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2018-00607	How come when you find someone you truely care about, and they don't feel the same way that it hurts	Because you perceived your experiences together as worthy of establishing a deeper relationship but they did not. You both essentially had the same experience the only difference being they had to experience it with you. That indicates that you are less worthwhile as a person. It's not true but it sure feels like it.	[ "I guess the hardest thing is having so much love for you and it somehow not being returned. I develop crushes all the time, but that is just misdirected need for you. You are a hole in my life, a black hole. Anything I place there cannot be returned. I miss you terribly. \"Ci vedremo lassu, angelo\". [286].\n\nSection::::Spanish and North American editions.\n\nThe book was published in Spanish in 2002 under the title \"Amando En Tiempos De Silencio\" (Loving in the Days of Silence). ().\n", "Empirical studies conducted by social psychologist Daniel Batson have demonstrated that empathic concern is felt when one adopts the perspective of another person in need. His work emphasizes the different emotions evoked when imagining another situation from a self-perspective or imagining from another perspective. The former is often associated with personal distress (i.e., feelings of discomfort and anxiety), whereas the latter leads to empathic concern.\n\nSection::::Social neuroscience evidence.\n", "People are so hesitant in breaking social bonds that in many cases, they are hesitant to dissolve even bad relationships that could be potentially destructive. For example, many women are unwilling to leave their abusive spouses or boyfriends with excuses ranging from liking for the abuse to economic self-interests that are more important than physical harm. This unwillingness to leave an abusive partner, whether mentally or physically, is just another indicator of the power of the need to belong and how reluctant individuals are to break these bonds. Breaking off an attachment causes pain that is deeply rooted in the need to belong.\n", "Section::::Chart performance.\n", "Human beings are strongly motivated to be connected to others. In humans and higher mammals, an impulse to care for offspring is almost certainly genetically hard-wired, although modifiable by circumstance.\n\nSection::::Evolutionary origins.\n", "Section::::Reception and promotion.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "Bruce Warren of WXPN explains, 'After he [Michael Trotter Jr.] left the service, he met Tanya at a music festival they were both playing. Tanya walked up to Michael after their shows, exchanged phone numbers, and their relationship blossomed in and out of the recording studio.' Tanya told \"Billboard\", \"it's kind of like when we first started dating; I told him we have to jump off the building at the same time, holding hands. It's a question you have to ask before you make that decision -- ARE you ready to love me? Are you ready to go through all the things a relationship requires you to go through and still be there?\" Michael expressed, \"She did not know I was a wounded war veteran when we dated [...] I never talked about it. She was very confused -- Why is this guy running and ducking under the bed when he hears fireworks on the Fourth of July? Why do I find him hiding in a dark corner when the rest of the day he was so bubbly and happy? She was like, 'You've got to let me in Mike. You've got to tell me what's going on so I can make a decision if I want to roll with this.' And when she finally convinced me to let her into the dark side of me, I just gave her everything, told her everything I went through and, then, 'Are you ready to love me baby? Are we still good?'\n", "The accompanying music video for the song was directed by Eric Welch. \n\nSection::::Content.\n\nIn the song, the male narrator states that he is \"hard to love\" and questions why his lover still tolerates him. Co-writer Ben Glover said, \"We thought we’d write a classic song about dudes saying, ‘You know I’m kind of a pain in the ass.’ We said, ‘Let’s just talk about ourselves in the song'\".\n\nThe song was compared to Tracy Chapman's 1988 single Fast Car. \n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "Why Does It Hurt So Bad\n\n\"Why Does It Hurt So Bad\" is a song recorded by American singer Whitney Houston for the 1995 film \"Waiting to Exhale\". It was released on July 7, 1996, by Arista Records as the seventh and final single from the accompanying soundtrack. The song was written and produced solely by Babyface. Musically, it is an R&B ballad, and the lyrics chronicle a lovelorn lament.\n", "Because careseeking and caregiving are highly interdependent, complimentary processes, individuals are more likely to receive caregiving efforts from their partner when they experience and express higher levels of distress or need. More generally, psychology research on helping suggests that one of the strongest determinants of helping behaviour is the structure of the situation – more specifically, the degree to which potential helpers are able to notice that the need for help exists. In the context of romantic relationships, researchers have similarly argued that in order to enact caregiving, individuals must first realize that their partner requires care. Therefore, one potential obstacle to caregiving behaviour is that the person in need of help may not actively seek support from the caregiver, or may communicate their need for support through indirect strategies (e.g., hinting, sulking, sighing) that are overly ambiguous. However, while greater communications of need can effectively elicit support, behaviours such as excessive reassurance seeking (a behavioural pattern in which individuals continue to seek support and reassurance even after such reassurance has already been provided) can strain the relationship and undermine helping.\n", "The opening of the song is extremely similar to \"Monkey Time\" by Major Lance (and written by Curtis Mayfield.)\n", "Other aspects of health are also affected by rejection. Both systolic and diastolic blood pressure increase upon imagining a rejection scenario. Those who are socially rejected have an increased likelihood of suffering from tuberculosis, as well as dying by suicide. Rejection and isolation were found to affect levels of pain following an operation as well as other physical forms of pain. Social rejection may cause a reduction in intelligence. MacDonald and Leary theorize that rejection and exclusion cause physical pain because that pain is a warning sign to help us survive. As we developed into social creatures, social interactions and relationships became necessary to our survival, and the physical pain systems already existed within our bodies.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "'Platonic friendships provide a fertile soil for unrequited love'. Thus the object of unrequited love is often a friend or acquaintance, someone regularly encountered in the workplace, during the course of work, school or other activities involving large groups of people. This creates an awkward situation in which the admirer has difficulty in expressing their true feelings, a fear that revelation of feelings might invite rejection, cause embarrassment or might end all access to the beloved, as a romantic relationship may be inconsistent with the existing association.\n\nSection::::Analysis.:Unrequited love victims.\n", "Beneath the guilty feelings from the past, Davanloo almost invariably noted painful feelings about thwarted efforts at emotional closeness to parents and others in childhood. Finally, at the deepest layer of feelings are the still powerful yearnings for closeness, attachment, and love.\n", "\"Our very being exposes us to the address of another, she answers. We suffer from the condition of being addressable. Our emotional openness, she adds, is carried by our addressability. Language navigates this\" (Rankine, 43–46), \"you begin to understand yourself as rendered hyper-visible in the face of such language acts. Language that feels hurtful is intended to exploit all the ways that you are present. Your alertness, your openness, and your desire to engage actually demand your presence, your looking up, your talking back, and, as insane as it is, saying please\" (43–46).\n", "The human grieving process is marked by relational dialectics. After the death of a child, bereaved parents often experience tension between presence and absence by grieving their child's permanent absence while still experiencing an emotional bond toward the deceased child. Bereaved parents may also experience tension between openness and closeness, where they desire to discuss their feelings with friends or family, yet they are hesitant to share because of the potentially negative reactions they could receive.\n", "Section::::Recording and lyrics.\n", "Section::::Recording and Impact.\n", "Mourners may also experience the intense stress of helplessness. If they make repeated attempts to compel their loved one to return and are unsuccessful, they will feel helpless and inadequate to the task. Feeling one's 'limited capacity' can produce a fault line in the psyche which renders the person prone to heightened emotional responses within primary relationships.\n", "Once triggered, compassion leads individuals to favor the few they see suffering over the many who they know to be suffering but in the abstract: \"People who feel similar to another person in need have been shown to experience more empathic compassion for that person than do those not manipulated to feel similar to another.\"\n", "Therapist: But you say that, that during that time you, you felt as though no one cared, as to what (Client: That's right) what happened to you.\n\nClient: And, not only that, but I hated myself so that I didn't deserve to have anyone care for me. I hated myself so that I not only felt that no one did, but I didn't see any reason why they should.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "When made to sleep outside in a shed, Paul D is cornered by Beloved. While they have sex, his mind is filled with horrific memories from his past. Overwhelmed with guilt, Paul D tries to tell Sethe about it but cannot, and instead says he wants her pregnant. Sethe is apprehensive regarding pregnancy, but is elated at the prospect of their relationship. Paul D resists Beloved and her influence over him. But when he tells friends at work about his plans to start a new family, they react fearfully. Stamp Paid reveals the reason for the community's rejection of Sethe.\n", "\"CSA patients have... an extreme fear of allowing others to see them as they truly are\". They have a high \"fear of being revictimized as a consequence of being trusting and open to someone in authority\". Because of their experience, \"intimacy feels...very frightening to most CSA survivors... To feel close to another again is to remember that this position is a dangerous one, one that might lead to being taken advantage of\".\n\nSection::::Among child molesters and abusers.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10645	What makes soy so versatile as the main constituent of many foods, from milk to kebab protein?	[Soybean]( URL_4 ) is a [bean]( URL_1 ), and beans in general can provide non-meat proteins, sugars, and various vitamins. They also don't really taste like much, so you can use them as the basis for various meals, where the meal will taste based on added spices rather than based on the beans themselves. For the examples you gave: - soy yogurt - they add the (beneficial) [bacteria]( URL_0 ) that change milk to yogurt to the paste made from the beans, and the bacteria find enough sugars and proteins in the paste to feed and create the yogurt-y byproducts that it usually creates. - [tofu]( URL_3 ) is the equivalent of cheese, but again, with soybean milk/juice instead of regular milk. Again, the subtle flavor allows for using tofu as a basis for otherwise spiced foods. - [proteins]( URL_2 ) - beans in general have high protein content, and soy beans are not an exception. EDIT: There are other plants that are used as the substrate for a variety of dishes. If you look at the [article for rice]( URL_5 ), under Nutrition, you can see a comparison chart for the various vitamins and nutrients for a number of the staple foods, soy and rice included.	[ "Most soy protein is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. This heat stability enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as tofu, soy milk and textured vegetable protein (soy flour) to be made.\n\nSoy is a good source of protein for vegetarians and vegans or for people who want to reduce the amount of meat they eat, according to the US Food and Drug Administration:\n", "Soy protein is used in a variety of foods, such as salad dressings, soups, meat analogues, beverage powders, cheeses, nondairy creamer, frozen desserts, whipped topping, infant formulas, breads, breakfast cereals, pastas, and pet foods.\n\nSection::::Functional uses.\n", "Soy products also are used as a low-cost substitute in meat and poultry products. Food service, retail and institutional (primarily school lunch and correctional) facilities regularly use such \"extended\" products. Extension may result in diminished flavor, but fat and cholesterol are reduced. Vitamin and mineral fortification can be used to make soy products nutritionally equivalent to animal protein; the protein quality is already roughly equivalent. The soy-based meat substitute textured vegetable protein has been used for more than 50 years as a way of inexpensively extending ground beef without reducing its nutritional value.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Food for human consumption.:Soy nut butter.\n", "The digestibility of some soyfoods are as follows; steamed soybeans 65.3%, tofu 92.7%, soy milk 92.6%, and soy protein isolate 93–97%. Some studies on rats have indicated the biological value of soy protein isolates is comparable to animal proteins such as casein if enriched with the sulfur-containing amino acid methionine.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Soy protein concentrate retains most of the fiber of the original soybean. It is widely used as functional or nutritional ingredient in a wide variety of food products, mainly in baked foods, breakfast cereals, and in some meat products. Soy protein concentrate is used in meat and poultry products to increase water and fat retention and to improve nutritional values (more protein, less fat).\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Soy milk predates all other alternative milks, including oat milk, both as a cultural and commercial product. Within the past hundred years, soy milk made its way from Asia to European and American grocery stores, initially as a dairy substitute due to lactose intolerance. The increase in consumption of soy milk since its global distribution created a large market for plant-based, non-dairy milks like oat milk.\n", "Soy milk or soymilk is a plant-based drink produced by soaking and grinding soybeans, boiling the mixture, and filtering out remaining particulates. It is a stable emulsion of oil, water, and protein. Its original form is a natural by-product of the manufacture of tofu. It became a common beverage in Europe and North America in the later half of the 20th century, especially as production techniques were developed to give it taste and consistency more closely resembling dairy milk. Along with similar vegetable-based \"milks\", like almond and rice milk, soy milk may be used as a substitute for dairy milk by individuals who are vegan or lactose intolerant.\n", "Soy protein has been available since 1936 for its functional properties. In that year, organic chemist Percy Lavon Julian designed the world's first plant for the isolation of industrial-grade soy protein called alpha protein. The largest use of industrial-grade protein was, and still is, for paper coatings, in which it serves as a pigment binder. However, Julian's plant must have also been the source of the \"soy protein isolate\" which Ford's Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert spun into an artificial silk that was then tailored into that now famous \"silk is soy\" suit that Henry Ford wore on special occasions. The plant's eventual daily output of 40 tons of soy protein isolate made the Soya Products Division into Glidden's most profitable division.\n", "Little Soya soy sauce can also be found in grocery retail outlets throughout the United States. This includes over 500 Safeway locations, and numerous restaurants all over the country. Other retail outlets include Cost Plus World Market, Safeway Inc., Vons, King Kullen, Stop & Shop, Big Y, Phoenicia, and Spec's Wine, Spirits & Finer Foods, among others.\n\nIt also has a big presence in Las Vegas, being used at the MGM Grand, Palms Casino Resort, Luxor, Station Casinos, TAO Beach and Marquee.\n", "BULLET::::- A portion of all sales of Revival Soy products are donated to breast cancer support groups including the Avon Foundation Breast Center at Johns Hopkins, Mother’s Supporting Daughters with Breast Cancer, and the Peake Performance Hike for Breast Cancer.\n\nBULLET::::- Physicians Pharmaceuticals helped sponsor the second annual nationwide Walk From Obesity. This annual walk, sponsored by the American Society for Bariatric Surgery, is a fund-raising event designed to reduce disability, death and discrimination of people who are obese.\n", "Food-grade soy protein isolate first became available on October 2, 1959 with the dedication of Central Soya's edible soy isolate, Promine D, production facility on the Glidden Company industrial site in Chicago. An edible soy isolate and edible spun soy fiber have also been available since 1960 from the Ralston Purina Company in St. Louis, who had hired Boyer and Calvert. In 1987, PTI became the world's leading maker of isolated soy protein.\n\nSection::::Food uses.\n", "In addition to their use in livestock feed, soybean products are widely used for human consumption. Common soybean products include soy sauce, soy milk, tofu, soy meal, soy flour, textured vegetable protein (TVP), tempeh, soy lecithin and soybean oil. Soybeans may also be eaten with minimal processing, for example in the Japanese food , in which immature soybeans are boiled whole in their pods and served with salt.\n", "Section::::Uses as human food.\n\nGlobally, about 2 percent of soybean meal is used for soy flour and other products for human consumption. Soy flour “provides the basis for some soy milks and vegetable protein”, and is marketed as full-fat, low-fat, defatted and lecithinated types.\n\nSection::::Phytoestrogens.\n", "Soy beans contain significant amounts of phytic acid, dietary minerals and B vitamins. Soy vegetable oil, used in food and industrial applications, is another product of processing the soybean crop. Soybean is the most important protein source for feed farm animals (that in turn yields animal protein for human consumption).\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nThe word \"soy\" originated as a corruption of the Chinese or Japanese names for soy sauce () .\n", "Soy fabrics are derived from the hulls of soybeans—a manufacturing byproduct. Soy fabrics can be blended (i.e. 30%) or made entirely out of soy fibers. Soy clothing is largely biodegradable, so it has a minimal impact on environment and landfills. Although not as durable as cotton or hemp fabrics, soy clothing has a soft, elastic feel. Soy clothing is known as the vegetable cashmere for its light and silky sensation. Soy fabrics are moisture absorbent, anti-bacterial, and UV resistant. However, soy fabrics fell out of public knowledge during World War II, when rayon, nylon, and cotton sales rose sharply.\n", "Yam is an important dietary element for Nigerian and West African people. It contributes more than 200 calories per person per day for more than 150 million people in West Africa, and is an important source of income. Yam is an attractive crop in poor farms with limited resources. It is rich in starch, and can be prepared in many ways. It is available all year round, unlike other, unreliable, seasonal crops. These characteristics make yam a preferred food and a culturally important food security crop in some sub-Saharan African countries.\n\nSection::::Phytochemicals and use in medicine.\n", "BULLET::::- Oncom\n\nBULLET::::- Soup soy sauce\n\nBULLET::::- Soybean\n\nBULLET::::- Soybean oil\n\nBULLET::::- Soybean sprout\n\nBULLET::::- Soy milk\n\nBULLET::::- Soy molasses\n\nBULLET::::- Soy nut\n\nBULLET::::- Soy protein\n\nBULLET::::- Soy sauce\n\nBULLET::::- Soy yogurt\n\nBULLET::::- Sweet bean sauce\n\nBULLET::::- Tauco\n\nBULLET::::- Tempeh\n\nBULLET::::- Teriyaki\n\nBULLET::::- Textured vegetable protein\n\nBULLET::::- Tofu\n\nBULLET::::- Agedashi dōfu\n\nBULLET::::- Fermented bean curd\n\nBULLET::::- Stinky tofu\n\nBULLET::::- Tofu skin\n\nBULLET::::- Bai ye\n\nBULLET::::- Tofu skin roll\n\nBULLET::::- Tương\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow soybean paste\n\nSection::::Soy-based foods.:Dishes.\n\nBULLET::::- Dubu kimchi\n\nBULLET::::- Hiyayakko\n\nBULLET::::- Kongguksu\n\nBULLET::::- Mapo doufu\n\nBULLET::::- Soy sauce chicken\n\nBULLET::::- Sukiyaki\n\nBULLET::::- Sundubu jjigae\n\nBULLET::::- Tahu goreng\n", "Revival Products, Inc. is an active participant in clinical research related to soy and human health. Revival Soy protein products have been used in multiple clinical research studies, including nearly twenty clinical trials that have been published in peer-reviewed scientific journals. Research with Revival Soy products has demonstrated the benefits of soy for several aspects of human health including menopause, weight loss, skin health, and heart health.\n", "Soy paint\n\nSoy paint is paint made primarily from soy, it combines the advantage of being a renewable resource with the potential of non-toxic product.\n\nSection::::Oil.\n", "Section::::Major kinds of soybean meal.\n\nThree main kinds of soybean meal are produced:\n\nSection::::Use in animal feed.\n", "In 2006, an American Heart Association review of soy protein benefits indicated only weak confirmation for the cholesterol-lowering claim about soy protein. The panel also found soy isoflavones do not reduce postmenopause \"hot flashes\" in women, nor do isoflavones lower risk of cancers of the breast, uterus, or prostate. Among the conclusions, the authors stated, \"In contrast, soy products such as tofu, soy butter, soy nuts, or some soy burgers should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat. Using these and other soy foods to replace foods high in animal protein that contain saturated fat and cholesterol may confer benefits to cardiovascular health.\"\n", "Soy-based dishes are a staple of vegan diets because soy is a complete protein; i.e. it has all the essential amino acids for humans and can be relied on entirely for protein intake. They are consumed most often in the form of soy milk and tofu (bean curd), which is soy milk mixed with a coagulant. Tofu comes in a variety of textures, depending on water content, from firm, medium firm and extra firm for stews and stir-fries to soft or silken for salad dressings, desserts and shakes. Soy is also eaten in the form of tempeh and textured vegetable protein (TVP); also known as textured soy protein (TSP), the latter is often used in pasta sauces.\n", "Section::::Philanthropic Endeavors.\n\nBULLET::::- Physicians Pharmaceuticals was instrumental in the development of the North Carolina Amber Alert system. They provided $150,000 for the complete funding of the statewide implementation of the North Carolina Child Alert Notification system, which was subsequently converted to the North Carolina Amber Alert program in June 2003.\n\nBULLET::::- Physicians Pharmaceuticals has donated over 110,000 pounds (55 tons) of Revival Soy products to Feed The Children, an international, nonprofit, charitable organization committed to making a difference in the fight against hunger.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15841	How exactly does a consumer's money circulate throughout society after a product is bought?	Start backwards. Raw materials are produced and the workers are paid. Raw material company sells to the factory. Factory makes product and workers are paid. Now factory needs to make their money back so they sell to a distributor/store/etc. That store may be part of a chain that moves stuff around for sale and there may be more transactions in that bit too. To simplify, the store had bought the product and now THEY need to make some money. You buy the product. That store charges what they paid +x% (their markup) to produce a profit. Every step has charged a slightly higher price than the last, in this way. So now you own the phone. Your money went to pay for that store to stay open and thay store owner to support his existence. The money makes it back to you in the form of the community, businesses, and other public and private interests continuing to exist. Simpler example: A student organization wants to build a park. They hold a fundraiser. You would like to see a new park and be able to enjoy a new park so you donate some money. You get your money 'back' in the form of a new park you helped pay for. Now apply this concept globally and spending money in your community on locally sourced goods puts money directly back into the pot of the people who pay you and your friends and family to do your own jobs. The further up the chain you go and farther away that takes you is that much further that your dollars are going to support the livelihood of others and the businesses for which they work.	[ "Consumer research has existed for more than a century and has been well established as a combination of sociology, psychology, and anthropology, and popular topics in the field revolve around consumer decision-making, advertising, and branding. For decades, however, consumer researchers had never been able to directly record the internal mental processes that govern consumer behavior; they always were limited to designing experiments in which they alter the external conditions in order to view the ways in which changing variables may affect consumer behavior (examples include changing the packaging or changing a subject’s mood). With the integration of neuroscience with consumer research, it is possible to go directly into the brain to discover the neural explanations for consumer behavior. The ability to record brain activity with electrodes and advances in neural imaging technology make it possible to determine specific regions of the brain that are responsible for critical behaviors involved in consumption.\n", "Plumpy'Nut is distributed from the manufacturer to geographic areas of need through a complex supply chain. Forward information flows, such as projections of need, order processes, and payment information, and\n\nbackward information flows, including stock monitoring, quality assurance, and performance data\n\noccur through information exchange vulnerable to errors or tardiness associated with supply chain fragmentation.\n", "Section::::Purchasing.:Familiar vs. unfamiliar purchases.\n", "Consumer spending\n\nConsumer spending, consumption, or consumption expenditure is the acquisition of goods and services by individuals or families. It is the largest part of aggregate demand at the macroeconomic level. There are two components of consumer spending: induced consumption (which is affected by the level of income) and autonomous consumption (which is not).\n\nSection::::Macroeconomic factors.\n\nSection::::Macroeconomic factors.:Taxes.\n", "The study of consumer behaviour is concerned with all aspects of purchasing behaviour – from pre-purchase activities through to post-purchase consumption, evaluation and disposal activities. It is also concerned with all persons involved, either directly or indirectly, in purchasing decisions and consumption activities including brand-influencers and opinion leaders. Research has shown that consumer behaviour is difficult to predict, even for experts in the field. However, new research methods such as ethnography and consumer neuroscience are shedding new light on how consumers make decisions.\n", "Consumer neuroscience\n\nConsumer neuroscience is the combination of consumer research with modern neuroscience. The goal of the field is to find neural explanations for consumer behaviors in individuals both with or without disease.\n\nSection::::Consumer research.\n", "Section::::Research methods used.:Consumer neuroscience.\n\nConsumer neuroscience (also known as neuromarketing) refers to the commercial use of neuroscience when applied to the investigation of marketing problems and consumer research. Some researchers have argued that the term \"consumer neuroscience\" is preferred over neuromarketing or other alternatives.. .. \n\nConsumer neuroscience employs sophisticated bio-metric sensors, such as electroencephalography (EEG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and eye tracking, to study the ways that consumers respond to specific stimuli such as product displays, brands, packaging information or other marketing signals. Such tests reveal stimuli that trigger the brain's pleasure centre.\n", "The concept was further investigated in a qualitative research conducted by Muntinga, Moorman, and Smit in 2011. In their study, the researchers had analyzed data from 20 consumers and suggested three dimensions of analysis: consumption, contribution, and creation.\n\nTo validate the COBRAs framework, Schivinski, Christodoulides, and Dabrowski (2016) developed a survey instrument to measure the consumer’s engagement with brand-related social-media content, based on three dimensions (i.e., consumption, contribution, and creation) established by Muntinga, Moorman, and Smit (2011). Examples of the application of COBRAs follows:\n", "In an attempt to model how the brain learns, a temporal difference learning algorithm has been developed which takes into account expected reward, stimuli presence, reward evaluation, temporal error, and individual differences. As yet this is a theoretical equation, but it may be solved in the near future.\n\nSection::::Branding.:How branding affects consumers.\n", "Within consumer behaviour, a particular area of interest is the study of how innovative new products, services, ideas or technologies spread through groups. Insights about how innovations are diffused (i.e., spread) through populations can assist marketers to speed up the new product adoption process and fine-tune the marketing program at different stages of the diffusion process. In addition, diffusion models provide benchmarks against which new product introductions can be tracked.\n", "Facilitated by middlemen for the intention of re-sale to meet others requirements. Agents, wholesalers and retailers come under this category providing their own channels of distribution to the consumer.\n\nSection::::Types of Purchases.:Industrial Purchasing.\n\nThe purchaser is buying to convert material into finished goods and product. It entails buying raw materials. Components, supplies and consumable stores, spares and tools, machines and equipment and office appliance.\n\nSection::::Types of Purchases.:Institutionalized or government purchasing.\n\nGovernment agencies or institutions are very important, critical, they purchase in bulk for public utilities.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Chartered Institute of Purchasing & Supp\n", "Section::::Advertising.:Mental processing of advertisements.\n", "Section::::Biological segmentation.\n", "Section::::Influences on purchase decision.\n\nPurchasing is influenced by a wide range of internal and external factors.\n\nSection::::Influences on purchase decision.:Consumer awareness.\n\n\"Consumer awareness\" refers to the awareness of the consumption of goods formed by consumers in the long-term shopping environment and purchasing activities.\n\nThe change of life concept is the subjective factor of the change of consumer awareness. As people's living standards continue to increase and incomes continue to increase, people's life concepts are constantly changing.. Differences in consumer personality are the internal motivations for changes in consumer awareness.\n", "Through fMRI, EEG, steady state topography (SST) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) scans, marketers are able to study how consumers react, as a step towards understanding how they can influence consumption through marketing efforts. In conjunction with qualitative research methods, it can provide deep understanding into what, how and why people consume. Measuring eye tracking in e-service marketing is another example of quantitative biological methods measuring the way we consume. It analyses how consumers shop in an online environment by recording the number of mouse clicks and click maps based on eye movement.\n", "Section::::Communal marketing.\n", "Section::::The consumer's purchase decision process: an overview.:Problem recognition.\n\nThe first stage of the purchase decision process begins with \"problem recognition\" (also known as category need or need arousal). This is when the consumer identifies a need, typically defined as the difference between the consumer's current state and their desired or ideal state. A simpler way of thinking about problem recognition is that it is where the consumer decides that he or she is 'in the market' for a product or service to satisfy some need or want. The strength of the underlying need drives the entire decision process.\n", "Wholesalers, like Costco, buy the products from the manufacturer and sell them to the consumer. In this channel, consumers can buy products directly from the wholesaler in bulk. By buying the items in bulk from the wholesaler the prices of the product are reduced. This is because the wholesaler takes away extra costs, such as service costs or sales force costs, that customers usually pay when buying from retail; making the price much cheaper for the consumer. However, the wholesaler does not always sell directly to the consumer. Sometimes the wholesaler will go through a retailer before the product gets into the hands of the consumer. Each dealer (the manufacturer, the wholesaler, and the retailer) will be looking to make a decent profit margin from the product. So each time the buyer purchases the merchandise from another source, the price of the product has to increase, in order to maximize the profit each person will receive. This raises the price of the product for the end-user. Due to the simultaneous and joint work of wholesaler and retailer, a trade can only be beneficial if; a market is situated on a larger area, the supply of goods and products is carried out small but urgent consignments (products), it can be cost-effective and profitable by supplying bigger consignments (products) to fewer customers. Industrial factories are in the seek of using advantages of mass production in order to produce and sell big lots (batches) while retailers look and prefer purchasing smaller consignments. This method for factories could lead to instant sales, high efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. Therefore, particularly in these situations wholesaler now plays a role where it reconciles these contradictory aspirations. The wholesaler purchases big lots then divides minimizes after resells them to further retailers. The work of wholesaler facilitates and makes it less burdensome for the transportation of production. Hence, an amount of delivered goods diminishes through the use of this channel (the wholesale). For example, if five manufactories supply goods directly to hundred different retail stores, then they will have to have 500 of deliveries (5 times 100). However, if those five manufactories supply the same wholesaler, and the wholesaler at this stage supplies 100 different retailers, then the total number of deliveries will decrease to 105 (5 plus 100). Another important component to consider in the practice of wholesaling is storage. Storage of goods is one of the characterized aspects of the work of a wholesaler. Wholesaler regulates the deliveries of goods, having synchronized the production and consumption of material goods. Moreover, he as the wholesaler further assumes the financial obligations related to the immobilization of funds invested in the creation of commodity stocks. Although, the chain of transition suggests that the wholesaler directly communicates and deals with a manufacturer may not be unambiguous. The contribution of a distributor is highly acknowledged and plays a crucial role in distributing flows of goods before it gets in the hands of wholesalers, retailers and so on. A distributor is the representative of the manufacturer and performs functions on behalf of the manufacturer for the distribution of goods from producer to wholesaler or retailer. A distributor is always in the seek out for orders from different clients and possesses activeness in promoting producer's products and services. The main tasks of a distributor are; study the market and the creation of databases of consumers, advertising of goods, an organization of a service for the delivery of goods, stocking up the inventory levels, the creation of a stable sales network, which includes dealers and other intermediaries, depending on the market situation. Distributors scarcely sell a manufactories' goods directly to customers.\n", "One of the most prominent features of the modern era is the rise of consumerism which was made possible by the emergence of a major middle class and the availability of different varieties of merchandise in an open market. According to Nitha Mathur, a professor of Sociology at the Indira Gandhi National Open University, \"Commercial brands and luxury commodities have come to serve as signifiers of identity in society and legitimized consumer culture that is made visible in terms of its referents: images, commodities and 'high-class' consumption as also their articulation in daily lives of people.\" Mathur further explained that, \"by choice or by compulsion, people interpret and respond to it in different ways as they construct, deconstruct and reconstruct their social identities.\"\n", "Section::::Nature and consumer behaviour.\n\nSection::::Nature and consumer behaviour.:Genes.\n", "To gain insights into consumer behaviour, researchers uses the standard battery of market research methods such as surveys, depth interviews and focus groups. Increasingly, researchers are turning to newer methodologies and technologies in an effort to seek deeper understandings of why consumers behave in certain ways. These newer methods include \"ethnographic research\" (also known as participant observation) and \"neuroscience\" as well as experimental lab designs. In addition, researchers often turn to separate disciplines for insights with potential to inform the study of consumer behaviour. For instance, behavioural economics is adding fresh, new insights into certain aspects of consumer behaviour.\n", "Section::::Consumer theory.\n\nThe income effect is a phenomenon observed through changes in purchasing power. It reveals the change in quantity demanded brought by a change in real income. The figure 1 on the left shows the consumption patterns of the consumer of two goods X and X, the prices of which are \"p\" and \"p\" respectively. The initial bundle X, is the bundle which is chosen by the consumer on the budget line B. An increase in the money income of the consumer, with \"p\" and \"p\" constant, will shift the budget line outward parallel to itself.\n", "Consumer nondurable goods are purchased for immediate use or for use very soon. Generally, the lifespan of nondurable goods is from a few minutes to up to three years: food, beverages, clothing, shoes and gasoline are examples.\n\nConsumer services are the intangible in nature. They cannot be seen, felt or tasted by the consumer but still give satisfaction to the consumer. They are also inseparable and variable in nature: they are thus produced and consumed simultaneously. Examples are haircuts, auto repairs and landscaping.\n\nSection::::Buying habits.\n", "The consumer revolution in England is generally understood to have been in the eighteenth century, although the concept of consumerism was perceived to have appeared in the late 1500s and 1600s. Prior to this, the Middle Ages were understood to have been a time of perpetual material poverty, in which the concept of the commodity or the concept of the consumer did not exist. Maryanne Kowaleski argues against this view, arguing that medieval charity, instructional guidebooks, and population growth (parallelled by that of currency), created a consumer economy in the pre-Great Famine era Research by people like Britnell and Campbell suggest commercialization first appeared in the medieval period, and researchers like Christopher Woolgar have studied consumption practices in elite households.\n", "Section::::Branding.\n\nSection::::Branding.:Brand associations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04080	How is a phone carrier unlock done?	It really depends on the carrier and device, but the most commonly known method is to pay for and request the unlock code. I mostly used URL_0 when I did electronic repair and what have you.	[ "The unlock code is verified by the handset and is generated by the manufacturer, typically by an algorithm such as a one way hash or trapdoor function. Sometimes big telecom providers change the original factory unlock codes as an extra layer of security against unlocking services. For various big brands such as Samsung and Motorola there is no algorithm but just a random code generator where the unlock codes are programmed in the phone itself and then saved in a big database managed by the manufacturer. For the other brands where the unlock codes are still based on algorithms those are based on the IMEI number and the MCC code and have been reverse-engineered, stolen or leaked. Some handsets can be unlocked using software that generates an unlock code from an IMEI number and country and operator details using the algorithm specific to the handset. Other manufacturers have taken a more cautious approach, and embed a random number in the handset's firmware that is retained by the manufacturer and the network on whose behalf the lock was applied. These handsets can still be unlocked by online services that have access to either inside people with the manufacturer or with the telecom networks, or they need to be connected to the computer with a cable where specific software will bypass the security and SIM-unlock the phone. Sometimes this is done by advanced calculations to bypass the security the official way and other times using exploits or overwriting parts of the firmware where the lock status is kept, and often even recover a phone that is bricked or completely damaged in the software sense.\n", "Section::::Unlocking technology.:Unlocking services.:Unlock code generators.\n\nThere are online services that will provide an IMEI unlocking service for DCT4 and DCT3 Nokia mobile phones. This method of unlock requires the user to know which carrier the mobile phone is locked to, and also needs to provide an IMEI. Generally, older model Nokia unlock codes are free and instantly retrievable by these services. The unlock codes retrieved must be entered into the mobile phone using the keypad.\n", "Section::::Restrictions.:SIM unlocking.\n\nSection::::Restrictions.:SIM unlocking.:United States.\n\nMost iPhones were and are still sold with a SIM lock, which restricts the use of the phone to one particular carrier, a common practice with subsidized GSM phones. Unlike most GSM phones, however, the phone cannot be officially unlocked by entering a code. The locked/unlocked state is maintained on Apple's servers per IMEI and is set when the iPhone is activated.\n", "Section::::Unlocking technology.:Box breaking.\n", "Since the release of the BB5 generation, although numerous hacks has been released that allowed unlocking as of 2014 it was not possible to load modified firmware into a BB5 phone.\n\nSection::::Security Code.\n\nIn 2009, Nemesis Service Suite (NSS) had become a popular software package in order to unlock and extract information from certain BB5 phones. With the use of extra equipment, many BB5 phone could be unlocked using NSS. NSS had also been a popular way to generate a master-code (a code for bypassing Nokia's unlock screen) for BB5 phones.\n", "Section::::Unlocking technology.:Unlocking services.\n", "Often a mobile network operator will supply a 'locked' modem or other wireless device that can only be used on their network. It is possible to use online unlocking services that will remove the 'lock' so the device accepts SIM cards from any network.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n\nSection::::Variants.:Standalone.\n", "Some companies offer an online unlocking service. This service requires that individuals who wish to unlock a handset provide their IMEI number and sometimes also country and operator details to the company, either via email or a web site. The company will then provide the unlock code for the handset. For some brands such as Nokia and Samsung various services also offer special remote-unlocking software with instructions, where a cable is needed to remove the SIM lock at home. Such companies may email the unlocking code or software which will remotely unlock the device. Some companies also offer unlocking services that require sending the handset's IMEI number. Other companies sell unlocking hardware, including devices which fit between the SIM card and the phone to spoof the original network identifier during registration and devices to read and edit the handset's firmware. The pricing for unlocking a device will vary depending on the network it is locked to and the handset model itself, as each unlock code is unique to each individual handset.\n", "For DCT4 and DCT3 Nokia, unlock codes consist of a \"#\" key, followed by \"pw+\", 10 (DCT3) or 15 (DCT4) digits, \"+\", and another number ranging from 1-7, and finally ends with a \"#\". Depending on the carrier which the phone is locked to, only some codes will work with the mobile phone. Most phones respond to the unlock codes ending in +1# or +7#, however some phones are configured to allow only one of the seven codes to work. The following is an example of a DCT4/DCT3 unlock code:\n", "The system is designed to prevent unlocking of certain key capabilities of the handsets (such as usable network or installation of unsigned operating system), which has not been approved by Nokia or the network. Just like the DCT-4 (DCT generation 4) locking system, the unlocking code is unique to each handset and not stored inside the handset, but a hash signature, calculated by a secret algorithm and the phone uses only part of it to verify the code. However, unlike earlier DCT-4 baseband, where it was possible to run custom code, the BB5 generations uses Texas Instrument processor with TrustZone, the unlock code hash checking is implemented into special PA_xx applet, executed by the CPU in protected mode. The idea behind this approach is that will not be possible to patch the simlock applet and fooling the phone of accepting wrong code. \n", "Typically, a locked handset will display a message if a restricted SIM is used, requesting the unlock code. On recent phone models running Android software, the phone will display a message saying “SIM network unlock PIN” or “Enter Network Lock Control Key” if network locked. Windows phones will display the message, “This SIM card can only be used on specific networks. Contact your customer service center for the unlock code”. Other handsets may display different messages such as \"Enter special code\" or \"Enter unlocking code,\" or in some cases the handset will simply display a message stating that it is locked. Once a valid code is entered, the handset will display \"Network unlocked” or “Network unlock successful”.\n", "Under revisions to the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) Wireless Code of Conduct effective 1 December 2017, all new devices must be sold unlocked, and carriers must offer to unlock phones purchased prior to this date free of charge. Fees may be required if the customer was not under a contract or prepaid plan with the carrier.\n", "In the United Kingdom, O2, EE, 3, Vodafone, and Tesco Mobile sell the device under subsidised contracts, or for use on pay as you go. They are locked to the network initially, though they can usually be unlocked either after a certain period of contract length has passed, or for a small fee (with the exception of the 3 network, which will unlock the device at any time for no charge). However, all current versions of iPhone are available for purchase SIM-free from the Apple Store or Apple's Online Store, consequently, they are unlocked for use on any GSM network too.\n", "In the United States and other areas, where carriers often offer deeply discounted cell phones in exchange for an exclusive agreement with a carrier, that phone will often be locked so it will not work with another carrier. Under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 (DMCA), it was illegal to use technical means to circumvent copyright protection systems. Therefore, consumers could not use software to circumvent the carrier lock on their cell phones (sometimes referred to as \"hacking\").