryers with high fuel consumption reduce the profitability of processing and contribute to small-scale factories abandoning production of HQCF or starch, often at a significant loss on their investment. In Nigeria, a recent survey of 41 HQCF processors to Fig. 4.1 Key components common to all flash-dryer designs ascertain current perceptions on flash dryers found that 50% of them have stopped producing in the past 10 years and that most see their market prospects as limited (Ojide et al. 2021). Processors who remain in operation have done so through costsaving measures: being near the source of raw materials and the end-product market, thus cutting transportation costs; replacing petroleum-based fuels with more economical coal or agricultural biomass; and diversification to produce gari or fufu when there is no demand for HQCF."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Given the small profit margins in HQCF production, small-scale processors currently select cheaper fuels, without considering the environmental costs of more polluting fuels. As a result, nonrenewable hydrocarbon fuels are still widely used."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"Cleaner renewable fuels such as biogas may become viable options for small-scale processing in the future, as long as the greater use of renewable energies does not also incentivize the burning of firewood, which would exacerbate deforestation. Renewable fuels are possible, and investments by large-scale cassava starch factories to generate biogas from factory wastewater can substantially reduce both drying costs and environmental impacts (Hansupalak et al. 2016).  The surveys revealed the absence of a consensus design among flash dryers. These variations in design and ultimately in energy efficiency and drying costs suggest that there is a huge potential for optimization, with benefits in terms of production costs and environmental impacts (fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions). The surveys were thus followed by an in-depth study of the technical characteristics needed to achieve energy-efficient flash drying."}]},{"head":"Numerical Modeling of Flash Drying Provided Design Guidelines for Energy Efficiency","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Several physical phenomena govern drying kinetics of a particle in suspension: heat transferred from the air to the particle causes water to evaporate from the surface, which, in turn, causes water within the particle to diffuse toward the surface. At the same time, the particle is entrained by the air flow along the drying pipe. These phenomena are described using conservation equations of mass, momentum, and heat (Mujumdar 2006). In the case of starch and flour, the slowest phenomenon is the diffusion of water within the particles; therefore, the size of the particles and their residence time in the dryer are critical for quick drying."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Applying this theoretical framework to flash drying, a numerical model was developed to simulate various designs and predict energy efficiency and final moisture content of cassava flour and starch (Chapuis et al. 2017). The technical data collected during the surveys (Sect 4.4.1) were used to validate that the model gave accurate drying predictions. Deviations between predicted data and actual data were satisfactorily low (less than 10%) for moisture content of the end product, air temperature after drying, and energy consumption."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"The numerical model was applied to investigate optimum dryer designs that minimize energy consumption and maximize the quantity of water evaporated per unit mass of hot air (Sect. 2.1). The main challenge was to identify a configuration where the hot air carried just enough energy to dry the product flow rate (thermodynamics design objective) and the particles stayed in contact with the hot air long enough for complete heat and water transfers (kinetics design objective). Numerical simulations showed that such configuration could be attained through the following key design components:"},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"(i) The target production capacity of the flash dryer defines the flow rate of water to evaporate, or drying rate (kg water evaporated/h):"},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"(ii) The drying rate in turn defines the minimum energy input for drying and hence the required quantity of hot air to enter the dryer, or air mass flow. For efficient drying, the minimum energy input (or specific energy use) should aim for 3000 kJ/kg of water evaporated. Then. HeatInput (kW) = SpecEnergyUse (kJ/kg)*DryingRate (kg/h)/3600 and AirMassFlow (kg/h) = 3600*Heatinput / (HeatCapacity*(TempAirIn-TempAirAmb)), where HeatCapacity = 1.01 kJ/K/kg."},{"index":6,"size":282,"text":"For instance, drying from 38% to 12% moisture, using initial air temperature of 180 °C, requires about 10 kg of air per kg of final product. (iii) Air velocity must remain high enough to keep the particles in suspension. For particles of typical size distribution (10 μm up to 2 mm), the threshold for suspension is 8-9 m/s. Air velocity should be set above the threshold, typically 12 m/s, as a safety margin. A long drying pipe (20 m or longer) gives flexibility to use higher air velocities to increase the dryer capacity without affecting energy efficiency significantly. (iv) Air mass flow and air velocity in turn define the section and diameter of the pipe: PipeSection (m 2 ) = AirMassFlow/(3600*AirDensity*AirVelocity), with AirMassFlow in kg/h and AirVelocity in m/s. AirDensity (kg/m 3 ) depends on temperature (0.77 kg/m 3 at 180 °C). (v) The residence time for the product to fully dry depends on the particle size, initial moisture content, initial air temperature, and air velocity. For typical drying conditions of cassava starch or HQCF, a residence time of 2 s is recommended. (vi) The length of the drying pipe is defined by residence time and air velocity, but also input moisture content and initial air temperature. A length of 17 meters is a minimum, and 20 meters or longer is recommended for energy efficiency and stability of operations. A dryer with a longer pipe is more versatile for handling variations in product moisture, air temperature, and air velocity while delivering stable moisture content in the final product. (vii) Finally, initial air temperature should be as high as possible without damaging the product (Sect. 2.1), with optimum between 180 and 200 °C."},{"index":7,"size":82,"text":"These findings helped to interpret the surveys, according to which longer pipe and lower air/product ratio achieve better energy efficiency (Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.3). Approaches to improve the less efficient, small-scale flash dryers were identified: First, all small-scale flash dryers surveyed had short drying pipes (7.7-13.6 m), which should be extended to 20 m to increase residence time and water evaporation. Second, with a longer drying pipe, the air/product ratio can be reduced by increasing the feed rate of the product."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"To validate these conclusions, the next step was to build and test a prototype of a small-scale flash dryer with adjustable pipe length and adjustable air velocity."}]},{"head":"Prototype Flash Dryer Confirmed That High Energy Efficiency at Small Scale Is Achievable","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Numerical simulations indicated that energy-efficient flash drying at small scale was achievable. To validate these results through actual experiments, a prototype flash dryer (100 kg/h capacity) was designed and built at CIAT (Cali, Colombia) in 2017 (Fig. 4.4). In addition to integrating the key design components (Sect. 4.4.2), the following elements were also essential for operating the dryer:"},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"-Regulated feed system: Wet cassava flour or starch is a semi-sticky powder with a tendency to form clumps during handling. Accordingly, the feed system was composed of a cylindrical hopper equipped with stirring paddles to prevent caking and powder bridging and discharging into an endless screw conveyor leading to the drying pipe. A pin mill located between the screw and the drying pipe disaggregated clumps, to minimize particle size and maximize the exchange surface. The speed of the endless screw was regulated by a feedback loop maintaining the temperature of the air stable after drying (setpoint 55 °C). This regulation maintained a stable moisture of the end product, maximized energy efficiency, and reduced fuel consumption and costs. This control strategy can be implemented by manually reading the air temperature after drying and by manually adjusting the feeding rate; however, an automatic temperature controller (PID) is more effective.  4.1)"},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"-Conveying system and collection system of the dry product: Inside the drying pipe, air and product are kept in movement with a blower, which can be located at the beginning or at the end (positive or negative pressure, respectively)."},{"index":4,"size":272,"text":"Negative pressure is recommended because the blower is located after the cyclone that collects the dry product, which requires less power as the air is cooler (55 °C). Moreover, after the cyclone, the air is free of solid particles, which reduces wear and breakdowns and allows using a blower with more efficient curved blades (as opposed to straight blades). On the other hand, negative pressure requires that the bottom output of the cyclone be closed with a rotary airlock valve to prevent the product from being re-entrained into the cyclone. -In a positive-pressure system, the blower is located at the beginning of the pipe after the feed system and needs to be bigger to move the same quantity of air as an equivalent negative-pressure system due to the higher temperature (150-180 °C) and lower air density. The power consumption of a positivepressure blower is thus 50-100% higher. Another drawback of positive pressure is that the product passes through the blower, which requires more maintenance and allows only less efficient straight blades to avoid accumulation of product on the blades. On the other hand, in positive-pressure dryers, a single flap valve at the bottom of the cyclone is sufficient instead of a rotary airlock valve. -Hot air generator (burner and heat exchanger): Common fuels such as diesel or biomass generate fumes and particles, which must be kept separated from the product that is being dried. For small-scale dryers, this is achieved through an air-air heat exchanger installed with the burner. Current models are mostly single pass concentric pipe type, with sub-optimum efficiency. The RTB team developed an improved heat exchanger integrating the following:"},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"(i) Counter-current flow of the combustion fumes and fresh air (ii) Increased heat exchange surface through a bundle of thin smoke pipes for the combustion fumes, around which fresh air circulates in a series of chambers with chicanes (iii) Increased turbulence of the flow of fresh air forced to pass through the chicanes (Fig. 4.5). This design increased air outlet temperature while reducing fuel consumption"},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"Alternatively, if a distribution network of LPG is available, the heat exchanger system can be replaced with a direct-combustion LPG gas burner, which reduces fuel consumption (by 10-15%) and investment costs compared to a system with a heat exchanger."},{"index":7,"size":172,"text":"The performance of the prototype flash dryer was assessed under diverse operating conditions (Table 4.2). High energy efficiency was achieved with a pipe longer than 17 m, with specific energy consumption in the range 3300-4000 kJ/kg of water evaporated (Table 4.2). These figures are slightly higher than for large-scale dryers due to higher surface-to-volume ratio and consequently higher heat losses in smaller equipment (Kemp 2012). The best energy efficiency was obtained with a 20-m-long pipe (3268 kJ/kg water) and high air velocity (24 m/s). The numerical model predicted that high air velocity would increase specific energy use due to shorter residence time and consequently incomplete drying. On the contrary, actual performance tests indicated that increasing air velocity is not necessarily detrimental (Table 4.2). A possible explanation is that higher air velocity also reduces particle size (a factor not included in the numerical model) through increased collisions, thus intensifying the drying. Consequently, when the drying pipe is long enough (>20 m), increasing air velocity may substantially increase drying capacity, without affecting energy efficiency."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"Design guidelines and tools resulting from this RTB initiative are available from the authors upon request."}]},{"head":"From Prototype to Technology Transfer: Optimization","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"of Feeding Rate for Energy Efficiency of a Small-Scale Flash Dryer in Ghana"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"After demonstrating the energy efficiency of the small-scale flash-dryer prototype, the RTB research team moved to transfer these findings to the private sector. Processors from several countries expressed interest (DR Congo, Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, Uganda, Tanzania, Colombia, Brazil, and the Dominican Republic) to reduce operating costs and/or increase production of HQCF or starch. Reasons cited included growing demand for HQCF for industry or to replace sun-dried cassava flour, which consumers increasingly see as lower quality due to contamination during drying. Underpinning these trends was ongoing economic development with the emergence of a larger middle-class and more urban consumers with higher incomes."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"In 2018, a small-scale energy-efficient flash dryer was developed and put into commercial use in the Central Region of Ghana. This provided an opportunity to further Air velocity is provided at the corresponding inlet air temperature evaluate the effect of feeding rate on energy efficiency, following previous findings by Precoppe et al. (2016)."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":266,"text":"Drying procedure and processing equipment At the partner processing center in Ghana (Tropical Starch Company Ltd.), cassava roots are peeled and washed manually and mashed using a mechanical grater. The mash is dewatered with a screwoperated press. The resulting press cake is pulverized into wet grits using another mechanical grater. The wet grits are fed into a pneumatic dryer, and the resulting dried grits are milled into flour. The pneumatic dryer was developed with joint funding from RTB and the Cassava: Adding Value for Africa project (CAVA II). CAVA-II partners (equipment manufacturers and Tropical Starch Company Ltd.) were given training on the design and construction of small-scale pneumatic dryers, including the key design components described in Sect. 4.4.2. The equipment was constructed with stainless steel and thermally insulated with 50-mm-thick mineral wool, shielded with aluminum sheeting (Fig. 4.6b). The drying duct had a diameter of 0.18 m and a length of 24.84 m. To reduce the height of the equipment, the drying duct was divided into seven vertical meandering sections (Fig. 4.6a). Air flow was forced by a centrifugal 7.5-kW blower located at the start of the drying duct, just after the feeding point (positive-pressure system). The design point used for the blower construction was an air mass flow rate (dry basis, db) of 550 kg/h and a static pressure of 10.2 hPa. Air was heated by a 70-kW diesel burner (model B14; Bairan, Wenling, China) and the improved RTB heat exchanger (Fig. 4.5). Drying air temperature was thermostatically controlled with the sensor placed at the dryer inlet, between the heat exchanger and the feeding point."}]},{"head":"Experimental design","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"The energy performance of the dryer was first evaluated following the processing center's drying procedure, with no interventions other than sampling material and recording drying conditions. Based on the data collected, the feeding rate was adjusted to optimum value, and the data collection was repeated. Data were collected over six consecutive days (recording 5 hours/day), the first 3 days with the original feeding rate and the subsequent 3 days with the optimum feeding rate. Data collection started after the dryer had been in operation for 1 hour to ensure steady-state conditions."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Statistical analyses Statistical analyses were performed with SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA) software, following a comparative experimental design (Precoppe et al. 2016) with three replicates and two treatments: before and after the adjustment on the feeding rate. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed, and to determine whether the pairwise difference comparisons were significantly different, Fisher's Least Significant Difference (LSD) was used at a 5% level of significance."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Temperatures, relative humidity, pressures, and air velocities were measured at various points on the dryer (Fig. 4.7) with suitable sensors connected to a wireless data logger (LOG-HC2-RC, Rotronic) recording values at 1-minute intervals. Mass flow rates of wet and dry cassava grits were measured using a digital balance (AWB120; Avery Weigh-Tronix, Smethwick, UK) and a chronometer. Samples of wet and dried cassava grits were collected at 1-hour intervals for moisture content analysis (3 h at 103 ± 1 °C in a convection oven) according to AOAC 935.29 (AOAC 1998)."}]},{"head":"Calculations","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Energy performance Psychrometric calculations used the formulas provided by British Standard (2004). Energy performance was calculated as described by Precoppe et al. (2016). The solid mass flow rate (ṁ dm , db) was calculated based on ṁ ws and the moisture content of the wet cassava grit. Heat input rate to the dryer (Qi n ) was calculated based on air temperature, relative humidity, and air flow rate (ṁ air ) at the dryer inlet. Water evaporation rate (ṁ w ) was calculated using ṁ ws and the difference in moisture content between the wet and dried cassava grits. Specific heat consumption (q s ) was calculated dividing Qi n by ṁ w , and energy efficiency (η) was calculated dividing the heat used for moisture evaporation (Qẇ ) by Qi n . Finally, specific heat utilization (q u ), i.e., energy consumption per kg of dried product, was calculated dividing Qi n by ṁ dm ."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Optimum feeding rate The dryer's original feeding rate was 65.7 ± 11.4 kg.h −1 . This rate was adopted by trial and error by the operators of the flash dryer over a period of 1 year of use. With this feeding rate, T out was 67.3 ± 4.9 °C, and ψ out , calculated using T ex and ψ ex , was 37.6 ± 8.7%. At this temperature and relative humidity, the enthalpy at the dryer outlet (h out ) was 249.9 ± 15.5 kJ.kg −1 . Based on these values, the lowest allowable air temperature at the dryer outlet was T out * = 60 °C (Precoppe et al. 2016). Keeping h out unchanged h h"},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"and reducing T out * to 60 °C, the highest allowable relative humidity at the dryer outlet ψ out * ( ) can be raised to ψ out * = 53%. Keeping the other settings unchanged and monitoring the air at the dryer outlet, the feeding rate was gradually increased until T out approached T out * and ψ out approached ψ out * . At this point, the optimum feeding rate was determined to be 98.6 kg.h −1 , a 50% increase compared to the original configuration."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"ds Fig. 4.7 Measurements on the pneumatic dryer in Ghana. T, temperature; ψ, relative humidity; P, pressure; v, air velocity; ṁ, mass flow rate; X, moisture content; ws, wet cassava grits; ds, dry cassava grits; amb, 1, out, and ex refer to air characteristics at various points of the dryer"}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion Regarding the Small-Scale Flash Dryer in Ghana","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Dryer operating conditions Adjusting the dryer to optimum feeding rate increased the output of dried cassava grits from 42.2 ± 7.3 kg.h −1 to 65.0 ± 5.5 kg.h −1 , a 54% increase in productivity without increasing energy consumption (Table 4.3). Input parameters independent from the feeding rate, i.e., air temperature at inlet and moisture content of wet cassava grits, were unchanged between the treatments. The moisture content of the dried cassava grits (0.14 kg.kg −1 ) was unchanged as well, confirming that it is possible to increase the feeding rate to its optimum without altering the quality of the end product."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The T 1 values seemed high for food drying (Kudra 2009); nevertheless, short residence times in pneumatic dryers allow the use of high temperatures without jeopardizing product quality (Pakowski and Mujumdar 2014). When drying cassava, the temperature of the product (T ds ) must remain below 56 °C to avoid starch gelatinization (Breuninger et al. 2009), which was realized both before and after adjusting the feeding rate."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Energy performance The water evaporation rate is driven by heat input to the dryer and by the amount of material (Kudra 2009). Increasing the feeding rate to optimum value increased the evaporation rate, which significantly improved the energy performance of the dryer (Table 4.3). Heat input rate is independent from the feeding rate and hence remained unchanged."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Energy efficiency at optimum feeding rate (72.1%) was close to the top of the range reported for pneumatic dryers (50-75%, Strumiłło et al. 2014) but still lower than the values reported by Sriroth et al. (2000) for large-scale pneumatic dryers. Small-scale dryers inevitably have an unfavorable surface-to-volume ratio that results in higher heat losses (Kemp 2012). The higher feeding rate increased the solid loading ratio of the drying air; nevertheless, the conveying mode remained in the dilute phase, and pneumatic transport was not jeopardized."}]},{"head":"Conclusions: The Small-Scale Flash Dryer in Ghana","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"This case study in a commercial setting confirmed that small-scale flash dryers for HQCF can achieve high energy efficiency similar to large-scale dryers. Adjusting the feeding rate to its optimum value also improved energy performance significantly and is easier to implement than adjusting the air flow rate as it does not require hardware changes."}]},{"head":"Applying Scaling Readiness to Scale Out Flash-Drying","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Innovations to DR Congo and Nigeria: Successes and Lessons Learned"}]},{"head":"Scaling Readiness Framework","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"Scaling Readiness is a stepwise approach for analyzing the characteristics of innovations from a scaling-out perspective, diagnosing the issues (bottlenecks) that hinder scaling out, developing optimum scaling strategies, building common agreements with the key stakeholders on the strategy, monitoring and learning from the implementation of the agreed strategies, and finally updating the strategies accordingly (Sartas et al. 2020a). Scaling Readiness analyzes the core innovation by breaking it down into complementary innovation components. \"Innovation Readiness\" refers to the demonstrated capacity of the innovation to fulfill its contribution to development outcomes in specific locations. This is presented in nine stages showing progress from an untested idea to a fully mature, proven innovation. \"Innovation Use\" indicates the level of use of the innovation or innovation package by the project members, partners, and society. This shows progressively broader levels of use beginning with the intervention team who develops the innovation to its widespread use by users who are completely unconnected with the team or their partners. \"Scaling Readiness\" of an innovation is a function of innovation readiness and innovation use.  Readiness and use levels are evaluated using conceptual, applied, and experimental evidence. Scaling Readiness helps to identify the gaps in the design of the innovations and to prioritize the research and engineering work to address these gaps (Sartas et al. 2020b). The Scaling Readiness framework is discussed in more detail in Chap. 3."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Building on previous steps (Sects. 4.4 and 4.5), the RTB research team applied Scaling Readiness to support the scaling out of the flash-dryer innovation in the private sector in DR Congo and Nigeria, as a first case example of applying Scaling Readiness to a postharvest processing industry (Table 4.5)."}]},{"head":"Identification of the Innovation Package and Determination of the Innovation Readiness and Innovation Use of Each Innovation Component","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"In the RTB flash-dryer case, the complementary innovations were identified collaboratively with stakeholders. Small-scale processors of cassava flour (1-3 tons of flour/day) and equipment manufacturers from Nigeria and DR Congo were interviewed to generate a baseline of the technical and socioeconomic conditions of potential scaling project partners. In Nigeria, the cassava processors were selected based on being active in the cassava processing business or continuous processing operations in their factories. Equipment manufacturers were pre-selected based on experience in the commercial manufacture and sale of flash dryers. For sustainability of the flash-dryer innovation, the final selection gave priority to relatively younger manufacturers willing to learn new technology innovations. In DR Congo, flash-dryer manufacturing and use are new but with high potential to improve the quality and food safety of conventional sun-dried cassava flour. Only two local equipment manufacturers had exposure to flash dryers, and three processors were using flash dryers. All three processors and one equipment manufacturer were selected. The scaling partners explained the constraints of the current flash-dryer models (in particular high fuel consumption) and the expected performance improvements."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Based on on-site visits and interviews with stakeholders of the cassava value chains, scaling partners, and researchers, 16 innovation components were identified, of which ten were essential for the scaling process: four core technical innovations and six complementary innovations related to capacity building and the socioeconomic context of scaling out. The Scaling Readiness assessment showed varying levels of innovation readiness and use depending on the country (Fig. 4.8)."},{"index":3,"size":211,"text":"In both Nigeria and DR Congo, the levels of use and readiness of the technical components were relatively low (2-4 and 3-6, respectively). Nigeria had slightly higher levels of use of the feed system, hot air generator, and blower components. On the other hand, the readiness of the core innovation, i.e., efficient flash dryer, was higher in DR Congo. The main reason for this disparity was because at the beginning of the project, Nigeria had markedly more first-generation flash dryers in operation (higher use), albeit less efficient (lower readiness) than DR Congo. The levels of use and readiness of the complementary innovations were similar in both   countries, except the feasibility of investment projects: in DR Congo, processors evaluated feasibility frequently (although with informal tools) due to the perceived market potential of producing HQCF, whereas in Nigeria, investment was seldom considered due to perceived adverse market conditions. Based on this analysis, bottlenecks, i.e., innovation components with low use and readiness levels, were technical in DR Congo (hot air generator, blower) and economical in Nigeria (feasibility of investment). The strategy of the RTB research team then consisted of identifying and implementing targeted interventions to improve the innovation components and move the innovation package as a whole toward higher levels of readiness and use."}]},{"head":"Scaling Strategy and Key Partnerships to Scale Out Flash-Drying Innovations to DR Congo and Nigeria","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Project partners were all small-scale processors but with differences among them, in terms of:"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"(i) Investment capacity."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"(ii) Factory setup, i.e., different models of machines and management of operations."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"(iii) Quality of the final product expected by customers, which requires different processing techniques prior to drying. For example, lactic fermentation is a key step for fufu in DR Congo, which is not required for HQCF in Nigeria. (iv) Administrative and labor management: eight of the ten project partner operations are managed by the owners and two by hired managers. Most managers and workers are men, and only two out of ten project partners were managed by women. Female labor is used for specific, low-paid operations such as root peeling."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"On the other hand, most processors shared common concerns, such as the need to decrease fuel consumption (DR Congo and Nigeria) or finding a stable, consistent market for small-scale HQCF production (Nigeria)."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"After identifying the innovation bottlenecks, the scaling strategy developed and agreed upon with the scaling partners followed four key steps:"},{"index":7,"size":194,"text":"(i) Planning and delivering a training workshop to share and address the bottlenecks with scaling partners (equipment manufacturers and HQCF/starch processors). This included a presentation of the findings of the Scaling Readiness assessment and training on technical and socioeconomic aspects of flash drying, such as tools to calculate optimum dimensions and operating conditions and business plans to estimate investments costs, operating costs, and return on investment. (ii) Implementation of the business plans by the scaling partners willing and able to do so. The process involved back-and-forth exchanges between cassava processors and the project team to develop business plans adapted to each partner's circumstances. Realistic investment costs were provided by the equipment manufacturers who participated in the workshop. Some of the processors then used the resulting business plans to present their investment projects to banks or private investors. For those who invested their own money, the business plan contributed to accurate evaluation and of planning of the investment. (iii) Design, construction, and commissioning of flash dryers by the scaling partners with continuous support from project scientists, through on-line technical consultations and regular on-site visits. (iv) End-of-project debriefing workshop and evaluation of outcomes and lessons learned."}]},{"head":"Results and Outcomes of Scaling Out Flash-Drying Innovations to DR Congo and Nigeria","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"By its completion in December 2020, the RTB Scaling project on flash-drying innovations fostered investment in energy-efficient, small-scale flash dryers by seven cassava processors: five in DR Congo and two in Nigeria. In addition, two demonstration flash dryers were built for promotion and training at two R&D institutions: the Federal Institute of Industrial Research Oshodi (FIIRO) in Nigeria and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Eastern Congo. Five equipment manufacturers were involved in constructing these improved flash dryers and are now well positioned with practical experience to build further dryers as new investors come forward in the future."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"In terms of efficiency gains, performance evaluation of the improved flash dryers that have reached commercial operation indicated a 23 to 50% increase in production capacity (from 10 to 12-15 tons of flour/month) and at the same time a 30 to 33% reduction in fuel (diesel) consumption per kg of product, compared to the situation before the project. Feedback from the flash-dryer operators in DR Congo after incorporating the RTB innovations resulted in much improvement in drying efficiency: A processor reported that re-setting the heat exchanger burner and air inlet decreased the fuel consumption by 30% while other adjustments suggested by the project team resulted in an increase in the flour output from 150 to 250 kg/h. As a result, cassava processors reported an increase in net profitability of 8% to 10%."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"Through end-of-project evaluation and learning events, the innovation package was evaluated a second time, showing the changes achieved during the project (Fig. 4.9). As intended initially, technical components moved toward higher levels of use and readiness, which reflects the focus of the research team and scaling partners to construct more energy-efficient flash dryers and prioritize the success of the investments. Complementary innovations also progressed toward higher levels of use and readiness, reflecting the positive contribution of the various events organized during the project and the continuous engagement with manufacturers and processors. Some components did not move, either because they were already at sufficiently high levels of use and readiness or because of logistical delays in implementing activities, in part compounded by Covid restrictions."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"Technical components reached higher levels of readiness in DR Congo compared to Nigeria. In DR Congo, the expanding market demand for HQCF to replace conventional sun-dried cassava flour boosted the determination of scaling partners to invest and to rapidly move energy-efficient flash dryers into commercial use. In contrast, in Nigeria, investment was impeded by the following:"},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"(i) Mismatch between production capacity of HQCF factories (~1 t HQCF/day) and the purchase needs of large food companies (30 or 60 t per order, i.e., one or two trailer trucks). (ii) Projected production costs of HQCF after adoption in flash-drying innovations may still be too high to compete easily with flour from imported wheat. (iii) Cassava flour is not a major staple food in Nigeria, so there is limited preexisting market where HQCF could replace a traditional cassava flour by offering better quality or food safety."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"During project implementation, several constraints to the development of cassava processing were identified. These included access to investment capital, stable access to cassava roots at cost-effective prices, and availability of engineering skills to conduct maintenance and repairs in a timely manner."},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"Over several years, RTB has made significant investments in cassava postharvest processing, first in R&D and then scaling-out activities. The outcomes of the scaling project for efficient small-scale flash drying confirm that this initiative has started to bear fruits, with flash-dryer innovations now reaching the stage of independent adoption and dissemination by the private sector in several countries."},{"index":8,"size":81,"text":"Postharvest processing is an important part of sustainable cassava value chains to reduce losses of perishable cassava roots through transformation into food products with a long shelf life. The successful approach presented above for the efficiency of small-scale flash drying can be extended and replicated to optimize other unit operations and reduce processing costs. At the same time, more efficient processing can reduce the environmental footprint of cassava agro-industries through lower fuel and water consumption and lower product losses during processing."}]},{"head":"Performance Diagnosis of Small-Scale Processes to Support Scaling Out of Innovations for Cassava-Based Products","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Many of the activities for scaling-out innovations in cassava processing must start with an accurate comprehensive diagnosis including processing parameters, socioeconomic feasibility, and environmental impacts as a basis for decision-making for all subsequent actions. Comprehensive diagnosis is also useful at the end of scalingout projects, as part of Monitoring, Evaluation, and Learning (MEL) to document and measure outcomes and impacts. The diagnosis contributes to improvements in product quality through the optimization of existing processes and the introduction of new operations or equipment. In this section, we lay out a versatile diagnosis method (Fig. 4.10) developed from several case studies (Adinsi et al. 2019;Escobar et al. 2018;Bouniol et al. 2017aBouniol et al. , b, 2018Bouniol et al. , 2019Bouniol et al. , 2020) ) for processing of cassava into gari, fufu, and other products in West Africa, with support from RTB."}]},{"head":"Design of the Diagnosis Study: Specific Objective, Study Area, and State of Knowledge","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The diagnosis of small-scale processes can focus on various aspects, such as the following:"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"(i) Influence of cassava variety and processing on product quality."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"(ii) Resource efficiency (energy, water, raw materials) in relation to production costs and environmental impacts. "}]},{"head":"Results","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"• Sample analyses • Data entry • Data processing • Formatting and exploitation of results","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fig. 4.10","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Steps of the method for diagnosis of small-scale cassava processing units (iii) Comparing different technologies for processing the same product. The first step is therefore to clearly define the specific objective(s) (Fig. 4.10), which in turn will guide the diagnosis methods to be selected."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Traditional, small-scale processing of cassava follows diverse processing pathways linked to different technologies and know-how. In turn, this variability results in different end-product quality, usually matching different consumer preferences. To collect representative data about a given process, it is therefore necessary to define where to carry out the diagnosis. These can be the areas where the target product is most frequently processed (usually areas with high cassava production), or the project's region of intervention. The diagnosis may target user segments to explicitly be socially inclusive or to take gender into account, besides other criteria: size of towns or cities, production capacity, distances to markets, etc."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The diagnosis design may be based on a review literature about the product, process, and value chain and preliminary interviews with experts, extension officers, and processors to gather information on supply, availability, and quality criteria of raw materials. The design should include a description of each of the process steps and their importance for the quality of the product, as well as gender aspects, business environment (access to infrastructures such as energy, water, road network), and market aspects."}]},{"head":"Diagnosis","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Conducting a process diagnosis requires time, qualified people, and funding, so preplanning is important (Sect. 3.1) to coordinate the collection of samples and data and to ensure the quality of the results."}]},{"head":"Identify representative processors","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The first step of the diagnosis is to identify in the study area a panel of processors representative of current practices, according to the following criteria:"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"-Main economic activity based on the studied product."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"-Recognized know-how and ability to produce a specific quality of finished products matching the expectations of consumers. -Gender division of labor among the selected processors that is representative of actual gender labor distribution. -Technological level among the selected processors that is representative of the local most common technology. If most processors are small scale, the focus should be on them to mitigate negative social consequences of scaling technologies and to ensure more users of the technology from a social inclusive perspective. -Evaluate the volumes processed (by month/week/year) and the type of market targeted (retail, wholesale, town, village, etc.)."},{"index":4,"size":198,"text":"facilitate comparisons between technologies. This may not always be possible, however, due to the short shelf life of fresh roots and transportation distances. In this case, raw materials are sourced locally in each location, and the raw material is considered as one variable of the experimentation. Raw materials then need to be described in detail, including photos of the fresh roots (before peeling), size measurements, and any appropriate laboratory analyses. All equipment, instruments, and data collection sheet necessary to carry out the experiments, to collect samples, and to record data are prepared in advance, based on the collection plan. The following characterization protocol is then applied: Before the first unit operation, the research team records the weight of the raw materials that will be processed into the product under study. Then after each unit operation (peeling, washing, etc.), the duration is recorded and the intermediate product (e.g., peeled product) and residues (e.g., peels, stems, soil) are weighed for later calculations of yields and mass balance. Samples can also be collected for further laboratory analyses (dry matter, starch content, fibers, pH, etc.). The following diagnosis parameters are then calculated for each unit operation and the process as a whole:"},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"-Yield, defined as the quantity of product recovered after each unit operation and expressed as percentage (wet basis) of the quantity of raw material. -Material balance evaluated by checking that the weights of all the inputs (raw materials, water, etc.) and outputs (final product, peels, fibers, wastewater, etc.) are equal. -Productivity, defined as the quantity of raw material (in kg) processed per hour and per processor. This is an important indicator of efficiency and also of drudgery."}]},{"head":"Interview of processors and participative approach","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"To capture processors' expertise, at each step of the process, interviews can elicit the details that processors use to recognize that the raw materials or intermediate products will give a good final product and how they may adjust their process to ensure the best possible final product. In the case of experiments comparing the processing potential of several varieties, processors can be asked to rank them from good to poor. This ranking can be repeated with intermediate products during processing."}]},{"head":"Exploitation of Results","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"In addition to regular reporting of results collected for each unit operation, the process as a whole can also be analyzed with the following:"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"-The process flowsheet (e.g., Fig. 4.11) describes the sequence of the unit operations, their duration (productivity), inputs and outputs (raw materials, water, electricity, thermal energy, etc.), and material balance based on the yields of the intermediate products."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"-Yields and productivity of intermediate products: The yields of intermediate products reveal which unit operations most impact the overall yield of the process (e.g., Fig. 4.12). Productivity of each unit operation reveals bottlenecks, i.e., which operations slow down the overall process. Yields and productivity can also depend on the processing ability of different cassava varieties, as some varieties can be harder to process, e.g., more difficult to peel, thicker peels, lower dry matter, or containing fibers that need to be manually removed. Yield and productivity are important acceptability criteria that influence the adoption of improved technologies and/or new varieties, in addition to acceptability criteria of the end product such as visual appearance, texture, and taste."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Process diagnosis is most effective when implemented with a formal methodological framework such as the one presented above. Combined with socioeconomic and environmental surveys, process diagnosis is a prerequisite to scaling-out innovations for several purposes: to provide a baseline to monitor the progress and outcomes of scaling-out activities; to reveal local constraints and expectations for the innovations with respect to local traditions and gender, employment, and environmental and economic criteria; and to identify the innovation components package and establish the scaling readiness diagram when applying the Scaling Readiness framework. A well-executed diagnosis provides not only reliable information on the process and product under study but also builds dialog with processors on the benefits and constraints of processing technologies and improved cassava varieties to facilitate the adoption of innovations."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Perspectives: Ongoing Research and Strategic Areas for Future Research on Cassava Processing","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":313,"text":"Since 2013, RTB has fostered several initiatives to improve cassava processing and federated a team of multidisciplinary researchers and engineers from IITA, CIAT, CIRAD, NRI, academic partners, and private partners in several countries. One notable outcome has been the reengineering of small-scale flash dryers for better energy efficiency and lower production costs. The flash-drying results presented in this chapter are useful to illustrate in a practical, step-by-step way the overall approach to reengineering postharvest technologies, from the initial state-of-the-art surveys to the stages of design, proof of concept, pilot testing, and scaling out with private partners. This work also provided a relevant case study for the application of Scaling Readiness, showing the progression of the project through the levels of innovation readiness and use (Table 4.5). This experience shows that R&D interventions at postharvest processing level have an important part to play in advancing sustainable value chains of RTB crops, especially when combined with scaling-out activities in partnership with private small-scale processors and equipment manufacturers. In addition to flash dryers, several cassava products and unit operations have been investigated by RTB: cabinet drying (Precoppe et al. 2017), attiéké (Alamu et al. 2020), gari (Escobar et al. 2018(Escobar et al. , 2021;;Dahdouh et al. 2021), as well as links between processing and human health (Parmar et al. 2019;Bede-Ojimadu and Orisakwe 2020). Applying the same reengineering to other unit operations such as peeling, grating, dewatering, and milling will improve the overall efficiency of small-scale cassava industries and over time should increase incomes and employment along the whole cassava value chain (Escobar et al. 2021;Ezeocha et al. 2019;Dahdouh et al. 2021;Dou et al. 2020). Apart from interventions on postharvest processing, RTB researchers are currently also working on mobile cassava processing units to reduce the time and distance from the field to final products, so as to address the barrier of poor transportation infrastructure in West Africa."},{"index":2,"size":193,"text":"The perspectives for cassava value chains over the next 10-20 years are an overall expansion to meet the food security and nutritional needs of growing populations. In this context, gains in processing efficiency will be crucial to improving both product quality and production capacity, which in turn are a prerequisite to connect rural small-scale cassava processors with higher-value and more distant markets, in particular large cities and international exports. Integrating processing innovations with the current scale of processing is important to provide a comparative advantage from the bottom up, as focusing on larger-scale processing can result in scale advantages and also put smaller-scale processors out of business with the risk of increasing inequality, social instability, and adverse gender effects as women are often highly represented in small-scale processing. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 4 . 2 Fig. 4.2 Diversity of flash-dryer designs in Thailand, Nigeria, Paraguay (dryer model from Brazil), Paraguay (dryer model from Sweden), and Argentina "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . 3 Fig. 4.3 High energy use by flash dryers is correlated with shorter pipe and high air/product ratio. Each point represents a different model of flash dryer (Table4.1) "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . 4 Fig. 4.4 Flash-dryer prototype installed at CIAT "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4.5 (a) Cut view of the counter-current improved air-air heat exchanger developed by RTB; (b) one of the six heat exchangers built during the scaling-out phase of the project. (Source: Authors and Agrimac Ltd, DR Congo) "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4.6 (a) Isometric view and (b) the pneumatic dryer in Ghana "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4.4 photos; Figs. 4.5b and 4.6b 7 Application (proven)CIAT prototype assessment was shown to improve the efficiency of flash drying significantly "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . 8 Fig. 4.8 Innovation Readiness and Innovation Use of the cassava flash-dryer innovation package in DR Congo and Nigeria after the Scaling Readiness assessment (May 2019). Core innovation components (technologies) are presented in green and complementary innovations in blue (products), yellow (services), and orange (institutional arrangements) "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . 9 Fig. 4.9 Innovation Readiness and Innovation Use of the cassava flash-dryer innovation package in DR Congo and Nigeria at the end of the RTB Scaling flash-drying project (December 2020). Core innovation components (technologies) are presented in green and complementary innovations in blue (products), yellow (services), and orange (institutional arrangements) "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4.11 Example of a process diagram for gari processing in four locations (shown in blue, italics) (study from Benin in 2015) "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4.12 Example of the yields of the unit operations for processing gari. Eight cassava varieties revealed the effect of variety on process yields (study from Cameroon in 2015) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 4 .2 Performance of the prototype small-scale flash dryer built at CIAT (Cali, Colombia) under various operating conditions (fixed pipe diameter, 16 cm)   Trial #        Trial #  Unit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Unit12345678 Pipe length m 17.2 17.2 17.2 17.2 20.3 20.3 27.2 27.2 Pipe lengthm17.2 17.2 17.2 17.2 20.3 20.3 27.2 27.2 Inlet air velocity a m/s 11 11 23 23 11 24 22 22 Inlet air velocity am/s1111232311242222 Inlet air temperature °C 140 180 180 180 140 180 140 140 Inlet air temperature°C140 180 180 180 140 180 140 140 Outlet air temperature °C 47.5 50.6 53.6 56.5 47.1 52.6 51.9 52.0 Outlet air temperature°C47.5 50.6 53.6 56.5 47.1 52.6 51.9 52.0 Product initial moisture % wb 31.6 31.4 36.8 36.9 34.0 38.5 36.7 36.4 Product initial moisture% wb31.6 31.4 36.8 36.9 34.0 38.5 36.7 36.4 Product final moisture % wb 13.4 13.3 13.5 11.9 14.3 13.6 12.9 13.3 Product final moisture% wb13.4 13.3 13.5 11.9 14.3 13.6 12.9 13.3 Product feed rate kg/h 77 99 164 152 67 160 122 124 Product feed ratekg/h7799164 152 67160 122 124 Specific energy consumption kJ/kg water 3563 3610 3340 3486 3979 3268 3399 3417 Specific energy consumption kJ/kg water 3563 3610 3340 3486 3979 3268 3399 3417 a          a  "},{"text":"Table 4   "},{"text":"Table 4 .3 Operating conditions and energy performance of a pneumatic dryer processing cassava in Ghana before and after adjustment to the feeding rate Adjustment to the feeding rate Unit Before After Adjustment to the feeding rateUnitBeforeAfter Solid mass flow rate (m dm ) kg.h −1 , db 37.3 a ± 6.1 56.0 b ± 5.1 Solid mass flow rate (m dm )kg.h −1 , db37.3 a ± 6.1 56.0 b ± 5.1 Air temperature at dryer inlet (T 1 ) °C 236.6 a ± 5.1 238.4 a ± 9.5 Air temperature at dryer inlet (T 1 )°C236.6 a ± 5.1 238.4 a ± 9.5 Wet cassava grits moisture content (X ws ) kg.kg −1 , db 0.76 a ± 0.03 0.75 a ± 0.06 Wet cassava grits moisture content (X ws ) kg.kg −1 , db0.76 a ± 0.03 0.75 a ± 0.06 Dried cassava grits moisture content (X ds ) kg.kg −1 , db 0.14 a ± 0.04 0.14 a ± 0.06 Dried cassava grits moisture content (X ds ) kg.kg −1 , db0.14 a ± 0.04 0.14 a ± 0.06 Dried cassava grits temperature (T ds ) °C 55.9 a ± 3.3 54.4 a ± 2.2 Dried cassava grits temperature (T ds )°C55.9 a ± 3.3 54.4 a ± 2.2 Air temperature at dryer outlet (T out ) °C 67.3 a ± 4.9 60.7 b ± 3.5 Air temperature at dryer outlet (T out )°C67.3 a ± 4.9 60.7 b ± 3.5 Relative humidity at dryer outlet (ψ out ) % 37.6 a ± 8.7 55.3 b ± 9.2 Relative humidity at dryer outlet (ψ out )%37.6 a ± 8.7 55.3 b ± 9.2 Heat input rate kW 31.4 a ± 1.0 32.4 a ± 5.2 Heat input ratekW31.4 a ± 1.0 32.4 a ± 5.2 Water evaporation rate kg.h −1 26.4 a ± 4.4 33.6 b ± 5.6 Water evaporation ratekg.h −126.4 a ± 4.4 33.6 b ± 5.6 Specific heat consumption kJ.kg −1 water evaporated 4388 a ± 716 3509 b ± 527 Specific heat consumptionkJ.kg −1 water evaporated 4388 a ± 716 3509 b ± 527 Energy efficiency a % 57.8 a ± 9.0 72.1 b ± 9.9 Energy efficiency a%57.8 a ± 9.0 72.1 b ± 9.9 Specific heat utilization kJ.kg −1 dried product 2746 a ± 437 1798 b ± 278 Specific heat utilizationkJ.kg −1 dried product2746 a ± 437 1798 b ± 278 Solid loading ratio g.kg −1 70.1 a ± 11.5 105.7 b ± 9.5 Solid loading ratiog.kg −170.1 a ± 11.5 105.7 b ± 9.5 In each line, means with different superscript letters are significantly different by Fisher's Least In each line, means with different superscript letters are significantly different by Fisher's Least Significant Difference test at 5% level of significance   Significant Difference test at 5% level of significance  "},{"text":"Table 4 . 4 Summary definitions of levels of innovation readiness and use(Sartas et al. 2020a)  Stage Innovation readiness Innovation use StageInnovation readinessInnovation use 1 Idea Intervention team 1IdeaIntervention team 2 Basic model (testing) Direct partners (rare) 2Basic model (testing)Direct partners (rare) 3 Basic model (proven) Direct partners (common) 3Basic model (proven)Direct partners (common) 4 Application model (testing) Secondary partners (rare) 4Application model (testing)Secondary partners (rare) 5 Application model (proven) Secondary partners (common) 5Application model (proven)Secondary partners (common) 6 Application (testing) Unconnected developers (rare) 6Application (testing)Unconnected developers (rare) 7 Application (proven) Unconnected developers (common) 7Application (proven)Unconnected developers (common) 8 Innovation (testing) Unconnected users (rare) 8Innovation (testing)Unconnected users (rare) 9 Innovation (proven) Unconnected users (common) 9Innovation (proven)Unconnected users (common)  "},{"text":"Table 4 .5 Levels of innovation readiness (adapted fromSartas et al. 2020a) applied to flash drying  Innovation  Evidence proving InnovationEvidence proving Stage readiness Flash-dryer example completion of the level StagereadinessFlash-dryer examplecompletion of the level 1 Idea Flash drying can increase the energy Crapiste and Rotstein 1IdeaFlash drying can increase the energyCrapiste and Rotstein   efficiency of drying HQCF and starch (1997); Saravacos and efficiency of drying HQCF and starch(1997); Saravacos and    Kostaropoulos (2016) Kostaropoulos (2016) 2 Basic model An energy-efficient flash dryer has five key Figure 4.1 2Basic modelAn energy-efficient flash dryer has five keyFigure 4.1  (testing) components (hot air generator, feed system,  (testing)components (hot air generator, feed system,   flash-drying pipe, blower, cyclone collector)  flash-drying pipe, blower, cyclone collector) 3 Basic model An updated version of the basic model Chapuis et al. (2017); 3Basic modelAn updated version of the basic modelChapuis et al. (2017);  (proven) increased the efficiency of cassava flash Sect. 4.4 (proven)increased the efficiency of cassava flashSect. 4.4   drying, as validated with numerical  drying, as validated with numerical   simulations covering multiple scenarios  simulations covering multiple scenarios 4 Application A prototype based on the proven basic (Available upon request) 4ApplicationA prototype based on the proven basic(Available upon request)  model (testing) model and numerical model findings was  model (testing)model and numerical model findings was   designed  designed 5 Application Multiple versions of the prototype designs Figure 4.4 3D drawing, 5ApplicationMultiple versions of the prototype designsFigure 4.4 3D drawing,  model (proven) were assessed by RTB researchers and Figs. 4.5a and 4.6a model (proven)were assessed by RTB researchers andFigs. 4.5a and 4.6a   finalized by technical drawings with  finalized by technical drawings with   specifications  specifications 6 Application CIAT prototype was built based on the  6ApplicationCIAT prototype was built based on the  (testing) technical drawings in Colombia  (testing)technical drawings in Colombia  "},{"text":" Yank A, Ngadi M, Kok R (2016) Physical properties of rice husk and bran briquettes under low pressure densification for rural applications. Biomass Bioenergy 84:22-30. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2015.09.015 Zvinavashe E, Elbersen HW, Slingerland M, Kolijn S, Sanders JPM (2011) Cassava for food and energy: exploring potential benefits of processing of cassava into cassava flour and bioenergy at farmstead and community levels in rural Mozambique. Biofuels Bioprod Biorefining Biofpr 5(2):151-164. https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.272 Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.  "}],"sieverID":"526ee11c-61e6-41ee-ae3c-281941923632","abstract":"The development and scaling out of flash-dryer innovations for more efficient, small-scale production of high-quality cassava flour (HQCF) and starch is described. The diagnoses of cassava-processing SMEs (small and medium enterprises) revealed their energy expenditures for drying were considerably higher than those of large-scale industrial companies, which was mostly due to suboptimal design of flash-drying systems. As a result, small-scale production of cassava starch and HQCF often incurs high production costs, incompatible with market prices of final products. Taking stock of this situation, RTB scientists have developed several innovations to optimize energy efficiency and costs, including a longer drying pipe, reengineered heat exchanger, larger blower for higher air velocity, and a higher product/air ratio. This was based on numerical modelling to determine the key design features of energy-efficient flash dryers, followed by construction and demonstration of a pilot-scale prototype. As a result, improved small-scale flash dryers are now being scaled out to the private sector in various countries, using the Scaling Readiness framework and achieving 10-15% gains in productivity and incomes. A method for diagnosis of process efficiency is also described, to identify technical bottlenecks and to document and measure the outcomes and impacts during the implementation of scaling-out projects."}

data/part_1/0548093e0174209fbe403ef6e367d2ca.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0548093e0174209fbe403ef6e367d2ca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/06faedad-2808-4997-8ec4-065ed722b1ae/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Long-term strategies: A requirement of the Paris Agreement","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Developing Long Term Low Emissions and Climate Resilient Agricultural Development Pathways for Uganda:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Policy coherence and strong cross-sector and multi-stakeholder collaboration"}]},{"head":"REPUBLIC OF UGANDA JULY 2022","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Agriculture is a key sector for Uganda's economy and it remains highly risky largely due to its sensitivity to climate change and related impacts. Uganda embarked on a journey of developing an economy-wide long term Low-Emission and Climate-Resilient Development Strategy as well as the Agriculture Sector Long Term Low Emissions and Climate Resilient Development Pathway (Agriculture LTS) aimed at facilitating the country's continued transformation to a green economy by prioritising adaptation and mitigation actions that increase agricultural productivity and build climate resilience of the agricultural and food systems while reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensities in the sector."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"During the process of developing the Agriculture LTS, deliberate effort was made to ensure coherence between the economy-wide LTS and updating of the nationally determined contributions (NDC). The Ministries of Water and Environment (MWE) and Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) have worked together and shared insights into how best to ensure that the Agriculture LTS is aligned with the priorities and pathways being included in the economy-wide LTS. The cross-sectoral approach adopted is critical given the agriculture sector's connectedness with other key economic sectors such as energy, infrastructure, transport and water, among others. Further, the Agriculture LTS is the most forward-looking strategy to date, and its strength lies not only in its foresight but also in its integration into the well-integrated development with Uganda's economy-wide LTS."}]},{"head":"About AICCRA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Explore our work at aiccra.cgiar.org."}]},{"head":"Uganda's lessons for other countries","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"1. Agriculture is not merely an economic or income generating activity but it is also a pillar of resilience and development, and a major contributor to sustainable development and poverty eradication."}]},{"head":"2.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The Agriculture LTS directly contributes to the achievement of the national objectives which aim at enhancing resilience in its different dimensions. At the same time, it provides a framework for transformation of the country's agriculture sector into a low carbon economy, important for achieving the national and international commitments on climate change in accordance with Uganda's updated NDC."}]},{"head":"Close collaboration between ministries, departments and agencies","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"(MDAs) as well private sector, academia, researchers and civil society has proven the most sure way of harnessing the knowledge and evidence necessary to inform the policy."}]},{"head":"4.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Wide consultations help to avoid duplication and conflicts and also help enhance policy coherence."}]},{"head":"Uganda","index":8,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"247ecdb1-d794-48f7-993b-1a0a5f3b9631","abstract":"Article 4 paragraph 19 of the Paris Agreement, as read with decision 1/CP.21 paragraph 35, invites countries to formulate and communicate to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Secretariat their respective \"Mid-century long-term low GHG emissions climate resilient development strategies (LTS) by 2020\". Such a long-term strategy will set out a visionary agenda -providing political certainty for bold, concrete actions while helping to inform near-and long-term investments that spur sustainable economic and social transformation. A country's LTS has a great potential to guide it on a path to a climate resilient development pathway. This also contributes to the collective global response of limiting warming to 1.5 -2 ºC by the end of the century through low-carbon green growth in critical sectors. The COP26 through its Glasgow Climate Pact recognized the importance of developing and aligning NDCs with the long term low emissions and climate resilient development strategies (LTS) and reaching net zero emissions by around mid-century."}

data/part_1/05fbea9a55c23b09918266d905031236.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"05fbea9a55c23b09918266d905031236","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f130c67c-db8f-4893-8e7a-32d1f4b37c6e/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Minutes of virtual meeting of the WLE Independent Steering Committee (ISC), 18 December 2019 Present","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"WLE Commission on Sustainable Agricultural Intensification (CSAI)","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The topic of this meeting was the Commission on Sustainable Agricultural Intensification. The Secretariat had been asked to work up the idea of Research and Innovation for CSAI as a focus topic."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"Julia presented a short paper 'Notes on CSAI' outlining a vision for composition of the Commission, potential questions to address (angles) and a list of key activities and products. The unique selling point of this Commission includes: Global South Commissioners; an 'Official Inquiry' type Approach (Commissioners define questions, then invite and consider expert evidence from others); and a focus on Promoting Innovation and Uptake for SAI. While various specific innovations are being suggested and/or are under development (WEF/McKinsey 2018), the Commission provides an opportunity to reflect on issues such as the overall thrust of global innovation in agriculture (and how sustainable it is), the experience with turning innovation into large scale change, the various approaches tried and recommended, whether the current institutions, policies and investment are likely to meet global challenges at the speed required, and important principles which should be followed in supporting innovation for SAI."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"There was general agreement on the outline plan. The group had a rich discussion about the specifics. Some of the areas which were flagged for further thought by the Secretariat and Commissioners included: the importance of transformative change; going beyond technical innovations to include institutional and policy innovations; going beyond investment to the enabling environment for innovation; not only focusing on the new, but improving uptake and scaling of existing innovations; the need to consider the private sector and public-private linkages; behavioural (nudge) theory; including beverage as well as food crops; considering water tenure issues and use of marginal lands and poor soils; and how best to use case studies."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"Julia also presented a draft short list of potential Commissioners. This was agreed by the group to be a 'good list', although a bit more work is needed for finalization. There are a few gaps, e.g. younger people familiar with the latest in digital innovation."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"43a1b4a1-d4be-4cba-bf37-f8c1bfb297a2","abstract":""}

data/part_1/062fe41cbeea1e2bdbc996c5f6fa416f.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"062fe41cbeea1e2bdbc996c5f6fa416f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ff60d927-81d3-4a3e-98d2-aa653228c738/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"PLANT DATA","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Plant height [cm] (4.1.2)"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"From ground level to the tip of inflorescence (ear). At dough stage"},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"Plant pigmentation (4.1.4) "}]},{"head":"NOTES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Any additional information may be specified here, particularly that referring to the category '99=Other' present in some of the descriptors above."}]},{"head":"CONTRIBUTORS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Bioversity is grateful to all the scientists and researchers who have contributed to the development of this strategic set of 'Key access and utilization descriptors for finger millet genetic resources', and in particular to Dr A. Seetharam for providing valuable scientific direction. Adriana Alercia provided technical expertise and guided the entire production process. "}]},{"head":"CORE ADvISORy GROUP","index":4,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Ex-Project Coordinator, All India Coordinated Research Project on Small Millets, India Bimal Kumar Baniya, Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Nepal Paula Bramel, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria Tom C. Hash, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India Ulrike Lohwasser, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Germany Prem Mathur, Bioversity International, India J. C. Rana, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Regional Station, Phagli, Shimla, India Hari D. Upadhyaya, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India  "}],"sieverID":"a28459da-ede7-4c2d-92d5-e40310240593","abstract":"genetic resources utilization. This strategic set of descriptors, together with passport data, will become the basis for the global accession level information portal being developed by Bioversity International with the financial support of the Global Crop Diversity Trust (GCDT). It will facilitate access to and utilization of finger millet accessions held in genebanks and does not preclude the addition of further descriptors, should data subsequently become available."}