\n", "A handset can be unlocked by entering a code provided by the network operator. Alternative mechanisms include software running on the handset or a computer attached to the handset, hardware devices that connect to the handset or over-the-air by the carrier. Usually the unlock process is permanent. The code required to remove all locks from a phone is referred to as the \"master code\", \"network code key\", or \"multilock code\". \n", "One of the two American GSM carriers, T-Mobile, will unlock handsets for those with active account in good standing for at least 40 days and no unlock code request in the last 90 days. The other, AT&T Mobility, is required to do so upon request (with some exceptions and requirements) after ninety days of active service under the terms of a class action settlement. Prior to the settlement, AT&T would usually do so once one has concluded their contract, and in some other situations. AT&T had in the past stated that it would not unlock iPhones under any circumstances, regardless of the legality of doing so, even after customers are out of contract. However, AT&T has since announced that starting April 8, 2012, it will begin unlocking off-contract iPhones, provided that the customer's account is in good standing. AT&T also has an unannounced policy of unlocking iPhones for United States service members who are deployed overseas—even if they are still under contract.\n", "Beginning April 8, 2012, AT&T began offering a factory SIM unlock option (which Apple calls a \"whitelisting\", allowing it to be used on any carrier the phone supports) for iPhone owners.\n\nIt has been reported that all of the Verizon 4G LTE phones come factory unlocked. After such discovery, Verizon announced that all of their 4G LTE phones, including iPhones, would remain unlocked. This is due to the regulations that the FCC has placed on the 700 MHz C-Block spectrum, which is used by Verizon.\n\nSection::::Restrictions.:SIM unlocking.:United Kingdom.\n", "Initially most wireless carriers in the US did not allow iPhone owners to unlock it for use with other carriers. However AT&T allowed iPhone owners who have satisfied contract requirements to unlock their iPhone. Instructions to unlock the device are available from Apple, but it is ultimately the sole discretion of the carrier to authorize the device to be unlocked. This allows the use of a carrier-sourced iPhone on other networks. Modern versions of iOS and the iPhone fully support LTE across multiple carriers despite where the phone was originally purchased from. There are programs to remove SIM lock restrictions, but are not supported by Apple and most often not a permanent unlock – a soft-unlock.\n", "The MSL applies only to the SIM, so once the contract has expired, the MSL still applies to the SIM. The phone, however, is also initially locked by the manufacturer into the Service Provider's MSL. This lock may be disabled so that the phone can use other Service Providers' SIM cards. Most phones purchased outside the U.S. are unlocked phones because there are numerous Service Providers that are close to one another or have overlapping coverage. The cost to unlock a phone varies but is usually very cheap and is sometimes provided by independent phone vendors.\n", "iPhones sold in Canada purchased through mobile carries such as TELUS, Rogers, or Bell were locked to their respective networks and unlocking required visiting a carrier store and paying an unlocking fee. Third party methods to unlock iPhones existed but were highly unreliable and sometimes rendered phones unusable. However, in 2017 the CRTC abolished SIM-locking and required that all mobile devices sold after December 1, 2017 come unlocked. The CRTC also mandated that carriers must offer unlocking services of existing devices for free to consumers, regardless of whether or not they had purchased the phone themselves.\n", "These locks and can be removed using the corresponding unlock codes, which are unique to each phone depending on its IMEI.\n", "In Croatia, for devices bought on contract, the mobile operator must provide the unlock code on the user's request free of charge. Such request can be made immediately after buying the phone, and the operator has a 15-day period to fulfill the request. For devices bought on a prepaid plan, the user has to wait at least 12 months before submitting such request.\n\nSection::::Laws and practices.:Denmark.\n", "The carrier can choose to bind contracts up to 6 months from the contract's start. Many of the carriers choose not to lock the phones. Only Hi3G (\"3\") lock their phones, but can only do so for six months. If the phone needs to be unlocked within the first six months, the carrier can charge DKK 500 (~ €67) for the unlock. After six months, the carrier is obliged by law to unlock the phone free of charge. But the consumer needs to contact the original supplier, and provide the IMEI and original phone number for which the phone was sold.\n", "At the beginning of the call, both users get the same session key by using the hash function. Then the session key becomes a confirm code. The confirm code could be 3 letters or 4 numbers, depending on the phone's manufacturer. In the crypto mode, the user reads the confirm code over the encrypted line to his or her communication partner and verifies the confirm code his or her partner reads back. If there is a discrepancy in the confirm code, a man-in-the-middle attack has been detected.\n\nSection::::Key Erase.\n", "In the case of Verizon, for example, one can request that the SIM slot be unlocked for international use by calling their support number and requesting an international unlock if their account has been in good standing for the past 60 days. This method only unlocks the iPhone 4S for use on international carriers. An iPhone 4S that has been unlocked in this way will reject any non international SIM cards (AT&T Mobility or T-Mobile USA, for example).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03453	How do we know what emotion to name our feelings?	You’re right with the learned part! A lot of it is from modelling parents/older siblings etc... however humans (regardless of race, age, gender and so on) have 5 innate facial expressions (happiness, sadness, disgust, anger, and fear [recognise these from anywhere?]which are linked to emotions—which implies they are also innate. So yes you’re partially right, but you may also be on to something with being able to detach your emotions, very interesting idea!	[ "On \"basic emotion\" accounts, activation of an emotion, such as anger, sadness, or fear, is \"triggered\" by the brain's appraisal of a stimulus or event with respect to the perceiver's goals or survival. In particular, the function, expression, and meaning of different emotions are hypothesized to be biologically distinct from one another. A theme common to many basic emotions theories is that there should be functional signatures that distinguish different emotions: we should be able to tell what emotion a person is feeling by looking at his or her brain activity and/or physiology. Furthermore, knowledge of what the person is seeing or the larger context of the eliciting event should not be necessary to deduce what the person is feeling from observing the biological signatures.\n", "Section::::Disciplinary approaches.:History.\n", "Section::::Models of emotion.:Appraisal model.\n", "BULLET::::- ACCESS The Amsterdam Centre for Cross-disciplinary Emotion and Sensory Studies\n\nBULLET::::- ARC Centre of Excellence for the History of Emotions (1100-1800)\n\nBULLET::::- Center for the History of Emotions, Max Planck-Institute for Human Development, Berlin\n\nBULLET::::- NACHE The North American Chapter on the History of Emotion\n\nBULLET::::- Queen Mary Centre for the History of Emotions, London\n\nBULLET::::- Les Émotions au Moyen Age (EMMA)\n\nBULLET::::- CHEP: An International Network for the Cultural History of Emotions in Premodernity\n\nBULLET::::- The Emotions Project: The Social and Cultural Construction of Emotions: The Greek Paradigm, Oxford\n", "Other theories of emotion propose that emotions are constructed based upon the person, situation, culture, and past experiences, and that there are no preset emotional responses that are consistent and specific to one emotion or another.\n\nSection::::Models of emotion.:Basic model.\n", "On the other hand, the basic structure of concepts is less controversial: it is generally agreed that emotions involve triggers, appraisals, feelings, expressive behavior including physiological changes, and action tendencies; emotions in their entirety can be described in terms of categories or a small number of dimensions; emotions have an intensity, and so on. For details, see the Scientific Descriptions of Emotions in the Final Report of the Emotion Incubator Group.\n", "BULLET::::2. Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition test – Participants try to identify 56 faces of Caucasian and Japanese individuals expressing seven emotions such happiness, contempt, disgust, sadness, anger, surprise, and fear, which may also trail off for 0.2 seconds to a different emotion.\n\nBULLET::::3. Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale – Participants reads 26 social scenes and answers their anticipated feelings and continuum of low to high emotional awareness.\n\nSection::::Mixed model.\n", "BULLET::::- Considering emotions as families: Ekman & Friesen (1978) found not one expression for each emotion, but a variety of related but visually different expressions. For example, the authors reported 60 variations of the anger expression which share core configurational properties and distinguish themselves clearly from the families of fearful expressions, disgust expressions, and so on. Variations within a family likely reflect the intensity of the emotion, how the emotion is controlled, whether it is simulated or spontaneous, and the specifics of the event that provoked the emotion.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.\n", "BULLET::::- Historia cultural del concimiento. Discursos, prácticas, representaciones, Centro de Ciencias humanas y sociales, Madrid\n\nBULLET::::- Cluster of Excellence \"Languages of Emotion\", FU Berlin\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- History of Emotions Blog, Queen Mary Centre for the History of Emotions\n\nBULLET::::- CHE Histories of Emotions Blog, ARC Centre of Excellence for the History of Emotions (Europe 1100-1800)\n\nBULLET::::- Sociology of Emotions\n\nBULLET::::- History of Emotions data base run by the ARC Centre of Excellence for the History of Emotions (Europe 1100-1800)\n", "Section::::Ability model.:Other measurements.\n\nVarious other specific measures have also been used to assess ability in emotional intelligence. These measures include:\n\nBULLET::::1. Diagnostic Analysis of Non-verbal Accuracy – The Adult Facial version includes 24 photographs of equal amount of happy, sad, angry, and fearful facial expressions of both high and low intensities which are balanced by gender. The tasks of the participants is to answer which of the four emotions is present in the given stimuli.\n", "Section::::Models of emotion.:Psychological construction model.\n", "Section::::Automatic.:Approaches.:Statistical methods.\n", "Section::::Classification.:Situated perspective on emotion.\n", "Section::::Etymology and history.\n", "Some theories of emotion take the stance that emotional expression is more flexible, and that there is a cognitive component to emotion. These theories account for the malleability in emotion by proposing that humans appraise situations and, depending on the result of their appraisal, different emotions and the corresponding expressions of emotion are triggered. The tendency to appraise certain situations as one emotion or another can vary by person and culture; however, appraisal models still maintain that there are basic responses that are specific and consistent to each emotion that humans feel.\n", "Section::::Neural bases.\n\nEmotion perception is primarily a cognitive process driven by particular brain systems believed to specialize in identifying emotional information and subsequently allocating appropriate cognitive resources to prepare the body to respond. The relationship between various regions is still unclear, but a few key regions have been implicated in particular aspects of emotion perception and processing including areas suspected of being involved in the processing of faces and emotional information.\n\nSection::::Neural bases.:Fusiform face area.\n", "Researchers employ several methods designed to examine biases toward emotional stimuli to determine the salience of particular emotional stimuli, population differences in emotion perception, and also attentional biases toward or away from emotional stimuli. Tasks commonly utilized include the modified Stroop task, the dot probe task, visual search tasks, and spatial cuing tasks. \n", "Section::::Modes of perception.\n\nEmotions can be perceived through visual, auditory, olfactory, and physiological sensory processes. Nonverbal actions can provide social partners with information about subjective and emotional states. This nonverbal information is believed to hold special importance and sensory systems and certain brain regions are suspected to specialize in decoding emotional information for rapid and efficient processing.\n\nSection::::Modes of perception.:Visual.\n", "In practical terms, Joseph LeDoux has defined emotions as the result of a cognitive and conscious process which occurs in response to a body system response to a trigger.\n\nSection::::Components.\n", "For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. Later in his career, Ekman theorized that other universal emotions may exist beyond these six. In light of this, recent cross-cultural studies led by Daniel Cordaro and Dacher Keltner, both former students of Ekman, extended the list of universal emotions. In addition to the original six, these studies provided evidence for amusement, awe, contentment, desire, embarrassment, pain, relief, and sympathy in both facial and vocal expressions. They also found evidence for boredom, confusion, interest, pride, and shame facial expressions, as well as contempt, interest, relief, and triumph vocal expressions.\n", "Section::::Modes of perception.:Somatic.:Cannon-Bard theory of emotion.\n", "Section::::Modes of perception.:Visual.:Facial perception.:Context.\n\nAlthough facial expressions convey key emotional information, context also plays an important role in both providing additional emotional information and modulating what emotion is actually perceived in a facial expression. Contexts come in three categories: stimulus-based context, in which a face is physically presented with other sensory input that has informational value; perceiver-based context, in which processes within the brain or body of a perceiver can shape emotion perception; and cultural contexts that affect either the encoding or the understanding of facial actions.\n\nSection::::Modes of perception.:Auditory.\n", "Section::::Emotions as discrete categories.:Basicality debate.\n\nHumans' subjective experience is that emotions are clearly recognizable in ourselves and others. This apparent ease of recognition has led to the identification of a number of emotions that are said to be basic, and universal among all people. However, a debate among experts has questioned this understanding of what emotions are. There has been recent discussion of the progression on the different views of emotion over the years.\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Ekman identified six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. Wallace V. Friesen and Phoebe C. Ellsworth worked with him on the same basic structure. The emotions can be linked to facial expressions. In the 1990s, Ekman proposed an expanded list of basic emotions, including a range of positive and negative emotions that are not all encoded in facial muscles. The newly included emotions are: Amusement, Contempt, Contentment, Embarrassment, Excitement, Guilt, Pride in achievement, Relief, Satisfaction, Sensory pleasure, and Shame.\n", "Section::::Neural bases.:HPA axis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02217	Why are the private IPN ranges where they are?	Historical reasons. Class A's private range is the old ARPAnet's address space, so they assigned it the private range when ARPAnet was taken down, easy. Class C's was at the beginning of the Class C range, and was already reserved: also easy. Class B's was... the largest group of continuous Class B networks that was already in a reserved block. Note that the Class B and Class C private ranges aren't B/C networks: Class B's range is 16 B networks, and Class C's, is 256 C networks. Class A's is just a single A network... because we just don't need that many private addresses. The "real" answer why they're like that now is because RFC1918 says so :-P	[ "Until late 2002 it served Mexico, Central America, South America and all of the Caribbean. LACNIC now handles parts of the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Also, Sub-Saharan Africa was part of its region until April 2005, when AfriNIC was officially recognized by ICANN as the fifth Regional Internet Registry.\n\nOn 24 September 2015 ARIN has declared exhaustion of the ARIN IPv4 addresses pool.\n\nSection::::Service region.\n\nThe countries in the ARIN service region are:\n\nSection::::Service region.:Former service regions.\n", "There are several grazing farmlands surrounding the national parks region both in the east and the west of the range. Logging began in the Budawang area in the early 1900s, it continues to this day in areas that remain outside of the national parks, such as state forests.\n", "The 1997 split was intended as a long-term solution. However, demand for new numbers continued in Hudson and Bergen counties, and it was apparent the area would need another area code. Verizon, the dominant telephone company in New Jersey, lobbied for an overlay rather than a split. Overlays were a new concept at the time, and were controversial because they required implementation of ten-digit dialing. However, Verizon wanted to spare its customers the burden of changing telephone numbers.\n", "Originally there was no specific relationship between network numbers and the regions they reside in. In some areas of FidoNet, most notably in Zone 2, the relationship between region number and network number are entwined. For example, 2:201/329 is in Net 201 which is in Region 20 while 2:2410/330 is in Net 2410 which is in Region 24. Zone 2 also relates the node number to the hub number if the network is large enough to contain any hubs. This effect may be seen in the nodelist by looking at the structure of Net 2410 where node 2:2410/330 is listed under Hub 300. This is not the case in other zones.\n", "PVCs are permanently established in the network and therefore do not require the use of addresses for call setup. PVCs are identified at the subscriber interface by their logical channel identifier (see below). However, in practice not many of the national X.25 networks supported PVCs.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nArea code 201 was the first-assigned numbering plan area (NPA) code of the original NPAs when AT&T devised the North American Numbering Plan in 1947. It was also the first area code with Direct Distance Dialing (DDD) service, when in 1951 the first direct-dialed long-distance call was made from Englewood, New Jersey to Alameda, California.\n", "In 1995 Spiegel did just that—but at the expense of its year-old Catalog 1 venture. By this time, Catalog 1 had begun airing in three more test markets, raising its total presence to eight cities. Time Warner and Spiegel decided, however, that there was greater potential gain in launching a website for Catalog 1 and capitalizing on the increasing popularity of the Internet. Accordingly, they scaled back their cable television operation and began working on a home page through Time Warner's popular Pathfinder site.\n", "One of the challenges of PPVPNs involves different customers using the same address space, especially the IPv4 private address space. The provider must be able to disambiguate overlapping addresses in the multiple customers' PPVPNs.\n\nBULLET::::- BGP/MPLS PPVPN\n\nIn the method defined by , BGP extensions advertise routes in the IPv4 VPN address family, which are of the form of 12-byte strings, beginning with an 8-byte route distinguisher (RD) and ending with a 4-byte IPv4 address. RDs disambiguate otherwise duplicate addresses in the same PE.\n", "The allocation plan agreed in late-1986 mandated (~8 million addresses) for use within the United States, under Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations; and mandated (~8 million addresses) for the Rest-of-World deployment, outside of FCC regulations.\n", "Much of the Southern Tier is in area code 607, with the exception of Allegany and Cattaraugus Counties, which are in area code 716 or area code 585. As of 2013, the westernmost portion of the Southern Tier is located in New York's 23rd congressional district; the easternmost portion is composed mostly of the lower half of New York's 22nd congressional district along with a very small lower portion of New York's 24th congressional district The ZIP code prefixes 147 (Jamestown region), 148 – 149 (Elmira region), and 137 – 139 (Binghamton region) are set aside for the Southern Tier.\n", "The format of the toll-free number is called a non-geographic number, in contrast to telephone numbers associated with households which are geographic. (Since the advent of cell phones and voice over IP, households can have any area code in the U.S. —it is still geographic in the sense that calls from that area code are considered local, but the recipient can be physically anywhere). In the latter case, it is possible to determine an approximate location of the caller from the area code (e.g. New York or London). In contrast, toll-free numbers could be physically located anywhere in the world.\n", "With no further geographic renumbering undertaken, the 03 numbering range was no longer required for its original purpose and was instead redesignated for \"non-geographic numbers charged at geographic rate\" service in 2006. Telecoms regulator Ofcom introduced the range as it believed that some organisations would benefit from a type of non-geographic number that did not impose any additional charges on callers, and that some consumers were confused about charges for existing special-rate numbers starting 084 and 087.\n", "BULLET::::- Rob Strickland Executive Vice President and Chief Technical Offier\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Irving, Jr. Senior Vice President and General Counsel\n\nBULLET::::- Leonard Stephens Senior Vice President, Human Resources\n\nSection::::Coverage Areas.\n\nCricket subscribers, prior to the AT&T acquisition, were previously covered by Cricket's own network, along with that of Sprint for native CDMA coverage with voice, text, and data available on these networks. Off of these networks, customers roamed on the Verizon Wireless network and had voice and text services only.\n", "All networks which may be defined providing exclusivity. This may be a city (in the case of small firms), state or country. Exclusivity can also mean having the right to a specific practice area in a city or state. Firm have contractual rights over its own geographic territory for client development and inward referral purposes. As the exclusive member in a particular city or country, firms view this as valuable endorsement that gives them marketing clout when pitching for work with larger clients, and when trying to position the firm as a more attractive employer, particularly in countries where legal talent is more scarce.\n", "Section::::@Home Benelux BV.\n", "The Company was established initially to provide trust protector services to international private clients and their professional advisors. In 2007, IPG established a trustee services subsidiary in Auckland, New Zealand and in 2012 it commenced operations in Zurich, Switzerland. IPG opened its Guernsey office in 2015. Over time, IPG has increased its range of services and in 2016 it was active in the following fields:\n\nBULLET::::- Trust Protectorships\n\nBULLET::::- Bahamas Executive Entities\n\nBULLET::::- Company Administration\n\nBULLET::::- Family Office Services\n\nBULLET::::- Foundation Administration\n\nBULLET::::- Private Trust Companies\n\nBULLET::::- Trust Consultancy\n\nBULLET::::- Trustee Services\n", "Nonindustrial private forests or “NIPFs” are unlike public or industrial forests. Most of these forests are small, family owned, and timber-producing. In terms of size, 95 percent cover less than 100 acres, and 60 percent cover less than 10 acres. Due to parcelization, the number of NIPF owners has increased in recent decades, while the average tract size has shrunk. Nonetheless, at 360 million cumulative acres, nonindustrial private forests constitute a significant portion of the nation’s undeveloped land.\n", "In 1947, when AT&T established the North American Numbering Plan, the original area code 215 included the entire southeastern part of the Commonwealth, from the Delaware border to the Lehigh Valley. Pennsylvania was divided into four numbering plan areas, after New York state the most in the Bell System, a status shared with Illinois, Ohio, and Texas.\n", "BULLET::::- In area codes where service providers are required to participate in thousands-block number pooling, the carrier is to return any blocks of 1,000 numbers which are more than 90% empty; an exemption applies for one block per rate center which the carrier must keep as an initial block or footprint block.\n\nBULLET::::- The Pooling Administrator, a neutral third party, maintains no more than a six-month inventory of telephone numbers in each thousands-block number pool.\n\nThe default National Number Pool Administration in the United States is Neustar, the North American Numbering Plan Administrator. Canada has no number pooling.\n", "In 1958, 201 was restricted to northern New Jersey, while the area from the state capital, Trenton, southward, including the southern Jersey Shore and the New Jersey side of the lower Delaware Valley, received area code 609.\n\nFor the next 33 years, area code 201 served Bergen, Hudson, Ocean, Essex, Union, Morris, Passaic, Hunterdon, Somerset, Middlesex, Monmouth, Sussex and Warren counties, a region largely coextensive with the New Jersey side of the New York City area.\n", "There is increasing consumer opposition to non-geographic numbers. This is partly due to revenue sharing concerns and partly due to these calls not being eligible for use within inclusive minutes. Whilst a national or regional business may want a single contact number that is not tied to a location, there seems little sense in a small trader covering a town, or at most a county, having a non-geographic number for their single telephone line. Businesses are attracted to using 084 numbers as many of the sellers of NGNs assert that callers are paying only a \"local rate\" call.\n", "Section::::Sister channels.:United States.\n\nHSN's U.S. operations are based in St. Petersburg, Florida, which houses its corporate headquarters, studio and broadcasting facilities. Additional call center facilities are located in Roanoke, Virginia & Toledo, Ohio. Distribution centers are situated in Roanoke, Piney Flats, Tennessee, and Fontana, California. In October, 2018 Quarate announced the closure of the Roanoke distribution center in favor of a combined QVC/HSN distribution center to be located in Bethlehem, PA.\n", "An example of a small hamlet with number pooling is La Fargeville, New York (population 600), in the 315/680 area codes. Once a small incorporated village built around a saw mill, its town hall closed in 1922. The La Fargeville rate center’s local calling area is the same as neighboring Clayton, New York, yet there is a separate Verizon landline exchange for each village — likely as a historical artifact of an earlier era when telcos built many small, local stations. While both villages are served by separate, unattended remote switching centers controlled from Watertown, Verizon nominally has a half-dozen competitors offering local numbers in tiny La Fargeville:\n", "BULLET::::- 085: Huy (\"Hoei\")\n\nBULLET::::- 086: Durbuy\n\nBULLET::::- 087: Verviers\n\nBULLET::::- 089: Genk\n\nBULLET::::- 09: Ghent (\"Gent\"/\"Gand\")\n\nSection::::Mobile numbers.\n\nBULLET::::- 0455: GSM. Range is owned by VOO; however subscriber may have been ported to another network\n\nBULLET::::- 0456: GSM. Range is owned by MobileViking; however subscriber may have been ported to another network\n\nBULLET::::- 0460: GSM. Range is owned by Proximus; however subscriber may have been ported to another network\n\nBULLET::::- 0465: GSM. Range is owned by Lycamobile; however subscriber may have been ported to another network\n", "Confinity's second office, 165 University Avenue in Palo Alto, California, is also known for being the former office of Google and Logitech. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04864	How is Mcafee Antivirus still around when pretty much everyone considers it a piece of crap ?	McAfee pays Lenovo, etc, to bundle it with their computers. They do this because some people get used to it, or assume it's good because they trust Lenovo, and those people later purchase McAfee. The software included is just a trial, and using it beyond a month or a year or something requires that you pay a fee. It's an ultra-aggressive form of advertising, just like Amazon may pay Reddit to put ads on their website. McAfee is paying Lenovo to put the world's most obnoxious ads on their computers. Lenovo either feels most of their customers like the "free" antivirus they include, or McAfee pays them enough it's worth turning away the customers that dislike it. McAfee clearly convinces enough people to buy their product that it's worth... whatever they pay Lenovo to do this.	[ "A review of VirusScan 2006 by CNET criticized the product due to \"pronounced performance hits in two of our three real-world performance tests\" and some users reviewing the same product reported encountering technical problems.\n\nSome older versions of the VirusScan engine use all available CPU cycles.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Customer support criticisms.\n\nReviewers have described customer support for McAfee products as lacking, with support staff slow to respond and unable to answer many questions.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:2010 reboot problem.\n", "Historically ClamWin Free Antivirus has suffered from poor detection rates and its scans have been slow and less effective than some other antivirus programs. For example, in 2009 ClamWin Free Antivirus failed to detect almost half of the trojan horses, password stealers, and other malware in AV-TEST's \"zoo\" of malware samples.\n\nIn the \"1–21 June 2008\" test performed by Virus.gr, ClamWin Free Antivirus version 0.93 detected 54.68% of all threats and ranked 37th out of 49 products tested; the best scored over 99%.\n", "The FSA team also oversaw the creation of a number of other technologies that were leading edge at the time, including firewall, file encryption, and public key infrastructure product lines. While those product lines had their own individual successes including PowerBroker (written by Dean Huxley and Dan Freedman and now sold by BeyondTrust), the growth of antivirus ware always outpaced the growth of the other security product lines. It is fair to say that McAfee remains best known for its anti-virus and anti-spam products.\n\nSection::::History.:Acquisition by Intel and spin-off.\n", "The company restructured in 2004, beginning with the sale of its Magic Solutions business to Remedy, a subsidiary of BMC Software early in the year. In mid-2004, the company sold the Sniffer Technologies business to a venture capital backed firm named Network General (the same name as the original owner of Sniffer Technologies), and changed its name back to McAfee to reflect its focus on security-related technologies.\n\nSection::::History.:Open source.\n", "Symantec Endpoint Protection\n\nSymantec Endpoint Protection, developed by Symantec, is a security software suite, which consists of anti-malware, intrusion prevention and firewall features for server and desktop computers. It has the largest market-share of any product for endpoint security.\n\nSection::::Version history.\n", "In the 2008 AV-Test, which compared ClamAV to other antivirus software, it rated: on-demand: very poor, false positives: poor, on-access: poor, response time: very good, rootkits: very poor.\n\nIn a Shadowserver six-month test between June and December 2011, ClamAV detected over 75.45% of all viruses tested, putting it in fifth place behind AhnLab, Avira, BitDefender and Avast. AhnLab, the top antivirus, detected 80.28%.\n\nSection::::Unofficial databases.\n", "In November 2008 McAfee announced VirusScan for Mac 8.6. (Earlier versions used the name Virex, developed by HJC Software.) Key changes in VirusScan 8.6 included Leopard Compatibility, a universal binary package that ran on both Intel and PowerPC-based Macs, On access scanning and Apple Mail support.\n\nSection::::Controversies.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Poor independent test results.\n\nIn tests by Virus Bulletin and additional independent consumer-organizations, McAfee VirusScan has not fared well, frequently failing to detect some common viruses.\n", "In early 2012, source code for Symantec Endpoint Protection was stolen and published online. A hacker group called \"The Lords of Dharmaraja\" claimed credit, alleging the source code was stolen from Indian military intelligence. The Indian government requires vendors to submit the source code of any computer program being sold to the government, to ensure that they are not being used for espionage. In July 2012, an update to Endpoint Protection caused compatibility issues, triggering a Blue Screen of Death on Windows XP machines running certain third-party file system drivers. In 2014, Offensive Security discovered an exploit in Symantec Endpoint Protection during a penetration test of a financial services organization. The exploit in the Application and Device control driver allowed a logged-in user to get system access. It was patched that August.\n", "Among other companies bought and sold by McAfee is Trusted Information Systems, which developed the Firewall Toolkit, the free software foundation for the commercial Gauntlet Firewall, which was later sold to Secure Computing Corporation.\n\nMcAfee, as a result of brief ownership of TIS Labs/NAI Labs/Network Associates Laboratories/McAfee Research, was highly influential in the world of open-source software, as that organization produced portions of the Linux, FreeBSD, and Darwin operating systems, and developed portions of the BIND name server software and SNMP version 3.\n\nSection::::History.:Encryption technologies.\n", "McAfee\n\nMcAfee, LLC (; formerly known as McAfee Associates, Inc. in 1987–2014 and Intel Security Group in 2014–2017) is an American global computer security software company headquartered in Santa Clara, California and claims to be the world's largest dedicated security technology company.\n\nThe company was purchased by Intel in February 2011, and became part of the Intel Security division.\n", "The product received generally positive reviews praising its user interface, low resource usage and freeware license. It secured AV-TEST certification in October 2009, having demonstrated its ability to eliminate all widely encountered malware. It lost that certification in October 2012; in June 2013, MSE achieved the lowest possible protection score, zero. However, Microsoft significantly improved this product during the couple of years preceding February 2018, when MSE achieved AV-TEST's \"Top Product\" award after detecting 100% of the samples used during its test. According to a March 2012 report by anti-malware specialist OPSWAT, MSE was the most popular AV product in North America and the second most popular in the world, which has resulted in the appearance of several rogue antivirus programs that try to impersonate it.\n", "McAfee Institute is a CPE Sponsor with the National Registry of CPE Sponsors is a program offered by the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy (NASBA) to recognize CPE program sponsors who provide continuing professional education (CPE) programs in accordance with nationally recognized standards. \n\nThe McAfee Institutes resident based (in-person) certification training programs have been approved through the Veterans Administration for G.I. Bill Benefits, effective November 12, 2018.\n", "Microsoft's announcement of its own AV software on November 18, 2008 was met with mixed reactions from the AV industry. Symantec, McAfee and Kaspersky Lab—three competing independent software vendors—dismissed it as an unworthy competitor, but AVG Technologies and Avast Software appreciated its potential to expand the consumers' choice of AV software. AVG, McAfee, Sophos and Trend Micro claimed that the integration of the product into Microsoft Windows would be a violation of competition law.\n", "McAfee VirusScan\n\nMcAfee VirusScan is an antivirus program created and maintained by McAfee, Inc. (formerly known as Intel Security, and Network Associates prior to that). It is not available as a standalone package, but is included in McAfee LiveSafe, McAfee AntiVirus Plus and McAfee Total Protection. Additionally, BSkyB and McAfee have previously produced a \"Sky Broadband\" branded version of VirusScan, offered free to Sky Digital customers upon broadband modem installation. McAfee LiveSafe integrates antivirus, firewall and anti-spyware/anti-ransomware capabilities.\n\nSection::::VirusScan Enterprise.\n", "Studies in December 2007 showed that the effectiveness of antivirus software had decreased in the previous year, particularly against unknown or zero day attacks. The computer magazine \"c't\" found that detection rates for these threats had dropped from 40–50% in 2006 to 20–30% in 2007. At that time, the only exception was the NOD32 antivirus, which managed a detection rate of 68%. According to the \"ZeuS tracker\" website the average detection rate for all variants of the well-known ZeuS trojan is as low as 40%.\n", "The announcement and debut of Microsoft Security Essentials was met with mixed responses from the AV industry. Symantec, McAfee and Kaspersky Lab, three competing vendors, claimed it to be inferior to their own software. Jens Meggers, Symantec's vice president of engineering for Norton products, dismissed it as \"very average – nothing outstanding\". Tom Powledge of Symantec urged his customers to be mindful of what protection they chose, bearing in mind that OneCare offered \"substandard protection\" and an \"inferior user experience\". Joris Evers, director of worldwide public relations for McAfee stated \"with OneCare's market share of less than 2%, we understand Microsoft's decision to shift attention to their core business.\" Justin Priestley of Kaspersky stated that Microsoft \"continued to hold a very low market share in the consumer market, and we don't expect the exit of OneCare to change the playing field drastically.\"\n", "Section::::Security concerns and controversies.:Source code theft.\n\nOn January 17, 2012, Symantec disclosed that its network had been hacked. A hacker known as \"Yama Tough\" had obtained the source code for some Symantec software by hacking an Indian government server. Yama Tough released parts of the code, and threatened to release more. According to Chris Paden, a Symantec spokesman, the source code that was taken was for Enterprise products that were between five and six years old.\n", "The ClamAV virus database is updated at least every four hours and as of 10 February 2017 contained over 5,760,000 virus signatures with the daily update Virus DB number at 23040.\n\nSection::::Effectiveness.\n\nClamAV is currently tested daily in comparative tests against other antivirus products on \"Shadowserver\". In 2011, Shadowserver tested over 25 million samples against ClamAV and numerous other antivirus products. Out of the 25 million samples tested, ClamAV scored 76.60% ranking 12 out of 19, a higher rating than some much more established competitors.\n", "A September 2011 OPSWAT report found that MSE had further increased its market share to become the second most popular AV product in the world, and remained the most popular in North America. OPSWAT reported in March 2012 that the product had maintained its position, and that Microsoft's market share had improved by 2 percent worldwide and 3 percent in North America. Seth Rosenblatt of \"CNET News\" commented on how the product's share rose from 7.27 in 2010 to 10.08 in 2012, stating that \"use of the lightweight security suite exploded last year\".\n\nSection::::Impersonation by malware.\n", "Early versions of the product were criticized for the poor user interface, described alternatively as something that \"looks like an application that was ported from OS/2, with unclear buttons\" or a \"clunky, text-based UI\", but the reviewers praised its malware detection and removal capabilities, stating \"PestPatrol is the most effective anti-spyware system - short of a switch to Linux - that we've ever used\".\n", "In February 2008 McAfee Labs added the industry-first cloud-based anti-malware functionality to VirusScan under Artemis name. It was tested by AV-Comparatives in February 2008 and officially unveiled in August 2008 in McAfee VirusScan.\n\nCloud AV created problems for comparative testing of security software – part of the AV definitions was out of testers control (on constantly updated AV company servers) thus making results non-repeatable. As a result, Anti-Malware Testing Standards Organisation (AMTSO) started working on methodology of testing cloud products which was adopted on May 7, 2009.\n\nIn 2011, AVG introduced a similar cloud service, called Protective Cloud Technology.\n", "An August 2012 update to McAfee antivirus caused the protection to become turned off and users to lose internet connections. McAfee was criticized for not notifying users promptly of the issues when they learned about it.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Current standing.\n\nMcAfee, though well-known, continues to have mixed reviews by industry sources, and the company has prepared a 2015 release series to address current market conditions. This repositioning includes voice and facial recognition authentication for cloud-based data security.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of antivirus software\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of firewalls\n\nBULLET::::- Internet security\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- VirusScan for Windows, McAfee\n", "In an article of \"PC Magazine\", Bill Marczak (member of Bahrain Watch and computer science PhD student at University of California, Berkeley doing research into FinFisher) said of FinSpy Mobile (Gamma's mobile spyware): \"As we saw with respect to the desktop version of FinFisher, antivirus alone isn't enough, as it bypassed antivirus scans\". The article's author Sara Yin, an analyst at \"PC Magazine\", predicted that antivirus providers are likely to have updated their signatures to detect FinSpy Mobile.\n\nAccording to announcements from ESET, FinFisher and FinSpy are detected by ESET antivirus software as \"Win32/Belesak.D\" trojan.\n", "McAfee had acquired Calgary, Alberta, Canada-based FSA Corporation, which helped the company diversify its security offerings away from just client-based antivirus software by bringing on board its own network and desktop encryption technologies.\n", "In March 2010, Google and McAfee announced on their security blogs that they believe that hackers compromised the VPS website and replaced the program with a trojan. The trojan, which McAfee has code-named W32/VulcanBot, creates a botnet that could be used to launch distributed denial of service attacks on websites critical of the Vietnamese government's plan to mine bauxite in the country's Central Highlands. McAfee suspects that the authors of the trojan have ties to the Vietnamese government. However, Nguyễn Tử Quảng of Bách Khoa Internet Security (Bkis) called McAfee's accusation \"somewhat premature\". The Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement calling Google's and McAfee's comments \"groundless\".\n" ]	[ "McAfee should not be on computers anymore because it is bad software.", "If McAfee anti-virus has a poor reputation, it should not be able to sustain it's business." ]	[ "McAfee is on computers because the company pays computer manufacterers to put it on the computer. ", "McAfee pays Lenovo to implement their anti-virus program into their computers which allows them to advertise their program and convince consumers that it is reliable. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "McAfee should not be on computers anymore because it is bad software.", "If McAfee anti-virus has a poor reputation, it should not be able to sustain it's business." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "McAfee is on computers because the company pays computer manufacterers to put it on the computer. ", "McAfee pays Lenovo to implement their anti-virus program into their computers which allows them to advertise their program and convince consumers that it is reliable. " ]
2018-08930	How are fecal sacs of nestlings produced so quickly?	> Mom feeds kid, kid turns around and poops, mom carries away poop. How is it so fast? Because it's poop from previous meals, and not from the meal they've just been fed. The act of being fed just stimulates the nestling to produce the fecal sac that their body has already prepared.	[ "Not all species generate fecal sacs. They are most prevalent in passerines and their near relatives, which have young that remain in the nest for longer periods. In some species, the fecal sacs of small nestlings are eaten by their parents. In other species, and when nestlings are older, sacs are typically taken some distance from the nest and discarded. Young birds generally stop producing fecal sacs shortly before they fledge.\n", "Scientists can use fecal sacs to learn a number of things about individual birds. Examination of the contents of the sac can reveal details of the nestling's diet, and can indicate what contaminants the young bird has been exposed to. The presence of an adult bird carrying a fecal sac is used in bird censuses as an indication of breeding.\n", "Young are fed liquefied and regurgitated insects directly by the male or female parent and are eventually weaned to small mammals and reptile fragments regurgitated onto the nest itself. The above foodstuffs are originally stored in the crop of the adults.\n", "BULLET::::- The third stage (\"pre-fattening\") lasts from 63 to 90 days of age (9–13 weeks). The birds are brought inside for gradually longer periods while introduced to a high starch diet. This is a feeding transition where the food is distributed by meals, first in restricted amount and time and thereafter greatly increased.\n\nSection::::Production methods.:Physiological basis.:Feeding phase.\n", "Section::::Production methods.:Physiological basis.:Pre feeding phase.\n\nThe pre-force feeding phase consists of three stages.\n\nBULLET::::- The first stage (\"start-up\") lasts from 1 to 28 days of age (0–4 weeks). During this stage, the young birds are housed in large, indoor groups (e.g. 2,100), usually on straw.\n", "When a replete worker fills with food, her crop, or portion of her digestive tract, swells and displaces other abdominal organs. The crop of replete workers expands about four to five times its normal linear dimension when they are fully engorged with food.\" In \"M. mexicanus\", the size of a replete worker’s abdomen ranges from 6–12 mm in length. As repletes are drained of their food stores, they become \"flaccid depletes\".\n", "In modern production, the bird is typically fed a controlled amount of feed, depending on the stage of the fattening process, the bird's weight, and the amount of feed the bird last ingested. At the start of production, a bird might be fed a dry weight of of food per day and up to (in dry weight) by the end of the process. The actual amount of food force-fed is much greater, because the birds are fed a mash with a composition of about 53% dry and 47% liquid (by weight).\n", "Removal of fecal material helps to improve nest sanitation, which in turn helps to increase the likelihood that nestlings will remain healthy. It also helps to reduce the chance that predators will see it or smell it and thereby find the nest. There is evidence that parent birds of some species gain a nutritional benefit from eating the fecal sacs; studies have shown that females — which tend to be more nutritionally stressed than their mates — are far more likely to consume sacs than are males. Even brood parasites such as brown-headed cowbirds, which do not care for their own offspring, have been documented swallowing the fecal sacs of nestlings of their host species.\n", "A study of a nest in Romania found that 10 species of ant were fed to the chicks. During the first 10 days, the young received an average of 15 g each, from days 10–20, 39.5 g, and from day 20, 49.3 g. The seven chicks consumed an estimated 1.5 million ants and pupae before leaving the nest.\n", "Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours – eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.\n", "The secretion expelled onto the eggs as well as the secretion used as an ant guard contain similar rations of the same hydrocarbons. The egg secretion is a mixture of the Dufour's gland secretion and nectar consisting of fructose and water, using palmitic acid salt as an emulsifying agent.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Abdominal secretion.:Self-grooming.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Nest construction.\n", "BULLET::::1. Pulp Collection: Pulp is collected mainly for constructing nests, and this kind of activity is present in foundation, young and middle-aged colonies, but not very much in initial and mature colonies. This is partly due to the fact that nest construction is absent in initial nest stage and mature colonies typically reuse and recycle old cell material. Pulp collection activity reaches its peak in early morning, and it often occurs after water collection.\n", "The secretarybird has a relatively short digestive tract in comparison to other large African birds such as the kori bustard. As the foregut is specialized for digesting large amounts of meat in a short amount of time, there is little need for the physical breakdown of food within the digestive tract over extended time spans. The crop of the secretarybird is dilated and the gizzard is nonmuscular in comparison to other birds. The large intestine lacks a cecum as there is little need for fermentative digestion of plant material.\n\nSection::::Behaviour and ecology.:Breeding.\n", "After conception, there is a fourteen-week period before the blastocyst is actually implanted. The blastocyst is fully developed and remains healthy through oxygen and nutrients received from uterine secretions during this time. Gestation is about five months long, and the implantation delay allows the armadillos to give birth at a more opportune time during the spring.\n", "A fecal sac (also spelled faecal sac) is a mucous membrane, generally white or clear with a dark end, that surrounds the feces of some species of nestling birds. It allows parent birds to more easily remove fecal material from the nest. The nestling usually produces a fecal sac within seconds of being fed; if not, a waiting adult may prod around the youngster's cloaca to stimulate excretion. Young birds of some species adopt specific postures or engage in specific behaviors to signal that they are producing fecal sacs. For example, nestling curve-billed thrashers raise their posteriors in the air, while young cactus wrens shake their bodies. Other species deposit the sacs on the rim of the nest, where they are likely to be seen (and removed) by parent birds.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Adult/nest interaction.\n\nA typical worker female exhibits repetition of select behaviors, mainly with a purpose of sustaining the colony. They would forage for food for the young which can range from decaying dead insects and bodily fluids of paralyzed insects to decaying fruit. Adults usually feed off nectar as their primary source of nourishment but in some colonies such as M. nigrophthalmus the adults feed off the secretion of the larva (a form of defecation). Adults deliver the food to the young through a process called trophallaxis. \n", "Activities of \"M. bellicosus\" that go on outside the nest, which mainly consist of exploration and food gathering, show a division of labor between the two worker castes. The exploration phase, where underground passages are built radiating outward from the nest, is mainly attributed to the minor workers, and major worker activity is low during this period. Once food is discovered, however, there is a shift in this division of labor and the major workers will then be the main caste that is charged with gathering the food. Recruitment of new minor workers during this period is low, and those minor workers that have already been recruited will continue to construct passages near the food. This division of labor normally favors a major to minor worker ratio where minor workers are in much higher numbers until food is discovered, at which point the ratio will continually lean towards increasing numbers of major workers.\n", "Studies have shown that \"B. j. juncea\" exhibit thirty-nine different types of behavior. These different behaviors fall into five different categories, with some overlap, and these categories are: foraging, building, feeding, inactivity, and reproduction. Some of the behaviors that fall into these five categories include: \n\nBULLET::::- Foraging: Behaviors include absence from the nest, landing on the nest with food such as liquid material or prey, and giving the prey to those who need it, such as the larvae\n", "Enteric fermentation occurs when methane (CH) is produced in the rumen as microbial fermentation takes place. Over 200 species of microorganisms are present in the rumen, although only about 10% of these play an important role in digestion. Most of the CH byproduct is belched by the animal, however, a small percentage of CH is also produced in the large intestine and passed out as flatulence.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Environmental influence on behavior.:Lifetime reproductive success.\n", "Pigeon's milk begins to be produced a couple of days before the eggs are due to hatch. The parents may cease to eat at this point in order to be able to provide the squabs (baby pigeons and doves) with milk uncontaminated by seeds, which the very young squabs would be unable to digest. The baby squabs are fed on pure crop milk for the first week or so of life. After this the parents begin to introduce a proportion of adult food, softened by spending time in the moist conditions of the adult crop, into the mix fed to the squabs, until by the end of the second week they are being fed entirely on softened adult food.\n", "Some of the fecal plug's material is composed of undigested food that was eaten before the bear even entered its den. However, much is formed by cells that slough off the intestinal walls, rocks ingested by the bear during grooming sessions, and even bits of plant-based bedding. Bears have been observed licking and chewing on their own footpads during the later months of hibernation, and bits of this dried callused skin has been found in fecal plug material.\n\nFecal plugs are expelled by the bear upon waking in spring, usually near the entrance to the den.\n", "As the termites eat, they leave very little signs that they are present in the wood. However, they do have a small hole on the surface of the wood through which they eject their fecal pellets. The fecal pellets are hard, and evenly shaped, and found in conical piles or scattered on horizontal surfaces. The fecal pellets have the same hydrocarbons as the species of termite, and each termite has unique cuticular hydrocarbons. Many other species of termites have bacterial and fungal loads that exist with the colonies, but \"I. minor\" prefer drier forms of wood have very small bacterial and fungal microbial loads.\n", "The young of elephants, giant pandas, koalas and hippos eat the feces of their mothers or other animals in the herd, in order to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation found in their ecosystems. When such animals are born, their intestines are sterile and do not contain these bacteria. Without doing this they would be unable to obtain any nutritional value from plants.\n" ]	[ "Fecal sacs of nestlings are produced quickly." ]	[ "Nestling's fecal sacs are eliminated from previous meals, not the most recent meal; they are not produced as quickly as it may appear." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Fecal sacs of nestlings are produced quickly.", "Fecal sacs of nestlings are produced quickly." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Nestling's fecal sacs are eliminated from previous meals, not the most recent meal; they are not produced as quickly as it may appear.", "Nestling's fecal sacs are eliminated from previous meals, not the most recent meal; they are not produced as quickly as it may appear." ]
2018-09651	Why does Breast Cancer get almost all focus and support against; while countless other cancers are publically ignored?	better PR. We're all pretty shallow and ignorant in the bigger picture. Breast cancer has by far the most money put into advertising so more people know about it and more people put money into it. Sadly a lot of that money goes into organizations that are really just hangers on to the whole issue. You've got people who contribute nothing or next to nothing to breast cancer treatment and research but do plenty of advertising for it so they can accept donations.	[ "However, the primary sponsors are part of the breast cancer industry, particularly cancer drug makers like AstraZeneca, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and Novartis. Because the national breast cancer organizations are dependent on corporate sponsorships for survival, this situation may represent a conflict of interest that prevents these organizations from representing the needs of current and future people with breast cancer when those needs conflict with the profit-making motives of the corporate sponsors .\n\nThe structure of the breast cancer movement may allow large organizations to claim to be the voice of women with breast cancer, while simultaneously ignoring their desires .\n", "The breast cancer culture is ill-equipped to deal with women who are dying or who have died , and their experiences may not be memorialized, validated or represented as part of the movement, instead being ignored or shunned as failures and as hope-destroying examples of reality. Similarly, the culture is also ill-equipped to deal with the news that a previously hyped treatment or screening procedure has been determined to be ineffective, with women advocating for the acceptance and promotion of inexpedient activities and inefficient or even sometimes harmful drugs (; ; ).\n", "BULLET::::- National Breast Cancer Coalition: This large umbrella organization played key roles in several prominent pieces of American legislation, such as the creation of the United States Department of Defense's Breast Cancer Research Program, genetic non-discrimination laws, and the patients' bill of rights. They are committed to evidence-based medicine.\n", "Since its founding, BCAction has continued as an advocacy group dedicated to breast cancer activism at local, state and federal levels. The organization sees breast cancer not as an individual issue but a \"national public health emergency.\" Their work has included an emphasis on more effective and less toxic breast cancer treatments that keep the needs of the public interest first; decreasing involuntary environmental exposures that put people at increased risk for breast cancer; and creating awareness that not only genes but also social injustices like political, economic, and racial inequities can lead to unequal outcomes of the disease.\n\nSection::::Activities.\n", "The goal of breast cancer awareness campaigns is to raise the public's \"brand awareness\" for breast cancer, its detection, its treatment, and the need for a reliable, permanent cure. Increased awareness has increased the number of women receiving mammograms, the number of breast cancers detected, and the number of women receiving biopsies . Overall, as a result of awareness, breast cancers are being detected at an earlier, more treatable stage. Awareness efforts have successfully utilized marketing approaches to reduce the stigma associated with the disease.\n", "Section::::Achievements of the breast cancer movement.\n\nSection::::Achievements of the breast cancer movement.:Social progress.\n\nBreast cancer has been known to educated women and caregivers throughout history, but modesty and horror at the consequences of a largely untreatable disease made it a taboo subject. The breast cancer movement, which developed in the 1980s and 1990s out of 20th century feminist movements and the women's health movement, has mostly removed those taboos through its modern advocacy and awareness campaigns .\n\nSection::::Achievements of the breast cancer movement.:Social progress.:Educated, empowered patients.\n", "Worldwide, breast cancer is the most-common invasive cancer in women. It affects about 12% of women worldwide. (The most common form of cancer is non-invasive non-melanoma skin cancer; non-invasive cancers are generally easily cured, cause very few deaths, and are routinely excluded from cancer statistics.) Breast cancer comprises 22.9% of invasive cancers in women and 16% of all female cancers. In 2012, it comprised 25.2% of cancers diagnosed in women, making it the most-common female cancer.\n", "Awareness has also led to increased anxiety for women. Early detection efforts result in overdiagnosis of precancerous and cancerous tumors that would never risk the woman's life (about one-third of breast cancers diagnosed through screening programs), and result in her being subjected to invasive and sometimes dangerous radiological and surgical procedures .\n", "In recent years, the definition of breast cancer has expanded to include non-invasive, non-cancerous conditions like lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS) and pre-cancerous or \"stage 0\" conditions like ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS). Despite the now-regretted decision to use the word \"carcinoma\" in these relatively common conditions (almost a quarter of \"breast cancer\" diagnoses in the USA), they are not life-threatening cancers . Women with these conditions are promoted as breast cancer survivors due to the fear they experienced before they became educated about their condition, rather than in respect of any real threat to their lives. This effectively increases the market size for breast cancer organizations, medical establishments, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and the makers of mammography equipment .\n", "Most of the money raised by advocates is spent on increasing awareness, cancer screening, and existing treatments . Only a small fraction of the funds is spent on research, and less than 7% of the total research funding provided by breast cancer organizations goes to prevention . Instead, most of the charities fund research into detection and treatment . Advocates like Breast Cancer Action and women's health issues scholar Samantha King, whose book inspired the 2011 documentary \"Pink Ribbons, Inc.\", are unhappy that relatively little money or attention is devoted to identifying the non-genetic causes of breast cancer or to preventing breast cancer from occurring . The mainstream breast cancer culture has been criticized for focusing on detecting and curing existing breast cancer cases, rather than on preventing future cases (; ).\n", "Generally speaking, breast cancer awareness campaigns have been highly effective in getting attention for the disease. Breast cancer receives significantly more media coverage than other prevalent cancers, such as prostate cancer .\n\nSection::::Marketing approaches.:Breast cancer as a brand.\n", "Some breast cancer organizations, such as Breast Cancer Action, refuse to accept funds from medical or other companies they disapprove of.\n\nSection::::Environmental breast cancer movement.\n", "The pink ribbon is the most prominent symbol of breast cancer awareness, and in many countries the month of October is National Breast Cancer Awareness Month. Some national breast cancer organizations receive substantial financial support from corporate sponsorships .\n\nBreast cancer awareness campaigns have been criticized for minimizing risks of screening programs, conflicts of interest, and a narrow focus of research funding on screening & existing treatments at the expense of prevention and new treatments.\n\nSection::::Marketing approaches.\n", "BULLET::::- Root Causes of Breast Cancer: Over half of the women diagnosed with breast cancer in the United States have no known risk factors. With family history accounting for only around 10 percent of breast cancer diagnoses, a large and growing body of research indicates that toxic chemicals may increase our risk of developing the disease. In 2012, the President’s Cancer Panel reported that “the true burden of environmentally induced cancer has been grossly underestimated [and] . . . the American people—even before they are born—are bombarded continually with myriad combinations of these dangerous exposures.” BCAction states that individual solutions like “shopping wisely” and “choosing healthy” are insufficient to stem the driving environmental causes of the breast cancer epidemic. The organization believes only large-scale systemic change can address the root causes of breast cancer and they work to address these root causes by eliminating the involuntary exposures to hazardous and toxic chemicals present in our daily lives that put people at increased risk of breast cancer. Their work is guided by the precautionary approach to public health and true primary prevention of breast cancer.\n", "Epidemiology of breast cancer\n\nWorldwide, breast cancer is the most common invasive cancer in women. (The most common form of cancer is non-invasive non-melanoma skin cancer; non-invasive cancers are generally easily cured, cause very few deaths, and are routinely excluded from cancer statistics.) Breast cancer comprises 22.9% of invasive cancers in women and 16% of all female cancers.\n", "Samantha King says that prevention research is minimized by the breast cancer industry because there is no way to make money off of cases of breast cancer that do not happen, whereas a mammography imaging system that finds more possible cancers, or a \"magic bullet\" that kills confirmed cancers, would be highly profitable .\n\nSection::::Environmental breast cancer movement.:Breast Cancer Action.\n", "One result of breast cancer's high visibility is that statistical results can sometimes be misinterpreted, such as the claim that one in eight women will be diagnosed with breast cancer during their lives—a claim that depends on the unrealistic assumption that no woman will die of any other disease before the age of 95. This obscures the reality, which is that about ten times as many women will die from heart disease or stroke than from breast cancer.\n", "Breast cancer advocates have successfully increased the amount of public money being spent on cancer research and shifted the research focus away from other diseases and towards breast cancer Breast cancer advocates also raise millions of dollars for research into cures each year, although most of the funds they raise is spent on screening programs, education and treatment (; ). Most breast cancer research is funded by government agencies .\n", "LBBC has actively supported studies of the experience of cancer in ethnic and racial minority groups and the development of materials for their use. Publications include \"Getting Connected: African-Americans Living Beyond Breast Cancer\" by Patricia K. Bradley and \"Celebramos el Mañana: Latinas que Sobreviven el Cáncer del Seno / We Celebrate Tomorrow: Latinas Living Beyond Breast Cancer\" by Aracely Rosales.\n", "The breast cancer movement of the 1980s and 1990s developed out of the larger feminist movements and women's health movement of the 20th century. This series of political and educational campaigns, partly inspired by the politically and socially effective AIDS awareness campaigns, resulted in the widespread acceptance of second opinions before surgery, less invasive surgical procedures, support groups, and other advances in care.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Pink ribbon.\n", "Clinicians have responded that they are unwilling to consider the possibility of leaving potential deadly cancers alone because it is \"far-riskier\" than the alternative. Eric Winer, director of the breast cancer program at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, says, \"I don't know anyone who offers women the option of doing nothing\" . Further complicating the issue of early diagnosis is the fact that it is currently impossible to distinguish malicious cancers from benign ones. Otis Brawley, a top official for the American Cancer Society, says that \"even if we overdiagnose 1 in 5, we have numerous studies showing that by treating all these women, we save a bunch of lives\". For instance, a 2011 Cochrane review showed a sample of mammogram screening programs resulted in a 15% reduction in mortality rate despite over-diagnosis, indicating that mammography programs save lives regardless of over-diagnosis .\n", "Some critics say that breast cancer awareness has transformed the disease into a market-driven industry of survivorship and corporate sales pitches (; ). Corporate marketing machines promote early detection of breast cancer, while also opposing public health efforts, such as stricter environmental legislation, that might decrease the incidence rate of breast cancer. These critics believe that some of the breast cancer organizations, particularly the highly visible Susan G. Komen for the Cure, have become captive companies that support and provide social capital to the breast cancer industry, including pharmaceutical companies, mammography equipment manufacturers, and pollution-causing industries, as well as large corporations, creating or exacerbating other problems .\n", "Section::::Organizations.\n\nA wide variety of charitable organizations are involved in breast cancer awareness and support. These organizations do everything from providing practical support, to educating the public, to dispensing millions of dollars for research and treatment. Thousands of small breast cancer organizations exist. The largest and most prominent are:\n\nBULLET::::- Susan G. Komen for the Cure: Komen is the largest and best funded organization, with highly visible fundraisers.\n", "Section::::Conflicts of interest in organizations.\n", "Another art form has a wider range: the illness narrative has become a staple of breast cancer literature and is prominent in women's magazines. This may take the form of a restitution or cure narrative (the protagonist seeks a physical or spiritual return to a pre-diagnosis life), a quest narrative (the protagonist must meet a goal before dying), or a chaos narrative (the situation inexorably goes from bad to worse). The cure and quest narratives fit neatly with the breast cancer culture. Chaos narratives, which are rarer in stories about breast cancer, oppose it .\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09733	How come you can touch your uvula with your tongue, but anything else touching it causes a gag reflex?	Can't tell you for sure, but I would go with the fact your tongue is already, and supposed to be, in your mouth	[ "While it works in preventing speech, a person who has been stuff gagged can easily spit it out by pushing it with his/her tongue. However, it is for this reason that the stuff gag is one of the safest gags to use during self bondage, as the person with his/her hands tied can still spit the gag out if he/she feels any kind of discomfort. However, the risks of asphyxiation and choking are still present for someone who is not careful.\n", "BULLET::::- the sensory limb is mediated predominantly by CN IX (glossopharyngeal nerve)\n\nBULLET::::- the motor limb by CN X (vagus nerve).\n\nThe gag reflex involves a brisk and brief elevation of the soft palate and bilateral contraction of pharyngeal muscles evoked by touching the posterior pharyngeal wall. Touching the soft palate can lead to a similar reflex response. However, in that case, the sensory limb of the reflex is the CN V (trigeminal nerve). In very sensitive individuals, much more of the brain stem may be involved; a simple gag may enlarge to retching and vomiting in some.\n", "A hand over the mouth can be used as a gag. When hand gagging someone, a person usually grabs the victim from behind since the victim cannot see this coming. Then, the person firmly places their unfolded hand over the victim's closed mouth. Then they may pull the victim into their body for extra leverage and control. Handgags are common and are often associated with damsel-in-distress phenomena.\n\nSection::::Types of gag.:Harness.\n", "According to one study, one in three people lacks a gag reflex. However, on the other end of the spectrum are people with a hypersensitive gag reflex. This hypersensitivity can lead to issues in various situations, from swallowing a pill or large bites of food to visiting the dentist. Hypersensitivity is generally a conditioned response, usually occurring following a previous experience. There are a variety of ways to desensitize one’s hypersensitivity, from relaxation to numbing the mouth and throat to training one's soft palate to get used to being touched.\n\nSection::::Absence.\n", "For some people, gags have connotations of punishment and control, and thus can be used as a form of humiliation. To some, wearing a gag without restraints is still an act of humiliation, as is an open mouth gag. Some fetishists are sexually aroused by the sound gagged people make when they try to speak, or by seeing a person drool uncontrollably.\n", "In certain cases, absence of the gag reflex and pharyngeal sensation can be a symptom of a number of severe medical conditions, such as damage to the glossopharyngeal nerve, the vagus nerve, or brain death.\n\nIn unilateral (one-sided) glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX- sensory component) damage, there will be no gag response when touching the pharyngeal wall on the same side of the damaged nerve.\n", "At one point, it was thought that a lack of the gag reflex in stroke patients was a good predictor for dysphagia (difficulty with swallowing) or laryngeal aspiration (food or drink entering the larynx), and was therefore commonly checked for. However, in one study, 37% of healthy people did not have a gag reflex, yet all subjects except for one still retained an intact pharyngeal sensation. These results suggest that the muscles that control the gag reflex remain independent of those that control normal swallowing. Since this reflex is commonly not found in healthy people, its predictive value in determining the risk for swallowing disorders is severely limited. Pharyngeal sensation, on the other hand, as seen by this study, is rarely absent, and could prove better at predicting future problems with swallowing.\n", "The clinical tests used to determine if the glossopharyngeal nerve has been damaged include testing the gag reflex of the mouth, asking the patient to swallow or cough, and evaluating for speech impediments. The clinician may also test the posterior one-third of the tongue with bitter and sour substances to evaluate for impairment of taste.\n\nThe integrity of the glossopharyngeal nerve may be evaluated by testing the patient's general sensation and that of taste on the posterior third of the tongue. The gag reflex can also be used to evaluate the glossphyaryngeal nerve.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Nick, Hank, Monroe (Silas Weir Mitchell) and Rosalee (Bree Turner) find that the Aswang use their tongue to transmit the tranquilizing effects of the valerian root and siphon off the amniotic fluid - both of which can kill a foetus; but that only those with a familiar tie to the victim can successfully insert their tongue into the belly. They consider telling Wu the truth about the Wesen world but decide that he isn’t ready to learn it.\n", "Section::::Theory of the characteristics of oral culture.:Situational rather than abstract.\n\nIn oral cultures, concepts are used in a way that minimizes abstraction, focusing to the greatest extent possible on objects and situations directly known by the speaker. A study by Alexander Luria, a psychologist who did extensive fieldwork comparing oral and literate subjects in remote areas of Uzbekistan and Kirghizia in 1931–2 documented the highly situational nature of oral thinking.\n", "Section::::Sucking reflex.\n\nThe sucking reflex is common to all mammals and is present at birth. It is linked with the rooting reflex and breastfeeding. It causes the child to instinctively suck anything that touches the roof of their mouth, and simulates the way a child naturally eats. There are two stages of the action:\n\nBULLET::::1. Expression: activated when the nipple is placed between a child's lips and touches their palate. They will instinctively press it between their tongue and palate to draw out the milk.\n", "A more effective variant of the over-the-mouth gag is called the cleave gag. Instead of being tied over the person's mouth, the scarf or cloth is pulled between his or her teeth. While such a gag of thin material is not very effective, a thick scarf can be used to hold his or her mouth open. Cleave gags are difficult to remove as they are between the teeth, not over the mouth. When it is applied properly, the gagged person's speech is muffled, but not completely silenced.\n\nSection::::Types of gag.:Detective / over-the-mouth (OTM).\n", "The issue of consent in the course of sado-masochistic sexual activity was considered in \"R v Stein\" (2007), a case in which a participant died as a result of being gagged. The court held that, even if the victim had consented to a being restrained and gagged, his consent was invalid because there was no way for him to communicate its withdrawal once the gag was in his mouth.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nThe causes of TOTs are largely unknown but numerous explanations have been offered. These explanations mainly fall within the realms of two overarching viewpoints: the direct-access view and the inferential view.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Direct-access view.\n", "Section::::Types of gag.:Bandit / over-the-nose (OTN).\n\nA bandit gag (also known as an over-the-nose or mouth gag) covers the mouth as well as the nose, and is commonly used in Japan and on many cartoons. Without stuffing, it is not very effective.\n\nSection::::Types of gag.:Forniphilic.\n", "BULLET::::2. Milking: The tongue moves from areola to nipple, coaxing milk from the mother to be swallowed by the child.\n\nSection::::Rooting reflex.\n", "In their study, Brown and McNeill read out definitions of rare words to the study participants and asked them to name the object being defined, and the target word was later read by the experimenter. Participants were instructed to report whether they experienced a tip of the tongue state. Three types of positive TOT states were identified by Brown and McNeill: \n\nBULLET::::1. the participant recognized the word read by the experimenter as the word he had been seeking,\n\nBULLET::::2. the participant correctly recalled the word before it was read by the experimenter, and\n", "The visceral sensory fibers of CN IX mediate the afferent limb of the pharyngeal reflex in which touching the back of the pharynx stimulates the patient to gag (i.e., the gag reflex). The efferent signal to the musculature of the pharynx is carried by the branchial motor fibers of the vagus nerve. \n\nSection::::Structure.:Overview of somatic sensory component.\n", "Sensory preconditioning is a phenomenon discussed using terms common in classical conditioning. Procedurally, sensory preconditioning involves first identifying two different neutral stimuli (NS; see neutral stimulus) in relation to a specific unconditioned response (UR) of interest. For example, a light (NS1) and a tone (NS2) are common stimuli used in respondent conditioning examples involving salivation; they are not unconditioned stimuli (US) for salivation. Next, these two neutral stimuli are paired together repeatedly (e.g., the tone and light are presented simultaneously for a period of time, such as 10 seconds, multiple times). The pairing of these two NS constitutes sensory preconditioning. However, sensory preconditioning itself is usually followed by repeatedly pairing one of the NS (e.g., the light) with a US (e.g., lemon juice on the tongue to produce salivation) until the light alone elicits salivation. To accomplish this, delayed conditioning (see classical conditioning) is generally most effective. At this point the light is no longer classified as a NS in relation to salivation; it has become a conditioned stimulus (CS) for salivation. Salivation that occurs following the CS is called a conditioned response (CR). At this point, the second NS (i.e., the tone noted above) will also elicit salivation even though it has never been paired with the US. In short, sensory preconditioning in conjunction with classical conditioning resulted in the tone becoming a CS for salivation (CR).\n", "The detective gag, or over-the-mouth gag (sometimes abbreviated to OTM), is often described in fiction (particularly crime serials) as preventing the subject from speaking through the use of soft materials such as scarves or bandannas. The long scarf or bandanna is pulled over the subject's mouth and tied at the back of his/her head. In practice, it does not silence the subject very effectively. Images of OTM gags, usually applied on women, had been prevalent since the film serials of the early 1900s. For this reason, the OTM gag is associated with the typical damsel in distress.\n", "Section::::The stories.:Sniffex.\n\nA sequel to the Unmentionable story Ex Poser. Boffin has now invented a smell detector, which he hopes will help him find out who has been flatulating every day in class.\n\nSection::::The stories.:The Hat.\n", "When infants bring solid foods to their own mouth, they are the ones guiding the sensory experience, starting and stopping when they are comfortable and ready. When food does move too posteriorly in the mouth triggering a gag reflex, the \"entire\" bolus is expelled from the mouth. Also, food moves slowly in comparison to liquid, and is not often sucked into the pharynx, allowing for laryngeal penetration or aspiration of the bolus. The food bolus will trigger a gag response first and be expelled before it hits the laryngeal vestibule. Infants therefore utilize the gag reflex for learning three important concepts: the borders of their mouth, desensitizing their gag reflex, and how to protect their airway when volitionally swallowing solid foods (Rapley & Murkett, 2008).\n", "Section::::Interactions with other senses.\n\nSection::::Interactions with other senses.:Olfaction and flavor.\n\nFlavor perception is an aggregation of auditory, taste, haptic, and smell sensory information. Retronasal smell plays the biggest role in the sensation of flavor. During the process of mastication, the tongue manipulates food to release odorants. These odorants enter the nasal cavity during exhalation. The olfaction of food has the sensation of being in the mouth because of co-activation of the motor cortex and olfactory epithelium during mastication.\n", "The soft palate is moveable, consisting of muscle fibers sheathed in mucous membrane. It is responsible for closing off the nasal passages during the act of swallowing, and also for closing off the airway. During sneezing, it protects the nasal passage by diverting a portion of the excreted substance to the mouth.\n\nIn humans, the uvula hangs from the end of the soft palate. Touching the uvula or the end of the soft palate evokes a strong gag reflex in most people.\n\nSection::::Function.:Speech.\n", "Mononucleosis (mono), known among teenagers as the “kissing disease”, is another prominent condition that can come from saliva exchange. It is a contagious viral disease in the herpes virus family. In addition to kissing, however, mono can also “be spread when a person coughs, sneezes, or shares objects such as drinking glass or water bottles.” There are only certain stages when it is contagious, mostly during the fever stage, but during those times it is transferrable through saliva exchange.\n\nSection::::Diseases.:Diseases related to oral hygiene.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-13753	Why do some submarines have diving planes on the sail, while some have them at the bow?	Fair water planes, on the sail, are less desirable from an operational standpoint. They don’t contribute to keeping you surfaced once they clear the waterline on the surface. At periscope depth, they tend to broach, increasing a submarines visibility while simultaneously reducing the crews ability to control depth. Their only advantage is that they are out of the way when the submarine is brought along pier side or other ships. Bow planes are better in that they are never out of the water during operations. They can be locked at an up angle on the surface to help keep the submarine on the surface at speed. They don’t broach at periscope depth. Their disadvantage is an engineering one, they need to be retractable or foldable in order for the submarine to moor. Generally, if your naval architects have mastered bow plane technology, that is what your submariners want for ship control.	[ "Early submarines had separate controls for each pair of planes, bow and stern. Together with the helmsman, this required three ratings in the already-crowded control room. By the 1960s, combined controls were introduced. These incorporated all planes onto a single aircraft-style control wheel.\n\nSection::::Cars.\n", "Trim and stability of small boats can be significantly influenced by where and how the dive gear is stowed.\n", "Diving planes located on the sail (conning tower) are called fairwater planes on US Navy submarines. Fairwater planes do not pitch the ship up or down; they cause the ship to rise or sink on a level plane as they are operated.\n\nWhen operating beneath polar ice, a submarine with planes on the sail must break them through the ice when surfacing. From the they were arranged to be able to be pointed vertically upwards, rather than being rigged or folded in.\n", "Newer boats, starting with the third-flight \"Los Angeles\" class subs (or 688is) have eliminated the sail planes, and operate instead with bow planes.\n\nSection::::Controls.\n\nFrom the outset, diving planes were controlled remotely by telemotors, early servomechanisms operated electrically or by hydraulics.\n", "Diving plane\n\nDiving planes, also known as hydroplanes, are control surfaces found on a submarine which allow the vessel to pitch its bow and stern up or down to assist in the process of submerging or surfacing the boat, as well as controlling depth when submerged.\n\nSection::::Bow and stern planes.\n", "The bow planes were moved to the massive sail to cut down on flow-induced noise near the bow sonar arrays. They were known as sail planes or fairwater planes. The \"Skipjack\"s were the first class built with sail planes; they were later backfitted on the \"Barbel\"s. This design feature would be repeated on all U.S. nuclear submarines until the improved , the first of which was launched in 1988. The small \"turtleback\" behind the sail was the exhaust piping of the auxiliary diesel generator.\n", "Section::::Design.\n\nThe \"Walrus\"-class submarines are unusual in that instead of a cross-shaped assembly of stern diving planes and rudders, they mount four combined rudders and diving planes in an \"X\" configuration. This tail configuration was first tested in 1960 on the United States Navy's , and has since been used by the \"Walrus\" class, all Swedish Navy submarines since the , the Royal Australian Navy's , the German Type 212A and the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force's .The X configuration is a complex system and therefore not in use by a lot of navies around the world.\n", "On a submarine, the flying bridge is usually called \"the bridge\". It is the highest point on the conning tower, to provide for better visual navigation when on the surface. They became standard on United States Navy submarines after 1917, and greatly improved the function of the ships while at the surface.\n", "\"Daniel Webster\" was originally built with diving planes mounted on a \"mini-sail\" near the bow, leading to her nickname \"Old Funny Fins\". This configuration, unique to US submarines, was an attempt to reduce the effect of porpoising. While successful, the \"mini-sail\" required to contain the operating mechanism reduced hydrodynamic efficiency and lowered her overall speed. During a mid-1970s overhaul these unusual planes were removed and standard fairwater planes were installed.\n\nSection::::Fate.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Aircraft.\n\nThe hangar of the \"I-400\"s was originally designed to hold two aircraft. In 1943, however, Commander Yasuo Fujimori, Submarine Staff Officer of the Naval General Staff, requested it be enlarged. This was deemed feasible and, as remodelled, \"I-400\"s could stow up to three Aichi M6A \"Seiran\" floatplanes.\n", "Boats intended for other purposes can usually be used as dive platforms provided that there is reasonably convenient access to the water and enough space to carry the necessary equipment. Auxiliary sailing yachts and motor yachts are often used by their owners as dive boats, and catamarans can be particularly amenable to this function as they often have spacious decks and stern boarding facilities with swim ladders.\n\nSection::::Diving from a boat.\n\nProcedures for diving from a boat vary depending on the boat, the dive site and the dive plan.\n\nSection::::Diving from a boat.:Stowage of dive gear.\n", "Early submarines carried torpedoes mounted externally to the craft. Later designs incorporated the weapons into the internal structure of the submarine. Originally, both bow-mounted and stern-mounted tubes were used, but the latter eventually fell out of favour. Today, only bow-mounted installations are employed. The modern submarine is capable of firing many types of weapon from its launch tubes, including UAVs. Special mine laying submarines were also built. Up until the end of the Second World War, it was common to fit deck guns to submarines to allow them to sink ships without wasting their limited numbers of torpedoes.\n", "Since the 1980s, large pleasure craft may have a flying bridge toward the stern that is used as additional outdoor seating space and a place to store a tender. On the smallest surface vessels, such as a sport fishing boat, the flying bridge may have controls permitting the ship to be piloted from the flying bridge, but will lack the full range of controls of the pilot house. On larger small vessels, the flying bridge may actually be enclosed, in which case it is more properly called an \"upper pilot house\" or \"upper bridge\".\n\nSection::::Submarines.\n", "Some boats with a Portsmouth Sail had an SV radar and needed extra room to house the aerial, thus had a bulge at the sail top. Later modifications put the SS or SS2 radars on these and other boats that had a smaller aerial and had an indicator with interlocks, allowing the mast to be housed only with the aerial in certain angular positions. Also, some GUPPY II and GUPPY III boats had their sails extended higher above the waterline, the \"Northern Sail\", to raise the bridge, allowing it to be manned in more severe weather.\n", "Section::::Between the wars.:Italy.\n\nThe \"Regia Marina\" (Italian Navy) ordered , a submarine with a waterproof hangar for a small reconnaissance seaplane in the late-1920s. In 1928 Macchi and Piaggio each received orders for suitable aircraft which resulted in the Macchi M.53 and the Piaggio P.8, but the program was cancelled, and the submarine's hangar was removed in December 1931, before \"Ettore Fieramosca\" was delivered.\n\nSection::::Between the wars.:Japan.\n", "The hydrostatic effect of variable ballast tanks is not the only way to control the submarine underwater. Hydrodynamic maneuvering is done by several surfaces, which can be moved to create hydrodynamic forces when a submarine moves at sufficient speed. The stern planes (hydroplanes in UK), located near the propeller and normally horizontal, serve the same purpose as the trim tanks, controlling the trim, and are commonly used, while other control surfaces may not be present on all submarines. The fairwater planes on the sail and/or bow planes on the main body, both also horizontal, are closer to the center of gravity, and are used to control depth with less effect on the trim.\n", "Although not strictly an aircraft, some U-boats carried the Focke-Achgelis Fa 330 (English: Wagtail). It was a type of rotary-wing kite, known as a gyroglider or rotor kite. They were towed behind German U-boats during World War II.\n\nSection::::World War II.:Germany.:Type IX D 2-\"Monsun\".\n", "BULLET::::- The 1916 German Type U 139 submarine (WWI, 3 boats), which mounted two SK L/45 deck guns and two SK L/30 deck guns.\n\nBULLET::::- The 1923 HMS \"X1\", which mounted two guns in 2 twin turrets.\n\nBULLET::::- The 1934 French submarine \"Surcouf\", which mounted two naval guns.\n\nBULLET::::- The 1939 Soviet K-class submarines, which mounted two naval guns.\n\nSection::::Submarine hybridization.:Speed.\n\nBefore the advent of nuclear power, submarines were slower on the surface than surface ships and even slower underwater. Therefore, efforts were made to increase submarine surface speeds on a par with ships, such as:\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nWhen development began on the Type XXI U-boat in late 1942, it was proposed to simultaneously develop a smaller version incorporating the same advanced technology to replace the Type II coastal submarine. Admiral Karl Dönitz added two requirements: as the boat would have to operate in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, it had to be able to be transported by rail, and it had to use the standard torpedo tubes.\n", "For surface running, the boats were powered by two diesel engines, each driving one propeller shaft. When submerged each propeller was driven by a electric motor. They could reach on the surface and underwater. On the surface, the \"Squalo\" class had a range of at , submerged, they had a range of at .\n", "Flying submarine\n\nA flying submarine, submersible aircraft or aerosub is a combination of a seaplane and a submarine. It is supposed to be able both to fly and to travel under water. Starting from the surface of water is also intended.\n\nSince the requirements for designing a submarine are practically opposed to those of an airplane, the performance expected from such a construction is usually rather moderate.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Soviet Union.\n", "Racing dinghies usually have a daggerboard or centreboard to better sail upwind. The trunk is in the middle of what would otherwise be cargo area. A self-rescue dinghy intended to be used as a proactive lifeboat has leeboards on either side, to allow for maximum open cockpit area.\n\nSection::::Propulsion.:Solar.\n", "BULLET::::- In the game \"Red Alert 3\" the fictional Empire of the Rising Sun uses flying submarines (anti-aircraft capable when on water and anti-ground when airborne) as part of their army.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Japanese.\n\nJapanese I-boats were a conceptually similar long-range differentiation from smaller \"medium\" or \"sea-going\" Ro-boats, although some I-boats had features like aircraft hangars and large-caliber deck guns more often associated with submarine cruisers.\n\nSection::::Examples.:British.\n", "The advantage of having two is that it allows preparation for an emergency. While one of the submersibles is conducting its dive, the other remains at readiness should there be an emergency, needing to be boarded on ship and hurried to the site of the problem. Such an emergency could include the submersible becoming tangled in fishing nets or entrapped in rocks or debris on the ocean floor. In such cases, the second heads to the rescue. There are also research experiments where it is advantageous to use the two vessels together.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04866	why "rubbing salt in to the wound" would hurt more than other substances.	Your body has sensors built into kind of like a house. Smoke detectors are like the sensors in our lungs and nose that cause us to cough and sneeze. Security alarms are like the pain we feel when we get cut. Our bodies also have sensors to know about changes in electrolyte (salt) concentration and pain sensors that know about damage. But way does it hurt more? It's the same reason when you add salt to food they have more of a taste. Just instead of it being taste and your tongue, it's pain and a wound.	[ "In 1992, Bellhouse was at work on a \"powdered injector to deliver genetic material into plant cells\" when he wondered if he could use the same method on people. A few hours after injecting himself with finely ground salt, the skin began to bleed. As he explained, \"Salt bursts the red blood cells. This proved that it had worked. And it was utterly painless. It felt like a puff of air\".\n", "Salt in the Wound\n\nSalt in the Wound () is a 1969 Italian \"macaroni combat\" war film directed by Tonino Ricci and starring Klaus Kinski and George Hilton.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "BULLET::::- 154 mEq of chloride ion = 154 mmol\n\nSection::::Concentrations.:Usage.\n\nFor medical purposes, saline is often used to flush wounds and skin abrasions. Normal saline will not burn or sting when applied.