data/part_1/069b55c9b2ce7d67ef0a553e56b242d9.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"069b55c9b2ce7d67ef0a553e56b242d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H038090.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"The implementation of the Tsunami Livelihood Restoration Project -Progress report 2005-by Priyantha Jayakody and P.G. S. Somarathne","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Just after the tsunami devastation, International Water Management institute (IWMI) addressed the issue of helping people affected by the tsunami to rapidly recover from the shock and start their normal day-to-day livelihood activities. Under the tsunami relief program a research team from the IWMI headquarters launched a program to assess the impact of the tsunami on livelihoods of people in Hambantota district. Hambantota was selected as the IWMI intervention area as IWMI's benchmark river basins, where its in research activities are concentrated, are located in the Hambantota district. Through the use of Rapid-Rural-Appraisal and other methods community needs were assessed and with the understanding that agriculture sector receives less attention of the various intervention programs implemented in the area by NGOs and other parties, it was decided that IWMI should use its relief fund attention to restore agriculture related livelihood activities."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"In discussion with the farmers, farmer organizations, the Range Director of the Irrigation Department, Hambantota and other agency officials, IWMI decided to assist in the following activities contributing to livelihood restoration of the affected people:"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• Rehabilitation of Paibokka and Karagasara anicut."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Providing a revolving fund for the Andaragasyaya \"Ranketha\" Farmer Organization."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"• Providing funds to build a permanent store house for Magama \" Shakthi\" Farmer Organization."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"In the following section, the progress of the activities being implemented by IWMI using the relief fund is reported."}]},{"head":"Rehabilitating Paibokka and Karagasara anicut","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The Tsunami damaged a number of small irrigation structures in the Hambantota range. Two anicuts that were damaged by Tsunami were selected by IWMI for rehabilitation. These two anicuts serve for about 500 acres (200 ha) of irrigated lands. IWMI has provided Rs 818,000 to rehabilitate these two anicuts and the access roads to them. The proposal was prepared by the Irrigation Engineer of Hambantota, and the Irrigation Department has kindly agreed to undertake the work. IWMI is to monitor the activity until the rehabilitation is completed."}]},{"head":"Paibokka Anicut","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"This is the one of the tail-end anicut in the Ridiyagama left bank irrigation canal. The, anicut has four gates that had been damaged by tsunami. The number of households depending on this anicut is around 55 and the area cultivated by them in both seasons is around 40ha. The main crop cultivated by these households is paddy. Access road to this anicut was in dilapidated conditions due to which people in the area faced difficulties in transporting their goods and harvests etc. The ID has by now fixed newly built four gates and rehabilitated the access road. Gabion wall and the channel over-crossing have yet to be completed as agreed with IWMI (figure 02 & 03). "}]},{"head":"Karags ara anicut","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"This was not directly affected by tsunami but most of the farmers who cultivate lands under this anicut were severely affected. There are375 of households depending on this anicut under which 150ha are cultivated.This was a four-gate anicut, and one gate was completely damaged. Access road to this anicut was also in bad conditions. As agreed with IWMI , ID has rehabilitated (figure 04) the road and the gates are yet to be fixed.   For further details contact : Priyantha Jayakody, [email protected]"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 02 :Figure 03 : Figure 02 : Paibokka anicut before and after rehabilitation "},{"text":"Figure 04 : Figure 04: Access road to Karagas ara anicut before and after rehabilitation "},{"text":"Figure 05 : Figure 05 : Members of the \"Sakthi\" FO actively participating "},{"text":"Figure 05 : Figure 05: Dayasena and Premachandra of IWMI conducting a training course and handing over the required books for administration. "}],"sieverID":"dfd8fdf2-626b-401c-b437-de719ae5d3eb","abstract":""}

data/part_1/076a02b9f574aa7f718b18a54892f396.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"076a02b9f574aa7f718b18a54892f396","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aff3cc68-2b10-4195-86ef-d000918eeaa9/retrieve"},"pageCount":56,"title":" Appraisal & Consultative Process  Outcome Mapping: demonstrate behaviour changes of targeted groups • Innovative Eco Health research in all 6 countries (\"learning by doing\" case studies) -Trans-disciplinary collaboration between institutions & teams --New for most of the team members","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Outcome mapping as M&E tool","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Eco ZD -EH storygeneral reflections"},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"• Project did not come with pre-determined research questions, there was plenty froom for adaptation in the proposal • Learning by doing EcoHealth approach • Emphasis on capacity building -an approach where teams made key research decisions and were supported in implementation • Multi-year process of inter-personal relationship/trust-building • Amendments made based on own but also reflections of partners -2 EHRC established"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Challenges across all teams • Jan 2010, Scoping visit"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"• to better understand the production system and socio-cultural aspects • Team surprised us with serological sampling in humans and animals. Purely biometric approach but still weak sampling protocol. "}]},{"head":"Brucellosis & Toxoplasmosis in Yunnan","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Other challenges and observations:"},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"• Hierarchical differences between researchers • Unfortunately the most \"EH open\" researcher was the youngest and also facing EN language difficulties • Deficits in report/paper writing (mainly due to language barriers) • Existing publications (mainly in Chinese) • Team highly motivated but tendency to derail in direction • Transaction costs (to facilitate various meetings) • True Co-funding provided (25%, the only team among 8)"}]},{"head":"Case studies 2:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Optimizing Rabies Control in Bali: An Ecohealth Approach Eco Health perspective: Better understand: • Social cultural relationship between dogs and the Balinese community • Dog population in Bali and its dynamics."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Dog ecology in Bali and measure its contact intensity with other animals and human."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"To develop a model for sustainable Rabies prevention, control, and eradication at banjar level through community empowerment and behavior change."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Aligned with Vaccination campaigns in dogs (FAO, LS services)"}]},{"head":"EH (study) framework","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Optimizing Rabies Control in Bali The problem • Parasitic zoonoses are often neglected disease and endemic in the Laos • Some characteristics of animal production and food consumption habits in Laos, can promote zoonotic disease transmission high density of both human and animal populations in close proximity; a smallholder production systems with mixed species and little/no biosecurity; abattoirs and wet markets operating with rudimentary hygiene, widespread consumption of raw/undercooked blood, meat, fish, organ tissues, raw leaf vegetables… -Use of untreated wastewater and sewage for agriculture Case study 4:"}]},{"head":"Control of Rabies in Bali focus on communities","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Socio-science -Social cultural believes","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LAO LONG-TERM STUDY ON ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF LIVESTOCK WITH A FOCUS ON PARASITIC DISEASES","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Case study 4:"}]},{"head":"LAO LONG-TERM STUDY ON ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF LIVESTOCK WITH A FOCUS ON PARASITIC DISEASES","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objectives","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"• To provide an overview on parasitic zoonoses from secondary data • To identify parasitic zoonosis distribution for prioritized parasites in animals and humans (southern part of Laos). • Better understand farmers ' KAP' linked to parasitic zoonoses along the pigs and fish commodity chains. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Layer 1 : Relationship between EcoZD project & 8 teams to influence teams' changes in knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP). Relationship between teams & their boundary partners (BPs) to support BPs' changes in KAP.* • An participatory planning, M&E tool • Outcomes = changes in KAP & behavior of targeted groups "},{"text":" in Bali: An Ecohealth Approach.\" Challenges and approached to address them • Socio-cultural studymainly based on qualitative approaches -International consultant from University of Edinburgh -PHD student from local partner • Publication issues -Who publishes what in a transdisciplinary team -Publications demanded for almost all team members -Use of double lead authorships -some journals support this Final reflection • Scientifically strong team members of various backgrounds • Most of them EH experienced from other IDRC studies Case study 3: Pig risk Exiting results from focus groups discussions in pork sellers 1. Prefer to use wood surface tables in stead of other types(e.g. versus stainless steel) • Vietnam government currently upgrades markets (LIFSAP) • Most of food sellers still use their old cutting boards 2. Use of cloth to dry pork, clean equipment, hand or table, some consumers related \"wet\" looking meat to low meat quality 3. Use of cupboard at market stools, same reason as under 2 4. Use of masks: in response to buyers/consumers perception that sellers may have a health problem. 5. Knowledge of zoonoses: PRRS and FMD, CSF, leptospirosis, cysticercosis, misperception on FMD, CSF Results of FGD help a lot to understand used practices not in the line with regulations "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Eco ZD case study: Yunnan/China \" Ecosystem approaches to the better management of brucellosis and toxoplasmosis with focus on ethnic minorities  Institute Brucellosis and Toxoplasmosis, Yunnan, China Focus diseases Expertise Brucellosis & Toxoplasmosis in Yunnan Institute Brucellosis and Toxoplasmosis, Yunnan, China Focus diseases Expertise Brucellosis & Toxoplasmosis in Yunnan Yunnan Endemic  Leptospirosis Detection, identification, and isolation Yunnan Endemic LeptospirosisDetection, identification, and isolation Disease Control and Prevention Approach (identification of research topic):  Schistosomiasis japonica of pathogens; Serological survey; DNA Sequencing, Lab tech., field Related challenges (identification of research topic) Disease Control and Prevention Approach (identification of research topic):  Schistosomiasis japonica of pathogens; Serological survey; DNA Sequencing, Lab tech., field Related challenges (identification of research topic) Institute (YEDCPI)  Hantaviral diseases epidemiology, pathogen ecology Institute (YEDCPI) Hantaviral diseasesepidemiology, pathogen ecology  Bartonellosis • Repeated meetings including stakeholders but also community  Brucellosis, Toxoplasma Yunnan Animal Science and  TB, Brucellosis  E. coli, salmonellosis visits, some with ILRI others not Diagnostic and monitoring methods, epidemiology, pathogen • Timely process (nearly 12 months)  Bartonellosis • Repeated meetings including stakeholders but also community  Brucellosis, Toxoplasma Yunnan Animal Science and  TB, Brucellosis  E. coli, salmonellosis visits, some with ILRI others not Diagnostic and monitoring methods, epidemiology, pathogen • Timely process (nearly 12 months) Veterinary Institute -Feb 2009 to Jan 2010 (scoping visit of filed sites) characterization, control and Veterinary Institute -Feb 2009 to Jan 2010 (scoping visit of filed sites) characterization, control and (ASVI)  prevention, economic and public (ASVI)prevention, economic and public   health impacts health impacts Yunnan • Facilitation and consensus building skills needed  Schistosomiasis Pathogen ecology, epidemiology, Yunnan • Facilitation and consensus building skills needed  Schistosomiasis Pathogen ecology, epidemiology, Agricultural University (YAU) • Trust and relationship building takes time in China (some partners japonica pathogenesis, prevention and control  toxoplasma  Hepatitis E., E. coli we had relations before, others not) Agricultural University (YAU) • Trust and relationship building takes time in China (some partners japonica pathogenesis, prevention and control  toxoplasma  Hepatitis E., E. coli we had relations before, others not) Yunnan Academy • Our choice was TB and Brucellosis  Fluke Epidemiological investigation, clinical Yunnan Academy • Our choice was TB and Brucellosis  Fluke Epidemiological investigation, clinical of Grassland Animal Sciences (YAGAS) • Anyhow consensus on Toxoplasmosis & Brucellosis in ethnic  Brucellosis, TB  Tape worm diagnosis, livestock genetics, production system, livestock ecology and management groups of Grassland Animal Sciences (YAGAS) • Anyhow consensus on Toxoplasmosis & Brucellosis in ethnic  Brucellosis, TB  Tape worm diagnosis, livestock genetics, production system, livestock ecology and management groups  "},{"text":"champion Case study: Brucellosis & Toxo in Yunnan  Developing of an EH framework Brucellosis & Toxoplasmosis Brucellosis & Toxoplasmosis in Yunnan Brucellosis & Toxoplasmosis in Yunnan Brucellosis & Toxoplasmosis Developing of an EH framework Brucellosis & Toxoplasmosis Brucellosis & Toxoplasmosis in Yunnan Brucellosis & Toxoplasmosis in Yunnan Brucellosis & Toxoplasmosis • Research agreement was not even signed! • Philosophy: sampling, sampling, sampling • Set back needed • First thoughts on recruitment of a national EH Problem: • Brucellosis is a serious concern in Northern China • Dairy sector promoted with animal movements from north to south • No or limited information on prevalence's • Toxoplasma: Lack of any update information in animal sector and PH concern No studies on perception/awareness of involved groups and stakeholders Classical vet approach (demanded by most tam members): • Prevalence study in targeted livestock populations Mapping of stakeholders, partners & groups involved 21 Brucellosis control Public health authorities (central/local officers, local hospitals) LS officers (central/local) Local administration officers Policy makers Socio economic experts Butchers, meat vendors Milk vendors, butchers Farmers/ herders Donors, international organizations & universities Associations (if any or to be established) Communities Outpatients The problem: Brucellosis & Toxoplasmos is in Yunnan Farmers (QX) in Yunnan Qualitative research Perception on qualitative tools in Yunnan Public health authorities (hospitals and local) (IDI) •Review of existing information •General Z knowledge •Specific action B & T patients •Collaboration with PH Vet officers/stations (IDI) •Review of existing information •General Z knowledge •Specific action B & T •Control •Collaboration with PH • Production data Survey: •AH and disease prevention •Reproductive disorders •Zoonoses and OH •Waste management Villagers (with/without livestock) (FGD) • Animal husbandry •Zoonoses •Risk factors •AH services •PH services •Source of information •Dairy farms (milk) •People at risk (serum) 2. No experience with an EH approach • Strong silo-thinking and biometric driven research team • Continued demand for biological sampling • No thoughts on qualitative methods -Very limited understanding of qualitative tools or socio-cultural aspects despite the study focus on ethnic minorities • Limited understand of EH principles Approach: Frequent visit of ILRI scientist Approach: Frequent visits of ILRI scientist QX Vet QX PH Butch Linkages Triangul Triang Potential Quality Select Comments 4. Synthesising qualitative and quantitative research results er QX to ation ulation RF of QX for 3. Perception on qualitative research tools -Some team members had perception that qualitative research is not valid, not scientific and therefore not useful -Mainly more dominant in senior staff (vets of MD's) -Often related to the fact that epidemiological sample size calculations used for quantitative tools may not apply the same way as for qualitative research Serology FGD IDD Toxo/Bruc data analysis EH champion (Fang Jing) Training modules on qualitative tools including FGD IDI QX Check list • Focus was on collection and analysis of biological samples and General data quantitative data training, number of staff x x x Relationship and trust building Learning by doing -success: General Z knowledge Demographic (e.g. Gender, • No experience with qualitative data analysis at all Knowledge x x x Most important Z x x x differed by gender/ethnics) actor • Latest now team members realised that \"everybody can do it \" Surveilance and control x x x without some training might be wrong Bruc and Toxo (awareness, Knowledge on zoonoses Lowest in Lowest in After being trained and implementation, most of team perception) butchers butchers members were exited on the use of FGD and IDI Knowledge x x x -Younger researchers more open but often challenged by hierarchical issues Mainly driven by the collected data » new views, they would never had thought about it Approach: Diagnostic tests x x First part of analysis strongly guided/done by EH Handling of patient with B/T x Risk practices Some raw milk No indications No indications NA champion e.g. In depth interviews in village doctors Collaboration with vet sector and meat of raw m/m of raw m/m Animal husbandry expert Past unit, milk vendors (FGD): •Zoonoses knowledge •Quality control •Sanitation •Inspection by authorities Identification of an EH champion (Fang Jing) • If than used (qualitative tools) there was a perception from again » Opportunity for triangulations … when x x consumption in consumption consumption Further analysis done jointly (IDI, butchers) which topic x x some villagers Butchers (IDI) •General Z knowledge •Specific knowledge B & Toxo •Hygiene and training Health status and check x •Waste management Literature review protecive clothes x Gain ownership by local authorities hygienic measured x •Health check and status Hospital case review: •Clinical cases Short training on EH (probably too late) Relationship and trust building more senior researchers that they can do it themselves (more like \"everybody can do this\") place for slaughter x New challenge emerged All others done by team (IDI, village Vets) and FGD action x x General hygiene System services (vets) • Research agreement was not even signed! • Philosophy: sampling, sampling, sampling • Set back needed • First thoughts on recruitment of a national EH Problem: • Brucellosis is a serious concern in Northern China • Dairy sector promoted with animal movements from north to south • No or limited information on prevalence's • Toxoplasma: Lack of any update information in animal sector and PH concern No studies on perception/awareness of involved groups and stakeholders Classical vet approach (demanded by most tam members): • Prevalence study in targeted livestock populations Mapping of stakeholders, partners & groups involved 21 Brucellosis control Public health authorities (central/local officers, local hospitals) LS officers (central/local) Local administration officers Policy makers Socio economic experts Butchers, meat vendors Milk vendors, butchers Farmers/ herders Donors, international organizations & universities Associations (if any or to be established) Communities Outpatients The problem: Brucellosis & Toxoplasmos is in Yunnan Farmers (QX) in Yunnan Qualitative research Perception on qualitative tools in Yunnan Public health authorities (hospitals and local) (IDI) •Review of existing information •General Z knowledge •Specific action B & T patients •Collaboration with PH Vet officers/stations (IDI) •Review of existing information •General Z knowledge •Specific action B & T •Control •Collaboration with PH • Production data Survey: •AH and disease prevention •Reproductive disorders •Zoonoses and OH •Waste management Villagers (with/without livestock) (FGD) • Animal husbandry •Zoonoses •Risk factors •AH services •PH services •Source of information •Dairy farms (milk) •People at risk (serum) 2. No experience with an EH approach • Strong silo-thinking and biometric driven research team • Continued demand for biological sampling • No thoughts on qualitative methods -Very limited understanding of qualitative tools or socio-cultural aspects despite the study focus on ethnic minorities • Limited understand of EH principles Approach: Frequent visit of ILRI scientist Approach: Frequent visits of ILRI scientist QX Vet QX PH Butch Linkages Triangul Triang Potential Quality Select Comments 4. Synthesising qualitative and quantitative research results er QX to ation ulation RF of QX for 3. Perception on qualitative research tools -Some team members had perception that qualitative research is not valid, not scientific and therefore not useful -Mainly more dominant in senior staff (vets of MD's) -Often related to the fact that epidemiological sample size calculations used for quantitative tools may not apply the same way as for qualitative research Serology FGD IDD Toxo/Bruc data analysis EH champion (Fang Jing) Training modules on qualitative tools including FGD IDI QX Check list • Focus was on collection and analysis of biological samples and General data quantitative data training, number of staff x x x Relationship and trust building Learning by doing -success: General Z knowledge Demographic (e.g. Gender, • No experience with qualitative data analysis at all Knowledge x x x Most important Z x x x differed by gender/ethnics) actor • Latest now team members realised that \"everybody can do it \" Surveilance and control x x x without some training might be wrong Bruc and Toxo (awareness, Knowledge on zoonoses Lowest in Lowest in After being trained and implementation, most of team perception) butchers butchers members were exited on the use of FGD and IDI Knowledge x x x -Younger researchers more open but often challenged by hierarchical issues Mainly driven by the collected data » new views, they would never had thought about it Approach: Diagnostic tests x x First part of analysis strongly guided/done by EH Handling of patient with B/T x Risk practices Some raw milk No indications No indications NA champion e.g. In depth interviews in village doctors Collaboration with vet sector and meat of raw m/m of raw m/m Animal husbandry expert Past unit, milk vendors (FGD): •Zoonoses knowledge •Quality control •Sanitation •Inspection by authorities Identification of an EH champion (Fang Jing) • If than used (qualitative tools) there was a perception from again » Opportunity for triangulations … when x x consumption in consumption consumption Further analysis done jointly (IDI, butchers) which topic x x some villagers Butchers (IDI) •General Z knowledge •Specific knowledge B & Toxo •Hygiene and training Health status and check x •Waste management Literature review protecive clothes x Gain ownership by local authorities hygienic measured x •Health check and status Hospital case review: •Clinical cases Short training on EH (probably too late) Relationship and trust building more senior researchers that they can do it themselves (more like \"everybody can do this\") place for slaughter x New challenge emerged All others done by team (IDI, village Vets) and FGD action x x General hygiene System services (vets)  "},{"text":"LAO LONG-TERM STUDY ON ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF LIVESTOCK WITH A FOCUS ON PARASITIC DISEASES Research objectives, activities and expected outputs sometimes disconnected -Objectives and related activities had the tendency to be narrowed in terms of groups and actors involved e.g. only farmers initially involved -Synthesis component from various activities missing • Strong preference on the use of biometric approaches -Biological sampling (serological) for specific diseases and focus on prevalence estimates -Expressed repeatedly by team members in various meetings/ discussions• Limited understanding of EH principles  Case study 4: Case study 4: Case study 4: Case study 4:     Case study 4: Case study 4: Case study 4: Case study 4: LAO LONG-TERM STUDY ON ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF LIVESTOCK LAO LONG-TERM STUDY ON ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF LIVESTOCK LAO LONG-TERM STUDY ON ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF LIVESTOCK LAO LONG-TERM STUDY ON ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF LIVESTOCK LAO LONG-TERM STUDY ON ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF LIVESTOCK LAO LONG-TERM STUDY ON ZOONOTIC DISEASES OF LIVESTOCK WITH A FOCUS ON PARASITIC DISEASES WITH A FOCUS ON PARASITIC DISEASES WITH A FOCUS ON PARASITIC DISEASES   WITH A FOCUS ON PARASITIC DISEASES WITH A FOCUS ON PARASITIC DISEASES WITH A FOCUS ON PARASITIC DISEASES Start up challenges:      Start up challenges: • Team members include expertise from different backgrounds and Objectives Activities  • Team members include expertise from different backgrounds and Objectives Activities expertise -Animal science, public health, social science Strat up challenges: 1. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Objective Activities Transdiciplina ry research participation Gender and equity system- thinking sustainability research-to- action expertise -Animal science, public health, social science Strat up challenges: 1. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Objective Activities Transdiciplina ry research participation Gender andequitysystem-thinkingsustainabilityresearch-to-action • Improve animal health/productivity by a better knowledge on diseases drivers, and suitable control options related to: AH, PH & well-being • Reduce animal and human health risks cf. food borne diseases through a • Identification of the research topic 2. 1. 1.1 2.1 -Concerns that this is too broad -Disease focus, rather tendency to narrow it down from the begin to a 1.2 2.2 1.3 2.3 1.4 specific disease e.g. by livestock species or specific 2.4 2. 2.1 disease/parasitoses 2.2 • Improve animal health/productivity by a better knowledge on diseases drivers, and suitable control options related to: AH, PH & well-being • Reduce animal and human health risks cf. food borne diseases through a • Identification of the research topic 2. 1. 1.1 2.1 -Concerns that this is too broad -Disease focus, rather tendency to narrow it down from the begin to a 1.2 2.2 1.3 2.3 1.4 specific disease e.g. by livestock species or specific 2.4 2. 2.1 disease/parasitoses 2.2 better understanding of risk factors • Develop a cross-sectoral collaboration platform and dissemination strategy -Consensus to focus on zoonotic endoparasites/helminthes 3. 2.3 3.1 2.4 3.2 3 3.1 3.3 3.2 better understanding of risk factors • Develop a cross-sectoral collaboration platform and dissemination strategy -Consensus to focus on zoonotic endoparasites/helminthes 3. 2.3 3.1 2.4 3.2 3 3.1 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.4      3.33.4 3.4       3.4  "}],"sieverID":"7d86066d-3acd-4f3b-920d-b7fcd57e6ac0","abstract":""}

data/part_1/08dc3d1f0f127ec5d71b373ed35c014e.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"08dc3d1f0f127ec5d71b373ed35c014e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/50d36ed8-ac1a-48a9-bebb-ef2f15309559/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Outcome story for communications use:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"CCAFS knowledge and evidence has informed >$500 million of investments in agricultural development. Three years ago, a CCAFS researcher was embedded within the agriculture group at World Bank Group (WBG) headquarters, with the aim of strengthening the linkages and collaborative actions between the WBG and CGIAR, resulting in the following outcomes (see Ref 1):"},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"Changes in behavior leading to more evidence-based, forward-looking (to deal with a changing climate) and impactful investments. In FY2018 alone, technical advice and knowledge products from CGIAR centers and CCAFS shared with project design teams contributed to improvements in at least 65 large agricultural projects and programs in low-and middle-income countries supported by WB grants and loans. The key improvement has been the inclusion of CSA activities and actions, enhancing their outcomes related to reducing GHGs while enhancing poor rural livelihoods. In 2016, only 28% of agriculture projects included actions aimed at addressing climate change. In FY2018, on average across the entire portfolio of new agriculture projects (worth $4.1 billion), 45% of their budgets are dedicated to activities and actions that are contributing to making project recipients/countries more resilient to a changing climate, while contributing to GHG emissions reductions."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Contributions to a paradigm shift in the behavior of WBG clients and local partners towards an understanding and adoption of CSA approaches. During planning, client/ stakeholders' engagement, and project design/ implementation CGIAR/CCAFS has been contributing knowledge, methodologies, technologies and policy analysis, data and know-how -in at least 20 low-income countries. Examples include:"},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"• Tools / methods co-developed by CCAFS and CIAT on CSA planning and implementation have helped contribute to mainstreaming of CSA across WBG agricultural operations in many countries. CSA 'country profiles' were developed by CCAFS and CIAT researchers for over 20 countries."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"• CCAFS-affiliated scientists and the embedded researcher helped developed a methodology and provided technical advice to two pilot countries (Mali and Cote d' Ivoire) in the development of CSIPs (Climate Smart Investment Plans) that are now helping direct new investments in agricultural and food systems in additional countries."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"Managers are incorporating CSA approaches and the scientific evidence base supporting them as part of the corporate strategy they present, including in international climate and food system negotiations. High-level WBG staff noted CCAFS technical inputs were provided at a critical time for a joint CGIAR/World Bank submission to UNFCCC on agriculture-related issues and ongoing collaboration on COP24 negotiations (Ref 1)."}]},{"head":"Links to any communications materials relating to this outcome:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• https://tinyurl.com/y4t5cubu "}]},{"head":"Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Three years ago, a CCAFS researcher was embedded within the agriculture group at WBG headquarters. The role of the researcher has been to strengthen the linkages and collaborative actions between the WBG and CGIAR, resulting in the following outcomes:"},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"Changes in behavior within the Agriculture Practice Group leading to more evidence-based, forward-looking (to deal with a changing climate) and impactful investments. In FY2018 alone, technical advice and knowledge products from CGIAR centers and CCAFS shared with project design teams contributed to improvements in at least 65 large agricultural projects and programs in low-and middle-income countries supported by WB grants and loans. The key improvement has been the inclusion of CSA activities and actions, enhancing their outcomes related to reducing GHGs while enhancing poor rural livelihoods. In 2016, only 28% of agriculture projects included actions aimed at addressing climate change. In FY2018, on average across the entire portfolio of new agriculture projects (worth $4.1 billion), 45% of their budgets are dedicated to activities and actions that are contributing to making project recipients/countries more resilient to a changing climate, while contributing to GHG emissions reductions."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Contributions to a paradigm shift in the behavior of WBG clients and local partners towards an understanding and adoption of CSA approaches. During planning, client/ stakeholders' engagement, and project design/ implementation CGIAR/CCAFS has been contributing knowledge, methodologies, technologies and policy analysis, data and know-how -in at least 20 low-income countries. Specific examples include:"},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"• Tools and methodologies co-developed by CCAFS and CIAT researchers on CSA planning and implementation have helped contribute to mainstreaming of CSA across WBG agricultural operations in many countries. CSA 'country profiles' were developed by CCAFS and CIAT researchers for over 20 countries ."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"• CCAFS-affiliated scientists and the embedded researcher helped developed a methodology and provided technical advice to two pilot countries (Mali and Cote d' Ivoire) in the development of CSIPs (Climate Smart Investment Plans) that are now being undertaken and are helping direct new investments in agricultural and food systems in additional countries."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"Globally, directors and regional managers at the World Bank are incorporating CSA approaches and the scientific evidence base supporting them as part of the corporate strategy that they present, including in international climate and food system negotiations."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"A consultant conducted interviews with WB staff to assess the outcomes of the researcher. Her report is available as additional evidence through the link below (Ref 1). "}]},{"head":"Gender, Youth, Capacity","index":4,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Development and Climate Change: Gender relevance: 1 -Significant Main achievements with specific Gender relevance: Gender has been a WBG corporate priority together with climate change in all reviewed WBG projects, and other facilitated activities. Youth relevance: 0 -Not Targeted CapDev relevance: 1 -Significant Main achievements with specific CapDev relevance: CapDev on climate change adaptation/ resilience and mitigation has been a constant in all targeted WBG activities. Climate Change relevance: 2 -Principal Describe main achievements with specific Climate Change relevance: The researcher has been actively supporting the WB to make its activities more climate smart to deal with climate change. Other cross-cutting dimensions: No Other cross-cutting dimensions description: <Not Defined> Outcome Impact Case Report link: Study #581 Contact person: Philip Thornton, Flagship 1 Leader, CCAFS, ILRI, [email protected] "}],"sieverID":"b280e416-f8d1-4252-a19a-ebb084ff1065","abstract":"World Bank agricultural investments for improved climate change resilience in the ag sector and reduced contributions to GHG emissions rise from 28% (2016) to 45% (2018) of committed budgets of new agriculture projects Short outcome/impact statement: Three years ago, a CCAFS researcher was embedded within the agriculture group at WBG headquarters. The role of the researcher has been to strengthen the linkages and collaborative actions between the WBG and CGIAR, resulting in the following outcomes as reported by high-level Bank officials to an independent consultant (see Ref 1). -(1) Teams in the Agriculture Global Practice which design agricultural projects and programs; (2) plus governments/local partners-incorporating activities addressing climate change challenges; (3) behavioral change in many WB (low-income) country clients/governments towards adoption of CSA approaches, policies, actions; (4) Directors and regional managers at WB incorporating climate smart approaches and the scientific evidence base supporting them as part of their corporate strategy and in international climate and food system negotiations."}

data/part_1/09f1a120721db6593f2f4b86e0824b23.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"09f1a120721db6593f2f4b86e0824b23","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fc72c948-dd03-478f-a904-6f1a87828f77/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"WABEF, a toolkit to promote anaerobic digestion of bio-wastes in West Africa","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Project Title: P438 -Private and public sector involvement in the energy-food nexus (WABEF) Description of the innovation: WABEF is a compendium of data sheets and databases (3) to estimate the wastes from agricultural activities, municipal activities, and ago-industrial activities. It suggests anaerobic digestion technologies to use up these bio-wastes. It uses a simulation model (Approzut and UPUTUC simulation) to compare the mass balances and assess the investment and operating costs of these technologies to support decision making by governments, communities, industries and farmers. "}]},{"head":"New Innovation: No","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Production systems and Management practicesStage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) For each step of the value chain, WABEF developed and tested operational tools. In Bénin, Mali, Sénégal and Cape Verde selected actors have been trained in the use of these tools, and are responsible for further uptake and dissemination.Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: <Not Defined>Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage:• UCAD -Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar • IAGU -African Institute of Urban Management (Institut Africain de Gestion Urbaine) • https://tinyurl.com/yy5balot "}],"sieverID":"798e4723-b53a-49b0-89cd-800274d5d174","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0a76038905cbb3e374cbc751d3b14716.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0a76038905cbb3e374cbc751d3b14716","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5954d37e-b45a-4401-874d-45152bafde8d/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"• ASF studies (Korea)"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• Chicken gains (ACIAR, regional)"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Small strategic projects (2020-25)"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• ASSET (EU/AFD), SafeGRO (Canada)-Food Safety "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"✓ Food safety, zoonoses, AMR, COVID • Animal Health, including ASF • Animal welfare • Sustainable livestock systems • Genetics & breed conservation (chicken) "},{"text":"priority research areas (in Vietnam and SE Asia), including OH   "}],"sieverID":"a3d4000d-37cc-4181-8a82-fc88619b6979","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0a937a0a8c4286f6c203b463df48798e.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0a937a0a8c4286f6c203b463df48798e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7da4d205-932a-455c-9173-1176fa8f2b57/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Occurrence of Regulated Mycotoxins and Other Microbial Metabolites in Dried Cassava Products from Nigeria","keywords":["cassava products","Nigeria","emerging mycotoxins","regulated mycotoxins","microbial metabolite","LC/MS","human exposure","food safety","food standards"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"The cassava root (Manihot esculenta Crantz) significantly contributes to food security, incomes, and employment opportunities in the rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa [1], especially in Nigeria, the world's largest cassava producer [2]. Significant post-harvest deterioration of fresh cassava roots occurs because of the natural high moisture content, which accelerates microbial deterioration and undesirable biochemical changes in the products [3]. Processing is used to extend the shelf life, facilitate transport and, most importantly, detoxify the roots by removing the inherent cyanogens [4][5][6]. Hence, cassava root is processed in Nigeria into gari, tapioca, lafun, fufu, starch, and high-quality cassava flour (HQCF), among others, with all the products having different physical properties due to variations in processing methods [7][8][9]. However, these processing methods, as well as the environments and natural microflora, influence the types and concentrations of microbial metabolites in the final food products [10,11]."},{"index":2,"size":242,"text":"The various processing methods for cassava in Nigeria often result in a range of food and feed products. Cassava starch and high-quality cassava flour (HQCF) are dried, unfermented products that must be dried immediately to avoid fermentation [12,13]. Starch is produced by peeling the roots, washing, grating, pulverizing, wet-sieving, sedimentation, decanting, dewatering, drying, and milling. HQCF processing is similar, except that the grated cassava is dewatered and dried immediately. The production of lafun may or may not involve peeling of the cassava roots before washing, fermenting in water (either in a flowing stream or stationary water) for softening, bagging/dewatering, drying, and milling [14]. The production of fufu flour is similar, except that, after fermentation, the mash is wet-sieved before sedimentation, dewatering, and final drying. Lafun and fufu flours are categorized as dried fermented flours, while tapioca is an unfermented product produced by toasting the extracted wet starch [15]. The toasting of fermented cassava mash to make gari is similar to this process, and similar utensils are used. Additionally, toasted fermented products, yellow or fine white gari, and yellow or white kpo-kpo gari are produced by peeling the roots, washing, grating, bagging, fermenting, dewatering, granulating, sieving, roasting, and again sieving to achieve a specific particle sizes. Fine gari has particle sizes of ≤500 µm while particles of kpo-kpo gari are >1 mm. The addition of palm oil to the white granules during toasting imparts a yellow color, thus the name yellow gari [16,17]."},{"index":3,"size":244,"text":"Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that may develop in almost any food or feedstuff during the growing season, at harvest time, or during processing or storage, depending on the environment and method of handling. Ingestion of high concentrations of mycotoxins can cause sickness or death in humans and animals [18]. There are three major genera of fungi that produce mycotoxins: Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium [19]. Kaaya and Eboku [20] reported that aflatoxins are naturally-occurring mycotoxins produced as secondary metabolites by many species of Aspergillus spp. (Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A. parasiticus, and A. niger). These secondary metabolites include aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 [21]. Cool, wet weather favors Fusarium toxins, while hot, humid weather encourages aflatoxin formation [22]. Other forms of metabolites can be produced by microorganisms occurring by chance in feed and foodstuff during handling, processing, and storage. Knowledge of the levels of contaminants in food products is needed to assist food regulatory agencies in estimating possible exposure of consumers to such contaminants and in setting maximum allowable levels for food control purposes. It should be noted that aflatoxins are genotoxic carcinogens. Therefore, the maximum limits for total aflatoxin content in a food or feed product (the sum of aflatoxins B1 and G1) is controlled or regulated, depending on the form in which the product is consumed or further processed before consumption. Additionally, a separate limit is often set for aflatoxin B1 content since this is the most toxic of the compounds."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"Globally, well-known or regulated microbial mycotoxins are frequently analyzed in food and feedstuff, and the maximum limits are enforced to ensure the safety of consumers [23]. These are different from emerging mycotoxins which are not routinely determined, no maximum limits have been established for them, partly because the knowledge of their incidence in foods is still emerging, and their safety or potential toxicity has not been fully elucidated [24][25][26]. Hence, it is difficult to conduct a proper assessment of the risk of exposure of humans and animals to high concentrations of emerging mycotoxins of unknown toxicity, which could occur sporadically in food and feedstuff [25]."},{"index":5,"size":150,"text":"Few studies have been conducted on the contamination of cassava products with regulated mycotoxins [26][27][28][29][30][31] when compared with the number of studies of toxin contamination of cereals, peanuts, dairy products, wheat, and dried chilies [32,33], and studies of other microbial metabolites are few, as well. Moreover, far less has been discussed in the literature about emerging mycotoxins in cassava products from Africa. For instance, Juan et al. [24] reported that Ediage et al. [30] detected and quantified aflatoxin B1 (9 µg/kg), aflatoxin B2 (8 µg/kg), fumonisin B1 (4-21 µg/kg), diacetoxyscirpenol (6 µg/kg), and zearalenone (12 µg/kg) in cassava flour samples from the Republic of Benin. On the other hand, a larger range of data has been published on the occurrence in cereals and cereal products of emerging mycotoxins, such as enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, fusaproliferin, fusaric acid, culmorin, butenolide, sterigmatocystin, emodin, mycophenolic acid, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, and tenuazonic acid [25]."},{"index":6,"size":132,"text":"The paucity of reliable data may have contributed to the inability of the major cassava-producing countries in Africa, including Nigeria, the world's largest producer and consumer of cassava products, to establish regulatory limits for mycotoxins in cassava products calculated based on per capita consumption of the cassava products, and the prevalence and concentrations of the different mycotoxins in the products. On the other hand, microbial specifications and permissible limits for food additives, pesticide residues, and heavy metal contaminants have all been stipulated [34]. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of major mycotoxins and other microbial metabolites in various dried cassava products consumed in Nigeria, using a more versatile and precise mycotoxin quantitation methodology based on the proven principle of isotope dilution mass spectrometry, as previously described [23][24][25]30,31,35]."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mycotoxins and Microbial Metabolites in Dried Cassava Products","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Regulated Mycotoxins","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Six hundred and forty-six analytes were screened with a QTrap 5500 LC-MS/MS system to target microbial metabolites in the 373 cassava samples. Only 91 microbial metabolites were detected in more than one sample (See Supplemental Table S1). As for regulated mycotoxins, only aflatoxins B1 and G1 were found, and these in a total of four samples: fufu flour (3/36 samples) and HQCF (1/29 samples), respectively. Fumonisin B1 was found in lafun (88.1 µg/kg) and fufu flour (102.7 µg/kg) (1/30 and 1/36 samples, respectively), at an average concentration of 95.4 µg/kg sample. Fumonisin B2 was present in lafun (2/30 samples), fufu flour (2/36 samples), and fine white gari (1/113 samples) at an average concentration of 50.0 µg/kg. Zearalenone was found in HQCF (2/29 samples), lafun (6/30 samples), fufu flour (2/36 samples), fine yellow gari (1/50 samples), and white kpo-kpo gari (3/52 samples) (see Table 1)."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"About 70% of cassava roots produced in Nigeria are processed into gari, making this the most popular cassava product in Nigeria [36]. The aflatoxin content of all types of gari samples was under the detectable limit; these results, therefore, suggest that gari is very safe from aflatoxin contamination. With averages of 1.2 µg/kg of aflatoxin B1 (in fufu flour) and 2.9 µg/kg of aflatoxin G1 (in HQCF), the aflatoxin levels of the dried cassava products sampled and tested were below the European Union values of 5 µg/kg tolerance level in foods [37]. The level of aflatoxin B1 found in the HQCF of the present study was lower compared to the values (4-21 µg/kg) reported by Ediage et al. [30] for cassava flour from the Republic of Benin."},{"index":3,"size":223,"text":"Neither aflatoxins B2, G2, M1, M2, P1, nor ochratoxin A was detected in any of the 373 dried cassava product samples. Fumonisin B3 was detected in only one fufu flour sample (14.5 µg/kg). However, Ediage et al. [30] oberved that 8 µg/kg of aflatoxin B2 was present in cassava flour from the Republic of Benin. Similarly, patulin and deoxynivalenol were absent in all the samples, and the range of zearalenone concentrations (0.9-90.4 µg/kg) obtained was lower than that reported by Sulyok et al. [31] for cassava samples from Rwanda (2830 µg/kg) and Tanzania (8490 µg/kg), and the values (12 µg/kg) reported by Ediage et al. [30] for cassava flour from the Republic of Benin. The results suggest that processed cassava products in Nigeria are safe with respect to the regulated mycotoxins, also considering that the regulated levels of zearalenone and fumonisins reported for maize and other cereals in African countries, such as Niger, Ghana, the United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda, and Benin, range between 50 µg/kg and 1000 µg/kg, and 1000 µg/kg to 3000 µg/kg, respectively [37]. Implicitly, a better understanding of the impact of processing practices adopted in Rwanda and Tanzania on the relatively higher levels of zearalenone and fumonisin in samples from the two countries may be helpful in efforts towards setting future regulatory levels for these mycotoxins in cassava products."}]},{"head":"Other Microbial Metabolites","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":283,"text":"As regards the prevalence of non-regulated microbial metabolites in the cassava samples, only 33 analytes were detected at concentrations higher than their respective limits of detection (LODs) in 5% or more of the 373 samples investigated (see Table 2). Of these 33, only 16 were found in 15% or more of the samples investigated. These were asperphenamate (99.5%), asperglaucide (99.2%), cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val) (92.0%), tryptophol (88.5%), cyclo (L-Pro-L-Tyr) (85.5%), brevianamid F (79.6%), kojic acid (71.3%), N-benzoyl-phenylalanine (55.2%), fellutanine A (48.3%), emodin (41.8%), rugulusovin (37.5%), alternariol methyl ether (25.7%), ilicicolin B (24.1%), ilicicolin A (18.2%), ilicicolin C (16. 9%), and ascochlorin (15.6%) (see Table 2). Figure 1 shows the overlay of XICs on tryptophol. Calculation of means was based on positive samples. R: apparent recovery; LOD: limit of detection; +: represents a positive analyte but that was detected at a concentration < LOD. Figures in parentheses are a number of samples in which an analyte was detected at > LOD. P: positive samples; N: total number of samples; R: apparent recovery; LOD: limit of detection; † : emodin was provided in free form. These 16 metabolites could be the most common in dried cassava products in Nigeria. Of these, the most common metabolites associated with Aspergillus spp. were kojic acid, asperphenamate, Nbenzoyl-phenylalanine, emodin, and asperglaucide. The predominant metabolites of Alternaria spp. were cyclo (L-Pro-L-Tyr), cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val), and alternariol methyl ether. Furthermore, tryptophol was the most common metabolite associated with Fusarium spp. and brevianamid F, fellutanine A, and rugulusovi , associated with Pennicillum spp., were the most commonly identified metabolites of that species (see Table 2). These results agree with those obtained in previous studies [11,[38][39][40] of various staple foods from some countries, including cassava products."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"Kojic acid, asperphenanate, N-benzoyl-phenylalanine, emodin, and asperglaucide are all metabolites associated with Aspergillus spp. (see Table 3). The concentrations of kojic acid, a 5hydroxy-2-hydroxymethyl-4-pyranone, in the dried product samples ranged from 8.35 to 1754.80 µg/kg; lafun samples had the highest, and cassava starch the lowest concentration. The kojic acid content of lafun in this study was lower than the maximum values (650,000 µg/kg and 93,700 µg/kg) recorded in cassava samples from Tanzania and Rwanda, respectively [31]. However, the processing methods for these cassava products were not indicated. Kojic acid can also be produced from various carbohydrate sources in an aerobic condition by a variety of microorganisms [41]. The fermentation process to produce lafun may be more favorable for the production of kojic acid [42] than that used for gari or fufu. Poisoning from the consumption of oriental fermented foods containing kojic acid, where its presence is common, has not been reported in humans, although there are still inconsistent and controversial results on kojic acid toxicity [43]. Additionally, Nohynek et al. [44] reported that the existing literature on the toxicity of kojic acid is somewhat inconclusive, even though it has been stated from the genotoxicity and human health risk of topical use of kojic acid that consumer exposure to fermented foods does not pose a significant risk to human health."},{"index":3,"size":205,"text":"Unlike kojic acid, asperphenamate is an unusual ester of N-benzoyl-phenylalanine and Nbenzoyl-phenylalaninol produced by Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., and plants [45,46]. The concentration of this metabolite was highest in yellow kpo-kpo gari (270.2 µg/kg), and lowest in fine yellow gari (6.8 µg/kg). Similarly, the concentration of N-benzoyl-phenylalanine, which has the same biogenetic pathway as asperphenamate, was also highest in yellow kpo-kpo gari (141.1 µg/kg) and lowest in fine yellow gari (1.0 µg/kg). Figure 2 shows the overlaid ESI (-) MRM-chromatogram (sum of all XICs) of asperphenamaten, equisetin and epi-equisetin in a representative sample, which also contained natural toxins in cassava (linamarin and lotaustralin).  Emodin (1,3,8-trihydroxy-6-methylanthracene-9,10-dion, a natural compound belonging to the anthraquinone family, was prevalent (41.8%) in the dried cassava product samples. It occurs naturally either in a free state or combined with sugar in a glucoside and in rhubarb, cascara sagrada, aloe, and other plants. It has been found to have many health benefits, including antitumor effects on human cells [47]. Thus, emodin content in foods may not necessarily be of fungal origin [48]. The emodin concentrations in the dried product samples (quantified in free form) ranged from 0.17 to 31.17 µg/kg, with fufu flour having the highest, and cassava starch the lowest, concentrations."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"The asperglaucide content of the samples was highest in lafun (385.8 µg/kg) and lowest in fine white gari (25.4 µg/kg). Asperglaucide is reported to have an anti-inflammatory effect and the ability to inhibit cysteine peptidase."},{"index":5,"size":257,"text":"Table 4 reveals the prevalence and concentrations of Alternaria, Fusarium, and Penicillium spp. metabolites in samples of various types of cassava products from Nigeria. Cyclo (L-Pro-L-Tyr), or maculosin, is a diketopiperazine formed by the fusion of tyrosine and proline that has been reported as a secondary metabolite of various fungi and bacteria on knapweed as reported by Stierle et al. [49]. These researchers also identified Cyclo (L-Pro-L-Tyr) as a host-specific phytotoxin produced by Alternaria alternata on spotted knapweed [49]. In the samples, the concentrations of this metabolite ranged from 22.4 µg/kg to 199.9 µg/kg; fufu flour exhibited the lowest and yellow kpo-kpo gari the highest concentration. Related to cyclo (L-Pro-L-Tyr) is another diketopiperazine known as cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val), which is formed by the fusion of valine and proline [50]. This was found in higher concentrations in fine white gari (625.3 µg/kg) than in yellow kpo-kpo gari (57.2 µg/kg). Alternariol monomethyl ether, which is produced by different species of Alternaria spp., has been reported to have low acute toxicity [51,52]. This metabolite has frequently been detected in apples and their products, apple juice concentrates, mandarins, olives, pepper, tomatoes and their products, oilseed rape meal, sunflower seeds, sorghum, wheat [53], and in edible oils (olive oil, rapeseed oil, sesame oil, sunflower oil), among others [54]. The alternariol methyl ether content of the dried cassava product samples ranged from 0.02 µg/kg to 1.49 µg/kg. Fufu flour had the lowest content, and fine yellow gari, the highest. Samples of cassava starch and tapioca did not contain alternariol methyl ether at detectable levels."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"The only Fusarium spp. metabolite which was present in more than 75% of the cassava product samples was tryptophol. This is an aromatic alcohol that induces sleep in humans and is produced by many microbial species [55]. It is also produced by the trypanosoma parasite in wine as a secondary product of alcoholic fermentation [55]. Tryptophol may also be formed from an amino acid (tryptophan) during fermentation [31]. Lafun had the highest (1121.9 µg/kg), and fine yellow gari the lowest (121.3 µg/kg), tryptophol content (see Table 4)."},{"index":7,"size":513,"text":"Brevianamid F, fellutanine A, and rugulusovin metabolites associated with Penicillium spp. were prevalent (>75%) in the cassava product samples (see Table 4). Brevianamid F is a cyclic dipeptide produced by many species of Penicillium and an intermediate in the production of many other fungal metabolites [31]. The brevianamid F content of the dried cassava product samples was highest in fine white gari (44.0 µg/kg) and the lowest in fufu flour (7.1 µg/kg). Fellutanine A is one of the bio-active diketopiperazine alkaloids often produced by Penicillium fellutanum and Penicillium simplicissimum [56], which is also a non-annulated analogue of cyclo (L-Trp-L-Trp). This implied that fellutanine can also be produced from the amino acid tryptophan during fermentation [56]. The concentration range of this metabolite in the samples was 0.02 µg/kg to 4.14 µg/kg, with fine white gari having the highest, and tapioca the lowest, concentrations. The rugulusovin content of the dried product samples ranged between 0.06 µg/kg and 2.05 µg/kg. The values were highest in tapioca and lowest in fine yellow gari. Rugulusovin was not detected in high-quality cassava flour, possibly because of the absence of fermentation in the processing method (Tables 2 and 4). As shown in Tables 2-4, some emerging mycotoxins, namely, beauvericin, moniliformin, emodin, alternariol methyl ether, and tenuazonic acid occurred in more than 5% of the total number of cassava products studied. Sterigmatocystin and O-Methylsterigmatocystin occurred in more than one sample, but less than 5% of the samples (see Supplemental Table S1). While there are no significant differences in the concentration of Emodin among the cassava products, Yellow kpo-kpo gari had significantly higher (p < 0.05) concentrations of alternariol methyl ether than any of the other cassava products, suggesting possible role of processing method or presence of carotenoids (antioxidants that are present in yellow cassava roots), in the formation of alternariol methyl ether. In addition, the fermented cassava products (Lafun, fufu flour, fine yellow gari, fine white gari and yellow kpo-kpo gari) exhibited consistent, significantly higher(p < 0.05) concentrations of microbial metabolites than non-fermented products (cassava starch, HQCF, and tapioca) (see Tables 3 and 4). Lafun contained significantly higher (p < 0.05) concentrations of kojic acid (1755 ± 7196 µg/kg) than all the other products. Yellow kpo-kpo gari contained significantly higher (p < 0.05) concentrations of asperphenamate (270± 655 µg/kg), N-benzoyl-phenylalanine (141± 384 µg/kg), cyclo (L-Pro-L-Tyr) (200 ± 18 µg/kg) and cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val) (57± 56 µg/kg) than all the other products, while fine white gari contained significantly higher (p < 0.05) concentration of brevianamid F (44 ± 52 µg/kg). Available knowledge suggests that food processing causes the masking of some mycotoxins through oxidation, reduction, or conjugation phenomenon [24]. From the preceding, there is an indication that the existing diverse traditional cassava processing practices in different countries, most of which involve fermentation by different chance-microorganisms, could alter the metabolites found in cassava products. In the light of this, further understanding of the diversity and concentration of emerging mycotoxins in cassava products would be required with regard to the effect of different processing practices and the presence of beta carotenoids in some cassava varieties."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"The results of this study showed that regulated mycotoxins, based on European regulations, were not prevalent in any dried cassava product sample from Nigeria. The results, therefore, indicate that consumers of dried cassava products made in Nigeria are not exposed to high levels of regulated mycotoxins. Nevertheless, the study recommends further studies on the role of different processing practices in the alteration of the contents of emerging mycotoxins in cassava products. Additionally, precautions in the form of establishing hygiene and industrial standards for raw materials combined with other operational protocols in cassava processing companies are needed to prevent accidental exposures of consumers to high concentrations of toxins in improperly processed products. Establishing protocols for manufacturing practices will be in line with the global practice of establishing permissible limits, preventing food toxins, and reviewing the limits and practices from time-to-time, taking account of new advances in scientific and technical knowledge on the toxins and any new variants of the associated microorganisms."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methodology","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sampling of Dried Cassava Products Traded in Nigeria","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Three hundred and seventy-three samples of dried cassava products were taken from processors and vendors located in the humid forest (92), derived savannah (267), and Southern Guinea Savannah (14) zones. The distribution was as follows: tapioca: 36 samples, white kpokpo gari: 52, yellow kpokpo gari: 12, fine yellow gari: 50, fine white gari: 113, fufu flour: 36, lafun: 30, starch: 15, and highquality cassava flour (HQCF) 29. All of the products were properly sampled by quartering before sending to the laboratory for analyses. Each cassava product (200 g) collected was a representative of the sampling frame, which was based on the relative quantities of the products processed from fresh cassava and traded in each agroecological zone. All of the samples were collected during the rainy season. Samples were kept in polypropylene bags and transported to the Center for Analytical Chemistry Laboratory in the Department of Agrobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, for analysis."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Overlay of XICs on tryptophol. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Overlaid ESI (-) MRM-chromatogram (sum of all XICs) in a representative sample. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Overview of occurrence and concentrations of regulated mycotoxins detected in processed cassava samples from Nigeria.    Aflatoxins   Other Mycotoxins   AflatoxinsOther Mycotoxins Products N Aflatoxin B1 Aflatoxin G1 Prevalence Fumonisin B1 Fumonisin B2 Fumonisin B3 Zearalenone Prevalence ProductsNAflatoxin B1Aflatoxin G1PrevalenceFumonisin B1Fumonisin B2Fumonisin B3ZearalenonePrevalence   (µg/kg) (µg/kg) (%) (µg/kg) (µg/kg) (µg/kg) (µg/kg) (%) (µg/kg)(µg/kg)(%)(µg/kg)(µg/kg)(µg/kg)(µg/kg)(%) R (%)  82.90 80.50  86.30 92.20 93.40 101.70  R (%)82.9080.5086.3092.2093.40101.70 LOD (µg/kg)  0.20 0.20  3.00 1.50 2.00 0.30  LOD (µg/kg)0.200.203.001.502.000.30 Cassava starch 15 + + 0.00 + + + + 0.00 Cassava starch15++0.00++++0.00 HQCF 29 + 2.94 (1) 3.45 + + + 1.10 (2) 6.90 HQCF29+2.94 (1)3.45+++1.10 (2)6.90 Lafun 30 + + 0.00 88.09 (1) 10.70 (2) + 7.60 (6) 30.00 Lafun30++0.0088.09 (1)10.70 (2)+7.60 (6)30.00 Fufu flour 36 1.16 (3) + 8.33 102.71 (1) 21.28 (2) 14.49 (1) 1.89(2) 16.67 Fufu flour361.16 (3)+8.33102.71 (1)21.28 (2)14.49 (1)1.89(2)16.67 Tapioca 36 + + 0.00 + + + + 2.78 Tapioca36++0.00++++2.78 Fine yellow gari 50 + + 0.00 + + + 90.40 (1) 2.78 Fine yellow gari50++0.00+++90.40 (1)2.78 Fine white gari 113 + + 0.00 + 218.12(1) + 0.92 (2) 2.65 Fine white gari113++0.00+218.12(1)+0.92 (2)2.65 Yellow kpo-kpo gari 12 + + 0.00 + + + + 0.00 Yellow kpo-kpo gari12++0.00++++0.00 White kpo-kpo gari 52 + + 0.00 + + + 11.01(3) 5.77 White kpo-kpo gari52++0.00+++11.01(3)5.77 Range (all products) 373 0.00-1.16 (3) 0.00-2.94 (1) 3.45-8.33 88.33-02.71 (2) 10.70-18.12 (5) 0.00-14.49 (1) 0.92-90.40 (16) 0.00-30.00 Range (all products) 373 0.00-1.16 (3)0.00-2.94 (1)3.45-8.3388.33-02.71 (2) 10.70-18.12 (5) 0.00-14.49 (1) 0.92-90.40 (16)0.00-30.00  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Number of non-regulated microbial metabolites detected at or above limit of detection in at least 5% of the total number of processed cassava samples. Serial Number Analyte P/N Prevalence (%) LOD (µg/kg) R (%) Serial Number Analyte P/N Prevalence (%) LOD (µg/kg) R (%) Serial NumberAnalyteP/NPrevalence (%)LOD (µg/kg)R (%)Serial NumberAnalyteP/NPrevalence (%)LOD (µg/kg)R (%)  Averufin 27/373 7.24 0.06 71.2 18 Asperphenamate 371/373 99.46 0.04 100 Averufin27/3737.240.0671.218Asperphenamate371/37399.460.04100  3-Nitropropionic acid 52/373 13.94 1.00 36 19 Brevianamid F 297/373 79.62 0.50 95.8 3-Nitropropionic acid52/37313.941.003619Brevianamid F297/37379.620.5095.8  Kojic acid 266/373 71.31 15.00 100 20 Citreorosein 26/373 6.97 0.60 100 Kojic acid266/37371.3115.0010020Citreorosein26/3736.970.60100  Quinolactacin A 27/373 7.24 0.08 100 21 Tryptophol 330/373 88.47 15.00 96.7 Quinolactacin A27/3737.240.0810021Tryptophol330/37388.4715.0096.7  Quinocitrinine A 22/373 5.90 0.15 100 22 Rugulusovin 140/373 37.53 0.40 100 Quinocitrinine A22/3735.900.1510022Rugulusovin140/37337.530.40100  Beauvericin 20/373 5.36 0.002 97.6 23 Cyclo (L-Pro-L-Tyr) 319/373 85.52 1.50 100 Beauvericin20/3735.360.00297.623Cyclo (L-Pro-L-Tyr)319/37385.521.50100  Epiequisetin 45/373 12.06 0.20 136 24 Cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val) 343/373 91.96 0.50 100 Epiequisetin45/37312.060.2013624Cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val)343/37391.960.50100  Equisetin 39/373 10.46 0.20 136 25 N-benzoyl-phenylalanine 206/373 55.23 0.80 100 Equisetin39/37310.460.2013625N-benzoyl-phenylalanine206/37355.230.80100  Moniliformin 30/373 8.04 0.40 82.4 26 Emodin  † 156/373 41.82 0.20 105.8 Moniliformin30/3738.040.4082.426Emodin  †156/37341.820.20105.8  LL-Z 1272e 32/373 8.58 0.06 100 27 Isorhodoptilometrin 22/373 5.90 0.06 100 LL-Z 1272e32/3738.580.0610027Isorhodoptilometrin22/3735.900.06100  Alternariol methyl ether 96/373 25.74 0.02 97.9 28 Skyrin 33/373 8.85 0.30 87 Alternariol methyl ether96/37325.740.0297.928Skyrin33/3738.850.3087  Ilicicolin A 68/373 18.23 0.15 100 29 Usnic acid 20/373 5.36 0.03 100 Ilicicolin A68/37318.230.1510029Usnic acid20/3735.360.03100  Ilicicolin B 90/373 24.13 0.30 100 30 Fellutanine A 180/373 48.26 0.60 100 Ilicicolin B90/37324.130.3010030Fellutanine A180/37348.260.60100  Ilicicolin C 63/373 16.89 0.30 100 31 Neoechinulin A 49/373 13.14 0.60 100 Ilicicolin C63/37316.890.3010031Neoechinulin A49/37313.140.60100  Ascochlorin 58/373 15.55 0.30 100 32 Unugisin E 25/373 6.70 1.20 1000 Ascochlorin58/37315.550.3010032Unugisin E25/3736.701.201000  Chloramphenicol 39/373 10.46 0.03 92 33 Neoechinulin A 32/373 8.58 0.40 100 Chloramphenicol39/37310.460.039233Neoechinulin A32/3738.580.40100  Asperglaucide 370/373 99.20 0.40 100       Asperglaucide370/37399.200.40100  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Prevalence and concentrations of metabolites linked to Aspergillus spp. in different groups of processed cassava samples in Nigeria. Product N Kojic Acid (µg/kg) Asperphenamate (µg/kg) N-Benzoyl-Phenylalanine (µg/kg) Emodin (µg/kg) Asperglaucide (µg/kg) ProductNKojic Acid (µg/kg)Asperphenamate (µg/kg)N-Benzoyl-Phenylalanine (µg/kg)Emodin (µg/kg)Asperglaucide (µg/kg) LOD (µg/kg)  15.00 0.04 0.80 0.19 0.40 LOD (µg/kg)15.000.040.800.190.40 Cassava starch 15 8.35 ± 23.75 b 39.07 ± 92.51 b 10.21 ± 25.14 b 0.17 ± 0.26 a 41.77 ± 65.73 b Cassava starch158.35 ± 23.75 b39.07 ± 92.51 b10.21 ± 25.14 b0.17 ± 0.26 a41.77 ± 65.73 b HQCF 29 632.68 ± 1616.54 b 27.08 ± 50.74 b 6.45 ± 13.20 b 0.34 ± 0.83 a 119.87 ± 298.89 b HQCF29632.68 ± 1616.54 b27.08 ± 50.74 b6.45 ± 13.20 b0.34 ± 0.83 a119.87 ± 298.89 b Lafun 30 1754.80 ± 7196.41 a 71.90 ± 189.70 b 12.66 ± 30.58 b 0.30 ± 0.42 a 385.83 ± 1117.12 a Lafun301754.80 ± 7196.41 a71.90 ± 189.70 b12.66 ± 30.58 b0.30 ± 0.42 a385.83 ± 1117.12 a Fufu flour 36 32.61 ± 46.85 b 63.98 ± 236.38 b 8.60 ± 30.24 b 31.17 ± 185.98 a 52.72 ± 138.25 b Fufu flour3632.61 ± 46.85 b63.98 ± 236.38 b8.60 ± 30.24 b31.17 ± 185.98 a52.72 ± 138.25 b Tapioca 36 13.95 ± 30.50 b 34.93 ± 80.19 b 3.92 ± 6.00 b 0.19 ± 0.53 a 100.81 ± 254.94 b Tapioca3613.95 ± 30.50 b34.93 ± 80.19 b3.92 ± 6.00 b0.19 ± 0.53 a100.81 ± 254.94 b Fine yellow gari 50 183.39 ± 184.70 b 6.75 ± 8.36 b 0.99 ± 1.11 b 17.72 ± 114.32 a 59.17 ± 194.50 b Fine yellow gari50183.39 ± 184.70 b6.75 ± 8.36 b0.99 ± 1.11 b17.72 ± 114.32 a59.17 ± 194.50 b Fine white gari 113 167.49 ± 102.65 b 9.51 ± 18.18.52 b 1.55 ± 5.71 b 1.57 ± 14.35 a 25.40 ± 40.21 b Fine white gari113167.49 ± 102.65 b9.51 ± 18.18.52 b1.55 ± 5.71 b1.57 ± 14.35 a25.40 ± 40.21 b Yellow kpo-kpo gari 12 59.67 ± 82.69 b 270.19 ± 654.82 a 141.05 ± 384.32 a 2.50 ± 4.43 a 358.68 ± 793.03 a Yellow kpo-kpo gari1259.67 ± 82.69 b270.19 ± 654.82 a141.05 ± 384.32 a2.50 ± 4.43 a358.68 ± 793.03 a White kpo-kpo gari 52 53.73 ± 58.68 b 13.36 ± 22.44 b 1.99 ± 3.73 b 1.44 ± 8.70 a 38.59 ± 39.59 b White kpo-kpo gari5253.73 ± 58.68 b13.36 ± 22.44 b1.99 ± 3.73 b1.44 ± 8.70 a38.59 ± 39.59 b  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Prevalence and concentrations of metabolites linked to Alternaria, Fusarium, and Penicillium spp. in various groups of processed cassava samples in Nigeria.    Alternaria spp.  Fusarium spp.  Penicillium spp.  Alternaria spp.Fusarium spp.Penicillium spp. Product N Cyclo (L-Pro-L-Tyr) Cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val) Alternariol methyl ether Tryptophol Brevianamid F Fellutanine A Rugulusovin ProductNCyclo (L-Pro-L-Tyr)Cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val)Alternariol methyl etherTryptopholBrevianamid FFellutanine ARugulusovin   (µg/kg) (µg/kg) (µg/kg) (µg/kg) (µg/kg) (µg/kg) (µg/kg) (µg/kg)(µg/kg)(µg/kg)(µg/kg)(µg/kg)(µg/kg)(µg/kg) Cassava starch 15 27.28 ± 62.87 b 88.50 ± 241.32 b + 202.30 ± 272.09 b 8.45 ± 20.37 b + 0.93 ± 2.42 a Cassava starch1527.28 ± 62.87 b88.50 ± 241.32 b+202.30 ± 272.09 b8.45 ± 20.37 b+0.93 ± 2.42 a HQCF 29 43.46 ± 69.02 b 94.47 ± 206.88 b 0.10 ± 0.21 b 234.85 ± 578.44 b 11.49 ± 19.11 b 3.68 ± 5.61 a b <LOD HQCF2943.46 ± 69.02 b94.47 ± 206.88 b0.10 ± 0.21 b234.85 ± 578.44 b11.49 ± 19.11 b3.68 ± 5.61 a b<LOD Lafun 30 31.93 ± 38.65 b 85.81 ± 134.86 b 0.05 ± 0.17 b 1121.88 ± 2027.59 a 8.44 ± 11.13 b 0.99 ± 1.87c 0.72 ± 2.64 a Lafun3031.93 ± 38.65 b85.81 ± 134.86 b0.05 ± 0.17 b1121.88 ± 2027.59 a8.44 ± 11.13 b0.99 ± 1.87c0.72 ± 2.64 a Fufu flour 36 22.43 ± 41.80 b 128.17 ± 480.03 b 0.02 ± 0.06 b 718.35 ± 1101.42 a b 7.09 ± 16.85 b 1.20 ± 2.60c 1.02 ± 3.74 a Fufu flour3622.43 ± 41.80 b128.17 ± 480.03 b0.02 ± 0.06 b718.35 ± 1101.42 a b7.09 ± 16.85 b1.20 ± 2.60c1.02 ± 3.74 a Tapioca 36 30.84 ± 117.80 b 105.61 ± 341.60 b + 264.65 ± 689.61 b 10.36 ± 37.98 b 0.02 ± 0.12c 2.05 ± 9.38 a Tapioca3630.84 ± 117.80 b105.61 ± 341.60 b+264.65 ± 689.61 b10.36 ± 37.98 b0.02 ± 0.12c2.05 ± 9.38 a Fine yellow gari 50 56.76 ± 69.66 b 184.88 ± 292.37 b 1.49 ± 1.84 a 121.31 ± 166.12 b 18.61 ± 24.33 b 1.86 ± 3.33 bc 0.06 ± 0.40 a Fine yellow gari5056.76 ± 69.66 b184.88 ± 292.37 b1.49 ± 1.84 a121.31 ± 166.12 b18.61 ± 24.33 b1.86 ± 3.33 bc0.06 ± 0.40 a Fine white gari 113 132.91 ± 146.49 b 625.33 ± 672.51 a 0.27 ± 1.07 b 543.93 ± 4.85 a b 43.95 ± 51.64 a 4.14 ± 5.12 a 0.18 ± 1.65 a Fine white gari113132.91 ± 146.49 b625.33 ± 672.51 a0.27 ± 1.07 b543.93 ± 4.85 a b43.95 ± 51.64 a4.14 ± 5.12 a0.18 ± 1.65 a Yellow kpo-kpo gari 12 199.94 ± 18.48 a 57.18 ± 56.40 b 1.06 ± 1.21 a 980.97 ± 2234.56 a 7.35 ± 6.31 b 0.37 ± 0.90c 1.16 ± 2.18 a Yellow kpo-kpo gari12199.94 ± 18.48 a57.18 ± 56.40 b1.06 ± 1.21 a980.97 ± 2234.56 a7.35 ± 6.31 b0.37 ± 0.90c1.16 ± 2.18 a White kpo-kpo gari 52 58.19 ± 61.28 b 294.73 ± 370.81 b 0.03 ± 0.10 b 614.19 ± 1268.11 a b 18.77 ± 21.51 b 1.81 ± 3.80 bc 1.06 ± 2.73 a White kpo-kpo gari5258.19 ± 61.28 b294.73 ± 370.81 b0.03 ± 0.10 b614.19 ± 1268.11 a b 18.77 ± 21.51 b1.81 ± 3.80 bc1.06 ± 2.73 a  "}],"sieverID":"a849adf3-bbf3-48f6-a9a3-824877136179","abstract":"Dried cassava products are perceived as one of the potential sources of mycotoxin ingestion in human foods. Processing either contributes to the reduction of toxins or further exposes products to contamination by microorganisms that release metabolic toxins into the products. Thus, the prevalence of microbial metabolites in 373 processed cassava products was investigated in Nigeria. With the use of liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the constituent analysis, a few major mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1 and G1, fumonisin B1 and B2, and zearalenone) regulated in food crops by the Commission of the European Union were found at concentrations which are toxicologically acceptable in many other crops. Some bioactive compounds were detected at low concentrations in the cassava products. Therefore, the exposure of cassava consumers in Nigeria to regulated mycotoxins was estimated to be minimal. The results provide useful information regarding the probable safety of cassava products in Nigeria."}