\n", "In recent years several different chemicals have been used to induce referred pain including bradykinin, substance P, capsaicin, and serotonin. However, before any of these substances became widespread in their use a solution of hypertonic saline was used instead. Through various experiments it was determined that there were multiple factors that correlated with saline administration such as infusion rate, saline concentration, pressure, and amount of saline used. The mechanism by which the saline induces a local and referred pain pair is unknown. Some researchers have commented that it could be due to osmotic differences, however that is not verified.\n", "BULLET::::- Lidocaine/tetracaine patch. A self-heating patch containing a eutectic mixture of lidocaine and tetracaine is available in several countries, and has been specifically approved by government agencies for use in needle procedures. The patch is sold under the trade name \"Synera\" in the United States and \"Rapydan\" in European Union. Each patch is packaged in an air-tight pouch. It begins to heat up slightly when the patch is removed from the packaging and exposed to the air. The patch requires 20 to 30 minutes to achieve full anesthetic effect. The Synera patch was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration on 23 June 2005.\n", "The silver and potassium nitrates in caustic pencils is in a dried, solid form at the tip of a wooden or plastic stick. When the material is applied to a wound or lesion, the tissue moisture or blood dissolves the dried nitrate salts, which then chemically burn the tissue. It requires moisture for activation.\n", "Section::::Involvement of NMDA receptors.\n\nThe role of NMDA receptors in non-inflammatory noxious stimuli was examined. The injury model consisted of two injections of acidic saline (pH = 4.0), and was designed to model non-inflammatory muscular pain. Intra-RVM administration of AP5 or MK-801, NMDA receptor antagonists, resulted in a reversal of the mechanical sensitivity induced by the acidic saline.\n", "BULLET::::- Eyes: local burning, conjunctival hyperemia, corneal epithelial changes/ulceration, diplopia, visual changes (opacification)\n\nBULLET::::- Skin: itching, depigmentation, rash, urticaria, edema, angioedema, bruising, inflammation of the vein at the injection site, irritation of the skin when applied topically\n\nBULLET::::- Blood: methemoglobinemia\n\nBULLET::::- Allergy\n", "If closure of a wound is decided upon a number of techniques can be used. These include bandages, a cyanoacrylate glue, staples, and sutures. Absorbable sutures have the benefit over non absorbable sutures of not requiring removal. They are often preferred in children. Buffering the pH of lidocaine makes the injection less painful.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nHieronymus Brunschwig argued that infection of gunshot wounds was a result of poisoning by gunpowder, which provided the rationale for cauterizing wounds. Ambroise Paré wrote in his 1545 book, \"The Method of Curing Wounds Caused by Arquebus and Firearms,\" that wounds should be sealed rather than cauterized. John Hunter argued that infection was not caused by poisoning.\n", "Salt the Wound was founded on September 11, 2001 as a duo by their original drummer, James Anthony Agrippe, and guitar player Mike Kawkabany. The group continued on as duo until 2003, where additional members joined and assumed the requirements of a full band. Vocalist Kevin Schafer was welcomed during this year, which then shortly led to these three recruiting Abe Zieleniec as the band's bassist and Jake Scott as another guitar player.\n\nSection::::Biography.:Rotten Records and disestablishment.\n", "Section::::History and methods.:Curing.\n\nThe beginning of curing was done through dehydration. Salting was used by early cultures to help desiccate foods. Many different salts were used from different places such as rock salt, sea salt, spiced salt, etc.. People began to experiment and found in the 1800s that some salts gave meat an appealing red color instead of the grey that they were used to. During their experimenting in the 1920s they realized this mixture of salts were nitrates (saltpeter) that prevented Clostridium botulinum growth.\n\nSection::::History and methods.:Jam and Jelly.\n", "BULLET::::- Vincent D'Onofrio as Gavin McCall\n\nBULLET::::- Shirley Henderson as Mary McCall\n\nBULLET::::- Anaïs Jeanneret as Frédérique McEwan\n\nBULLET::::- Petra Berndt as Jodie\n\nBULLET::::- Claudine Auger as Mrs. McEwan\n\nBULLET::::- Laszlo I. Kish as Angus\n\nBULLET::::- Barbara Jones as Ellen\n\nBULLET::::- Rolf Illig as Mr. McEwan\n\nBULLET::::- Hanns Zischler as Sidney\n\nBULLET::::- Barbara Jones as Ellen\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Berling as Roger\n\nBULLET::::- Sandra Voe as Mrs. McCall\n\nBULLET::::- Philip Pretten as Al\n\nBULLET::::- Kerry Harris as Daniel\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "When the humectant glycerol was added to soaps for the cleansing of wounds, similar effects were found. There was an increase in moisture in the areas that the soap was applied, however, “further consideration of conditioning the use of glycerol to improve the absorption of exudates from wounds for an advanced wound healing is needed.” The healing properties of humectants are therefore uncertain.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Tobacco products.\n", "Native butterbur contains some carcinogenic compounds, but a purified version, Petadolex, does not. A systematic review of two trials totalling 293 patients (60 and 233 patients) showed \"moderate evidence of effectiveness ... for a higher than the recommended dose of the proprietary Petasites root extract Petadolex in the prophylaxis of migraine.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cannabis\n", "BULLET::::2. Ferric sulphate, which forms a plug by agglutinating the blood proteins; however, it is cytotoxic and can cause necrosis of the oral tissues.\n\nBULLET::::3. Calcium sulphate mechanically blocks open vessels and aids bone regeneration.\n", "In wounds, CGRP receptors found in nerve cells deactivate the immune system, to prevent collateral damage in case of a clean wound (common case). However, when a wily pathogen such as those causing necrotizing fasciitis are involved, this is the wrong response. In very preliminary research, nerve blockers like e.g. lidocaine or botox have been demonstrated to block CGRP cascade, thereby allowing immune system involvement and control of pathogens, resulting in complete control and recovery.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Salt on Our Skin\n\nSection::::Plot.\n\nOn the death of her lover, George McEwan, a half French/half Scottish woman, recounts in flashback her passionate relationship with Gavin McCall, a humble fisherman. Their romance goes back in time more than thirty years.\n", "BULLET::::- Preparations of dried blister beetles were at one time used as a treatment for smallpox. As late as 1892 Andrew Taylor Still, the founder of osteopathy, recommended inhaling a tincture of cantharidin as an effective preventative and treatment for smallpox, decrying vaccination.\n\nSection::::History.:Pharmaco-chemical isolation.\n", "BULLET::::- Multiple bee-sting like pains in the affected area\n\nBULLET::::- Occasionally, aching in the groin area or pain spreading across the buttocks\n\nBULLET::::- Usually more sensitive to light touch than to firm pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Hyper sensitivity to heat (warm water from shower feels like it is burning the area)\n\nBULLET::::- Occasionally, patients may complain of itching or a bothersome sensation rather than pain in the affected area.\n\nThe entire distribution of the nerve is rarely affected. Usually, the unpleasant sensation(s) affect only part of the skin supplied by the nerve.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "There is no good evidence that therapeutic touch is useful in healing. More than 400 species of plants are identified as potentially useful for wound healing. Only three randomized controlled trials, however, have been done for the treatment of burns.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Do They Hurt?\n\nDo They Hurt? (1980) is an album by British jazz fusion group Brand X. The tracks on this album are outtakes from the \"Product\" sessions. (\"Noddy Goes to Sweden\" was a B-side from \"Product\".)\n\nSection::::Track listing.\n\nSection::::Track listing.:Side one.\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Noddy Goes to Sweden\" – 4:30\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Voidarama\" – 4:21\n\nBULLET::::3. \"Act of Will\" – 4:43\n\nBULLET::::4. \"Fragile\" – 5:26\n\nSection::::Track listing.:Side two.\n\nBULLET::::1. \"Triumphant Limp\" – 7:34\n\nBULLET::::2. \"D.M.Z.\" – 8:39\n\nSection::::Personnel.\n\nBULLET::::- John Goodsall – guitar (2 - 7), vocals (3)\n", "BULLET::::- Salting roads, the application of salt to roads in winter to act as a de-icing agent\n\nBULLET::::- Figuratively, adding (\"sprinkling\") a small quantity of something to something else for various reasons\n\nBULLET::::- Salt (cryptography), a method to secure passwords\n\nBULLET::::- Salted bomb, a nuclear weapon specifically engineered to enhance residual radioactivity\n\nBULLET::::- Salting (confidence trick), process of adding valuable substances to a core sample, or otherwise scattering valuable resources on a piece of property to be \"discovered\" by a prospective buyer\n", "There has been no agreement for the optimal solution for wound irrigation. Studies found out that there is no difference in infection rates by using normal saline or other various forms of water (distilled, boiled, or tap). There is also no difference in infection rates when using normal saline with castile soap compared with normal saline together with bacitracin in irrigating wounds. Studies also shown that there is no difference in infection rates using low pressure pulse lavage (LPPL) when compared to high pressure pulse lavage (HPPL) in irrigating wounds. Optimal amount of fluid for irrigation also has not been established. It is recommended that the amount of irrigation solution to be determined by the severity of the fracture, with 3 litres for type I fractures, 6 litres for type II fractures, and 9 litres for type III fractures.\n", "BULLET::::- Octenidine dihydrochloride, currently increasingly used in continental Europe, often as a chlorhexidine substitute.\n\nBULLET::::- Polyhexanide (polyhexamethylene biguanide, PHMB) is an antimicrobial compound suitable for clinical use in critically colonized or infected acute and chronic wounds. The physicochemical action on the bacterial envelope prevents or impedes the development of resistant bacterial strains.\n\nBULLET::::- Balsam of Peru is a mild antiseptic.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05659	Why it’s relaxing to sit in 100+ degree (F) water, but is uncomfortable for air temperature to be that high (especially when humid).	The upper part of your body is still exposed to the cooler air, and being wet, water will evaporate from it, cooling it down further. Part of the enjoyment is the contrast between the hot and cold. When it is hot out, your whole body is hot, and when it is humid, your perspiration doesn't evaporate well. Also, you know you can get out of the hot tub any time you like, so you don't feel like you are trapped with no end in sight. Finally, you are not wearing street clothes, so being wet and sweaty is less unpleasant.	[ "At the 500 hPa level, the air temperature averages −7 °C (18 °F) within the tropics, but air in the tropics is normally dry at this height, giving the air room to wet-bulb, or cool as it moistens, to a more favorable temperature that can then support convection. A wetbulb temperature at 500 hPa in a tropical atmosphere of is required to initiate convection if the water temperature is , and this temperature requirement increases or decreases proportionally by 1 °C in the sea surface temperature for each 1 °C change at 500 hpa.\n", "The roman writer Vitruvius actually linked this purpose to the birth of Architecture. David Linden also suggests that the reason why we associate tropical beaches with paradise is because in those environments is where our bodies need to do less metabolic effort to maintain our core temperature. Temperature not only supports human life; coolness and warmth have also become in different cultures a symbol of protection, community and even the sacred.\n", "The wetness of skin in different areas also affects perceived thermal comfort. Humidity can increase wetness on different areas of the body, leading to a perception of discomfort. This is usually localized in different parts of the body, and local thermal comfort limits for skin wettedness differ by locations of the body. The extremities are much more sensitive to thermal discomfort from wetness than the trunk of the body. Although local thermal discomfort can be caused from wetness, the thermal comfort of the whole body will not be affected by the wetness of certain parts.\n", "Skin wettedness is defined as \"the proportion of the total skin surface area of the body covered with sweat.\"\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nA location which combines an average temperature of 19 degrees Celsius, 60% average humidity and a temperature range of about 10 degrees Celsius around the average temperature (yearly temperature variation) is considered ideal in terms of comfort for the human species. Most of the places with these characteristics are located in the transition between temperate and tropical climates, approximately around the tropics, particularly in the Southern hemisphere (the tropic of Capricorn).\n\nSection::::Lifted minimum temperature.\n", "Because the heat index is based on temperatures in the shade, while people often move across sunny areas, then the heat index can give a much lower temperature than actual conditions of typical outdoor activities. Also, for people exercising or active, at the time, then the heat index could give a temperature lower than the felt conditions. For example, with a temperature in the shade of at 60% relative humidity, then the heat index would seem , but movement across sunny areas of , would give a heat index of over , as more indicative of the oppressive and sweltering heat. Plus when actively working, or not wearing a hat in sunny areas, then the feels-like conditions would seem even hotter. Hence, the heat index could seem unrealistically low, unless resting inactive (idle) in heavily shaded areas.\n", "In building science studies, thermal comfort has been related to productivity and health. Office workers who are satisfied with their thermal environment are more productive. The combination of high temperature and high relative humidity reduces thermal comfort and indoor air quality.\n", "Research has tested the model against experimental data and found it tends to overestimate skin temperature and underestimate skin wettedness. Fountain and Huizenga (1997) developed a thermal sensation prediction tool that computes SET.\n\nSection::::Models.:PMV/PPD method.:Local thermal discomfort.\n", "Taking advantage of the cooling properties of water may help attenuate the consequences of heat sensitivity. In a study done by White et al. (2000), exercise pre-cooling via lower body immersion in water of 16–17 °C for 30 minutes allowed heat sensitive individuals with MS to exercise in greater comfort and with fewer side effects by minimizing body temperature increases during exercise. Hydrotherapy exercise in moderately cool water of 27–29 °C water can also be advantageous to individuals with MS. Temperatures lower than 27 °C are not recommended because of the increased risk of invoking spasticity.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "The construction of the capillary tube mat takes as its model the networks of fine veins created by nature, which run under the skin (surface) of living creatures, and not only supply the organism with nutrients, but also serve for the heat regulation of the body. The function of heat regulation has provided the inspiration to lay capillary tube mats close beneath the surface in the surrounding areas of rooms, and transport through them warm or cool water, in order to control the temperature of the rooms. Since fluid always flows in parallel through many capillaries, similar to the veins under the skin of the body, the heat exchange with the environment is extremely intense and at the same time energetically effective.\n", "Wetsuits are relatively inexpensive, simple, expanded neoprene suits that are typically used where the water temperature is between . The foamed neoprene of the suit thermally insulates the wearer. Although water can enter the suit, a close fitting suit prevents excessive heat loss because little of the water warmed inside the suit escapes from the suit to be replaced by cold water, a process referred to as \"flushing\".\n", "People inhabiting tropical and subtropical climates acclimatize somewhat to higher dew points. Thus, a resident of Singapore or Miami, for example, might have a higher threshold for discomfort than a resident of a temperate climate like London or Chicago. People accustomed to temperate climates often begin to feel uncomfortable when the dew point gets above , while others might find dew points up to comfortable. Most inhabitants of temperate areas will consider dew points above oppressive and tropical-like, while inhabitants of hot and humid areas may not find this uncomfortable. Thermal comfort depends not just on physical environmental factors, but also on psychological factors.\n", "Heat escape lessening position\n\nThe heat escape lessening position (HELP) is a way to position oneself to reduce heat loss while immersed in cold water. It is taught as part of the curriculum in Australia, North America, and Ireland for lifeguard and boating safety training. It essentially involves positioning one's knees together and hugging them close to the chest using one's arms. Furthermore, groups of people can huddle together in this position to conserve body heat, offer moral support, and provide a larger target for rescuers. \n", "There are three layers of ocean temperature: the surface layer, the thermocline, and the deep ocean. The average temperature of surface layer is about 17 °C. About 90% of ocean's water is below the thermocline in the deep ocean, where most of the water is below 4 °C.\n\nThere are temperature anomalies at active volcanic sites and hydrothermal vents, where water temperatures can significantly exceed 100°C.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics.:Thermal conductivity.\n", "Controlling water vapor in air is a key concern in the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) industry. Thermal comfort depends on the moist air conditions. Non-human comfort situations are called refrigeration, and also are affected by water vapor. For example, many food stores, like supermarkets, utilize open chiller cabinets, or \"food cases\", which can significantly lower the water vapor pressure (lowering humidity). This practice delivers several benefits as well as problems.\n\nSection::::In Earth's atmosphere.\n", "One Percent More Humid\n\nOne Percent More Humid is a 2017 American drama film written and directed by Liz W. Garcia. The film stars Juno Temple, Julia Garner, Alessandro Nivola, Maggie Siff, Olivia Luccardi and Philip Ettinger.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Juno Temple as Iris\n\nBULLET::::- Julia Garner as Catherine\n\nBULLET::::- Alessandro Nivola as Gerald\n\nBULLET::::- Maggie Siff as Lisette\n\nBULLET::::- Olivia Luccardi as Mae\n\nBULLET::::- Philip Ettinger as Billy\n\nBULLET::::- Mamoudou Athie as Jack\n\nBULLET::::- Liz Larsen as Catherine's mother\n\nBULLET::::- Jack DiFalco as Reynolds\n\nBULLET::::- Ricky Goldman as Alex\n\nSection::::Release.\n", "Humidity is an important factor in determining how weather conditions feel to a person experiencing them. Hot and humid days feel even hotter than hot and dry days because the high level of water content in humid air discourages the evaporation of sweat from a person's skin.\n", "Due to the heat in the tropics, it was customary for crewmen to sleep on the open decks of their ships, to be cooled by the breeze. The \"flush deckers\" often sported canvas awnings over their decks for this purpose.\n\nSection::::Service history.\n", "Heat transfers very well into water, and body heat is therefore lost extremely quickly in water compared to air, even in merely 'cool' swimming waters around 70F (~20C). A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures hovering at freezing can lead to death in as little as 15 minutes. This is because cold water can have other lethal effects on the body, so hypothermia is not usually a reason for drowning or the clinical cause of death for those who drown in cold water.\n", "The Times of India gave the film 3 stars out of 5 and wrote, \"If what you want is to sit back and relax with a packet of popcorn, \"100 Degree Celsius\" is not the film for you, as you would mostly be on your seat's edge, scene after scene. Rakesh Gopan joins the pack the debutant directors in Malayalam , who tell unprecedented stories in our tinsel town. His effort is laudable, and besides a handful of glitches in execution that sets occasional boredom, the film is involving enough to keep one interested till the end\". Indiaglitz.com gave a rating of 6.5 out of 10 and wrote, \"With all other factors appealing, this '100 degree Celsius' can be prescribed for an onetime watch, especially for the lovers of adrenaline raising thriller films..\".\n", "In tropical countries, like Singapore and India, a storage water heater may vary from 10 L to 35 L. Smaller water heaters are sufficient, as ambient weather temperatures and incoming water temperature are moderate.\n\nSection::::Types of water heating appliances.:Point-of-use (POU) vs centralized hot water.\n", "Hot cycling\n\nHot cycling refers to a spin class performed in a room heated between 80 and 84 degrees Fahrenheit. Like hot yoga, which uses heat to increase an individual's flexibility in the poses. Heated exercise at temperatures of 100 degrees Fahrenheit has also been shown to strengthen the immune system and increase the volume of oxygenated blood which can lower cholesterol.\n", "Section::::In motor vehicles.\n\nSection::::In motor vehicles.:Response.\n\nWhat the driver experiences when a vehicle aquaplanes depends on which wheels have lost traction and the direction of travel.\n\nIf the vehicle is traveling straight, it may begin to feel slightly loose. If there was a high level of road feel in normal conditions, it may suddenly diminish. Small correctional control inputs have no effect.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Human comfort.\n\nHumans are sensitive to humid air because the human body uses evaporative cooling as the primary mechanism to regulate temperature. Under humid conditions, the \"rate\" at which perspiration evaporates on the skin is lower than it would be under arid conditions. Because humans perceive the rate of heat transfer from the body rather than temperature itself, we feel warmer when the relative humidity is high than when it is low.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13081	why don’t we make coffee like we do tea, by seeping the grounds in a bag?	edit: RIP my inbox *Coffee cherries are their own fruit from the coffee tree. We do not make coffee from the pits of the cherries we eat. Please do not try this. You could die. Thank you. First off, remember that coffee is the roasted seed of a cherry that is pulverized in a grinder, while tea is actual dried leaves from the tea plant. Because we can grind coffee really coarsely or super fine, we control the extraction time to get the proper strength from the coffee. Finer grind has more surface area (i.e. espresso), and we can get all the good stuff out in under 30 seconds. A big, coarse grind like for french press, can take 4 minutes. As for why we don't use coffee bags regularly, it's for a couple of reasons. Coffee stales very quickly once ground, much faster than tea. It also has to do with 'fines'. Because coffee is a brittle, organic seed, when it is ground, you get a range of particles from large to small. You'd need a bag permeable enough to let the coffee steep and for water to move through it, but also not allow all of the fine particles through. This is simple with gravity brewing like pour over or drip because the water will eventually get out. It's not really moving if it is in a bag in a cup, so the filter would have to allow for the smaller stuff to wind up in the cup and your coffee will be 'muddy'. This happens with french press too, and some people enjoy the body of this type of coffee for that reason. Tea, on the other hand, more or less behaves the same, and needs to be steeped for several minutes to get the most flavor from it. Chopping the leaves up finer helps somewhat, but it seriously affects the flavor of the tea, as breaking the leaves causes them to lose a lot of their essential oils and flavor. If you've ever had a really nice loose leaf black tea next to, say, Liptons bagged tea, there's no comparison. So, yes, you could mill up tea leaves small enough to make a drip machine make 'tea', but it probably wouldn't be very nice. Your last question about cocoa - Chocolate is the most complicated process of the 3. Cacao beans are fermented, dried, roasted, dechaffed, ground, pressed with sugar, blended with cocoa liquor.... It's a crazy process that I can't understand how we figured out it was possible in the first place. If the roasted 'cocoa bean', or cacao nib were just ground up and steeped, it would be very bitter, and probably not to your taste, but this was basically what was drank by the ancient peoples of Mesoamerica (with added chili and spices for some fire). Instead, we just make sweetened cocoa powder that is ground super fine, kinda water soluble and we drink the 'grinds', unlike coffee.	[ "A recent variation of the \"French press\" is the \"SoftBrew\" method. The grounds are placed in the cylindrical filter, which is then placed inside the pot, and very hot to boiling water is then poured into it. After waiting a few minutes, the coffee can then be poured out, with the grounds staying inside the metal filter.\n\n\"Coffee bags\" are less often used than tea bags. They are simply disposable bags containing coffee; the grounds do not exit the bag as it mixes with the water, so no extra filtering is required.\n", "The dry method is used for about 90% of the Arabica coffee produced in Brazil, most of the coffees produced in Ethiopia, Haiti and Paraguay, as well as for some Arabicas produced in India and Ecuador. Almost all Robustas are processed by this method. It is not practical in very rainy regions, where the humidity of the atmosphere is too high or where it rains frequently during harvesting.\n\nSection::::Processing.:Semi-dry process.\n", "Another variation is cold brew coffee, sometimes known as \"cold press.\" Cold water is poured over coffee grounds and allowed to steep for eight to twenty-four hours. The coffee is then filtered, usually through a very thick filter, removing all particles. This process produces a very strong concentrate which can be stored in a refrigerated, airtight container for up to eight weeks. The coffee can then be prepared for drinking by adding hot water to the concentrate at a water-to-concentrate ratio of approximately 3:1, but can be adjusted to the drinker's preference. The coffee prepared by this method is very low in acidity with a smooth taste, and is often preferred by those with sensitive stomachs. Others, however, feel this method strips coffee of its bold flavor and character. Thus, this method is not common, and there are few appliances designed for it.\n", "Both manually and electrically powered mills are available. These mills grind the coffee to a fairly uniform size determined by the separation of the two abrasive surfaces between which the coffee is ground; the uniform grind produces a more even extraction when brewed, without excessively fine particles that clog filters.\n", "Malaysian and some Caribbean and South American styles of coffee are often brewed using a \"\"sock,\"\" which is actually a simple muslin bag, shaped like a filter, into which coffee is loaded, then steeped in hot water. This method is especially suitable for use with local-brew coffees in Malaysia, primarily of the varieties \"Robusta\" and \"Liberica\" which are often strong-flavored, allowing the ground coffee in the sock to be reused.\n", "In addition to the \"cold press\", there is a method called \"Cold Drip Coffee\". Also known as \"Dutch Ice Coffee\" (and very popular in Japan), instead of steeping, this method very slowly drips cold water into the grounds, which then very slowly pass through a filter. Unlike the cold press (which functions similar to a French Press) which takes eight to twenty-four hours, a Cold Drip process only takes about two hours, with taste and consistency results similar to that of a cold press.\n\nSection::::Brewing.:Pressure.\n", "The best (but least used) method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method, the pulped and fermented coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all sides of the coffee, and then the coffee is mixed by hand. In this method the drying that takes place is more uniform, and fermentation is less likely. Most African coffee is dried in this manner and certain coffee farms around the world are starting to use this traditional method.\n", "BULLET::::- Indian filter coffee, particularly common in southern India, is prepared with rough-ground dark roasted coffee beans (e.g., Arabica, PeaBerry), and chicory. The coffee is drip-brewed for a few hours in a traditional metal coffee filter before being served with milk and sugar. The ratio is usually 1/4 decoction, 3/4 milk.\n", "Coffee percolators once enjoyed great popularity but were supplanted in the early 1970s by automatic drip coffee makers. Percolators often expose the grounds to higher temperatures than other brewing methods, and may recirculate already brewed coffee through the beans. As a result, coffee brewed with a percolator is particularly susceptible to over-extraction. Percolation may remove some of the volatile compounds in the beans, resulting in a pleasant aroma during brewing, but a less flavoursome cup. However, percolator enthusiasts maintain that the potential pitfalls of this brewing method can be eliminated by careful control of the brewing process.\n\nSection::::Brewing process.\n", "In South India, filter coffee brewed at home is a part of local culture. Most houses have a stainless steel coffee filter and most shops sell freshly roasted and ground coffee beans. Some popular filter coffee brands include Mysore café, Hill coffee (Suresh healthcare), Gotha's coffee (Mysore) and Narasu'scoffee (Coimbatore). It is common in South India to add an additive called chicory to coffee to give it a unique taste and flavour.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chemex\n\nBULLET::::- Chorreador\n\nBULLET::::- Coffeemaker\n\nBULLET::::- Coffee bag\n\nBULLET::::- Coffee percolator\n\nBULLET::::- Cold brew coffee\n\nBULLET::::- Drip-O-lator\n\nBULLET::::- Espresso\n\nBULLET::::- French press\n", "Dry process, also known as unwashed or natural coffee, is the oldest method of processing coffee. The entire cherry after harvest is first cleaned and then placed in the sun to dry on tables or in thin layers on patios:\n", "BULLET::::- Moisture content change: IN = 75-85% OUT = 3-3.5%\n\nBULLET::::- Air temperature: IN = OUT =\n\nOne drawback with spray drying is that the particles it produces are too fine to be used effectively by the consumer; they must first be either steam-fused in towers similar to spray dryers or by belt agglomeration to produce particles of suitable size.\n\nSection::::Production.:Decaffeination.\n\nIn commercial processes, the decaffeination of instant coffee almost always happens before the critical roasting process which will determine the coffee's flavour and aroma processes.\n\nSection::::Production.:Byproducts.\n", "The \"AeroPress\" is another recent invention, which is a mechanical, non-electronic device where pressure is simply exerted by the user manually pressing a piston down with their hand, forcing medium-temperature water through coffee grounds in about 30 seconds (into a single cup.) This method produces a smoother beverage than espresso, falling somewhere between the flavor of a \"moka pot\" and a \"French Press\".\n\nSection::::Extraction.\n\nProper brewing of coffee requires using the correct amount of coffee grounds, extracted to the correct degree (largely determined by the correct time), at the correct temperature.\n", "The simplest method is to put the ground coffee in a cup, pour hot water over it and let cool while the grounds sink to the bottom. This is a traditional method for making a cup of coffee that is still used in parts of Indonesia. This method, known as \"mud coffee\" in the Middle East owing to an extremely fine grind that results in a mud-like sludge at the bottom of the cup, allows for extremely simple preparation, but drinkers then have to be careful if they want to avoid drinking grounds either from this layer or floating at the surface of the coffee, which can be avoided by dribbling cold water onto the \"floaters\" from the back of a spoon. If the coffee beans are not ground finely enough, the grounds do not sink.\n", "Coffee beans can be chopped by using blades rotating at high speed (20,000 to 30,000 rpm), either in a blade grinder designed specifically for coffee and spices, or in a general use home blender. Devices of this sort are cheaper than burr grinders, but the grind is not uniform and will produce particles of widely varying sizes, while ideally all particles should have the same size, appropriate for the method of brewing. Moreover, the particles get smaller and smaller during the grinding process, which makes it difficult to achieve a consistent grind from batch to batch.\n", "In France, in about 1710, the infusion brewing process was introduced. This involved submersing the ground coffee, usually enclosed in a linen bag, in hot water and letting it steep or \"infuse\" until the desired strength brew was achieved. Nevertheless, throughout the 19th and even the early 20th centuries, it was considered adequate to add ground coffee to hot water in a pot or pan, boil it until it smelled right, and pour the brew into a cup.\n", "Because the coffee grounds remain in direct contact with the brewing water and the grounds are filtered from the water via a mesh instead of a paper filter, coffee brewed with the cafetiere captures more of the coffee's flavour and essential oils, which would become trapped in a traditional drip brew machine's paper filters. As with drip-brewed coffee, cafetiere coffee can be brewed to any strength by adjusting the amount of ground coffee which is brewed. If the used grounds remain in the drink after brewing, French pressed coffee left to stand can become \"bitter\", though this is an effect that many users of cafetiere consider beneficial. For a cafetiere, the contents are considered spoiled, by some reports, after around 20 minutes. Other approaches consider a brew period that may extend to hours as a method of superior production.\n", "One drawback of the electric roasting appliances is their small capacity: for fluid-bed, and somewhat more for drum roaster. They are also expensive. Another drawback is that most models emit smoke.\n\nNo matter what roasting method is used, the weather can affect the results, especially if roasting outdoors. Cold temperatures can extend the roasting time, adversely affecting the bean. In extreme cold the roaster may fail to reach proper temperature. Humidity is a lesser concern; it changes the roasting time and resulting quality.\n", "Coffee berries and their seeds undergo several processes before they become the familiar roasted coffee. Berries have been traditionally selectively picked by hand; a labor-intensive method, it involves the selection of only the berries at the peak of ripeness. More commonly, crops are strip picked, where all berries are harvested simultaneously regardless of ripeness by person or machine. After picking, green coffee is processed by one of two methods—the dry process method, simpler and less labor-intensive as the berries can be strip picked, and the wet process method, which incorporates fermentation into the process and yields a mild coffee.\n", "Brewed coffee is made by pouring hot water onto ground coffee beans, then allowing to brew. There are several methods for doing this, including using a filter, a percolator, and a French press. Terms used for the resulting coffee often reflect the method used, such as drip brewed coffee, filtered coffee, pour-over coffee, immersion brewed coffee, or simply coffee. Water seeps through the ground coffee, absorbing its constituent chemical compounds, and then passes through a filter. The used coffee grounds are retained in the filter, while the brewed coffee is collected in a vessel such as a carafe or pot.\n", "Electronic coffee makers boil the water and brew the infusion with little human assistance and sometimes according to a timer. Some such devices also grind the beans automatically before brewing.\n\nThe French press is considered one of the oldest and simplest methods to brew coffee. Despite its simplicity, it can be a little tricky. The most important part of the process is to not leave the coffee in the French press for too long after pressing.\n\nSection::::Brewing.:Boiling.\n\nBoiling, or decoction, was the main method used for brewing coffee until the 1930s\n", "Coffee percolators and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee using gravity. In an automatic coffeemaker, hot water drips onto coffee grounds that are held in a paper, plastic, or perforated metal coffee filter, allowing the water to seep through the ground coffee while extracting its oils and essences. The liquid drips through the coffee and the filter into a carafe or pot, and the spent grounds are retained in the filter.\n", "Coffee extraction\n\nCoffee extraction is the process of dissolving soluble flavors from coffee grounds in water. Proper brewing of coffee requires using the correct quantity of coffee, ground precisely, extracted to the correct degree, controlled by the correct time and correct temperature.\n\nSection::::Concepts.\n\nSpecialized vocabulary and guidelines exist to discuss coffee extraction, primarily various \"ratios,\" which are used to optimally brew coffee. The key concepts are:\n", "In the wet process, the fruit covering the seeds/beans is removed before they are dried. Coffee processed by the wet method is called wet processed or washed coffee. The wet method requires the use of specific equipment and substantial quantities of water.\n", "Coffee may be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press (also known as a cafetière, coffee press or coffee plunger). Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a cylindrical vessel and left to brew for a few minutes. A circular filter which fits tightly in the cylinder fixed to a plunger is then pushed down from the top to force the grounds to the bottom. The filter retains the grounds at the bottom as the coffee is poured from the container. Because the coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the liquid, making it a stronger beverage. This method of brewing leaves more sediment than in coffee made by an automatic coffee machine. Supporters of the French press method point out that the sediment issue can be minimized by using the right type of grinder: they claim that a rotary blade grinder cuts the coffee bean into a wide range of sizes, including a fine coffee dust that remains as sludge at the bottom of the cup, while a burr grinder uniformly grinds the beans into consistently-sized grinds, allowing the coffee to settle uniformly and be trapped by the press. Within the first minute of brewing 95% of the caffeine is released from the coffee bean.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16616	How did cavemen "brush their teeth" and why didnt their teeth rot and fall out?	Published [here]( URL_0 ), scientists did a spot of dentistry on a 1.2 million year old Hominin skull and found our ancestors, who were duking it out on the open plains at the time, had excellent dental hygiene. Huh, how come? Turns out, it was all to do with their raw diet. They found grass, seeds, and uncooked meat in plaque samples, along with wood fibers - which researchers believe may have fallen from the subjects' early improvised toothbrushes. As cooking hadn't yet been discovered, and raw food tends to be more fibrous than cooked, we reckon a lot of it got stuck between the teeth, leading individuals to pick at it constantly, thereby dislodging and preventing excessive plaque build up. What's more, it's only once humans settled down and developed agriculture that our dental problems became, well, a problem. As soon as we started building homes and planting grains, so began our foray into carbohydrates - and it's these carbs and sugars that can break down into sugars in our mouths, providing food for the bacteria that cause tooth decay. So, to answer your question, 'cavemen' didn't eat (much) sugar, and didn't have problems with tooth decay nor gum disease. They did however have problems with tooth wear, as the fibrous foods would constantly chisel down their teeth until they were worn flat, until eventually they'd have trouble eating. For these reasons, dental hygiene was less essential than it is today with our heavy carb diets, but 'cavemen' did have other dental problems than cavities to contend with.	[ "As long ago as 3000 B.C., the ancient Egyptians constructed crude toothbrushes from twigs and leaves to clean their teeth. Similarly, other cultures such as the Greeks, Romans, and Indians cleaned their teeth with twigs. Some would fray one end of the twig so that it could penetrate between the teeth more effectively. The Arabs, especially after the rise of Islam, used Miswak, a kind of natural toothbrush.\n", "There is also evidence of caries increase in North American Indians after contact with colonizing Europeans. Before colonization, North American Indians subsisted on hunter-gatherer diets, but afterward there was a greater reliance on maize agriculture, which made these groups more susceptible to caries.\n", "Since before recorded history, a variety of oral hygiene measures have been used for teeth cleaning. This has been verified by various excavations done throughout the world, in which chew sticks, tree twigs, bird feathers, animal bones and porcupine quills have been found. In historic times, different forms of tooth cleaning tools have been used. Indian medicine (Ayurveda) has used the neem tree, or \"daatun\", and its products to create teeth cleaning twigs and similar products; a person chews one end of the neem twig until it somewhat resembles the bristles of a toothbrush, and then uses it to brush the teeth. In the Muslim world, the miswak, or \"siwak\", made from a twig or root, has antiseptic properties and has been widely used since the Islamic Golden Age. Rubbing baking soda or chalk against the teeth was also common; however, this can have negative side effects over time.\n", "One of the daily tasks for the entire group was milling corn and wheat for bread on small millstones. They also made cheese out of goat milk almost daily. They also had fish at various times and occasionally had eggs from their chickens. At times, they slaughtered their animals for larger quantities of meat, although some group members were vegetarians.\n\nSection::::Events during series.:Hygiene.\n\nThe group washed with water and clay, which didn't disinfect, but, as they found, was suitable to remove dirt and other impurities from their skin and hair.\n\nSection::::Events during series.:Labour.\n", "The antibacterial properties of the tubers may have helped prevent tooth decay in people who lived in Sudan 2000 years ago. Less than 1% of that local population's teeth had cavities, abscesses, or other signs of tooth decay, though those people were probably farmers (early farmers' teeth typically had more tooth decay than those of hunter-gatherers because the high grain content in their diet created a hospitable environment for bacteria that flourish in the human mouth, excreting acids that eat away at the teeth).\n\nSection::::Uses.:Modern uses and studies.\n", "Before he left for the US, Begg at one point drew a sketch of the aboriginal people of Australia and noticed that their incisors were completely worn down. A striking fact he observed was that these aboriginal people had no caries or periodontal disease in their teeth.\n", "Section::::Life.:Later life.\n", "Section::::Diet and dental health.\n\nDiet is an important area of study for bioarchaeologists because it can reveal many aspects of an individual and the population. The types of foods that were produced and eaten can yield information on how society was structured, on various settlement patterns, and on how healthy or unhealthy the population was.\n\nDiet is studied through a variety of methods. Bioarchaeologists can examine teeth and look for the presence or absence of dental caries (cavities), use tooth wear analysis, or they can use stable isotope analysis, specifically through carbon and nitrogen isotopes.\n\nSection::::Diet and dental health.:Dental caries.\n", "In 1756, when Washington was 24 years old, a dentist pulled his first tooth. According to his diary, he paid 5 shillings to a \"Doctr Watson\" for the removal. His diary also regularly mentioned troubles such as aching teeth and lost teeth. John Adams says he lost his teeth because he used them to crack Brazil nuts but modern historians suggest mercury oxide, which he was given to treat illnesses such as smallpox and malaria, probably contributed to the loss. \n", "Tooth decay has been present throughout human history, from early hominids millions of years ago, to modern humans. The prevalence of caries increased dramatically in the 19th century, as the Industrial Revolution made certain items, such as refined sugar and flour, readily available. The diet of the “newly industrialized English working class” then became centered on bread, jam, and sweetened tea, greatly increasing both sugar consumption and caries.\n\nSection::::History.:Etymology and usage.\n", "The earliest known mention of bad breath occurs in ancient Egypt, where detailed recipes for toothpaste are made before the Pyramids are built. The 1550 BC Ebers Papyrus describes tablets to cure bad breath based on incense, cinnamon, myrrh and honey. Hippocratic medicine advocated a mouthwash of red wine and spices to cure bad breath. Note that alcohol-containing mouthwashes are now thought to exacerbate bad breath as they dry the mouth, leading to increased microbial growth. The Hippocratic Corpus also describes a recipe based on marble powder for female bad breath sufferers. The Ancient Roman physician Pliny wrote about methods to sweeten the breath.\n", "Other than emmer, barley was grown to make bread and also used for making beer, and so were lily seeds and roots, and tiger nut. The grit from the quern stones used to grind the flour mixed in with bread was a major source of tooth decay due to the wear it produced on the enamel. For those who could afford there was also fine dessert bread and cakes baked from high-grade flour.\n\nSection::::Beer.\n", "The earliest known person identified as a dental practitioner dates back to 2600BC, an Egyptian scribe states that he was ‘the greatest of those who deal with teeth ad of physicians’\n\nBULLET::::- 1500BC- Egyptian Ebers papyrus explains oral disease and offers prescription for strengthening teeth and gums\n\nBULLET::::- 9th century AD- The Arabs discussed the care of teeth rather than extractions and replacement. Mouth hygiene was established with a small wooden stick\n\nBULLET::::- Late 1400’s- The first tooth brush was invented by the Chinese\n", "Modern day toothbrushing as a regular habit became prevalent in Europe after contact with the Muslim world in Africa and Asia where the people's teeth remained healthy into old age. It was advised as a scientifically supported practice toward the end of the 17th century. The modern toothbrush was developed in England in 1780. While languishing in jail, William Addis decided to drill holes into a sheep's tibia, and pulled through the bristles of boar hair. While he was credited with the invention of the modern toothbrush, a similar design has since been discovered in China from 1400.\n\nSection::::Toothbrushing guidelines.\n", "The predecessor of the toothbrush is the chew stick. Chew sticks were twigs with frayed ends used to brush the teeth while the other end was used as a toothpick. The earliest chew sticks were discovered in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 3500 BC, an Egyptian tomb dating from 3000 BC, and mentioned in Chinese records dating from 1600 BC. The Greeks and Romans used toothpicks to clean their teeth, and toothpick-like twigs have been excavated in Qin Dynasty tombs. Chew sticks remain common in Africa, the rural Southern United States, and in the Islamic world the use of chewing stick Miswak is considered a pious action and has been prescribed to be used before every prayer five times a day. Miswaks have been used by Muslims since 7th century.