data/part_1/0af209082d59970f83f3f889cb97e4cb.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0af209082d59970f83f3f889cb97e4cb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4c3f283e-5f28-4550-8316-012097f8492f/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Promotion of Weather Resilient Technologies, Practices, and Services: Rice (Paddy) Crop","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Methodology and approach: Baseline assessment in the project area revealed that climatic risk such as the delayed onset of monsoon, increased dry spell, altered frequency, and intensity of rains are adversely impacting the production of rice. Reduced crop yield, high input cost, increased pest disease occurrence has been adversely impacting the economic stability of farmers."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"In regions such as the Nalanda district of Bihar, delayed onset of rains resulted in sowing failure for farmers. To mitigate the crop loss, two types of adaptation strategies were employed; farmers with access to irrigation were encouraged to adopt the practice of Direct Seeded Rice (a practice that requires relatively less water compared to transplanted rice), while the others were given a short duration variety of rice, to harvest the crop in the limited time available."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Similarly, regions such as the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh experienced a decrease in average rainfall during the kharif seasons which threatened the rice cultivation. Given the knowledge of drought potential in the district, the project promoted medium duration rice seed variety, requiring a relatively lesser amount of water. This was complemented with alternate wetting and drying irrigation method to use minimum water. "}]},{"head":"Takeaways","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Photo: BAIF"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Plantation of climate-resilient variety of paddy and seed treatment by Trichoderma & Bio Agents led to reduce d soil borne diseases, increased crop production and enhanced income of the farmers. • Introducing the simple technique of line transplanting using transplanter, significantly improved crop growth and yield as well as reduced the labour hours required for plantation. • Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) ensured good quality crop yield even with the late onset of monsoon which leads to untimely sowing/ transplanting under conventional rice plantation practice. • Weather information and agro advisory services through mobile SMS and voice call played a significant role in supporting effective decision making on rice cultivation practices. • The use of cono-weeder for weed management reduced labor requirement and crop damage. • Application of Alternate Wet and Drying method assisted in the efficient utilization of irrigation water. • Integrated nutrient management practices for judicious utilization of fertilizers reduced the input cost of rice cultivation. "}],"sieverID":"b1152192-b301-4338-ad24-897bf3e5482a","abstract":"Rice is India's dominant crop, contributing 25% to the total cropped area and 45% to the total production of principal crops in the country. It is primarily rain-fed in most parts of the country and majorly cultivated by marginal and small farmers. While crop yields have been increasing, the potential to close the existing yield gap is increasingly challenged by climatic risks, threatening the food security of the population."}

data/part_1/0b04636b7941886a7409b21b67bed9db.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0b04636b7941886a7409b21b67bed9db","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e851ebe2-b057-401f-9e4e-c0faf53c3ace/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Pennisetum glaucum) is the world's hardiest warm season cereal crop that has great potential for ensuring food"}]},{"head":"Growing conditions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Rainfall mm per year."}]},{"head":"Temperature","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Land preparation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Fertilizer Application small scale farmers."}]},{"head":"Weeding and thinning","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"should be repeated as many times as is necessary to keep the crop weed free for the period of growth."}]},{"head":"Harvesting and threshing","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"when black spot appears at the bottom of the grain. Threshing grain at once."}]},{"head":"Winnowing and grading:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"done using the natural wind and trash from the grain. clean and free of any foreign matter and glumes. These can either be stored in bags directly into the granary."}]},{"head":"Production constraints:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Birds are the most serious pests crop at soft dough stage whilst throughout the growth of the crop."}]},{"head":"Control:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Early planting: fruits and grasses for the birds by the time the crop sets seed."}]},{"head":"Bird scaring:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Bird sharing: Striga: The most endemic types are Striga hermontheca witch weed) and S. asiatica parasitic weed damages the plants before it emerges."}]},{"head":"Control:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Enhance soil fertility especially Nitrogen using either inorganic or organic sources. "}]},{"head":"Diseases of Pearl millet","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Striga hermontheca","index":13,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Yellowing of the lower part of the leaf with a distinct border between the diseased lower part and the non-diseased upper part of the leaf. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"712c7fe1-bd74-42b5-9e4a-82f5ecafc5f4","abstract":"These borers infest the crop anytime from the second week of emergence to maturity. They can easily be seen inside the stems of infested plants."}

data/part_1/0b21fe372e4f17638a1eebfa4e54c8ce.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0b21fe372e4f17638a1eebfa4e54c8ce","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2f0bff6f-99be-4161-82fe-7291d8260521/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":["rice","wheat","sorghum","sugarcane","banana","coconut","oil palm","yam","coffee","rubber","cocoa Gene Gene Family Transcriptomics Markers Genotype Phenotype Haplotype Trainings Thematic sessions Partnerships South Green has supported various projects: -genome sequencing of cacao","banana","coffee -Evolution and domestication studies"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" platform is a federated resource network commited to give access to innovative methods and tools for the genetics and genomics on mediterannean and tropical plants with focus on agronomical crops "}],"sieverID":"d760e8ec-cde0-40fa-a5bc-a8855742e5c7","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0ba615d83b713bc11ee5dc19da494a8e.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0ba615d83b713bc11ee5dc19da494a8e","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/articulos_ciat/asc1.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Reprinted with permission from ASCOLFI. Originally published in Ascolfi Informa 28(3):22-23, Copyright 2002","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"e24b5f5f-3bd3-4cdc-917f-1fece94d24d1","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0bf0f8832541bd5fd9a890dca0394fe3.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0bf0f8832541bd5fd9a890dca0394fe3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5e7b66bb-5393-4e33-8209-1275187a829c/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION!","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"GCMs","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gradientes de Impacto","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Fuente: CIAT "}],"sieverID":"048b6edf-1adc-4e62-9e4d-e79fa369c74d","abstract":"Entender el cambio climático Reunir la cadena de valor según el impacto Identificar las prácticas sostenibles y adaptadas al clima y evaluar sus costos y beneficios Desarollar portafolios para cada actor Adaptacion con ajustes grandes Menú con practicas priorizadas Today 2050s 2030 Planes personalizados Adaptacion incremental Transformar a otros cultivos El camino hacia café y cacao sostenible adaptada al clima www.ciat.cgiar.org"}

data/part_1/0c4337ae2cf0971fee611a82f4e3cb1a.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0c4337ae2cf0971fee611a82f4e3cb1a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/63f0d958-4981-4525-b291-40acb76a3942/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"More information","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Education co-ordinators: Professor Pangirayi Tongoona ([email protected]), West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement, University of Ghana, Dr Nasser Yao ([email protected]) BecA-ILRI Hub, Nairobi, Kenya and Professor Shimelis Hussein (Shimelish@ukzn. ac.za) at the African Centre for Crop Improvement, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa; www.syngentafoundation.org/ demand-driven-plant-variety-design."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Three principles drive success in demand-led breeding: 1. Target driven 2. Demand-led variety development strategy 3. Performance indicators to measure new variety adoption by farmers and their value chains. Some core best practices in demand-led breeding …. Client quantification: Market segments, numbers and preferences of targeted farmers and their clients are defined before breeding programs start. • Variety design: Detailed lists of traits with quantified levels of required performance are used to make line progression decisions. • Development strategy and stage plan: A delivery strategy containing a time plan of activities and data required at key decision points is created before breeding project starts. • Variety adoption: Target levels are set for adoption by farmers and monitored for success. Education module • State-of-the-art concepts and best-practices in DLB have been compiled by experts and educators from the public and private sectors across Africa and internationally. • A training manual* and education module are available, covering: cases for new variety development • The content is intended for postgraduate educators and scholars in plant breeding, crop improvement and seed systems and for continuing professional development of plant breeders in Africa. "}],"sieverID":"64f23cb0-7951-4494-ac40-298f4cc96394","abstract":"Demand-led plant breeding (DLB) combines best practices in market-led, new variety design with innovative plant breeding methods.• DLB puts more emphasis on understanding the preferences of clients and their value chains rather than just promoting what new technology can offer (Figure 1). • DLB delivers new varieties that meet the needs of farmers, consumers and processors for local, regional and export markets."}