\n", "Archaeological evidence shows that tooth decay is an ancient disease dating far into prehistory. Skulls dating from a million years ago through the neolithic period show signs of caries, including those from the Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages. The increase of caries during the neolithic period may be attributed to the increased consumption of plant foods containing carbohydrates. The beginning of rice cultivation in South Asia is also believed to have caused an increase in caries especially for women, although there is also some evidence from sites in Thailand, such as Khok Phanom Di, that shows a decrease in overall percentage of dental caries with the increase in dependence on rice agriculture.\n", "A Sumerian text from 5000 BC describes a \"tooth worm\" as the cause of caries. Evidence of this belief has also been found in India, Egypt, Japan, and China. Unearthed ancient skulls show evidence of primitive dental work. In Pakistan, teeth dating from around 5500 BC to 7000 BC show nearly perfect holes from primitive dental drills. The Ebers Papyrus, an Egyptian text from 1550 BC, mentions diseases of teeth. During the Sargonid dynasty of Assyria during 668 to 626 BC, writings from the king's physician specify the need to extract a tooth due to spreading inflammation. In the Roman Empire, wider consumption of cooked foods led to a small increase in caries prevalence. The Greco-Roman civilization, in addition to the Egyptian, had treatments for pain resulting from caries.\n", "The rate of caries remained low through the Bronze Age and Iron Age, but sharply increased during the Middle Ages. Periodic increases in caries prevalence had been small in comparison to the 1000 AD increase, when sugar cane became more accessible to the Western world. Treatment consisted mainly of herbal remedies and charms, but sometimes also included bloodletting. The barber surgeons of the time provided services that included tooth extractions. Learning their training from apprenticeships, these health providers were quite successful in ending tooth pain and likely prevented systemic spread of infections in many cases. Among Roman Catholics, prayers to Saint Apollonia, the patroness of dentistry, were meant to heal pain derived from tooth infection.\n", "Sugaring (epilation)\n\nSugaring, sugar waxing or Persian waxing is a method of hair removal that has been in use since 1900 BC. Historically, sugar was confined to the regions surrounding Persia until the first millennium AD. As a result, it is speculated that honey was the first sugaring agent. Sugaring was also known as \"sukkar\" or \"ḥalawa\" in the Middle East, as \"ağda\" in Turkey, and as \"moum\" in Iran.\n", "The health of the people living at Phum Snay was also determined from the burials. Rates of attrition, caries, and abscesses in the teeth of the human remains gave an idea of their dietary habits. The main result from the dentition was the presence of a social structure regarding male and female roles within the community. Rates of dental caries in females were higher than the males, which may be attributed to a sexual division of labor. If the men are out hunting, they are receiving a higher level of protein in the food they are consuming, while the females may be eating more cariogenic foods if they are back tending the fields and surrounded by starches and carbohydrates.\n", "In Africa, chew sticks are made from the tree \"Salvadora persica\", also known as the \"toothbrush tree\".\n\nIn Islam, this tree is traditionally used to create a chew stick called miswak, as frequently advocated for in the \"hadith\" (written traditions relating to the life of Muhammad).\n\nEven today, many indians in rural areas use neem twigs for brushing every morning. It has antibacterial properties and helps keep gums healthy. It is known to reduce many gum related diseases. \n\nTraditional Sikhs still use datun today as it is written in their scriptures:\n\nSection::::Twigs used.\n", "BULLET::::2. TartarbrThis is a hard substance that builds up on human teeth after dental plague solidifies. Because ancient teeth still hold onto tiny pieces of food and bacteria, the study of tartar can help reveal what people ate and information on an individual’s health. Researchers and scientists use molecular methods and the microscope to examine the samples\n\nSection::::Ancient diet.:Factors that affect diet.\n", "There are records of knowledge of sugar among the ancient Greeks and Romans, but only as an imported medicine, and not as a food. For example, the Greek physician Dioscorides in the 1st century (AD) wrote: \"There is a kind of coalesced honey called \"sakcharon\" [i.e. sugar] found in reeds in India and Eudaimon Arabia [i.e. Yemen] similar in consistency to salt and brittle enough to be broken between the teeth like salt. It is good dissolved in water for the intestines and stomach, and [can be] taken as a drink to help [relieve] a painful bladder and kidneys.\" Pliny the Elder, a 1st-century (AD) Roman, also described sugar as medicinal: \"Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes.\"\n", "In 1768 Ruspini became the author of a Treatise on Teeth. He wrote about many things that we now take for granted including the effect of too much sugar on the teeth, but he also wrote that sleeping with the head uncovered would result in dental disease. Also in 1768 Ruspini's first child was born. James Balden Ruspini who was soon followed by George Bartholomew Ruspini who both went on to become surgeon dentists. In all Ruspini had 9 children, four sons and five daughters.\n", "Alternative methods of oral hygiene also exist around the world, such as the use of teeth cleaning twigs such as miswaks in some Middle Eastern and African cultures. There is some limited evidence demonstrating the efficacy of these alternative methods of oral hygiene.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Dietary modification.\n\nPeople who eat more free sugars get more cavities, with cavities increasing exponentially with increasing sugar intake. Populations with less sugar intake have fewer cavities. In one population, in Nigeria, where sugar consumption was about 2g/day, only two percent of the population, of any age, had had a cavity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02698	How does a bill that passed overwhelmingly in the House and Senate (98%+) not get enforced by the executive branch?	In response to the title, since the Executive branch has sole authority in enforcing the law, as a consequence it can choose not to enforce the law at all. In response to the post, since I do not know what specific bill you are talking about I can describe the two vetoes. First, the President can outright veto a bill on his/her desk and send it back to Congress within 10 days (or it defaults into a law) to vote on it again. If they get a two-thirds majority it becomes a law without having to go back to the President, if they do not get a two-thirds majority, it does not become a law. Second, a pocket veto is when a President does not sign a bill into law at the end of the 10 day time limit and Congress is not in session at the end of the 10 day time limit to override it with a two-thirds vote.	[ "Congress often writes legislation to restrain executive officials to the performance of their duties, as laid out by the laws Congress passes. In \"Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha\" (1983), the Supreme Court decided (a) The prescription for legislative action in Art. I, § 1—requiring all legislative powers to be vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives—and § 7—requiring every bill passed by the House and Senate, before becoming law, to be presented to the president, and, if he disapproves, to be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House—represents the Framers' decision that the legislative power of the Federal Government be exercised in accord with a single, finely wrought and exhaustively considered procedure. This procedure is an integral part of the constitutional design for the separation of powers. Further rulings clarified the case; even both Houses acting together cannot override Executive vetos without a majority. Legislation may always prescribe regulations governing executive officers.\n", "BULLET::::1. The regulation must lie within a grant of power from Congress, and that delegation must in turn be constitutional (courts almost never invalidate a regulation on this ground). The power must be granted in the agency's organic statute, and extends so far as fairly inferrable from the statutory language. Statutory grants of authority to agencies are generally construed more strictly than the \"necessary and proper\" power of Congress granted in Article I, section 8, clause 18 of the Constitution.\n", "After passage by both houses, a bill is considered to be \"enrolled\" and is sent to the president for approval. The president may sign the bill and make it law. The President may also choose to veto the bill, returning it to Congress with his objections. In such a case, the bill only becomes law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Finally, the president may choose to take no action, neither signing nor vetoing the bill. In such a case, the Constitution states that the bill automatically becomes law after ten days, excluding Sundays, unless Congress is adjourned during this period. Therefore, the president may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and cannot be overridden by the adjourned Congress.\n", "The Executive Needs to Faithfully Observe and Respect Congressional Enactments of the Law Act of 2014 or the ENFORCE the Law Act of 2014 would authorize either chamber of Congress, upon adoption of a resolution declaring that the President of the United States or any officer or employee of the United States has established or implemented a policy, practice, or procedure to refrain from enforcing, applying, following, or administering any federal statute, rule, regulation, program, policy, or other law in violation of the constitutional requirement that the President faithfully execute the laws of the United States, to bring a civil action for a declaratory judgment to that effect.\n", "Section::::Legislative power.\n\nCongress has the sole power to legislate for the United States. Under the nondelegation doctrine, Congress may not delegate its lawmaking responsibilities to any other agency. In this vein, the Supreme Court held in the 1998 case \"Clinton v. City of New York\" that Congress could not delegate a \"line-item veto\" to the President, by powers vested in the government by the Constitution.\n", "Under the United States Constitution, if the President does not return a bill or resolution to Congress with objections before the time limit expires, then the bill automatically becomes an Act; however, if the Congress is adjourned at the end of this period, then the bill dies and cannot be reconsidered (see pocket veto). In addition, if the President rejects a bill or resolution while the Congress is in session, a two-thirds vote of both houses of the Congress is needed for reconsideration to be successful.\n", "While this investigatory function is indispensable to Congress, procedures such as the House discharge petition process (the process of bringing a bill onto the floor without a committee report or mandatory consent from its leadership) are so difficult to implement that committee jurisdiction over particular subject matter of bills has expanded into semi-autonomous power. Of the 73 discharge petitions submitted to the full House from 1995 through 2007, only one was successful in securing a definitive yea-or-nay vote for a bill on the floor of the House of Representatives. Not without reason have congressional committees been called independent fiefdoms.\n", "Oversight also derives from the many and varied express powers of the Congress in the Constitution. It is implied in the legislature's authority, among other powers and duties, to appropriate funds, enact laws, raise and support armies, provide for a Navy, declare war, and impeach and remove from office the President, Vice President, and other civil officers. Congress could not reasonably or responsibly exercise these powers without knowing what the executive was doing; how programs were being administered, by whom, and at what cost; and whether officials were obeying the law and complying with legislative intent.\n", "Acts of Congress are given the force of law, in one of the following ways: signed by the President of the United States; neither signed nor vetoed by the President within ten days from reception (excluding Sundays) while the Congress is in session; or, when both the Senate and the House of Representatives vote, by a two-thirds majority in each chamber, to override a presidential veto during its session. In United States administrative law, a federal regulation may be said to be formally promulgated when it appears in the \"Federal Register\" and after the public-comment period concludes.\n", "First, the president can sign the bill into law. In this scenario there is Congressional agreement. Second, if not in agreement, the president can veto the legislation by sending the bill back to Congress, within ten days of reception, unsigned and with a written statement of his objections. Third, the president can choose not to act at all on the bill, which can have one of two effects, depending on the circumstances. If Congress is in session, the bill automatically becomes law, without the president's signature, only with a two thirds majority of both houses. If, however, Congress adjourned during that 10-day period, the bill fails to become law in a procedural device known as the \"pocket veto\". The bill becomes \"mute\". \n", "Others argue that Article II of the Constitution requires the President to execute the law, such law being what the lawmaker (e.g. Congress, in the case of statutory contempt) says it is (per Article I). The Executive Branch cannot either define the meaning of the law (such powers of legislation being reserved to Congress) or interpret the law (such powers being reserved to the several Federal Courts). They argue that any attempt by the Executive to define or interpret the law would be a violation of the separation of powers; the Executive may only—and is obligated to—execute the law consistent with its definition and interpretation; and if the law specifies a duty on one of the President's subordinates, then the President must \"take care\" to see that the duty specified in the law is executed. To avoid or neglect the performance of this duty would not be faithful execution of the law, and would thus be a violation of the separation of powers, which the Congress and the Courts have several options to remedy.\n", "After passage by both houses, a bill is enrolled and sent to the president for approval. The president may sign it making it law or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress with the president's objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Finally, the president may do nothing—neither signing nor vetoing the bill—and then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period, presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and cannot be overridden by the adjourned Congress.\n", "The United Nations General Assembly has been described as a quasi-legislative body \n\nExcept where prohibited by statute or judicial precedent, quasi-legislative activity may be challenged in a court of law. Generally, a person challenging quasi-legislative activity must wait until the rule-making process is complete and the rule or regulation is set before challenging it. Moreover, a challenge to an agency's rule or regulation usually must be made first to the agency itself. If no satisfaction is received from the agency, the complainant can then challenge the rule or regulation in a court of law.\n", "Congress has the power to overturn an executive order by passing legislation that invalidates it. Congress can also refuse to provide funding necessary to carry out certain policy measures contained with the order or to legitimize policy mechanisms. In the case of the former, the president retains the power to veto such a decision; however, the Congress may override a veto with a two-thirds majority to end an executive order. It has been argued that a congressional override of an executive order is a nearly impossible event, due to the supermajority vote required and the fact that such a vote leaves individual lawmakers vulnerable to political criticism.\n", "A 1946 House of Representatives report discusses the 10-year period of \"painstaking and detailed study and drafting\" that went into the APA. Because of rapid growth in the administrative regulation of private conduct, Roosevelt ordered several studies of administrative methods and conduct during the early part of his four-term presidency. Based on one study, Roosevelt commented that the practice of creating administrative agencies with the authority to perform both legislative and judicial work \"threatens to develop a fourth branch of government for which there is no sanction in the Constitution.\"\n", "The president approves or rejects a bill in its entirety; he is not permitted to veto specific provisions. In 1996, Congress passed, and President Bill Clinton signed, the Line Item Veto Act of 1996, which gave the president the power to veto individual items of budgeted expenditures in appropriations bills. The Supreme Court subsequently declared the line-item veto unconstitutional as a violation of the Presentment Clause in \"Clinton v. City of New York\", . The Court construed the Constitution's silence on the subject of such unilateral presidential action as equivalent to \"an express prohibition,\" agreeing with historical material that supported the conclusion that statutes may only be enacted \"in accord with a single, finely wrought and exhaustively considered, procedure\", and that a bill must be approved or rejected by the president in its entirety. The Court reasoned that a line-item veto \"would authorize the President to create a different law--one whose text was not voted on by either House of Congress or presented to the President for signature,\" and therefore violates the federal legislative procedure prescribed in Article I, Section 7.\n", "Section::::Duties and influence.:Lawmaking process.:Committees.:Pocket veto and discharge petitions.\n\nAcross the country, pocket veto powers are not uncommon in state legislatures, which allows a committee to \"kill\" a bill, sometimes without even a public vote; in Colorado, the power was notably repealed in a citizen initiative constitutional amendment in 1988 driven by various reform groups.\n", "BULLET::::2. The regulation must lie within that grant of rulemaking authority (in the extreme case, Congress sometimes includes an explicit limit on the agency's authority). Some agencies have power to promulgate both substantive rules as well as procedural rules; some (like the IRS, EEOC, and Patent and Trademark Office) may promulgate only procedural rules. When Congress grants that authority retroactively, courts carefully scrutinize the case, and sometimes bless the regulation, and sometimes invalidate it.\n", "Passing legislation is no easy task. . . .Within that onerous process, there are additional practical hurdles. A law must be taken up for discussion and not passed over in favor of more pressing matters, and Senate rules require 60 votes to end debate on most legislation. And even if the House and Senate agree on a general policy, the details of the measure usually must be hammered out in a conference committee and repassed by both Houses.\n\nSection::::Commentary.\n", "Congress often enacts statutes that grant broad rulemaking authority to federal agencies. Often, Congress is simply too gridlocked to draft detailed statutes that explain how the agency should react to every possible situation, or Congress believes the agency's technical specialists are best equipped to deal with particular fact situations as they arise. Therefore, federal agencies are authorized to promulgate regulations. Under the principle of \"Chevron\" deference, regulations normally carry the force of law as long as they are based on a reasonable interpretation of the relevant statutes.\n", "On the other hand, a simple majority of the members of each house can choose to approve a vetoed bill precisely as the Legislature originally passed it, in which case it becomes a law over the governor's veto. This is in contrast to the practice in most states and the federal government, which require a two-thirds majority in both houses to override a governor's veto.\n", "Section::::Checks.:Legislative checks.\n\nThrough congressional acts, the legislative branch has the power to curb bureaucratic drift. Such regulation can take the form of statutory control or congressional oversight. Through statutory control, Congress aims to limit bureaucratic drift before it occurs by exerting influence over the organization of a bureaucracy. Congress exerts statutory control by specifying the bureaucracy's agenda, structure, time and fiscal constraints, and procedures while leaving little discretion to the bureaucracies. Oversight, on the other hand, occurs when Congress monitors the actions of bureaucracies and is used to check bureaucratic drift after agencies have acted on policies.\n", "For one, laws are intended to apply generally and it would be impossible for the legislature to foresee all the possible situations to which they might apply after their enactment. Second, the manner in which laws are passed, which includes the influence of lobbying and interest groups, can sometimes obscure their purpose when finally enacted. Finally, the two branches are not allowed to \"confer\" with one another. Neither is the legislature allowed to add to a law it has already passed in order to affect a court's ruling, nor are the courts allowed to \"inquire\" as to how a law should be applied in the cases before them.\n", "The Constitution entrusts certain powers to the Senate alone. The President may only nominate for appointment Cabinet officials, judges, and other high officers \"by and with the advice and consent\" of the Senate. The Senate confirms most presidential nominees, but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore, treaties negotiated by the President must be ratified by a two-thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect. As a result, presidential arm-twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for example, President Obama's secretary of state, Hillary Clinton, urged her former senate colleagues to approve a nuclear arms treaty with Russia in 2010. The House of Representatives has no formal role in either the ratification of treaties or the appointment of federal officials, other than in the office of Vice-President; a vote in each House is required to confirm a president's nomination for vice-president if a vacancy happens.\n", "BULLET::::- Executive Order 12,866, which requires agencies to use cost-benefit balancing in all regulatory actions\n\nSection::::Rulemaking.:Scope and extent of rulemaking power.\n\nLimits on the power of agencies to promulgate regulations include:\n" ]	[ "A bill that was passed overwhelmingly should always be enforced by the executive branch." ]	[ "The executive branch always has the right to not enforce a law at all, the president can also always veto a bill." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A bill that was passed overwhelmingly should always be enforced by the executive branch.", "A bill that was passed overwhelmingly should always be enforced by the executive branch." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The executive branch always has the right to not enforce a law at all, the president can also always veto a bill.", "The executive branch always has the right to not enforce a law at all, the president can also always veto a bill." ]
2018-01054	There are times when a one-way airplane ticket will cost 3 or 4 times as much than a return airplane ticket. What stops people from simply purchasing a return ticket and not returning?	Nothing. You can take advantage of this loophole. In addition, if you happen to know that a multi-stop flight that stops at your desired city costs less, then you can book it and simply not board the follow on plane. Both of these take a little homework, but I've done it before.	[ "Frequently, smart cards, as a convenience, allow the user to run a negative balance. If this balance is greater than the cost of the card, the user may profit by simply discarding the card and purchasing another.\n\nOne method is called scissoring, used for business air travel when return tickets are cheaper with a weekend between, assuming that tourists, not business people, travel like that. If two return journeys are done, A-B-B-A and once again a different week, two tickets can be purchased, A-B,B-A and B-A,A-B with weekends between in both tickets.\n", "In the case of a passenger that wants to stay at the destination for more than 365 days (12 months in one year) then a one-way ticket is advised by airlines and travel agents (as normal return tickets are valid for 12 months or 365 days).\n\nOne way tickets are more expensive (especially when the origin of travel is from one zone to another zone) but if within the same zone then it can be half of the return ticket price.\n", "One-way travel\n\nOne-way travel is travel paid for by a fare purchased for a seat on an aircraft, a train, a bus, or some other mode of travel without a return trip. One way tickets may be purchased for a variety of reasons, such as if one is planning to permanently relocate to the destination, is uncertain of one's return plans, has alternate arrangements for the return, or if the traveler is planning to return, but there is no need to pay the fare in advance.\n", "Passengers are entitled to pause and resume their journey at any point and any number of times unless the ticket's validity code specifically prohibits this. \n\nSection::::Misuse.\n\nOn routes where the chance of there being a ticket inspector is low, commuters have been known to buy one off-peak return in each direction and keep reusing the return portion until either the ticket gets inspected and stamped, or the month expires. The gradual introduction of ticket barriers across stations is removing this misuse as the ticket is retained by the barrier upon completing the journey. \n", "Section::::Countries with laws conferring a right of return.:Finland.\n", "An onward ticket can be required, based on the countries' entry requirements (which may or may not include the onward ticket). Many countries insist a flight ticket be held out from their country, which must be presented upon arrival at immigration. They set this requirement, so that if travellers run out of money, the country is certain that the traveller can depart. In the past, travellers would remain in a country supporting themselves by illicit employment. Without an onward ticket, a traveller may be refused entry to these countries and subsequently placed on the next plane for the destination from where he arrived. \n", "Another loophole is when tickets are cheaper when booked early. Business travellers often book late, but for bigger companies cheaper tickets could be booked early on frequent routes, and be given to travellers when needing them. Some people have bought early tickets for popular routes and sold them later over the net. This is avoided by airlines by requiring a correct name and claiming high fees for changing that name. This has affected tourists who have misspelt their names, or changed names by marriage.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Hong Kong.\n", "Within North America, the usefulness of this strategy has diminished materially, as most airlines have abandoned the discount for a Saturday-night stay-over for these types of trips. However, many intercontinental round-trip tickets still have minimum length of stay requirements. Back-to-back ticketing is useful with tickets when there is a minimum length of stay on the discount (e.g., 7 days), and the traveler needs to stay only in the destination for a shorter period of time.\n\nSection::::Legal status.\n", "In the United Kingdom, a cheap day return ticket is a reduced fare charged to passengers who make their outward and return trips on the same day, usually within specified hours of the day that do not coincide with peak travel periods, such as rush hour. On British Rail services, a cheap day return was valid for off-peak services, meaning, for instance, that London-bound trains which arrived in the capital after 10am were the earliest morning trains available to passengers holding a cheap day return ticket.\n", "As the name implies, the ticket is generally intended for use outside peak times. Typically train companies prevent use of this type of ticket during key commuting hours of weekday mornings and early evening, especially for services beginning or terminating in London, at which times higher fares may be charged. \n", "Travelling with these cards and tickets, one has to register starting a journey (\"check in\") and ending it (\"check out\") at the destination. One always has to travel away from the point of one's latest check-in. Thus, in the case of a voluntary detour, one has to check out and check in to register starting a new journey.\n", "Off-Peak Day Return ticket\n\nAn off-peak day return ticket is the name given to a cheap day return railway ticket (a substantially reduced two-way fare for off-peak travel) after pricing by time of travel was introduced on the British railway network in the 1960s.\n", "When one takes part in assisted voluntary return programs (AVR), the applicant is giving up their claim as a refugee or asylum-seeker. Many times this includes a five year travel ban restricting the individual from returning to the host country , similar to deportation. According to interviews with IOM workers and files on return migrants who took part in their program, it is not uncommon for return migrants to feel pressured into applying to AVR programs due to financial hardships, lack of employment, fear of deportation, etc. .\n\nSection::::Government policies and incentives.\n\nSection::::Government policies and incentives.:Europe.\n", "Travel tickets can be singles (SGL), the outward portion of a return (OUT) or the return portion of a return (RTN). Some tickets issued for special trains and charters were single-portion returns showing OUT&RTN, although ordinary tickets for scheduled services were never issued in this format. In the illustrated example, this is the journey back \"to\" Bradford-on-Avon. The distinction between the two portions of a return ticket is required because certain ticket types have different restrictions for the outward and return portions. For example, Savers allow a break of journey on the return portion, but not the outward portion; also the outward portion must be on the date shown, but the return portion can be on days within a month of the date shown.\n", "Malév Hungarian Airlines also accepted people holding SkyEurope tickets on their flights for a discounted price. Malév was offering one-way travel options to a total of 12 cities for all those who held a SkyEurope air ticket and were unable to board their flight because of the bankruptcy proceedings launched against the company. The one-way air tickets were priced from €49.\n", "The Foreign and Commonwealth Office state that on applying for an Emergency Travel Document \"You will be asked to provide an itinerary for your journey\". However 'providing an itinerary' is not the same as 'booking a ticket' and if a passport has been reported lost or stolen using LS01 the applicant will have completed a declaration \"I understand that completing and returning this form will result in the related passport being cancelled, that it may never be used again\" which would appear to indicate that the number of the lost/stolen passport cannot be used to book any tickets.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Back-to-back ticketing is a type of nested ticketing whereby a traveler tries to circumvent minimum stay requirements. For example, say a traveler wants to make two round trips midweek in two different weeks. At one time, airlines typically charged more for midweek round trips than for trips that involved a Saturday-night stay. The back-to-back ticketing ploy allows the traveler to book two round-trip tickets with Saturday stays even though the actual travel is all midweek. If a business traveler wanted to make two round trips from New York to Los Angeles in two consecutive weeks, instead of booking two round-trips in separate weeks in the following way:\n", "Even if the pilot does not manage to revert to the optimal route, the benefits of being allowed to fly may well outweigh the cost of the suboptimal route.\n\nSection::::VFR flights.\n", "Clause 17 of the National Rail Conditions of Carriage states that \"A return ticket (including a two-part return ticket) is only valid for the outward journey shown on that ticket if the ticket is completely unused. You may not use the outward part of a return ticket after you have used the return part.\" This is to prevent the 'reversing' of tickets where a cheaper ticket can be bought by travelling in the opposite direction (e.g. purchasing a return OUT of London, when actually travelling in to London).\n\nSection::::Features.:5: Status code.\n", "Those whose Global Entry applications are denied have three ways to appeal: making an appointment to speak with a supervisor at a trusted traveler enrollment center, e-mailing the Trusted Traveler Ombudsman, or filing a complaint through the Department of Homeland Security's Traveler Redress Inquiry Program.\n\nCBP claims that in less than one percent of cases in which Global Entry was granted, it will be revoked. In these situations, an explanation for the revocation is not necessarily supplied.\n\nSection::::TSA PreCheck.\n", "Most countries require that their citizens leave the country on a valid passport, travel document issued by an international organization or, in some cases, identification document. Conditions of issuance and the governments' authority to deny issuance of a passport vary from country to country.\n\nUnder certain circumstances, countries may issue travel documents (such as laissez-passer) to aliens, that is, to persons other than their own citizens.\n", "Using the hidden city tactic is usually practical only for one-way trips, as the airlines will cancel the subsequent parts of the trip once a traveler has disembarked. Thus, round-trip itineraries need to be created by piecing two one-way flights together. This tactic also requires that the traveler have carry-on luggage only, as any checked baggage items will be unloaded only at the flight's ticketed final destination. Exceptions to this requirement occur when re-entering a country where luggage must be processed by customs agents, when changing airports, or when train travel is involved in the flight ticket. This allows for a traveler to reclaim their luggage before checking in for their final destination, and therefore to simply leave the airport. Hidden-city ticketing carries the risk of the initial flight's being overbooked or cancelled, and the airline's transferring the passenger to a different route that bypasses the connection node.\n", "There are various recorded cases in ancient history where people who had been deported or uprooted from their city or homeland were allowed (or encouraged) to return, typically when the balance of military and political forces which caused their exile had changed. However, in these cases the exiled populations were granted the \"option\" to return, it was never recognized that they had an inherent \"right\" to return.\n", "The officer at a designated port of entry may discretionarily give people being turned back the option of \"voluntary return\" as an alternative to expedited removal. A voluntary return also goes on the person's immigration record, but has fewer serious legal consequences for attempted future entry than an order of removal.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n\nSection::::Procedure.:Order of expedited removal.\n", "\"Permits to travel\" bear the warning that they are not fare tickets and must be exchanged for one at the first opportunity. The record of the station of issue means that passengers who travel using it cannot claim that they just boarded the train (allowing them to travel on a cheaper fare) if they are not reached by a ticket inspector until a few stops after boarding. Permits to travel are in any case valid for only two hours from the time shown on them.\n" ]	[ "Something stops people from using this loophole to save money.,", "There is a rule or regulation in place that prevents people from buying a return ticket, and not returning to save money. " ]	[ "Nothing stops people from doing this. It is a valid way to save money. ", "There is nothing in place to stop one from never returning their return ticket." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Something stops people from using this loophole to save money.,", "There is a rule or regulation in place that prevents people from buying a return ticket, and not returning to save money. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Nothing stops people from doing this. It is a valid way to save money. ", "There is nothing in place to stop one from never returning their return ticket." ]
2018-20075	Why is abortion very taboo in certain countries despite the economic and health benefits?	Because the whole point of the abortion debate is at which point the embryo/fetus becomes a being whose rights are to be defended and has nothing to do with whatever economic benefits that may come from its practice.	[ "An additional factor is risk to maternal or fetal health, which was cited as the primary reason for abortion in over a third of cases in some countries and as a significant factor in only a single-digit percentage of abortions in other countries.\n", "South Africa allows abortion on demand under its Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act. Most African nations, however, have abortion bans except in cases where the woman's life or health is at risk. A number of abortion-rights international organizations have made altering abortion laws and expanding family planning services in sub-Saharan Africa and the developing world a top priority.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:Asia.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:Asia.:Japan.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Modern abortion law.\n\nCurrent laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural factors continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The right to life, the right to liberty, the right to security of person, and the right to reproductive health are major issues of human rights that sometimes constitute the basis for the existence or absence of abortion laws.\n", "In Europe, abortion law varies by country, and has been legalized through parliamentary acts in some countries, and constitutionally banned (or heavily restricted) in others. In Western Europe this has had the effect at once of both more closely regulating the use of abortion, and at the same time mediating and reducing the impact anti-abortion campaigns have had on the law.\n\nSection::::Movements by country.:Europe.:France.\n", "Societal attitudes towards abortion\n\nSocietal attitudes towards abortion have varied throughout different historical periods and cultures. One manner of assessing such attitudes in the modern era has been to conduct opinion polls to measure levels of public opinion on abortion.\n\nSection::::Attitudes by region.\n\nSection::::Attitudes by region.:Africa.\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa: A 2003 Human Sciences Research Council study examined moral attitudes among South Africans:\n\nBULLET::::- 56% said they believed that abortion is wrong even if there is a strong chance of serious defect in the fetus.\n", "abortion is allowed in most countries (97 percent) in order to save a woman's life. Other commonly-accepted reasons are preserving physical (68 percent) or mental health (65 percent). In about half of countries abortion is accepted in the case of rape or incest (51 percent), and in case of fetal impairment (50 percent). Performing an abortion because of economic or social reasons is accepted in 35 percent of countries. Performing abortion only on the basis of a woman's request is allowed in 30 percent of countries, including in the US, Canada, most European countries, and China, with 42 percent of the world's population living in such countries.\n", "Section::::National laws.:Countries with more restrictive laws.\n\nAccording to a report by Women on Waves, approximately 25% of the world's population lives in countries with \"highly restrictive abortion laws\" - that is, laws which either completely ban abortion, or allow it only to save the mother's life. This category of countries includes most countries in Latin America, most countries of MENA, approximately half of the countries of Africa, seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region, as well as one country (Malta) and the Northern Ireland region of the UK in Europe.\n", "Accesses to abortion is not only a question of legality, but also an issue of overcoming de \"facto barriers\", such as conscientious objections from medical stuff, high prices, lack of knowledge about the law, lack of access to medical care (especially in rural areas). The \"de facto\" inability of women to access abortion even in countries where it is legal is highly controversial because it results in a situation where women have rights only on paper not in practice; the UN in its 2017 resolution on \"Intensification of efforts to prevent and eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls: domestic violence\" urged states to guarantee access to \"safe abortion where such services are permitted by national law\".\n", "For many people, abortion is essentially a morality issue, concerning the commencement of human personhood, the rights of the fetus, and a woman's rights over her own body. The debate has become a political and legal issue in some countries with anti-abortion campaigners seeking to enact, maintain and expand anti-abortion laws, while abortion-rights campaigners seeking the repeal or easing of such laws while expanding access to abortion. Abortion laws vary considerably between jurisdictions, ranging from outright prohibition of the procedure to public funding of abortion. Availability of safe abortion also varies across the world.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "However, a thorough study of each one of them shows that the medical basis of these motives is very limited, and that in the cases where, in the absence of a therapeutic alternative, there remains a real risk for the life or health of the woman, these cases are in a strong and progressive downward trend.\n\nSection::::Pope Benedict XVI speech in Angola.\n", "Latin America has come to international attention due to its harsh anti-abortion laws. Latin America is home to some of the few countries of the world with a complete ban on abortion, without an exception for saving maternal life. In some of these countries, particularity in Central America, the enforcement of such laws is very aggressive: El Salvador and Nicaragua have drawn international attention for strong enforcement of their complete bans on abortion. In 2017, Chile relaxed its total ban, allowing abortion to be performed when the woman’s life is in danger, when a fetus is unviable, or in cases of rape.\n", "Also according to the WHO, the number of abortions worldwide is declining due to increased access to contraception. Almost two-thirds of the world's women currently reside in countries where abortion may be obtained on request for a broad range of social, economic, or personal reasons. Abortion laws vary widely by country. Three countries in Latin America (Dominican Republic, El Salvador, and Nicaragua) and two in Europe (Malta and the Holy See) have banned abortions entirely, but life-saving abortions are allowed in Malta in practice. South Korea also has this law, although it is currently under reconstruction after it was judged \"against the constitution\". This law may be permanently deleted if National Congress of South Korea cannot reconstruct the law until December 31st, 2020.\n", "On average, the incidence of abortion is similar in countries with restrictive abortion laws and those with more liberal access to abortion. However, restrictive abortion laws are associated with increases in the percentage of abortions performed unsafely. The unsafe abortion rate in developing countries is partly attributable to lack of access to modern contraceptives; according to the Guttmacher Institute, providing access to contraceptives would result in about 14.5 million fewer unsafe abortions and 38,000 fewer deaths from unsafe abortion annually worldwide.\n", "Abortion law\n\nAbortion law permits, prohibits, restricts, or otherwise regulates the availability of abortion. Abortion has been a controversial subject in many societies through history on religious, moral, ethical, practical, and political grounds. It has been banned frequently and otherwise limited by law. However, abortions continue to be common in many areas, even where they are illegal. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), abortion rates are similar in countries where the procedure is legal and in countries where it is not, due to unavailability of modern contraceptives in areas where abortion is illegal.\n", "The French campaign had its result in 1975 when the Health and Families Minister Simone Veil succeeded, in the face of sustained resistance from various quarters, in pushing through a comprehensive abortion reform law. The legal position remains more nuanced in Germany, where a qualified liberalization measure followed in 1976, but it was only in 1992 that the need to harmonize the legal position inherited from the previously separate Western and Eastern Germanys led to further relaxation of the relevant statutory restrictions.\n", "Despite a wide variation in the restrictions under which it is permitted, abortion is legal in most European countries. The exceptions are Malta, Northern Ireland, and the micro-states of Vatican City, San Marino, Liechtenstein and Andorra, where abortion is illegal or severely restricted. The other states with existent, but less severe restrictions are Poland and Monaco. All the remaining states make abortion legal on request or for social and economic reasons during the first trimester. When it comes to later-term abortions, there are very few with laws as liberal as those of the United States. Restrictions on abortion are most stringent in a few countries that are strongly observant of the Catholic religion.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2005, an ACNielsen poll found that 56% of Australians thought the current abortion laws, which generally allow abortion for the sake of life or health, were \"about right\", 16% want changes in law to make abortion \"more accessible\", and 17% want changes to make it \"less accessible.\"\n\nSection::::Attitudes by region.:South America.\n", "The number of abortions performed worldwide seems to have remained stable in recent years, with 41.6 million having been performed in 2003 and 43.8 million having been performed in 2008. The abortion rate worldwide was 28 per 1000 women, though it was 24 per 1000 women for developed countries and 29 per 1000 women for developing countries. The same 2012 study indicated that in 2008, the estimated abortion percentage of known pregnancies was at 21% worldwide, with 26% in developed countries and 20% in developing countries.\n", "Section::::Around the world.:North America.:United States.\n\nAbortion-rights advocacy in the United States is centered in the United States pro-choice movement.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:South America.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:South America.:Argentina.\n\nBecause Argentina is very restrictive against abortion, reliable reporting on abortion rates is unavailable. Argentina is a strongly Catholic country, and protesters seeking liberalized abortion in 2013 directed anger toward the Catholic Church. Argentina is the home of the anti-violence organization Ni una menos, which was formed in 2015 to protest the murder of Daiana García, which opposes the violation of a woman's right to choose the number and interval of pregnancies.\n", "Unsafe abortions are one of the leading causes of maternal death in the developing world. In many African countries, abortions are considered taboo. Women who get abortions often are associated with negative stereotypes due to cultural beliefs. Many of these cultural issues force women to seek abortions in unsafe ways. According to the Women's international Network News, these \"back-alley\" abortions are the cause of thousands of deaths every year.\n", "In countries where the dominant religion is Catholicism, abortions are higher per capita than the worldwide average, says the Alan Guttmacher Institute. The estimated number of abortions per year in Brazil is roughly 1 million to 2 million. Peru, another Catholic country, each year sees abortions initiated by 5% of women in their childbearing years, whereas 3% of such women have abortions in the U.S. Catholics for Choice reports that Italy—97% Catholic—is 74% in favor of using Mifepristone, an abortifacient. A majority of Catholics in Bolivia, Colombia and Mexico say that abortion should be allowed in at least some circumstances.\n", "BULLET::::- Brazil: A March 2007 Datafolha/\"Folha de Sao Paulo\" poll found that 65% believe that their country's current law — which allows abortion in cases of rape or endangerment to life — \"should not be modified\", 16% that it should be expanded \"to allow abortion in other cases\", 10% that abortion should be \"decriminalized\", and 5% were \"not sure\".\n", "Access to abortion in much of Europe depends not as much on the letter of the law, but on the prevailing social views which lead to the interpretation of the laws. In much of Europe, laws which allow a second-trimester abortion due to mental health concerns (when it is deemed that the woman's psychological health would suffer from the continuation of the pregnancy) have come to be interpreted very liberally, while in some areas it is difficult to have a legal abortion even in the early stages of pregnancy due to conscientious objection by doctors refusing to perform abortions against their personal moral or religious convictions.\n", "At various times abortion has been banned or restricted in countries around the world. Multiple scholars have noticed that in many cases, this has caused women to seek dangerous, illegal abortions underground or inspired trips abroad for \"reproductive tourism\". Half of the world's current deaths due to unsafe abortions occur in Asia.\n\nBut other authors have written that illegality has not always meant that abortions were unsafe. For example, in the U.S. in the 19th century early abortions under the hygienic conditions in which midwives usually worked were relatively safe.\n\nSection::::Abortion around the world.:China.\n", "In countries where abortion is illegal or restricted, it is common for women to travel to neighboring countries with more liberal laws. It was estimated in 2007 that over 6,000 Irish women travel to Britain to have abortions every year.\n\nSection::::National laws.:United States.\n" ]	[ "Abortions should not be taboo due to their economic and health benefits." ]	[ "The abortion debate has nothing to do with the economic benefits that may come from its practice." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Abortions should not be taboo due to their economic and health benefits." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The abortion debate has nothing to do with the economic benefits that may come from its practice." ]
2018-09217	why are Homo sapiens sapiens the only specie of human?	At various points in history, we did have multiple species of humans. They just got out-competed and went extinct. The most recent episode took place around 25,000 years ago. Neanderthal man was a human species which occupied Europe. Cro-magnon man (aka anatomically modern humans) occupied Africa. As long as both species lived on separate continents, there was no problem. It was easy for each species to breed in isolation and adapt to living in different environments. Eventually, however, Cro-magnon humans spread out of Africa and displaced the Neanderthal. We don’t really know why this happened. Climate change might have made the environment more favorable to Cro-magnon and less favorable to Neanderthal. Cro-magnon was probably also smarter and more adaptable than Neanderthal, so they were better able to compete and use technology to their advantage. Some have suggested that Cro-magnon may have brought African diseases that Neanderthal was vulnerable to. There is at least one anthropologist who thinks Cro-magnon had an advantage in hunting efficiency because he domesticated wolves while Neanderthal did not. It could have been any - or all - of these things. The jury is still out on whether Cro-magnon ever interbred with Neanderthal. Some people think evidence supports the idea. However, even if they did interbreed it was not widespread. The hybrid species may even have been sterile, like mules, and in any event their genetic line did not survive even in hybridized form.	[ "Division of Europeans and East Asians is of the order of 50,000 years, with repeated and significant admixture events throughout Eurasia during the Holocene.\n\nArchaic human species may have survived until the beginning of the Holocene (Red Deer Cave people), although they were mostly extinct or absorbed by the expanding \"H. sapiens\" populations by 40 kya (Neanderthal extinction).\n\nSection::::List of species.\n", "Several of the \"Homo\" lineages appear to have surviving progeny through introgression into other lines. An archaic lineage separating from the other human lineages 1.5 million years ago, perhaps \"H. erectus\", may have interbred into the Denisovans about 55,000 years ago, although \"H. erectus\" is generally regarded as being extinct by then. However, the thigh bone, dated at 14,000 years, found in a Maludong cave (Red Deer Cave people) strongly resembles very ancient species like early \"Homo erectus\" or the even more archaic lineage, \"Homo habilis\", which lived around 1.5 million year ago. There is evidence for introgression of \"H. Heidelbergensis\" into \"H. sapiens\". The genomes of non-sub-Saharan African humans show what appear to be numerous independent introgression events involving Neanderthal and in some cases also Denisovans around 45,000 years ago. Likewise the genetic structure of sub-Saharan Africans seems to be indicative of introgression from a distinct, as yet unidentified archaic human lineage such as \"H. heidelbergensis\".\n", "Section::::Genetic differences among modern humans.\n\n\"H. sapiens\" is thought to have emerged about 300,000 years ago. It dispersed throughout Africa, and after 70,000 years ago throughout Eurasia and Oceania.\n\nA 2009 study identified 14 \"ancestral population clusters\", the most remote being the San people of Southern Africa.\n\nWith their rapid expansion throughout different climate zones, and especially with the availability of new food sources with the domestication of cattle and the development of agriculture, human populations have been exposed to significant selective pressures since their dispersal. \n", "Most notable is the Southern Dispersal of \"H. sapiens\" around 60 kya, which led to the lasting peopling of Oceania and Eurasia by anatomically modern humans.\n\n\"H. sapiens\" interbred with archaic humans both in Africa and in Eurasia, in Eurasia notably with Neanderthals and Denisovans.\n\nAmong extant populations of \"Homo sapiens\", the deepest temporal division is found in the San people of Southern Africa, estimated at close to 130,000 years,\n\nor possibly more than 300,000 years ago.\n\nTemporal division among non-Africans is of the order of 60,000 years in the case of Australo-Melanesians.\n", "Following the peopling of Africa some 130,000 years ago, and the recent Out-of-Africa expansion some 70,000 to 50,000 years ago, some sub-populations of \"H. sapiens\" have been essentially isolated for tens of thousands of years prior to the early modern Age of Discovery. Combined with archaic admixture this has resulted in significant genetic variation, which in some instances has been shown to be the result of directional selection taking place over the past 15,000 years, i.e. significantly later than possible archaic admixture events.\n", "Since the beginning of the Holocene, it is likely that \"Homo sapiens\" (anatomically modern humans) has been the only extant species of \"Homo\".\n\nJohn Edward Gray (1825) was an early advocate of classifying taxa by designating tribes and families.\n", "\"Homo erectus\" is the most, or one of the most, long-lived species of \"Homo\", having existed well over one million years and perhaps over two million years;\n\nby contrast, \"Homo sapiens\" emerged about a quarter million years ago.\n\nIf considering \"Homo erectus\" in its strict sense (that is, as referring to only the Asian variety) no consensus has been reached as to whether it is ancestral to \"H. sapiens\" or any later human species.\n\nSection::::Descendants and subspecies.:\"Homo erectus\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis\" (0.37 Ma)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homo erectus erectus\" (Java Man, 1.6–0.5 Ma)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homo erectus ergaster\" (1.9–1.4 Ma)\n", "Both models show the Asian variety of \"Homo erectus\" going extinct recently. And both models indicate species admixture: early modern humans spread from Africa across different regions of the globe and interbred with earlier descendants of \"H. heidelbergensis / H. rhodesiensis\", namely the Neanderthals, Denisovans, as well as unknown archaic African hominins. \"See\" admixture; and \"see\" Neanderthal admixture theory.\n\nSection::::Habitat.\n", "Today, all humans belong to one population of \"Homo sapiens sapiens\", which is individed by species barrier. However, according to the \"Out of Africa\" model this is not the first species of hominids: the first species of genus \"Homo\", \"Homo habilis\", evolved in East Africa at least 2 Ma, and members of this species populated different parts of Africa in a relatively short time. \"Homo erectus\" evolved more than 1.8 Ma, and by 1.5 Ma had spread throughout the Old World.\n", "Stringer (\"see\" upper graph-model) depicts the presence of \"H. erectus\" as dominating the temporal and geographic development of human evolution; and as persisting broadly throughout Africa and Eurasia for nearly 2 million years, eventually evolving into \"H. heidelbergensis / H. rhodesiensis\", which in turn evolved into \"H. sapiens\". Reed, et al. shows \"Homo ergaster\" as the ancestor of \"Homo erectus\"; then it is \"ergaster\", or a variety of \"ergaster\", or perhaps a hybrid of \"ergaster\" and \"erectus\", which develops into species that evolve into archaic and then modern humans and then out of Africa.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.\n\nGenerally, modern humans are more lightly built (or more \"gracile\") than the more \"robust\" archaic humans. Nevertheless, contemporary humans exhibit high variability in many physiological traits, and may exhibit remarkable \"robustness\". There are still a number of physiological details which can be taken as reliably differentiating the physiology of Neanderthals vs. anatomically modern humans.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:Anatomical modernity.\n", "The genus \"Homo\" evolved and diverged from other hominins in Africa, after the human clade split from the chimpanzee lineage of the hominids (great apes) branch of the primates. Modern humans, defined as the species \"Homo sapiens\" or specifically to the single extant subspecies \"Homo sapiens sapiens\", proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 125,000–60,000 years ago, Australia around 40,000 years ago, the Americas around 15,000 years ago, and remote islands such as Hawaii, Easter Island, Madagascar, and New Zealand between the years 300 and 1280.\n\nSection::::History.:Evolution and range.:Evidence from molecular biology.\n", "\"H. sapiens\" dispersed from Africa in several waves, from possibly as early as 250,000 years ago, and certainly by 130,000 years ago, the so-called Southern Dispersal beginning about 70,000 years ago leading to the lasting colonisation of Eurasia and Oceania by 50,000 years ago.\n\nBoth in Africa and Eurasia, \"H. sapiens\" met with and interbred with archaic humans. Separate archaic (non-\"sapiens\") human species are thought to have survived until around 40,000 years ago (Neanderthal extinction), with possible late survival of hybrid species as late as 12,000 years ago (Red Deer Cave people).\n\nSection::::Names and taxonomy.\n", "As modern humans spread out from Africa, they encountered other hominins such as \"Homo neanderthalensis\" and the so-called Denisovans, who may have evolved from populations of \"Homo erectus\" that had left Africa around . The nature of interaction between early humans and these sister species has been a long-standing source of controversy, the question being whether humans replaced these earlier species or whether they were in fact similar enough to interbreed, in which case these earlier populations may have contributed genetic material to modern humans.\n", "There are a number of proposals of extinct varieties of \"Homo sapiens\" made in the 20th century. Many of the original proposals were not using explicit trinomial nomenclature, even though they are still cited as valid synonyms of \"H. sapiens\" by Wilson & Reeder (2005). These include: \"Homo grimaldii\" (Lapouge, 1906),\n\n\"Homo aurignacensis hauseri\" (Klaatsch & Hauser, 1910),\n\n\"Notanthropus eurafricanus\" (Sergi, 1911), \n\n\"Homo fossilis \"infrasp.\" proto-aethiopicus\" (Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 1915),\n\n\"Telanthropus capensis\" (Broom, 1917),\n\n\"Homo wadjakensis\" (Dubois, 1921), \n\n\"Homo sapiens cro-magnonensis, Homo sapiens grimaldiensis\" (Gregory, 1921),\n\n\"Homo drennani\" (Kleinschmidt, 1931),\n", "Recent human evolution\n\nRecent human evolution refers to evolutionary adaptation and selection and genetic drift within anatomically modern human populations, since their separation and dispersal in the Middle Paleolithic.\n\nFollowing the peopling of Africa some 130,000 years ago, and the recent Out-of-Africa expansion some 70,000 to 50,000 years ago, some sub-populations of \"H. sapiens\" have been essentially isolated for tens of thousands of years prior to the early modern Age of Discovery.\n", "Human\n\nHumans (\"Homo sapiens\") are the only extant members of the subtribe Hominina. Together with chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans, they are part of the family Hominidae (the great apes, or \"hominids\"). A terrestrial animal, humans are characterized by their erect posture and bipedal locomotion; high manual dexterity and heavy tool use compared to other animals; open-ended and complex language use compared to other animal communications; larger, more complex brains than other animals; and highly advanced and organized societies.\n", "DNA and anthropologic data consider modern humans (\"Homo sapiens sapiens\") a primate and the descendants of ape-like species. Species of the genus ‘Homo’ are all extinct except humans, which are thought to have evolved from australopithecine ancestors originating in East Africa. The development of the modern human has taken place over some 300,000 years and unique adaptations have resulted from ecological pressures that \"Homo Sapiens\" has faced. Due prominently to ecological and behavioral factors, the modern human muscular system differs greatly from that of our early primate ancestors. These adaptations and changes have allowed \"Homo sapiens\" to function as they do today.\n", "The \"gracile\" or lightly built skeleton of anatomically modern humans has been connected to a change in behavior, including increased cooperation and \"resource transport\".\n", "Both \"Homo erectus\" and \"Homo neanderthalensis\" became extinct by the end of the Paleolithic. Descended from \"Homo Sapiens\", the anatomically modern \"Homo sapiens sapiens\" emerged in eastern Africa BP, left Africa around 50,000 BP, and expanded throughout the planet. Multiple hominid groups coexisted for some time in certain locations. \"Homo neanderthalensis\" were still found in parts of Eurasia BP years, and engaged in an unknown degree of interbreeding with \"Homo sapiens sapiens\". DNA studies also suggest an unknown degree of interbreeding between \"Homo sapiens sapiens\" and \"Homo sapiens denisova\".\n", "\"Homo erectus\" appeared about two million years ago and, in several early migrations, it spread throughout Africa (where it is dubbed \"Homo ergaster\") and Eurasia.\n\nIt was likely the first human species to live in a hunter-gatherer society and to control fire.\n\nAn adaptive and successful species, \"Homo erectus\" persisted for more than a million years, and gradually diverged into new species by around 500,000 years ago.\n\n\"Homo sapiens\" (anatomically modern humans) emerged close to 300,000 to 200,000 years ago, most likely in Africa, and \"Homo neanderthalensis\" emerged at around the same time in Europe and Western Asia.\n", "Extinct species of the genus \"Homo\" include \"Homo erectus\", extant during roughly 1.9 to 0.4 million years ago, and a number of other species (by some authors considered subspecies of either \"H. sapiens\" or \"H. erectus\"). The age of speciation of \"H. sapiens\" out of ancestral \"H. erectus\" (or an intermediate species such as \"Homo antecessor\") is estimated to have been roughly 350,000 years ago. Sustained archaic admixture is known to have taken place both in Africa and (following the recent Out-Of-Africa expansion) in Eurasia, between about 100,000 and 30,000 years ago.\n", "Among extant populations, the Khoi-San (or \"Capoid\") hunters-gatherers of Southern Africa may represent the human population with the earliest possible divergence within the group \"Homo sapiens sapiens\". Their separation time has been estimated in a 2017 study to be as long as between 260,000 and 350,000 years ago, compatible with the estimated age of \"H. sapiens\". \"H. s. idaltu\", found at Middle Awash in Ethiopia, lived about 160,000 years ago, and \"H. sapiens\" lived at Omo Kibish in Ethiopia about 195,000 years ago. Fossil evidence for modern human presence in West Asia is ascertained for 177,000 years ago, and disputed fossil evidence suggests expansion as far as East Asia by 120,000 years ago.\n", "The genus \"Homo\" is placed in the tribe \"Hominini\" alongside \"Pan\" (chimpanzees). The two genera are estimated to have diverged over an extended time of hybridization spanning roughly 10 to 6 million years ago, with possible admixture as late as 4 million years ago. A subtribe of uncertain validity, grouping archaic \"pre-human\" or \"para-human\" species younger than the \"Homo\"-\"Pan\" split is \"Australopithecina\" (proposed in 1939).\n", "Nearly all modern non-African humans have 1% to 4% of their DNA derived from Neanderthal DNA, and this finding is consistent with recent studies indicating that the divergence of some human alleles dates to one Ma, although the interpretation of these studies has been questioned. Neanderthals and \"Homo sapiens\" could have co-existed in Europe for as long as 10,000 years, during which human populations exploded vastly outnumbering Neanderthals, possibly outcompeting them by sheer numerical strength.\n" ]	[ "Why Homo Sapiens are the only species of human is known. " ]	[ "Why Homo Sapiens are the only species of humans is not known. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Why Homo Sapiens are the only species of human is known. ", "Why Homo Sapiens are the only species of human is known. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Why Homo Sapiens are the only species of humans is not known. ", "Why Homo Sapiens are the only species of humans is not known. " ]
2018-11148	Why is the last percent when charging your device the one that takes the most time?	In general, for charging batteries like lithium ion cells, there is a maximum safe voltage that shouldn't be exceeded (keep in mind batteries can hold a ton of energy, and you don't want that released uncontrollably). This generally means that as the charging cycle comes to a conclusion, the voltage of the charging circuit increases to a constant level, and because the cell voltage increases after that, the current flowing into the battery tapers off.	[ "Pre-charging is commonly used in battery electric vehicle applications. The current to the motor is regulated by a \"controller\" that employs large capacitors in its input circuit. Such systems typically have \"contactors\" (a high-current relay) to disable the system during inactive periods and to act as an emergency disconnect should the motor current regulator fail in an active state. Without pre-charge the high voltage across the contactors and inrush current can cause a brief arc which will cause pitting of the contacts. Pre-charging the controller input capacitors (typically to 90 to 95 percent of applied battery voltage) eliminates the pitting problem. The current to maintain the charge is so low that some systems apply the pre-charge at all times other than when charging batteries, while more complex systems apply pre-charge as part of the starting sequence and will defer main contactor closure until the pre-charge voltage level is detected as sufficiently high.\n", "The objective of a pre-charge function is to limit the magnitude of the inrush current into capacitive loads during power-up. This may take several seconds depending on the system. In general, higher voltage systems benefit from longer pre-charge times during power-up.\n", "In cases where unlimited inrush current is large enough to trip the source circuit breaker, a slow precharge may even be required to avoid the nuisance trip.\n", "BULLET::::- Charging systems may attempt to gauge battery string capacity by measuring overall voltage. Due to the overall string voltage depletion due to the dead cells, the charging system may detect this as a state of discharge, and will continuously attempt to charge the series-parallel strings, which leads to continuous overcharging and damage to all the cells in the degraded series string containing the damaged battery.\n", "Often a timer charger and set of batteries could be bought as a bundle and the charger time was set to suit those batteries. If batteries of lower capacity were charged then they would be overcharged, and if batteries of higher capacity were charged they would be only partly charged. With the trend for battery technology to increase capacity year on year, an old timer charger would only partly charge the newer batteries.\n", "The charging time depends on the battery capacity and the charging power. In simple terms, the time rate of charge depends on the charging level used, and the charging level depends on the voltage handling of the batteries and charger electronics in the car. The US based SAE International defines Level 1 (household 120V AC) as the slowest, Level 2 (upgraded household 240 VAC) in the middle and Level 3 (super charging, 480V DC or higher) as the fastest. Level 3 charge time can be as fast as 30 minutes for an 80% charge, although there has been serious industry competition about whose standard should be widely adopted. Charge time can be calculated using the formula: \"Charging Time [h] = Battery Capacity [kWh] / Charging Power [kW]\"\n", "Client devices in wireless networks may have conflicting requirements for power consumption and communication throughput when in power-save mode. For example, laptop computers may require relatively high communication throughput and may have low sensitivity to power consumption. Therefore, a relatively low DTIM period, for example 1, may be suitable for these devices. Pocket devices, however, may require relatively low communication throughput and may be operated by batteries of relatively low capacity. Therefore, a higher DTIM period, for example 8, may be suitable for pocket devices. But some of these have a medium to high communication throughput, while still having small batteries, so would benefit from a medium DTIM period, such as 4.\n", "If a battery has been completely discharged (e.g. the car lights were left on overnight) and next is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, then during the short charging time it develops only a charge near the interface. The battery voltage may rise to be close to the charger voltage so that the charging current decreases significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte, leading to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start a car.\n", "Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a \"C\" rate of current. The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. For example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20 (or a \"20 hour\" rate), while typical charging and discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available capacity of electrochemical cells varies depending on the discharge rate. Some energy is lost in the internal resistance of cell components (plates, electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of discharge is limited by the speed at which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the relationship between time and discharge rate is described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain a usable terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much lower rate. Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or other stated time; cells for uninterruptible power supply systems may be rated at 15 minute discharge.\n", "When recharged, the old cells recharge more rapidly, leading to a rapid rise of voltage to near the fully charged state, but before the new cells with more capacity have fully recharged. The charge controller detects the high voltage of a nearly fully charged string and reduces current flow. The new cells with more capacity now charge very slowly, so slowly that the chemicals may begin to crystallize before reaching the fully charged state, reducing new cell capacity over several charge/discharge cycles until their capacity more closely matches the old cells in the series string.\n", "The functional requirement of the high voltage pre-charge circuit is to minimize the peak current out from the power source by slowing down the \"dV\"/\"dT\" of the input power voltage such that a new “pre-charge mode” is created. Of course the inductive loads on the distribution system must be switched off during the precharge mode. While pre-charging, the system voltage will rise slowly and controllably with power-up current never exceeding the maximum allowed. As the circuit voltage approaches near steady state, then the pre-charge function is complete. Normal operation of a pre-charge circuit is to terminate pre-charge mode when the circuit voltage is 90% or 95% of the operating voltage. Upon completion of pre-charging, the pre-charge resistance is switched out of the power supply circuit and returns to a low impedance power source for normal mode. The high voltage loads are then powered up sequentially.\n", "Since no measurement can be perfect, this method suffers from long-term drift and lack of a reference point: therefore, the SoC must be re-calibrated on a regular basis, such as by resetting the SoC to 100% when a charger determines that the battery is fully charged (using one of the other methods described here).\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Combined approaches.\n", "Per the base specification, any device attached to a \"standard downstream port\" (SDP) must initially be a low-power device, with high-power mode contingent on later USB configuration by the host. Charging ports, however, can immediately supply between 0.5 and 1.5 A of current. The charging port must not apply current limiting below 0.5 A, and must not shut down below 1.5 A or before the voltage drops to 2 V.\n", "The limit to device power draw is stated in terms of a \"unit load\", which is 100 mA or 150 mA for SuperSpeed devices. Low-power devices may draw at most 1 unit load, and all devices must act as low-power devices before they are configured. High-power devices draw at most 5 unit loads (900 mA) or 6 unit loads (1200 mA) for SuperSpeed devices. A high-powered device must be configured, and may only draw as much power as specified in its configuration. I.e., the maximum power may not be available.\n", "Looking at C2, just before Q2 turns on, the left terminal of C2 is at the base-emitter voltage of Q1 (V) and the right terminal is at \"V\" (\"\"V\"\" is used here instead of \"+\"V\"\" to ease notation). The voltage across C2 is \"V\" minus \"V\" . The moment after Q2 turns on, the right terminal of C2 is now at 0 V which drives the left terminal of C2 to 0 V minus (\"V\" - \"V\") or \"V\" - \"V\". From this instant in time, the left terminal of C2 must be charged back up to V. How long this takes is half our multivibrator switching time (the other half comes from C1). In the charging capacitor equation above, substituting:\n", "Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow \"dumb\" chargers without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating. Battery packs intended for rapid charging may include a temperature sensor that the charger uses to protect the pack; the sensor will have one or more additional electrical contacts.\n", "BULLET::::- Heating of the socket and cables following intensive use for several hours at or near the maximum power (which varies from 8 to 20 A depending on the country).\n\nBULLET::::- Fire or electric injury risks if the electrical installation is obsolete or if certain protective devices are absent.\n\nThe second limitation is related to the installation's power management.\n\nBULLET::::- As the charging socket shares a feeder from the switchboard with other sockets (no dedicated circuit) if the sum of consumptions exceeds the protection limit (in general 16 A), the circuit-breaker will trip, stopping the charging.\n", "Timer based chargers also had the drawback that charging batteries that were not fully discharged, even if those batteries were of the correct capacity for the particular timed charger, would result in over-charging.\n\nSection::::Type.:Trickle charger.\n", "BULLET::::2. \"Gate control slew rate\": In power gating, this is an important parameter that determines the power gating efficiency. When the slew rate is large, it takes more time to switch off and switch-on the circuit and hence can affect the power gating efficiency. Slew rate is controlled through buffering the gate control signal.\n", "Pre-charge\n\nPre-charge of the powerline voltages in a high voltage DC application is a preliminary mode which limits the inrush current during the power up procedure. \n", "More recently, it has been recognized that a major reason for loss of efficiency of the electrostatic precipitator is due to particle buildup on the charging wires in addition to the collection plates (Davidson and McKinney, 1998). This is easily remedied by making sure that the wires themselves are cleaned at the same time that the collecting plates are cleaned.\n", "Section::::Device applications.:Protection.\n\nOnly in some cases there is a built-in device protection in form for instance of a fusible in electrical devices (for instance in a halogen lamp to prevent damage from use of too high power bulbs) or in form for instance of a pressure relief valve in hydraulic devices (e.g. a pressure cooker); many others have no protection (most hair-dryers) and the user realizes that the duty short time is over after for example the overheating has already damaged the device.\n\nSection::::Device applications.:Standardisation.\n", "In order to prevent cell damage, fast chargers must terminate their charge cycle before overcharging occurs. One method is to monitor the change of voltage with time. When the battery is fully charged, the voltage across its terminals drops slightly. The charger can detect this and stop charging. This method is often used with nickel–cadmium cells, which display a large voltage drop at full charge. However, the voltage drop is much less pronounced for NiMH and can be non-existent at low charge rates, which can make the approach unreliable.\n", "Most energy production or storage devices have a complex relationship between the power they produce, the load placed on them, and the efficiency of the delivery. A conventional battery, for instance, stores energy in chemical reactions in its electrolytes and plates. These reactions take time to occur, which limits the rate at which the power can be efficiently drawn from the cell. For this reason, large batteries used for power storage generally list two or more capacities, normally the \"2 hour\" and \"20 hour\" rates, with the 2 hour rate often being around 50% of the 20 hour rate.\n", "Slow battery chargers may take several hours to complete a charge. High-rate chargers may restore most capacity much faster, but high rate chargers can be more than some battery types can tolerate. Such batteries require active monitoring of the battery to protect it from overcharging. Electric vehicles ideally need high-rate chargers. For public access, installation of such chargers and the distribution support for them is an issue in the proposed adoption of electric cars.\n\nSection::::C-rate.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09709	Why can people in some cultures survive the cold better than others?	Because your body adapte to the environment over time. Also you can train yourself to withstand certain temperatures, doesn't matter if extremely cold or hot. As long as you expose yourself to it for a long time your body will find a way too deal with it. I can only tell you the example of moist heat. I'm from Europe with moderate weather and dry hot summers. But my fiancee is from Singapore. When I am over at her place I immediately start to sweat because my body is used to do so in order to cool my body down. It would actually make sense, if it wasn't +80% humidity and sweating is good for nothing here. My fiancee and anyone else who grew up under this conditions is used to it. And the body is conditioned to not sweat. After 2 months here my body actually does react the same way. The other way around, she cannot produce her own body heat or only very very little. Last winter she was over at my place and we went for a walk during a light snow storm, it was about -5°C, I wrapped her up and me just went in a thick Pullover, sneakers and a beanie. While she already started shivering before we even left the building. It all comes down to what you are used to. And with enough time you can adapt to extreme weather conditions too.	[ "Population studies have shown that the San tribe of Southern Africa and the Sandawe of Eastern Africa have reduced shivering thermogenesis in the cold, and poor cold induced vasodilation in fingers and toes compared to that of Caucasians. This indicates the physiological adaptation of individuals that have left Africa for colder climates. During recent evolution (around 50,000 years ago), cold adaptation has selected for an increased metabolism and insulation (body fat). However, these traits cannot be effectively developed during a lifetime in cold conditions as selection takes place over many generations. Therefore, humans are forced to mainly rely on our behavioral and technological skills to live in and survive the cold . \n", "One example is the Chaamba Arabs, who live in the Sahara Desert. They wear clothing that traps air in between skin and the clothes, preventing the high ambient air temperature from reaching the skin.\n\nSection::::Genetic adaptations.\n\nThere has been very little research done in the genetics behind adaptations to heat and cold stress. Data suggests that certain parts of the human genome have only been selected for recently. Research on gene-culture interaction has been successful in linking agriculture and lactose tolerance. However, most evidence of links between culture and selection has not been proven.\n", "There is one part of the body fully equipped to deal with cold stress. The respiratory system protects itself against damage by warming the incoming air to 80-90 degrees Fahrenheit before it reaches the bronchi. This means that not even the most frigid of temperatures can damage the respiratory tract.\n\nIn both types of temperature related stress, it is important to remain well-hydrated. Hydration reduces cardiovascular strain, enhances the ability of energy processes to occur, and reduces feelings of exhaustion.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Humans.:Altitude.\n", "Cold and heat adaptations in humans\n\nCold and heat adaptations in humans are a part of the broad adaptability of \"Homo sapiens\". Adaptations in humans can be physiological, genetic, or cultural, which allow people to live in a wide variety of climates. There has been a great deal of research done on developmental adjustment, acclimatization, and cultural practices, but less research on genetic adaptations to cold and heat temperatures.\n", "BULLET::::- Respiratory changes due to extreme cold in the arctic environment P. Bandopadyay and W. Selvamurthy Int J Biometeorol, 37: 32–35, 1993\n\nBULLET::::- Responses of Arctic and Tropical men to a standard cold test and peripheral vascular responses to local cold stress at Arctic S. S. Purkayastha, G. Ilavazhagan, U. S. Ray and W. Selvamurthy Aviat Space Environ Med, 64(12): 1113–1119, 1993\n\nBULLET::::- Biomedical application of simulated environment W. Selvamurthy Def Sci J, 43(3): 253–258, 1993\n", "Social adaptations enabled early modern humans to occupy environments with temperatures that were drastically different from that of Africa. (Potts 1998). Culture enabled humans to expand their range to areas that would otherwise be uninhabitable.\n\nSection::::Culture.:Cold.\n\nHumans have been able to occupy areas of extreme cold through clothing, buildings, and manipulation of fire. Furnaces have further enabled the occupation of cold environments.\n", "Section::::Racial depiction.:Cold adaptation.\n\nAkazawa Takeru, an anthropology professor at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies in Kyoto, wrote that Mongoloid features are an adaptation to the cold of the Mammoth steppe. He mentions the Lewis waves of warm blood cyclical vasodilation and vasoconstriction of the peripheral capillaries in Mongoloids as an adaption to the cold. He lists the short limbs, short noses, flat faces, epicanthic fold and lower surface-to-mass ratio as further Mongoloid adaptations to cold.\n", "Humans living in the Arctic region generally rely on warm clothing and buildings to protect them from the elements. Acclimatization, or the adjustment to new conditions, appears to be the most common form of adaptation to cold environments. No genetic advantage has been found when different people groups or races are compared. There is no evidence that fat is grown in response to cold, although its presence is advantageous. Amazingly, most people living in the Arctic region live a lifestyle very connected to the environment, spending significant time outside and depending heavily on hunting and fishing.\n\nSection::::Adaptations to conditions.:Other animals.\n", "The Inuit have more blood flowing into their extremities, and at a hotter temperature, than people living in warmer climates. A 1960 study on the Alacaluf Indians shows that they have a resting metabolic rate 150 to 200 percent higher than the white controls used. Lapps do not have an increase in metabolic rate when sleeping, unlike non-acclimated people. Australian aborigines undergo a similar process, where the body cools but the metabolic rate does not increase.\n\nSection::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.:Heat.\n", "There are many factors which influence the strength of the response. People who live or regularly work in cold environments show an increased response. Through acclimatization tropical residents can develop an increased response which is indistinguishable from arctic residents. The role of genetic factors is not clear because it is difficult to differentiate between adaptation and acclimatization.\n", "It is possible to undergo physiological conditioning to reduce the cold shock response, and some people are naturally better suited to swimming in very cold water. Adaptations include the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. having an insulating layer of body fat covering the limbs and torso without being overweight;\n\nBULLET::::2. ability to experience immersion without involuntary physical shock or mental panic;\n\nBULLET::::3. ability to resist shivering;\n\nBULLET::::4. ability to raise metabolism (and, in some cases, increase blood temperature slightly above the normal level);\n\nBULLET::::5. a generalized delaying of metabolic shutdown (including slipping into unconsciousness) as central and peripheral body temperatures fall.\n", "Section::::Origin of cold and heat adaptations.\n\nModern humans emerged from Africa approximately 40,000 years ago during a period of unstable climate, leading to a variety of new traits among the population. Evidence suggests that modern culture may have originated then, too. When modern humans spread into Europe, they outcompeted Neanderthals. Researchers hypothesize that this suggests early modern humans were more evolutionarily fit to live in various climates. This is supported in the variability selection hypothesis proposed by Richard Potts, which says that human adaptability came from environmental change over the long term.\n\nSection::::Origin of cold and heat adaptations.:Ecogeographic rules.\n", "The exact cause of northern vigor is not known, but there are many theories. Some believe it has to do with the length of the days in northern latitudes, or that it has to do with the combination of cold nights and hot days. Others believe that the cold may kill off any disease that would otherwise affect plants from the south. Still others think that the switch from a colder climate to a warm, less harsh environment makes it easier for the plants to thrive. Researchers in Saskatchewan discovered that tubers raised in the cold and then moved to a warm environment undergo a series of physiological changes that may trigger more vigorous growth.\n", "Thermoregulation in humans\n\nAs in other mammals, thermoregulation in humans is an important aspect of homeostasis. In thermoregulation, body heat is generated mostly in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stress for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations.\n", "Freezing, heating above , drying or exposing \"A. caninum\" to sunlight all give reduced survival of the free-living stage, with rates of infection rising with temperature provided 37°C is not exceeded. \"A. caninum\" is, therefore, largely restricted to warm, moist climates, though infections are seen in the United States and southern Canada where the temperature is suboptimal. Specific niches are also able to satisfy the environmental requirements of \"A. caninum\", despite not necessarily being in the tropics, such as mines.\n\nSection::::Lifecycle.\n\nSection::::Lifecycle.:Transmission via the environment.\n", "Cold has numerous physiological and pathological effects on the human body, as well as on other organisms. Cold environments may promote certain psychological traits, as well as having direct effects on the ability to move. Shivering is one of the first physiological responses to cold. Extreme cold temperatures may lead to frostbite, sepsis, and hypothermia, which in turn may result in death.\n\nSection::::Notable cold locations and objects.\n", "Humans in Central Africa have been living in similar tropical climates for at least 40,000 years, which means that they have similar thermoregulatory systems.\n\nA study done on the Bantus of South Africa showed that Bantus have a lower sweat rate than that of acclimated and nonacclimated whites. A similar study done on Australian aborigines produced similar results, with aborigines having a much lower sweat rate than whites.\n\nSection::::Culture.\n", "Section::::Human aspects.\n\nSection::::Human aspects.:Demography, fauna and flora.\n\nThe vast majority of the world's human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The biggest described number in temperate region in the world is found in southern Africa, where some 24,000 taxa (species and infraspecific taxa) have been described, but the native fauna and flora of this region does not have much cultural importance for the majority of the human population of the world that lives in Temperate Zones and that live in the Northern Hemisphere, only environmental importance.\n\nSection::::Human aspects.:Agriculture.\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.\n\nWhen humans are exposed to certain climates for extended periods of time, physiological changes occur to help the individual adapt to hot or cold climates. This helps the body conserve energy.\n\nSection::::Physiological adaptations.:Acclimatization.:Cold.\n", "BULLET::::- Warmness brings about increase in exuberance and energy level which boost speech and body movements speed while coldness causes quite the reverse symptoms as people with cold Mizaj don't have much energy and are generally slow, they take their time speaking and acting.\n\nSection::::How to recognize one's temperament.:Mental trait.\n", "BULLET::::- People with dry Mizaj Have dry skin and people with wet Mizaj have soft and squishy skin. Having naturally high body temperature once someone touches people with warm Mizaj tells they are warm. People with cold Mizaj feel cold and run colder than the other people and once someone touches them can tell they are colder than normal.\n\nSection::::How to recognize one's temperament.:Activity.\n", "Humans adapted to heat early on. In Africa, the climate selected for traits that helped us stay cool. Also, we had physiological mechanisms that reduced the rate of metabolism and that modified the sensitivity of sweat glands to provide an adequate amount for cooldown without the individual becoming dehydrated . \n", "Farming is a large-scale practice in the temperate regions (except for Boreal/Subarctic regions) due to the plentiful rainfall and warm summers, because most agricultural activity occurs in the spring and summer, cold winters have a small effect on agricultural production. Extreme winters or summers have a huge impact on the productivity of agriculture.\n\nSection::::Human aspects.:Urbanization.\n", "BULLET::::- After long-term of Jjimjil, body fat percentage of old woman decreased, but in case of old man, there was no effective change.\n\nBULLET::::- Every age of human, the heat-resisting ability has been increased. (Good Effect)\n\nBULLET::::- But, the cold-resisting ability has been decreased. However, if we control the time, power, and the repetition well, especially when we rest in the ice room during Jjimjil. It can reduce the decrease of cold-resisting ability and even we can increase it.\n\nSection::::Food.\n\nBULLET::::- Iced Sikhye () is a sweet rice beverage.\n", "As in other mammals, thermoregulation is an important aspect of human homeostasis. Most body heat is generated in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stresses for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For example, one of the most common reactions to hot temperatures is heat exhaustion, which is an illness that could happen if one is exposed to high temperatures, resulting in some symptoms such as dizziness, fainting, or a rapid heartbeat. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations. The physiological control of the body’s core temperature takes place primarily through the hypothalamus, which assumes the role as the body’s “thermostat.” This organ possesses control mechanisms as well as key temperature sensors, which are connected to nerve cells called thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors come in two subcategories; ones that respond to cold temperatures and ones that respond to warm temperatures. Scattered throughout the body in both peripheral and central nervous systems, these nerve cells are sensitive to changes in temperature and are able to provide useful information to the hypothalamus through the process of negative feedback, thus maintaining a constant core temperature.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15061	How does breathing in and out slowly help to calm our nerves?	Firstly, possibly most importantly, it distracts and focuses the mind. Our minds are a bit like dogs, in that redirecting them distracts them. Secondly, it saturates the brain with oxygen, which is the opposite of what stress/distress does.	[ "Breathing techniques is one of the easiest ways to reduce stress. It requires little effort and can be done anywhere at any time. Proper breathing techniques that incorporate deep abdominal breathing have been shown to reduce the physical symptoms of depression, anxiety and hypertension as well as everyday emotional symptoms of anger and nervousness.\n", "The most important function of breathing is the supplying of oxygen to the body and the removal of its waste product of carbon dioxide. Under most conditions, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2), or concentration of carbon dioxide, controls the respiratory rate.\n", "Pranayama, or Yogic breath control, is very popular in traditional and modern forms of Yoga.\n\nSection::::The practice.:Scientifically demonstrated benefits.\n\nThe practice of focusing one's attention changes the brain in ways to improve that ability over time; the brain grows in response to meditation. Meditation can be thought of as mental training, similar to learning to ride a bike or play a piano.\n", "Ventilation is normally unconscious and automatic, but can be overridden by conscious alternative patterns. Thus the emotions can cause yawning, laughing, sighing (etc.), social communication causes speech, song and whistling, while entirely voluntary overrides are used to blow out candles, and breath holding (to swim, for instance, underwater). Hyperventilation may be entirely voluntary or in response to emotional agitation or anxiety, when it can cause the distressing hyperventilation syndrome. The voluntary control can also influence other functions such as the heart rate as in yoga practices and meditation.