data/part_1/0c5199cd9aeb8b8e8594c7ecb1a9498b.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0c5199cd9aeb8b8e8594c7ecb1a9498b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/908dac0b-4849-420d-8cb5-3bd8e590e058/retrieve"},"pageCount":41,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Lista de Figuras","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introducción","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Catholic Relief Services (CRS) está liderando \"El Salvador National Cacao Initiative\" (referida como la Alianza Cacao), una iniciativa para promover el sector del cacao en El Salvador. Esta iniciativa está financiada por la Agencia de los Estados Unidos para el Desarrollo Internacional (USAID), la Fundación Howard G Buffett, la Corporación del Desafío del Milenio (MCC) y el Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos, incluyendo al Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN) y al Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería (MAG) de El Salvador. CRS está implementando esta iniciativa en conjunto con varias ONG internacionales (entre ellas, el Centro Internacional para Agricultura Tropical -CIAT) y socios locales."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"La meta de la Alianza Cacao es establecer 10,000 ha de cacao de alta calidad en el país entre 2014 y 2018, trabajando con al menos 6,000 pequeños agricultores. Para esto, se han identificado dos factores críticos que potencialmente limitan la producción de cacao: la degradación generalizada del suelo y los patrones variables de precipitación. La degradación de los suelos causada por la erosión de las pobres prácticas agrícolas y la deforestación limita severamente la producción agrícola en El Salvador. A su vez, la temporada seca de seis meses en El Salvador crea serias limitaciones, pero estos desafíos no son exclusivos de El Salvador y existen casos de ejemplo (Ecuador, Brasil y Ghana) donde el cacao puede ser cultivado exitosamente en ambientes semiáridos y con largas temporadas secas."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Basado en lo anterior, CRS subcontrató al CIAT para evaluar las condiciones hidrológicas en las zonas donde trabaja la Alianza Cacao y priorizar tres áreas para desarrollar recomendaciones de manejo de suelo y agua en cultivos de Cacao en El Salvador utilizando una combinación de herramientas de mapeo digital de suelos, modelación hidrológica y sistemas de información geográfica (SIG)."}]},{"head":"Objetivos","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":" Priorizar tres zonas para un estudio detallado basado en los criterios establecidos por el equipo de la Alianza Cacao y las recomendaciones del CIAT."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":" Desarrollar un enfoque sistemático para analizar los requerimientos específicos del agua en cacao y las soluciones de manejo de ésta para cada zona de estudio."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":" Definir soluciones prioritarias de manejo de suelo y agua para cada una de las zonas de estudio que incrementen su disponibilidad hídrica para el cacao en condiciones de secano e irrigación suplementaria."}]},{"head":"Fuentes de Información","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"A partir de la información que fue suministrada por múltiples fuentes y teniendo en cuenta los requerimientos de la modelación llevada a cabo en este estudio, inicialmente se hizo una detallada y minuciosa búsqueda con el fin de extraer y encontrar información valiosa para las entradas de los modelos y establecer un primer panorama de las zonas de interés. En la siguiente tabla se presentan las fuentes de la información cartográfica seleccionada: "}]},{"head":"Priorización y Descripción de Áreas de Estudio","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Con el fin de poder definir las áreas de estudio para este proyecto, se llevaron a cabo dos visitas de campo. La primer visita fue en Noviembre 2015 en la cual el grupo de trabajo de CIAT en conjunto con CRS y la Alianza Cacao visitaron sitios donde agricultores habían plantado Cacao en Noviembre 2014 (Ilustración 1). Aquellas áreas son principalmente planas y están localizadas en la parte baja del paisaje. Aunque el suministro de agua no parece ser un problema por sus localizaciones en el paisaje, dichas áreas se benefician de zonas aguas arriba las cuales presentan un fuerte déficit de agua durante el período seco (Diciembre-Abril)."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Ilustración 1. Primer visita de campo en Noviembre 2015."},{"index":3,"size":155,"text":"La segunda visita sucedió en Mayo 2016 y de nuevo el equipo de CIAT junto con CRS y la Alianza Cacao visitaron áreas de laderas donde agricultores estaban empezando a plantar Cacao (Ilustración 2). Estas áreas son bastante inclinadas y por lo tanto la pérdida del suelo y agua debido los procesos de erosión fueron los mayores problemas que se evidenciaron. Además, si identificó que algunos productores están construyendo reservorios de agua para suministrar riego al cacao durante el periodo de sequía que si extiende de Noviembre a Abril. En el caso del productor de la Ilustración 2, el reservorio fue construido sin una planeación adecuada el cual debería considerar su abastecimiento por agua de lluvia. Como resultado, el productor tiene que comprar agua proveniente de fuentes externas a propiedad para llenar el reservorio y que es transportada a la finca por camiones. Eso genera un costo adicional al productor además de ser poco sostenible."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Figura 1. Localización general de las áreas de estudio"}]},{"head":"Mapeo Digital de Suelos","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Los suelos varían a través de los paisajes y funcionan de manera diferente dependiendo de su proceso de formación. Sin embargo, la información de suelos normalmente ha sido presentada como mapas temáticos en formato de polígonos que se centran en las diferencias taxonómicas relacionadas con los sistemas de clasificación de suelos y, a pesar de que son útiles, no representan la variabilidad espacial de las propiedades y funciones del suelo dentro de una clase taxonómica (dentro del polígono) requeridas para una evaluación hidrológica a nivel de paisaje. Gracias al desarrollo de tecnologías, software y capacidad de almacenamiento y procesamiento de datos, la variabilidad de las propiedades de suelos puede ser determinada a través de mapas continuos en formato raster (pixel a pixel) desarrollados según técnicas de Mapeo Digital de Suelos (MDS) (Zhu et al., 2001;McBratney et al., 2003;Ashtekar & Owens, 2013;Ashtekar et al., 2014;Da Silva et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"El proceso de MDS implica la recopilación de datos y mapas existentes e información histórica combinados o no con nuevos datos de campo y modelos de elevación digital para determinar la variabilidad de los suelos según los factores de formación definidos por Jenny (1941) y cuantitativamente formalizados por McBratney et al. (2003). Los mapas digitales de suelos son muy flexibles y pueden ser analizados conjuntamente de muchas maneras diferentes, dependiendo del problema o interrogante que se quiera abordar (e.g. se pueden hacer cálculos matemáticos en SIG utilizando los mapas raster) además de ser de fácil actualización una vez nuevos datos estén disponibles."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Para este estudio, fueron generados mapas continuos de arcilla, punto de marchitamiento permanente (PMP), capacidad de campo (CC) y capacidad de almacenamiento de agua en el suelo (WHC) necesarios para la evaluación hidrológica a nivel de paisaje en las zonas priorizadas."},{"index":4,"size":141,"text":"Datos utilizados: se utilizó información de suelos disponible de 54 perfiles de suelo y mapas de órdenes de suelos a escala 1:900 mil (Cuenca Banderas) y 1:50 mil (Cuencas Lempa) (Tabla 1, Figura 2) para desarrollar los mapas continuos de propiedades de suelo para las zonas del estudio. Sin embargo, los datos de los perfiles de suelo no tenían información de las características hídricas del suelo como CC y PMP necesarias para ese estudio. Para solucionar esa cuestión, se aplicó las ecuaciones de pedotransferencia desarrolladas por Saxton & Rawls (2006) para determinar CC y PMP a partir de datos de textura (arena y arcilla) y materia orgánica del suelo disponible para los 54 perfiles de suelos. Además de la información de suelos, también fue utilizado un modelo digital de elevación (MDE), con resolución espacial de 10 metros, suministrado por el CENTA."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Figura 2. Perfiles de suelos y mapas de órdenes de suelos a escala 1:900 mil (Cuenca Banderas) y 1:50mil (Cuencas Lempa)."},{"index":6,"size":226,"text":"Mapeo de propiedades del suelo: los mapas continuos de arcilla, CC, y PMP fueron generados utilizando un modelo de MDS basado en las relaciones suelo-paisaje y conocimiento experto. Este modelo considera que el terreno es el principal factor en la diferenciación local de los suelos y formación de las propiedades del suelo (Ashtekar et al., 2014). Las formas del paisaje fueron generadas utilizando Geomorphons addon en Grass-GIS, el cual divide el paisaje en 10 formas: flat, peak, ridge, shoulder, spur, slope, pit, valley, foot slope, and hollow (Jasiewicz & Stepinski, 2013). Las formas del paisaje generadas para las zonas del estudio fueron agrupadas resultando en 5 clases (Figura 3). Las formas agrupadas combinadas con los mapas de suelos resultaron en 13 unidades de suelo-paisaje utilizadas para construir mapas de similitud según lógicas difusas (Figura 4). Los mapas de similitud fueron generados usando el Soil Land Inference Model (SoLIM) (Zhu, 1997;Zhu et al., 1996Zhu et al., , 1997Zhu et al., , 2001;;Zhu & Band, 1994). Las condiciones fueron definidas según la distribución de los atributos del terreno, índice topográfico de humedad, pendiente, profundidad del valle y altura normalizada generados a partir del MDE, dentro de cada unidad de suelo. A partir de los mapas de similitud, las propiedades del suelo fueron mapeadas con resolución de 10 metros (Figura 5) y utilizando la ecuación (Zhu et al., 1997):"},{"index":7,"size":85,"text":"Dónde: Vij es la propiedad del suelo en la localidad i, j, k ij S es el mapa de similitud en la localidad i, j para una clase de suelo k, n es el total de clases de suelo y V k es el valor típico de la propiedad de suelo para la clase de suelo k. Los valores típicos de cada clase de suelo son referentes a los datos de los perfiles de suelos para arcilla y los datos estimados de CC y PMP."}]},{"head":"Figura 5. Mapas de arcilla, capacidad de campo (CC), y punto de marchitez permanente (PMP).","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"A partir de la diferencia entre los mapas de CC y PP se determinó la capacidad de almacenamiento de agua en el suelo (WHC) en la zona de las raíces (profundidad efectiva) (Figura 6). Para eso se consideró la profundidad efectiva de 60 cm para el cacao según descrito en la revisión bibliográfica desarrollada para este estudio: \"A.5-Brief report on state of the art of cacao phenology and critical points in the growing cycle in terms of water demand\". Figura 6. Capacidad de almacenamiento de agua en el suelo (WHC)"}]},{"head":"Determinación del Balance Hídrico","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"El conocimiento del balance hídrico en una zona geográfica es de vital importancia para entender y anticipar las acciones necesarias que aseguren la sostenibilidad de cualquier sistema agropecuario y el cacao no es la excepción. En este estudio, fue usado uno de los esquemas de balance hídrico más ampliamente usado a nivel mundial como el de Thornthwaite and Mather (1955), en el cual de una forma simple es posible definir los componentes del balance hídrico a nivel mensual."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Para los meses más húmedos, o con precipitación efectiva mayor a la evapotranspiración potencial, y con el fin de evitar sub-estimar el consumo de agua, se asumió el valor de la evapotranspiración potencial como el valor actual. En estos meses, es posible encontrar algunos en los cuales el aumento en la humedad del suelo es menor a la capacidad de almacenamiento de agua, caso en el que no hay percolación, pero la humedad del suelo incrementa. Mientras en el caso de los meses más húmedos, el estado de humedad se asume como igual a la capacidad de almacenamiento de agua, y el exceso de humedad se asume como el valor de la percolación."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Este balance fue calculado pixel a pixel a nivel mensual desde el 2000 hasta el 2014 y para las tres zonas de estudio. Por su parte, el mes de inicio (octubre) del mismo fue estimado como el mes posterior al de mayor humedad del suelo (septiembre). Es decir, el mes posterior al que para la mayoría de pixeles o mayor parte del área la humedad del suelo estuvo por encima de la máxima capacidad de retención de agua del suelo. En este mes se asumió que la humedad de las zonas de estudio fue igual a la capacidad de campo."}]},{"head":"Figura 7. Esquema de balance hídrico de Thornthwaite and Matther usado para la evaluación hidrológica mensual","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Meses secos :"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Meses húmedos :"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Meses muy húmedos :"},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"Donde: P y P eff son la p recipitación y precipitación efectiva del mes i, ETa y ETp son la evapotranspiración actual y potencial del mes i, WHC es la capacidad de almacenamiento de agua del suelo, S i y S i -1 son la humedad del suelo del mes i y del mes i -1, a Thorn es la con stante empírica de Thornthwaite y PERC i es la percolación del mes i."}]},{"head":"Estimación de la escorrentía superficial","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Uno de los componentes de mayor importancia en el balance realizado y que resume muchos de los aspectos de importancia hidrológica, es la determinación de la escorrentía superficial. En este caso fue estimada haciendo uso del enfoque del número de curva que relaciona la cantidad de precipitación generada en una tormenta con la escorrentía generada de acuerdo al tipo de suelo, la cobertura vegetal y la condición de humedad del suelo (Ponce & Hawkins, 1996;Williams et al., 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":176,"text":"La metodología es usada mundialmente y varios de los modelos más comunes de balance hídrico como SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) utilizan este enfoque (Volk et al., 2007;Williams et al., 2012). Esta metodología define una curva que relaciona la cantidad de precipitación a nivel diario con la escorrentía generada cada día que exista precipitación. Así, el procedimiento para definir el mapa de números de curva por pixel en las zonas de estudio siguió tres pasos. El primero fue el definir los números de curva por cada cobertura vegetal teniendo en cuenta la clasificación de coberturas de suelos y lo recomendado por el servicio de conservación de suelos de los Estados Unidos (USDA-SCS, 1985). El segundo fue definir el grupo hidrológico del suelo por pixel de acuerdo a la textura y demás variables de suelos descritas en la sección de mapeo de suelos. El tercero fue generar una superficie de n��meros de curva para las tres zonas de estudio seleccionando pixel por pixel el número de curva correspondiente a la cobertura y el tipo de suelo."},{"index":3,"size":258,"text":"Luego de obtener los números de curva para la condición de humedad promedio (CN2) (ver Tabla 2), es decir, para la condición en que la lluvia antecedente total de cinco días está entre 5 a 55 mm (Srinivasan & McDowell, 2007), es posible determinar los números de curva para la condición seca (<5 mm de lluvia) (CN1) y para una condición húmeda (> 55 mm) (CN3). De esta forma se obtuvieron tres superficies de números de curva (CN1, CN2 y CN3) para las zonas de estudio de acuerdo a las fórmulas de Williams et al (2012). Sin embargo, estos números de curva son estimados para condiciones planas (pendientes < 5%), por lo que para cada una de estas superficies se ajustó el número de curva de acuerdo a los procedimientos planteados en la misma fuente citada anteriormente. Finalmente, se estimó la escorrentía a nivel mensual basado en la precipitación en el mismo periodo de tiempo. En este caso y debido a que en esta investigación solo se contó con información a nivel mensual, fue necesario usar la adaptación realizada por Ferguson (1996) en la que relacionó la escorrentía modelada a nivel mensual y diaria con la precipitación diaria y mensual de diferentes estaciones climáticas en los Estados Unidos haciendo uso de los números de curva. En este caso Ferguson (1996) estableció que con ecuaciones muy sencillas que contenían los números de curva, el máximo potencial de retención (S) y precipitaciones (P) en el mismo periodo de tiempo, se podía calibrar la estimación de escorrentía (Q) a nivel mensual."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"La ecuación de mejor ajuste para Ferguson (1996) y que se usó en esta investigación fue: Q = -0.156 + 0.210 * P/S 0.62"},{"index":5,"size":200,"text":"Esta ecuación fue desarrollada para condiciones distintas a las de El Salvador y sería de gran importancia realizar un ajuste de la misma, teniendo acceso a la información adecuada para esta labor. En la Figura 8 se puede observar el mapa de escorrentía superficial a nivel mensual para las zonas de estudio, siendo ésta mayor especialmente entre los meses de Junio a Octubre teniendo valores que llegan hasta los 35 mm/mes. Este mapa será usado como insumo para la generación del balance hídrico y la definición de los sitios potenciales de cosecha de agua lluvia. Para cada mes desde el 2000 hasta el 2014 fue calculado el balance hídrico a nivel mensual y luego se realizó un promedio mensual multianual, el cual fue usado en los posteriores análisis. Las dos variables más importantes de entrada del balance fueron las superficies de precipitación mensual de CHIRPS 2 y la evapotranspiración mensual de MODIS 3 para el mismo periodo obtenido. Las anteriores variables junto a los mapas de números de curva descritos anteriormente y los mapas de capacidad de campo y capacidad de almacenamiento de agua (Capacidad de campo-Punto de marchitez permanente), fueron las entradas directas para el cálculo del balance hídrico."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"Siguiendo el esquema de la 7, se estimaron las variables de humedad del suelo, evapotranspiración actual, percolación y precipitación efectiva. Estos mapas son los insumos que serán usados para definir la disponibilidad de agua para cacao a nivel de paisaje en las zonas de estudio, lo cual se describe en las siguientes secciones."}]},{"head":"Identificación de Momentos Críticos para Asegurar Disponibilidad Hídrica para el Cacao","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":270,"text":"De acuerdo al reporte realizado en el marco de esta investigación (\"A.5-Brief report on state of the art of cacao phenology and critical points in the growing cycle in terms of water demand\") existen 5 momentos críticos para asegurar la disponibilidad hídrica en el ciclo de desarrollo del cultivo, los dos primeros en etapa juvenil y los siguientes 3 en edad adulta: los momentos críticos en la etapa juvenil son la siembra o trasplante y los periodos de sequía (luego de la primera floración); mientras que en la edad adulta son las floraciones; los marchitamientos naturales del fruto durante la fructificación, los cuales generalmente se presentan luego de los 1.5 y 2.5 meses después de la antesis; y las sequias (Figura 9). Para ver en detalle la descripción de cada etapa y su relación con la disponibilidad hídrica se recomienda leer el \"brief referenciado en el principio de esta sección. Sin embargo, se debe recordar que todas las relaciones y momentos críticos deben hacer referencia al ciclo de la precipitación, entre otras, debido a que es el factor climático de mayor importancia sobre el rendimiento y define las acciones y manejos en el cultivo en el 95% de la producción a nivel mundial. Finalmente, se debe aclarar que es importante asegurar cierto nivel de humedad en los periodos críticos como se describe adelante, sin embargo, tener periodos de sequía o cambios bruscos en la humedad del suelo o ambiental, como en los momentos II y V de la Figura 9 le permiten al cultivo sincronizarse y estimular su metabolismo como se describe en el brief sobre la metodología del cultivo. "}]},{"head":"Ecofisiología del cultivo del cacao y sus relaciones hídricas","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"De acuerdo a lo descrito en la revisión bibliográfica (\"A.5-Brief report on state of the art of cacao phenology and critical points in the growing cycle in terms of water demand\") existen diversos estudios que caracterizan la respiración, fotosíntesis y demás comportamientos fisiológicos en plantas de Cacao en edad juvenil y a nivel de hojas y tallos, sin embargo, muy pocos estudios han caracterizado el consumo de agua o requerimientos hídricos del sistema agroforestal."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Así mismo, se ha encontrado que las estimaciones realizadas a nivel de hoja pueden diferir de forma drástica de los requerimientos del cultivo. Se ha encontrado que bajo un sistema agroforestal la evapotranspiración del cacao puede equivaler a un coeficiente de cultivo de 0.3 (Kc=0.3), mientras que la evapotranspiración del sistema puede tener un coeficiente similar a 1 (Kc=1), siendo lo mismo la evapotranspiración de referencia y del cultivo (ETo=ETc) (Carr & Lockwood, 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"Por estas razones, debido a que la Alianza del Cacao busca trabajar en sistemas agroforestales complejos, una aproximación válida fue trabajar las recomendaciones asumiendo el consumo de agua del sistema agroforestal como la evapotranspiración de referencia, esto en el caso que el balance de humedad en el suelo lo permitiera, es decir, en el caso en el que el suelo tenga tanta humedad que permita extraer del suelo la cantidad de evapotranspiración potencial. Por su parte, para los momentos en los cuales el balance de humedad no permita apropiar la evapotranspiración de referencia para el cultivo, buscar limites críticos o mínimos en cada etapa identificada en la sección anterior."},{"index":4,"size":190,"text":"Así, fue necesario usar las conclusiones de un estudio realizado en Malaysia con un sistema agroforestal con Cacao establecido y en producción (Kohler et al., 2009;Köhler et al., 2010;Moser et al., 2010;Schwendenmann et al., 2010). En este ensayo, los investigadores citados sometieron a estrés de desecación una plantación agroforestal de cacao durante un periodo de 13 meses y lo compararon contra un sistema vecino sin ningún estrés. De esta forma, pudieron determinar que cuando la humedad en el suelo es igual o mayor al 40% entre la capacidad de campo y punto de marchitez permanente se mantiene la producción sin mayores pérdidas. Razón por la cual se asume este nivel como un punto crítico en la edad de producción. Adicionalmente, se encontró que de haber un estrés mayor o una humedad del suelo menor al 40% el árbol se mantiene y continúa su crecimiento, solo se ve afectado su crecimiento hasta cuando se reduce la humedad por debajo del 10%, por lo que se asumió este nivel como el crítico para definir el umbral de humedad en las etapas vegetativas del árbol, tanto en edad adulta como en etapas juveniles."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"Con el fin de poder determinar los dos estados relativos de humedad del suelo mencionados anteriormente, se procedió a utilizar la siguiente ecuación la cual fue tomada de Schwendenmann et al. (2010) y ajustada al contexto de este estudio: \uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC37\uD835\uDC56 = \uD835\uDC3B\uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC56 − \uD835\uDC3B\uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5B \uD835\uDC3B\uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC65 − \uD835\uDC3B\uD835\uDC46 \uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5B Dónde: ARDi es el agua relativa disponible en el suelo para el mes i, HSi es la humedad del suelo en el mes i, HSmin es la humedad mínima del suelo y HSmax es la humedad máxima del suelo."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"Para determinar los valores de HSmin y HSmax, inicialmente se calcularon para cada mes los percentiles 5 y 95 de la humedad real del suelo (Si) definida en el balance hídrico (). Esto se realizó con el fin de no tomar valores atípicos dentro de las superficies de análisis. Posteriormente se determinó HSmin como el valor mínimo de los percentiles 5 y HSmax como el valor máximo de los percentiles 95."},{"index":7,"size":109,"text":"A través de la anterior ecuación se procedió a igualar ARDi a cada uno de los estados críticos relativos de humedad del suelo (10% y 40%) y se despejó HSi. Posteriormente se comparó esta variable con el estado de humedad real del suelo (Si), permitiéndonos determinar el diferencial de humedad del suelo para un mes determinado (ver Figura 10 y Figura 11). A través de estos resultados podemos determinar cuánta agua debería ser suplida en los meses más secos (color azul) para alcanzar el umbral requerido o cuándo el agua lluvia es suficiente para suplir los requerimientos hídricos de la planta (color verde) según el estado crítico de análisis. "}]},{"head":"Generación de Unidades de Paisaje","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Con el objetivo de poder brindar las recomendaciones de manejo de agua para zonas con mayor detalle, se llevó a cabo la zonificación de las unidades de paisaje teniendo en cuenta la cobertura y uso de la tierra, la forma del paisaje, la pedología y la delimitación de subcuencas realizada específicamente para este propósito. A través de la intersección de estas cuatro capas (Figura 12), se llevaron a cabo procesos de generalizaciones definiéndose 10 ha como el tamaño mínimo para una unidad del paisaje. Esto nos permitió finalmente obtener como resultado 1310 unidades de paisaje para las tres zonas de estudio."}]},{"head":"Figura 12. Capas utilizadas para la generación de unidades de paisaje","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"A partir de estas unidades de paisaje se procedió a hacer un resumen de todas las variables agroclimáticas obtenidas y agruparlas en una herramienta de visualización (Figura 13) la cual se entrega como anexo a este documento y que lleva el nombre \"Datos_Finales.xlsm\"."}]},{"head":"Figura 13. Herramienta de visualización de datos agroclimáticos","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Con el uso de esta herramienta se puede examinar cuál es el comportamiento de las variables agroclimáticas para una unidad de paisaje determinada y de esta manera analizar los requerimientos hídricos del cacao para momentos específicos de su ciclo. A partir de esta herramienta se pueden obtener gráficos que presentan las prácticas recomendadas de manejo del suelo de acuerdo al análisis realizado en el capítulo 9.2. En las siguientes figuras (Figura 14, 15 y 16) se puede apreciar los tres tipos de gráficos que se pueden obtener y la información que proveen éstos para una determinada unidad de paisaje: Figura 14. Gráfico de las variables agroclimáticas para una unidad de paisaje determinada Figura 15. Gráfico de humedad del suelo para una unidad de paisaje determinada Figura 16. Gráfico de diferencial de humedad del suelo para una unidad de paisaje determinada"}]},{"head":"Prácticas para Aumentar la Disponibilidad Hídrica en Momentos Críticos del Cultivo de Cacao","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"A partir de todos los análisis realizados y resultados obtenidos, se procedió a definir soluciones prioritarias de manejo de agua y suelo para cada una de las zonas de estudio con el objetivo de incrementar la disponibilidad hídrica para el cacao en condiciones de irrigación suplementaria y secano. Estas recomendaciones son explicadas en las dos siguientes secciones."}]},{"head":"Análisis de cosecha de agua lluvia","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"En este caso fueron identificados los sitios potenciales para realizar cosechas de agua lluvia de escorrentía. La identificación de los sitios se realizó de forma similar a lo desarrollado por Monserrate et al. (2016), en donde se aplicaron cuatro fases metodológicas (Figura 17). En la primera fase se construyó un índice de factibilidad de cosecha de agua (IFC), para lo que se buscó tener sitios con mayor fracción de escorrentía (relación entre la escorrentía y la precipitación), menores pendientes (%m) para facilitar la construcción del reservorio (<5%), mayores contenidos de arcillas (Ar) para evitar la filtración de agua en el suelo (>40%), mayor índice topográfico de humedad (TWI) y curvatura del terreno (C), asegurándose que el agua drene por el sitio en épocas de invierno y pueda ser almacenada y utilizada en época seca. En esta etapa se excluyeron (AE) desde un inicio rondas de ríos (50m), bosques, cuerpos de agua, lavas volcánicas, playas, dunas y arenales, y tejido urbano."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Basado en la reclasificación en cuatro categorías de cada una de las variables mencionadas anteriormente y su superposición ponderada de acuerdo a la siguiente formula, se generó una superficie de puntajes que permitió seleccionar áreas con mayor potencial."}]},{"head":"IFC = {4*Fe + 4*%m + 3*Ar + 2*TWI + C} * AE","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"En la segunda fase, se filtró el mapa de IFC seleccionando las áreas con puntajes mayores al 75% de la distribución de los datos (42 puntos) y excluyendo del resultado zonas con áreas de drenaje menores a tres hectáreas; esto último buscando tener puntos con suficiente área de drenaje de agua de escorrentía."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"En el tercer paso, dentro de cada área con alto IFC, fue seleccionado el punto de mayor índice (ver Figura 18) y flujo de agua, eliminando además puntos muy cercanos uno del otro y/o que estuvieran en la misma microcuenca. Finalmente, en el cuarto paso, fue realizado un balance de agua general para el reservorio donde se sustraen las pérdidas de agua por evaporación del reservorio y filtraciones en el suelo, de la escorrentía promedio que puede ser potencialmente almacenada."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Figura 17. Esquema metodológico para identificar sitios potenciales para cosecha de agua Figura 18. Sitios potenciales de cosecha de agua"}]},{"head":"Recomendaciones de manejo de suelo","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"El manejo del suelo para aumentar la infiltración y retención de agua es una importante medida para reducir los impactos negativos de la sequía en las plantas. Muchas veces las pérdidas de rendimientos de cultivos no están solamente asociadas con la distribución irregular o insuficiente de la lluvia, sino también con las porciones de precipitación que se pierden (hasta 40%) en la escorrentía (Bot & Benites, 2005). Así, es importante manejar el suelo de manera que él pueda capturar el agua de lluvia y almacenar tanta agua como sea posible para el uso futuro de la planta."},{"index":2,"size":177,"text":"Sistemas de cultivo que promueven mayor cobertura del suelo, como los sistemas agroforestales con cacao promovidos por la Alianza Cacao, ayudan a reducir la escorrentía y por ende la erosión dado que protegen el suelo del impacto directo de la lluvia interceptando el agua en las hojas, evitando la pérdida de agua por evaporación y frenando la escorrentía (Ruedell, 1994;Silva et al., 2011). En Indonesia, pérdidas del 7% de agua del total precipitado fueron observadas en suelos sin cobertura vegetal mientras que en sistemas con cacao las pérdidas se redujeron a medida que las plantas iban creciendo pasando de 6% en cacao joven a 4% en cacao viejo; y en sistemas combinados de cacao joven con banano tuvieron pérdidas de agua del 5% (Hidayat et al., 2012). Sin embargo, en situaciones de pendientes fuertes y amenazas de sequía, como las condiciones de las zonas de estudio, otras prácticas de conservación del suelo deben ser combinadas con el fin de que contribuyan al aumento de humedad del suelo al mismo tiempo que protejan el suelo de la escorrentía."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"Los resultados agroclimáticos presentes en la herramienta de visualización (Figura 13) para las zonas de estudio, muestran que en determinados momentos del año la humedad del suelo llega a ser menor que el límite para mantenimiento vegetativo del cacao arriesgando la sobrevivencia de las plantas. En esta sección listamos opciones de prácticas de manejo del suelo y agua que contribuyen a mejorar la capacidad de almacenamiento de agua en suelo y a reducir la escorrentía según las características de cada unidad de paisaje. Las prácticas recomendadas fueron compiladas y validadas para la región por el Programa para la Agricultura Sostenible en Laderas de América Central (PASOLAC, 2000). Otras fuentes de información como UNEA & FAO (2011) también fueron utilizadas para complementar la información de las prácticas."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Se espera que el uso de las prácticas asociadas con el sistema agroforestal contribuyan a aumentar y prolongar la humedad del suelo minimizando los efectos de la seguía en las zonas de estudio. Sin embargo, se recomienda el monitoreo y evaluación de las prácticas en las zonas de estudio después de implementadas para cuantificar la contribución de éstas en la humedad del suelo, verificar su efectividad y realizar ajustes si necesario."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Según los aspectos del suelo (profundidad, textura, y drenaje) y paisaje (pendiente, forma), se seleccionaron las prácticas de manejo (ver lista de opciones y descripción abajo) para cada unidad de paisaje en las zonas de estudio. Las prácticas recomendadas para cada unidad de paisaje pueden ser encontradas en la herramienta de visualización (Figura 14) la cual se entrega como anexo a este documento y que lleva el nombre \"Datos_Finales.xlsm\"."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Lista de opciones de manejo de agua en el suelo para las zonas del estudio."}]},{"head":"Siembra en contorno","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Se trata de disponer las hileras de plantas en la pendiente siguiendo las curvas de nivel con el fin de que cada hilera forme un obstáculo donde choque y retenga el agua de escorrentía. Esta práctica reduce la escorrentía y mejora la infiltración en pendientes suaves y moderadas y se utiliza tanto en zonas secas como en zonas húmedas. Para que la práctica sea efectiva, todas las labores de cultivo deben seguir las curvas de nivel."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Suelos: Se utiliza en todo tipo de suelo, desde suelos superficiales hasta suelos profundos y que sean bien drenados."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Paisaje: Contribuye al control de erosión y a la conservación del agua en pendientes mayores al 5% y en todas las formas del paisaje. Sin embargo, puede no ser muy efectiva en pendientes moderadas y fuertes cuando es utilizada sola, debiéndose utilizarla acompañada de otras prácticas. En cultivos perennes, como el cacao, contribuye significativamente al control de erosión en pendientes más fuertes una vez que la planta esté bien establecida."}]},{"head":"Cobertura muerta (mulch)","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Consiste en dispersar material vegetal cortado y picado en el campo para cubrir el suelo (\"mulching\") sin ser incorporado. Esta técnica se utiliza conjuntamente con la labranza cero o la labranza mínima. En zonas húmedas esta práctica contribuye al control de la erosión al proteger la superficie del suelo contra el impacto de las gotas de lluvia, reduce la velocidad de la escorrentía y contiene las partículas de suelo. Además reduce el riesgo de la sequía mejorando la infiltración y conservando la humedad del suelo siendo muy importante en zonas secas. Contribuye a mediano plazo al aumento de la materia orgánica, la fertilidad, la estructura y la vida en el suelo y también contribuye a controlar malezas. La efectividad del mulch en proteger el suelo depende del tipo del mulch y su tasa de descomposición."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Suelos: Se utiliza en suelos superficiales y profundos. No hay restricción en cuanto textura, pero en suelos mal drenados existe el riesgo de aumentar el problema de alta humedad en el suelo. Paisaje: Se utiliza en todas las formas del paisaje y pendientes. Puede reducir la erosión significativamente en suelos con pendientes fuertes pero se debe combinar con otras prácticas de control de erosión en pendientes mayores al 20%."}]},{"head":"Tarraza individual","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"Consiste de pequeñas plataformas individuales, redondas, semicirculares o cuadradas de aproximadamente 1,2 -2 metros de diámetro en cuyo centro se siembran normalmente cultivos perennes. Al igual que las demás terrazas, consisten en un corte y un relleno compactado pero no son continuas. La función principal es la conservación de humedad a través de la acumulación e infiltración del agua. Otra finalidad es un mejor aprovechamiento de los fertilizantes reduciendo la pérdida por escorrentía. Se puede utilizar en todas las zonas climáticas. Sin embargo, su efecto de conservación de agua es más importante en zonas secas y se recomienda combinar con la aplicación de mulch para mejorar la retención de humedad. En zonas húmedas se recomienda un pequeño desagüe de cada terraza hacia un lado."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Suelos: En suelos arenosos es difícil construir terrazas estables. Se utiliza sobre todo en suelos profundos y bien drenados. En suelos moderadamente profundos se utiliza hasta cierta pendiente. Sin embargo, existen experiencias campesinas en suelos superficiales de acumular la tierra en terrazas individuales para mejorar las condiciones para árboles."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Paisaje: Recomendadas para formas del paisaje tipo cumbre, inclinadas y piedemontes, se utiliza sobre todo en pendientes fuertes hasta un 60%. En zonas secas se utiliza también en pendientes suaves para aprovechar mejor el agua."}]},{"head":"Ilustración 5. Terraza individual","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Fuente: FHIA (2011)"}]},{"head":"Acequias a nivel","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"Esto son zanjas o canales de forma trapezoidal construidas a nivel en dirección transversal a la pendiente. La principal finalidad de la acequia es la conservación de agua sirviendo como acumulador de ésta y mejorando la infiltración en la zanja. Por esta razón se utiliza en el trópico seco y subtrópico seco. En zonas húmedas existe el riesgo de la acumulación de agua y la sobresaturación del suelo. Sin embargo, la acequia contribuye a la conservación de suelo en combinación con camellones, barreras vivas, barreras muertas y otras prácticas dividiendo la parcela en pendientes cortas. Se combina bien con otras prácticas que mejoran la infiltración en el terreno mismo o con técnicas que mejoran la fertilidad del suelo. Según datos del CENTA citados por Argueta (2000) y CRS -Iniciativa Global del Agua (2014), las acequias contribuyeron para infiltrar 7400 m 3 ha -1 al año en Guaymango y San Juan Opico, El Salvador, mientras que la erosión del suelo fue reducida en 40 t.ha -1 al año."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Suelos: La construcción de acequias suficientemente profundas se dificulta en suelos muy superficiales por eso se recomienda utilizarla en suelos profundos y bien drenados. En suelos arcillosos de baja infiltración se deben hacer acequias más profundas. En suelos arenosos es mejor estabilizar los taludes de la acequia con barreras vivas o muertas."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Paisaje: La construcción de acequias requiere de bastante mano de obra. Por eso se justifica en pendientes más fuertes (15-30%) en zonas semi-secas. En pendientes de 30-50% es aconsejable alternarlas con otras obras de conservación para evitar que las acequias queden muy cercanas entre sí, además de contribuir para retener el suelo en la parcela y reducir la entrada de suelo en la acequia."}]},{"head":"Ilustración 6. Acequia en nivel","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Fuente: PASOLAC (2000)"}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Las tres zonas priorizadas presentan diferencias en cuanto al tipo de suelo y características del relieve lo cual hace que el comportamiento hídrico sea distinto entre ellas. La cuenca Banderas, la cual se encuentra más al occidente del país, presenta en general áreas con mayores contenidos de arcilla y suelos más estables que las cuencas Lempa. A su vez, las cuencas Lempa poseen relieves más erosionados y suelos de carácter más arenoso en depresiones. Estas condiciones reflejan una mayor capacidad de almacenamiento de agua en el suelo en la cuenca Banderas que en las cuencas Lempa. Sin embargo, la implementación de prácticas de manejo del suelo como cobertura muerta, siembra en contorno, terrazas y acequias en contorno ayudan al suelo a mejorar la captura y almacenamiento del agua lluvia para el uso futuro de la planta al mantener la humedad del suelo por más tiempo después de haber terminado las lluvias."},{"index":2,"size":307,"text":"En este estudio también fueron identificadas, según la ecofisiología del cacao y las condiciones agroclimáticas de las tres zonas estudiadas, los contenidos de humedad del suelo necesarios para mantenimiento de estado vegetativo y para adecuado rendimiento del cacao durante todos los meses del año. Las regiones presentan una ventana de 6 meses (desde Noviembre hasta Abril) de total seguía para adecuado rendimiento en el cual se debe tener en consideración la fase en la que se encuentra el cultivo para determinar la necesidad o no de riego suplementario. Durante las visitas de campo se identificó que distintas variedades de cacao y arreglos agroforestales están siendo implementadas y evaluadas entre los beneficiarios de la Alianza Cacao. Eso resulta en sistemas con fases de desarrollo diferenciados y por lo tanto las recomendaciones de riego suplementario deben ser realizadas sistemáticamente por unidad del paisaje tomando en consideración las condiciones agroclimáticas de la finca y los momentos críticos donde se debe asegurar agua para el cacao según la fase en que se encuentra el cultivo: los momentos críticos son principalmente durante la siembra o trasplante y luego de la primera floración (etapa juvenil); y durante las floraciones y los marchitamientos naturales del fruto durante la fructificación (edad adulta). La información detallada por unidad del paisaje disponible en la herramienta de visualización que se entrega junto con este informe permite que el técnico de la Alianza Cacao en conjunto con el productor identifique las condiciones agroclimáticas de la finca y teniendo en cuenta la fase del cultivo determine la necesidad y el momento de aplicar riego. Además, en la herramienta de visualización también fueron identificadas prácticas de manejo del suelo para cada zona del paisaje con el fin de interceptar la escorrentía superficial asegurando mayor infiltración y retención de humedad por más tiempo en suelo y así reducir la ventana de sequía."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"En las situaciones donde se identifica la necesidad de riego, el productor y la Alianza pueden estratégicamente construir reservorios de cosecha de agua de lluvia según los puntos potenciales de cosecha identificados en este estudio y que también se entregan juntamente con este informe."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"Debido a la ausencia de datos específicos para las zonas del estudio, mucha de la información utilizada en ese estudio es originaria de otros estudios en condiciones similares y/o a nivel del país. Por lo tanto, se recomienda un acompañamiento y monitoreo de los cultivos en cuanto a: los requerimientos hídricos reales de los arreglos agroforestales implementados por la Alianza; las condiciones de suelos por sitio específico (utilizando datos locales) y efectividad de las prácticas de manejo de suelo para garantizar mayor retención de humedad del suelo; análisis de costo del riego suplementario en relación a la ganancia en productividad y considerando todas las otras prácticas implementadas para asegurar humedad en el suelo para los cultivos."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Tabla 1 . Fuentes de información seleccionada inicialmente ........................................................................ Tabla 2. Números de curva (CN2) de las zonas de estudio de acuerdo a cada cobertura vegetal y grupo hidrológico .................................................................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figura 1 . Figura 1. Localización general de las áreas de estudio ............................................................................... Figura 2. Perfiles de suelos y mapas de órdenes de suelos a escala 1:900 mil (Cuenca Banderas) y 1:50mil (Cuencas Lempa). ........................................................................................................................................ Figura 3. Formas del paisaje agrupadas. .................................................................................................... Figura 4. Unidades de suelo-paisaje. .......................................................................................................... Figura 5. Mapas de arcilla, capacidad de campo (CC), y punto de marchitez permanente (PMP). ........... Figura 6. Capacidad de almacenamiento de agua en el suelo (WHC) ........................................................ Figura 7. Esquema de balance hídrico de Thornthwaite and Matther usado para la evaluación hidrológica mensual ....................................................................................................................................................... Figura 8. Estimación de la escorrentía superficial a nivel mensual entre los años 2000 y 2014 ................ Figura 9. Momentos críticos para asegurar disponibilidad hídrica en el cultivo del cacao ........................ Figura 10. Contenido diferencial de humedad del suelo (mm) para mantenimiento de estado vegetativo .................................................................................................................................................................... Figura 11. Contenido diferencial de humedad del suelo (mm) para adecuado rendimiento .................... Figura 12. Capas utilizadas para la generación de unidades de paisaje ..................................................... Figura 13. Herramienta de visualización de datos agroclimáticos ............................................................. Figura 14. Gráfico de las variables agroclimáticas para una unidad de paisaje determinada ................... Figura 15. Gráfico de humedad del suelo para una unidad de paisaje determinada................................. Figura 16. Gráfico de diferencial de humedad del suelo para una unidad de paisaje determinada.......... Figura 17. Esquema metodológico para identificar sitios potenciales para cosecha de agua ................... Figura 18. Sitios potenciales de cosecha de agua ....................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figura 3 . Figura 3. Formas del paisaje agrupadas. "},{"text":"Figura 4 . Figura 4. Unidades de suelo-paisaje. "},{"text":"Figura 8 . Figura 8. Estimación de la escorrentía superficial a nivel mensual entre los años 2000 y 2014 "},{"text":"Figura 9 . Figura 9. Momentos críticos para asegurar disponibilidad hídrica en el cultivo del cacao "},{"text":"Figura 10 . Figura 10. Contenido diferencial de humedad del suelo (mm) para mantenimiento de estado vegetativo "},{"text":"Ilustración 3 . Fuente:PASOLAC (2000)     "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"3cd74fc3-c5e9-4098-b150-185667ca6829","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0c5bd237d58fbbb5bf2a98077cc5b398.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0c5bd237d58fbbb5bf2a98077cc5b398","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ebc6f435-acd7-43e3-8676-8579ae404345/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"AICCRA-Mali Inception and stakeholder's engagement workshop","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"From 27 to 28 October 2021, the inception workshop of the project Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa: the case of Mali (AICCRA-Mali) was held through a Physical as well as a virtual meeting. The objectives of this workshop were to introduce all the project's partners and present the workplan, target, and outputs of the project."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"The workshop chaired by Dr Djalal A. Arinloye brought together 19 participants (3 women) from Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Alliance CIAT-Bioversity, the Center for International Forestry Research-World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF-CIFOR), Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture (FSAD) of the office du Niger (confer participants list)."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"The meeting took place in 5 stages: (i) the opening ceremony and participant introduction, (ii) presentation of AICCRA-Mali, (iii) presentations from partners on work plan, (iv) general discussion, and (v) the closing ceremony of the workshop."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"The overall object of this workshop is to conduct CSA interventions prioritization under tree-rice system to identify and evaluation of location specific CSA packages suitable for specific farming systems with potential to reduce climate risks in rice-based value chains. More specifically, this workshop aimed to :"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• Present the overall workplan and targets on CIROF-ICRAF component of AICCRA Mali project,"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Build a synergy between the partners' interventions,"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"• Identify of existing integrated rice-tree systems & CSA options in Mali,"},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"• Analyze strategy and gender mainstreaming options in rice-tree CS systems in Mali,"},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"• Identify the potential and contextualized adoption and scaling-up mechanisms and Framework."},{"index":10,"size":28,"text":"The present report summarizes the key points addressed during the two (02) days inception workshop of AICCRA-Mali organize by the Center for International Forestry Research-World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF-CIFOR)."}]},{"head":"Opening remarks","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The opening remarks were made by Dr. Jules Bayala, CIFOR-ICRAF Representative for Burkina Faso and the Sahel. He welcomed all participants and briefly recalled the context of AICCRA and its importance in Mali. Then, Dr. Bayala invited participants to actively contribute to the discussions."}]},{"head":"Presentation of AICCRA-Mali","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"The project Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa: the case of Mali in East and South Africa, and aims to capitalize on learning at country levels and promote spillover effects are regional and continental levels. The project focuses on rice and associated speculations (legume, vegetable, tuber, fish, and tree) value chains and pursues to enhance the resilience of smallholder farmers to drought, flooding, cold, and water scarcity. The mentioned project is implemented by a consortium of partners, which includes AfricaRice (lead institution), Alliance CIAT-Bioversity, IFPRI, WorldFish, IRRI, Alliance ICRAF-CIFOR, CCAFS FP4 Columbia University, Institut d'Economie Rurale, Mali-Meteo, Office du Niger, Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture, CCAFS GSI ILRI. AICCRA-Mali will be implemented in seven (7) sites to cover the diversity in production systems and climatic zones. Five sites (Niono, Mopti, San, Baguineda, and Selingue) are in the semi-arid zone and two sites (Selingue and circle de Sikasso) are in the sub-humid zone. The project targets 250,000 smallholder farmers."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"After the overall presentation, the discussion points were around the follow points:"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"-Availing projects documentations to the working groups. AfricaRice will share the SharePoint link with the partners who still do not have access."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"-Mali being a French speaking country with most of the in-country partners not very fluent in English, it was proposed to have the key project description documents translated in French and shared with the partners for better communication. Some project documents are already available in French. The workshop recommendation will be followed-up and facilitated by AfricaRice."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"-AfricaRice will be locating 5 new staff in IER. This was very welcomed and appreciated by the participants. This will be a key project contribution to building national institution capacity."}]},{"head":"AICCRA-Mali partners activities presentation","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Alliance CIAT-Bioversity","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Marie Ena Derenoncourt presented Alliance Bioversity-CIAT's activities under AICCRA Mali."}]},{"head":"She provided details information on of the following elements:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Ena highlighted the relevance of a sustainable finance. She presented the existing business opportunities around the transforming the food, land and ocean use systems that could generate up to US$ 3.6 trillion of additional revenues or cost savings by 2030, while creating 191 million new jobs. The key reasons of market failures include the lack of deep pipeline of bankable projects, the high investment risks and lack of primary data/information asymmetries and the lack of intermediation to efficiently connect different pools of capital to investments."},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"The sustainable finance activities and outcomes was also presented. Two major AICCRA sustainable finance activities are planed: i) Developing financing models for the rollout of prototype CSA and CIS solutions and ii) Develop and promote climate-smart agricultural investment plans in East and West Africa. These two activities will to three major outcomes: a-Climate-relevant knowledge products, decision-making tools and advisory services created or enhanced, b-Policy and investment decisions influenced by engagement and information dissemination and, c-Partnerships launched/ strengthened between AICCRA-funded CGIAR and private sector. The four selection criteria (Ownership, Management, Workforce, Products and Services) for scaling adoption of CSA and CIS bundles by financing women agri-entrepreneurs were also presented and discussed during the workshop. The expected sustainable finance deliverables for Mali are: i) identifying innovative & inclusive finance options for scaling CSA and climate-resilient value chains and ii) strengthening the capacities of national partners on inclusive CSA investment planning and sustainable finance. The presentation was concluded with the methodological approach to identify innovative & inclusive finance options for scaling CSA and climate-resilient value chains."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"The presentation by Alliance CIAT-Bioversity on Sustainable finance has raised high interests and expectations:"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"-Communication: The presentation Alliance CIAT-Bioversity was given using a PowerPoints template AICCRA project logo. It was recommended to use such template for future AICCRA project presentation."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"-The level of investment foreseen under AICCRA for the next 3 years is estimated around 5million USD. This envelop is put aside to supporting the AICCRA intervention to ensure sustainability. The team are already working to have this fund will sustain and leverage on other funding targeting other actors beyond women."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"-There is a plan to involve private sectors and local microfinance institutions at country level under 2x challenge. The interest rate been applied by MFI are extremely high making access to credit difficult to target groups. The project will provide guaranty to reduce such interest rate by provided risk assurance fund to the MFI clarified Ena after her presentation."},{"index":7,"size":78,"text":"-The criteria for being eligible for funding under nexus challenge were also discussed. It was made clear that it is very difficult to have a entrepreneur fulfilling all the 4 criteria. To be eligible for funding, it is expected that the enterprise fulfills only one criterion (Ownership: 51% women owned or women funded, Management: 30% of women in senior management, Workforce: +40% women in workforce and one employment quality enhancement policy, and Products and service: specifically benefiting women)."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"-Despite the existing funding opportunity, it was noted a very low level of the bankable proposed submitted. This is generally due to language barriers and low proposal development capacity on national institutions."},{"index":9,"size":33,"text":"-The project will also work in influencing policy investment decision by setting ground for dialogue with the sectoral ministries (Agric, Finance, etc.) Regional dev. Bank, Green Climate Fund, etc. to show the proprieties."},{"index":10,"size":14,"text":"-The participant discussed how to better value such Sustainable financing to scaling up the"}]},{"head":"International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Dr. Renaud Mathieu presented IRRI's activities in the framework of AICCRA. Activities to be conducted by IRRI included:"},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"In the first year 2021, the mapping of climate event prone areas through the development of a framework for climate event occurrence mapping, mapping of drought-prone area (drought frequency, intensity, duration, timing) using Sentinel1 and two biomass and wetness index, and mapping of flood-prone area (flood frequency, duration, timing relative to planting) using Sentinel1 flood annual mapping."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"In 2022, the application of satellite-based rice crop monitoring and yield estimation through monitoring data and system of rice production during wet and dry seasons in intervention sites for model calibration, mapping of seasonal rice area and start-of-season and forecasting of seasonal yield at mid-season and yield estimation at the end of the season."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"In 2023, the near real-time crop performance and climate impact through mapping of the historical rice yield baseline and analysis of spatio-temporal rice yield variability (wet season), computing the statistics within season weekly and mapping rice crop growth, heterogeneity and anomalies and assessment of yield loss and impact of drought or flood events."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"After the presentation and discussions were around:"},{"index":6,"size":100,"text":"-The anticipated support and contributions of the national meteorological services -Coupling stellate imagery with real time on ground physical/biomass data -Capacitating the country team to be able to run this model by the end of the project -Licensing to access and use the satellite data/information and condition using and scaling up the developed algorithm after the project completes -The models does not take into account the yield modeling and estimations. Such report should be able to provide evidences on the number of the farmers reached and how many are able to apply the technologies following the training to be given."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"-Provide evidence on the existing tree-rice system in Mali and the current of the research on such system."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"-The prioritization exercise to be followed need to consider the needs of local communities."},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"-Need to set a list of criteria for technologies prioritization."},{"index":10,"size":17,"text":"-The project will document the major tree species adapted to Mali context learning from similar experience elsewhere."}]},{"head":"Office du Niger","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The representative of the office du Niger (ON) was given by Mr Moussa M. Coulibaly and highlighted the action areas, the history of ON actions in Mali since the creation in 1932 up to 2010 year of ON re-organization, their mission, and existing hydraulic systems. It was noted from the ON presentation that the ON potential is about 2.5million hectares of which only 143,000 hectares are being managed. The presentation did not provide information on the planned activities by ON in the framework of AICCRA but he broadly presented the office du Niger. However, the representative of the office du Niger has received advices to explain their activities related to AICCRA."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"From the presentation the discussed were around the following elements:"},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"-The presence of some tree species within or around the rice farms created niche and host for birds that create damage on the rice especially during the flowering period. This phenomenon general create disincentive for on-farm tree conservation. The selection of tree species to be prioritized under tree-rice system should take this into account and work into sensibilization and change in mind set."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"-Some species (e.g. baobab) growing into wetland dies some years after. This is still to be scientifically documented."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"-There are potentials for introducing agroforestry technologies around the rice farm in Mali."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"Technologies to be considered my include but limited to woodlot production, orchards, bosquet, reforestation, foodbank -leafy vegetables production, etc."}]},{"head":"Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture (FSAD)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"FSAD's activities were presented by M. Samuel Guindo. The role of FSAD in AICCRA-Mali project will be to enhance the flow of climate-relevant information, decision-making tools, and technologies from knowledge producers to knowledge consumers through business models piloting for a sustainable scaling of best-bet CSA and CSI packages."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Overall project implementation from 2021 to 2023, FSAD will achieve the following results: "}]},{"head":"Potential areas of collaboration between partners","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Following the presentations by all the partners a panel discussion helped coming up with the following potential areas of collaboration between partners."},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"-Possibility of centralizing (co-locating) actions on the same site and same group farmers to improve resilience of the target groups. This will increase opportunity for synergic actions and co-learning among implementing partners. Working together will definitely accelerate technology adoption -There is potential of integrating agroforestry technologies with the Office du Niger partners. Technologies may include tree planting, guarding, woodlots, reforestation, live fencing, foodbank, leafy vegetables production, -Rice system diversification through market gardening & agroforestry integration -There is potential partnership between ICRAF and Syngenta Foundation on seeding quality plants and capacity building around nursery production -Installation of wind breeze and live hedge around irrigated perimeters -Support for the establishment of a monitoring system -There is high synergy with IRR on climate information establishing and use -Prioritization of CSA practices jointly with IER -Potential for using Syngenta models on SEMA and Farmers Hubs for technology diffusion and sustainability of project actions -Sustainable financing: this can be used to support investments with farmers, especially for gender mainstreaming -Satellite information to be generated by IRRI will be very valuable climate forecast -Potential synergy with MaliMeteo on dissemination of climate technologies and information."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"The participants have broken down into working groups sessions to reflect on and Identification of existing integrated rice-tree systems & CSA options."}]},{"head":"Identification of rice production systems in Mali","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Out of the working and brainstorming, the following rice production systems where identified and listed by the participants:  "}]},{"head":"Main tree species present in the integrated tree-rice systems","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Benefits of integrating the tree into the rice landscape","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The workshop has come up with the following benefits that can be derived from integrating tree into rice production system:  • Market-based approaches to ensure access to and dissemination of affordable solutions."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Put in place an affordable financial service to empower farmers to increase production and reduce the risks associated"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• Public-private partnership and agricultural contracting"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Capacity building and implementation of farmer-to-farmer and peer learning"},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"• Exchange visits"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Targeted technical and managerial capacity building in the tree-rice production system"},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• Dissemination of gender-sensitive/specific technologies (focusing on nutrition, less labor, diversification, income generating, etc.)."},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"• Improved their access to information and capacity and use it (especially training of CSA targeting women needs)."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"• Empower women and young people to be able to speak in public and express their opinion."},{"index":10,"size":5,"text":"• Famer-Field-School and multi-stakeholder platform"},{"index":11,"size":11,"text":"• Negotiated facilitation of access to land for women and youth"},{"index":12,"size":14,"text":"• Information and awareness-raising with men to reduce socio-cultural burdens on women and youth."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and closing remarks","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"For most of the negative effects cited in the tree-rice integration (shading, spacing, etc) it is necessary to have good management of the trees to overcome those challenge through an effective consultation with target community to identify, prioritize and selection the most adapted and context specific CSA and CIS in tree-rice integration system. The consultation exercise held with the project stakeholders in Bamako will lead to a consultation of the population to ensure that the identified species and technologies are ecologically, culturally, and socially useful and adapted."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"This workshop made it possible to identify areas of synergy action and way forward. For a better integration of women and young people, Syngenta plans to set up CEMA made up solely of women. This will make it possible to make women more responsible in the processing of parboiled rice. Dr Jules Bayala closed the workshop with positive notes thanking all the participants and supporting team for the fruitful discussions and outcomes."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Build a synergy between the partners' interventions;"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Identify of existing integrated rice-tree systems & CSA options in Mali;"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• Analyze strategy and gender mainstreaming options in rice-tree CS systems in Mali;"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Identify the potential and contextualized adoption and scaling-up mechanisms and Framework."}]},{"head":"EXPECTED RESULTS","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"-Rang of climate-smart agricultural technologies, practices, and services in the highly climatic risk-prone rice-producing regions of Mali are identified and evaluated by key stakeholders -Selected CS tree-rice system are assessed based on their technical feasibility (stakeholders' current knowledge and skills to implement or use the technology in current farming activities)"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"-Investment capacity to adopt innovations, women farmers role and contributions to adopt, as well as current government priorities are identified."}]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Each partner will be invited to describe/or present their activities in ten (10) mn max. During the presentation each partner will carefully look the activities in order to discuss after with their colleagues how to build a synergy of action around similar activities in the intervention area. Two working groups will be set up to work on the workshop topics related to create awareness and identify scaling mechanisms for integrated rice-tree systems."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"( AICCRA-Mali) was presented by Dr. Elliott Dossou-Yovo, Coordinator of the project of AfricaRice. The presentation covered the theory of change, targets, outputs, partners' roles, responsibilities, and operational matters. According Dr. Elliot, AICCRA is a research for development project funded at 60 million by the World Bank via the International Development Association department for three years (01 January 2021 -31 December 2023). Tit is implemented in six African countries: Ghana, Mali and Senegal in West Africa and Ethiopia, Kenya and Zambia "},{"text":"4. 3 . Center for International Forestry Research-World Agroforestry (CIFOR-ICRAF) CIFOR-ICRAF's workplan, by Dr. Kapoury Sanogo. The role of CIFOR-ICRAF in AICCRA-Mali project is to support the capacity building, validation, and policy options on rice-trees integrated systems in Mali, in collaboration with AfricaRice and other project stakeholders. Only the activities planned for 2021 were presented because ICRAF is going through changes in administrative procedures, and it is unlikely that ICRAF activities continued beyond 2021. The activities in 2021 included: ▪ Capacity building of public and private sector next users to support the implementation of rice-tree systems through training of technicians (public & private), workshop organization for selection of appropriate planting material (trees) in rice production systems and capacity building of 50 farmers on propagation of planting appropriate trees in their rice fields.▪ Identification and prioritization of climate-and gender and social inclusion-smartness of integrated rice-trees systems through surveys with farmers, particularly women and youth, on assessing best bet and locally appropriate and gender -rice-tree farming systems.▪ Create awareness and identification scaling mechanisms for integrated rice-tree systems through consultation with multi-partners and stakeholders under AICCRA-Mali.Following the ICRAF presentation of the key activities planned, the discussions were around the following points:-The selection criteria of the producers and technical team to be trained by the project. It was recommended to have the participants selected from the national technical services agents to contribute to build national entities on such important topics. The training will target technical and extension agents more involved in rice production systems across the target project sites -Consider re-formulating the project indicator (report are not sufficient as project outputs). "},{"text":"• 22 CEMAs and Farmers' hubs, including 15 new ones are established • 110 young APS (Agricultura Service Provider Agents) to be trained and recruited for the dissemination of climate-smart technologies • 125 000 farmers to be reached with the information of the CSA technologies via media, radio, television, video visualization for dissemination and the organization of farmers' days, caravans, village assemblies. Under the framework of the AICCRA the intervention of Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture will be around two major components: i) SEMA: Agricultural Equipment Supply Service and Farmer's Hubs providing agricultural inputs supply services (seed, market gardening, etc.) with digital monitoring of interventions using applications, as well as providing guidance and training services. The presentation of Syngenta Foundation ended with discussions around the following points: -Synergy between FSAD and ICRAF activities, -Potentials for scaling up, -Performance indicators of the SEMA already established and operational, -Farmers' perception and satisfactory of the services provided, -Cost effectiveness of the service and access to women, etc. "},{"text":"7 . a. Rice cultivation in hydro -agricultural facilities o Controlled submersion rice cultivation (Segou and Mopti regions) o Rice development (Sélingué and Baguinéda) o Irrigated rice farming with total water control (ON) b. Traditional rice cultivation o Free submersion rice farming (central Niger delta) o Low-land rice farming (in the south of the country) o Rice cultivation in the Irrigated Perimeters Village PPIV (along the Niger rivers in Mopti, Timbuktu, Gao,Kayes, Kita, Bafoulabé) o Rainfed rice cultivation in the regions of Sikasso, Kayes, Koulikoro and part of the Segou region. c. Rice association systems o Rice-fishery system o Rice-Fodder Association system o Rice-tree association (wood or fruit) These production systems can be grouped into: Irrigated, low land, rain fed, plateau, off-season, and controlled submersion rice production systems Integrated tree-rice systems In the current Malian agriculture practices, there are several tree-rice production systems identified in Mali. Under irrigated rice production management, the following systems were identified: o fast-growing crops interspersed with rice o contour cropping o establishing of bunds along contours with banana, moringa, cassava production o Alley and hedges cropping with eucalyptus Other production systems include boundary planting as live fencing to plot protection; windbreaks or hedgerows, dispersed trees on rice fields (with fruit trees such as bananas, acacia colei, and fodder species) or pasture (e.g. park lands); improved fallow (as part of rotation between years of crops); and alley cropping. Trees are also planted for the protection of hydraulic facilities in place. "},{"text":"▪▪ 10 .•• regulatory, cultural and support services) Protects rice cultivation from the wind, Improved farmer resilience to climate change ▪ Biological or natural control of granivorous birds ▪ Enrichment/fertilization of soils through the production of atmospheric nitrogen. ▪ Fight against wind erosion (windbreak) ▪ Protection against animal damage (live hedge with lemon trees, Jujubier, or hénné) Most practical CSA technologies to deal with climate change in a tree-rice production system The most practiced agroecological technologies are as follows: • Diversification • Perenual plant • Soil fertitility management • Sustainable water management • Improved, stress resistant and locally adapted varieties Fruit Live fencing/hedges 11. Tree-rice technologies : adoption and scaling up constrains 11.1. Strengths and weaknesses of tree-rice technologies integration in systemsDespite the many benefits, care must be taken when integrating trees with rice because of potential (i) competition for light, nutrients and water; (ii) hosting plant diseases and pests (as well as their natural enemies); and (iii) low compatibility with mechanization of rice production. The following "},{"text":" Out of the working groups, following tree species are found in rice systems   Tree species  Tree species 1. Acacia colei (dogo jirini) 2. Jatropha curcas 1.Acacia colei (dogo jirini)2.Jatropha curcas 3. Acacia nilotica, 4. Ferdherbia albida 3.Acacia nilotica,4.Ferdherbia albida 5. Acacia senegal 6. Fodder plant 5.Acacia senegal6.Fodder plant 7. Acacia polyacantha 8. Gliricidia sepium 7.Acacia polyacantha8.Gliricidia sepium 9. Adansonia digitata 10. Leucaena eucocephala 9.Adansonia digitata10.Leucaena eucocephala 11. Anogeissus leiocarpa 12. Manguifera indica 11.Anogeissus leiocarpa12.Manguifera indica 13. Banana 14. Moringa oleifera 13.Banana14.Moringa oleifera 15. Cajanus cajan 16. Parkia biglobosa 15.Cajanus cajan16.Parkia biglobosa 17. Calliandra calothyrsus 18. Pterocarpus erinaceus 17.Calliandra calothyrsus18.Pterocarpus erinaceus 19. Citrus sinensis 20. Sesbania grandiflora 19.Citrus sinensis20.Sesbania grandiflora 21. Dalbergia sissoo 22. Vitellaria paradoxa 21.Dalbergia sissoo22.Vitellaria paradoxa 23. Daniellia oliveri 24. Vitex doniana 23.Daniellia oliveri24.Vitex doniana 25. Eucalyptus   25.Eucalyptus  "},{"text":"Mechanisms for scaling up proven technologies table summarizes the key outcomes of the group discussionTo bring the proven technologies to scale, the following option are proposed by participants: 11.2. • Development of well-targeted local engineering for more adherence, ownership and 11.2. • Development of well-targeted local engineering for more adherence, ownership and empowerment around the technologies  empowerment around the technologies • Demonstrate economic profitability of technologies through demonstrations • Demonstrate economic profitability of technologies through demonstrations • Advocacy with decision-makers for a technical and institutional environment conducive to • Advocacy with decision-makers for a technical and institutional environment conducive to scaling up  scaling up • Advocacy with local authorities for integration of actions in local policies • Advocacy with local authorities for integration of actions in local policies Strength • Adaptation of species to the needs and demand of women and youth Weaknesses Strength • Adaptation of species to the needs and demand of women and youth Weaknesses ▪ Increased ecosystem services • Valorization of SEMA : Agricultural Equipment Supply Service ▪ Lack of knowledge by ▪ Increased ecosystem services • Valorization of SEMA : Agricultural Equipment Supply Service ▪ Lack of knowledge by ▪ Ability to provide opportunities for crop protection, structures • Promoting Farmer Hubs for Co-learning and technologies dissemination producers/operators on the system ▪ Extension approach remain traditional ▪ Ability to provide opportunities for crop protection, structures • Promoting Farmer Hubs for Co-learning and technologies dissemination producers/operators on the system ▪ Extension approach remain traditional ▪ The existence of assets in terms of • Promoting community led Rural Resource Center ▪ Some tree species are habitat of ▪ The existence of assets in terms of • Promoting community led Rural Resource Center ▪ Some tree species are habitat of procedural knowledge and know-how granivorous birds procedural knowledge and know-howgranivorous birds (structures / stakeholders); ▪ Proliferation of pests (insects and (structures / stakeholders);▪ Proliferation of pests (insects and ▪ Ability to provide biological control diseases) ▪ Ability to provide biological controldiseases) services ▪ Shading of trees thus limiting services▪ Shading of trees thus limiting ▪ Ability to promote diversification photosynthesis and productivity ▪ Ability to promote diversificationphotosynthesis and productivity through association of several types of ▪ Perennial aspects of trees and the through association of several types of▪ Perennial aspects of trees and the crops implications on land access cropsimplications on land access  ▪ Socio-cultural barrier giving women no ▪ Socio-cultural barrier giving women no  right of access to land right of access to land  ▪ Access to land regulated by clauses with ▪ Access to land regulated by clauses with  specifications difficult to comply with specifications difficult to comply with  ▪ Poor understanding of conditions and ▪ Poor understanding of conditions and  procedures related to land and tree procedures related to land and tree  management management  ▪ Poor mastery of new technologies by ▪ Poor mastery of new technologies by  extension agents; extension agents;  ▪ Low knowledge of new technologies by ▪ Low knowledge of new technologies by  farmers and technicians; farmers and technicians;  ▪ Land tenure does not favor investment ▪ Land tenure does not favor investment  ▪ Weak integration of the agroforestry ▪ Weak integration of the agroforestry  dimension of national and local policies dimension of national and local policies  and low involvement of local authorities; and low involvement of local authorities;  ▪ Low perception of the economic interest ▪ Low perception of the economic interest  of adopting these new technologies of adopting these new technologies  compared to conventional models. compared to conventional models.  "}],"sieverID":"e8297350-db4c-4008-8f3e-dec2a139478f","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0c9aebd5acf18a8bb70c104db9785a80.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0c9aebd5acf18a8bb70c104db9785a80","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Success_Stories/PDF/2013/Issue_16-Urban_agriculture_gets_policy-level_support_in_Sri_Lankas_Western_Province.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Urban agriculture gets policy-level support in Sri Lanka's Western Province","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Members of the farmer company have diversified into packaging and marketing their produce."}]},{"head":"Urban farmers: Making a valuable contribution","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The urban poor in Sri Lanka have long been growing their own food on small plots. These 'micro-farms' produce a ready supply of cheap, fresh produce, which is important for both family income and nutrition. The shortage of land and limited access to water, however, means that the productivity of urban plots is often low, and few urban farmers manage to grow enough food to profitably sell a surplus. Many urban farmers are also poorly organized and lack access to micro-credit, marketing cooperatives, and improved seedlings and fertilizer."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"A new approach: Grassroots enterprise IWMI, in partnership with the RUAF Foundation, and together with Practical Action, a nongovernmental organization (NGO), started a project in Sri Lanka's Western Province to improve the livelihoods of the marginalized urban poor by strengthening their farming skills and marketing capabilities. The project focused on the Gampaha District, which is one of the country's fastest growing urban centers."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"As a first step, a farmer company was set up to manage micro-loans through a revolving fund. Local advocates identified over 100 farmer families (most of them led by women) that were interested in joining the company. Urban producer field schools helped build capacity and trust. Practical Action provided training on value-additions, such as the packaging and marketing of produce to make it more attractive to supermarket wholesalers. Roadside stalls to sell the produce were also established. Over 1,500 households and 75 entrepreneurs were direct beneficiaries."}]},{"head":"Smart water use","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Water is a critical resource in urban settings, with the poor often being forced to endure unreliable supplies and contaminated wells. Flooding is also a major cause for concern and there is little space for rainwater storage. IWMI researchers guided the growers on vertical farming and how best to use local water resources, including the safe reuse of domestic wastewater and grey water."}]},{"head":"Making a difference","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"\"We had been growing vegetables in a very small way, at home, just for our families,\" said Sudharma, a grower who has won several local awards for her enterprise. \"The project helped us to go commercial. Joining the farmer company gave us reassurance that we were part of a larger group, so we had the courage to face whatever comes -even failure. Now, we are growing extra produce for sale.\""}]},{"head":"Policymakers take notice","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The success of the project attracted the attention of the Western Provincial Council, which incorporated a new agenda on urban agriculture into its agriculture implementation plan. The Council also initiated a roundtable discussion with other provinces which resulted in the endorsement of a set of recommendations on urban agriculture by the Minister of Agriculture, who directed his ministry to correspondingly amend the national agriculture policy."}]},{"head":"Donors and partners","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF) Foundation; Practical Action; Wayamba University of Sri Lanka; and Rural Enterprise Network (REN)."}]},{"head":"For more information","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Contact Priyanie Amerasinghe ([email protected]) at the Hyderabad office of IWMI in Andhra Pradesh, India. "}]},{"head":"Improving the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment","index":8,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"All IWMI Publications are available online free of charge at www.iwmi.org/Publications Comments and questions are welcome. Please contact us at: [email protected] Publications Unit, International Water Management Institute, PO Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka Tel: +94 11 2880000 Fax: +94 11 2786854 www.iwmi.org S successstories Issue 16 -2013 SsuccessstoriesIssue 16 -2013  Photo Credit: Kannan Arunasalam  Photo Credit: Kannan Arunasalam  "}],"sieverID":"7163cb0e-708e-4cf2-b95e-fa5400c78074","abstract":"The urban poor in South Asia often lack livelihood opportunities and adequate nutrition. One way to address both these shortcomings is to encourage urban farming. Projects facilitated by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), one of the partners of the Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF) Foundation, assisted urban gardeners and entrepreneurs in Gampaha, Sri Lanka, with marketing, business planning and agricultural water management. The initiative led to a policy amendment in Sri Lanka's Western Province followed by a process to incorporate urban agriculture in the National Agriculture Policy. successstories S Photo Credit: Kannan Arunasalam"}