\n", "When you apply walking meditation this also increases Mindfulness. Which being more conscious of the present moment. Walking meditation is just one of the many different forms of meditation that increases mindfulness. It’s because you are focusing on your walking your breath and the sensations that are actively happening in your body. This helps steady the mind so we can see things more clearly. Some benefits of walking meditation are decreased depression, Increased Immune function, emotional reactivity,and decreased physical pain. When it comes to mindfulness it can be applied to any aspect of someone’s life and ultimately is a massive benefit. \n", "Preventive measures that can be taken to avoid sustaining a silent stroke are the same as for stroke. Smoking cessation is the most immediate step that can be taken, with the effective management of hypertension the major medically treatable factor.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Sickle cell anemia.\n", "Mindfulness and Awareness Trainings use conscious breathing for training awareness and body consciousness.\n\nVipassana Meditation focuses on breathing in and around the nose to calm the mind (anapanasati).\n\nSection::::Applications.:Psychology and psycho-therapy.\n\nAccelerating and deepening the breathing can be used to access suppressed nonverbal memories.\n\nRebirthing uses conscious breathing to purge repressed birth memories and traumatic childhood memories.\n\nHolotropic Breathing was developed by Stanislav Grof and uses deepened breathing to allow access to non-ordinary states of consciousness.\n", "Nigamananda taught that the breathing system is closely connected with the intricate workings of the mind. Therefore, practice of pranayama leads to calmer breathing and thereby maintains tranquility of mind. Mind is subjected to forces of disturbed thoughts owing to irregular breathing. He said\n", "Section::::Mindfulness of Breathing.\n", "To the young writers, she wrote, \"You must keep trying because it is as essential as drawing breath – like exhaling! All the thoughts breathed out and shaping themselves visibly after being inside the cells of the brain, and then released. If you hold your breath and do not breathe out, you will suffocate.\"\n", "It has been determined that rate of respiration is affected by the Cushing reflex, though the respiratory changes induced are still an area that needs more research. Some researchers have reported apnea, while others have reported increased respiratory rates. Other researchers have found that increases in respiratory rate follow ICP decreases, while others say it is a response to ICP increase. One must also take into account the use of anesthetics in early experimentation. Research was initially performed on animals or patients under anesthesia. The anesthesia used in experiments have led to respiratory depression, which might have had effect on the results. Early experiments also put animal subjects under artificial ventilation, only allowing for limited conclusions about respiration in the Cushing reflex. The use of anesthetics proposes ideas for future research, since the creation of the Cushing response has been difficult to create under basal conditions or without anesthesia.\n", "In some Japanese Zen meditation, the emphasis is upon maintaining \"\"strength in the abdominal area\"\" (dantian or \"tanden\") and slow deep breathing during the long outbreath, again to assist the attainment of a mental state of one-pointed concentration. There is also a \"bamboo method,\" during which time one inhales and exhales in punctuated bits, as if running one's hand along the stalk of a bamboo tree.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Palliative Medicine.\n\nSystemic immediate release opioids are beneficial in emergently reducing the symptom of shortness of breath due to both cancer and non cancer causes; long-acting/sustained-release opioids are also used to prevent/continue treatment of dyspnea in palliative setting. There is a lack of evidence to recommend midazolam, nebulised opioids, the use of gas mixtures, or cognitive-behavioral therapy.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "The respiratory centers try to maintain an arterial pressure of 40 mm Hg. With intentional hyperventilation, the content of arterial blood may be lowered to 10–20 mm Hg (the oxygen content of the blood is little affected), and the respiratory drive is diminished. This is why one can hold one's breath longer after hyperventilating than without hyperventilating. This carries the risk that unconsciousness may result before the need to breathe becomes overwhelming, which is why hyperventilation is particularly dangerous before free diving.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Arterial blood gas\n\nBULLET::::- Bosch reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Bottled gas\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon dioxide sensor\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon sequestration\n", "Mechanical stimulation of the lungs can trigger certain reflexes as discovered in animal studies. In humans, these seem to be more important in neonates and ventilated patients, but of little relevance in health. The tone of respiratory muscle is believed to be modulated by muscle spindles via a reflex arc involving the spinal cord.\n\nDrugs can greatly influence the rate of respiration. Opioids and anesthetics tend to depress ventilation, by decreasing the normal response to raised carbon dioxide levels in the arterial blood. Stimulants such as amphetamines can cause hyperventilation.\n", "In a normal resting state the work of breathing constitutes about 5% of the total body oxygen consumption. It can increase considerably due to illness or constraints on gas flow imposed by breathing apparatus, ambient pressure, or breathing gas composition.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of breathing.\n\nThe normal relaxed state of the lung and chest is partially empty. Further exhalation requires muscular work.\n", "The resulting arterial partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide are homeostatically controlled. A rise in the arterial partial pressure of CO and, to a lesser extent, a fall in the arterial partial pressure of O, will reflexly cause deeper and faster breathing till the blood gas tensions in the lungs, and therefore the arterial blood, return to normal. The converse happens when the carbon dioxide tension falls, or, again to a lesser extent, the oxygen tension rises: the rate and depth of breathing are reduced till blood gas normality is restored.\n", "The breathing reflex in the human body is weakly related to the amount of oxygen in the blood but strongly related to the amount of carbon dioxide (see Hypercapnia). During apnea, the oxygen in the body is used by the cells, and excreted as carbon dioxide. Thus, the level of oxygen in the blood decreases, and the level of carbon dioxide increases. Increasing carbon dioxide levels lead to a stronger and stronger breathing reflex, up to the \"breath-hold breakpoint\", at which the person can no longer voluntarily hold his or her breath. This typically occurs at an arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide of 55 mm Hg, but may differ significantly between people.\n", "Breathing fully is essential to feeling and being alive. Regulating the breath is also the first and most fundamental somatic pattern for coping with the Basic Fault. When an infant experiences the stress of a need not being met, it reduces its breathing to reduce the intensity of the stress it feels. Reduced breathing also makes it impossible to feel fully alive and present. We must breathe fully to experience our Core Self. In IBP, breathing fully is the most important tool for attaining and sustaining mental and physical health.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Sustaining constancy series.\n", "The brain controls the rate of breathing, mainly by respiratory centres in the medulla and pons. The respiratory centres control respiration, by generating motor signals that are passed down the spinal cord, along the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration. This is a mixed nerve that carries sensory information back to the centres. There are four respiratory centres, three with a more clearly defined function, and an apneustic centre with a less clear function. In the medulla a dorsal respiratory group causes the desire to breathe in and receives sensory information directly from the body. Also in the medulla, the ventral respiratory group influences breathing out during exertion. In the pons the pneumotaxic centre influences the duration of each breath, and the apneustic centre seems to have an influence on inhalation. The respiratory centres directly senses blood carbon dioxide and pH. Information about blood oxygen, carbon dioxide and pH levels are also sensed on the walls of arteries in the peripheral chemoreceptors of the aortic and carotid bodies. This information is passed via the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves to the respiratory centres. High carbon dioxide, an acidic pH, or low oxygen stimulate the respiratory centres. The desire to breathe in is also affected by pulmonary stretch receptors in the lungs which, when activated, prevent the lungs from overinflating by transmitting information to the respiratory centres via the vagus nerve.\n", "BULLET::::- One method is to sit in a straight-backed chair or sit cross-legged on the floor or a cushion, close one’s eyes and bring attention to either the sensations of breathing in the proximity of one’s nostrils or to the movements of the abdomen when breathing in and out. In this meditation practice, one does not try to control one’s breathing, but attempts to simply be aware of one’s natural breathing process/rhythm. When engaged in this practice, the mind will often run off to other thoughts and associations, and if this happens, one passively notices that the mind has wandered, and in an accepting, non-judgmental way, returns to focusing on breathing.\n", "The automatic rhythmical breathing in and out, can be interrupted by coughing, sneezing (forms of very forceful exhalation), by the expression of a wide range of emotions (laughing, sighing, crying out in pain, exasperated intakes of breath) and by such voluntary acts as speech, singing, whistling and the playing of wind instruments. All of these actions rely on the muscles described above, and their effects on the movement of air in and out of the lungs.\n", "The key to unlock and nurture Neijing is said to be the practice of ‘song’ (Traditional Chinese: 鬆 ). The term ‘song’ can function as a verb which means to keep one's mind and body loose resilient and expanding like the consistency of cotton or clouds or relaxed yet concentrated like the sharp alertness of cats immediately before attack. The term can also be used as an adjective which has the same meaning as described above. The greater the extent one can achieve ‘song’ and minimize the use of Li, the greater the release of Neijing force.\n", "In T'ai chi, aerobic exercise is combined with specific breathing exercises to strengthen the diaphragm muscles, improve posture and make better use of the body's Qi, (energy). Different forms of meditation, and yoga advocate various breathing methods. A form of Buddhist meditation called anapanasati meaning mindfulness of breath was first introduced by Buddha. Breathing disciplines are incorporated into meditation, certain forms of yoga such as pranayama, and the Buteyko method as a treatment for asthma and other conditions.\n\nIn music, some wind instrument players use a technique called circular breathing. Singers also rely on breath control.\n", "A stroke can be caused by a few different situations, but the basic result is the same. Blood flow to a section of the brain is stopped, which results in rapid depletion of oxygen and other nutrients in the starved section. The starved section of brain tissue quickly begins to die, and results in a lesion in the brain. The resulting lesion can be traced loss of various cognitive functions depending on the location and area of damage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21279	why do they say that more voting hurts Republicans?	Young, urban voters tend to vote on the left side of the spectrum when they choose to vote, however, they often do not	[ "She implies that this shift to a more purely performative, logistically cynical, media-narrative determined politics is a functionally emergent, if possibly only semi-consciously intentional strategy to mask the American voters disenfranchisement. As she mentions in the book's foreword, \"We'd reached the zero-sum point towards which the process had been moving, the moment in which the Republican's determination to maximize their traditional low-turnout advantage was perfectly matched by the determination of the Democratic Party to shed any association with its low-income base.\"\n", "The 2016 U.S. General Election saw political alienation as one of the forefronts of the campaign. Both Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton made appeals to the working class in Midwestern states by pointing out that they feel as if their votes don't matter and that they've been forgotten by past candidates. Both candidates did the same with Black and Latino voters in urban areas, voicing concerns with political alienation in the past.\n", "Clinton has criticized laws passed by Republican-controlled state legislatures that do not permit student IDs at polling places, place limits on early voting, and eliminate same-day voter registration. Clinton has said: \"Today Republicans are systematically and deliberately trying to stop millions of American citizens from voting. What part of democracy are they afraid of?\" Clinton alleged that Republican efforts to limit voter registration have a disproportionate impact on \"people of color, poor people and young people.\" In 2013, Clinton gave a speech to the American Bar Association, in which she \"slammed the Supreme Court's \"Shelby County\" ruling that year weakening the Voting Rights Act (VRA), called on Congress to fix the landmark law and urged the Obama administration to step up enforcement of voting rights cases.\"\n", "Matt Lewis has commented that, \"Democrats should fear Marco Rubio\", who Lewis saw as \"heralding a generational shift\" for Republicans. Rubio, along with Paul Ryan and his recent ascension to the House speakership, Lewis says, means \"both men will be attacked for their youth and energy\", adding: \"But it’s hard to look at this strong and diverse Republican bench, and not juxtapose it to the Democrats, whose party – now that Barack Obama is a lame duck – seems to be represented by a bunch of old white people, such as Hillary Clinton, 68, Bernie Sanders, the 74-year-old democratic socialist candidate, ...Nancy Pelosi, 75, and Harry Reid, 75... For Democrats, who were hoping they would get to deal with old pols like John Boehner and Jeb Bush...the world just got a little bit scarier\".\n", "Under the first 18 months of the administration, the DOJ \"launched no new efforts to roll back state restrictions on the ability to vote, and instead often sides with them\".\n", "The 2018 elections featured a wider range and larger number of campaign advertisements than past midterm elections. Almost a third of Republican ads focused on taxes, especially on the recently-enacted Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. By mid-October 2018, over 280,000 television advertisements related to immigration, costing some $124 million, had been aired in House, Senate and governor races, which represented a five-fold increase in spending on advertisements focused on immigration compared to the 2014 cycle. In October 2018, \"The New York Times\" and \"The Washington Post\" characterized Republicans' 2018 campaign messaging as being chiefly focused on fear-mongering about immigration and race. According to \"The Washington Post\", President Trump \"settled on a strategy of fearlaced with falsehoods and racially tinged rhetoricto help lift his party to victory in the coming midterms, part of a broader effort to energize Republican voters\". In November 2018, Facebook, NBC, and Fox News withdrew a controversial pro-Trump advertisement that focused on a migrant caravan; Facebook noted that the ad violated Facebook's rules concerning \"sensational content\".\n", "After the election, despite the Democratic takeover of the House, President Trump stated that he had won a \"big victory\". He indicated that he looked forward to \"a beautiful bipartisan-type situation,\" but promised to assume a \"warlike posture\" if House Democrats launched investigations into his administration. House minority leader Nancy Pelosi stated that her party won gains because of voter desire to \"[restore] the Constitution’s checks and balances to the Trump administration\". Senate minority leader Chuck Schumer stated that Senate Democrats performed \"much better than expected\" in a difficult election cycle. Senate majority leader Mitch McConnell stated that election day was \"a very good day\" for his party.\n", "According to the Brennan Center for Justice's 2013 Report \"Early Voting: What Works\", there are many benefits to early voting including shorter lines on election day, more access to voting and increased satisfaction of voters. In 2012 32% of voters voted early.\n", "According to the 2018 \"Varieties of Democracy\" Annual Democracy Report, there has been \"a significant democratic backsliding in the United States [since the Inauguration of Donald Trump]...attributable to weakening constraints on the executive\". Independent assessments by \"Freedom House\" and \"Bright Line Watch\" found a similar significant decline in overall democratic functioning.\n\nSection::::Historical evaluations and public opinion.:Historians and political scientists.:Historical rankings.\n", "It has been argued that democratic consolidation (the stabilization of new democracies) contributes to the decline in voter turnout. A 2017 study challenges this however.\n\nSection::::Trends of decreasing turnout since the 1980s.:Ineligibility.\n", "In 2017, Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovire Kaltwasser wrote that:\n", "During the June 27, 2019 Miami Democratic debate, Klobuchar warned, \"We let the Republicans run our elections, and if we do not do something about Russian interference in the election, and we let Mitch McConnell stop all the back-up paper ballots, then we are not going to get to do what we want to do.\"\n", "In September 2017, Delaney stated, \"Every minute the Democratic party is not putting forth kind of an exciting vision around jobs, pay, opportunity is a missed opportunity. For the Democrats to win, we just can't say over and over again how bad Trump is or how bad the Republican party is ... and we need to show people there's a better alternative.\"\n", "Virtually all restrictions on voting have in recent years been implemented by Republicans. Republicans, mainly at the state level, argue that the restrictions (such as purging voter rolls, limiting voting locations and prosecuting double voting) are vital to prevent voter fraud, claiming that voter fraud is an underestimated issue in elections. However, research has indicated that voter fraud is very uncommon, as civil and voting rights organizations often accuse Republicans of enacting restrictions to influence elections in the party's favor. Many laws or regulations restricting voting enacted by Republicans have been successfully challenged in court, with court rulings striking down such regulations and accusing Republicans of establishing them with partisan purpose.\n", "As part of the historically German-Catholic belt of southern Illinois, Monroe County was hostile to the “Yankee” Civil War and voted solidly Democratic until Theodore Roosevelt carried the county in 1904. Since that time, however, the county has become powerfully Republican, and the only Democrats to gain a majority since 1904 have been Catholic Al Smith in 1928, Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932 and 1936, and Lyndon Johnson in 1964. Since 1968, Monroe County has been carried by the Republican Presidential nominee in every election except when Bill Clinton gained a narrow plurality in 1992. Nonetheless, Hillary Clinton’s 2016 performance was the worst by a Democrat since John W. Davis in 1924, and the worst in a purely two-party contest since James M. Cox in the preceding election.\n", "Voter apathy has intensified along with the 2016 election, as citizens did not appreciate the political slander and denunciation of both candidates.\n\n\"The smaller the voter pool becomes, the more weight a single vote carries and the easier it becomes for an active, partisan minority to determine an election's outcome.\" There is generally an inverse relationship between level of government and turnout rates.\n\nSection::::Background.:Possible Solutions.\n\nEliminating voter registration, without having to register to vote, all would be able to vote automatically by being a citizen, which would include more people and make voting a more fair process.\n", "\"As is, we're getting a bad trade: Republicans may gain political benefit, but Democrats get the policy,\" Frum concluded. \"That was my warning in March 2010. This election does not discredit that warning. It confirms the warning.\"\n\nSection::::Since 2010.:Before 2012 presidential election.\n", "A 2012 analysis by Nate Silver found that voter ID laws seem to decrease turnout by between 0.8% and 2.4%, depending on how strict they are, and tend to cause a shift towards the Republican candidate of between 0.4% and 1.2%. Silver found that the statistical reasoning was flawed in a number of studies which had found small effects but had described them as not statistically significant.\n", "In an October 2010 essay, \"The Elections: How Bad for Democrats?\", Tomasky gives his \"own answer to the question of how things got this bad\", expounding a theme he had been developing for several years in other articles: Since the Reagan years, Republicans routinely speak in broad themes and tend to blur the details, while Democrats typically ignore broad themes and focus on details. Republicans, for example, speak constantly of \"liberty\" and \"freedom\" and couch practically all their initiatives—tax cuts, deregulation, and so forth—within these large categories. Democrats, on the other hand, talk more about specific programs and policies and steer clear of big themes...What Democrats have typically not done well since Reagan's time is connect their policies to their larger beliefs. In fact they have usually tried to hide those beliefs, or change the conversation when the subject arose. The result has been that for many years Republicans have been able to present their philosophy as somehow truly \"American\", while attacking the Democratic belief system as contrary to American values.\n", "There is no direct correlation between increased voter registration and higher voter turnout. The two have a relationship, especially since stricter registration rules in turn create a probability of restricting overall turnout rates. Although registration requirements have become more lenient over time, turnout continues to decline and stay comparatively low.\n\nSince 1976, voter turnout has stayed between an 8.5 percent range of fluctuation and has been on a historical downward trend, although it can differ among certain racial, ethnic, and age groups. Turnout has been lingering between 48% and 57% since 1980.\n", "The U.S.-based research group Freedom House, in reports in 2017 and 2019, identified democratic backsliding a variety of regions across the world, including for example Hungary and Poland in Europe, Turkey in the Middle East, Venezuela in Latin America and the United States in North America.\n", "In July 2018, Sessions argued that it was unnecessary to increase federal funding for election security. The US intelligence community had concluded that Russia interfered in the 2016 election and that it was continuing to interfere in election systems as of July 2018.\n\nSection::::Tenure.:Legislative strategy.\n", "Phillips wrote in defence of president-elect Donald Trump on 14 November 2016: \"Believing the smears they have created, the Trumpophobes then smear the public for voting for the man they have thus smeared. This, of course, is precisely why millions voted against the liberal establishment and for Trump, as well as for Brexit, in the first place\".\n", "I'm sick of politicians who drag their spouses up in front of the cameras rather than confronting the problem they caused.\n\nSection::::Political positions and actions.\n\nSouder has said that an actual voting record in Congress is more valuable than claimed positions on issues. His 1994 issues profile is available in the project archives.\n\nSection::::Political positions and actions.:Influence of religion.\n", "Section::::Political philosophy.:Scales and rankings.\n\nClinton's 2015 Crowdpac rating was −6.4 on a left-right scale, where −10 is the most liberal and 10 is the most conservative. The score is an aggregate of primarily campaign contributions but also votes and speeches. This represents a slight rightward shift from her 2008 rating of −6.9.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00145	Why is our bodies reacting like it is to drugs like heroin.	Everything you mentioned is an effect of the poverty, lack of hygiene, and malnutrition that result from a life centered around drugs at the expense of everything else. The extremely addictive qualities of drugs like heroin and meth drive addicts toward this lifestyle. The drugs themselves, however, don't do that to your body. One possible exception is that meth makes people grind their teeth, which accelerates tooth decay alongside poor dental hygiene.	[ "Unlike hydromorphone and oxymorphone, however, administered intravenously, heroin creates a larger histamine release, similar to morphine, resulting in the feeling of a greater subjective \"body high\" to some, but also instances of pruritus (itching) when they first start using.\n\nNormally GABA, released from inhibitory neurones, inhibits the release of dopamine. Opiates, like heroin and morphine, decrease the inhibitory activity of such neurones. This causes increased release of dopamine in the brain which is the reason for euphoric and rewarding effects of heroin.\n", "Ingestion does not produce a rush as forerunner to the high experienced with the use of heroin, which is most pronounced with intravenous use. While the onset of the rush induced by injection can occur in as little as a few seconds, the oral route of administration requires approximately half an hour before the high sets in. Thus, with both higher the dosage of heroin used and faster the route of administration used, the higher potential risk for psychological addiction.\n", "Repeated heroin use changes the physical structure and physiology of the brain, creating long-term imbalances in neuronal and hormonal systems that are not easily reversed. Studies have shown some deterioration of the brain's white matter due to heroin use, which may affect decision-making abilities, the ability to regulate behavior, and responses to stressful situations. Heroin also produces profound degrees of tolerance and physical dependence. Tolerance occurs when more and more of the drug is required to achieve the same effects. With physical dependence, the body adapts to the presence of the drug, and withdrawal symptoms occur if use is reduced abruptly.\n", "The withdrawal syndrome from heroin may begin within as little as two hours of discontinuation of the drug; however, this time frame can fluctuate with the degree of tolerance as well as the amount of the last consumed dose, and more typically begins within 6–24 hours after cessation. Symptoms may include sweating, malaise, anxiety, depression, akathisia, priapism, extra sensitivity of the genitals in females, general feeling of heaviness, excessive yawning or sneezing, rhinorrhea, insomnia, cold sweats, chills, severe muscle and bone aches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, watery eyes, fever, cramp-like pains, and involuntary spasms in the limbs (thought to be an origin of the term \"kicking the habit\").\n", "When taken orally, heroin undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism via deacetylation, making it a prodrug for the systemic delivery of morphine. When the drug is injected, however, it avoids this first-pass effect, very rapidly crossing the blood–brain barrier because of the presence of the acetyl groups, which render it much more fat soluble than morphine itself. Once in the brain, it then is deacetylated variously into the inactive 3-monoacetylmorphine and the active 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM), and then to morphine, which bind to μ-opioid receptors, resulting in the drug's euphoric, analgesic (pain relief), and anxiolytic (anti-anxiety) effects; heroin itself exhibits relatively low affinity for the μ receptor. Analgesia follows from the activation its G-protein coupled receptor, which indirectly hyperpolarize of the neurone, reduce the release of nociceptive neurotransmitters, and hence cause analgesia and increased pain tolerance.\n", "The onset of heroin's effects depends upon the route of administration. Studies have shown that the subjective pleasure of drug use (the reinforcing component of addiction) is proportional to the rate at which the blood level of the drug increases. Smoking is the fastest route of drug administration, although intravenous injection results in a quicker rise in blood concentration. These are followed by suppository (anal or vaginal insertion), insufflation (snorting), and ingestion (swallowing).\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Users report an intense rush, an acute transcendent state of euphoria, which occurs while diamorphine is being metabolized into 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) and morphine in the brain. Some believe that heroin produces more euphoria than other opioids; one possible explanation is the presence of 6-monoacetylmorphine, a metabolite unique to heroin – although a more likely explanation is the rapidity of onset. While other opioids of recreational use produce only morphine, heroin also leaves 6-MAM, also a psycho-active metabolite. However, this perception is not supported by the results of clinical studies comparing the physiological and subjective effects of injected heroin and morphine in individuals formerly addicted to opioids; these subjects showed no preference for one drug over the other. Equipotent injected doses had comparable action courses, with no difference in subjects' self-rated feelings of euphoria, ambition, nervousness, relaxation, drowsiness, or sleepiness. The rush is usually accompanied by a warm flushing of the skin, dry mouth, and a heavy feeling in the extremities. Nausea, vomiting, and severe itching may also occur. After the initial effects, users usually will be drowsy for several hours; mental function is clouded; heart function slows; and breathing is also severely slowed, sometimes enough to be life-threatening. Slowed breathing can also lead to coma and permanent brain damage.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:ADME.\n", "Common side effects include respiratory depression (decreased breathing), dry mouth, drowsiness, impaired mental function, constipation, and addiction. Side effects of use by injection can include abscesses, infected heart valves, blood-borne infections, and pneumonia. After a history of long-term use, opioid withdrawal symptoms can begin within hours of the last use. When given by injection into a vein, heroin has two to three times the effect of a similar dose of morphine. It typically comes as a white or brown powder.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Viral reactivation.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:T cell receptors.\n", "This effect of inducing LTP in VTA slices 24 hours after drug exposure has been shown using morphine, nicotine, ethanol, cocaine, and amphetamines. These drugs have very little in common except that they are all potentially addictive. This is evidence supporting a link between structural changes in the VTA and the development of addiction.\n\nChanges other than LTP have been observed in the VTA after treatment with drugs of abuse. For example, neuronal body size decreased in response to opiates.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "At the time during which heroin chic emerged, the popular image of heroin was changing for several reasons. The price of heroin had decreased, and its purity had increased dramatically. In the 1980s, the AIDS epidemic had made injecting heroin with unclean needles increasingly risky. Available heroin had become more pure, and snorting became a more common mode of heroin use. These changes decreased the stigma surrounding the drug, allowing heroin to find a new market among the middle-class and the wealthy, in contrast to its previous base of the poor and marginalized. Heroin infiltrated pop culture through attention brought to addictions in the early 1990s. In film, the heroin chic trend in fashion coincided with a string of movies in the mid‑1990s—such as \"The Basketball Diaries\", \"Trainspotting\", \"Kids\", \"Permanent Midnight\", and \"Pulp Fiction\"—that examined heroin use and drug culture.\n", "The symptoms of DRESS syndrome usually begin 2 to 6 weeks but uncommonly up to 8–16 weeks after exposure to an offending drug. Symptoms generally include fever, an often itchy rash which may be morbilliform or consist mainly of macules or plaques, facial edema (i.e. swelling, which is a hallmark of the disease), enlarged and sometimes painful lymph nodes, and other symptoms due to inflammation-based internal organ involvement, most commonly liver, less commonly kidney, lung, and heart, and rarely pancreas or other organs. laboratory findings include increased blood eosinophil and atypical lymphocyte counts, elevated blood markers for systemic inflammation (e.g. erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein), and evidence of internal organ involvement. Liver involvement is detected by measuring blood levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), a marker of hepatocyte injury, and alkaline phosphatase (ALP), a marker of bile duct injury, to define three types of injury: hepatocellular (elevated ALP, high ALT/ALP ratio), cholestatic (high ALP, low ALT/ALP ratio), and mixed (elevated ALT and ALP, ALT/ALP ratio between cutoff values for hepatocellular and bile duct injury). Renal involvement is more prone to occur in older individuals and in those with prior kidney or cardiovascular disease; it may take the form of severe interstitial nephritis, acute tubular necrosis, or vasculitis and may lead to renal failure and, uncommonly, be lethal. Lung involvement takes the form of interstitial pneumonitis, pleuritis, or the acute respiratory distress syndrome; minocycline and abacavir are the main culprit drugs causing severe lung involvement. However, lung involvement in this disorder typically resolves. Cardiac involvement usually presents with evidence of left ventricular dysfunction and ECG changes; it occurs more often in individuals taking minocycline, ampicillin, or sulfonamides, and is either a cardiac hypersensitivity reaction classified as an eosinophilic myocarditis which generally resolves or a far more serious acute necrotizing eosinophilic myocarditis which has a mortality rate of more than 50%. Neurological manifestations of the DRESS syndrome include headache seizure, coma, and motor dysfunction due to meningitis or encephalitis. Rare manifestations of the disorder include inflammation of the pancreas gastrointestinal tract, and spleen.\n", "BULLET::::- Drug sensitization occurs in drug addiction, and is defined as an increased effect of drug following repeated doses (the opposite of drug tolerance). Such sensitization involves changes in brain mesolimbic dopamine transmission, as well as a protein inside mesolimbic neurons called delta FosB. An associative process may contribute to addiction, for environmental stimuli associated with drug taking may increase craving. This process may increase the risk for relapse in addicts attempting to quit.\n", "Historically, Sydney has been the largest point of distribution for imported heroin, in particular, the suburbs of Kings Cross, Redfern and Cabramatta became hotspots for large open-air markets. However, throughout the drought, the expected patterns of heroin distribution changed. The market became more discrete, and there was a shift to deal more available drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine. This is also confirmed by a sharp drop in the number of arrests for heroin street dealers, which halved in 2001.\n", "Specific histo-pathological patterns of liver injury from drug-induced damage are discussed below.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Patterns of injury.:Zonal Necrosis.\n\nThis is the most common type of drug-induced liver cell necrosis where the injury is largely confined to a particular zone of the liver lobule. It may manifest as a very high level of ALT and severe disturbance of liver function leading to acute liver failure.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Patterns of injury.:Hepatitis.\n", "BULLET::::- Immune dysregulation, inflammation, and barrier dysfunction Studies on postinfectious IBS have shown that factors such as mucosal membrane permeability, the intestinal flora, and altered mucosal immune function. Ultimately leading to visceral hypersensitivity. Factors contributing to this occurrence include genetics, psychological stress, and altered receptor sensitivity at the gut mucosa and myenteric plexus, which are enabled by mucosal immune dysfunction.\n", "Use of heroin by mouth is less common than other methods of administration, mainly because there is little to no \"rush\", and the effects are less potent. Heroin is entirely converted to morphine by means of first-pass metabolism, resulting in deacetylation when ingested. Heroin's oral bioavailability is both dose-dependent (as is morphine's) and significantly higher than oral use of morphine itself, reaching up to 64.2% for high doses and 45.6% for low doses; opiate-naive users showed far less absorption of the drug at low doses, having bioavailabilities of only up to 22.9%. The maximum plasma concentration of morphine following oral administration of heroin was around twice as much as that of oral morphine.\n", "Injection, also known as \"slamming\", \"banging\", \"shooting up\", \"digging\" or \"mainlining\", is a popular method which carries relatively greater risks than other methods of administration. Heroin base (commonly found in Europe), when prepared for injection, will only dissolve in water when mixed with an acid (most commonly citric acid powder or lemon juice) and heated. Heroin in the east-coast United States is most commonly found in the hydrochloride salt form, requiring just water (and no heat) to dissolve. Users tend to initially inject in the easily accessible arm veins, but as these veins collapse over time, users resort to more dangerous areas of the body, such as the femoral vein in the groin. Users who have used this route of administration often develop a deep vein thrombosis. Intravenous users can use a various single dose range using a hypodermic needle. The dose of heroin used for recreational purposes is dependent on the frequency and level of use: thus a first-time user may use between 5 and 20 mg, while an established addict may require several hundred mg per day. As with the injection of any drug, if a group of users share a common needle without sterilization procedures, blood-borne diseases, such as HIV/AIDS or hepatitis, can be transmitted.\n", "Later that night, Tony and Jeanne realize that there is a security breach: Bernie and Nick have gone down to the morgue, intending to surgically remove the drugs. In attempt to intercept them, Jeanne and Tony are taken hostage, without weapons. Jeanne agrees to perform the procedure to retrieve the heroin and, after doing so, stabs him with the scalpel. This allows Tony to take Nick's gun and incapacitate him by shooting him in the shoulder.\n", "As a result of this, many other illicit drugs have risen and fallen in popularity to fill this void, with prescription temazepam, morphine, oxycodone, methamphetamine and cocaine all being used as a substitute. 2008 has seen a reversal of this trend, with the arrival of Afghan heroin being seen in Sydney for the first time ever. Although anecdotal evidence from illicit drug users reject the claim, some researchers assert that the potency of heroin has since been on the rise, and is nearly comparable to the purity of heroin prior to 2000.\n", "The nucleus accumbens (NAc) plays an essential part in the formation of addiction. Almost every drug with addictive potential induces the release of dopamine into the NAc. In contrast to the VTA, the NAc shows long-term structural changes. Drugs of abuse weaken the connections within the NAc after habitual use, as well as after use then withdrawal.\n\nSection::::Structural changes of learning.\n" ]	[ "Our bodies react to the drugs in bad ways.", "Our bodies react negatively to drugs." ]	[ "The detrimental health effects are caused by other issues like lack of hygiene, or malnutrition, not the drug itself. ", "Our bodies don't actually get affected directly by drugs, it is the choice that drug users make to forego basic needs like healthy food, hygiene, etc in order to afford more or have more time for drugs. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Our bodies react to the drugs in bad ways.", "Our bodies react negatively to drugs." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The detrimental health effects are caused by other issues like lack of hygiene, or malnutrition, not the drug itself. ", "Our bodies don't actually get affected directly by drugs, it is the choice that drug users make to forego basic needs like healthy food, hygiene, etc in order to afford more or have more time for drugs. " ]
2018-21920	What was the difference between the ideas of Nicola Tesla and Thomas Edison, and why did one succeed over the other?	Thomas Edison and Nicola Tesla were never in direct competition with one another, so there isn't really any way in which one could "succeed over the other." They were both very successful men who made important contributions to engineering. The "great Edison-Tesla war" only exists in fictional depictions in popular culture. Edison did have a business rivalry with the inventor George Westinghouse. Westinghouse is the one who competed with Edison over the means to distribute electricity. Edison favored "direct current" (DC) and Westinghouse favored "alternating current," (AC) and eventually AC was proven to be more practical, and everyone went that way. Tesla also favored AC and worked on it, but never owned an electric company himself. There is a myth that Edison invented DC and Tesla invented AC, but neither is true. In addition, Tesla spent a lot of the later parts of his career trying to develop long distance wireless electricity transmission, but he was never able to make it practical. (To this day, that still does not exist.)	[ "As mentioned above, Edison did not invent the electric light. However, he did leverage technology brokering in order to piece together many different existing technologies to make a better light bulb. As one could assume, Edison was highly appraised for his accomplishments. Many people today believe he was the first person to invent the electric light when truly he was great at leveraging technology brokering.\n\nSection::::Process model.\n\n• Step1: Access\n", "Tesla's background was in the new field of alternating current power systems, so he understood transformers and resonance. In 1888 he decided that high frequencies were the most promising field for research, and set up a laboratory at 33 South Fifth Avenue, New York for researching them, initially repeating Hertz's experiments.\n", "BULLET::::- Lewis Howard Latimer – hired 1884 as a draftsman, continued working for General Electric\n\nBULLET::::- John W. Lieb – worked at the Edison Machine Works in 1881\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas Commerford Martin – electrical engineer, worked at Menlo Park 1877–1879\n\nBULLET::::- George F. Morrison – started at Edison Lamp Works 1882\n\nBULLET::::- Edwin Stanton Porter – joined the Edison Manufacturing Company 1899\n\nBULLET::::- Frank J. Sprague – joined Menlo Park 1883, became known as the \"Father of Electric Traction\".\n\nBULLET::::- Nikola Tesla – electrical engineer and inventor, worked at the Edison Machine Works in 1884\n", "In an article written by Andrew Hargadon, he states, \"Between the years of 1876 to 1881, the lab (Menlo park) produced numerous innovations in high speed, automatic and repeating, telegraphs; telephones; phonographs; generators, voltmeters; light bulbs; and vacuum pumps.\" Edison’s first major financial success was the quadruplex telegraph. After creating the quadruplex Edison was unsure how to set the price. He originally thought his product could sell for somewhere between $4,000 and $5,000. After he pitched his product to Western Union, Edison was thrilled to see they offered him $10,000 for the telegraph. This financial success allowed Edison to be the founder of the first institution set up with the specific purpose of producing constant technological innovation and improvement, Menlo Park.\n", "In 1897, electric cars found their first commercial use in the US. Based on the design of the Electrobat II, a fleet of twelve hansom cabs and one brougham were used in New York City as part of a project funded in part by the Electric Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia. During the 20th century, the main manufacturers of electric vehicles in the US were Anthony Electric, Baker, Columbia, Anderson, Edison, Riker, Milburn, Bailey Electric and others. Unlike gasoline-powered vehicles, the electric ones were less noisy, and did not require gear changes.\n", "BULLET::::- Edisonade is a category of fantastic fiction with young inventors travelling to distant parts and having adventures. Not only did the genre use his name, but a number of Thomas/Tom Edisons appeared in the early adventures.\n\nBULLET::::- \"L'Ève Future\", an 1886 novel by Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam that popularized the term \"android\", portrays Edison creating what he argues is the perfect woman, the android Hadaly, in order to cure his friend Lord Ewald's infatuation with a singer named Alicia, who is represented as shallow and immoral.\n", "With the help of the financier Henry Villard the Edison group of companies also went through a series of mergers: \"Edison Lamp Company\", a lamp manufacturer in East Newark, New Jersey; \"Edison Machine Works\", a manufacturer of dynamos and large electric motors in Schenectady, New York; \"Bergmann & Company\", a manufacturer of electric lighting fixtures, sockets, and other electric lighting devices; and \"Edison Electric Light Company\", the patent-holding company and the financial arm backed by J.P. Morgan and the Vanderbilt family for Edison's lighting experiments, merged. The new company, \"Edison General Electric Company\", was formed in January 1889 with the help of Drexel, Morgan & Co. and Grosvenor Lowrey with Villard as president. It later included the Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company.\n", "In 1884, Edison manager Charles Batchelor, who had been overseeing the Paris installation, was brought back to the United States to manage the Edison Machine Works, a manufacturing division situated in New York City, and asked that Tesla be brought to the US as well. In June 1884, Tesla emigrated to the United States. He began working almost immediately at the Machine Works on Manhattan's Lower East Side, an overcrowded shop with a workforce of several hundred machinists, laborers, managing staff, and 20 \"field engineers\" struggling with the task of building the large electric utility in that city. As in Paris, Tesla was working on troubleshooting installations and improving generators. Historian W. Bernard Carlson notes Tesla may have met company founder Thomas Edison only a couple of times. One of those times was noted in Tesla's autobiography where, after staying up all night repairing the damaged dynamos on the ocean liner SS \"Oregon\", he ran into Batchelor and Edison, who made a quip about their \"Parisian\" being out all night. After Tesla told them he had been up all night fixing the \"Oregon\" Edison commented to Batchelor that \"this is a damned good man\". One of the projects given to Tesla was to develop an arc lamp-based street lighting system. Arc lighting was the most popular type of street lighting but it required high voltages and was incompatible with the Edison low-voltage incandescent system, causing the company to lose contracts in cities that wanted street lighting as well. Tesla's designs were never put into production, possibly because of technical improvements in incandescent street lighting or because of an installation deal that Edison cut with an arc lighting company.\n", "After 1890, Tesla experimented with transmitting power by inductive and capacitive coupling using high AC voltages generated with his Tesla coil. He attempted to develop a wireless lighting system based on near-field inductive and capacitive coupling and conducted a series of public demonstrations where he lit Geissler tubes and even incandescent light bulbs from across a stage. He would spend most of the decade working on variations of this new form of lighting with the help of various investors but none of the ventures succeeded in making a commercial product out of his findings.