data/part_1/0ce5fcf7d3c64a24fb18e24458cf9a17.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0ce5fcf7d3c64a24fb18e24458cf9a17","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H035407.pdf"},"pageCount":36,"title":"Promoting Effective Water Management of the Fuyang River Basin, China: An Action Plan: Action Plan 1","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Limitation in further exploitation. According to water accounting analysis, both the depleted fraction of available water and the process fraction of available water are very high, even under the conditions of groundwater overdraft during both the normal season and the dry season. It implies that additional water for further exploitation is very limited and demand water management is very urgent for efficient water use and allocation. Water available for agriculture is expected to decrease in the future as demand for domestic and industrial water uses increases."}]},{"head":"Legal, Institutional and Policy Conditions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Although limited water endowment is one important reason that results in expanding the water demand and supply gap, the existing legal system, regulations, management and other water-related policies add to part of the imbalance and unsustainable use of water."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Water law and regulations were always too general to be implemented and amending existing legislations and issuing necessary new legislations were very slow, which reflects sharp conflicts among various stakeholders."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"The diverse functions of water use and diverse objectives and interests of many water management authorities result in various water management conflicts present in rural and urban water use, surface water and groundwater balance, water-quantity and water-quality controls."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"China has been trying to reform its water management system since the late 1980s, particularly through a recent reform initiated after the mid-1990s, though the ability to implement the reform is questionable."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"The planned financing system in the water sector has been gradually decentralized since the early 1980s. The major reform has been the focus on the responsibility of water management and finance between the central and local government and between the government and the farmers. With the progress of financial reform, water infrastructural investment has declined greatly."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"The monitoring costs are so high that the conflicts among various stakeholders and sectors make it almost impossible to follow the national water permitting system to collect water resources fees especially for irrigation with groundwater use."},{"index":7,"size":57,"text":"China had tried to implement volumetric water prices in the 1970s. However, volumetric water price in the field had not been implemented due to measurement difficulties. Although the central government has encouraged the local governments to reform the water pricing system, water price is still very low and the water charge collection rate is also very low."}]},{"head":"River-Basin Management","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Despite the Seven Large River Commissions being established to coordinate water allocation and flood control across provinces, the impacts of these commissions are more on flood control than on water allocation due to the limited power of the commissions."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The FRB has no special river basin management organization. Within the administrative jurisdictions, water supply and demand are controlled and managed by too many authorities that have different interests resulting in various conflicts in balancing water use in the region. About 49 of percent counties in the FRB have established Water Affairs Bureaus to resolve water management conflicts."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Several water regulations aimed at increasing the efficient use of water in the FRB were issued earlier than corresponding national regulations, which reflect the water scarcity situation and the local governments attention on economic measures in solving water-shortage problems."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Increasing conflicts, and unbalanced and inefficient water allocation among sectors and between upstream and downstream within the river basin have made integrated river basin management (IRBM) essential. Therefore, a more enforced legal and regulation system and more effective institutional settings that facilitate the implementation of IRBM at the national, regional and water-basin levels need to be established."}]},{"head":"Property-Right Innovation of Irrigation Systems","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Growing evidence shows that administrative measures alone cannot solve increasing water-shortage problems. Market-oriented water management measures such as rational water price, water market, water right transfer and property right innovation of water facilities should be emphasized and introduced into the central and local water management system."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"With rural reform and the implementation of production responsibility in China, agricultural production management was transferred from collectives to the farm households, which resulted in incompatibility of collective groundwater irrigation with the agricultural production system."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Our research results show that the collectively owned groundwater irrigation system has been gradually substituted by a more market-oriented private or quasi-private irrigation system since the 1980s. Major determinants of the property right innovation in irrigation systems are the increasing water shortage problems, stresses from local population growth with declining land endowment, weakening the village or community economic power, improved human capital of the community, market development, and water finance and credit policies."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"The study on property right innovation also suggests that the private and shareholding groundwater irrigation system can raise the efficient use of water. The existing government fiscal and financial policies in irrigation investment need to be revised in order to encourage the development of this market-oriented irrigation management system."}]},{"head":"Action Plan","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"With the progress of the project and based on our research results, we have conducted several dialogues through formal or informal meetings with central, provincial and local water-related governments on the possible options in promoting effective water management at irrigation system, small and large river basin, regional and national levels. The Ministry of Water Resources (MWR) and local Water Resources Bureaus attached high value to our research and encouraged us to continue to do more empirical studies on water institutions, management and policy issues, such as water right, water price and integrated water management. Based on the main findings of the research and in order to promote integrated and sustainable water management in FRB and even in China, the following action plans are proposed at national, regional, river basin and irrigation district levels (table 1). Action plans at these levels are closely related; however, implementation of one levels reform cannot reach the sustainable water and socioeconomic development in another level. In addition, all the following suggestions will be made both in the short and the long term."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Except for the previous dialogues with central and local governments, dialogue among various stakeholders will be continuously carried out in the long term; proposals on promoting sustainable and effective water development will also be updated based on the change of socioeconomic, environmental and political conditions."}]},{"head":"National Level","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"At the national level, due to poor implementation and enforcement of the water law, regulations and policies, insufficient irrigation investment, imbalance of water distribution and lack of interregional management, we are proposing to amend the existing water law, issuing a watershed law, a water saving law and an effective guideline for water pricing, water resources fee collection methods, etc.; build up institutional and human capacities for enforcement; increase investment for updating and maintaining irrigation facilities; and accelerate the process of transferring water from the south to the north and empower regional water commission authorities."}]},{"head":"Regional Level","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"At the regional level, the main issues concerned are water management conflicts, weak implementation of national water policy, laws and regulations, inefficiency of water use and serious water pollution. We propose strengthening the enforcement of national water policies, laws and regulations through issuing corresponding implementation details; increase the water price and improve water fee collection approaches; extend suitable water saving technologies and strengthen wastewater disposal ability by introducing wastewater disposal facilities."}]},{"head":"River-Basin Level","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"At the river basin level, due to fragmentation of river water management, conflicts between upstream and downstream and serious drop in groundwater table, actions on reorganizing the exiting Seven Large River Basin Commissions and establishing an integrated water management system in small river basins need to be taken. Other actions at the basin level include implementing the groundwater withdrawal permit system for agriculture, collecting groundwater resources fee, artificially recharging groundwater and conjunctively utilizing surface water and groundwater to control groundwater exploitation."}]},{"head":"Irrigation System Level","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"At irrigation system level, due to existing unclear property rights, low water productivity and aging and deterioration of irrigation facilities, we propose to promote a market-oriented property right innovation and update and maintain irrigation facilities through mobilizing all possible financial and human resources. "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"This report contains the summary of the results of the study and the action plan for the short and long term. The presentation consists of:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Major indications from the physical and socioeconomic settings."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• Issues related to integrated water management: A recount from the Ombilin river water accounting, assessment of the impacts of the Singkarak HEPP construction, and performance assessment."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Water institutions in Indonesia: A brief overview."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• The policy and institutional context of river basin management in Indonesia."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Water resources management policy reform."},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"River basin and its management in Indonesia."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"• Improving water management in the West Sumatra Province: An action plan."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"Options."},{"index":10,"size":5,"text":"Strategies and an action plan."}]},{"head":"Major Indications from the Physical and Socioeconomic Settings","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"There are several indications from the assessment of physical and socioeconomic settings."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"• First, the pattern of water uses varies among the three major rivers and lakes. At the Ombilin river, water is used for irrigation, industry, electric power generation, and domestic water supply. In two other major rivers, water is mainly used for irrigation and domestic water supplies."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"• Second, the development of the Singkarak Hydroelectric Power Plant (HEPP) has reduced significantly the outflow of water from the Singkarak lake to the Ombilin river, which has affected the quantity of water flowing in the Ombilin river. It has, in turn, affected the availability of water for various uses along the Ombilin river, which indicates the competitions of water uses between the Singkarak HEPP and water users along the Ombilin river."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"• Third, based on the available data, rainfall water was less than evaporation in dry months at the downstream part of the Ombilin river as the source of water to fulfill the demand for various users."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"Issues Related to Integrated Water Management: A Recount of the Ombilin River Water Accounting, Assessment of the Impacts of the Singkarak HEPP Construction and Performance Assessment"},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"The results of the study and discussions on the Ombilin river water accounting, assessment of the impacts of the Singkarak HEPP construction, and performance assessment came to the following conclusions."},{"index":7,"size":122,"text":"• The discharge flows of the Ombilin river, which originates from the Singkarak lake, has been reduced significantly since the operation of Singkarak HEPP. The average outflows from Singkarak lake to the Ombilin river before the operation of the Singkarak HEPP was 49.6 cusecs and in the normal dry season the outflows from the Singkarak lake was 15.0 cusecs. With the operation of the HEPP the discharge flows from the Singkarak lake to the Ombilin river is regulated to be 2 cusecs in the rainy season and 6 cusecs in the dry season. However, the water balance and river water accounting showed that, in aggregate terms, the availability (supply) of water in the river still exceeded the need (demand for various uses)."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"• The reduction of the discharge flow at the Ombilin river has affected downstream users."},{"index":9,"size":90,"text":"Among the numerous stakeholders from various sectors, irrigators are the main and largest group consuming water of the Ombilin river subbasin. Therefore, though the development of Singkarak HEPP has brought about different consequences on different stakeholders irrigators have been affected severely. The cost of operation of waterwheels has been increased and the number of waterwheels for irrigation has gone down by around 20 percent. The productivity of irrigated rice reported has decreased. In addition, water quality for domestic water supply has declined but the cost for water purification has increased."},{"index":10,"size":174,"text":"• The matrix of stakeholder importance and influence reflects the reality that irrigators constitute a less-influencing, interest group despite the fact that they are the main and largest users of basin water. Consequently, policy and program interventions related to the basin water management oftentimes did not represent the interests of irrigators since the decision makers are almost completely separated from the users. In other words, water consumers have generally not been involved in the process of decision making related to the basin water management. The exclusion of stakeholders in decision making is one of the consequences of the absence of water management institutions in the field. Since no formal or informal institution exists for basin water management, there is no mechanism in the field to facilitate stakeholder participation in both water management and decisionmaking process. Moreover, no legally recognized laws and regulations on water allocation and regulation are in place to protect stakeholder rights on water or to ensure that the water need of each stakeholder is fulfilled without sacrificing the needs of others."},{"index":11,"size":201,"text":"• The results of performance assessment suggested that the performance of irrigated agriculture has declined during the last 5 years. The result of the trend analysis shows that there is a significant reduction in most performance indicators facing the waterwheel irrigation systems. A sharp decline has been in the aspect of relative water supply and relative irrigation supply that, in turn, has brought about reductions in the output. As a result, the overall performance of irrigated agriculture has declined markedly. However, the overall performance of the studied FMIS is still much better compared to the studied Government-Managed Irrigation Systems (GMIS). The recent conditions can be attributed to the absence of water management institutions in the Ombilin river subbasin under a growing inter-sectoral competition for water. With regard to irrigation water management, a major point raised is that the existing irrigation technology (particularly traditional water wheel) is no longer suited to the recent condition of water scarcity. Finally, there are still chances to increase the performance of irrigated agriculture in the area of the Ombilin river subbasin by establishing institutions for managing water in the basin, and by using advanced irrigation technology to cope with the problem of increased scarcity of water."},{"index":12,"size":29,"text":"The results of the case study clearly indicated the need for managing water in an integrated manner, which implies the need for the development of institutions for this purpose."}]},{"head":"Water Institutions in Indonesia: A Brief Overview","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"• Present Indonesian water institutions, to say the least, are not in an established state. Rapid changes in the politico-economic arena in the last two and a half years render many old water institutions and arrangements irrelevant; yet, a needed new institutional arrangement has not been established to replace the old one. Since real opportunities for betterment came only less than a year ago with the establishment of the newly elected government, it remains to be seen if the spirit of reform would have any impacts on the improvement of water institutions."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"• In many ways, it is necessarily based on the old laws and regulations. Some changes have been effected by the new government, but the crux of the issues has not been tackled. Old laws and regulations imply a very strong presence of government in almost any aspect of WRDM with limited public accountability. Moreover, the culture of the new order regime that espouses government domination provided disincentives, or perhaps even made it undesirable for the government to set up a clear institutional arrangement on WRDM: for the government can fix any problem. The latest development toward greater popular participation in political decision making and increasing relative water scarcity imply that gaps and inconsistencies in water laws and regulations must be filled and mended."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"• Given increasing relative water scarcity, clear institutions on water rights and allocation are instrumental in anticipating the future water management situation. They should be able to guide policy formulation toward an efficient, equitable and sustainable WRDM based on river basin/watershed integrated and comprehensive planning. Key concepts for such a pattern of WRDM in Indonesia are still to be developed and agreed upon. Pusposutardjo (1995) notes that the term, water resource is not known in Indonesian formal water institutions, which only refer to water and/or source of water; let alone the concept of sustainable water resource development and management. Moreover, greater roles of water users in the management of water resources at the basin level are required. Perhaps government domination should be appropriately reduced to providing information for management institutions based on partnership to make right decisions."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"• Specifically, there is a clear need for a) an integrative and comprehensive basin-based planning of WRDM; b) an agreement on the conceptual bases for sustainable basin-based planning of WRDM; c) an adequate basin-based data for basin-based planning; d) clear rules on water right and allocation; e) a basin-based management structure based on equal partnership among the stakeholders including government authorities; and f) clear objective criteria for decision making."}]},{"head":"The Policy and Institutional Context of River-Basin Management in Indonesia","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Water Resources Management Policy Reform","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The Government of Indonesia is currently reforming its water resources and irrigation management policy. This section attempted to present the reform principles, which closely related to the improvement of river-basin management, especially in the West Sumatra context. There are four objectives of the reforms, namely (BAPPENAS 2000):"},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Objective No. 1. Improving national institutional frameworks for water resources development and management. Objective No. 2. Improving organizational and financial framework for river basin management. Objective No. 3. Improving regional water quality management regulatory institutions and implementation. Objective No. 4. Improving irrigation management policy, institutions and regulations."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Among those objectives, the first and the second objectives are closely related to the improvement of water allocation from the source and river basin management. One of the five sub-objectives 2 in the first objective clearly mentioned the involvement of stakeholders (including the private sector) in the river basin management and decision making. The proposed reforms in this sub-objective cover three areas, namely:"},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"• Issuing government regulations which emphasize the participation of stakeholders (public agency institutions, community, and private) in the water resources development and management."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"2 These five sub-objectives are: a) the establishment of a national water resources management coordination framework; b) adoption of a national policy for water resources management; c) involvement of stakeholders (including the private sector) in the river-basin management and decision making; d) improvement of national water-resources information and decision-support systems; and e) improvement of national hydrological and water-quality data collection and management system."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"• Amending the ministerial regulation to: a) include stakeholder representatives in the provincial-and basin-level water management coordination committee (in Indonesian language called the PTPA and PPTPA); and b) merging the provincial water management committee (PTPA) with the provincial irrigation committee."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"• Establishing functional PTPA and basin-level water management committee (PPTPA) with stakeholder representation in key river basins in the 12 provinces."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"The second objective contained three sub-objectives one of which is the improvement of the provincial regulatory framework for river basin and aquifer management. This will be the basis for the development of effective water management institutions at the provincial and basin level."}]},{"head":"River Basin and Its Management in Indonesia","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"The Government of Indonesia started to recognize the river basin as the unit of water management in 1982 through the enactment of Government Regulation No. 22/1982. 3 As a follow-up of this regulation, in 1989 the Public Works Ministerial Regulation No. 39/PRT/1989 was issued to specify the 90 river basins in Indonesia. 4 The objective of this ministerial regulation is to ensure that conservation and use of water in the basins are conducted in a holistic and integrated manner. It was only in 1990 that the Public Works Ministerial Regulation (No. 48/PRT/1990), which specified the authority for the management of water and the river basin, was enacted. Out of the 90 river basins, 73 basins are managed by provincial governments, 15 basins fall under the management of the Ministry of Public Works, and 2 basins 5 under the management of a public corporation. Therefore, the incorporation of the idea of river basin management into policy and action is relatively new to Indonesia and the management frameworkother than in those two basins under public corporationis not yet developed."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"In other provinces of Indonesia, the idea of river-basin management is newly introduced. As the responsibility for water management is fragmented between several government agencies a provincial water management committee (in Indonesian language abbreviated as PTPA) was supposed to be set up in all provinces. 6 In West Sumatra, the PTPA was set up in 1994. The characteristics of this committee are as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Its main function is to assist the Governor in coordinating water management at the provincial level."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"• The specific tasks are: a) data collection, processing, and preparing materials to be used to formulate provincial policy on water management coordination; and b) provide consideration and/or advise the Governor on matters related to water supply, wastewater drainage and flood control."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"• The members of the committee are the staff from agencies related to water management (other stakeholders are not considered as the members of the committee)."},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"There was no specific budget allocated for this committee, so that the activity was much more on an ad hoc basis. When there were problems related to water supply, drainage or flood, a meeting of provincial staff would be held but it was not very clear whether the meeting was a PTPA meeting or just a meeting related to the performance of a general government task."},{"index":7,"size":124,"text":"The government regulation related to the provincial PTPA also has an article, which states that the Governor could set up a basin-level water management committee (PPTPA) to assist the PTPA in performing its tasks. However, so far this committee has not been set up in any of the six river basins located in the West Sumatra Province. As the conflicts over water allocation and use tended to increase in West Sumatra, as illustrated with the case of the Ombilin river, clearly, there is a need to develop a framework for river basin management in the province. The case of the Ombilin river can be used as the pilot activity to develop the framework and capacity for integrated water resource management at the basin level."}]},{"head":"Improving Water Management in West Sumatra Province: An Action Plan","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The discussions in the preceding sections have indicated that there is a need to develop effective water management institutions. Improving water management in the Inderagiri subbasin (especially in the basin under the Ombilin river) would take more effort and a longer time because an organization for river basin management and frameworks for water rights are not yet developed."}]},{"head":"Options","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"A number of options can be considered in order to solve the problems in the short and the long term. Efforts to develop an effective water management institution have already started. The proposals for these are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"• In the short term, the problems faced by the users need to be solved by reviewing the existing water allocation rules, especially by releasing more water from the Singkarak lake to the Ombilin river."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"• The handling of water allocation matters needs to be done systematically. For this all stakeholders have proposed setting up a kind of water board consisting all of them and giving them authority to regulate water allocation especially from the Singkarak lake."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"• The technology for lifting water for irrigation both with waterwheels and diesel pumps needs to be adjusted to meet the needs of the local environment. The porosity of soil is high and there is a need for 24 hours of water supply. The waterwheels are suited to this environment very well but the water level in the river is not sufficient to continue operating it efficiently with the current technology. With regard to pumps, the farmers indicated that they have difficulties with the cost of pump O&M and are thinking of the possibility of using electric pumps for lifting water from the river."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"• It has also proposed that the electricity company provide a special discount for electricity charge for the domestic water supply company and the farmers who will use the electric pumps for irrigation as a good neighborhood policy."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"• In the long term, the government needs to take initiatives to set up a coordinating body (water board) which can effectively regulate and enforce the water allocation rules, for which the national water resources policy has provided a legal basis."}]},{"head":"Strategies and Action Plan","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The efforts to implement the options required a number of steps to be taken. These range from reviewing the legal basis, formation of working groups to carry out the jobs, and pilot action. A list of proposed action plans is presented below:"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• Reviewing all the water-related laws and regulations at the provincial level and adjusted in accordance with the direction of the new national water policy."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"• Drafting and issuing a Governor Decision for the setting up of a Working Group that will be in charge of reviewing water-related laws and regulations and the setting up of a coordinating and/or operating body for river (sub)basin management by using the Ombilin river subbasin as the pilot site."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• Reviewing the possibility of charging a surface water use tax and use the income generated from this to finance the operation of the coordinating body and river and watershed maintenance."}]},{"head":"Detailed Action Plan and Progress","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"This section presents the action plan and its short term (2001) and medium term (2002 -onward) implementation."}]},{"head":"Short Term (2001)","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Dialogues on the National Water Management Policy Reform and the resulting implication for improvement of water management in West Sumatra in general and the Upper Subbasin of the Inderagiri river basin in particular were conducted twice. The first was together with the discussion of the results of this study, attended by the staff from the national level. The second was in the first week of June in line with the initial discussion on the implementation of Northern Sumatra Irrigation and Agriculture Development Project funded by the ADB and a grant from the Government of the Netherlands for improvement of irrigation and water management."}]},{"head":"Discussion of Brantas river basin management experience","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Plan for visit has been made but not yet realized. The staff of Provincial Water Resources Development Service Office who attended the workshop in Malang has shared his experience."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Development of commitment of the provincial government for improving water management in West Sumatra."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Formation of working groups for reviewing the provincial water-management regulation."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Government Policy Paper on water resource management."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"The commitment is there but there is a difficulty for this since in the last 6 months the Government of West Sumatra Province has been trying to reorganize the structure to be in line with the policy of decentralization and autonomy. They expect to finalize the new structure this month."}]},{"head":"Reviewing and revising provincial regulation on water management.","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"A draft has been produced, but not yet discussed with the stakeholders, and is awaiting the new structure of the provincial government."}]},{"head":"A visit to Brantas river basin organization by key decision makers and members of the provincial assembly.","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Not yet realized."}]},{"head":"Public consultation and revision of the draft of the provincial regulation on water resources management and approval by the provincial assembly.","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Long Term (2001 Onward)","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Preparing a draft of academic paper for reorganizing and strengthening of provincial-and basin-level water-management committees (PTPA and PPTPA)."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Public consultation on the draft of the academic paper of PTPA and PPTPA."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Revision of the academic paper and adoption of the concept as Governor Decree."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Development of a concept for the management of an information system (MIS) and decision-support systems (DSS)."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Establishment of MIS and DSS section under PTPA and its operational units at each PPTPA level."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"Reviewing the stage of water management at other river basins in West Sumatra and the development of a list of priority basins where PPTPA will be established."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"Preparation for the establishment of PPTPA at the upper subbasin of the Inderagiri (Ombilin river)."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"Establishment of the PPTPA for the upper subbasin of Inderagiri (Ombilin river)."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"Drawing lessons from the upper subbasin of Inderagiri (Ombilin river) experience."},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"Establishment of PPTPA for other priority basins."}]},{"head":"Concluding Remarks","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"This report has presented the action plan and progress so far in West Sumatra, Indonesia. The plan and action to improve water resources management in West Sumatra are part of the national effort to improve water management. West Sumatra Province currently has made an initial effort to implement the Northern Sumatra Irrigation and Agriculture Development Project (NSIADP) funded by a loan from the Asian Development Bank. There is also available a grant from the Government of the Netherlands through the World Bank. The basic idea of both projects is to support the Government of Indonesia in implementing its New Water Resource Management Policy."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"At the same time, the Government of Indonesia is also implementing the policy of decentralization and autonomy to the regional government. In this framework, both provincial and district governments have to adjust their organizational structures. This process tended to take a longer time in West Sumatra, which creates some uncertainty to the government officials that, in turn, is weakening their attention on the specific issues of development, in this case of water-resources management. It is expected that the reorganizing of the provincial and district government can be finalized this month. After that initiative, the improvement of water management in West Sumatra can be accelerated."}]},{"head":"Improving the Water Resource Management in the East-Rapti River Basin of Nepal: An Action Plan","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Policy and Institutional Context","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Macro Policy and Institutional Context","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"The baseline document of the ninth five-year plan (1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002) of Nepal puts forth the necessity of moving beyond the sectoral policies and developing an overall water resource policy to function towards managing the growing inter-sectoral water use competition. Accordingly, the Ministry of Water Resources has been in the process of formulating a National Water Resource Strategy from a comprehensive approach. Such an approach can be operationalized only when it takes the form of a comprehensive policy for guiding the development and management of water resources in various uses. Water resources can also have far-reaching environmental implications in the process of its development, management and utilization pattern. Therefore, consistent with the water-resources development policy, the ninth five-year plan has also brought about an environment and water source protection and conservation policy. The policy emphasizes the protecting of natural water sources by institutional development, and minimizing soil erosion, landslide and pollution levels through maximizing peoples participation. It also stresses the need for establishing data banks at central, regional and local levels to analyze and monitor the existing and potential scenario and thereby assisting in effective environmental policy and program development."},{"index":2,"size":190,"text":"The Environmental Action Plan of 1994 provided some guidelines for both integrated water management and maintaining the water quality at the river-basin level. Although the revised Environment Protection/Conservation Act (EPA) came in 1998/99, the task of formulating working rules and defining accountability of government line agencies to implement the Act is yet to come. Related to minimizing the effect of industrial wastage on water quality and others, effluent standards for five various kinds of industries were published in the official gazette of April 30, 2001. According to EPA, industries established before this date are required to acquire certificates within 6 months from the concerned ministry to run the industry and keep the pollution level of the final effluent discharge below prescribed limits. In the case of new industries, it is mandatory that they be required to install the cleaner device and run the industry as per the standards set for final discharge. The National Conservation Strategy (NCS) was also endorsed by the government as a policy in 1988, which is implemented under the direction of the National Planning Commissions (NPC). One component of the implementation also addresses industrial pollution control."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"Similarly, the irrigation sector has been the major consumer of the water resources in Nepal. The Ministry of Water Resource (MOWR) is the apex government body to develop the overall irrigation policy, whereas the Department of Irrigation (DOI) is an implementing agency of irrigation policy working under the MOWR. DOI implements the programs through its regional and district-level offices. The early investment policy and programs in irrigation that focused merely on development of physical infrastructures and ignored user participation have indicated the significant pitfalls in the schemes unsustainability. As a result, the first irrigation policy of 1992 and its revised version of 1997 emphasized the active participation of beneficiary users at all stages of project implementation as well as operation and maintenance including decision making, cost sharing and other related activities."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"The present activities of DOI are primarily based on recommendation of the Irrigation Master Plan of 1988, irrigation policy of 1992 and the 20-Year Agricultural Perspective Plan (APP) of HMG/Nepal that was adopted in 1995. In order to come out of the vicious circle of existing food deficit and to increase food production in the country, the APP has given top priority to groundwater development policy mainly through shallow tube wells in Terai."}]},{"head":"Basin-Level Policy and Institutional Context","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Some of the water-resource-related macro policies stated above indicate concern that signaled at least the awareness developed with the central-level authorities that an integrated approach be incorporated in water resource development policies and programs. Some initiatives have also been taken by the government to delegate some authority to the water-resources-managementrelated district committees. These committees can be expected to be involved partly in river watermanagement tasks. For example, the Irrigation Act of 1999 has formed a district-level Irrigation and River Control Committee (IRCC) consisting of seven members, with the Chief District Officer (CDO) as chairman and the head of the District Irrigation Office as member-secretary. Article 15.6 of the Act has made it mandatory for the IRCC of relevant districts to execute joint meetings on problems related to irrigation and river control management and activities if the river is designated as part of more than one district."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Under the provision made in Water Resource Regulation of 1993 (bylaw-2, Law-8), the District Water Resource Committee (DWRC) has been formed with CDO as chairman and Local Development Officer (LDO) acting as the member-secretary. The responsibility of DWRC is to give legitimate status to the users association by registration. The institutional section of the District Development Committee (DDC) helps DWRC in relevant document/record keeping. In these basin districts, district-level organization of National Irrigation Water Users Federation (NIWUF) also exists. The federation formed under the provision made by the Water Resource Act of 1992 has only a very recent history of development and, therefore, it would obviously take time to consolidate pertinent issues and pick up the river-basin approach."}]},{"head":"Salient Characteristics of the Physical, Socioeconomic and Institutional Environment of the East Rapti River Basin","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Physical Characteristics","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Chitwan and Makwanpur districts occupy about 58 and 42 percent of the basin area (3,222 sq. km.), respectively. Diversified landforms and soil types as well as dissected hilly terrain slopes and mosaics of alluvial plains are found formed by the action of the East-Rapti river. Where settlements occur, they reflect areas with stable soils and varied water availability for irrigation. The dominant land-use and land-cover are under mixes of warm temperate, subtropical hardwood and coniferous trees (62.25%), followed by lowland type agriculture (18.31%), upland type agriculture (8.42%), shrubland (3.67%), grassland (3.61%) and others including settlements like urban, swamps, rock outcrops and sandy/gravel river banks (3.74%)."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"The river is 122 km long and flows westward to join the bigger snow-fed river Narayani. Although the annual average rainfall in the basin is high (1,866 to 2,233 mm), about 85 percent of the total occurs from June to October. The water accounting study indicated that it is an open basin where only 53 percent of available water is depleted in a dry year and the remaining 47 percent occurs as utilizable outflow. Only 6 percent of available water is process-consumed. With more than 60 percent area, forests consume the bulk of available water. Non-beneficial consumption is only 5 percent. Agricultural water productivity is also very low (US$ 0.09/m 3 ) indicating great scope to enhance water productivity in the basin. A large number of irrigation infrastructures are developed, particularly in the downstream valley with external support at different times in the past."}]},{"head":"Socioeconomic Characteristics","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":214,"text":"The basin includes 36 village development committees (VDCs) in Chitwan and 23 VDCs in the Makwanpur district. VDCs refer to the lowest administrative unit of the government in Nepal. With 536,031 of the total population in 1991, 63 percent resides in Chitwan and 37 percent in the Makwanpur part of the basin. They belong to diverse ethnic communities such as Bramhin and Chhetri (38%), Mongols (29%), indigenous (15%), lower cast (7%) and others (11%). Over the last four decades, particularly the lower part of the basin has received most of the Bramhin and Chhetri in-migrants from the surrounding hills. Rural agriculture is the major occupation of 67 percent of males and 87 percent of females. Of the population residing in Bharatpur, Ratnanagar and Hetauda municipalities an average of 25 percent is urban. The annual population growth rate is above the national average of 2.38 (CBS 1999). With some variations, literacy rate of those in the age of 6 years and above, increased by 19 percent in Chitwan and by 14 percent in the Makwanpur district between 1981 and 1991. Hilly people are deprived of literacy compared to their plain/valley counterparts the reason being that females in the hilly areas appear to have minimal access (19%) to education compared to females (81%) in the plains."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Population nearly doubled during 1971-1991. Although the relative concentration of povertystricken population is more in the hills, yet acute poverty is found more in the plains. Compared to Chitwan, the Makwanpur district is severely stricken by poverty as indicated in water-related literature. Child deprivation, gender discrimination, disadvantaged groups, accessibility and status of food production have been the keys to poverty. Overall, the population of the disadvantaged group is relatively high, whereas their man-land ratio is extremely low compared to that of the community of the superior Bramhin caste in the basin."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Although 75 percent the population, mostly smallholders (<1.0 ha/household), depend on farm income, yet productivity of most of the crops has remained stagnant. Medium to big landholders have a tendency to lease out part of their land and engage in off-farm employment for income. The average number of off-farm employment per household is 4.1 and the average family size is 7.4."}]},{"head":"Institutional Characteristics","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Since the hydrological boundary of the basin is designated as part of two districts, this mismatches with the scope of government agencies to work beyond the administrative district boundary. But when such cases arise, the existing mechanism is that a joint meeting of both DWRCs be held to resolve the case for concurrence of both districts. This mechanism seems to provide only a nearterm solution to the affected resource user groups as the members of DWRC have other kinds of priority work in their respective offices. Besides, this ad-hoc mechanism does not underlie a clear concept of long-tem basin water resources regulation or provide an appropriate approach for integrated development and management of the water resources in the basin."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"The District Irrigation Office (DIO) is the government line agency with overall responsibility for development and management of surface irrigation. For the current, ninth, five-year plan (1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002) period, DIO in Chitwan has targeted, among others, to complete seven approved new irrigation projects under the Second Irrigation Sector Project (SISP) of the Department of Irrigation with credit assistance from the ADB. The investment process includes information dissemination in the district, application filing, double-stage ground surveying and project ranking, approval of high ranking irrigation projects by the project steering committee after their final selection from district and regional appraisal committees, preparation of a detailed design report including cost estimates, and execution. Users are required to share 15 percent the project cost of which 30 percent has to be deposited in advance to begin the project execution."},{"index":3,"size":143,"text":"The Groundwater Irrigation Program (GWIP) office located in Parsa, Chitwan, a separate entity working directly under the Groundwater Resource Development Committee of the Department of Irrigation, has the mandate to develop groundwater irrigation facility in Chitwan and in 19 other districts of Nepal. The GWIP implements the program as prioritized by the APP national objectives to boost agricultural production by investing in developing groundwater resources. With 60 percent subsidized-GWIP-support, farmers developed 197 shallow tube wells (STW) during 1998/99. After the complete withdrawal of subsidy from 2000 onwards, the scope of GWIP has been narrowed down to work as a facilitator in the areas of technical and training, backstopping the user groups. The main reason for the nonsubsidy was ADBs forcing of the government to stop the subsidy that would help create user awareness to improve self-reliance and develop a feeling of resource ownership."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"In the irrigation sector per se, more than 200 water user groups have been registered in the DWRC. Traditionally, they have been operating in a locally organized mode and also keeping records of their contribution for resource management. A separate water users federation also exists in the Eastern-Chitwan valley for consolidating regional efforts to approach agencies for assistance."}]},{"head":"Agricultural System and Irrigation Development","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The basin comprises both hills and valley systems with unique biophysical environments suited to diverse agricultural and allied enterprises. Until the early 1950s, a large part of the valley was under dense forest and popularly called the malaria hell. A small number of scattered Tharu and Daria in the valley floor and Chepang and Magar in the slopping hills were the indigenous communities. The former lived on traditional wetland rice cultivation, animal rearing and fishing, whereas the latter survived on collecting wild food and fishing. Another social sect, Bramhan, Chhetri, including people of other castes lived higher up in the hills. They cultivated both upland crops like maize and millet and grew irrigated rice by making bench terraces where they could trap water from the nearby ravines."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"When the government cleared a significant part of forest for planned resettlement under the Rapti Valley Multiple Development Project for those who suffered from famine, there was inmigration at a massive scale from the surrounding hills after malaria eradication began in 1953. The valley now experiences diverse and intensive agricultural systems by communities of mixed culture, traditions and values. Rice, wheat, maize and oilseeds are the major crops of the basin. Besides traditional crops, commercial vegetable is emerging as a new opportunity for creating cash flow with the farmers, particularly in the valley floor. Growing of rice crops receives highest priority for irrigation even though topography and water acquisition offer high constraints. The Central Bureau of Statistics (1991) reported that 49 percent of households had access to irrigation and 41 percent of the agricultural area was irrigated in the basin districts."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Including both registered and unregistered, altogether 334 irrigation systems, mostly indigenous, have been recorded in the basin. Unique features of indigenous systems are that they have developed strong local institutions to enable them for collective action of water acquisition, allocation and dispute management for sustained agricultural production. The Legal Code of Nepal, 1963 has made provision for them to possess de-facto use rights of acquisition, construction and use water for irrigation from natural springs and river-water sources. The water use rights are automatically inherited by the male offspring."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"According to HMGN policy on the irrigation-sector program, East-Rapti Irrigation Project (ERIP) of DOI/MWR invested in ADB loan assistance of US$10.5 million in rehabilitation and improvement of 72 FMIS in East Chitwan valley during 1993-98. Altogether 8,516 hectares including both already irrigated and new areas received financial support. Besides, the project constructed huge (18 km long) dykes along the bank of the river, farm roads, culverts, bridges, afforestation, and also provided training to user associations for strengthening their institutional capabilities."}]},{"head":"Key Issues Related to Agricultural Water Management","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The findings, from stakeholder analysis, of their perception on water use, assessment of irrigation systems performance, water accounting and institutional studies of the basin arrived at the following conclusion and emerging issues:"}]},{"head":"Spatial Scarcity of Water for Irrigation","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Being an open basin with 47 percent of utilizable outflow even in the dry years a significant number of irrigation systems still face water scarcity. However, the concept of the open basin gives a clue to the effect that the renewable groundwater reserve should be high and that there is no danger of depleting nonrenewable groundwater. Process documentation of ERIP infrastructural intervention indicated that the intervention ended up with perverse incentives and disregarded the users active participation in key aspects of construction works. As a result, the situation of water scarcity remained in many irrigation systems because of faulty designs and nonincorporation of the indigenous technology."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Farmers then moved to exploring groundwater resources on their own in an attempt to secure a conjunctive use of water and save crops from failure due to draught or unreliable canal water supply. Water use efficiency and crop productivity are expected to be significantly higher where farmers have made conjunctive use of water. Owing to the complete withdrawal of the subsidy policy, the government program also failed to attract communities for developing STW from 2000. Despite an 84 percent subsidy in DTW, it has also achieved only insignificant progress because of both heavy costs involved and complex post-construction management activities. Now the private-sector investment has gained momentum in the development of groundwater resources."}]},{"head":"Water Quality and Industrial Water Discharge","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Makwanpur and Chitwan are among the hotspot industrial districts. Although industrial pollution standards have been published in the official gazette, the industries have not followed the rules and the government agency has not enforced them to do so. As a result, the river ecosystem, the Royal Chitwan National Park (RCNP) situated along the river downstream, and indigenous fishing communities have been adversely affected by untreated industrial wastewater disposed in the river. Although the textile industry drains wastewater at night, river water is still much polluted where water is used for various domestic purposes. This brings the issue of water quality in the river due to poor wastewater management by related regulatory agencies."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Necessary activities such as creating willingness with the industries for establishing pollutiontreatment plants, monitoring of the river-pollution level, development of a low-cost pollutioncontrol program, policies for providing them with necessary support for technical assistance, training and subsidies and the use of treated sludge for manuring have not been promoted. Government efforts in this direction would help conserve biodiversity, sustained environmental development and also help disadvantaged ethnic communities downstream who make a living on traditional fishing."}]},{"head":"Increasing Soil Erosion and Sedimentation Problem","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The basin witnessed major monsoonal floods in 1950, 1955, 1970 and 1993 resulting in the loss of a large number of lives and properties including sweeping of irrigation infrastructures and disruption of natural surface and subsurface hydraulic networks. The change in the river course and the damage of the canal structures by these floods have also created major water-right issues among users of several irrigation systems. After each flood event, water users had to invest substantial amounts of resources to improve and rehabilitate the irrigation structures."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"In order to minimize such environmental problems and maintain water sources, conservation and management of natural vegetation cover upstream is a must. So far as the management is concerned, three forest types such as community forestry, leasehold forestry and governmentmanaged forestry exist in the basin. While a large part of the forest in the basin is under a government-managed system, local communities have a tendency to increase private forests at the cost of the government forests."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"The Decentralized Act and new forestry legislation of 1983 and 25-Year Forest Master Plan provided the legal foundation for handover of government forest to local communities. Except for a few cases and despite community willingness to take over the government forest, this has not progressed as envisaged in the policy. Since forest management has far-reaching influence on sustaining water sources, maintaining river water quality and regulating river flow downstream, sincere efforts from existing related institutions appear to have been insignificant in the basin."}]},{"head":"Data limitation Problem","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Sound planning begins with consistent and timely data that are collected adequately from reliable sources, tools and physical boundary defining the data scale. So far, relevant physical, socioeconomic, and institutional data can be obtained only on a district basis that does not reflect basin perspectives. Earlier studies suggested that even with the available district-wise data, problems related to ensuring data quality have constrained a lot on the data analysis and the attendant implications."}]},{"head":"Shortcomings of the Existing Institutional Arrangements","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"In view of our observations, coordinated and balanced growth of the water sector in this basin has been hampered more by institutional deficiencies than by sheer resource shortages. These institutional deficiencies/shortcomings are given below."}]},{"head":"Unstable Government Policy in Developing Groundwater Resource","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"As the government withdrew the subsidy policy in shallow tube wells, when the implementation was at its full swing, the cessation of subsidy adversely affected the target that was set by APP. While approaching the end of 4 th trimester budget release time of the year, the government has not released even the 3 rd trimesterly fund to GWP in Parsa, Chitwan that has unnecessarily delayed the work of deep tube well installation."}]},{"head":"Violation of Irrigation Policy in Developing Surface Irrigation Infrastructures","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"In the case of the huge ERIP intervention program of the government to rehabilitate and improve surface irrigation infrastructures, independent project impact assessment studies and many WUAs have seriously criticized the project performance to be poor in terms of user involvement in decision making, supervision and completion of construction works. Although the irrigation policy advocates top priority for a fully participatory approach, the implementation aspect has, to a great extent, failed to capitalize this concept in the basin."}]},{"head":"Inability to Enforce Rules","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":228,"text":"In the case of industrial use of water, pollution standards have been published in the official gazette but the concerned government department has not yet enforced the industries to abide by the rule. The government officials still play a kind of quasi-formal role of negotiator between industry and the affected party only if they receive complaints from the latter. Protection of wildlife and environmental conservation of RCNP in the downstream, a site of World Heritage and tourism, require that safe and adequate water flow be maintained in the river. Untreated industrial discharge drained directly into the river might have affected the quality of water and aquatic creatures conserved by RCNP. It became a tripartite issue of resource-sharing as some irrigation systems, although in small amounts, also divert water to croplands from the river near RCNP against the interest of the latter that, in turn, has affected the water quantity during the dry season required by flora and fauna of the RCNP. The issues will remain unresolved unless some mechanisms of monitoring and sanctioning system of water quality, quantity and water allocation in the river come into force. The objectives of informal arrangements like meeting of representatives of WUA and RCNP, if any, are short-lived and resolve only immediate specific problem and, hence, do not constitute broader perspectives that otherwise would serve as a rule-in-use for minimizing multi-sectoral conflicts."}]},{"head":"Lack of a Precise Policy for Appropriate Institutional Arrangement","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"From the basin water resource perspective, DWRC, IRCC, and district branches of NIWUA appear to be the closest government and users institutions in the district. The Water Resource Regulation Act has not laid down a legal basis to make these institutions accountable for basin-level planning and integrated water-resources development. In other words, a precise policy has yet to come for appropriate institutional arrangements to cope with multi-sectoral use of basin water. To date, the water resource policy has addressed the resource mainly from a utilization point of view. More important aspects of water resources conservation, management and establishment of water rights across the sectors have not yet received due priority. The DWRC work is mainly limited to the issue of legitimate right to the WUA and IRCC for irrigation and related flood-control activities."}]},{"head":"Contradictory Acts for Multiple Use of Water","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"A significant part of the East-Rapti river occurs within the jurisdiction of the National Sanctuary and Wildlife Conservation area. One the one hand, the Wildlife Conservation Act of 1982/83 prohibits diversion of the river water from any of it sources for any other uses, and also restricts the use of any explosive or toxic materials in the river water and on the other, some of the indigenous irrigation systems, near the conservation area, have been utilizing river water since long and claim a stake over water rights as provisioned by the National Legal Code of 1963. It appears that when these rules were formed the fact was not realized that the same water source would be equally important for other sectors and that the absence of such rules would create conflicts across the water-use sectors."}]},{"head":"Proposed Action Plan for Improving Water Resource Management in the East Rapti River Basin","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"From the above shortcomings with the existing institutional arrangements, it appears that they are inadequate to address the emerging issues in the basin. Hence, the development of an appropriate institutional framework needs to be worked out involving all stakeholders, create new organizations and/or redefine functions of existing organizations. Step-wise short-term and longterm action plans are proposed below (table 2) in an effort to help develop effective watermanagement institutions in the basin."}]},{"head":"Table 2. Short-and long-term action plans.","index":48,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Problem/Issue","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Short-term action plan Long-term action plan (one year)"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"(3-5 years)"},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"1. Address problem of Identification of water-scarce and water-1. Delineation of water-scarce and waterwater scarcity to abundant areas to implement institutional abundant areas within the river basin increase water measures to increase the water and initiation of institutional measures productivity productivity through stakeholder to increase water productivity in waterparticipation."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"scarce and water-abundant areas. implement part of the integrated waterresources management plan."}]},{"head":"Institutional issues","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"3. Organize periodic consultation between concerned stakeholders (DWRC, DDC, irrigation and river control committee and line agencies of both districts)."}]},{"head":"Activities for the Short-Term Action Plan","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Address problem of water scarcity to increase water productivity"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Documentation of existing institutional arrangement for water sharing in the water-scarce area."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Organize stakeholders meeting to develop water-sharing arrangements and resource mobilization."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Institutional issues associated with conjunctive use of water"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• Identification of existing arrangements for conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water."}]},{"head":"Water quality and industrial water discharge","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• Identify stakeholders and their activities which contribute to water pollution."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Measure levels of industrial water pollution at important sites within the areas of river basin."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Identify sites and water-use activities that are significantly affected or likely to be affected by industrial water pollution."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• Identify various measures that stakeholders can implement to reduce water pollution by organizing stakeholder consultation."}]},{"head":"Soil-erosion and sedimentation problems","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"• Identification of watershed areas through stakeholders that require immediate attention for protecting against environmental hazards, such as landslides, soil erosion and floods."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Development of a watershed management plan through local stakeholders."}]},{"head":"Data-limitation problem","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Develop and design data requirement, methodology and storage systems."}]},{"head":"Coordinate the institutional role of district-level agencies for river-basin planning","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Organize interaction between the water resources planning entities in the district."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Assess the water-resources planning and management capability of the DDC and other related district agencies."}]},{"head":"Activities for the Long-Term Action Plan","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Address problem of water scarcity to increase water productivity"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Explore and compare areas in terms of water availability for different uses within the basin."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• Determine water-scarce and water-abundant zones and prepare geo-reference maps of the areas."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Facilitate the development and institutionalization of existing water-use practices."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• Assist in promoting linkages between WUAs and related district-level agencies for developing zonation plans and effective service delivery."}]},{"head":"Institutional issues associated with conjunctive use of water","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Develop water-sharing arrangements between surface water and groundwater users."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Evaluate the potentials and constraints of existing local-level institutions for consumptive use of water."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• Strengthen the institutional capability of users in the productive use of water."}]},{"head":"Water quality and industrial water discharge","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Assessment of pollution effect on various water-use activities including health and the environment."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Create awareness among stakeholders about the possible industrial hazards."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• Encourage stakeholders to design and implement appropriate measures to reduce water pollution."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Devise an institutional mechanism to monitor water pollution through stakeholder participation."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Develop an institutional mechanism to reduce pollution."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Encourage stakeholders to work out a compensation package to discourage pollution."}]},{"head":"Soil-erosion and sedimentation problems","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• Assist stakeholders in 1-2 sites to develop activities to conserve the watershed."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Assist stakeholders in the implementation of watershed-conservation activities."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Encourage stakeholders to institutionalize the watershed-conservation activities in the river basin."}]},{"head":"Data-limitation problem","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Organize basin-level data in hard copy and digital format."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Support basin-level planning by providing necessary data to concerned agency."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Disseminate basin information to users at various levels (policy/planning, implementation, research and academic)."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• Update basin-level data periodically."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Strengthening the institutional role of the district-level agencies for river-basin planning"},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"• Assist DDCs and other line agencies to develop water resources for the river basin in a coordinated way."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"• Establish linkages between the DDCs, line agencies, users and other stakeholders to implement a water-resources plan for the river basin."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"• Strengthen the capability of DDCs to monitor water-resources development activities in the river basin."}]},{"head":"Concluding Remarks","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"This proposal presented the emerging water-resources-related issues, existing gaps in policy and institutions, as well as short-and long-term action plans considering the East-Rapti river basin as a pilot basin for initiating the effort towards developing effective water-management institutions."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The activities for proposed action plans underlie the institutional framework with the ultimate objective of consolidating and strengthening the existing district-level water-resourcesdevelopment-related government and water user organizations for their coordinated efforts. The proposed basin approach for conservation and utilization of water resources is expected to serve at least as a forerunner of the future national effort on improving water-resources management."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"The proposal appears timely in that the government has already issued and implemented the Local Autonomy Act (1999) by which local-level institutions have been empowered with more autonomy than before and the Water Resource Act (1992) has also spelled out the need of inter-sectoral approach to be an effective way for sustainable water-resources development in the future. This implies that these Acts have rendered an enabling legal environment for the successful implementation of this study at the basin level."}]},{"head":"Development of Effective Water-Management Institutions at the Upper Pampanga River Basin, Philippines: Action Plan","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Considering the results of the diagnostic study, an action plan aimed at improving the water management in the UPRB is hereby proposed. Essentially, the action plan will focus on the following:"}]},{"head":"Advocate the Establishment of the Upper Pampanga River Coordinating Council","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Programs related to water resources management at the UPRB were found to be sporadic. For this reason, interventions to whatever water-related problems or issues are dealt with by some specific agencies/sector but not by others. As a consequence, the problem becomes cyclical or recurring simply because of the piecemeal approach of solving the problem. The establishment of a coordinating body, which can be called the Upper Pampanga River Basin Coordinating Council may be in order. In this connection, therefore, a proposal will be prepared and sent to the concerned agencies for their initial reactions and comments."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Once the proposed coordinating council gets positive support from the various stakeholders at the UPRB, meetings with concerned officials representing the different stakeholders/sectors will be scheduled to flesh out the details of the proposal."}]},{"head":"Improvement of the Irrigation System Performance","index":64,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"A pilot area will be selected to serve as a demonstration site for the efficient utilization of water for agriculture. This will be done in coordination with the irrigation district officials of the National Irrigation Administration-Upper Pampanga River Integrated Irrigation System (NIA-UPRIIS). Basically, an irrigators association (IA) will be identified, based on a set of criteria and this will serve as the pilot IA/area."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"As soon as the IA has been chosen, a benchmark survey involving the officers and members of the IA will be conducted. This survey will serve as a basis for determining the current socioeconomic conditions and the organizational (IA)-related factors of the identified IA. It will likewise attempt to draw firsthand information on the farming practices of the respondents, particularly those relating to the management of irrigation water. While some items of information to be taken are similar if not the same as those obtained during the diagnostic study, the necessity of conducting a benchmark survey is premised on the fact that the results of the benchmark survey will be utilized later for evaluation purposes."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Attempts will also be made by the research team to assist the IA in coordinating and/or lobbying for the immediate rehabilitation of heavily silted canals and the provision of water-control structures within the pilot area. Mobilization of the identified IA will also be done with the end in view of motivating them to do minor repair and maintenance works of the irrigation canals/ facilities."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Regular monitoring and evaluation of all activities pertaining to the foregoing will be done."}]},{"head":"Strengthening the IA and NIA Capabilities for Effective O&M of the Irrigation System","index":65,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Refresher training course(s) for farmers will be conducted on topics like improved rice production, water management and financial management among others. Likewise, the NIA-UPRIIS field personnel will be given opportunities to attend trainings/seminars on values reorientation, and supervisory and technical-related topics."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"The officials of the IA will be encouraged to meet with the turnout service area (TSA) group leaders to discuss matters of prime importance to the association. With these frequent/regular meetings of the IA officials, the rules and regulations concerning not only matters relating to water allocation, distribution and utilization but also on vital concerns of the association as well are hoped to be formalized (written) and strictly enforced."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Meanwhile, the NIA officials are expected to review the existing policies of the agency primarily on ISF rates, and the ISF and MTO incentives given to IAs. Remedial measures should be proposed to the NIA (Central Office) management when deemed necessary. The possibility for NIA to forge a close linkage with the other stakeholders (e.g., DENR, DA, LWUA and NPC) in the basin should also be explored. and yield could be remarkably increased in agro-well schemes and lift irrigation schemes through appropriate institutional and technological innovations."}]},{"head":"Constraints for Interventions under Action Phase","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Due to the limited time period of the study, it may not be possible to implement all the interventions in the basin successfully. Therefore, the activities the stakeholders consider as the most essential will be attempted in the short run in the basin."}]},{"head":"Strategy Proposed for Improving Productivity in Three Types of Irrigation Schemes","index":67,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"A program to increase the agricultural production in small tank systems, agro-wells and lift irrigation systems needs to be pilot-tested in a selected sample using participatory action research. The parties that should be involved in this action research include the Department of Agriculture (DOA), the Department of Agrarian Services and the Farmer Organizations (FOs) in the case of small tank systems. The Agriculture Development Authority, the Department of Agriculture and individual farmers are required to participate in the agro-well program. The individual farmers and the Department of Agriculture would be the main actors with regard to the lift irrigation schemes."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"The lessons learned through this pilot project can be replicated in the other schemes in the long run. However, IWMI cannot decide the mode of implementation in both the short and the long run. It has to be decided collaboratively by all the parties that would be involved in this action-research program.   "}]},{"head":"Problems of Long-Term Sustainability","index":68,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Several problems that have endangered the long-term sustainability of land and water resources in the basin were identified in this study. They include:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"1. Excessive sand mining in the riverbed and tributaries."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"2. Brick-making on the river reservations."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"3. Other developments in the river reservations."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"4. Pollution of water in the river and its tributaries."},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"5. Unplanned groundwater extraction."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"6. Undesirable development activities and interventions including deforestation in the catchment areas of small tank systems."},{"index":8,"size":71,"text":"During the remaining short period of the ongoing study, a program can be initiated to make people aware of these problems and to draw up plans to address them. The action for long-term solutions will be initiated through the existing institutional mechanisms in the basin area. The relevant reforms on laws, regulations and other institutional changes can be attempted while implementing pilot-project activities intended to be implemented by WRS in future."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"The possible short-term interventions to initiate action in this regard are the abovementioned six items detailed below:"}]},{"head":"Excessive sand mining in the riverbed","index":69,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Joint awareness sessions will be held with the participation of Divisional Secretaries, Pradeshiya Sabha Chairmen and representatives of the Geological Mines Bureau. These meetings will be used to develop strategies to initiate some action to establish suitable methods for allowing people to do sand mining. These strategies will include changes on permit system, identification of critical locations that have to be avoided when mining, monitoring system required and the responsibilities of each party, etc. These proposed meetings will be held in six sample DS Division areas in which excessive sand mining is done."}]},{"head":"Brick making on the river reservations","index":70,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"A separate series of strategic planning sessions will be held with Predeshiya Saba staff and the staff of agencies at DS level to analyze the impact of brick making on the riverbanks and identify solutions acceptable to both parties, the agencies responsible of protecting riverbanks and the brick makers. The participation of the public health inspectors attached to the Pradeshiya Sabhas and the staff of the Medical Officer of Health will also be obtained at these meetings. These sessions will be held in the six DS divisions selected for other interventions. The outputs that can be expected from these sessions will include, better understanding of the implications of unplanned brick making on the stability of the riverbanks, the contribution of brick making to the mosquito problem, etc. The possibilities for brick making without serious harmful impacts on the environment will be explored at these meetings."}]},{"head":"Other Development in the River Reservations","index":71,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Clearing of forest cover and cultivation activities in the riverbank areas could also be observed in this study. This problem can be discussed at the DS-level Agricultural Committee (DSAC) meetings held in each DS division. At present, the problems related to river reservations are not discussed at DACs. The DSACs can work out a program to study the magnitude of this problem in their jurisdiction and discuss with the encroachers and propose suitable solutions for the longterm sustainability of the river reservations."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"Council and the Water Resources Tribunal. Further, the new institutional changes suggested by the Water Resources Secretariat include the establishment of river-basin organizations for a single basin or several basins in the country depending on the specific requirements. Need for building linkages among different agencies working at DS, District, Provincial and Central Government levels was intensively discussed during stakeholder consultation in phase 1 of the Deduru Oya study. Most of the key stakeholder agencies recommended linking existing coordination committees in the basin to the river-basin organization. The only structural change they recommend was to establish a river-basin organization. The other changes recommend included functional changes of the existing coordination committees. The coordination mechanism suggested by the stakeholders is given in figure 1  The proposed institutional changes in figure 1 will be discussed with the members of the different committees mentioned therein. The awareness creation on the new functions required to be incorporated into the existing coordination committees will be the main activity of the researchers at different coordination committee meetings. The functional changes that will be discussed are as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Explore possibilities to include natural-resources management as one of the mandatory functions of the coordination committees."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• Attempt to encourage line agencies to collect and provide relevant information to the committees to make decisions."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"• Identify the level of capacity of the coordination committees to carry out functions related to integrated water resources management (skills and lack of authority, etc.)."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"• Attempt to develop a mechanism for improving communication among different levels of the committees concerned."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"• Attempt to develop an M&E system to measure the effectiveness of different waterresources management agencies."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"The IWMI research team will attend coordinating committee meetings to initiate the agencies concerned to draw up plans and implement integrated water resources management activities in an action-research mode."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Main issues and proposed action plans.  Issues Actions Time IssuesActionsTime    schedule schedule National Law, regulations and policies Amending water law, issuing watershed law 2001-2010 NationalLaw, regulations and policiesAmending water law, issuing watershed law2001-2010  are too general to implement; and water saving law, issuing effective guideline  are too general to implement;and water saving law, issuing effective guideline  lack of enforcement of water pricing, water resources fee collection  lack of enforcementof water pricing, water resources fee collection   methods, etc. Building up institutional and  methods, etc. Building up institutional and   human capacities for enforcement.  human capacities for enforcement.  Insufficient irrigation investment Increasing investment for updating and 2001…… Insufficient irrigation investmentIncreasing investment for updating and2001……   maintaining irrigation facilities.  maintaining irrigation facilities.  Imbalance of water distribution; Transferring water from the south to the 2001-2050 Imbalance of water distribution;Transferring water from the south to the2001-2050  Lack of interregional management north; empowering regional water commission  Lack of interregional management north; empowering regional water commission   authorities.  authorities. Regional Water management conflicts Reforming water administration system, 2001-2005 RegionalWater management conflictsReforming water administration system,2001-2005   empowering water management authorities.  empowering water management authorities.  Weak implementation of national Strengthening enforcement of national water 2001-2005 Weak implementation of national Strengthening enforcement of national water2001-2005  water policy, law and regulations policies, legal and regulation through issuing  water policy, law and regulations policies, legal and regulation through issuing   corresponding implementation details.  corresponding implementation details.  Inefficient water use Increasing water price, improving water fee 2001-2005 Inefficient water useIncreasing water price, improving water fee2001-2005   collection approaches; extending suitable  collection approaches; extending suitable   water saving technologies.  water saving technologies.  Serious water pollution Strengthening wastewater disposal ability by 2001-2005 Serious water pollutionStrengthening wastewater disposal ability by2001-2005   introducing wastewater disposal facilities.  introducing wastewater disposal facilities. River basin Fragmentation of river water For seven large river basins, River Basin 2001-2003 River basin Fragmentation of river waterFor seven large river basins, River Basin2001-2003  management; conflicts between Commissions should be reorganized and  management; conflicts betweenCommissions should be reorganized and  upstream and downstream empowered for full river water control and  upstream and downstreamempowered for full river water control and   coordination rights; for small river basins  coordination rights; for small river basins   within provinces River Basin Commissions  within provinces River Basin Commissions   should be established and also empowered  should be established and also empowered   with full river water control and coordination  with full river water control and coordination   rights in the river basin.  rights in the river basin.  Serious drop in groundwater Implementing groundwater withdrawal permit 2001-2003 Serious drop in groundwaterImplementing groundwater withdrawal permit2001-2003  table system for agriculture; collecting groundwater  tablesystem for agriculture; collecting groundwater   resources fee; artificially recharging groundwater;  resources fee; artificially recharging groundwater;   conjunctive utilization of surface water and  conjunctive utilization of surface water and   groundwater.  groundwater. Irrigation Unclear property right and Promoting market-oriented property 2001-2003 IrrigationUnclear property right andPromoting market-oriented property2001-2003 system low water productivity rights innovation.  systemlow water productivityrights innovation.  Aging and deterioration Updating and maintaining irrigation facilities 2001-2005 Aging and deteriorationUpdating and maintaining irrigation facilities2001-2005  of irrigation facilities through mobilizing all possible financial  of irrigation facilitiesthrough mobilizing all possible financial   and human resources.  and human resources.  "},{"text":"Improving Water Management in the Ombilin Upper Subbasin of Inderagiri River Basin of West Sumatra Province, Indonesia: An Action Plan   "},{"text":"Table 1 . Activities proposed to be tried out in small tank schemes. Activities Responsible actors Time required ActivitiesResponsible actorsTime required • Awareness session on the • IWMI researchers with Department of • Two weeks • Awareness session on the• IWMI researchers with Department of• Two weeks need of intervention Agrarian Service (DAS) at its committee  need of interventionAgrarian Service (DAS) at its committee  meetings. Commissioner of DAS will be  meetings. Commissioner of DAS will be  briefed on the program prior to holding  briefed on the program prior to holding  meetings at the Agrarian Services  meetings at the Agrarian Services  Committee.  Committee. • Selection of six agrarian • Deputy Commissioner of DAS. • Two weeks (March 2001) • Selection of six agrarian• Deputy Commissioner of DAS.• Two weeks (March 2001) services divisions in which IWMI researchers will facilitate.  services divisions in whichIWMI researchers will facilitate. small tanks are located   small tanks are located (representative divisions )   (representative divisions ) • Identification of problems • Divisional Officers of the DAS with • One month (March and • Identification of problems• Divisional Officers of the DAS with• One month (March and that need solutions farmer leaders. IWMI researchers and half of April 2001) that need solutionsfarmer leaders. IWMI researchers andhalf of April 2001)  officials of the DOA will provide  officials of the DOA will provide  technical assistance.  technical assistance. • Development of strategies to • Divisional Officers of the DAS with farmer • One month (March and • Development of strategies to • Divisional Officers of the DAS with farmer• One month (March and address the problems leaders. Technical assistance will be provided half of April) address the problemsleaders. Technical assistance will be providedhalf of April)  by IWMI researchers and officials of DOA.  by IWMI researchers and officials of DOA. • Implementation of feasible • Farmers, DAS, DOA. IWMI researchers will • Yala season 2001. • Implementation of feasible• Farmers, DAS, DOA. IWMI researchers will• Yala season 2001. strategies in small tank document the implementation process of new  strategies in small tankdocument the implementation process of new schemes strategies. Also a joint effort will be made to  schemesstrategies. Also a joint effort will be made to  identify the institutional changes required to  identify the institutional changes required to  continue and sustain new strategies.  continue and sustain new strategies.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Possible interventions for agro-well schemes. Activities Responsibilities Time frame ActivitiesResponsibilitiesTime frame • Classification of agro-wells • DAS, DOA, farmers. IWMI • Two weeks (parallel to • Classification of agro-wells• DAS, DOA, farmers. IWMI• Two weeks (parallel to in the selected sample will provide technical support. work in small tank in the selected samplewill provide technical support.work in small tank Agrarian Services Divisions  systems) Agrarian Services Divisionssystems) based on their performance   based on their performance (poor, moderate and   (poor, moderate and well-performing in terms of   well-performing in terms of cropping intensity and yields)   cropping intensity and yields) • Identification of reasons for • DAS, DOA, farmers. IWMI will provide • Two weeks (parallel to • Identification of reasons for• DAS, DOA, farmers. IWMI will provide• Two weeks (parallel to low performance technical supports. work in small tank low performancetechnical supports.work in small tank   systems) systems) • Implementation of feasible • DOA, DAS and Agriculture Development • One cultivation season • Implementation of feasible• DOA, DAS and Agriculture Development• One cultivation season strategies to improve cropping Authority and farmers. IWMI researchers (yala 2001) strategies to improve croppingAuthority and farmers. IWMI researchers(yala 2001) intensity and yields and also will document the process to learn lessons  intensity and yields and alsowill document the process to learn lessons to identify new changes in for replication in other areas in the basin.  to identify new changes infor replication in other areas in the basin. the institutions including   the institutions including farmer behavior in agriculture   farmer behavior in agriculture under agro-wells.   under agro-wells.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Possible interventions for river lift irrigation schemes. Activities Responsibilities Time frame ActivitiesResponsibilitiesTime frame • Preparation of inventory of • Divisional officers of DAS. Individual • Two weeks. Last two • Preparation of inventory of• Divisional officers of DAS. Individual• Two weeks. Last two river lift irrigation schemes. farmers/farmer groups and DOA. IWMI weeks of March 2001 river lift irrigation schemes.farmers/farmer groups and DOA. IWMIweeks of March 2001  researchers will provide technical assistance  researchers will provide technical assistance • Classification of river lift • -do- • Along with the • Classification of river lift• -do-• Along with the irrigation schemes in terms of  first activity. irrigation schemes in terms offirst activity. cropping intensity, cropping   cropping intensity, cropping patterns and yield, etc.   patterns and yield, etc. • Organize a mutual learning • DAS, DOA and well-performing and • Two weeks at the end of • Organize a mutual learning• DAS, DOA and well-performing and• Two weeks at the end of program from well-performing poorly performing farmers. IWMI researchers April 2001 program from well-performingpoorly performing farmers. IWMI researchersApril 2001 lift irrigation farmers. will provide facilitation.  lift irrigation farmers.will provide facilitation.  "},{"text":" below: Figure 1. Suggested organizational structure of the Deduru Oya basin. River Basin Management Committee  River Basin Management Committee (RBMC)  (RBMC)  Divisional-Level Divisional-Level  Sectoral Agencies Sectoral Agencies District Water Resource Management Members of District Water Resource ManagementMembers of Committee Parliament (District) CommitteeParliament (District)  NGOs NGOs  Divisional-Level Divisional-Level  Sectoral Agencies Sectoral Agencies Divisional Water Resource Management Committee Provincial and Local Politicians Divisional Water Resource Management CommitteeProvincial and Local Politicians  CBOs CBOs  ASC-Level Agency Officials ASC-Level Agency Officials Agrarian Service Center-Level Water  Agrarian Service Center-Level Water Resource Management Committee Community Leaders Resource Management CommitteeCommunity Leaders  "}],"sieverID":"f21b3845-4877-48ee-8cea-fde598ce773b","abstract":"Through more than 2 years of research in the Fuyang river basin, Hebei Province of China, useful information was collected on hydrological, physical and socioeconomic conditions, the legal system and institutional and policy environments. Based on the major results of the research, this report proposes action plans at national, regional, river basin and irrigation system levels, which will be carried out both in the short and the long term."}

data/part_1/0ceb5eacc1d62784df03587d5039fbbd.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0ceb5eacc1d62784df03587d5039fbbd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/89d65b00-6ccc-4777-8be7-0b93d832c56f/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #4590 Contributing Projects: • P1952 -Exploring options to increase water and nitrogen use efficiency and to enhance carbon sequestration in rainfed wheat-based systems • P1957 -Scientist time for proposal development in SSA and North Africa • P2060 -ICARDA Flagship 2","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"cc49aecf-7359-4b7d-ae88-293e231e13fc","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0d7fbd66af3e41d2cb2612e7fd36fda4.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0d7fbd66af3e41d2cb2612e7fd36fda4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8f98fd7f-5b44-4c85-b3f6-69f62c2e450b/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Many different species and local landraces have been described as 'minor crops' or 'NUS' from the point of view of researchers and development workers, often because they have not been the subject of research for development efforts, or because their socio-economic potential is not being exploited by scientists, development workers and policy makers. These crops, however, are far from minor or neglected in the lives of the rural poor, particularly for vulnerable groups such as children, women and the elderly. NUS and minor crops can be a key livelihood asset for the rural poor, and are often better adapted to fragile and marginal environments than the major commodity crops that are the focus of so much research."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Nevertheless, for a variety of reasons, many communities are not taking advantage of these crops. Bioversity, supported by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and working together with local partners, has been working on a series of efforts in a variety of strategically important countries. From 2002 to 2005 the project worked in Yemen, where the use of medicinal and aromatic species has a long history and forms an important part of the local culture."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Yemen, in the south of the Arabian Peninsula, is one of the poorest countries in the Arab world, with 45% of the population living below the poverty line and 80% of the poor in rural areas. The economy is heavily dependent on diminishing oil reserves, which have benefited town dwellers more than rural people. Furthermore, in many areas rural people face uncertain and variable water supplies, and investment in agricultural development has been minimal. Against that, Yemen has a rich diversity of almost 300 endemic plant species and a centuries-old tradition of using medicinal and aromatic plants."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"The project focused on four of these: henna (Lawsonia inermis), nigella (Nigella sativa), coriander (Coriandrum sativum) and cumin (Cuminum cynimum). Henna is used as a cosmetic and the other three as spices, and at the start of the project they were not contributing to farm incomes. These species were chosen because of their good potential for increased use, the likelihood of genetic erosion, their potential to contribute to incomes and their cultural significance."}]},{"head":"Project goals and activities","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The project goal was to contribute to strengthening food security and raising the income of smallholder farmers by exploiting the full potential of the genetic diversity contained in the target species."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Working with the Ministry of Agriculture and the Yemeni Agricultural Research and Extension Authority and local communities, project staff identified constraints to the use of these species and developed a set of activities that were implemented at 13 sites spread across three different ecological zones . Difficulties of access, lack of infrastructure and security concerns resulted in fewer project activities taking place in the Coastal and Plateau areas than in the Highlands."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"One constraint to greater use of the target species was the lack of germplasm and of traditional knowledge about opportunities for better use. The project therefore planned to introduce ex-situ and on-farm conservation to improve seed supply. Seeds were purified and stored in genebanks and then transferred to chosen farmers to multiply for bulk sales of clean seed through farmer cooperatives. Meetings, informative diversity fairs and national workshops, in combination with the improved seed supply, increased awareness of the opportunities associated with the target species. To enhance productivity, farmers in the Central Highlands carried out fertilizer trials, adding NPK to their standard manure regime. Fertilizer, along with other improvements in agronomic techniques, almost doubled the yields of the target crops (see graph 1 opposite). Local extension agents, worked with the project in the target sites to document traditional knowledge of the species in terms of both agronomy and post-harvest processing, and to devise tailored training courses to improve all aspects of cultivation. All activities were intended ultimately to contribute to raising incomes."}]},{"head":"studY Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The impact assessment set out to ask whether participation in the project did indeed improve livelihoods. To do so, it used a quasi-experimental design, selecting a control group from a larger survey and matching it with the treatment \" The target species remain minor in terms of land [...] but the number of farms growing them increased considerably over the duration of the project."}]},{"head":"\"","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The location of the study areas in Yemen."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Graph 1. Crop yields under different fertilizer treatments."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"IMPACT ASSESSMENT BRIEF NUMBER 9"},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"group. Researchers surveyed 148 randomly-selected households in the project sites, 61 of which had participated in the project (treatment group) while the remaining 87 had not. The questionnaire asked households about social and demographic factors, household wealth, agronomic activities, and gender issues, household decision making and social engagement. One limitation of the study was that the original project did not collect baseline data."},{"index":5,"size":149,"text":"Researchers thus had to rely on recall, a difficult task for some households. An important element in the evaluation is the correct determination of causation. In particular, while we may observe correlations between participation in the programme and various outcomes, these may be the result of extraneous factors, such as omitted variables, sample selection and simultaneous causality, where both participation and outcome were influenced by a third factor. To get around these difficulties the evaluation adopted a simultaneous multivariate probit analysis (see full paper for details). In essence, the analysis asked whether the likelihood of a household perceiving an increase in yields in the target crops depends on participation in the project. It took into account a large range of variables, including livestock assets, age, education, geographic region, farm size, tractor ownership, prior production of medicinal and aromatic plants, production of other crops, availability of irrigation and capital assets."}]},{"head":"Project iMPact","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Looking at changes from 2002 to 2007, almost all farms showed an increase in the diversity of crops grown, not only for the target species, but for other species too. The target species remain minor in terms of land, occupying less than 20% of the cultivated area in aggregate in 2007, but the number of farms growing them increased considerably over the duration of the project, by 43% for coriander, 46% for henna, 83% for nigella and 120% for cumin. Yields of the target species increased too, more than trebling for cumin. Farmers grew these species for their own use and to market, and the income derived from market sales increased for coriander (+40%), nigella (+54%) and cumin (+80%). Income from henna declined (-13%) despite the increase in the number of farmers marketing it and higher yields. This drop relates to the sale of dry henna leaves, generally for export; the income from fresh leaves sold locally increased."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"The probit model also yields interesting insights into the success of the project. For example, socio-economic status and farm size did not determine whether households would participate in the project. Rather, past experience growing medicinal and aromatic plants was a major determinant, as was the household's ownership of livestock. Furthermore, households that did participate in the project were more likely to increase yields both of the target species and of other crops than households that did not participate. Having an irrigation system increases the probability of growing the target species but not other crops, while having other agricultural assets, such as a tractor, influences the growing of other crops but not the target species."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Overall, a household that participated in the project had a propensity of around 36% to increase the yield of target species and of other crops, compared to households that did not participate. The increase in perceived yield results in increased consumption within the family, which is likely to improve people's well-being. It also increased marketing opportunities, and income generated by marketing is also likely to improve well-being."}]},{"head":"lessons learned and risk Factors","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The role of gender in the conservation and use of the target species is vitally important. The evaluation analysis confirmed that decisions about financial matters and expenditures are made mostly by men, who are the main cash earners. However, the survey revealed that while predominantly husbands take decisions on whether to grow the target species, their wives lead in how the species are actually produced, weeding, harvesting, cleaning, processing and selling in local markets. Conditions for women in Yemen are among the worst in the world, with a legal framework that restrains their access to resources and blocks entrepreneurship, leaving unpaid agricultural work as one of their few options. The crucial role of women in decisions about medicinal and aromatic plants, and the importance of these species for household incomes and, by extension, health and well-being, suggest a need for further research to understand gender roles and to empower women."},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":"The decrease in income from the sale of dry henna leaves, which are mainly sold for export, while income from local sales of fresh leaves increased, suggests a need in this crop to focus on post-harvest handling and the entire value chain to improve competitiveness. Further research and development could improve the contribution dried henna might make to incomes among poor farmers in the Eastern Coast region, the main area of henna production. Bioversity International is a member of the CGIAR Consortium. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food secure future. www.cgiar.org conclusions Participation in the project directly increased perceived yields, indicating the overall success of the project in transferring knowledge and providing information on agronomic practices and market opportunities related to growing medicinal and aromatic plants. The benefits prompted farmers to make these practices part of their routine operations, indicating that the project outcomes were sustainable. The overall cost of the project was USD105,000 over three years. While we do not have final figures for the increase in incomes, it seems likely that the cost:benefit ratio is favourable."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"One reason farmers do not conserve agricultural biodiversity is that they derive no private benefits from such conservation. Bioversity's approach, which develops value chains by reviving and improving traditional agricultural knowledge, along with marketing strategies, promises greater income for farmers from the use of agricultural biodiversity. This approach thus not only has great potential to improve rural livelihoods but also, by doing so, to enhance the conservation of agricultural biodiversity."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"This brief is based on Gotor E., Caracciolo F., Blundo Canto G.M. and Al Nassiri M. 2012. Improving rural livelihoods through the conservation and use of underutilized crops: evidence from a community research project in Yemen. Bioversity International."}]},{"head":"D E C E M B E R 2 0 1 2","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Citation: Gotor E., Cherfas J. 2012. Medicinal and aromatic plants improve livelihoods in Yemen. Bioversity International Series of Impact Assessment Briefs, no. 9. Bioversity International, 4 p."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"For further information please contact Bioversity International Impact Assessment Specialist Dr Elisabetta Gotor ([email protected])"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"\" Participation in the project directly increased perceived yields, indicating the overall success of the project in transferring knowledge \" A boy in a field of flowering Nigella sativa. Photo: S.Padulosi/Bioversity Bioversity International Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a, 00057 Maccarese, Rome, Italy Tel.: (39) 0661181 [email protected] www.bioversityinternational.org This work by Bioversity International is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"66512095-1b97-463d-ae04-ddbbe5682d63","abstract":"From 2002-2005, Bioversity International and partners carried out a project on medicinal and aromatic plants in Yemen to enhance the conservation and use of neglected and underutilized crops (NUS). Farmers from 13 communities in three different ecological zones took part in the project, which involved several different activities intended ultimately to raise incomes through the cultivation and marketing of henna, coriander, cumin and nigella. In 2008, three years after the end of the project, an ex-post impact assessment study found that the farmers had adopted the project interventions and integrated them into their practices, thus ensuring a sustainable outcome. The assessment showed that farmers who participated in the project benefited, compared to those who did not participate, and that the benefits were sufficient to induce farmers to continue to use the chosen species as important components in their livelihoods after the project ended.Researchers from the Yemeni Ministry of Agriculture at one of the yield trials organized by the IFAD NUS project. Photo: S. Padulosi/Bioversity."}

data/part_1/0d8a899b52d4b8b0db391b3356bf653b.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0d8a899b52d4b8b0db391b3356bf653b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b524a63-d999-429d-b932-ad0ee86f4ba8/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"Cambio de climas, de paradigmas y de cultivos","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"• color de grano (pero si para alimentos procesados!) y/o tamaño • hábito de crecimiento (ver historial del hábito II en fríjol!)"},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"• calidad de cocción; linamarina en P. lunatus ra estrategia: empujar más vulgaris hacia el monocarpismo • cruzamiento con acutifolius para un ciclo aún más corto ta estrategia: cuáles son las especies más expuestas y re-domesticar?"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• edición de genes (p.ej. relacionados a domesticación) mediante CRISPR/Cas9"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• transformación estable: a la fecha sólo en acutifolius • siembra silvestres"},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"• afuera rango silv."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"• flujo genes → razas Características, calidades y limitantes de la raza 'Durango' fuentes: Brick & Grafton 1999, Gentry 1969, Rosales-Serna et al. 2004, Singh et al. 1991 • hábito de crecimiento 3"}]},{"head":"• floración precoz","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"• índice de cosecha alto"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• capacidad de combinar para rendimiento"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• fuente de resistencia a antracnosis, BCMV"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"• tolerancia a sequía"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• granos de tamaño mediano (25-40 g/100 sem)"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• granos de color: amarillo, bayo, blanco, negro, 'ojo de cabra', pinto • raza extinta?"},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"• raza demográficamente pequeña?"},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"• raza con poco flujo génico con silvestres/ otras especies? Organización actual del género Phaseolus  • matorral xerófilo (30% suelo libre)"},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"• cactáceas columnares"},{"index":10,"size":6,"text":"• 44-48 semanas de estación seca"},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":"• total anual lluvias 150-250 mm"},{"index":12,"size":5,"text":"• bosque húmedo montano bajo"},{"index":13,"size":5,"text":"• varios bejucos (3-10 m+)"},{"index":14,"size":6,"text":"• 8-12 semanas de estación seca"},{"index":15,"size":12,"text":"• total anual lluvias 1,900-2,900 mm • en cr2, invers. + transloc."},{"index":16,"size":7,"text":"• en cr3, invers. en brazo largo"},{"index":17,"size":7,"text":"• en cr10, invers. en brazo corto "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" fuentes: Chacón-Sánchez et al. 2005; Debouck 2016; Kwak et al. 2009; Mamidi et al. 2011 "},{"text":" fuente:Singh et al. 1991  "},{"text":"• rendimiento: 250-800 (potencial 2,100) kg/ Ha • susceptible a: añublo común, añublo de halo, moho blanco, pudriciones radiculares, roya 8/31 Por qué hay dudas sobre la raza Durango? un campo de fríjol de temporal en Sombrerete, Zacatecas, México, Julio de 1978 foto: Debouck 1978 9/31 "},{"text":"• fuentes: Aceituno & Loaiza 2014, Kaplan 1965, 1981, Kaplan & Kaplan 1988, Kaplan & Lynch 1999 "},{"text":"• en cr7, invers. en brazo largo • en cr9, transloc. en brazo corto cambios estructurales en cromosomas → no. de univalentes en cruzas interespecíficas mecanismo explicativo de la especiación? QTL para háb. determinado en brazo largo de cr1 (= en vulgaris) ver: Kwak et al. 2012 genes de resistencia a enfermedades en grupos en cr4, cr10 y cr11 (idem) ver: López et al. 2003 22/31 papel de rfg = conocer y conservar todas las opciones → hacerlas disponibles calor = en 12 mi años +, poco 'probado' por el género (4-6 sp./ 80+) entre las especies de Phaseoli, la más expuesta a calor/ sequía = vulgaris! Observaciones finales paradigma 'clásico': traer/ revelar características interesantes a vulgaris otro paradigma: mejorar acutifolius y/o lunatus para nuevos mercados los mapas genéticos de las Phaseoleae se apoyan mutuamente! pese a colecciones pequeñas, acutifolius sorprende por su variación los avances genómicos obligan a completar las colecciones de rfg calor = estrés absoluto; potencial limitado en raza 'Durango', → silvestres lunatus tendría los acervos GP1, GP2 y GP3 de mayor tamaño/ diversidad "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" No asignada a ninguna sección, y sin relación la una con la otra: glabellus, microcarpus Requisitos ecológicos de las cinco especies cultivadas de Phaseolus Secciones Especies total Requisitos ecológicos de las cinco especies cultivadas de Phaseolus Secciones Especiestotal Clade A (8 secciones)  42 especies (4 con amplia distribución; 11 con rango intermedio; 27 endémicas)  Clade A (8 secciones)42 especies (4 con amplia distribución; 11 con rango intermedio; 27 endémicas) Bracteati Freytag Brevilegumeni Freytag Chiapasana Delgado Digitati Freytag poca diferenciación entre raza Durango y raza Jalisco: Díaz & Blair 2006, Kwak & Gepts pero Blair et al. 2013 altitud (m) temperatura ( o C) precipitación (mm/ año) ciclo de crecimiento (días) macrolepis, talamancensis potencial albicarminus, angucianae, campanulatus, hygrophilus, oligospermus, tuerckheimii rendimiento chiapasanus (kg) albiflorus, albiviolaceus, altimontanus, neglectus, trifidus Bracteati Freytag Brevilegumeni Freytag Chiapasana Delgado Digitati Freytagpoca diferenciación entre raza Durango y raza Jalisco: Díaz & Blair 2006, Kwak & Gepts pero Blair et al. 2013 altitud (m) temperatura ( o C) precipitación (mm/ año) ciclo de crecimiento (días) macrolepis, talamancensis potencial albicarminus, angucianae, campanulatus, hygrophilus, oligospermus, tuerckheimii rendimiento chiapasanus (kg) albiflorus, albiviolaceus, altimontanus, neglectus, trifidus Minkelersia (Mart. & Gal.)     Minkelersia (Mart. & Gal.) acutifolius Maréchal,Mascherpa,Stainier 50 -1,600 20 -32 200 -400 55 -110 200 -1,800 acutifolius Maréchal,Mascherpa,Stainier50 -1,60020 -32200 -40055 -110200 -1,800 coccineus  1,400 -2,800 12 -22 400 -2,600 90 -+365 400 -4,000 coccineus1,400 -2,80012 -22400 -2,60090 -+365400 -4,000 dumosus  800 -2,600 14 -24 1,000 -2,600 110 -+365 300 -3,200 dumosus800 -2,60014 -241,000 -2,600110 -+365300 -3,200 Acutifolii Freytag  acutifolius, montanus    Acutifolii Freytagacutifolius, montanus Coriacei Freytag lunatus Falcati Freytag  50 -2,800 maculatus, novoleonensis, reticulatus, ritensis, venosus 16 -28 (0) -2,800 leptostachyus, macvaughii, micranthus 75 -+365 400 -5,000 Coriacei Freytag lunatus Falcati Freytag50 -2,800 maculatus, novoleonensis, reticulatus, ritensis, venosus 16 -28 (0) -2,800 leptostachyus, macvaughii, micranthus75 -+365400 -5,000 vulgaris Paniculati Freytag  50 -3,000 rotundatus, salicifolius, scrobiculatifolius, sinuatus, smilacifolius, sonorensis, viridis, xolocotzii 14 -26 400 -1,600 65 -330 albinervus, augusti, jaliscanus, juquilensis, lignosus, lunatus, maculatifolius, marechalii, mollis, nodosus, polystachyus, 400 -3,500 19 vulgaris Paniculati Freytag50 -3,000 rotundatus, salicifolius, scrobiculatifolius, sinuatus, smilacifolius, sonorensis, viridis, xolocotzii 14 -26 400 -1,600 65 -330 albinervus, augusti, jaliscanus, juquilensis, lignosus, lunatus, maculatifolius, marechalii, mollis, nodosus, polystachyus, 400 -3,50019 Phaseoli DC  albescens, coccineus, costaricensis, debouckii, dumosus, persistentus, vulgaris  Phaseoli DCalbescens, coccineus, costaricensis, debouckii, dumosus, persistentus, vulgaris Rugosi Freytag  angustissimus, carterae, filiformis   Rugosi Freytagangustissimus, carterae, filiformis Total (no. secciones): 14. Total (no. especies): 81    Total (no. secciones): 14. Total (no. especies): 81     5 cultivos a mejorar, no 1 5 cultivos a mejorar, no 1       10/31 10/31  "},{"text":" Posibilidades en la colección de germoplasma de Tepari (~ 150 accesiones) Perspectivas para los frijoles procesados (2) Perspectivas para los frijoles procesados (2) Enfermedades No. accesiones resistentes fuentes EnfermedadesNo. accesiones resistentesfuentes Nombre común, especie Bacteriosis (Xanthomonas axonopodis) Origen Chahuixtle (Uromyces appendiculatus) Nombre común, especie Origen  Color/patrón 3 7 Color/patrón peso 100-semillas Vargas et al. 2014 Miklas & Stavely 1998 peso 100-semillas Nombre común, especie Bacteriosis (Xanthomonas axonopodis) Origen Chahuixtle (Uromyces appendiculatus) Nombre común, especie OrigenColor/patrón 3 7 Color/patrónpeso 100-semillas Vargas et al. 2014 Miklas & Stavely 1998 peso 100-semillas Pudrición (Macrophomina phaseolina)  1 Cosme-Guerrero et al. 1992 Pudrición (Macrophomina phaseolina)1Cosme-Guerrero et al. 1992 Panamito (vulgaris) Pudrición (Fusarium oxysporum) Lima, Perú BGMV Rojo de seda (vulgaris) Chalatenango, El Salvador 3 4 20.0 Miklas et al. 1998 Miklas & Santiago 1996 32.0 Panamito (vulgaris) Pudrición (Fusarium oxysporum) Lima, Perú BGMV Rojo de seda (vulgaris) Chalatenango, El Salvador3 420.0 Miklas et al. 1998 Miklas & Santiago 1996 32.0 Plagas   Plagas Gorgojo (Acanthoscelides obtectus)  6 (silv.) Dobie et al. 1990 Gorgojo (Acanthoscelides obtectus)6 (silv.)Dobie et al. 1990 Tepari Chicharrita (Empoasca kraemeri) (acutifolius) Arizona, EE.-UU. Gorgojo (Acanthoscelides obtectus) Roxa (lunatus) Paraiba, Brasil 2 2 Pratt & Nabhan 1988 15.8 Shade et al. 1987 32.0 Tepari Chicharrita (Empoasca kraemeri) (acutifolius) Arizona, EE.-UU. Gorgojo (Acanthoscelides obtectus) Roxa (lunatus) Paraiba, Brasil2 2Pratt & Nabhan 1988 15.8 Shade et al. 1987 32.0 Estres abiótico   Estres abiótico una planta (<2m): 512 vainas; 1 solo ciclo P. filiformis Heladas de -2 o C Calor Jamapa (vulgaris) Veracruz, México Calor Calor Canellini (vulgaris) Piemonte, Italia 4 1 1 4 una planta (>9m): Souter et al. 2016 35 vainas/ año [x 6-8] Lin & Markhart 1996 P. costaricensis 18.0 Hendry 1919 Miklas et al. 1994 48.4 una planta (<2m): 512 vainas; 1 solo ciclo P. filiformis Heladas de -2 o C Calor Jamapa (vulgaris) Veracruz, México Calor Calor Canellini (vulgaris) Piemonte, Italia4 1 1 4una planta (>9m): Souter et al. 2016 35 vainas/ año [x 6-8] Lin & Markhart 1996 P. costaricensis 18.0 Hendry 1919 Miklas et al. 1994 48.4 1,928 semillas 0,6 g/ 100 semillas Suelos salinos (pH = 8.0) Xmayum (acutifolius) Campeche, México Sequía Suelos salinos (pH = 8.4), con sodio Faba branca (lunatus) Minas Gerais, Brasil 2 1 3 140 semillas [x 6-8] Goertz & Kobriger 1986 16 g/ 100 semillas 16.3 Petersen & Davis 1982 Pratt et al. 1986 64.0 1,928 semillas 0,6 g/ 100 semillas Suelos salinos (pH = 8.0) Xmayum (acutifolius) Campeche, México Sequía Suelos salinos (pH = 8.4), con sodio Faba branca (lunatus) Minas Gerais, Brasil2 1 3140 semillas [x 6-8] Goertz & Kobriger 1986 16 g/ 100 semillas 16.3 Petersen & Davis 1982 Pratt et al. 1986 64.0 biomasa semillas 11,56 g Hábito V (determinado trepador)  1 biomasa semillas 22.4 g CIAT genebank 2021 biomasa semillas 11,56 g Hábito V (determinado trepador)1biomasa semillas 22.4 g CIAT genebank 2021    19/31 20/31 21/31 19/31 20/31 21/31  "}],"sieverID":"86ef6230-cbd2-47eb-8c93-f6cd681e290b","abstract":"→ mismas fuentes de resistencia, mismos mecanismos de defensa, u otras nuevas SEQUÍA? reducción prevista en precipitación promedio anual: 20 a 30 mm para México 30 a 120 mm para América Central CALOR (el estrés absoluto!)? aumento previsto en temperatura promedio anual: 1 a 1.5 o C para México 1 a 2 o C para América Central Más hongos! más presión de: Macrophomina, Uromyces Más insectos! más presión de: Apion, Empoasca, Zabrotes Más virus! más transmisión vía: áfidos (BCMV), Bemisia (BGMV), Diabrotica (BRMV)"}

data/part_1/0e84f7cdf17f202a1baeb86a217a7629.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0e84f7cdf17f202a1baeb86a217a7629","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0ba98178-8f6c-4bd3-9488-f3c94e040606/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Household survey: a new round!","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The objective of the household survey is to characterise the diversity within the village in regards to: allocation of crop residues; crop management practices and feed strategies; and farm evolution/trajectories."}]},{"head":"Sampling method (the survey structure still needs to wait)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"According to the project: Nevertheless, Nils Teufel raised some relevant issues:"},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"-How much of the sampling has to be the same in all hubs? -What is the total sample size per hub? -Do we select a sample proportionate to village size? -Do exclude certain households? -Do we stratify the sample? -How do we determine the number of selected hh/class? -How do we select randomly within class?"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Based on his ideas, we have developed a proposal of the sampling procedure (Annex 3)."}]},{"head":"Additional news:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"-The SPSS form to fill in the village survey data is ready. SAs and SAf are already using it! -Oktoberfeest!? Bruno will plan a meeting for a general discussion on the project (structure, surveys, etc). -Coming soon… discussion on how to analyse the data of the village surveys!"}]},{"head":"Project structure","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Thinking about how to make the project a bit clearer and to facilitate discussions (among ourselves, but also of the outputs of the project), we have developed four main methodological ideas we would like to share with you (Annex 2):"},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"-Organisational levels in the system -Conceptual models of the system -Indicators and surveys -Farmers and farms Please let us know your comments or suggestions on these ideas. We would be very interested in discussing them and modifying them if necessary. This means that these ideas are still flexible. However, to make best use of the time and thinking about the general meeting in October, we will keep developing the Conceptual Models, and identifying the different Indicators, prioritising them and finding ways to measure them."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"We hope that these ideas will enrich our work and facilitate our understanding, analysis and comparison of crop residue management."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"-EA team is going to the field in Kenya, Diego is joining."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"-SAf team is holding a meeting with the partners in Mozambique."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"-SAs team will carry out the last village survey. CO and Lieven (CIP-Nairobi) will visit India in September -WA team has been busy with the (local) partners. Fred Ratunde -Contributor from ICRISAT (Mali)."}]},{"head":"Teams","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Abdou Salla -Visiting Scientist to coordinate data collection and reporting."}]},{"head":"Annex 2: Methodological ideas","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"We first list the main research questions (RQ) and methods (M) mentioned in the project proposal. Then, we describe the four methodological ideas we would like to propose."}]},{"head":"Research Questions:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The main questions of the project are:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"RQ1 "}]},{"head":"Methods","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"The methods of the project include:"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"M1. Surveys carried out in different countries, regions, villages and households. M2. Collection of primary and secondary biophysical data M3. Trend analysis and scenario building at different organisational levels."}]},{"head":"Organisational Levels","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"By including different households in different villages, different regions and different countries (M1), this project has a strong multi-level component (Figure 1). As a result of this organisational variability, we could analyse and compare the different systems at different levels-keeping in mind the interactions between levels. For example, the data gathered in the surveys can be used to characterise a region (8 villages), a village (village surveys) and a farm (household surveys)."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Figure 1. Levels and data sources of the project"}]},{"head":"Conceptual models","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"Conceptual models can be developed to facilitate the understanding, analysis and comparison of crop residue management between regions, villages and farms (RQ1). Figure 2, 3 and 4 are simple illustrations of conceptual models at different levels developed based on the work of Herrero et al. (2010). By indentifying the components of these conceptual models, we can easily identify and prioritise the data we will need to gather (M1, M2 and M3).    For example in the conceptual model at a farm level and related to CR residue production and management (Figure 4), a farming system can be represented by different interrelated components. Table 1 is an example of the components of the system at a farm level, including their interaction with other components at the same level and at other organisational levels. In Ethiopia, for example, farmers in K'obo seem to have good soils, but water shortages limit the productivity of biomass at a farm level. On the other hand, farmers in Nekempte have better access to water, but soil nutrients are limiting factors (knowledge, labour and capital at farm level are not explicitly represented because they can be use in all the arrows)."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Table 1. Different components of farming systems with examples of their interaction with other components and other organisational levels. advocated. However, I have difficulty following that reasoning, because it just mean that weighting is still required while statistical comparisons are made more difficult."}]},{"head":"CO:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"A proportionate sample would give us a better overview on the diversity of crop residue management. Again, a minimum and a maximum should be determined: minimum 5 hh/class and maximum 20hh/class? NT: How do we select randomly within class? We have sorted farmers by farm size and then taken the sample by appropriate steps, the randomisation coming from the starting point. This gives a good distribution when only selecting few households. Landless households were selected by attaching a random number. But these could also be sorted by herd size.\" CO: Nils' approach is fine."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"South Africa team (SAf) Sabine Homann -Lead Project Investigator, coordinator in communication, implementation and analysis of SLP in Southern Africa. André van Rooyen -Researcher, represented ICRISAT in SLP planning processes. Involved in the conceptual development of the project, analysis and way forward. East Africa team (EA) Alan Duncan -Regional project coordinator working with ILRI. Overall responsibility for the EA component. Kindu Mekkonen -Visiting Scientist responsible for day-to-day implementation of activities in EA. Gerba Leta -Research assistant for the field and surveys. Central office (CO) & Co. Bruno Gérard -Programme Coordinator Wubalem Dejene -Assistant to the Program Coordinator Diego Valbuena -Postdoc with ILRI, helping with the coordination of the SLP project, specifically the system analysis. Mariana Rufino -System Analyst, involved with FARMSIM and recently joined ILRI-Nairobi. Olaf Erenstein -Working at CIMMYT-Addis and helping as a Socio Economist backstopping in SLP. Lieven Claessens -Working at CIP-Nairobi, involved with the Trade-Off Analysis. Mark van Wijk -System analyst, involved with FARMSIM and working at Wageningen University. If you have any comment or suggestions on this Newsletter please send us an e-mail [email protected] South Asia team (SAs) Meera Bhatia -Regional project coordinator: Postdoc with CIMMYT, leading the SLP South Asia case study. Nils Teufel -Contributing scientist: he has also been involved in the previous SLP and he does not like to write… Arindam Samaddar -Advisor for the SLP South Asia case study because of intensive involvement with previous SLP study in conservation agriculture. Braja Swain -Research Assistant, based at ILRI Delhi office, specifically for the SLP South Asia case study. West Africa team (WF) Tahirou Abdoulaye -Lead Principal Investigator from IITA. Elain Grings -Contributor from ILRI (Nigeria). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Conceptual model of a Region. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Conceptual model of a Village. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Conceptual model of a Farm. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"4da30cf7-0a1c-4a6e-b810-7cca73b17abb","abstract":"This is an update of the surveys. Also, we would like to start a discussion on the project structure and the sampling method (hh survey). We also introduce the members of each team."}

data/part_1/0ea754101316e0fffb463299adace4ee.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0ea754101316e0fffb463299adace4ee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/47170279-93e6-4943-bdc1-40bc18080111/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Application of residue, inorganic fertilizer and lime affect phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms and microbial biomass under different tillage and cropping systems in a Ferralsol","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Phosphorus (P), the second most limiting plant nutrient in tropical soils (Fageria et al., 2013;Anand et al., 2016), mostly occurs in insoluble forms, thus restricting its availability for plant utilization (Sharma et al., 2013). In soils, acidity, poor solubility and metal-cation complexes (Khan et al., 2009) limit P availability for plants. On average, approximately 1 Mg P ha − 1 is present in the upper (15 cm) soil depths (Walpola and Yoon, 2012), but characteristic low solubility of P, immobilization and high fixation rates limit its availability to plants (Mahdi et al., 2012;Al-Rohily et al., 2013). Application of inorganic P fertilisers may be a temporary measure to overcome the phosphorus problem (Khan et al., 2009), as part of the applied P may get fixed (Mahdi et al., 2012;Walpola and Yoon, 2012;Al-Rohily et al., 2013), besides hindering biological P cycling by disrupting soil microbial structure, diversity and activities (Sharma et al., 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Phosphorus Solubilizing Microbes (PSMs) represent a pool of heterotrophic beneficial microbial group with the ability to hydrolyze both organic P compounds and insoluble inorganic P sources, thereby making P available for plant nutrition and soil enrichment (Khan et al., 2009;Liu et al., 2016;Mahadevamurthy et al., 2016;Kalayu, 2019). Biologically, PSMs can achieve this through solubilisation and mineralization of inorganic and organic P sources, respectively (Oliveira et al., 2009) through mechanisms involving production of metabolites such as organic acids, chelation of cations and hydrolysis of organic P sources (Pradhan and Sukla, 2006;Khan et al., 2009;Kalayu, 2019), as well as production of phosphatase enzymes (like phytases and phosphomonoesterases) that hydrolyse organic P forms to inorganic P (Nannipieri et al., 2011;Jarosch et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"Bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and algae exhibit P solubilization (Alori et al., 2017), with bacteria and fungi being the most predominant P solubilizers (Chen et al., 2006). The most powerful bacterial P solubilizers include Pseudomonas spp., Bacilli spp., Rhizobium spp., Agrobacterium spp. (Babalola and Glick, 2012). Other bacterial PSMs include Enterobacter spp., Azotobacter spp., and Burkholderia spp. (Istina et al., 2015;Borham et al., 2017). Fungal PSMs include Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp., Glomus spp., (the first three being the most dominant fungal PSMs (Igual et al., 2001, Kalayu, 2019)), Pantoea spp., Kebsiella spp., Arthrobotrys spp., Rhizoctonia spp., Rhizopus spp., Trichoderma spp., and Yarrowia spp. among others (Chung et al., 2005;Son et al., 2006;Srinivasan et al., 2012;Tandon et al., 2020). Actinomycetes strains in genera Actinomyces spp., Micromonospora spp., and Streptomyces spp. and algal strains like cyanobacteria also have P solubilizing abilities (Sharma et al., 2013;Alori et al., 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":152,"text":"Abundance and activities of PSMs are limited by agronomic management practices and soil physico-chemical characteristics (Bengtsson et al., 2005;Das and Dkhar, 2011). Such physico-chemical parameters include soil pH, low soil organic carbon (SOC) (when the microbes are heterotrophic), soil structure and fluctuations in soil nutrient, moisture and temperature (Zhou et al., 2002;Bargaz et al., 2012;Choi et al., 2017;Szoboszlay et al., 2017). Agronomic practices that augment soil pH, promote build-up of SOC, moisture retention, creation of microclimates and reduction of soil disturbances often influence PSMs abundance, diversity and activities (Böhme et al., 2005;Bünemann et al., 2006;Li et al., 2017;van der Bom et al., 2018). Contrary to conventional tillage, reduced tillage minimizes soil disturbance that also favours soil nutrient enrichment, SOC accumulation, protection of fungal hyphae, soil food webs, specialised microbial niches and microsites, thus promoting soil microbial proliferation and activities (Kihara et al., 2012;Mathew et al., 2012;Mårtensson and Olsson, 2012;Choi et al., 2017)."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"Besides application of inorganic fertilizers, agronomic practices involving residue addition, liming, intercropping and crop rotation under different tillage systems have been widely promoted to bolster soil nutrient status, sustain and improve crop productivity in sub-Saharan Africa (Kihara et al., 2012;Mucheru-Muna et al., 2014;Nziguheba et al., 2016) and the rest of the world (Latati et al., 2016;Ghimire et al., 2017). However, little is known on long-term effects of the above agronomic practices on PSMs abundance (Margenot et al., 2017) and soil biochemical properties, especially in tropical soils. The objectives of this study were to determine how soil biochemical properties, microbial biomass and PSMs are affected by soil management practices involving reduced tillage, residue application, cropping systems, liming and N and P fertilizer use."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study site","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"The study was conducted during the short rains season (August-November 2016) and long rains season (April-July 2017), characterized by different rainfall amounts and levels of crop productivity. The research was carried out in a long-term agronomic trial named CT1 in Siaya County, western Kenya. The trial was established in the year 2003 by International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and lies at latitudes 0 • 07 ′ N and longitude 34 • 24 ′ E; under a sub-humid climate with biannual rainfall (1200-1600 mm) and average temperature of 23.2 ± 1.5 • C (Kihara, 2009). Soils in the trial are Ferralsols (Paul et al., 2013), characterized by low pH (5.1 ± 0.3); with sand:silt:clay ratio of 15:21:64 and extractable inorganic phosphorus (Olsen) content of 2.99 ± 2.09 mg kg − 1 (Kihara, 2009). Crop production in the region is mainly for subsistence, rainfed and mostly practiced under conventional tillage in smallholder farms (of mostly less than 1 ha), with maize being the dominant staple food crop."}]},{"head":"Experimental design","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"The CT1 long-term experimental site in Nyabeda was set up in a randomized block design, with 12 treatments replicated four times under two tillage systems (reduced and conventional tillage), three cropping systems (maize-soybean rotation, maize-soybean intercropping and continuous maize), two residue application rates (with or without 2 Mg ha − 1 residue application), four rates of N fertilization (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg N ha − 1 ) as urea, two rates (0 and 60 kg P ha − 1 ) of P application as triple super phosphate, and blanket application of K as muriate of potash at 60 kg ha − 1 ), in plots measuring 4.5 m by 7 m. Maize and soybean were either planted in rotation or intercropped. Maize was planted at a spacing of 25 cm by 75 cm, with 2 seeds placed per hill and later thinned to one plant per hill. Soybean was planted at a spacing of cm by 75 cm. Urea was applied in two splits; a third during planting and two-thirds during topdressing when the plants were knee-high (4 weeks after planting). Potassium was applied as muriate of potash during planting. Hand ploughing and weeding using hoes were restricted to cm depth in the conventional tillage systems. In the reduced tillage systems, weeding was restricted to surface scratching."}]},{"head":"Selection of treatments","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Within this long-term field trial, the following management systems (or combinations thereof) were selected for our study (Table 1). The effects of management factors on soil biochemical properties, microbial biomass and PSMs were evaluated as follows: i) Tillage factor was inferred by comparison between treatment codes RTFr versus CTFr treatments; ii) residue application factor by RTFr versus RTF; iii) N and P fertilizer application factor by CTFr versus CTF; iv) cropping systems factor by RT.int versus RT.rot; and v) lime application factor by CTint + L versus CTint-L (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Soil sampling and analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Soil samples were collected at 0-20 cm depths in August 2016 during the short rains season and at 0-10 cm depths in May 2017 during long rains season, with maize as the main crop during sampling. Samples were taken from five spots per plot within each treatment following a \"W\" shaped pattern, using an auger. However, before taking soil samples at every subsequent plot, the auger and buckets were repeatedly cleaned and sterilized to avoid contamination of samples. The samples were pooled in a bucket, thoroughly mixed to make a composite sample for each treatment in each plot. Representative samples were taken, stored in cool box with frozen ice-packs and transported to the laboratory on the same day. In the laboratory, the fresh field-moist soil samples for biological assessments were sieved through 2 mm sieves and stored frozen (-20 • C) until extraction while the soil samples for chemical analyses were first air-dried and ground before sieving."},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"Soil organic carbon was determined by Carbon Nitrogen (CN) Elemental Analyser. Permanganate oxidizable carbon (POxC) was assessed from 2.5 g of soil following the procedure of Weil et al. (2003) as previously used by Culman et al. (2012). Briefly, 2.5 g of air-dried soil were weighed into centrifuge tubes, 18 mL distilled water (DI) and 2 mL (0.2 M) K 2 MnO 4 added, shaken (at 240 revolutions per minute) for min, tubes removed and allowed to settle for 10 min, thereafter 0.5 mL of the supernatant was taken and mixed with 49.5 mL of DI. From each sample, 200 μl aliquots were extracted and their concentrations read with spectrophotometer set at wavelength of 550 nm. Total N was assessed using the Kjeldahl method (Kjeldahl, 1883). Soil pH was determined in water (soil: water; 1:2), while extracts for Mehlich 3 P (Mehlich, 1984), phosphorus sorption index (PSI; Bache and Williams, 1971), Mehlich 3 Mg and Al (Mehlich, 1984) were measured using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES)."}]},{"head":"Soil sample extraction and measurement for microbial biomass","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":305,"text":"Before extraction begun, the stored field-moist soil samples were removed from the freezer (where they were kept at − 20 • C until extraction) and transferred to a cold room (4 • C) for 20 min to ease weighing. The samples were used for both the assessment of microbial biomass C, N and P, as well as extraction of DNA. Microbial biomass C, N and P were determined using chloroform fumigation direct extraction method (Vance et al., 1987). Twenty-five (25) grams of the sieved fieldmoist soil samples were weighed in triplicates. One set was fumigated for 24 h (in sealed desiccators lined with filter papers to maintain humidity) at 25 • C using ethanol-free chloroform, the other set was nonfumigated while the third set was used for soil moisture determination. The fumigated and non-fumigated soil samples were extracted by addition of 100 mL of 0.5 M potassium sulphate (K 2 SO 4 ) solution, shaken (at 150 revolutions per minute) for 1 h and filtered. Total organic C in the extracts were determined by digestion with potassium dichromate oxidising reagent and colorimetry using spectrophotometer (600 nm) as previously proposed by Bartlett and Ross (1988). Total organic N in the extracts was colorimetrically analysed by determining the nitrate in the digested samples using salicylic acid method. Chloroform fumigation-extraction method for determination of microbial biomass phosphorus involved the extraction of chloroform-fumigated and nonfumigated soil samples with 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate. The extracts were centrifuged, filtered and digested by adding ammonium persulfate, 5 M NaOH and 1.2 M H 2 SO 4 sequentially. Total P was determined colorimetrically using a spectrophotometer at 880 nm wavelength after addition of 4.0 mL of ascorbic acid and 3.0 mL of molybdate reagent solutions. Microbial biomass C, N and P were obtained by calculating the difference between the fumigated and non-fumigated samples."}]},{"head":"Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) extraction","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"DNA extraction was done after one week of soil sampling for each period. Soil DNA extraction from soil samples taken in 2016 was done using the procedure of Porteous et al. (1997), as previously used by Kihara et al. (2012). In 2017, Mo-Bio's PowerSoil DNA Isolation Kit was used to extract DNA samples following the manufacturer's protocol. To extract total DNA from the field-moist soil samples taken in 2016 season, 0.5 g of the sample was weighed into 1.5 mL Eppendorf tubes, mixed with 0.25 g glass beads and lysis buffer and homogenized for 2 min at 2500 revolutions per minute (rpm) using a minibead cell disruptor (Biospec products Inc.), before incubating (65 • C) and re-homogenizing for 2 min. This was followed by centrifuging (13,000 rpm) for 15 min at 4 • C, addition of 75 µl of 5 M potassium acetate, 250 µl of 40% polyethylene glycol (PEG), incubation for 1 h at − 20 • C, re-centrifugation (13,000 rpm). The pellets were removed, re-suspended in 600 µl of 2% CTAB, re-incubated (68 • C) for 15 min and cleaned with 600 µl of chloroform. DNA was precipitated overnight (− 20 • C) by addition of 600 µl of ice cold isopropanol. Pellets were cleaned with 70% ethanol, re-suspended in sterile double distilled water, stored at − 20 • C and shipped to MR DNA (www.mrdnalab.com, Shallowater, TX, USA) for sequencing. The DNA yield concentrations ranged between 8.5 ng/µL and 44 ng/µL."}]},{"head":"Soil DNA sequencing","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":347,"text":"At MR DNA, Illumina Sequencing technology was used for bacterial and fungal meta-barcoding. Illumina Miseq, an integrated instrument that performs clonal amplification and sequencing, was used to target the V4 hyper-variable region of the 16S rRNA gene for bacteria while for fungal meta-barcoding, internal transcribed spacer (ITS 1-2) region was targeted. For most fungal phyla, ITS 1-2 spacer regions are the most reliable targets for phylogenetic analysis. However, for most bacterial phyla, V4-V6 variable regions of 16S rRNA are the most reliable for representing the full-length 16S rRNA sequences in the phylogenetic analysis (Yang et al., 2016a), alongside being the optimal sub-regions for the design of universal primers with superior phylogenetic resolution for bacterial phyla. From each DNA sample, 1 µl of each was used for DNA sequencing. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers 515/806 with barcode on the forward primer were used in a 28 cycle PCR (5 cycle used on PCR products) using the HotStarTaq Plus Master Mix Kit (Qiagen, USA). This was performed under the following conditions: 94 • C for 3 min, followed by 28 cycles of 94 • C for 30 s, 53 • C for 40 s and 72 • C for 1 min. This was followed by a final elongation step at 72 • C for 5 min. After amplification, the quality of the PCR products were checked in 2% agarose gel before using them to prepare Illumina DNA library. Sequencing was performed on Illumina MiSeq following the manufacturer's guidelines before processing using MR DNA analysis pipeline. In summary, sequences were joined, depleted of barcodes and sequences less than 150 base pairs and sequences with ambiguous base calls removed, respectively. Sequences were denoised, operational taxonomic units (OTUs) generated and chimeras removed. Clusters of similar 16S/ 18s rRNA sequences, commonly known as Operational taxonomic units (OTUs), were defined by clustering at 3% divergence (97% similarity). Final OTUs were taxonomically classified using BLASTn against a curated database derived from RDPII and NCBI (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, http://rdp.cme.msu.edu). OTUS are the most widely used basic diversity units for large-scale characterisation of microbial communities (Schmidt et al., 2014)."}]},{"head":"Statistical data analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Before any statistical analysis was done the data were explored using CT = conventional tillage; RT = reduced tillage, M− S Rot'n = Maize and soybean rotation system, M + S Intcr'p = maize and soybean intercropping system. The effects of management factors were evaluated based on the combination of treatment codes (and symbols in superscripts) as follows; ¶= tillage, §=residue application, ₩= fertilizer application, ‡=cropping systems, ⊕=lime application (lime was applied once in 2015 only)."},{"index":2,"size":178,"text":"P. Bolo et al. scatter plots to identify (and correct) outliers as observations that were either below or above ±2.24 standard deviation units away from the mean (Kutner et al., 2005;Martin and Roberts, 2010;Aguinis et al., 2013). The uncorrected outliers were less than 1% and were removed from the dataset. The microbial species data were square root transformed. Data were analyzed using R project (R Development Core Team, 2016). Fligner-Killeen test was used to check for and confirm homogeneity of variances. Orthogonal contrast analysis was used to compare significant differences in means of different treatments and mean separation done at (p ≤ 0.05). The treatments were compared pair wise to infer effects of certain management factors embedded in certain agronomic systems. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was used to assess the relationship between the soil microbial community richness and soil chemical parameters. The CCA analysis was performed using Anacor library and cca function in Vegan library in R, overall significance was tested using anova function, and step function used to determine significant variables with permutation test at 999-maximum permutations."}]},{"head":"Results","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Overall microbial species abundance at genus level","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Overall, 839 bacterial phylotypes were identified at genus level in 2016, out of which, 107 phylotypes had relative abundance greater than 0.1% (Fig. 1). In 2017, 1350 bacterial phylotypes at genus level were identified, out of which, 137 phylotypes had relative abundance greater than 0.1% (Fig. 2). In both years, Gemmattimonas spp. were the most abundant bacterial phylotypes identified at genus level."}]},{"head":"Categories of PSMs studied","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Out of the microbial phylotypes identified in 2016 and 2017, 30 PSMs strains at genus level, falling under two broad categories of bacteria and fungi kingdoms, were identified (Table 2). Specifically, 23 bacterial PSMs strains at genus level were observed. The bacterial PSMs strains observed in 2016 comprised of Burkholderia spp., Streptomyces spp., Enterobacter spp., Actinomyces spp., Pseudomonas spp., Micromonospora spp., Rhizobium spp., Bacillus spp., Arthrobacter spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Agrobacterium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Azospirillum spp., Gemmatimonas spp., Massilia spp., Paenibacillus spp., Ralstonia spp., Rhodococcus spp., Sinomonas spp., Sphingomonas spp. and Thiobacillus spp. while in 2017, Erwinia spp., was recorded in addition to the other species reported in 2016. Fungi were studied in 2017 only, and fungal PSMs strains observed and studied at genus level were six. These fungal PSMs strains comprised of Penicillium spp., Paraglomus spp., Aspergillus spp., Trichoderma spp., Glomus spp., and Rhizoctonia spp. (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Effects of soil management factors on chemical and microbial variables 3.3.1. Reduced tillage versus conventional tillage","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"In 2017, soil pH was significantly higher in CTFr than RTFr while phosphorus sorption index was significantly higher in RTFr than CTFr (Table 3). In 2016, the population (mean species counts) of Pseudomonas spp., Arthrobacter spp. and Thiobacillus spp. were significantly higher in the reduced tillage system with residue and inorganic fertilizer application (RTFr) compared to the conventional tillage (CTFr) of the same treatment (Table 4). On the other hand, in the same year, CTFr significantly increased the population of Micromonospora spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Agrobacterium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Ralstonia spp., and Sphingomonas spp., relative to RTFr (Table 4). In 2017, the populations of Penicillium spp., Glomus spp., Aspergillus spp., Trichoderma spp., and Actinomyces spp. were also significantly higher in RTFr compared to CTFr system. Streptomyces spp., Enterobacter spp., Arthrobacter spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Paenibacillus spp., Ralstonia spp. and Rhodococcus spp. were significantly higher in CTFr than RTFr systems in (Table 5)."}]},{"head":"Residue application versus no residue addition","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"PSI was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in in the reduced tillage system with residue and inorganic fertilizer application (RTFr) than similar system without residue application (RTF) in 2017 (Table 3). MBP significantly increased in RTFr compared RTF in 2016 (Table 4). Interestingly, RTFr significantly increased the population counts of Burkholderia spp., Streptomyces spp., Actinomyces spp., Pseudomonas spp., Micromonospora spp., Rhizobium spp., Bacillus spp., Arthrobacter spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Agrobacterium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Azospirillum spp., Gemmatimonas spp., Massilia spp., Paenibacillus spp., Ralstonia spp., Rhodococcus spp., Sinomonas spp., Sphingomonas spp. and Thiobacillus spp. compared to RTF in 2016. In 2017, RTFr significantly increased soil phosphorus sorption index and populations of Aspergillus spp., Trichoderma spp., Glomus spp., and Thiobacillus spp., compared to RTF. However, the populations of Enterobacter spp. and Streptomyces spp. were significantly higher in RTF compared to RTFr in (Table 5). "}]},{"head":"Maize-soybean intercropping versus maize-soybean rotation","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"In 2017, POxC was significantly higher in the reduced tillage with intercropping (RT.int) than with maize and soybean rotation (RT.rot) systems (Table 3). The populations of Arthrobacter spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Agrobacterium spp. and Azospirillum spp., were significantly higher in the RT.rot than than RT.int whereas Pseudomonas spp., were higher in RT.int compared RT.rot in 2016 (Table 4). In 2017, maize and soybean intercropping system (RT.int) significantly increased Penicillium spp., Streptomyces spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Rhizobium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp. and Paenibacillus spp. populations whereas Erwinia spp., Enterobacter spp., Actinomyces spp., Arthrobacter spp., and Gemmatimonas spp., populations significantly increased in RT.rot than RT.int."}]},{"head":"Fertiliser addition versus no fertiliser application","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"In 2017, POxC and P were significantly higher (p < 0.05) while Mehlich 3 Mg and PSI significantly decreased in conventional tillage treatment with residue and fertiliser application (CTFr) than in the same system without NP fertiliser application (CTr;   "}]},{"head":"Addition of lime versus no lime application","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":466,"text":"Application of lime in the conventional tillage system under maize and soybean intercropping (CTint+L) significantly reduced (there was a minor difference) PSI compared to the same system without lime (CTint-L) (Table 3). However, in 2017, no effect of liming on soil pH was found. In 2016 and 2017, the abundance of PSMs involving Burkholderia spp.,   Values for MBC, MBN and MBP, respectively are means for Microbial biomass carbon, biomass nitrogen and biomass. Values for PSMs are mean OTUs counts for the year 2016. CT = conventional tillage, RT = reduced tillage, Int = maize-soybean intercrop, Rot = maize-soybean rotation, + = with, − = without, CTFr = conventional tillage (CT) with 60 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover, RTFr = reduced tillage (RT) with 60 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover, RTF = RT with 60 kg N, 60 kg P ha -1 minus residue, CTr = CT with 2 Mg ha − 1 stover only, RT.int = maize-soybean intercropping under RT with 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover, RT.rot = maizesoybean rotation under RT with 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover targeting soybean phase, CTint + L = CT intercrop with 0 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 , 2 Mg ha − 1 stover and 2 Mg ha − 1 lime, CTint-L = CT intercrop with 0 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 , 2 Mg ha − 1 stover and no lime. Values for PSMs are mean OTUs counts for the year 2016. CT = conventional tillage, RT = reduced tillage, Int = maize-soybean intercrop, Rot = maize-soybean rotation, + = with, − = without, CTFr = CT with 60 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover, RTFr = RT with 60 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover, RTF = RT with 60 kg N, 60 kg P ha -1 minus residue, CTr = CT with 2 Mg ha − 1 stover only, RT.int = maize-soybean intercropping under RT with 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover, RT.rot = maize-soybean rotation under RT with 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover targeting soybean phase, CTint + L = CT intercrop with 0 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 , 2 Mg ha − 1 stover and 2 Mg ha − 1 lime, CTint-L = CT intercrop with 0 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 , 2 Mg ha − 1 stover and no lime."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"P. Bolo et al. Micrococcus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Rhizobium spp., Arthrobacter spp., Agrobacterium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Azospirillum spp., Massilia spp., Ralstonia spp. and Rhodococcus spp.; as well as Paraglomus spp., Trichoderma spp., Erwinia spp. and Mesorhizobium spp. significantly reduced in the conventional tillage system with addition of lime under maize and soybean intercropping (CTint+L) than similar system without lime (CTint-L) application (Table 4; Table 5). However, Arthrobacter spp., Enterobacter spp., Paenibacillus spp. and Rhodococcus spp. abundance significantly increased in CTint+L than CTint-L in 2017."}]},{"head":"Relationship between soil chemical parameters and PSMs","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) results, only in 2017, revealed significant (p < 0.05) relationship between soil chemical parameters and abundance of PSMs. Soil pH, total Mg, Al, SOC and P (Mehlich III) significantly correlated (p < 0.05) with the PSMs (Fig. 3, Table 6). Arthrobacter spp., Azospirillum spp., Bacillus spp., Burkholderia spp., Gemmatimonas spp. Penicillium spp., Sphingomonas spp. and Trichoderma spp. were significantly affected by the environmental variables. Available P strongly positively correlated with Penicillium spp. and Trichoderma spp., but negatively with Bacillus spp, Burkholderia spp. and Sphingomonas spp. Soil pH and total Mg strongly negatively correlated with Trichoderma spp., Penicillium spp., Gemmatimonas spp. and Burkholderia spp. but positively correlated with Bacillus spp. Most PSMs assumed centroid distribution with their abundance positively correlating with SOC, total nitrogen and POxC (Fig. 3)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Benefits of reduced tillage for microbial biomass and PSMs species abundance","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":446,"text":"This study points out the positive aspects of practicing reduced tillage compared to conventional tillage on microbial biomass and abundance of PSMs. In the reduced tillage system, the higher MBP and PSMs abundance may be explained by minimal soil disturbance (Kihara et al., 2012(Kihara et al., , 2018;;Choi et al., 2017) increased accumulation of organic matter and nutrient availability compared to conventional tillage systems (Chu et al., 2007;Sun et al., 2015;Li et al., 2017); but also improved soil environmental conditions favoring microbial growth and activities (Juan et al., 2015;García-Orenes et al., 2013). Increased microbial biomass in the reduced compared to conventional tillage systems observed in this study is consistent with previous studies in the same site (Kihara et al., 2012(Kihara et al., , 2018)), and elsewhere in the United States of America (Mathew et al., 2012) and Asia (Guo et al., 2016), all attributing the higher microbial biomass to either increased quantity of SOC, reduced soil disturbance and/or improved nutrient levels. Soil organic carbon and nutrients are important source of food and energy to the soil microbial population (Logah et al., 2010), and this explains the positive correlation between SOC, total nitrogen and POxC with soil PSMs (Table 3, Fig. 3). Soil chemical characteristics such as soil pH, POxC, SOC and total N are important edaphic parameters that influence the microbial species abundance and distribution, explaining their  significant correlations with PSMs. Generally, the centroid distribution of PSMs in response to soil properties (Fig. 3) indicates these species had similar environmental preferences (Vink et al., 2003). Tillage associated disturbances in the conventional tillage systems can cause increased soil compaction and reduction of pore volumes, microbial desiccation, mechanical killing, limited substrate availability and disruption of access to food resources, thus rendering soils susceptible to unfavorable conditions for microbial growth and activities (Giller, 1996;Zhou et al., 2002;Bargaz et al., 2012;Choi et al., 2017;Szoboszlay et al., 2017), thus the reduced microbial biomass and abundance of PSMs in the conventional tillage systems. In addition, tillage associated disturbances in the conventional tillage can also lead to microbial communities mostly dominated by aerobic microbes (Mathew et al., 2012) following continuous opening of the soil during cultivation. This explains the increased abundance of PSMs involving Micromonospora spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Agrobacterium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Ralstonia spp. and Sphingomonas spp. in 2016 and Streptomyces spp., Enterobacter spp., Arthrobacter spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Paenibacillus spp., Ralstonia spp. and Rhodococcus spp. (in 2017) in the conventional tillage treatment (CTFr) than reduced tillage treatment (RTFr) systems. This is also consistent with previous findings (Muriithi-Muchane, 2013) who worked on related processes and reported higher arbuscular mycorrhiza species (i.e., Glomus spp.) diversity in CT than in NT systems in the same locality."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Improved PSMs abundance observed in the current study can be assumed to positively correlate with their activities (Ndungu-Magiroi et al., 2015;Margenot et al., 2017) resulting to increased P availability. However, it remains unclear if the quantities of such P mineralized or solubilized by PSMs, especially in combination with other inputs, would reduce the quantity of inorganic P fertilizer demands, consequently relieving the farmers of some financial burdens incurred in purchasing such inorganic P fertilizers. For instance, PSMs, in combination with either inorganic triple super phosphate (TSP) fertiliser or rock phosphates, respectively, can decrease P fertilizer demands by 25% and 50%, respectively (Sundara et al., 2002)."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Moreover, the slightly lower soil pH in the reduced and conventional tillage systems (Table 4) could contribute towards the proliferation of both pH specialist and pH selective species of PSMs (Andrade et al., 2002). The pH specialist and acidophilic microbial PSMs like Thiobacillus spp. were previously reported to be more dominant in relatively acidic environments (Harrison Jr, 1984) and this could also explain their increased abundance in the slightly lower pH in the reduced tillage (RTFr) than conventional tillage system (CTFr)."}]},{"head":"Stimulation of microbial biomass and PSMs species abundance with residue addition","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"The current study recognizes the benefits of residue addition on soil chemical and microbial variables. The consistent increase in some of the PSMs species abundance and MBP (Tables 4; 5) following residue addition (RTFr) relative to residue omission (RTF) indicates increased accumulation, and greater accessibility, of SOC as food by the microbes (Mathew et al., 2012;Mårtensson and Olsson, 2012;Kihara et al., 2012Kihara et al., , 2018)). This is consistent with the increase in the richness of PSMs observed in Burkholderia spp., Streptomyces spp., Actinomyces spp., Pseudomonas spp., Micromonospora spp., Rhizobium spp., Bacillus spp., Arthrobacter spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Agrobacterium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Azospirillum spp., Gemmatimonas spp., Massilia spp., Paenibacillus spp., Ralstonia spp., Rhodococcus spp., Sinomonas spp., Sphingomonas spp. and Thiobacillus spp. in the reduced tillage system with residue addition compared to the same system with no residue addition. This corroborates previous findings by Muriithi-Muchane (2013) who observed significant increase in P-efficient arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi richness following residue application in the same locality."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Similar observations with other PSMs are documented in other studies (St. John et al., 1983;Albertsen et al., 2006;Gryndler et al., 2006) which are also linked to continuous organic matter inputs that act as important food (carbon) and energy sources for microbial growth and activity (Logah et al., 2010). The added residues could have also improved soil physicochemical conditions, protected microsites, created microclimate, and/or at least, reduced losses of C from soils (Kihara, 2009;Kihara et al., 2012;Sharma-Poudyal et al., 2017;Sommer et al., 2018); directly favouring microbial proliferation and activities (Gougoulias et al., 2014) as observed in the study."},{"index":3,"size":203,"text":"Although there was a significant increase in MBP, addition of residue at 2 Mg ha − 1 did not increase MBC and MBN, and this indicates that there is probably a threshold for crop residue return into the soil that could effectively and significantly stimulate increases in microbial biomass and SOC. Identification of this threshold for crop residue return may therefore be vital in the management of soil organic carbon and microbial biomass. In a previous study in the same site, Sommer et al. (2017) reported that residue and fertiliser addition only reduced SOC losses but with no effects in soil carbon sequestration. Our observation is consistent with Zhang et al. (2016) who reported that microbial biomass only increased significantly following incorporation of residues at 5 Mg ha − 1 but not 2.5 Mg ha − 1 . In our site, residue was applied at 2 Mg ha − 1 , which is even lower than 2.5 Mg ha − 1 reported in Zhang et al. (2016). In addition, the faster rates of residue disappearance previously observed in this site (Kihara et al., 2015) could limit SOC and substrate availability thereby suppressing microbial growth and activities and consequently reducing microbial abundance as observed."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"The slightly higher SOC content in the residue addition (RTFr) than no residue application (RTF) treatments demonstrates increased microbial activities involving breakdown of residues (Kihara et al., 2015) and mineralization of the added residues following stimulation of microbial abundance by SOC and substrate availability. However, this observation is inconsistent with Paul et al. (2013), perhaps due to difference in the years that the samplings were done. Paul et al. (2013) conducted sampling when the trial was about 5 years old (i.e., 11 cropping seasons) while for our study, sampling was done when the trial was 15 years old (30 cropping seasons). Previous studies found that residue retention combined with mineral fertilizers positively influenced upper SOC (Bationo et al., 2007;Chivenge et al., 2007Chivenge et al., , 2011;;Anyanzwa et al., 2011) and this is consistent with our results."}]},{"head":"Increase in PSMs abundance in the absence of P and lime","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":269,"text":"Although liming and P fertilizer additions have been promoted to increase P availability in western Kenya (Kisinyo et al., 2014), approximately 80% of soils in the region are still P deficient (Jama and Van Straaten, 2006;Opala et al., 2013); and this affects biological P cycling. Even when P inputs are applied, the high P fixation capacity of the Ferralsols would cause P lock-up in different pools, resulting to less available P and high total soil P (Ayaga et al., 2006), with the reduced P availability likely to stimulate the activities of P-efficient microbial species as previously reported in the same locality (Margenot et al., 2017). This study demonstrated that PSMs abundance was greatly stimulated in the absence of P or lime application compared to application of either lime or fertilizer inputs. In the study, no significant effect of liming on soil pH was found, probably because liming was done only once in 2015. The reduction of PSMs abundance in the lime-applied (CTint + L) and fertilizer-applied (CTFr) treatments compared to no lime (CTint-L) or fertilizer (CTr) additions demonstrates suppressive effects of increased inorganic P availability on PSMs (Gosling et al., 2006). Higher inorganic P can hinder microbial expression of P-associated enzymes, thus reducing their abundance and activities (Nannipieri et al., 2011). Liming often relieves P limitation by modifying soil pH and reducing P fixation (Li et al., 2019), and consequently enhancing P availability. Changes in soil pH following no lime additions could directly affect soil carbon, nutrient mineralization and availability (Kemmitt et al., 2006;Wu et al., 2017), thereby affecting soil microbial structure, abundance and distribution (Carrero-Colón et al., 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":239,"text":"Recently, Olsson et al. (2006) established that high available P levels in a system (and in plants) can lower allocation of carbon to some PSMs species (specifically the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi reported herein as Glomus spp. and Paraglomus spp.), and this can compromise their proliferation and activities. Fertilizer addition raises the concentrations of available phosphorus in the soil, but with inhibitory effects on growth and activities of most P-efficient microbial species like PSMs (Gosling et al., 2006;Aislabie et al., 2013;Liu et al., 2016). However, the increase in PSMs in the treatments without lime (CTint-L) nor fertilizer addition (CTr) indicate limited P availability that would otherwise stimulate the proliferation and activities of P-efficient microbial species like PSMs (Olander and Vitousek, 2000;Rosolem et al., 2014). This corroborates the findings from previous studies done on related microbial properties in the same locality. For instance, Margenot et al. (2017) observed that application of poorly soluble P input (i.e., Minjingu phosphate rock; MPR) stimulated P-efficient microbial communities more than application of TSP fertilizers. Similarly, in the same locality, Muriithi-Muchane (2013) reported increased Arbuscular mycorrhizal species (Glomus spp.) richness and diversity in unfertilized than fertilized conventional tillage. The reduced P availability following application of poorly soluble MPR (Margenot et al., 2017) or no fertilizer addition (Muriithi-Muchane, 2013) is consistent with the limited P availability following no fertilizer or lime application in this study; with both resulting to the observed increases in PSMs and related activities."},{"index":3,"size":163,"text":"This study also indicates that not all the PSMs species are suppressed by liming and fertilizer addition. Liming and fertilizer addition improves soil nutritional status and crop biomass production favoring greater organic matter return to the soil, and consequently improved food availability for PSMs growth and activities. The increase in some PSMs with liming and fertilizer addition is an indication that increasing P (nutrient) availability can positively influence the proliferation of certain P-efficient but nutrient sensitive microbial species, amongst them being mycorrhizal helper bacterial species (e.g., Paenibacillus spp., Rhodococcus spp., Arthrobacter spp. and Enterobacter spp) whose abundance is greatly influenced by soil nutritional status and environmental factors (Zaidi et al., 2009); but play numerous integral roles that promote self-regulating soil microbiome (Frey-Klett and Garbaye, 2005;Frey-Klett et al., 2007;Prasad et al., 2012). This corroborates the findings of a recent study where long-term lime amendments, besides increasing P availability, increased the abundance of PSMs genes with different rhizospheric nutrient cycling properties (Bossolani et al., 2020)."}]},{"head":"Benefits of maize-soybean intercropping versus rotation systems on microbial biomass and PSMs species abundance","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"The current study identifies the positive impacts between maizesoybean intercropping versus rotation systems on microbial biomass and abundance of PSMs. The study demonstrated that the populations of majority of PSMs involving Pseudomonas spp. (in 2016), Penicillium spp., Streptomyces spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Rhizobium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp. and Paenibacillus spp. (in 2017) significantly increased in the intercrop system (RT.int) compared to rotation system (RT.rot) and this indicates that these PSMs perhaps had greater ability to effectively utilize root metabolites and decompose the diverse crop residues in the intercrop than rotation systems. Intercropped systems contain a variety of crops compared to rotation systems and this increases residue availability and production of root metabolites, thereby influencing organic carbon and diverse substrate availability (Sun et al., 2015) that could shape the microbial structure, growth and activities (Tan et al., 2019) as observed in the study. In addition, the slightly higher microbial biomass and significantly higher PSMs abundance in the intercropped systems could reflect the possibility of direct contact of the PSMs with the crop roots that likely stimulated the roots to produce more nutrients (Song et al., 2007) and metabolites for microbial growth and activities."},{"index":2,"size":221,"text":"Besides addition of more soil organic matter that could also increase the PSMs abundance in the intercropped than rotation systems, the higher biodiversity in intercropped systems have different rates of P root uptake and can promote stiff competition for nutrients leading to nutrient deficiency (especially P) (Zhang and Li, 2003;Li et al., 2009;Latati et al., 2016;Xue et al., 2016) and this could favor colonization and proliferation of P solubilizers (Liu et al., 2016). The impact of nutrient availability on soil microbial structure, abundance and activities could also influence the proliferation of PSMs as observed. The slightly higher SOC in the intercrop than rotation systems indicate that SOC could contribute in shaping the structure of microbial biomass and community abundance (Lian et al., 2019). Previous reports (Harinikumar et al., 1990;Kihara et al., 2012;Vukicevich et al., 2016;Mandou et al., 2016;Yang et al., 2016b) linked increased microbial abundance in the intercropped systems to accumulation of soil organic carbon and nutrient enrichment. Higher P demand and uptake in maize than soybean probably caused reduction of P availability in the maize-soybean rotation (RT.rot) than RT.int systems (and considering the fact that the study was conducted during maize phase), consequently prompting microbial P release response evidenced through increase in populations of PSMs involving Arthrobacter spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Agrobacterium spp. and Azospirillum spp. in RT.rot than RT.int system."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"In this study, we demonstrated the influence of different agronomic management factors like residue addition, tillage, fertilizer addition, liming and cropping systems have on soil chemical and microbial variables. Residue addition, reduced tillage and maize-soybean intercropping system improved soil chemical characteristics, microbial biomass and PSMs abundance. Fertiliser addition and liming are known to promote self-regulating soil microbiome systems by increasing P availability, yet interestingly, the system can sometimes respond by downregulating the microbes that provide P under natural conditions (i.e., no fertiliser and no lime). Thus, it would be interesting if further research can focus on; i) estimating the quantity of phosphorus that can be solubilized by the different PSMs species reported in the study, and ii) unravelling the economics of microbial mineralization of nutrients versus the costs of inorganic input application."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Relative abundance (>0.1%) of bacterial OTUS identified in the short rains season of 2016 in CT1 site. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Relative abundance (>0.1%) of bacterial OTUS identified in the long rains season of 2017 in CT1 site. "},{"text":" Values are means of different variables assessed in the year 2017. POxC = Permanganate oxidizable carbon, PSI = phosphorus sorption index, CT = conventional tillage, RT = reduced tillage, Int = maize-soybean intercrop, Rot = maize-soybean rotation, + = with, − = without, CTFr = conventional tillage with 60 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover, RTFr = reduced tillage with 60 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover, RTF = reduced tillage with 60 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 minus residue, CTr = conventional tillage with 2 Mg ha − 1 stover only, RT.int = maize-soybean intercropping under reduced tillage with 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover, RT.rot = maize-soybean rotation under reduced tillage with 60 kg P ha − 1 and 2 Mg ha − 1 stover targeting soybean phase, CTint + L = conventional tillage intercrop with 0 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 , 2 Mg ha − 1 stover and 2 Mg ha − 1 lime, CTint-L = conventional tillage intercrop with 0 kg N, 60 kg P ha − 1 , 2 Mg ha − 1 stover and no lime; * Mehlich III extracted. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) results showing the relationship between the chemical properties and PSMs species' abundance in CT1 trial in 2017. pH = soil pH, CN = carbon to nitrogen ratio, SOC = soil organic carbon, Active_C = POxC, tN = total nitrogen (%). "},{"text":"Table 1 Description of the treatments selected for the study in CT1-Nyabeda site, western Kenya. Treatment code Tillage Cropping system Residue (Mg ha − 1 ) N (Kg ha − 1 ) P (Kg ha − 1 ) K (Kg ha − 1 ) Lime (Mg ha − 1 ) Treatment codeTillageCropping systemResidue (Mg ha − 1 )N (Kg ha − 1 )P (Kg ha − 1 )K (Kg ha − 1 )Lime (Mg ha − 1 ) RTFr  ¶ § CTFr  ¶₩ RTF  § CTr ₩ RT CT RT CT M− S Rot'n M− S Rot'n M− S Rot'n M− S Rot'n 2 2 0 2 60 60 60 0 60 60 60 0 60 60 60 60 0 0 0 0 RTFr  ¶ § CTFr  ¶₩ RTF  § CTr ₩RT CT RT CTM− S Rot'n M− S Rot'n M− S Rot'n M− S Rot'n2 2 0 260 60 60 060 60 60 060 60 60 600 0 0 0 RT.rot  ‡ RT M− S Rot'n 2 0 60 60 0 RT.rot  ‡RTM− S Rot'n2060600 RT.int  ‡ RT M + S Intcr'p 2 0 60 60 0 RT.int  ‡RTM + S Intcr'p2060600 CTint + L⊕ CT M + S Intcr'p 2 0 60 60 2 CTint + L⊕CTM + S Intcr'p2060602 CTint-L⊕ CT M + S Intcr'p 2 0 60 60 0 CTint-L⊕CTM + S Intcr'p2060600  "},{"text":"Table 3 ) . MBP was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in CTr than CTFr in 2016 (Table4). With the exception of Thiobacillus spp., the populations of Burkholderia spp.  "},{"text":"Table 2 Taxonomic information of the bacterial and fungal PSMs identified in the study site. Kingdom Division Class Order Family Genus KingdomDivisionClassOrderFamilyGenus Bacteria Actinobacteria Actinobacteria Actinobacteridae Micrococcaceae Micrococcus BacteriaActinobacteriaActinobacteriaActinobacteridaeMicrococcaceaeMicrococcus    Actinomycetales Actinomycetaceae Actinomyces ActinomycetalesActinomycetaceaeActinomyces     Micrococcaceae Arthrobacter MicrococcaceaeArthrobacter      Sinomonas Sinomonas     Micromonosporaceae Micromonospora MicromonosporaceaeMicromonospora   Actinomycetes  Nocardiaceae Rhodococcus ActinomycetesNocardiaceaeRhodococcus     Streptomycetaceae Streptomyces StreptomycetaceaeStreptomyces  Firmicutes Bacilli Bacillales Bacillaceae Bacillus FirmicutesBacilliBacillalesBacillaceaeBacillus     Paenibacillaceae Paenibacillus PaenibacillaceaePaenibacillus  Gemmatimonadetes Gemmatimonadetes Gemmatimonales Gemmatimonaceae Gemmatimonas GemmatimonadetesGemmatimonadetesGemmatimonalesGemmatimonaceaeGemmatimonas  Proteobacteria Alphaproteobacteria Rhizobiales Bradyrhizobiaceae Bradyrhizobium ProteobacteriaAlphaproteobacteriaRhizobialesBradyrhizobiaceaeBradyrhizobium     Phyllobacteriaceae Mesorhizobium PhyllobacteriaceaeMesorhizobium     Rhizobiaceae Agrobacterium RhizobiaceaeAgrobacterium      Rhizobium Rhizobium    Rhodospirillales Rhodospirillaceae Azospirillum RhodospirillalesRhodospirillaceaeAzospirillum    Sphingomonadales Sphingomonadaceae Sphingomonas SphingomonadalesSphingomonadaceaeSphingomonas   Betaproteobacteria Burkholderiales Burkholderiaceae Burkholderia BetaproteobacteriaBurkholderialesBurkholderiaceaeBurkholderia     Oxalobacteraceae Massilia OxalobacteraceaeMassilia     Ralstoniaceae Ralstonia RalstoniaceaeRalstonia    Nitrosomonadales Thiobacillacaeae Thiobacillus NitrosomonadalesThiobacillacaeaeThiobacillus   Gammaproteobacteria Enterobacterales Enterobacteriaceae Enterobacter GammaproteobacteriaEnterobacteralesEnterobacteriaceaeEnterobacter     Erwiniaceae Erwinia ErwiniaceaeErwinia    Pseudomonadales Pseudomonadaceae Pseudomonas PseudomonadalesPseudomonadaceaePseudomonas Fungi Ascomycota Eurotiomycetes Eurotiales Trichocomaceae Aspergillus FungiAscomycotaEurotiomycetesEurotialesTrichocomaceaeAspergillus      Penicillium Penicillium  Ascomycota Sordariomycetes Hypocreales Hypocreaceae Trichoderma AscomycotaSordariomycetesHypocrealesHypocreaceaeTrichoderma  Basidiomycota Agaricomycetes Cantharellales Ceratobasidiaceae Rhizoctonia BasidiomycotaAgaricomycetesCantharellalesCeratobasidiaceaeRhizoctonia  Glomeromycota Glomeromycetes Glomerales Glomeraceae Glomus GlomeromycotaGlomeromycetesGlomeralesGlomeraceaeGlomus    Paraglomerales Paraglomeraceae Paraglomus ParaglomeralesParaglomeraceaeParaglomus  "},{"text":"Table 3 Chemical variables for the different systems studied in CT1 study site in 2017. Chemical Tillage factor Residue factor  Fertilizer factor  Cropping systems factor Liming factor   ChemicalTillage factorResidue factorFertilizer factorCropping systems factorLiming factor Variables CT RT  + −  + −  Int Rot  + −  VariablesCTRT+−+−IntRot+−  CTFr RTFr P- RTFr RTF P- CTFr CTr P- RT. RT. P- CTint + L CTint- P- CTFrRTFrP-RTFrRTFP-CTFrCTrP-RT.RT.P-CTint + LCTint-P-    value   value   value int rot value  L value valuevaluevalueintrotvalueLvalue POxC (mgkg − 1 ) 258 257 0.98 257 231 0.42 258 339 0.02 369 286 0.03 391 325 0.42 POxC (mgkg − 1 )2582570.982572310.422583390.023692860.033913250.42 Total N (%) 0.18 0.18 >0.99 0.18 0.17 0.44 0.18 0.17 0.25 0.19 0.18 0.25 0.18 0.19 0.44 Total N (%)0.180.18>0.990.180.170.440.180.170.250.190.180.250.180.190.44 SOC (%) 1.99 1.96 0.73 1.96 1.89 0.55 1.99 1.90 0.39 2.00 1.88 0.27 1.96 2.01 0.55 SOC (%)1.991.960.731.961.890.551.991.900.392.001.880.271.962.010.55 C:N 11.00 10.95 0.86 10.95 11.05 0.75 11.00 11.04 0.91 10.77 10.79 0.96 10.59 10.79 0.75 C:N11.0010.950.8610.9511.050.7511.0011.040.9110.7710.790.9610.5910.790.75 Soil pH P* (mgkg − 1 ) Mg* (mgkg − 1 ) Al* (mgkg − 1 ) PSI (mgkg − 1 ) 4.95 36.57 99.70 1180 188 4.67 30.69 78.83 1183 234 0.02 0.71 0.25 0.95 <0.01 4.67 30.69 78.83 1183 235 4.79 25.58 96.7 1103 199 0.29 0.74 0.32 0.16 0.02 4.95 36.57 99.7 1180 188 5.15 0.43 137 1097 223 0.11 0.03 0.05 0.15 0.02 5.18 27.07 141 1073 199 5.04 18.76 140 1080 198 0.23 0.59 0.98 0.90 0.94 5.45 22 119 998 191 5.13 19.28 1356 1100 195 0.29 0.74 0.32 0.16 0.02 Soil pH P* (mgkg − 1 ) Mg* (mgkg − 1 ) Al* (mgkg − 1 ) PSI (mgkg − 1 )4.95 36.57 99.70 1180 1884.67 30.69 78.83 1183 2340.02 0.71 0.25 0.95 <0.014.67 30.69 78.83 1183 2354.79 25.58 96.7 1103 1990.29 0.74 0.32 0.16 0.024.95 36.57 99.7 1180 1885.15 0.43 137 1097 2230.11 0.03 0.05 0.15 0.025.18 27.07 141 1073 1995.04 18.76 140 1080 1980.23 0.59 0.98 0.90 0.945.45 22 119 998 1915.13 19.28 1356 1100 1950.29 0.74 0.32 0.16 0.02  "},{"text":"Table 4 Microbial biomass and PSMs operational taxonomic units (OTUS) across various systems in 2016 in CT1 study site. Biological Tillage factor Residue factor  Fertilizer factor  Cropping systems factor Liming factor   BiologicalTillage factorResidue factorFertilizer factorCropping systems factorLiming factor Variables CT RT  + −  + −  Int Rot  + −  VariablesCTRT+−+−IntRot+−  CTFr RTFr P- RTFr RTF P- CTFr CTr P- RT. RT. P- CTint CTint- P- CTFrRTFrP-RTFrRTFP-CTFrCTrP-RT.RT.P-CTintCTint-P-    value   value   value int rot value + L L value valuevaluevalueintrotvalue+ LLvalue MBC (mg kg − 1 ) MBN (mg kg − 1 ) MBP (mg kg − 1 ) 44.15 8.14 0.41 57.48 6.39 1.4 0.60 0.45 0.05 57.48 6.39 1.4 87.95 6.92 0.25 0.23 0.80 0.03 44.15 8.14 0.41 88.22 11.55 1.46 0.23 0.80 0.03 83 8.22 0.76 58.9 5.59 0.51 0.34 0.21 0.56 75.33 8.19 0.92 61.88 8.87 1.41 0.59 0.74 0.27 MBC (mg kg − 1 ) MBN (mg kg − 1 ) MBP (mg kg − 1 )44.15 8.14 0.4157.48 6.39 1.40.60 0.45 0.0557.48 6.39 1.487.95 6.92 0.250.23 0.80 0.0344.15 8.14 0.4188.22 11.55 1.460.23 0.80 0.0383 8.22 0.7658.9 5.59 0.510.34 0.21 0.5675.33 8.19 0.9261.88 8.87 1.410.59 0.74 0.27 Actinomyces spp. 242 395 0.09 395 56 <0.01 242 50 0.04 3 21 0.23 62  0.41 Actinomyces spp.2423950.0939556<0.01242500.043210.23620.41 Agrobacterium spp. 41 18 0.01 18 3 0.05 41 2 <0.01 134 334 0.05 4 33 <0.01 Agrobacterium spp.41180.011830.05412<0.011343340.05433<0.01 Arthrobacter spp. 6658 9984 0.01 9984 948 <0.01 6658 650 <0.01 1526 1901 0.47 1036 8524 <0.01 Arthrobacter spp.665899840.019984948<0.016658650<0.01152619010.4710368524<0.01 Azospirillum spp. 1540 1283 0.26 1283 263 <0.01 1540 103 <0.01 1608 1377 0.65 199  0.05 Azospirillum spp.154012830.261283263<0.011540103<0.01160813770.651990.05 Bacillus spp. 1652 2558 0.13 2558 319 <0.01 1652 289 0.02 1618 2336 0.39 1954 2767 0.17 Bacillus spp.165225580.132558319<0.0116522890.02161823360.39195427670.17 Bradyrhizobium 3765 2622 0.05 2622 87 <0.01 3765 291 <0.01 6 26 0.01 203 1469 0.03 Bradyrhizobium376526220.05262287<0.013765291<0.016260.0120314690.03 spp.                spp. Burkholderia spp. 9310 9774 0.85 9774 118 <0.01 9310 1617 0.01 5105 8039 0.22 2058 7219 0.05 Burkholderia spp.931097740.859774118<0.01931016170.01510580390.22205872190.05 Enterobacter spp. 8 5 0.87 5 2 0.80 8 3 0.72 2439 2636 0.73 2 31 0.06 Enterobacter spp.850.87520.80830.72243926360.732310.06 Gemmatimonas 50,020 40,217 0.33 40,217 2235 <0.01 50,020 6236 <0.01 449 1145 0.01 9798 25,953 0.12 Gemmatimonas50,02040,2170.3340,2172235<0.0150,0206236<0.0144911450.01979825,9530.12 spp.                spp. Massilia spp. 2856 2384 0.21 2384 61 <0.01 2856 310 <0.01 1591 1286 0.40 516 2636 <0.01 Massilia spp.285623840.21238461<0.012856310<0.01159112860.405162636<0.01 Mesorhizobium 610 385 0.03 385 6 <0.01 610 46 <0.01 3915 6886 <0.01 155  0.17 Mesorhizobium6103850.033856<0.0161046<0.0139156886<0.011550.17 spp.                spp. Micromonospora 912 1436 0.02 1436 62 <0.01 912 282 <0.01 4155 2536 <0.01 948  0.41 Micromonospora91214360.02143662<0.01912282<0.0141552536<0.019480.41 spp.                spp. Paenibacillus spp. 78 282 0.08 282 4 0.02 78 5 0.04 85 53 0.76 113  0.22 Paenibacillus spp.782820.0828240.027850.0485530.761130.22 Pseudomonas spp. 1542 3862 <0.01 3862 206 <0.01 1542 431 <0.01 166 267 0.23 685 2001 <0.01 Pseudomonas spp.15423862<0.013862206<0.011542431<0.011662670.236852001<0.01 Ralstonia spp. 1430 558 <0.01 558 9 <0.01 1430 113 <0.01 694 567 0.42 158  <0.01 Ralstonia spp.1430558<0.015589<0.011430113<0.016945670.42158<0.01 Rhizobium spp. 4560 3308 0.15 3308 168 <0.01 4560 267 <0.01 1809 1581 0.23 472 1989 0.05 Rhizobium spp.456033080.153308168<0.014560267<0.01180915810.2347219890.05 Rhodococcus spp. 64 122 0.11 122 10 <0.01 64 13 0.15 159 162 0.95 5  <0.01 Rhodococcus spp.641220.1112210<0.0164130.151591620.955<0.01 Sinomonas spp. 691 722 0.85 722 36 <0.01 691 119 <0.01 545 378 0.36 77  0.05 Sinomonas spp.6917220.8572236<0.01691119<0.015453780.36770.05 Sphingomonas spp. 11,070 3950 <0.01 3950 84 0.03 11,070 566 <0.01 1508 2273 0.66 751 3325 0.16 Sphingomonas spp.11,0703950<0.013950840.0311,070566<0.01150822730.6675133250.16 Streptomyces spp. 2275 3552 0.07 3552 618 <0.01 2275 334 0.01 6 3 0.54 818 1530 0.28 Streptomyces spp.227535520.073552618<0.0122753340.01630.5481815300.28 Thiobacillus spp. 1314 1928 <0.01 1928 794 0.04 1314 1516 <0.01 590 750 0.35 1853 1851 0.07 Thiobacillus spp.13141928<0.0119287940.0413141516<0.015907500.35185318510.07  "},{"text":"Table 5 PSMs operational taxonomic units (OTUS) across various systems in 2017 in CT1 study site of Western Kenya. PSMs Tillage factor   Residue factor  Fertilizer factor  Cropping systems factor  Liming factor   PSMsTillage factorResidue factorFertilizer factorCropping systems factorLiming factor  CT RT  + −  + −  Int Rot  + −  CTRT+−+−IntRot+−  CTFr RTFr P-value RTFr RTF P-value CTFr CTr P-value RT.int RT.rot P-value CTint + L CTint-L P-value CTFrRTFrP-valueRTFrRTFP-valueCTFrCTrP-valueRT.intRT.rotP-valueCTint + LCTint-LP-value Actinomyces spp. 245 437 0.03 437 312 0.11 245 336 0.24 282 483 0.02 279  0.28 Actinomyces spp.2454370.034373120.112453360.242824830.022790.28 Agrobacterium spp. 10 2 0.38 2 15 0.15 10 6 0.59 8 10 0.83 19  0.19 Agrobacterium spp.1020.382150.151060.598100.83190.19 Arthrobacter spp. 549 263 <0.01 263 291 0.65 549 530 0.76 263 393 0.04 553  <0.01 Arthrobacter spp.549263<0.012632910.655495300.762633930.04553<0.01 Aspergillus spp. 24 411 <0.01 411 94 <0.01 24 87 0.39 52 170 0.12 170  0.44 Aspergillus spp.24411<0.0141194<0.0124870.39521700.121700.44 Azospirillum spp. 446 468 0.79 468 338 0.18 447 373 0.43 303 328 0.79 530  0.53 Azospirillum spp.4464680.794683380.184473730.433033280.795300.53 Bacillus spp. 728 501 0.35 501 716 0.38 728 1524 <0.01 1085 1285 0.38 1619  0.47 Bacillus spp.7285010.355017160.387281524<0.01108512850.3816190.47 Bradyrhizobium spp. 2736 1716 0.01 1716 2138 0.24 2736 1902 0.05 3503 2175 <0.01 1673  0.03 Bradyrhizobium spp.273617160.01171621380.24273619020.0535032175<0.0116730.03 Burkholderia spp. 1538 1472 0.78 1472 2261 <0.01 1538 2474 <0.01 2353 2092 0.21 1941  <0.01 Burkholderia spp.153814720.7814722261<0.0115382474<0.01235320920.211941<0.01 Enterobacter spp. 24.5 6 0.05 6 34 0.01 25 5 0.04 8 52 <0.01 48  <0.01 Enterobacter spp.24.560.056340.012550.04852<0.0148<0.01 Erwinia spp. 11 24 0.38 24 15 0.54 11 6 0.67 7 41 0.03 3  0.03 Erwinia spp.11240.3824150.541160.677410.0330.03 Gemmatimonas spp. 14,231 12,815 0.58 12,815 13,018 0.94 14,231 16,683 0.35 13,283 17,880 0.04 15,710 16,633 0.66 Gemmatimonas spp.14,23112,8150.5812,81513,0180.9414,23116,6830.3513,28317,8800.0415,71016,6330.66 Glomus spp. 82 469 0.05 469 68 0.05 180 590 0.04 136 93 0.74 500  0.29 Glomus spp.824690.05469680.051805900.04136930.745000.29 Massilia spp. 124 128 0.96 128 203 0.39 124 200 0.38 280 273 0.92 398  0.51 Massilia spp.1241280.961282030.391242000.382802730.923980.51 Mesorhizobium spp. 147 161 0.74 161 112 0.26 147 265 0.02 356 144 <0.01 182  0.04 Mesorhizobium spp.1471610.741611120.261472650.02356144<0.011820.04 Micrococcus spp. 2 3 0.82 2.5 5 0.4 2 5 0.14 4 5 0.45 2  0.02 Micrococcus spp.230.822.550.4250.14450.4520.02 Micromonospora spp. 255 249 0.95 249 258 0.93 255 449 0.08 695 597 0.3 508  0.57 Micromonospora spp.2552490.952492580.932554490.086955970.35080.57 Paenibacillus spp. 174 68 0.02 68 73 0.87 174 48 <0.01 275 69 <0.01 143  0.05 Paenibacillus spp.174680.0268730.8717448<0.0127569<0.011430.05 Paraglomus spp. 118 198 0.19 198 130 0.22 118 162 0.46 62 23 0.47 32  <0.01 Paraglomus spp.1181980.191981300.221181620.4662230.4732<0.01 Penicillium spp. 61 324 0.04 324 149 0.13 61 136 0.49 291 18 0.03 67  0.68 Penicillium spp.613240.043241490.13611360.49291180.03670.68 Pseudomonas spp. 285 245 0.71 245 403 0.16 285 407 0.28 734 562 0.17 647  0.18 Pseudomonas spp.2852450.712454030.162854070.287345620.176470.18 Ralstonia spp. 295 173 0.05 173 271 0.12 295 323 0.66 203 223 0.76 165  0.89 Ralstonia spp.2951730.051732710.122953230.662032230.761650.89 Rhizobium spp. 696 783 0.55 783 715 0.64 696 723 0.86 1069 691 0.02 712  <0.01 Rhizobium spp.6967830.557837150.646967230.8610696910.02712<0.01 Rhodococcus spp. 38 20 0.04 20 27 0.4 38 40 0.86 35 25 0.19 64  <0.01 Rhodococcus spp.38200.0420270.438400.8635250.1964<0.01 Sinomonas spp. 8 18 0.47 18 45 0.06 8 27 0.17 50 30 0.14 28  0.35 Sinomonas spp.8180.4718450.068270.1750300.14280.35 Sphingomonas spp. 1370 1580 0.22 1580 1422 0.41 1370 1445 0.66 1364 1240 0.52 1718  0.12 Sphingomonas spp.137015800.22158014220.41137014450.66136412400.5217180.12 Streptomyces spp. 716 356 0.01 356 629 0.03 716 463 0.09 1322 566 <0.01 683  0.24 Streptomyces spp.7163560.013566290.037164630.091322566<0.016830.24 Thiobacillus spp. 8807 2413 0.21 2413 32 0.03 8807 758 0.67 736 1856 0.68 952  >0.99 Thiobacillus spp.880724130.212413320.0388077580.6773618560.68952>0.99 Trichoderma spp. 586 1508 <0.01 1508 8 <0.01 586 56 <0.01 185 34 0.21 178  <0.01 Trichoderma spp.5861508<0.0115088<0.0158656<0.01185340.21178<0.01  "},{"text":"Table 6 Bi-plot CCA analysis scores for constraining phosphorus solubilizing microbes and soil chemical properties in CT1-Nyabeda site, western Kenya. Variables CCA1 CCA2 R 2 P-value VariablesCCA1CCA2R 2P-value Soil chemical properties     Soil chemical properties Soil pH (soil: water; 1:2) Soil P (Mehlich III(mg kg − 1 )) Labile C (mg kg − 1 ) 0.56 − 0.39 0.19 − 0.83 0.92 0.98 0.19 0.31 0.02 0.03 <0.01 0.74 Soil pH (soil: water; 1:2) Soil P (Mehlich III(mg kg − 1 )) Labile C (mg kg − 1 )0.56 − 0.39 0.19− 0.83 0.92 0.980.19 0.31 0.020.03 <0.01 0.74 Total N (%) − 0.37 0.93 0.10 0.16 Total N (%)− 0.370.930.100.16 SOC (%) − 0.14 0.99 0.16 0.05 SOC (%)− 0.140.990.160.05 Carbon: Nitrogen ratio Total Mg (mg kg − 1 ) Total Al (mg kg − 1 ) 0.67 0.72 − 0.86 0.74 − 0.70 0.51 0.09 0.20 0.31 0.18 0.02 <0.01 Carbon: Nitrogen ratio Total Mg (mg kg − 1 ) Total Al (mg kg − 1 )0.67 0.72 − 0.860.74 − 0.70 0.510.09 0.20 0.310.18 0.02 <0.01 Microbial species     Microbial species Actinomyces spp. 1.00 − 0.01 0.03 0.52 Actinomyces spp.1.00− 0.010.030.52 Arthrobacter spp. − 0.46 − 0.89 0.18 0.04 Arthrobacter spp.− 0.46− 0.890.180.04 Aspergillus spp. − 0.66 0.75 0.13 0.08 Aspergillus spp.− 0.660.750.130.08 Azospirillum spp. − 0.78 0.62 0.16 0.05 Azospirillum spp.− 0.780.620.160.05 Bacillus spp. 0.40 − 0.92 0.21 0.01 Bacillus spp.0.40− 0.920.210.01 Bradyrhizobium spp. − 0.92 − 0.39 0.14 0.07 Bradyrhizobium spp.− 0.92− 0.390.140.07 Burkholderia spp. 0.96 − 0.28 0.23 0.01 Burkholderia spp.0.96− 0.280.230.01 Gemmatimonas spp. 0.99 0.17 0.71 <0.01 Gemmatimonas spp.0.990.170.71<0.01 Glomus spp. 0.21 − 0.98 0.02 0.69 Glomus spp.0.21− 0.980.020.69 Mesorhizobium spp. − 0.80 − 0.61 0.04 0.46 Mesorhizobium spp.− 0.80− 0.610.040.46 Micromonospora spp. 0.49 − 0.87 0.12 0.11 Micromonospora spp.0.49− 0.870.120.11 Paraglomus spp. − 0.81 0.58 0.11 0.16 Paraglomus spp.− 0.810.580.110.16 Penicillium spp. − 0.86 0.51 0.24 0.03 Penicillium spp.− 0.860.510.240.03 Pseudomonas spp. − 0.16 − 0.99 0.10 0.16 Pseudomonas spp.− 0.16− 0.990.100.16 Rhizobium spp. 0.62 − 0.78 0.09 0.20 Rhizobium spp.0.62− 0.780.090.20 Sphingomonas spp. − 0.97 − 0.25 0.16 0.05 Sphingomonas spp.− 0.97− 0.250.160.05 Streptomyces spp. − 0.84 0.54 0.02 0.75 Streptomyces spp.− 0.840.540.020.75 Thiobacillus spp. 0.61 0.79 0.02 0.72 Thiobacillus spp.0.610.790.020.72 Trichoderma spp. − 0.67 0.74 0.56 <0.01 Trichoderma spp.− 0.670.740.56<0.01  "}],"sieverID":"23f4dafe-de61-4083-9a8c-17f2b5e0c0a7","abstract":"Phosphorus is a critical nutrient for plant growth. Several agronomic practices have been promoted to improve soil fertility and crop productivity in Western Kenya. Yet, despite their benefits, a dearth of knowledge exists on their long-term effects on soil microbial biomass and phosphorus solubilizing microbial species (PSMs) abundance especially in this region. In a long-term (15 years) agronomic field trial, we selected 8 treatments that allowed for evaluation of 1) Effect of tillage in a maize-soybean rotation with fertilization and residue retention; 2) Effect of residue retention in a maize-soybean rotation with fertilization under conservation tillage; 3) Effect of N and P fertilization in a maize-soybean rotation with conventional tillage; 4) Effect of liming in a maize-soybean intercropping with conventional tillage; and 5) Effect of maize-soybean rotation versus intercropping under conservation tillage on microbial biomass and PSMs abundance. The study was conducted in a long-term conservation agriculture experiment (30 seasons) in a Ferralsol in Western Kenya in 2016 and 2017. Reduced tillage significantly (P < 0.05) increased microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) and abundance of different PSMs relative to conventional tillage, though the results were not consistent for some species. Residue addition significantly increased MBP and abundance of different PSMs compared to systems without residue addition. Liming significantly reduced PSMs abundance in 2016, though this was inconsistent for 2017. In 2017, no effect of liming on soil pH was found. Fertiliser addition significantly increased PSMs abundance in 2016, but this was also inconsistent for 2017. Some PSMs strains were significantly more abundant in maize and soybean intercropping system compared to rotation, and vice versa. Our study demonstrated that not only the agronomic inputs applied but also tillage and cropping systems employed can variably affect the soil microbial populations."}

data/part_1/0f0bb0c26cd453e602acdd395d995326.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0f0bb0c26cd453e602acdd395d995326","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cb555fd5-5a79-428b-9753-ba1beed88642/retrieve"},"pageCount":34,"title":"Cover Photo: Various Roots, Tubers & Banana products and processing. (Photo credits","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of Tables","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of Figures","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Acronyms","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Managing food safety and quality in small-scale food processing for Roots, Tubers and Bananas   enterprise which is mostly used by students in the same department for practical purposes. The plant is involved in the production of both meat and dairy products that are sold at the university institutions. The products include; yogurt, Mala, ice-cream, cheese and bacon among others."}]},{"head":"Group activities:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Each participant presented a summary of the work on the roots, tuber and banana value chains. The participants were grouped according to their crop interests."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Participants were then introduced to the UK's safer food, better business (SFBB) program which helps small businesses with food safety management procedures and food hygiene regulations."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Working in groups participants developed their own food safety management systems using the different roots, tubers and banana value chains."}]},{"head":"Lessons learnt:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"The main lessons learnt was that this kind of trainings on Food Safety, Food   Hazards in food can be categorized as physical such as metals, chemical such as natural toxins, contaminants, and allergens and biological such as foodborne pathogens which include parasites, fungi, bacteria, viruses, prions and toxic phytoplanktons. Foodborne illnesses are illnesses caused by agents that enter the body through food. Foodborne illnesses are very common though it is difficult to relate and or trace back a sickness to food. The types of foodborne illnesses include intoxications, infections, and toxin-mediated infections. Food intoxications involve the ingestion of food containing preformed toxins. Food infections arise from ingestion of food containing microorganisms thus causing infections while toxin-mediated infection arise from ingestion of food containing microorganisms which then produce toxins in the intestines causing disease."}]},{"head":"FOOD SAFETY AND FOOD MICROBIOLOGY CONSIDERATIONS IN FOOD PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND PROCESSING","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Antonio Magnaghi","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Some of the food safety issues of concern during food  Kenya-OFSP puree-there is progress in food safety at Organi limited. One of the biggest challenges on food safety is working with semi-illiterate staff. Preservation of potatoes, cassava, and bananas by farmers."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":" Uganda-Charcoal cooler for storing peeled bananas to avoid enzymatic browning during trading."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":" Ethiopia-Development of microorganisms that can be used to reduce cyanide toxicity in cassava during fermentation."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":" Nigeria-Value addition of sweetpotato to commercially viable products. Extension services to increase the capacity of SMEs and the youth. Research on the impact of RTB on the human health, checking on their glycemic index and the association between malnutrition, sanitation, and hygiene."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":" Malawi-Processing of sweetpotato and cassava into products such as sweetpotato bread, buns, high-quality cassava flour, potato crisps and french fries. Training of small groups involved in the value addition of roots and tubers."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":" Ghana-Value addition along the RTBs food chain. Training sessions on the processing of sweetpotato and the incorporation of sweetpotato in indigenous dishes. Root and tuber processing to control losses. Some of the products are drinks from OFSP, bread, and garri from cassava chips."},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":" Cameroon-processing of plantain flour that is used to make biscuits and processing of plantain chips. Food quality control laboratory for bananas for export to check on pesticide residues and physicochemical analysis."},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"The participants were then introduced to the UK's safer food, better business (SFBB) program which helps small businesses with food safety management procedures and food hygiene regulations. The SFBB pack contains a series of easy to understand safe methods for cooking, chilling, cleaning, cross-contamination and management. It is designed to be easily tailored to suit smaller businesses and can be implemented in a relatively short period of time."}]},{"head":"FOOD SAFETY AND REGULATIONS IN AFRICA","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Andrew Edewa","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The global burden of foodborne diseases is caused by various food scares some of which are caused by pathogens like Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Some of the food scares that have been identified globally include Hepatitis B, Yellow fever, Typhoid fever, Cryptosporidiosis among others."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"There are international standards governing food to ensure that the country's consumers are supplied with food that is safe to eat. These include general agreements on tariffs and trade (GATT) which is general measures necessary to protect human, plant and animal health."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) are standards for all products that enable a country to take regulatory measures while ensuring that they do not cause unnecessary barriers to trade. Some of the regulatory measures undertaken by countries are laboratory analysis for compliance to food safety."},{"index":4,"size":167,"text":"The regulations in a certain country try to conform to those of the SPS agreement. Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) agreement are standards on food and agricultural products to protect human, plant and animal health. The SPS agreement gives a country the right to protect human, animal and plant health while ensuring that they avoid unnecessary barriers to trade. Food-borne diseases present serious threats to the health of millions of people in Africa. Serious outbreaks of food-borne diseases have been reported, illustrating both the public health and economic significance of these diseases. These outbreaks are likely to be only the most visible aspect of a much broader, more persistent problem. Many African countries suffer from persistent food insecurity and up to 60 % of the food supply is imported or donated to supplement local production. The safety of imported food cannot always be assured, adding to the risk of widespread food contamination. The failure to meet food-safety and quality standards hampers the continent's efforts to increase agro-food trade."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"The major food safety concerns in East Africa include; mycotoxins in cereals and nuts which have caused several deaths in the region, high cyanide levels in certain varieties of cassava affecting food security and trade, concerns of pesticide residues, heavy metals (Cadmium, Lead, Tin, etc.) in fruits and vegetables, Zoonoses and residues of veterinary drugs in food in milk and meat, Mercury and residues of veterinary drugs in fish and increased concerns about antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in East Africa leading to epidemics of typhoid."}]},{"head":"FOOD MICROBIOLOGY AND SAFETY ISSUES: LESSONS FROM USA","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Matt Stasiewiez","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Food laws in the US have evolved out of response to crisis. Due to the serious consequences caused by outbreaks, some innovative systems such as HACCP and whole genome sequencing for public health were developed even though they are still not perfect. "}]},{"head":"FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS IN KENYA","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ROYAL SOCIETY FOR PUBLIC HEALTH LEVEL 2 AWARD IN FOOD SAFETY AND HYGIENE","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Richard Fuchs"}]},{"head":"An introduction to food safety","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"There are various types of hazards that can be introduced in food which include microbiological hazards, physical hazards, chemical hazards and allergenic hazards. The most common hygiene faults that result in food poisoning include; preparing food too far in advance and storing at room temperature, slow cooling of food, not reheating food, contaminated food (cross-contamination or raw), not thawing completely before cooking and food handlers being infected/having bad personal hygiene. Ensuring food safety in a food establishment has various benefits such as it gives the company a good reputation, it protects the brand, there is less risk of food poisoning, less waste, it provides good working conditions, and the company is able to register higher profits."}]},{"head":"Microbiological hazards","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The types of microorganisms are bacteria, moulds, and viruses. Bacteria are found everywhere and can only be seen using a microscope. They comprise of pathogens that are capable of causing illness, spoilage bacteria that makes food unfit and some helpful/useful bacteria, for instance, the one used in making yoghurt. When food is contaminated by bacteria, moulds, viruses or parasites, the bacteria is able to multiply in the food to unsafe levels and some of the pathogens are able to survive in the food even for longer periods. Bacteria require warmth, moisture, food and time to multiply in food and some can double in number in every 10 minutes."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"There are various ways in which the multiplication of food poisoning bacteria in food can be Some bacteria are able to produce toxins as they grow in food and many of these toxins are heat resistant, unaffected by freezing and have a short incubation period. Some bacteria are able to form a spore which is the dormant state of the bacteria and which can survive high temperatures, for instance, boiling for up to five hours, chemicals (disinfectants) and dehydration (drying)."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Spores do not multiply, they do not keep the bacteria warm or cold and they can survive freezing."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"High-risk food is ready-to-eat and supports the growth of bacteria, usually needs refrigerated/frozen storage or hot storage above 63 °C. Raw foods to be cooked must be separated from ready-to-eat food because they are a major source of food poisoning bacteria."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"Low-risk food can usually be stored at ambient/room temperatures as they do not support the multiplication of pathogenic bacteria. Some of the signs of food spoilage are off smells, discoloration, slime/stickiness, mould, texture change, unusual taste, the production of gas, blown cans or packs."}]},{"head":"Contamination hazards and control","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The main types of contamination hazards are physical, microbiological, allergenic and chemical."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"These hazards may be present in raw materials or introduced during storage, preparation or service. The sources of bacteria are origins of bacteria that bring them into food premises and include insects, raw food, animals, birds, soil and dust, people, sewage, contaminated packaging, refuse, and waste. The vehicles of bacteria transfer bacteria from sources to ready-to-eat food and they include hands, cloths, food and hand-contact surfaces."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Cross-contamination is also a way in which microbiological hazards are introduced into food."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"Cross contamination is an inadvertent transfer of bacteria or other contaminants from one surface or substance to another especially because of unsanitary handling procedures. Crosscontamination occurs when bacteria transfer from raw food to ready-to-eat food through direct contact. Cross-contamination can be controlled through training and supervision of food handlers, handwashing between raw and cooked food, separating raw and ready-to-eat food (color coding), using disposable paper cloths or color-coded cloths, cleaning and disinfection, using separate equipment for raw and ready-to-eat food, and not using hand washbasins for washing food or equipment."}]},{"head":"Sources of physical hazards in food include:","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":" Raw ingredients (leaves, stalks, stones etc.) Allergenic hazards in food are an increasing problem because they can represent a serious health hazard to consumers. Food processors must ensure their products are not contaminated with allergens that are not declared on their labels. An allergen is any protein that is capable of producing an abnormal immune response in sensitive segments of the population."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"The symptoms of an allergic reaction are; The most common allergic ingredients are cereals containing gluten, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soya, milk (including lactose), nuts, celery, mustard, sesame seeds, sulphur dioxide and sulphites, Lupin, molluscs and any products containing these ingredients."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"All products should be labeled such that any allergy information on a product is given. Food labels must list all the ingredients, and ingredients derived from allergenic foods must be clearly identified in the ingredient list. This helps people with a food allergy or intolerance to identify the ingredients they need to avoid. Allergenic hazards can be controlled in food through obtaining raw materials from approved suppliers, suitable packaging and labelling, segregation of allergens from delivery to service, separate preparation areas, separate equipment (color coding), discard/re-label accidentally or potentially contaminated food, cleaning and clearing spillages, handwashing, communication such as staff training and labelling."}]},{"head":"Food poisoning and its control","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Food poisoning can be defined as any disease of an infectious or toxic nature caused by the consumption of food or water. The duration of food poisoning is one to seven days and the symptoms include stomach cramps, diarrhea, vomiting, nausea/feeling sick, fever, dehydration and collapsing. The most group of people with the highest probability of food poisoning are the elderly, very young children/babies, pregnant women/unborn babies and people who are ill."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The causes of food poisoning are mostly microorganisms such as bacteria and toxins, molds (mycotoxins), viruses and poisonous plants/fish, poisonous metals and poisonous chemicals. The common food vehicles causing food poisoning are poultry, desserts, milk and milk products, cooked meat and meat products, shellfish and fish, egg products and eggs, salads, vegetables, and fruit. Some of the food-borne diseases include Campylobacter, Escherichia coli O157, Norovirus, Listeria (refrigerator), Typhoid/paratyphoid (Salmonella), Hepatitis A and Parasites."}]},{"head":"Personal hygiene","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Food handlers must have high standards of personal hygiene, wear clean protective clothing, not work if ill or suspected of being a carrier of harmful bacteria (contaminate food)-report to supervisor, be trained in line with work activities."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"The facilities required for handwashing should have a clean wash-hand basin not used for food or equipment, sinks for food or equipment not used for hands, non-hand operated taps recommended, hot and cold running water (mixed 30-40 °C), liquid soap (disposable cartridge), soft, heat-resistant, clean nailbrush, hygienic hand-drying facilities, preferably paper towels."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Effective hand washing involves wetting hands under warm running water, applying one shot of liquid soap to hands, rubbing hands together under running water while cleaning all parts of hands especially nails and fingertips, rinsing all the lather, drying hands completely using a paper towel or warm air dryer, using paper towel to turn off tap and disposing paper towel in a footoperated container."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Protective clothing should protect food from risk of contamination, be easy to clean and keep clean, have no buttons, have no outside pockets, completely cover own clothing, head coveringto reduce risk of hair in food, not worn outside."}]},{"head":"Design of premises and equipment","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The risk of contamination from premises can be reduced through linear workflow to prevent cross-contamination, separating areas for raw and ready-to-eat (color coding can assist in this), good ventilation to prevent condensation and reduce temperature, cleaning, and disinfection."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"The law requires that food equipment must be kept clean and in good condition, be designed to allow cleaning and disinfection, be installed to allow cleaning of the surrounding area, and minimize the risk of contamination. Food handlers have a responsibility of keeping surfaces and equipment clean, keeping windows and doors closed, not ruining good design such as placing food under an electric fly killer, not using dirty or broken equipment (clean it or replace it), only using sinks or washbasins for the correct purpose, not making temporary repairs, ensuring they clear-and-clean-as-you-go and keeping waste areas tidy."}]},{"head":"Cleaning and disinfection","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Food premises and all food-contact equipment to be cleaned and, where appropriate, disinfected as often as necessary. Hot water, chemicals, and physical energy are requirements for effective cleaning. Cleaning is important as it reduces the risk of food poisoning, removes the food supply for bacteria, removes materials/food for pests, reduces the risk of food contamination, removes dirt and grease, allows disinfection, promotes a good image of the company and provides a safe and pleasant workplace. During cleaning, disinfection is applied on food-contact surfaces such as food utensils/equipment, chopping boards, preparation surfaces, and walls adjacent to preparation surfaces, sinks, and refrigerators, hand-contact surfaces such as touch points like handles on doors, drawers, refrigerators, taps/hand washbasins and nailbrushes."}]},{"head":"Food pests and control","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"A pest is an animal, insect or bird which lives in or on food. It contaminates food and is noxious, destructive or troublesome. Pests contaminate food through breeding in food, feeding (vomit back previous meal), feces, walking on it/work surfaces, laying eggs on uncovered food and dead bodies. The common food pests are rodents such as rats and mice, insects such as flies, wasps, cockroaches, and animals such birds, dogs, and cats. It is important to control pests in food premises because they lead to food poisoning, they contaminate food, lead to wastage, complaints from customers, staff loss and can lead to legal action. Pests can be destroyed in food premises by use of UV fly killers, sticky boards, traps for rodents, hormone traps-insects, solid bait for rodents and sprays or powder for insects."}]},{"head":"Food safety and Quality management in SMEs","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Total Quality Management (TQM) controls all aspects of the product; both safety and quality. It must be proactive and easily adaptable. Personnel in SMEs have to receive appropriate training on TQM. Appropriate system of documentation should be put in place to give an assurance that all the procedures are in place. The views about quality have changed over the years: Management of food safety involves the HACCP which is a system used to ensure food safety."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"HACCP is a legislative requirement recommended by CODEX which identifies, evaluates and controls hazards which are significant for food safety. The structure of HACCP should be designed such that it is user-friendly and documents should be put in place. The HACCP principles involve, identification of the hazard, determination of the Critical Control Point (CCP), control of the CCP, monitoring the system, corrective action, correction in case of deviations, verification of the HACCP procedure and documentation."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The reasons why we use HACCP system as a food safety management system is to manage the product safety, to reduce the increasing incidences of food safety issues, to eliminate limitation of traditional quality control methods, due to customer pressure-customers demand for safe foods and because it is a legislative requirement."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"There are various benefits of HACCP systems which include it's a preventive system, it increases confidence in your products, it ensures that resources are used effectively, it is cost-effective, it demonstrates due diligence, it's internationally accepted, it strengthens quality management systems, it facilitates regulatory inspections and demonstrates management commitment. Some of the barriers to the HACCP implementation among the SMEs include; time, cost, personnel, Knowledge, and understanding on the HACCP, motivation, trust in legislation and trust in enforcement."}]},{"head":"Food safety law and enforcement","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Food laws apply in the hygiene of food handlers, premises and equipment, preventing contamination, temperature control, HACCP (food safety management system) and are important as they help in setting the minimum food standards; they reduce the risk of food poisoning and protect public health. They apply to food business owners/managers and food handlers."}]},{"head":"BECA NUTRITION AND FOOD SAFETY PLATFORMS TOUR","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Participants visited the food and nutritional evaluation laboratory (FANEL) at the International Potato Center (CIP), hosted by the BecA-ILRI Hub's nutritional analysis and mycotoxin diagnostics platform. The tour was facilitated by Julius and Josephine who explained the various research that is undertaken in FANEL and the various equipment that is used. "}]},{"head":"PANEL DISCUSSION: FOOD SAFETY AND LEGISLATION IN AFRICA: THE ROLE OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS, CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES TO REGISTER A NEW PRODUCT","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The panel was led by Tawanda Muzhingi (International Potato Centre (CIP), Kenya) and was made of George Abong' (Senior Lecturer, University of Nairobi, Kenya), Andrew Edewa (Food Safety expert, FAO), Jean Pankuku (Food Technologist, Malawi) and Zena Chagula (Tanzania). The areas at the center of discussion were opportunities and challenges that small and medium-sized enterprises face to register new products. To start the discussion off, each participant was given five minutes each to give opening remarks on the topic after which the participants were given an opportunity to ask questions."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"Andrew focused on the challenges that enterprises in Africa have to go through to get their products certified with the European Union. Enterprises face a variety of challenges; they require some levels of scales in order to carry out their production while considering the health of humans, animals and plants and this poses a great challenge. Another challenge comes in when we ask who else is doing it? The bigger organizations that have been there for some time act as predators to the small and medium enterprises thus limiting their opportunities for growth. A bigger challenge is in the scale of production whereby many businesses in Africa die off in the first three years of operation and even the cost of starting the businesses is too high. If the businesses would come together and work as a cluster, they would, therefore, benefit from common marketing and combined sourcing of raw materials."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"Businesses need training for knowledge and capacity building in order to upgrade their scales and systems. Lack of knowledge on standardization, the costs of obtaining the standards required and the costs of hiring a consultant for training and certification becomes expensive for small businesses to start. There is also a challenge on facilities like laboratories for testing services. If the facilities are there, the methods used are not validated, the laboratories are not accredited and the cost of outsourcing testing services is very high especially for pesticide residues. Most of the inspections and testing services are provided by the public bodies which use old laws for certification and this may not guarantee actual food safety. In conclusion, governments need to play a big role to facilitate enterprises to grow."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"Jean Pankuku focused on the opportunities and challenges on food safety concerns as she carries out processing of sweetpotato and cassava in Malawi. Development of standards in Malawi is done by the Bureau of standards involving the relevant stakeholders and chaired by the University. In the development of a new product where no standards exist, the product is certified using the general standards that are not specific to a particular product, for instance, the hygiene and labeling standards in order to make sure that they conform before specific standards for the product are developed. However, the challenge is that some of these standards are very old and reviewing takes long."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"George Abong' focused on the work that he has been doing on RTBs and standards of RTB products in Kenya. He started off by giving reasons why products are developed. It is because we want standardization of the product, in order to facilitate trade and to assure safety and quality of the product. The mandate of developing standards in Kenya is given to KEBS who acts as the secretariat and they bring the stakeholders together to discuss the standards. The stakeholders include the public sector, the private sector, the business and the research institutions who agree on the standards depending on science and business matters."},{"index":6,"size":92,"text":"The mandate of developing and reviewing standards on RTBs is given to the RTB national committee. Consumers are also involved in the development of products. Across East Africa, the bureau of standards in each country is required to give one secretariat during harmonization of standards and if one country fails to agree, the standards are stalled and are not published. We have standards for potato and its products, sweetpotato and its products and for cassava and its products. With these standards, you can trade anywhere in East Africa. Standards for OFSP bread"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"are not yet developed but we are in the process of developing."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"Zena Chagula focused on the challenges that they face in the processing of Orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) in Tanzania. OFSP provides a good opportunity especially in Tanzania but the challenge comes in the quality of the sweetpotato, packaging of the products and labeling."},{"index":9,"size":84,"text":"Everyone in Tanzania wants to process OFSP into various products however, it becomes a challenge to get sweetpotato from the farmer to the processor. Another challenge is that most people in Tanzania are not aware of the benefits of consuming OFSP and creating awareness on the nutritional benefits of OFSP is a challenge. Certification of the various products processed from OFSP is difficult and this compromises on the safety and quality of the products and also getting the right packaging material for the products."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"When the discussion opened up, one of the participants expressed their concerns that the panelists highlighted only the challenges that SMEs face. He wanted to know what recommendations they would give concerning the challenges highlighted since they affected all African countries. Another participant wanted clarification on how clusters work in sourcing out materials collectively. Another participant explained that the disagreements in the development of standards between various countries come in because of the various factors that affect the specific product like climate. The participant was wondering if at all the countries do not agree on those standards, will they even agree on the safety of the products and are there any international standards that they refer to or do they develop the standards on their own. Another participant explained that, as part of a technical committee for developing products, we have a problem with scientific data especially when the product is only found in one country and the data obtained is very old and varies a lot from different researchers. He added that the results are not even consistent and you end up doing research again and end up lagging behind."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"He, therefore, wanted to know the panelist's view of such situation."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Another participant wanted to know why standards are sold if we have representatives from every sector in developing standards, which means that everybody participates. Another participant wanted to know what kind of data on OFSP products is required in the development of standards concerning these products."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"George was the first to respond to the questions. He explained that there are general standards and specific standards for specific products. In developing a new product with similar qualities with an existing product in terms of things like moisture content, microbiological limits, then the standards for the existing product are used on the new product. If there are no standards on a similar product, then it becomes a big task to get scientific data on that product in order to be able to develop standards for that product and this may take longer. In the development of standards, we refer to international standards and sometimes we even adopt the international standards and change only a few things."},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"Andrew explained that before an organization places products in the market, they ought to be standardized. He added that before OFSP products are introduced into the market, they need to be registered in regard to hygiene standards which are general in order to continue in operation before the specific standards are developed. In the private sector, if you have very few products, WASH is involved on the control of diseases such as diarrhea, intestinal parasitic infections and environmental enteropathy which is the chronic ingestion of pathogens causing recurring "}]},{"head":"VOTE OF THANKS BY PARTICIPANTS","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Moise Roger appreciated the work that had been done by CIP and BecA to make sure that the training was a success. He appreciated the facilitators of the training and all the participants. "}]},{"head":"AWARDING OF CERTIFICATES","index":31,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" VOTE OF THANKS BY PARTICIPANTS .................................................................................................... AWARDING OF CERTIFICATES ............................................................................................................. "},{"text":" Current food scares in Africa ......................................................................................................... Table 2: Traditional and Total Quality approach on quality ....................................................................... Table 3: Causes of failure in quality ............................................................................................................ "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Food Safety Workshop Training Participants ................................................................................. Figure 2: Josephine Birungi Deputy Director/technology Manager (BecA-ILRI) ...........................................Figure 3: Pathways for product contamination with pathogens .................................................................. Figure 4: Processed products stored together with raw products .............................................................Figure 5: Improperly cleaned Equipment ...................................................................................................Figure 6: Activity of bacteria at different temperatures during storage ....................................................Figure 7: Participants at FANEL BecA-ILRI ................................................................................................... Figure 8: Participants at the University of Nairobi's Pilot plant .................................................................Figure 9 : Participants get a run through of operations at the plant .......................................................... Figure 10: Fecal-oral route .......................................................................................................................... Figure 11: Participants receive certificates ................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 1: Food Safety Workshop Training Participants ................................................................................. Figure 2: Josephine Birungi Deputy Director/technology Manager (BecA-ILRI) ...........................................Figure 3: Pathways for product contamination with pathogens .................................................................. Figure 4: Processed products stored together with raw products .............................................................Figure 5: Improperly cleaned Equipment ...................................................................................................Figure 6: Activity of bacteria at different temperatures during storage ....................................................Figure 7: Participants at FANEL BecA-ILRI ................................................................................................... Figure 8: Participants at the University of Nairobi's Pilot plant .................................................................Figure 9 : Participants get a run through of operations at the plant .......................................................... Figure 10: Fecal-oral route .......................................................................................................................... Figure 11: Participants receive certificates ................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 1: Food Safety Workshop Training Participants ................................................................................. Figure 2: Josephine Birungi Deputy Director/technology Manager (BecA-ILRI) ...........................................Figure 3: Pathways for product contamination with pathogens .................................................................. Figure 4: Processed products stored together with raw products .............................................................Figure 5: Improperly cleaned Equipment ...................................................................................................Figure 6: Activity of bacteria at different temperatures during storage ....................................................Figure 7: Participants at FANEL BecA-ILRI ................................................................................................... Figure 8: Participants at the University of Nairobi's Pilot plant .................................................................Figure 9 : Participants get a run through of operations at the plant .......................................................... Figure 10: Fecal-oral route .......................................................................................................................... Figure 11: Participants receive certificates ................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 1: Food Safety Workshop Training Participants ................................................................................. Figure 2: Josephine Birungi Deputy Director/technology Manager (BecA-ILRI) ...........................................Figure 3: Pathways for product contamination with pathogens .................................................................. Figure 4: Processed products stored together with raw products .............................................................Figure 5: Improperly cleaned Equipment ...................................................................................................Figure 6: Activity of bacteria at different temperatures during storage ....................................................Figure 7: Participants at FANEL BecA-ILRI ................................................................................................... Figure 8: Participants at the University of Nairobi's Pilot plant .................................................................Figure 9 : Participants get a run through of operations at the plant .......................................................... Figure 10: Fecal-oral route .......................................................................................................................... Figure 11: Participants receive certificates ................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 1: Food Safety Workshop Training Participants ................................................................................. Figure 2: Josephine Birungi Deputy Director/technology Manager (BecA-ILRI) ...........................................Figure 3: Pathways for product contamination with pathogens .................................................................. Figure 4: Processed products stored together with raw products .............................................................Figure 5: Improperly cleaned Equipment ...................................................................................................Figure 6: Activity of bacteria at different temperatures during storage ....................................................Figure 7: Participants at FANEL BecA-ILRI ................................................................................................... Figure 8: Participants at the University of Nairobi's Pilot plant .................................................................Figure 9 : Participants get a run through of operations at the plant .......................................................... Figure 10: Fecal-oral route .......................................................................................................................... Figure 11: Participants receive certificates ................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 1: Food Safety Workshop Training Participants ................................................................................. Figure 2: Josephine Birungi Deputy Director/technology Manager (BecA-ILRI) ...........................................Figure 3: Pathways for product contamination with pathogens .................................................................. Figure 4: Processed products stored together with raw products .............................................................Figure 5: Improperly cleaned Equipment ...................................................................................................Figure 6: Activity of bacteria at different temperatures during storage ....................................................Figure 7: Participants at FANEL BecA-ILRI ................................................................................................... Figure 8: Participants at the University of Nairobi's Pilot plant .................................................................Figure 9 : Participants get a run through of operations at the plant .......................................................... Figure 10: Fecal-oral route .......................................................................................................................... Figure 11: Participants receive certificates ................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 9 : Figure 1: Food Safety Workshop Training Participants ................................................................................. Figure 2: Josephine Birungi Deputy Director/technology Manager (BecA-ILRI) ...........................................Figure 3: Pathways for product contamination with pathogens .................................................................. Figure 4: Processed products stored together with raw products .............................................................Figure 5: Improperly cleaned Equipment ...................................................................................................Figure 6: Activity of bacteria at different temperatures during storage ....................................................Figure 7: Participants at FANEL BecA-ILRI ................................................................................................... Figure 8: Participants at the University of Nairobi's Pilot plant .................................................................Figure 9 : Participants get a run through of operations at the plant .......................................................... Figure 10: Fecal-oral route .......................................................................................................................... Figure 11: Participants receive certificates ................................................................................................. "},{"text":"( RTB) value chains in Sub-Sahara Africa training workshop took place on 4 th -8 th of December 2017 at the International Livestock Research Institute in Kenya. The training was attended by 27 participants (15 men and 12 women) from 11 countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Ghana, Nigeria, Uganda, Cameroon, Tanzania, DRC, Malawi, USA, and UK). They also came from various sectors including government, academia, private-sector (food processors), non-profit organizations and religious organizations. The objective of the training workshop was to enhance compliance to food safety regulations by small-scale enterprises involved in RTB processing in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The actors gained skills and knowledge from the training important in addressing food safety challenges that arise from lack of compliance to good Hygiene and Manufacturing Practices.The training was opened by Josephine Birungi, the Deputy Director/Technology Manager Biosciences for eastern and central Africa (BecA) who gave a brief introduction to BecA-ILRI, highlighting the core activities carried out by BecA. Over the course of five days, different topics were discussed by several facilitators covering food safety considerations during processing and "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Food Safety Workshop Training Participants "},{"text":" Central Africa -International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI) Hub is a shared research platform that provides access to world-class research facilities. It supports the work of scientists from National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and scientists from other institutions globally. Its core activities include provision of a research platform, capacity building, and facilities to Eastern and Central Africa. Research at BecA is focused on areas such as livestock, crop improvement, food safety and nutrition, climate change mitigation and exploiting the potential of underutilized crop and animal species. The capacity building program is branded the Africa Biosciences Challenge Fund (ABCF) and is delivered through research fellowships involving scientists from African NARS undertaking research at BecA-ILRI Hub; training workshops conducted annually to enhance skills in fields such as bioinformatics, proposal writing, genomics, scientific writing and molecular biology; institutional capacity building and creating linkages between researchers and institutions for joint linkages. BecA provides research facilities and services to students and African scientists. A number of technology platforms have been established which include bioinformatics, molecular breeding, genomics, nutrition and mycotoxin analysis and cloning. "},{"text":"Figure 2 :Figure 3 : Figure 2: Josephine Birungi Deputy Director/technology Manager (BecA-ILRI) "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Processed products stored together with raw products "},{"text":" prevented and these include; the use of cold temperatures, hot temperatures, short time in danger zone, rapid cooling of food, use of salt/sugar/acid, dehydration and keeping food dry and the use of preservatives. Various methods can be used to preserve food such as the use of high temperatures, very low temperatures, chemicals or use of irradiation and ultraviolet light. Bacteria are dead Most pathogens start to die at 63 °C and above. Bacteria multiply rapidly between 20 °C -50 °C Spoilage slow growth; most pathogens no growth <5°C Bacteria are dormant with no growth of spoilage or pathogens at -18 °C. "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Activity of bacteria at different temperatures during storage "},{"text":" Shortness of breath/wheezing  Swelling of tissue in the mouth and throat  Difficulty in swallowing and speaking  Severe asthma  Cramps/gastrointestinal symptoms  Generalized flushing of the skin  Body rash/hives  Alterations in heart rate  Sudden feeling of weakness  Collapse and unconsciousness and death "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Participants at FANEL BecA-ILRI "},{"text":" inflammation and damage to the gut leading to malabsorption of nutrients. The areas of intervention are hygiene involving handwashing with soap, food hygiene and environmental hygiene, sanitation involving both household and community sanitation including safe disposal of infant feces and water supply, involving provision of safe drinking water, safe collection, and storage of water. The nutrition interventions by UNICEF include communication, nutrition counseling for dietary intake and prevention and treatment of diarrhea. The factors that enable UNICEF ensure success nutritional outcomes are coordination, shared planning, shared monitoring and an enabling environment. "},{"text":" Figure 10: Fecal-oral route "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Tawanda Muzhingi on Food Safety and Legislation in Africa; covering the role of Bureaus of Standards, challenges, and strategies to register a new product encountered mostly by small and medium enterprises in Africa.The training was facilitated by Dr. Richard Fuchs. He is a Principal Scientist: Food Safety Specialist and Programme Leader -MSc. Food Safety and Quality Management at the Natural Resources Institute (NRI), University of Greenwich, United Kingdom. The training was an introductory course leading to Royal Society for Public Health Level 2 Award in Food Safety and Hygiene which Participants visited BecA nutrition and Food safety platforms where they were introduced to the facilities in which research on food safety and nutrition is carried out. Some of the food safety research carried out in BecA include; the analysis of mycotoxins in food and feed, microbial analysis of food products especially sweetpotato roots and sweetpotato products, nutritional analysis of food products including proximate analysis, vitamin C determination, antioxidants and β-carotene among others. Participants then visited a pilot plant at the Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Technology, University of Nairobi. This is a small  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Current food scares in Africa Place No. of cases Incidence Source PlaceNo. of casesIncidenceSource Kenya More than 400 Acute Aflatoxicosis Maize Meal KenyaMore than 400 Acute AflatoxicosisMaize Meal South Africa 2 deaths Type A Botulinum Tinned fish in tomato sauce South Africa2 deathsType A BotulinumTinned fish in tomato sauce South Africa 578 deaths Shigella Flrxneri Maize Meal South Africa578 deathsShigella FlrxneriMaize Meal Burkina Faso 29 deaths Fatal Encephalopathy Unripe Ackee fruit Burkina Faso29 deathsFatal EncephalopathyUnripe Ackee fruit Ethiopia 79 deaths Salmonella (Newport) Unpeeled undercooked eggs Ethiopia79 deathsSalmonella (Newport) Unpeeled undercooked eggs Swaziland 40912 deaths Escherichia coli Beef and untreated water Swaziland40912 deathsEscherichia coliBeef and untreated water Mozambique 772 deaths Haemorrhagic colitis Cooked food at marketplace Mozambique772 deathsHaemorrhagic colitis Cooked food at marketplace  "},{"text":" Punish traders using toxic chemicals in human food: http://www.nation.co.ke/oped/letters/Punish-traders-using-toxic-chemicals-in-humanfood/440806-4209476-cggovc/index.html.  Nairobi County bans open-air cooking, food hawking. Read more:  Nairobi County bans open-air cooking, food hawking. Read more: https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001247672/nairobi-county-bans-open-air- https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001247672/nairobi-county-bans-open-air- cooking-food-hawking.       cooking-food-hawking.  Bacterial contamination of kales-common vegetables:     Bacterial contamination of kales-common vegetables: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/49d6/7960628796ad8e38d0a2cd425c160dba4c98.pdf https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/49d6/7960628796ad8e38d0a2cd425c160dba4c98.pdf  CSs Rotich and Mohammed hospitalized with cholera symptoms. Read more at  CSs Rotich and Mohammed hospitalized with cholera symptoms. Read more at  140 students sent home in food poisoning scare-expired bread.  140studentssenthomeinfoodpoisoningscare-expiredbread.  What health authorities had been told about Nairobi food:  WhathealthauthoritieshadbeentoldaboutNairobifood: https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/health/article/2001248318/what-health-authorities- https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/health/article/2001248318/what-health-authorities- had-been-told-about-nairobi-food.      had-been-told-about-nairobi-food.  January research reports showed contamination hence warned MOH not to license any  January research reports showed contamination hence warned MOH not to license any untrained food handlers.       untrained food handlers.  Up to a third of food handlers seeking medical certificates carry highly drug-resistant  Up to a third of food handlers seeking medical certificates carry highly drug-resistant  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Traditional and Total Quality approach on qualityThere are various causes of failure in quality. It is not therefore appropriate to rely on end product testing. Sampling plan can be designed to improve chances of detecting something in food. Traditional View Total Quality Approach View Traditional ViewTotal Quality Approach View 1. Improvement of quality is expensive Quality pays for itself 1. Improvement of quality is expensiveQuality pays for itself 2. It is a reactive culture It is preventative 2. It is a reactive cultureIt is preventative 3. There are acceptable quality levels Aims at a defective free product/service 3. There are acceptable quality levelsAims at a defective free product/service  through continuous improvement through continuous improvement  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Causes of failure in qualityQuality of a product is aimed at achieving complete customer satisfaction. It is about giving the customers what they want every time and at the right cost. Quality is achieved through satisfying customer needs, getting closer to customers, putting all quality measures in place, making sure that performance standards are in place, measuring the performance standards, pressing for continual improvement and recognizing achievements. In pursuit of achieving quality, some of the weaknesses to be eliminated include; doing what has always been done, not understanding or ignoring competitive position, confusing quality with grade, the \"Not my problem\" syndrome and firefighting is macho. Staff must always be trained to evaluate the situation, plan accordingly, do what is required of them, check and amend. The Quality Management system used globally is EN ISO 9001-2015. Prerequisite programs (PRPs) are systems that have to be in place before the HACCP system is in place. The importance of PRPs is that they provide sound foundation for HACCP, they cover low-risk hazards, they allow HACCP plan to be process specific and focused and they streamline HACCP plans. The areas covered by PRPs are cleaning and disinfection, pest control, plant, and equipment sanitation, premises, and structures, services like water and energy, storage, distribution and transportation, waste management, maintenance, personnel hygiene and training and zoning (Physical separation of activities to prevent potential food contamination).  "}],"sieverID":"e7bb03d7-214e-49ac-989a-cbe018adee0e","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0fc9b02d0f6fdb13a99530a2d69bf9dc.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0fc9b02d0f6fdb13a99530a2d69bf9dc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a1952a3a-85e3-4e49-b20d-43290b35c459/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Molecular Diagnosis and Vegetative Compatibility Group Analysis of Fusarium Wilt of Banana in Nepal","keywords":["Fusarium wilt of banana","Foc race 1","pathogen identification","Panama diseases","vegetative compatibility group"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Banana is a major fruit crop and a high-value agricultural product in Nepal. It is cultivated on 18,329 ha areas across the country, with a total production of 278,890 tons and a productivity of 16.79 t/ha spanning 68 out of the 77 districts of Nepal [1,2]. Among them, Chitwan district is considered the major hub for banana production, followed by the Saptari, Jhapa, Morang, and Rupandehi districts. In Chitwan, banana farming is mainly concentrated in Bharatpur, Ratnanagar, Kalika, Khaireni, Jagatpur, and Thimura [3]. Nearly 15% of the area of banana-growing regions in Nepal is covered by a variety called Malbhog (Silk, AAB), which accounts for a 2493 ha area with 41,833 tons of production [4]."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"Diseases are major constraints to the banana production in Nepal. Fusarium wilt of banana (FWB), also known as Panama disease, is caused by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), which is a growing concern in Nepal. Foc was first described in Australia in 1874 [5]. Due to the exchange of planting material and the movement of spore-bearing soil, the pathogen has spread and has been reported in many countries of the world [6,7]. So far, three races of Foc (R1, R2, and R4) have been reported, based on the pathogenic characterization of different banana cultivars [8]. Foc R1, which caused FWB epidemic in the early 20th century, affects a range of cultivars, such as the Gros Michel (AAA), Silk (AAB), and Pisang Awak (ABB) subgroups, among others. Foc R2 affects cooking bananas belonging to the Bluggoe (ABB) subgroup. Foc R4, which is further divided into subtropical race 4 (SR4) and tropical race 4 (TR4), affects Cavendish cultivars, as well as bananas susceptible to Foc R1 and Foc R2."},{"index":3,"size":213,"text":"Apart from races, Foc has been also grouped based on vegetative compatibility (VCGs). So far, 24 VCGs have been identified, but there is solid evidence that other VCGs also exists [9]. By far, TR4, which belongs to VCG 01213/16, is the most aggressive strain causing FWB. The strain, originating from Indonesia, has spread globally on different continents [10][11][12][13][14]. The strain is currently under strict quarantine regulations in most of the banana-producing countries worldwide. Therefore, the early detection of Foc TR4 is overarching, as it represents a serious threat for the export banana industry, banana diversity, and food security. Foc R1 strains belonging to VCG 0124 and VCG 0125 were also reported to infect the Cavendish banana variety, Grand Naine banana, under specific circumstances in India [15,16]. SR4 comprises strains belonging to VCG 0120, 0121, 0122, 0129, and VCG 01211 [17]. All the other VCGs, including VCG 0124 and VCG 0125, belong to Foc R1 or Foc R2 [17][18][19]. The VCG classification is imperfect; it is noted that VCG 0124 belongs to Foc R1, as well as Foc R2, while the VCG 0120 strain can be classified as both Foc R1 and SR4 [10,18,20]. This is considered to be the result of convergent evolution or the horizontal gene transfer of the F. oxysporum [10,21,22]."},{"index":4,"size":144,"text":"A syndrome similar to FWB appeared in banana plantations of Nepal in 2017 in the Chitwan district. It became widespread and destructive in almost all Malbhog bananagrowing regions of Nepal, with a 30-90% disease incidence. In Chitwan, some farmers had to abandon the Malbhog variety, due to the high susceptibility to this disease. While field observations indicated that the disease corresponded to FWB, it was not clear which strain was associated with it. Both farmers and phytosanitary authorities were concerned about an eventual outbreak caused by Foc TR4 in Nepal because TR4 was already reported both in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, India, which borders Nepal [23,24]. In the present study, we isolated the causal agent responsible for the disease outbreak in Malbhog bananas in Nepal, investigated the vegetative compatibility, and tested the pathogenicity to facilitate the development of effective disease management strategies in Nepal."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sample Collection","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"In December 2017, an unusual phenomenon of banana plants (Malbhog, AAB) showing severe yellowing wilt symptoms before collapse was first reported in the Chitwan district of Nepal. Plant sampling from Malbhog bananas was conducted during two field surveys in December 2019 in the Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts. Visited locations were at an altitude of 170 m to 210 m. Diseased plants with typical external symptoms were found, and some xylem vessels appeared reddish-brown when the pseudostems were cut longitudinally. Altogether, thirteen samples from symptomatic tissue were collected from seven farmers' fields of the Chitwan district and four farmers' fields of the Nawalparasi district (Table 1). "}]},{"head":"Isolation and Identification","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"All collected samples were dried at room temperature before the isolation of the pathogen. Every sample was cut into small squares with a width of 0.5 cm using scissors. The scissors and tweezers were repeatedly heat-sterilized for every sample isolation. To prevent cross-contamination, gloves were changed when handling each sample. The cut pieces were immersed in 70% alcohol for 30 s for disinfection, followed by immersion in 0.1% mercury chloride for 30 s in the same way, and then rinsed three times with sterile water and placed on the plates with PDA medium with 50 µg/mL ampicillin. Then, the plates were kept in the dark at 30 • C for 5-7 days. The morphologies of the developed colonies were observed under a stereomicroscope, and the typical structures of Fusarium were observed using a compound microscope."}]},{"head":"Pathogenicity Test","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Tissue-cultured plantlets of Malbhog were planted in a steam-sterilized potting medium consisting of soil, sand, and farmyard manure in the ratio of 3:1:1 at the National Plant Pathology Research Centre (NPPRC), Khumaltar, Nepal. The pathogenicity test was performed when the plants reached 10-15 cm in height at the 3-4 leaf stage to ensure that the vascular system was fully developed. Six plants were used per treatment. These plants were inoculated with NP11 or NP12 single-spore isolates from the Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts, respectively. The conidial suspension adjusted was counted using a hemocytometer and was 6.3 × 10 6 conidia/mL. The roots of plants were slightly wounded by a sterile knife, and 100 mL of spore suspension of the F. oxysporum isolate was then added to the plantlets by drenching. Plants drenched with water served as the control. All the plants were placed in the greenhouse. Inoculated plants were monitored regularly for the appearance of disease symptoms. When external symptoms appeared, the internal symptoms were also investigated by dissecting the pseudostem and corm. The pathogen was re-isolated from the inoculated plants and further characterized by PCR."},{"index":2,"size":200,"text":"Pathogenicity tests were also carried out at the Institute of Plant Protection Research, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Biology for Crop Diseases and Insect Pests, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China. Banana plantlets from the Cachaco (Bluggoe, ABB) and Williams (Cavendish, AAA) cultivars were grown and inoculated as afore mentioned. Nine plants were used per treatment, and each treatment was repeated three times. The wounded roots of the inoculated plantlets were soaked in a 10 6 conidia/mL spore suspension for 30 min and then planted in the pots. Those plantlets that soaked in sterile water for 30 min served as the healthy control. Twenty-four days after inoculation, the disease index was investigated by dissecting the corm. The classification criteria were as follows: scale 0, no symptoms in the corm; scale 1, discoloration area in the central longitudinal section of the corm was less than 25%; scale 3, discoloration area in the central longitudinal section of the corm was 26-50%; scale 5, discoloration area in the central longitudinal section of the corm was 51-75% area; scale 7, discoloration area in the central longitudinal section of the corm was more than 75%. The disease index was calculated according to the following equation [25]:"},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Disease index equation = [Σ (number of infected plants at a given disease scale × the disease scale)/(total tested plants × 7)] × 100 Statistical analysis was performed using R Studio version 4.0.3 (Agricolae package) for the disease index data. The data was transformed into log 10 (1 + data) for normalization, and 1 in each data set was added to remove potential infinity values from the logtransformed data. The analysis was measured using two-way ANOVA with the LSD test."}]},{"head":"Vegetative Compatibility Group Analyses","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"Nitrate-nonutilizing (nit) mutants of the wild-type Foc strains were generated in minimal medium (MM) [26] amended with KClO 3 and incubated for 7-14 days at 25 • C. Spontaneous KClO 3 -resistant sectors were transferred to MM. Those that grew as thin colonies with no aerial mycelium were classified as nit mutants and were further characterized on media containing one of four different sources of nitrogen [27]. Finally, VCGs of all mutants were determined by pairing in MM with tester nit mutants from strains with known VCGs (VCG 0120, VCG 0121, VCG 0122, VCG 0123, VCG 0124, VCG 0125, VCG 0126, VCG 0127, VCG 0128, VCG 0129, VCG 01210, VCG 01211, VCG 01212, VCG 01213, VCG 01214, VCG 01215, VCG 01216, VCG 01217, VCG 01218, VCG 01219, VCG 01220, VCG 01221, VCG 01222, and VCG 01223) obtained from Professor Elizabeth Aitken, the University of Queensland, Australia. Complementation between different nit mutants resulted in dense aerial growth at the contact zone between the two colonies [27]. Eight isolates (NP1-1, NP2-1, NP4-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, and NP10-1) were used for vegetative compatibility group analyses."}]},{"head":"PCR Analyses","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"Five-to seven-day-old cultures were used for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. Approximately 100 mg of mycelium was taken with a sterile toothpick and placed into a sterilized PCR tube with 50 µL of lysis buffer for microorganisms (Takara Bio, https://www.takarabio.com, accessed on 13 January 2020). After 15 min of thermal denaturation at 80 • C in the PCR machine, it was centrifuged briefly, and 1.5 µL of the supernatant was used as a template for the PCR reaction. The translation elongation factor 1α gene (TEF-1α) was amplified with primers EF-1 and EF-2 as internal positive controls using the following program: 95 • C for 2 min and 35 cycles of 95 • C for 30 s; 50 • C for 30 s; and 72 • C for 1 min, followed by an additional extension time for 10 min at 72 • C [21]. The primer sets W1805F/W1805R and W2987F/W2987R from Li et al. (2012)  [20] were used to identify Foc R1 (354 bp) and Foc R4 (593 bp), respectively. Another pair of W2987F/W2987R from Li et al. (2013) [28] was used to identify TR4 (452 bp). [Note: the name of primer set W2987F/W2987R from Li et al. (2013) [28] is the same as that from Li et al. (2012)  [20], so in this research, we labeled it as TR4-W2987F/TR4-W2987R.] The sequence information of all the primer sets is shown in Table 2. The PCR was performed using the Gold Mix (Code: TSE 101, tsingke, Beijing, China) according to the manufacturer's protocol."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"PCR products were electrophoresed in 1% agarose gel in an electrophoretic tank (Takara Bio) containing 1X TAE buffer for 20 min at 135 V. BIO-RAD ChemiDocTMXRS+ was used to take an image after electrophoresis."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Table 2. The primer sets used to identify the Foc pathogen."}]},{"head":"Primer Sets Fungi to Identify Primer Sequences References","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phylogenetic Analysis","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"The TEF-1α sequences of isolates were amplified by PCR. These PCR products were confirmed with aimed bands by agarose gel electrophoresis and purified using the DNA Gel Extraction kit TSP601 (Tsingke, Beijing, China). PCR products were then cloned and sequenced in the pMD18-T vector. The TEF-1α sequences were showed in Supplementary Table S1. Additionally, TEF-1α sequences of other F. oxysporum isolates were obtained from the publicly available genomes (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/, accessed on 30 July 2021). The analysis involved 31 isolate sequences that were aligned with MUSCLE [29], and the phylogenetic analyses were performed using maximum likelihood (ML). The phylogenetic tree was constructed using the MEGA 6.0 software with the Kimura 2-parameter model [30]. The TEF-1α sequence from Ramlispora sorghi was used as the outgroup taxon (KM087651.1). Branches were tested for the inferred tree by bootstrap analysis on 1000 random trees."}]},{"head":"Results","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Disease Diagnosis with Field Symptoms","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The problem of wilt disease has existed in banana orchards in Nepal since 2017. The disease was observed in some new and old orchards growing the Malbhog variety. Symptoms appeared as yellowing of the oldest leaves and splitting at the base of different types of infected plants. Some diseased, old yellow leaves split at the base. Vascular discoloration varied from pale yellow in the early stage to dark red or almost black in the later stage when viewed by cutting a cross-section or splitting the pseudostem base. Brownish streaks of the vascular tissue were also observed during the field survey (Figure 1). However, wilt disease was not observed in the Grand Naine banana variety. "}]},{"head":"Primer Sets Fungi to Identify Primer Sequences References","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phylogenetic Analysis","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"The TEF-1α sequences of isolates were amplified by PCR. These PCR products were confirmed with aimed bands by agarose gel electrophoresis and purified using the DNA Gel Extraction kit TSP601 (Tsingke, Beijing, China). PCR products were then cloned and sequenced in the pMD18-T vector. The TEF-1α sequences were showed in Supplementary Table S1. Additionally, TEF-1α sequences of other F. oxysporum isolates were obtained from the publicly available genomes (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/, accessed on 30 July 2021). The analysis involved 31 isolate sequences that were aligned with MUSCLE [29], and the phylogenetic analyses were performed using maximum likelihood (ML). The phylogenetic tree was constructed using the MEGA 6.0 software with the Kimura 2-parameter model [30]. The TEF-1α sequence from Ramlispora sorghi was used as the outgroup taxon (KM087651.1). Branches were tested for the inferred tree by bootstrap analysis on 1000 random trees."}]},{"head":"Results","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Disease Diagnosis with Field Symptoms","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The problem of wilt disease has existed in banana orchards in Nepal since 2017. The disease was observed in some new and old orchards growing the Malbhog variety. Symptoms appeared as yellowing of the oldest leaves and splitting at the base of different types of infected plants. Some diseased, old yellow leaves split at the base. Vascular discoloration varied from pale yellow in the early stage to dark red or almost black in the later stage when viewed by cutting a cross-section or splitting the pseudostem base. Brownish streaks of the vascular tissue were also observed during the field survey (Figure 1). However, wilt disease was not observed in the Grand Naine banana variety. "}]},{"head":"Morphology of the Pathogen Isolate","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Thirteen suspected pathogen isolates were extracted from thirteen corresponding samples collected from banana fields in the Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts (Table 1), and their morphological characteristics were studied. The isolates produced dense white and purple colonies, and mycelia were evenly spread all over the PDA medium (Figure 2A,B)."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The microscopic examination of fungal isolates showed the presence of three types of asexual spores: macroconidia, microconidia, and chlamydospores. The macroconidia were thin-walled with a definite foot cell and a pointed apical cell (Figure 2C). Microconidia were oval-or kidney-shaped and were produced on micro-conidiophores in aerial mycelia (Figure 2D). Chlamydospores were thick-walled (Figure 2E), and these were usually produced singly in macroconidia, were intercalary, or were in terminal hyphae [31]. "}]},{"head":"Morphology of the Pathogen Isolate","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Thirteen suspected pathogen isolates were extracted from thirteen corresponding samples collected from banana fields in the Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts (Table 1), and their morphological characteristics were studied. The isolates produced dense white and purple colonies, and mycelia were evenly spread all over the PDA medium (Figure 2A,B)."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The microscopic examination of fungal isolates showed the presence of three types of asexual spores: macroconidia, microconidia, and chlamydospores. The macroconidia were thin-walled with a definite foot cell and a pointed apical cell (Figure 2C). Microconidia were oval-or kidney-shaped and were produced on micro-conidiophores in aerial mycelia (Figure 2D). Chlamydospores were thick-walled (Figure 2E), and these were usually produced singly in macroconidia, were intercalary, or were in terminal hyphae [31]. "}]},{"head":"Pathogenicity Test","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":227,"text":"The pathogenicity test was performed on three banana cultivars: Malbhog (AAB), Cachaco (ABB), and Williams (AAA). Yellowing and wilting symptoms were observed in inoculated Malbhog plantlets after 21 days of pathogen inoculation (Figure 3A: left two plants). The non-inoculated plants (controls) showed no symptoms, and the leaves remained green (Figure 3A: right two plants). Dark spots and brownish discoloration of the vascular tissue in the pseudostem were also observed (Figure 3B). In severe cases, inoculated plantlets showed complete wilting or even death. Similar symptoms were observed in inoculated Cachaco plantlets (Figure 4A,C). Wilting symptoms in plantlets inoculated with the isolates NP1-1, NP2-1, NP4-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, and NP10-1 were noticed after 24 days of pathogen inoculation. There was a highly significant response of the disease index on the varieties and interactions of isolates with varieties, while the response was non-significant in the case of isolates without varieties (Table 3). The pathogenicity of the F. oxysporum isolates to Cachaco and Williams was extremely significantly different (p < 2×10 -16 ). All of the inoculated Cachaco plantlets showed different degrees of symptoms, and the disease index was greater than 26.19, while the inoculated Williams plantlets nearly had no disease symptoms. The disease index of Cachaco inoculated with the isolate NP4-1 was 66.67, which was significantly higher than that caused by NP2-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, and NP8-1 (p < 0.0465). "}]},{"head":"Pathogenicity Test","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":249,"text":"The pathogenicity test was performed on three banana cultivars: Malbhog (AAB), Cachaco (ABB), and Williams (AAA). Yellowing and wilting symptoms were observed in inoculated Malbhog plantlets after 21 days of pathogen inoculation (Figure 3A: left two plants). The non-inoculated plants (controls) showed no symptoms, and the leaves remained green (Figure 3A: right two plants). Dark spots and brownish discoloration of the vascular tissue in the pseudostem were also observed (Figure 3B). In severe cases, inoculated plantlets showed complete wilting or even death. Similar symptoms were observed in inoculated Cachaco plantlets (Figure 4A,C). Wilting symptoms in plantlets inoculated with the isolates NP1-1, NP2-1, NP4-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, and NP10-1 were noticed after 24 days of pathogen inoculation. There was a highly significant response of the disease index on the varieties and interactions of isolates with varieties, while the response was non-significant in the case of isolates without varieties (Table 3). The pathogenicity of the F. oxysporum isolates to Cachaco and Williams was extremely significantly different (p < 2 × 10 −16 ). All of the inoculated Cachaco plantlets showed different degrees of symptoms, and the disease index was greater than 26.19, while the inoculated Williams plantlets nearly had no disease symptoms. The disease index of Cachaco inoculated with the isolate NP4-1 was 66.67, which was significantly higher than that caused by NP2-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, and NP8-1 (p < 0.0465). The pathogen was re-isolated from the inoculated, symptomatic plants and confirmed with the original one using microscopic observation and PCR."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"The pathogen was re-isolated from the inoculated, symptomatic plants and confirmed with the original one using microscopic observation and PCR.   The pathogen was re-isolated from the inoculated, symptomatic plants and confirmed with the original one using microscopic observation and PCR.    Values are the means of three replications. Data were transformed using log 10 (1 + data), the presented means are original, and the values inside the parentheses indicate transformed data; ANOVA was conducted on the transformed data. The mean values in the same column with the same letter are not statistically significantly different (p < 0.05)."}]},{"head":"PCR Analysis","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"PCR analyses were performed using four primer sets (Figure 5). The W1805F/W1805R primer set previously associated with Foc R1 populations [20] produced the predicted 354 bp amplicon in all of the 13 tested isolates and from the Foc R1 strain used as the reference control. None of the tested isolates reacted to the Foc R4 or TR4 primer sets. The TR4 strain used as the positive control produced the predicted 593 and 452 bp amplicons, respectively. Altogether, our PCR results suggested that all Foc strains isolated from Malbhog bananas in Nepal were associated with Foc R1 populations."}]},{"head":"Vegetative Compatibility Analyses","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Nit mutants were successfully generated for eight Foc isolates (NP1-1, NP2-1, NP4-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, and NP10-1). Five (NP2-1, NP4-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, and NP10-1) out of the eight isolates were compatible with VCG 0124, since the development of aerial mycelia and the formation of heterokaryons at the line of intersection between colonies of the isolates and tester mutants were observed. The other isolate (NP5-1) was typed as VCG 0125, suggesting that VCG 0124 was the predominant isolate. NP1-1 and NP6-1 were of unknown VCGs (Figures 6 and 7). "}]},{"head":"Vegetative Compatibility Analyses","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Nit mutants were successfully generated for eight Foc isolates (NP1-1, NP2-1, N NP5-1, NP6-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, and NP10-1). Five (NP2-1, NP4-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, and 1) out of the eight isolates were compatible with VCG 0124, since the development o mycelia and the formation of heterokaryons at the line of intersection between colo the isolates and tester mutants were observed. The other isolate (NP5-1) was ty VCG 0125, suggesting that VCG 0124 was the predominant isolate. NP1-1 and NP6of unknown VCGs (Figures 6 and 7).  "}]},{"head":"Vegetative Compatibility Analyses","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Nit mutants were successfully generated for eight Foc isolates (NP1-1, NP2-1, NP4-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, and NP10-1). Five (NP2-1, NP4-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, and NP10-1) out of the eight isolates were compatible with VCG 0124, since the development of aerial mycelia and the formation of heterokaryons at the line of intersection between colonies of the isolates and tester mutants were observed. The other isolate (NP5-1) was typed as VCG 0125, suggesting that VCG 0124 was the predominant isolate. NP1-1 and NP6-1 were of unknown VCGs (Figures 6 and 7). "}]},{"head":"Phylogenetic Analysis","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Nepal isolates and some other F. oxysporum isolates from the publicly available genomes were phylogenetically analyzed based on TEF-1α. The phylogenetic tree divided thirteen Nepal isolates into two clusters. The first cluster, including most of the isolates, viz., NP1-1, NP2-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, NP11, NP12, NP13, NP14, and NP15 were grouped with Foc NRRL 25607 and CAV 2612, which were also typed as VCG 0124 in previous studies [18,32]. The second cluster grouped NP4-1 and NP10-1 together with a set of F. oxysporum formae speciales, including cubense (NRRL 25367 NRRL 25609) and non-cubense, such as glycines (NRRL 25598) and melonis (NRRL 26178) (Figure 7)."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"thirteen Nepal isolates into two clusters. The first cluster, including most of the isolates, viz., NP1-1, NP2-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, NP11, NP12, NP13, NP14, and NP15 were grouped with Foc NRRL 25607 and CAV 2612, which were also typed as VCG 0124 in previous studies [18,32]. The second cluster grouped NP4-1 and NP10-1 together with a set of F. oxysporum formae speciales, including cubense (NRRL 25367 NRRL 25609) and non-cubense, such as glycines (NRRL 25598) and melonis (NRRL 26178) (Figure 7).  [18]. CAV 2612 also belongs to VCG 0124, but it is associated with Foc R1 [32]. VCG / means unidentified VCG."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"FWB causes severe yield losses globally, especially the TR4 strain, which is considered the biggest threat to global banana production [33]. Since 2017, typical symptoms of FWB have been increasingly observed in banana plantations in Nepal. However, identification and characterization of the causal agent is still lacking. In this research, we isolated and characterized the pathogen responsible for causing wilt disease on Malbhog banana plantations in the Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts, Nepal. Isolates, which exhibited morphological characteristics similar to the Fusarium oxysporum [34], were able to cause typical FWB symptoms in the Malbhog and Cachaco cultivars but not in the Cavendish cultivar, Williams. Field observations also revealed that the Cavendish cultivar, Grand Naine, which is resistant to Foc R1, had successfully replaced the susceptible Malbhog in the affected areas. Our PCR and VCG analyses grouped all the strains isolated as Foc R1 and revealed that six of these strains belonged to VCGs 0124 and 0125."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"The phylogenetic tree based on TEF-1α divided the thirteen Nepal isolates into two clusters. The first cluster included most isolates grouped with Foc NRRL 25607 and CAV 2612, both of which belonged to VCG 0124 [18,32]. NP5-1, which belonged to VCG 0125, was also grouped with them. NP4-1 and NP10-1, both of which belonged to VCG 0124, were grouped into a separate branch. Results of genetic diversity derived from VCG and the phylogenetic tree were not fully consistent. It was probably due to the complex genetic diversity of Foc for convergent evolution or the horizontal gene transfer of F. oxysporum [10,21,22]. Moreover, TEF-1α was shown in some cases to be insufficient for distinguishing different formae speciales of Fusarium [35]. Nonetheless, results of the VCG revealed the diversity of Foc R1 in Nepal, although a larger number of isolates collected from other banana-producing regions may be suitable to further understand the Foc population biology in Nepal."},{"index":3,"size":174,"text":"Banana is a high-value agricultural product and a major fruit in Nepal, in terms of production and domestic consumption (https://www.icimod.org/expanding-commercialbanana-production-in-nepal/, accessed on 8 June 2021). The current epidemic and spread of Foc R1 have severely affected the production of the traditional banana cultivar, Malbhog, which is one of the preferred local cultivars in Nepal. Our surveys revealed that FWB was prevalent in almost 90% of the Malbhog-growing area of the Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts. Surveys and farmer interviews during field visits indicated that such a rapid spread of FWB could be associated with the informal exchange of planting material from infested to healthy areas. In the absence of effective management practices, many growers chose to plant the Foc R1-resistant cultivar, Grand Naine. However, farmers and extension officers need to consider that Grand Naine is highly susceptible to Foc TR4, a more aggressive Foc strain already present in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, India [23,24]. Therefore, prevention and exclusion measures against Foc TR4 using anticipatory approaches, as well as continuous Foc population monitoring, are strongly encouraged."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"In conclusion, 13 fungal strains were isolated from banana plants of the Malbhog cultivar (Silk, AAB) showing symptoms similar to FWB in banana orchards in Nepal. Molecular diagnosis and vegetative compatibility group analysis were conducted for the evaluation of the FWB. All the strains caused FWB symptoms when inoculated in the Malbhog and Cachaco (Bluggoe, ABB) cultivars. No symptoms were observed in the Williams cultivar (Cavendish, AAA). PCR analyses with primers specific for Foc race 1 (R1) or Foc tropical race 4 (TR4) revealed that all the strains reacted positively for Foc R1 and none for TR4 in this study. Vegetative compatibility group (VCG) analysis further confirmed most strains as VCG 0124 or VCG 0125. The results demonstrated that the pathogen in this study causing FWB in Nepal are associated with Foc R1 in these limited samples. Larger Foc populations are necessary to better understand disease epidemiology for making sustainable disease management strategies in the next step."}]},{"head":"Supplementary Materials:","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The following is available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/ 10.3390/jof9020208/s1. Supplemental Table S1. TEF-1α sequences. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Different diseased plants (Malbhog variety) with various symptoms on different parts in the Chitwan district. (A) Whole plant, (B) splitting pseudostem, and (C) reddish to dark-brownish discoloration of the vascular system. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Different diseased plants (Malbhog variety) with various symptoms on different parts in the Chitwan district. (A) Whole plant, (B) splitting pseudostem, and (C) reddish to dark-brownish discoloration of the vascular system. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Morphological characteristics of the fungus isolated from banana orchards of the Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts. (A) Purple shades of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) on PDA medium; (B) white shades of Foc on PDA medium; (C) macroconidia of Foc; (D) microconidia of Foc; and (E) chlamydospores of Foc. All scale bars 10 µm. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Morphological characteristics of the fungus isolated from banana orchards of the Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts. (A) Purple shades of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) on PDA medium; (B) white shades of Foc on PDA medium; (C) macroconidia of Foc; (D) microconidia of Foc; and (E) chlamydospores of Foc. All scale bars 10 µm. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Pathogenicity test on the Malbhog (AAB) variety at the National Plant Pathology Research Center, NARC, Khumaltar, Nepal. (A) Inoculated (left two plants) and non-inoculated as control (right two plants); (B) rhizome discoloration caused by Foc isolates after inoculation. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Pathogenicity test results on the Cachaco (ABB) and Williams (AAA) cultivars at the Institute of Plant Protection Research, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Biology for Crop Diseases and Insect Pests, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China. (A-C) Tests on Cachaco (ABB) cultivars; (A) inoculated; (B) non-inoculated; and (C) rhizome discoloration caused by Foc isolates after inoculation. (D-F) Tests on Williams (AAA) cultivars; (D) inoculated; (E) non-inoculated; and (F) no symptoms in the rhizome after inoculation. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Pathogenicity test on the Malbhog (AAB) variety at the National Plant Pathology Research Center, NARC, Khumaltar, Nepal. (A) Inoculated (left two plants) and non-inoculated as control (right two plants); (B) rhizome discoloration caused by Foc isolates after inoculation. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Pathogenicity test on the Malbhog (AAB) variety at the National Plant Pathology Research Center, NARC, Khumaltar, Nepal. (A) Inoculated (left two plants) and non-inoculated as control (right two plants); (B) rhizome discoloration caused by Foc isolates after inoculation. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Pathogenicity test results on the Cachaco (ABB) and Williams (AAA) cultivars at the Institute of Plant Protection Research, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Biology for Crop Diseases and Insect Pests, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China. (A-C) Tests on Cachaco (ABB) cultivars; (A) inoculated; (B) non-inoculated; and (C) rhizome discoloration caused by Foc isolates after inoculation. (D-F) Tests on Williams (AAA) cultivars; (D) inoculated; (E) non-inoculated; and (F) no symptoms in the rhizome after inoculation. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Pathogenicity test results on the Cachaco (ABB) and Williams (AAA) cultivars at the Institute of Plant Protection Research, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Biology for Crop Diseases and Insect Pests, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China. (A-C) Tests on Cachaco (ABB) cultivars; (A) inoculated; (B) non-inoculated; and (C) rhizome discoloration caused by Foc isolates after inoculation. (D-F) Tests on Williams (AAA) cultivars; (D) inoculated; (E) non-inoculated; and (F) no symptoms in the rhizome after inoculation. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. PCR identification of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) using primer sets (Table 2). (A) set W1805F/W1805R; (B) Primer set W2987F/W2987R; (C) Primer set TR4-W2987F/TR4-W (D) Primer set EF-1/EF-2 was used to amplify the fragment of the translation elongation fact (TEF-1α) as the internal positive control. Lane M: molecular weight maker; NP1-1, NP2-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, NP10-1, NP11, NP12, NP13, NP14, and NP15 were the isolate Nepal. The Foc R1 and TR4 isolates were from the Yunnan province of China; N-CK: water ative control. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. PCR identification of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) using primer sets (Table 2). (A) Primer set W1805F/W1805R; (B) Primer set W2987F/W2987R; (C) Primer set TR4-W2987F/TR4-W2987R; (D) Primer set EF-1/EF-2 was used to amplify the fragment of the translation elongation factor gene (TEF-1α) as the internal positive control. Lane M: molecular weight maker; NP1-1, NP2-1, NP4-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, NP10-1, NP11, NP12, NP13, NP14, and NP15 were the isolates from Nepal. The Foc R1 and TR4 isolates were from the Yunnan province of China; N-CK: water as negative control. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. PCR identification of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) using primer sets (Table 2). (A) Primer set W1805F/W1805R; (B) Primer set W2987F/W2987R; (C) Primer set TR4-W2987F/TR4-W2987R; (D) Primer set EF-1/EF-2 was used to amplify the fragment of the translation elongation factor gene (TEF-1α) as the internal positive control. Lane M: molecular weight maker; NP1-1, NP2-1, NP4-1, NP5-1, NP6-1, NP7-1, NP8-1, NP10-1, NP11, NP12, NP13, NP14, and NP15 were the isolates from Nepal. The Foc R1 and TR4 isolates were from the Yunnan province of China; N-CK: water as negative control. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Compatibility assays between nit mutants on minimal medium (MM). (A,B) Heterokaryon formation when pairing the tester and some isolates; (C) no heterokaryon formation when pairing testers and isolate NP6-1. "},{"text":"Figure 7 .Figure 7 . Figure 7. Maximum-likelihood (ML) tree inferred from the translation elongation factor 1α gene (TEF-1α) sequences in selected Fusarium isolates. Isolates obtained in the present study are indicated in bold. Bootstrap values (≥50%) are indicated at the nodes. The phylogram is rooted to F. concentricum M8164R and F. mangiferae SJG3-4. NRRL 25607 belongs to VCG 0124, associated with Foc R2 Figure 7. Maximum-likelihood (ML) tree inferred from the translation elongation factor 1α gene (TEF-1α) sequences in selected Fusarium isolates. Isolates obtained in the present study are indicated in bold. Bootstrap values (≥50%) are indicated at the nodes. The phylogram is rooted to F. concentricum M8164R and F. mangiferae SJG3-4. NRRL 25607 belongs to VCG 0124, associated with Foc R2[18]. CAV 2612 also belongs to VCG 0124, but it is associated with Foc R1[32]. VCG / means unidentified VCG. "},{"text":"Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.P., T.B., G.F. and S.-J.Z.; methodology, T.B., C.D., S.B., P.B.M. and S.M.; software, T.B. and J.S.; validation, S.B., P.B.M. and M.D.; investigation, B.P., S.B., P.B.M. and S.M.; data curation, T.B. and G.F.; writing-original draft preparation, B.P., T.B. and G.F.; writing-review and editing, M.D., M.R. and S.-J.Z.; supervision, M.D., M.R., G.F. and S.-J.Z.; project administration, S.-J.Z. and T.B.; funding acquisition, S.-J.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Isolates of Fusarium oxysporum used in this study from the Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts of Nepal. Isolate Sampling Date Site Variety Location Altitude (m) IsolateSampling DateSiteVarietyLocationAltitude (m) NP1-1 December 2019 Chitwan Malbhog 27 • 40 55 N, 84 • 30 21 E 210 NP1-1December 2019ChitwanMalbhog27 • 40 55 N, 84 • 30 21 E210 NP2-1 December 2019 Chitwan Malbhog 27 • 40 55 N, 84 • 30 24 E 210 NP2-1December 2019ChitwanMalbhog27 • 40 55 N, 84 • 30 24 E210 NP4-1 December 2019 Chitwan Malbhog 27 • 40 55 N, 84 • 30 24 E 210 NP4-1December 2019ChitwanMalbhog27 • 40 55 N, 84 • 30 24 E210 NP5-1 December 2019 Chitwan Malbhog 27 • 40 55 N, 84 • 30 24 E 210 NP5-1December 2019ChitwanMalbhog27 • 40 55 N, 84 • 30 24 E210 NP6-1 December 2019 Chitwan Malbhog 27 • 40 55 N, 84 • 30 24 E 210 NP6-1December 2019ChitwanMalbhog27 • 40 55 N, 84 • 30 24 E210 NP7-1 December 2019 Chitwan Malbhog 27 • 37 50 N, 84 • 31 1 E 200 NP7-1December 2019ChitwanMalbhog27 • 37 50 N, 84 • 31 1 E200 NP8-1 December 2019 Nawalparasi Malbhog 27 • 37 3 N, 84 • 6 1 E 170 NP8-1December 2019NawalparasiMalbhog27 • 37 3 N, 84 • 6 1 E170 NP10-1 December 2019 Nawalparasi Malbhog 27 • 37 3 N, 84 • 6 1 E 170 NP10-1December 2019NawalparasiMalbhog27 • 37 3 N, 84 • 6 1 E170 NP11 December 2019 Chitwan Malbhog 27 • 40 52 N, 84 • 30 26 E 220 NP11December 2019ChitwanMalbhog27 • 40 52 N, 84 • 30 26 E220 NP12 December 2019 Nawalparasi Malbhog 27 • 37 3 N, 84 • 6 1 E 170 NP12December 2019NawalparasiMalbhog27 • 37 3 N, 84 • 6 1 E170 NP13 December 2019 Chitwan Malbhog 27 • 39 12 N, 84 • 30 41 E 210 NP13December 2019ChitwanMalbhog27 • 39 12 N, 84 • 30 41 E210 NP14 December 2019 Chitwan Malbhog 27 • 39 10 N, 84 • 30 41 E 210 NP14December 2019ChitwanMalbhog27 • 39 10 N, 84 • 30 41 E210 NP15 December 2019 Chitwan Malbhog 27 • 37 52 N, 84 • 31 4 E 200 NP15December 2019ChitwanMalbhog27 • 37 52 N, 84 • 31 4 E200  "},{"text":"Table 2 . The primer sets used to identify the Foc pathogen.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . The disease index of isolates on the host. Isolate Variety Disease Index (%) IsolateVarietyDisease Index (%)  Cachaco (ABB) 38.9 (1.59a) Cachaco (ABB)38.9 (1.59a)  Williams (AAA) 0.53 (0.11b) Williams (AAA)0.53 (0.11b) p-value  <2 × 10 −16 p-value<2 × 10 −16 NP1-1  23.81 (0.84) NP1-123.81 (0.84) NP2-1  17.06 (0.85) NP2-117.06 (0.85) NP4-1  33.33 (0.91) NP4-133.33 (0.91) NP5-1  14.29 (0.73) NP5-114.29 (0.73) NP6-1  13.10 (0.70) NP6-113.10 (0.70) NP7-1  26.19 (0.98) NP7-126.19 (0.98) NP8-1  17.06 (0.97) NP8-117.06 (0.97) NP10-1  20.24 (0.81) NP10-120.24 (0.81) p-value  0.11 p-value0.11 NP1-1 Cachaco (ABB) 47.62 (1.68abc) NP1-1Cachaco (ABB)47.62 (1.68abc) NP2-1 Cachaco (ABB) 33.33 (1.52bc) NP2-1Cachaco (ABB)33.33 (1.52bc) NP4-1 Cachaco (ABB) 66.66 (1.83a) NP4-1Cachaco (ABB)66.66 (1.83a) NP5-1 Cachaco (ABB) 28.57 (1.47bc) NP5-1Cachaco (ABB)28.57 (1.47bc) NP6-1 Cachaco (ABB) 26.19 (1.41c) NP6-1Cachaco (ABB)26.19 (1.41c) NP7-1 Cachaco (ABB) 50.79 (1.71ab) NP7-1Cachaco (ABB)50.79 (1.71ab) NP8-1 Cachaco (ABB) 31.75 (1.51bc) NP8-1Cachaco (ABB)31.75 (1.51bc) NP10-1 Cachaco (ABB) 40.48 (1.61abc) NP10-1Cachaco (ABB)40.48 (1.61abc) NP1-1 Williams (AAA) 0.00 (0.00e) NP1-1Williams (AAA)0.00 (0.00e) NP2-1 Williams (AAA) 0.79 (0.18de) NP2-1Williams (AAA)0.79 (0.18de) NP4-1 Williams (AAA) 0.00 (0.00e) NP4-1Williams (AAA)0.00 (0.00e) NP5-1 Williams (AAA) 0.00 (0.00e) NP5-1Williams (AAA)0.00 (0.00e) NP6-1 Williams (AAA) 0.00 (0.00e) NP6-1Williams (AAA)0.00 (0.00e) NP7-1 Williams (AAA) 1.59 (0.25de) NP7-1Williams (AAA)1.59 (0.25de) NP8-1 Williams (AAA) 2.38 (0.43e) NP8-1Williams (AAA)2.38 (0.43e) NP10-1 Williams (AAA) 0.00 (0.00e) NP10-1Williams (AAA)0.00 (0.00e) p-value  0.0465 p-value0.0465  "}],"sieverID":"c901bea3-bb30-4c41-bfca-928f32a63ec7","abstract":"Fusarium wilt of banana (FWB), caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), is the most important constraint of the banana industry globally. In Nepal, epidemics resembling FWB have been increasingly observed on the Malbhog cultivar in the past several years. However, the disease has not been officially reported yet, and consequently, little is known about the pathogen present across the country. In this study, we characterized 13 fungal strains isolated from banana plants of the Malbhog cultivar (Silk, AAB) showing symptoms similar to FWB in banana plantations in Nepal. All of the strains were typed as belonging to the F. oxysporum and caused FWB symptoms when inoculated in the Malbhog and Cachaco (Bluggoe, ABB) cultivars. No symptoms were observed in the Williams cultivar (Cavendish, AAA). Vegetative compatibility group (VCG) analysis classified the strains as VCG 0124 or VCG 0125. PCR analyses conducted with primers specific for Foc race 1 (Foc R1) or Foc tropical race 4 (TR4) revealed that all the strains reacted positively for Foc R1 and none for TR4. Altogether, our results demonstrated that the pathogen populations causing FWB of the Malbhog cultivar in Nepal were Foc R1. This work reported, for the first time, the occurrence of FWB in Nepal. Further studies with larger Foc populations are needed to better understand disease epidemiology to design sustainable disease management strategies."}

data/part_1/104ab2b4224e140dee58d921078c58dc.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"104ab2b4224e140dee58d921078c58dc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1f80c6c6-bd95-484c-8edd-a26123dd5caf/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Three new barley varieties released in India (PL891) and Jordan (Ramtha1 and Ghweir1)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Project Title: P650 -Product Line 3.2.2: Cereal and legume germplasm with superior food, feed and fodder traits Description of the innovation: Three new varieties released (PL891 in India and Ramtha1 and Ghweir1 in Jordan). They are characterized by superior grain and biomass production and drought tolerance. The three new varieties are registered in the respective national variety catalog and are ready to be transferred to farmers. "}]},{"head":"New Innovation: No","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Genetic (varieties and breeds) Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) Geographic Scope: Multi-national Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Defined> reached: The three new varieties are registered in the respective national variety catalog and are ready to be transferred to farmers Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: ICARDA -International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • IIWBR -Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research Milestones: • 3.4.4 At least three new dual purpose cultivars have been advanced into the last stage of cultivar release Sub-IDOs: • 11 -Adoption of CGIAR materials with enhanced genetic gains • 10 -Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • ICARDA -International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:50 (GMT+0) "}],"sieverID":"d89d191b-0bf7-41bf-8af5-ac4f1717dcfa","abstract":""}

data/part_1/10e5011e959ab13050dc9fda99f03ee8.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"10e5011e959ab13050dc9fda99f03ee8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/89754df1-b339-4b28-9b04-edf6ac426e8a/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #41 Contributing Projects: • P263 -RPL EA: Regional and national engagement, synthesis and strategic research","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Enabled environment for climate resilience "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" This review aims to understand current state of policies and frameworks on climate change, agriculture, food and nutrition security, including their level of integration. This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:14 (GMT+0) Geographic scope: Geographic scope: • Regional • Regional Region(s): Region(s): • Eastern Africa • Eastern Africa Comments: <Not Defined> Comments: <Not Defined> Links to MELIA publications: Links to MELIA publications: <Not Defined> <Not Defined> 1 1  "}],"sieverID":"e9ea961d-c28c-4951-8718-19925a188455","abstract":""}