\n", "BULLET::::- William Symes Andrews – started at the Menlo Park machine shop 1879\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Batchelor – \"chief experimental assistant\"\n\nBULLET::::- John I. Beggs – manager of Edison Illuminating Company in New York, 1886\n\nBULLET::::- William Kennedy Dickson – joined Menlo Park in 1883, worked on the motion picture camera\n\nBULLET::::- Justus B. Entz – joined Edison Machine Works in 1887\n\nBULLET::::- Reginald Fessenden – worked at the Edison Machine Works in 1886\n\nBULLET::::- Henry Ford – engineer Edison Illuminating Company Detroit, Michigan, 1891–1899\n\nBULLET::::- William Joseph Hammer – started as laboratory assistant Menlo Park in 1879\n", "Thomas Edison, dubbed \"The Wizard of Menlo Park\", was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of mass production and large-scale teamwork to the process of invention in the late 1800s, and because of that, he is often credited with the creation of the first industrial research laboratory.\n\nSection::::Research institutes in early modern Europe.\n", "In 1882, Tivadar Puskás got Tesla another job in Paris with the Continental Edison Company. Tesla began working in what was then a brand new industry, installing indoor incandescent lighting citywide in the form of an electric power utility. The company had several subdivisions and Tesla worked at the Société Electrique Edison, the division in the Ivry-sur-Seine suburb of Paris in charge of installing the lighting system. There he gained a great deal of practical experience in electrical engineering. Management took notice of his advanced knowledge in engineering and physics and soon had him designing and building improved versions of generating dynamos and motors. They also sent him on to troubleshoot engineering problems at other Edison utilities being built around France and in Germany.\n", "BULLET::::- \"To Mars With Tesla; or, the Mystery of the Hidden World\" by J. Weldon Cobb (1901) featured \"Young Edison\", a fictional nephew of Thomas Edison, helping Nikola Tesla in his adventures with Martians.\n\nBULLET::::- In the cartoon series \"Clone High\", Thomas Edison's clone is shown as a short, sniveling nerd who seems to spend most of his time working with A.V equipment (a reference to the fact that Edison invented the projector).\n", "While in Paris, Charles Batchelor also recognized the skills of a young engineer named Nikola Tesla. In 1884 when Batchelor was brought back to the US to manage the Edison Machine Works, he asked that Tesla be brought to the US as well.\n", "In late 1886, Tesla met Alfred S. Brown, a Western Union superintendent, and New York attorney Charles F. Peck. The two men were experienced in setting up companies and promoting inventions and patents for financial gain. Based on Tesla's new ideas for electrical equipment, including a thermo-magnetic motor idea, they agreed to back the inventor financially and handle his patents. Together they formed the Tesla Electric Company in April 1887, with an agreement that profits from generated patents would go 1/3 to Tesla, 1/3 to Peck and Brown, and 1/3 to fund development. They set up a laboratory for Tesla at 89 Liberty Street in Manhattan, where he worked on improving and developing new types of electric motors, generators, and other devices.\n", "Tesla's demonstration of his induction motor and Westinghouse's subsequent licensing of the patent, both in 1888, came at the time of extreme competition between electric companies. The three big firms, Westinghouse, Edison, and Thomson-Houston, were trying to grow in a capital-intensive business while financially undercutting each other. There was even a \"War of Currents\" propaganda campaign going on with Edison Electric trying to claim their direct current system was better and safer than the Westinghouse alternating current system. Competing in this market meant Westinghouse would not have the cash or engineering resources to develop Tesla's motor and the related polyphase system right away.\n", "In 1823, Con Edison's earliest corporate predecessor, the New York Gas Light Company, was founded by a consortium of New York City investors. A year later, it was listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Due to the Board of Aldermen's authority to grant franchises in the City of New York in the early to mid 1800s, interaction with Tammany Hall was required to expand business. By William M. Tweed's reign in the late 1860s as the Boss of Tammany Hall, the power to authorize franchises lay with the County Board of Supervisors, of which Tweed had been a member. By 1871, Tweed was a member of the board of the Harlem Gas Light Company, a precursor to the Consolidated Edison Company. In 1884, six gas companies combined into the Consolidated Gas Company.\n", "Electricity would remain a novelty through the early to mid 19th century but advances in battery storage, generating, and lighting would turn it into a domestic business. By the late 1870s and early 1880 central generating plants supplying power to arc lamps, first in Europe and then in the US, began spreading rapidly, replacing oil and gas for outdoor lighting, systems that ran on very high voltage (3,000–6,000 volt) direct current or alternating current. In 1880, Thomas Edison developed and patented a system for indoor lighting that competed with gas lighting, based on a long-lasting high resistance incandescent light bulb that ran on relatively low voltage (110 volt) direct current. Commercializing this venture was a task far beyond what Edison's small laboratory could handle, requiring the setup of a large investor backed utility that involving companies that would manufacture the whole technological system upon which the \"light bulb\" would depend—generators (Edison Machine Company), cables (Edison Electric Tube Company), generating plants and electric service (Edison Electric Light Company), sockets, and bulbs.\n", "In 1870, commercial electricity production started with the coupling of the dynamo to the hydraulic turbine. In 1870, the mechanical production of electric power began the Second Industrial Revolution and created inventions using the energy, whose major contributors were Thomas Alva Edison and Nikola Tesla. Previously the only way to produce electricity was by chemical reactions or using battery cells, and the only practical use of electricity was for the telegraph.\n", "By 1890 the power industry had flourished and power companies had built thousands of power systems (both direct and alternating current) in the United States and Europe – these networks were effectively dedicated to providing electric lighting. During this time a fierce rivalry in the US known as the \"War of Currents\" emerged between Edison and Westinghouse over which form of transmission (direct or alternating current) was superior. In 1891, Westinghouse installed the first major power system that was designed to drive an electric motor and not just provide electric lighting. The installation powered a synchronous motor at Telluride, Colorado with the motor being started by a Tesla induction motor. On the other side of the Atlantic, Oskar von Miller built a 20 kV 176 km three-phase transmission line from Lauffen am Neckar to Frankfurt am Main for the Electrical Engineering Exhibition in Frankfurt. In 1895, after a protracted decision-making process, the Adams No. 1 generating station at Niagara Falls began transmitting three-phase alternating current power to Buffalo at 11 kV. Following completion of the Niagara Falls project, new power systems increasingly chose alternating current as opposed to direct current for electrical transmission.\n", "Section::::Edison's method.\n\nHistorian Thomas Hughes (1977) describes the features of Edison's method. In summary, they are:\n\nBULLET::::- Hughes says, \"In formulating problem-solving ideas, he was inventing; in developing inventions, his approach was akin to engineering; and in looking after financing and manufacturing and other post-invention and development activities, he was innovating.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Edison \"Adroitly chose\" problems that made use of what he already knew.\n\nBULLET::::- Edison's method was to invent systems rather than components of systems. Edison did not just invent a light bulb, he invented an economically viable system of lighting including its generators, cables, metering and so on.\n", "The first alternating-current commutatorless induction motor was invented by Galileo Ferraris in 1885. Ferraris was able to improve his first design by producing more advanced setups in 1886. In 1888, the \"Royal Academy of Science of Turin\" published Ferraris's research detailing the foundations of motor operation, while concluding at that time that \"the apparatus based on that principle could not be of any commercial importance as motor.\"\n", "One of the reasons Edison was so successful was his ability to surround himself with very knowledgeable people. Edison’s team came from all over the world and they were considered experts in various fields. Charles Batchelor, from England, was Edison’s chief mechanical assistant and helped Edison with many of his inventions. Edison also hired people from Germany, Switzerland, and a number of other European countries.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"A New System of Alternate Current Motors and Transformers\", AIEE Address, May 16, 1888\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Phenomena of Alternating Currents of Very High Frequency\", Electrical World, Feb. 21, 1891\n\nBULLET::::3. \"Experiments with Alternate Currents of Very High Frequency and Their Application to Methods of Artificial Illumination\", AIEE, Columbia College, N.Y., May 20, 1891\n\nBULLET::::4. \"Experiments with Alternate Currents of High Potential and High Frequency\", IEE Address, London, February 1892\n\nBULLET::::5. \"On Light and Other High Frequency Phenomena\", Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, February 1893, and National Electric Light Association, St. Louis, March 1893\n", "Electric battery-powered taxis became available at the end of the 19th century. In London, Walter C. Bersey designed a fleet of such cabs and introduced them to the streets of London in 1897. They were soon nicknamed \"Hummingbirds\" due to the idiosyncratic humming noise they made. In the same year in New York City, the Samuel's Electric Carriage and Wagon Company began running 12 electric hansom cabs. The company ran until 1898 with up to 62 cabs operating until it was reformed by its financiers to form the Electric Vehicle Company.\n" ]	[ "Either Nicola Tesla or Thomas Edison was more successful than the other." ]	[ "Neither could have succeeded over the other because they were never in direct competition with one another." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Either Nicola Tesla or Thomas Edison was more successful than the other." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Neither could have succeeded over the other because they were never in direct competition with one another." ]
2018-07066	Why Americans are so against the idea of national healthcare?	Heres the weird thing. Most polling show that Americans in general are in favor of a single payer system. Most polling shows Americans in favor of a socialized health care system bounces between the high 50% and low 60%. The reason that socialized health care hasnt taken place is due to two main factors. First is that insurance companies lobby a ton of money to keep the current system, because its very profitable. The second reason is deep seated cultural issues that the very vocal minority holds.	[ "A national system would not improve America's international competitiveness in industry.\n\nCosts of prescription drugs are comparable in national systems and in the US.\n\nSection::::Myths about government health care.:Public opinion.\n\nPublic opinion of national health care has decreased rapidly since its inception in various countries.\n\nSection::::Myths about government health care.:Reform.\n\nLarge organizations such as car manufacturers, cities, or states do not need federal action to implement single payer systems.\n\nSection::::Proposed reforms for the American health care system.\n", "In the political philosophy of healthcare, the debate between universal healthcare and private healthcare is particularly contentious in the United States. In the 1960s, there was a plethora of public initiatives by the federal government to consolidate and modernize the U.S. healthcare system. With Lyndon Johnson's Great Society, the U.S. established public health insurance for both senior citizens and the underprivileged. Known as Medicare and Medicaid, these two healthcare programs granted certain groups of Americans access to adequate healthcare services. Although these healthcare programs were a giant step in the direction of socialized medicine, many people think that the U.S. needs to do more for its citizenry with respect to healthcare coverage. Opponents of universal healthcare see it as an erosion of the high quality of care that already exists in the United States.\n", "Dodge had invented what is now called an “escape fire,” and soon after it became standard practice. As Berwick says in the film, “We’re in Mann Gulch. Healthcare, it’s in really bad trouble. The answer is among us. Can we please stop and think and make sense of the situation and get our way out of it?”\n\nSection::::Outreach and impact.\n", "A 2001 article in the public health journal \"Health Affairs\" studied fifty years of American public opinion of various health care plans and concluded that, while there appears to be general support of a \"national health care plan,\" poll respondents \"remain satisfied with their current medical arrangements, do not trust the federal government to do what is right, and do not favor a single-payer type of national health plan.\"\n", "Prohibitively high cost is the primary reason Americans give for problems accessing health care. At over 27 million, higher than the entire population of Australia, the number of people without health insurance coverage in the United States is one of the primary concerns raised by advocates of health care reform. Lack of health insurance is associated with increased mortality, in the range 30-90 thousand deaths per year, depending on the study.\n", "They explain how the suppression of normal market forces, in conjunction with the first two facts, has created the problems currently faced with health care in the United States and abroad.\n\nSection::::Introduction.:Problems with national systems.\n\nThe authors examine whether countries other than the United States have been able to solve the problems listed above. Since the stated goals of national health insurance are often to make health care available based on need rather than ability to pay, they state that\n\nBULLET::::1. national health care systems lead to rationing in the form of waiting lists\n", "There is significant debate regarding the quality of the U.S. healthcare system relative to those of other countries. Physicians for a National Health Program, a political advocacy group, has claimed that a free market solution to healthcare provides a lower quality of care, with higher mortality rates, than publicly funded systems. The quality of health maintenance organizations and managed care have also been criticized by this same group.\n", "Prohibitively high cost is the primary reason Americans have problems accessing health care. Consulting company Gallup recorded that the uninsured rate among U.S. adults was 11.9% for the first quarter of 2015, continuing the decline of the uninsured rate outset by the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA). At over 27 million, the number of people without health insurance coverage in the United States is one of the primary concerns raised by advocates of health care reform. Lack of health insurance is associated with increased mortality, about sixty thousand preventable deaths per year, depending on the study. A study done at Harvard Medical School with Cambridge Health Alliance showed that nearly 45,000 annual deaths are associated with a lack of patient health insurance. The study also found that uninsured, working Americans have an approximately 40% higher mortality risk compared to privately insured working Americans.\n", "Some critics of the bills passed in 2009 call them a \"government take over of health care.\" FactCheck called the phrase an unjustified \"mantra.\" (Factcheck has also criticized a number of other assertions made during 2009 by advocates on both sides of the debate). CBS News described it as a myth \"mixed in with some real causes for concern.\" President Obama disputes the notion of a government takeover and says he no more wants government bureaucrats meddling than he wants insurance company bureaucrats doing so. Other sources contend the bills do amount to either a government takeover or a corporate takeover, or both. This debate occurs in the context of a \"revolution...transforming how medical care is delivered:\" from 2002 to 2008, the percentage of medical practices owned by doctors fell from more than 70% to below 50%; in contrast to the traditional practice in which most doctors cared for patients in small, privately owned clinics, by 2008 most doctors had become employees of hospitals, nearly all of which are owned by corporations or government.\n", "BULLET::::- Nicholas Laham: \"Why the United States lacks a national health insurance program\", Westport, Conn. [u.a.] : Greenwood Press, 1993\n\nBULLET::::- Barona, B., Plaza, B., and Hearst, N. (2001) Managed Competition for the poor or poorly managed: Lessons from the Colombian health reform experience. Oxford University Press \n\nBULLET::::- Ronald L. Numbers (ed.): \"Compulsory Health Insurance: The Continuing American Debate\", Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press, 1982.\n\nBULLET::::- Saltman, R.B., Busse, R. and Figueras, J. (2004) \"Social health insurance systems in western Europe\", Berkshire/New York: Open University Press/McGraw-Hill.\n", "The book claims that national health care systems make treatment available on the basis of need rather than ability to pay is also discussed as a myth. While British NHS gives preferential treatment to paying customers, such as foreigners, many Britons opt to pay out of pocket for private services in order to avoid waiting for public health care.\n\nSection::::Myths about government health care.:Quality of health care.\n", "Public opinion polls have shown a majority of the public supports various levels of government involvement in health care in the United States, with stated preferences depending on how the question is asked. Polls from Harvard University in 1988, the Los Angeles Times in 1990, and the Wall Street Journal in 1991 all showed strong support for a health care system compared to the system in Canada. More recently, however, polling support has declined for that sort of health care system, with a 2007 Yahoo/AP poll showing 54% of respondents considered themselves supporters of \"single-payer health care,\" a majority in favor of a number of reforms according to a joint poll with the \"Los Angeles Times\" and \"Bloomberg\", and a plurality of respondents in a 2009 poll for Time Magazine showed support for \"a national single-payer plan similar to Medicare for all.\" Polls by Rasmussen Reports in 2011 and 2012 showed pluralities opposed to single-payer health care. Many other polls show support for various levels of government involvement in health care, including polls from \"New York Times\"/CBS News and \"Washington Post\"/ABC News, showing favorability for a form of national health insurance. The Kaiser Family Foundation showed 58% in favor of a national health plan such as Medicare-for-all in 2009, with support around the same level from 2017 to April 2019, when 56% said they supported it. A Quinnipiac poll in three states in 2008 found majority support for the government ensuring \"that everyone in the United States has adequate health-care\" among likely Democratic primary voters.\n", "The authors state that the goal of the book is to dispel myths about health care as delivered in countries with national health insurance. Further, they desired to explain why the American system is bad, why the nationalized systems are worse, and how to reform the American system without making the same mistake made by many other countries.\n\nSection::::Myths about government health care.\n\nSection::::Myths about government health care.:Right to health care.\n", "In 2009, the U.S. had the highest health care costs relative to the size of the economy (GDP) in the world, with an estimated 50.2 million citizens (approximately 16% of the September 2011 estimated population of 312 million) without insurance coverage. Some critics of reform counter that almost four out of ten of these uninsured come from a household with over $50,000 income per year, and thus might be uninsured voluntarily, or opting to pay for health care services on a \"pay-as-you-go\" basis.\n", "Journalist Bill Moyers reported that PBS had obtained a copy of the \"game plan\" that was adopted by the industry's trade association, America's Health Insurance Plans which spelled out the industry strategies to \"highlight horror stories of government-run systems\". Potter explained, \"The industry has always tried to make Americans think that government-run systems are the worst thing that could possibly happen to them, that even if you consider that, you're heading down on the slippery slope towards socialism. So they have used scare tactics for years and years and years, to keep that from happening. If there were a broader program like our Medicare program now, it could potentially reduce the profits of these big companies. So that is their biggest concern.\"\n", "Physicians for a National Health Program, the American Medical Student Association, Healthcare-NOW!, and the California Nurses Association are among advocacy groups that have called for the introduction of a single-payer healthcare program in the United States.\n\nA 2007 study published in the \"Annals of Internal Medicine\" found that 59% of physicians \"supported legislation to establish national health insurance\" while 9% were neutral on the topic, and 32% opposed it.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- All-payer rate setting\n\nBULLET::::- Health care reform debate in the United States\n", "Health-care coverage in the United States is a combination of public and private efforts and is not universal. In 2017, 12.2% of the population did not carry health insurance. The subject of uninsured and underinsured Americans is a major political issue. In 2006, Massachusetts became the first state to mandate universal health insurance. Federal legislation passed in early 2010 would ostensibly create a near-universal health insurance system around the country by 2014, though the bill and its ultimate effect are issues of controversy.\n\nSection::::Demographics.:Education.\n", "Another issue in the rights debate is governments' use of legislation to control competition among private medical insurance providers against national social insurance systems, such as the case in Canada's national health insurance program. Laissez-faire supporters argue that this erodes the cost-effectiveness of the health system, as even those who can afford to pay for private healthcare services drain resources from the public system. The issue here is whether investor-owned medical insurance companies or health maintenance organizations are in a better position to act in the best interests of their customers compared to government regulation and oversight. Another claim in the United States perceives government over-regulation of the healthcare and insurance industries as the effective end of charitable home visits from doctors among the poor and elderly.\n", "Advocates argue that preventive healthcare expenditures can save several hundreds of billions of dollars per year because publicly funded universal healthcare would benefit employers and consumers, that employers would benefit from a bigger pool of potential customers and that employers would likely pay less, would be spared administrative costs, and inequities between employers would be reduced. Prohibitively high cost is the primary reason Americans give for problems accessing health care. At over 27 million, the number of people without health insurance coverage in the United States is one of the primary concerns raised by advocates of health care reform. Lack of health insurance is associated with increased mortality, about sixty thousand preventable deaths per year, depending on the study. A study done at Harvard Medical School with Cambridge Health Alliance showed that nearly 45,000 annual deaths are associated with a lack of patient health insurance. The study also found that uninsured, working Americans have a risk of death about 40% higher compared to privately insured working Americans.\n", "Since the film’s Sundance premiere in January 2012, \"Escape Fire\" has been at the center of an outreach campaign to engage general, educational, professional and institutional audiences interested in changing health and healthcare at the individual, community and national level. The \"Escape Fire\" website, provides consumer and educational tools for the outreach and engagement campaign. It includes a virtual First Aid Kit, with innovative tools for individuals to change themselves and their communities. A 28-page discussion guide is provided on the site for screening organizers, facilitators and educators. Background information is available on the key healthcare issues addressed in the film, including problems of over-medication; paying more and getting less; reimbursement for services not quality of care, and the need for more systemic support of disease prevention.\n", "BULLET::::- Uninsured in America (2007) is part of \"The Free Market Cure\" series created by filmmaker Stuart Browning about what he calls \"the dangers of collectivized medicine and the benefits of free markets in health care.\" In the film, Browning argues that the number of uninsured Americans is closer to eight million than the forty-five million estimate provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and from the United States Census and that uninsured Americans have adequate access to health care.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dead Meat\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lemon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Two Women\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Short Course in Brain Surgery\"\n\nSection::::Writings.\n", "Section::::Cost and efficiency.:Impact on U.S. economic productivity.\n\nOn March 1, 2010, billionaire Warren Buffett said that the high costs paid by U.S. companies for their employees’ healthcare put them at a competitive disadvantage. He compared the roughly 17% of GDP spent by the U.S. on healthcare with the 9% of GDP spent by much of the rest of the world, noted that the U.S. has fewer doctors and nurses per person, and said, “that kind of a cost, compared with the rest of the world, is like a tapeworm eating at our economic body.”\n\nSection::::Cost and efficiency.:Allegations of waste.\n", "Economist and former US Secretary of Labor Robert Reich argued that only a \"big, national, public option\" can force insurance companies to cooperate, share information, and reduce costs while accusing insurance and pharmaceutical companies of leading the campaign against the public option.\n", "Much of the coverage of the debate has involved how the different sides are competing to express their views, rather than the specific reform proposals. The health care reform debate in the United States has been influenced by the Tea Party protest phenomenon, with reporters and politicians spending time reacting to it. Supporters of a greater government role in healthcare, such as former insurance PR executive Wendell Potter of the Center for Media and Democracy- whose funding comes from groups such as the Tides Foundation- argue that the hyperbole generated by this phenomenon is a form of corporate astroturfing, which he says that he used to write for CIGNA. Opponents of more government involvement, such as Phil Kerpen of Americans for Prosperity- whose funding comes mainly from the Koch Industries corporation- counter-argue that those corporations oppose a public-plan, but some try to push for government actions that will unfairly benefit them, such as forcing private companies to buy health insurance for their employees. Journalist Ben Smith has referred to mid-2009 as \"The Summer of Astroturf\" given the organizing and co-ordinating efforts made by various groups on both pro- and anti-reform sides.\n", "Private insurance in the US varies greatly in its coverage; one study by the Commonwealth Fund published in Health Affairs estimated that 16 million U.S. adults were underinsured in 2003. The underinsured were significantly more likely than those with adequate insurance to forgo healthcare, report financial stress because of medical bills, and experience coverage gaps for such items as prescription drugs. The study found that underinsurance disproportionately affects those with lower incomes – 73% of the underinsured in the study population had annual incomes below 200% of the federal poverty level.\n" ]	[ "Most Americans oppose national healthcare." ]	[ "Polling shows that around 50 to 60% of Americans support national healthcare." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Most Americans oppose national healthcare.", "Most Americans oppose national healthcare." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Polling shows that around 50 to 60% of Americans support national healthcare.", "Polling shows that around 50 to 60% of Americans support national healthcare." ]
2018-17962	Why have SSD prices so drastically dropped in the last year?	SSD prices have been on a steady decline over the last several years due to improvements in the manufacturing technology and the overall volume decreasing The rather abrupt price drop($0.13-$0.17/GB now from $0.22-$0.30 a few months ago) is currently being blamed on excess supply due to missed forecasts on smartphones. Chip makers struggle to make just the right number of chips because too few will drive prices up and people will push for more capacity but too much will mean they have a lot of excess inventory they need to move so they can start producing the hot new chip on the line. Chips also have an odd life cycle where some companies only want to be in at the beginning where its low volume but great margin, and other companies only want to be in in the middle when its tiny margins but oodles of volume to help make up for it. It would seem they made enough flash for the forecasted growth in laptop and smartphone sales, but smartphones remained flat and they were left with a lot of NAND chips they needed to ditch. The semiconductor industry doesn't hold onto product for any length of time because it'll be old tech by christmas.	[ "While the price of SSDs has continued to decline over time, SSDs are () still more expensive per unit of storage than HDDs and are expected to remain so into the next decade.\n", "The market for silicon-based flash memory (NAND) chips, used in SSDs and other applications, is growing rapidly. Worldwide revenue grew 12% per year during 2011–2016. It rose from $22 billion in 2011 to $39 billion in 2016, while production grew 46% per year from 19 exabytes to 120 exabytes.\n\nSection::::External hard disk drives.\n", "Write amplification is the major reason for the change in performance of an SSD over time. Designers of enterprise-grade drives try to avoid this performance variation by increasing over-provisioning, and by employing wear-leveling algorithms that move data only when the drives are not heavily utilized.\n\nSection::::Commercialization.:Sales.\n\nSSD shipments were 11 million units in 2009, 17.3 million units in 2011 for a total of US$5 billion, 39 million units in 2012, and were expected to rise to 83 million units in 2013\n\nto 201.4 million units in 2016 and to 227 million units in 2017.\n", "In December 2013, Samsung introduced and launched the industry's first 1 TB mSATA SSD. In August 2015, Samsung announced a 16 TB SSD, at the time the world's highest-capacity single storage device of any type.\n\nWhile a number of companies offer SSD devices as of 2018 only five of the companies that offer them actually manufacture the Nand Flash devices that are the storage element in SSDs.\n\nSection::::Commercialization.:Quality and performance.\n", "A \"remote, indirect memory-access disk (RIndMA Disk)\" uses a secondary computer with a fast network or (direct) Infiniband connection to act like a RAM-based SSD, but the new, faster, flash-memory based, SSDs already available in 2009 are making this option not as cost effective.\n\nWhile the price of DRAM continues to fall, the price of Flash memory falls even faster.\n\nThe \"Flash becomes cheaper than DRAM\" crossover point occurred approximately 2004.\n\nSection::::Architecture and function.:Memory.:3D XPoint-based.\n", "NAND performance is improving faster than HDDs, and applications for HDDs are eroding. In 2018, the largest hard drive had a capacity of 15TB while the largest capacity SSD had a capacity of 30.72TB and HDDs are not expected to reach 100TB capacities until somewhere around 2025. Smaller form factors, 1.8-inches and below, were discontinued around 2010. The price of solid-state storage (NAND), represented by Moore's law, is improving faster than HDDs. NAND has a higher price elasticity of demand than HDDs, and this drives market growth. During the late 2000s and 2010s, the product life cycle of HDDs entered a mature phase, and slowing sales may indicate the onset of the declining phase.\n", "If we had found that such an increase would not have been profitable, we should further include new products which we may imagine are substitutes in a third phase until we arrive at a situation in which such an increase in price would have been profitable, indicating that those products do constitute a relevant market.\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n\nDespite its widespread usage, the SSNIP test is not without problems. Specifically:\n", "Revenues for the SSD market (including low-cost PC solutions) worldwide totalled $585 million in 2008, rising over 100% from $259 million in 2007.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Board solid-state drive\n\nBULLET::::- List of solid-state drive manufacturers\n\nBULLET::::- RAID\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Solid-state revolution: in-depth on how SSDs really work\". Lee Hutchinson. Ars Technica. June 4, 2012.\n\nBULLET::::- Mai Zheng, Joseph Tucek, Feng Qin, Mark Lillibridge, \"Understanding the Robustness of SSDs under Power Fault\", FAST'13\n\nBULLET::::- Cheng Li, Philip Shilane, Fred Douglis, Hyong Shim, Stephen Smaldone, Grant Wallace, \"Nitro: A Capacity-Optimized SSD Cache for Primary Storage\", USENIX ATC'14\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "This directly contradicts the trend of electronic gadgets like netbooks, desktop computers, and laptop computers that also have been decreasing in price. However, the prevailing inflation rate of a country or province/state may negate the plummeting costs of software, AIDS medications, and/or digital cameras in certain regions along with certain governmental policies. This has the effect of keeping costs high in certain areas while they are dramatically reduced in others. \n", "On February 1, 2010, Intel and Micron announced that they were gearing up for production of NAND flash memory using a new 25-nanometer process. In March of that same year, Intel entered the budget SSD segment with its X25-V drives with an initial capacity of 40 GB. The SSD 310, Intel's first mSATA drive was released in December 2010, providing X25-M G2 performance in a much smaller package.\n", "The revenues for SSDs, most of which use NAND, slightly exceed those for HDDs. Though SSDs have nearly 10 times higher cost per bit, they are replacing HDDs in applications where speed, power consumption, small size, and durability are important.\n", "DRAM had a 47% increase in the price-per-bit in 2017, the largest jump in 30 years since the 45% percent jump in 1988, while in recent years the price has been going down.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "HDD price per byte improved at the rate of −40% per year during 1988–1996, −51% per year during 1996–2003 and −34% per year during 2003–2010. The price improvement decelerated to −13% per year during 2011–2014, as areal density increase slowed and the 2011 Thailand floods damaged manufacturing facilities and have held at -11% per year during 2010-2017. \n\nSection::::Form factors.\n", "Solid-state storage has seen a similar drop in cost per bit. In this case the cost is determined by the \"yield\", the number of viable chips produced in a unit time. Chips are produced in batches printed on the surface of a single large silicon wafer, which is cut up and non-working samples are discarded. Fabrication has improved yields over time by using larger wafers, and producing wafers with fewer failures. The lower limit on this process is about $1 per completed chip due to packaging and other costs.\n", "Section::::Sales.\n\nFor the third consecutive year, U.S. business-to-business channel sales (sales through distributors and commercial resellers) increased, ending up in 2013 at nearly 6 percent at $61.7 billion. The growth was the fastest sales increase since the end of the recession. Sales growth accelerated in the second half of the year peaking in fourth quarter with a 6.956 percent increase over the fourth quarter of 2012.\n\nSection::::Recycling.\n", "SSD technology has been developing rapidly. Most of the performance measurements used on disk drives with rotating media are also used on SSDs. Performance of flash-based SSDs is difficult to benchmark because of the wide range of possible conditions. In a test performed in 2010 by Xssist, using IOmeter, 4 kB random 70% read/30% write, queue depth 4, the IOPS delivered by the Intel X25-E 64 GB G1 started around 10,000 IOPs, and dropped sharply after 8 minutes to 4,000 IOPS, and continued to decrease gradually for the next 42 minutes. IOPS vary between 3,000 and 4,000 from around 50 minutes onwards for the rest of the 8+ hour test run.\n", "BULLET::::- 16,000, 19 September 2007- The SENSEX on 19 September 2007 crossed the 16,000 mark, closing at a historic peak of 16,322. The bull hits because of the rate cut of 50 bit/s in the discount rate by the Fed chief Ben Bernanke.\n", "In 2016, Seagate demonstrated 10GB/S transfer speeds from a 16-lane PCIe SSD and also demonstrated a 60TB SSD in a 3.5-inch form factor. Samsung also launched to market a 15.36TB SSD with a price tag of US$10,000 using a SAS interface, using a 2.5-inch form factor but with the thickness of 3.5-inch drives. This was the first time a commercially available SSD had more capacity than the largest currently available HDD. \n", "In July 2009, Intel moved its X25-M and X18-M lines from a 50-nanometer to a 34-nanometer process. These new drives, dubbed by the press as the X25-M and X18-M G2 (or generation 2), reduced prices by up to 60 percent while offering lower latency and improved performance.\n", "Micron and Intel announced that they were producing their first 20 nm MLC NAND flash on April 14, 2011.\n\nIn February 2012, Intel launched the SSD 520 series solid state drives using the SandForce SF-2200 controller with sequential read and write speeds of 550 and 520 MB/s respectively with random read and write IOPS as high as 80,000. These drives will replace the 510 series. Intel has released the budget 330 series solid state drive in 60, 120, and 180 GB capacities using 25 nm flash memory and a SandForce controller that have replaced the 320 series.\n", "The density, capacity, and price of computer memory have improved steadily and exponentially for decades, an engineering trend called Moore's Law. The limitations of refreshed or storage vector displays were accepted only in the era when those displays were much cheaper than raster-scan alternatives. Raster graphic displays inevitably took over when the price of 128 kilobytes no longer mattered.\n", "While the market boomed, profits for the industry were lacking. Semiconductors underwent a series of rolling recessions during the 1980s that created a boom-bust cycle. The 1980 and 1981-1982 general recessions were followed by high interest rates that curbed capital spending. This reduction played havoc on the semiconductor business that at the time was highly dependent on capital spending. Manufacturers desperate to keep their fab plants full and afford constant modernization in a fast moving industry became hyper-competitive. The many new entrants to the market drove gate array prices down to the marginal costs of the silicon manufacturers. Fabless companies such as LSI Logic and CDI survived on selling design services and computer time rather than on the production revenues.\n", "BULLET::::- The world's first 13 TB solid state drive (SSD) is announced, doubling the previous record for a commercially available SSD.\n\nBULLET::::- 14 January – Astronomers report that ASASSN-15lh, first observed in June 2015, is likely the brightest supernova ever detected. Twice as luminous as the previous record holder, at peak detonation it was as bright as 570 billion Suns.\n\nBULLET::::- 17 January – The Jason-3 Earth observation satellite is launched.\n\nBULLET::::- 18 January\n\nBULLET::::- Man-made heat entering the oceans has doubled since 1997, according to a study in the journal \"Nature Climate Change\".\n", "Section::::SSD failure.\n", "BULLET::::- Researchers at the RIKEN Advanced Science Institute (Japan) have developed a way to create full-color holograms with the aid of surface plasmons. (PhysOrg)\n\nBULLET::::- The amount of photovoltaic solar panels installed in the US more than doubled from 2010 to 2011, according to a report by the Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) and GTM Research. (PhysOrg)\n\nBULLET::::- Seagate claims it has paved the way for 3.5-inch hard drives with 60TB capacities, after breaking the 1TB/square inch density threshold. (PC Pro)\n\nBULLET::::- 20 March\n\nBULLET::::- Astronomers have discovered the first known rectangular-shaped galaxy: LEDA 074886. (Technology Review)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02684	Why do large numbers before the decimal point get separated by commas in groups of 3, but numbers after the decimal do not?	Most of our numerical punctuation rules as used by the general public come from accounting, and in accounting there is no reason to use decimal points farther out than the 1/100th place but there is reason to use thousands and millions indicators.	[ "In representing large numbers, from the right side to the left, English texts usually use commas to separate each group of three digits in front of the decimal. This is almost always done for numbers of six or more digits and often for five or four digits but not in front of the number itself. However, in much of Europe, Southern Africa and Latin America, periods or spaces are used instead; the comma is used as a decimal separator, equivalent to the use in English of the decimal point. In India, the groups are two digits, except for the rightmost group. In some styles, the comma may not be used for this purpose at all (e.g. in the SI writing style); a space may be used to separate groups of three digits instead.\n", "Often, large numbers are written with (preferably non-breaking) half-spaces or thin spaces separating the thousands (and, sometimes, with normal spaces or apostrophes) instead of commas—to ensure that confusion is not caused in countries where a decimal comma is used. Thus, a million is often written 1 000 000.\n\nIn some areas, a point (. or ·) may also be used as a thousands separator, but then, the decimal separator must be a comma (,). In English the point (.) is used as the decimal separator, and the comma (,) as the thousands separator.\n\nSection::::Special names.\n", "BULLET::::- In Estonia, currency numbers often use a dot \".\" as the decimal separator, and a space as a thousands separator. This is most visible on shopping receipts and in documents that also use other numbers with decimals, such as measurements. This practice is used to better distinguish between prices and other values with decimals. An older convention uses dots to separate thousands (with commas for decimals) — this older practice makes it easier to avoid word breaks with larger numbers.\n", "For ease of reading, numbers with many digits may be divided into groups using a delimiter, such as comma \",\" or dot \".\" or space or underbar \"_\" (as in maritime \"21_450\"). In some countries, these \"digit group separators\" are only employed to the left of the decimal separator; in others, they are also used to separate numbers with a long fractional part. An important reason for grouping is that it allows rapid judgement of the number of digits, via subitizing (telling at a glance) rather than counting – contrast with 100000000 for one hundred million.\n", "Fractions together with an integer are read as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- 1 1/2 is \"one and a half\"\n\nBULLET::::- 6 1/4 is \"six and a quarter\"\n\nBULLET::::- 7 5/8 is \"seven and five eighths\"\n\nA space is required between the whole number and the fraction; however, if a special fraction character is used like \"½\", then the space can be done without, e.g.\n\nBULLET::::- 9 1/2\n\nBULLET::::- 9½\n\nSection::::Whether or not digits or words are used.\n", "BULLET::::- In Ireland, Israel, Japan, Korea (both), Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States: 1,234,567.89 or 1,234,567·89; the latter is generally found only in older, and especially handwritten documents. Australia used this style up until the 1970s; now it uses the SI style.\n\nBULLET::::- English Canada: There are two cases: The preferred method for currency values is $4,000.00 —while for numeric values, it is ; however, commas are also sometimes used, although no longer taught in school or used in official publications.\n", "There are always \"common-sense\" country-specific exceptions to digit grouping, such as year numbers, postal codes and ID numbers of predefined nongrouped format, which style guides usually point out.\n\nSection::::Digit grouping.:In non-base-10 numbering systems.\n", "BULLET::::- 3.1416 is \"three point one four one six\"\n\nBULLET::::- 99.3 is \"ninety-nine and three tenths\" (mainly U.S.); or \"ninety-nine point three\".\n\nIn English the decimal point was originally printed in the center of the line (0·002), but with the advent of the typewriter it was placed at the bottom of the line, so that a single key could be used as a full stop/period and as a decimal point. In many non-English languages a full-stop/period at the bottom of the line is used as a thousands separator with a comma being used as the decimal point.\n", "The International Bureau of Weights and Measures states that \"when there are only four digits before or after the decimal marker, it is customary not to use a space to isolate a single digit\". Likewise, some manuals of style state that thousands separators should not be used in normal text for numbers from 1000 to 9999 inclusive where no decimal fractional part is shown (in other words, for four-digit whole numbers), whereas others use thousands separators, and others use both. For example, APA style stipulates a thousands separator for \"most figures of 1,000 or more\" except for page numbers, binary digits, temperatures, etc.\n", "When South Africa adopted the metric system, it adopted the comma as its decimal separator, although a number of house styles, including some English-language newspapers such as \"The Sunday Times\", continue to use the full stop.\n", "Section::::Usage.:Mathematics.\n\nThe period glyph is used in the presentation of numbers, but in only one of two alternate styles at a time.\n\nIn the more prevalent usage in English-speaking countries, the point it represents a decimal separator, visually dividing whole numbers from fractional (decimal) parts. The comma is then used to separate the whole-number parts into groups of three digits each, when numbers are sufficiently large.\n\nBULLET::::- 1.007 (one and seven thousandths)\n\nBULLET::::- 1,002.007 (one thousand two and seven thousandths)\n\nBULLET::::- 1,002,003.007 (one million two thousand three and seven thousandths)\n", "BULLET::::- Historically, in Germany and Austria, thousands separators were occasionally denoted by alternating uses of comma and point, e.g. 1.234,567.890,12 for \"eine Milliarde 234 Millionen ...\", but this is never seen in modern days and requires explanation to a contemporary German reader.\n", "The written numbers differ only in the placement of commas, which group the digits into powers of one hundred in the Indian system (except for the first thousand), and into powers of one thousand in the Western system. The Indian and English systems both use the decimal point and the comma digit-separator, while some other countries using the Western number-word system use the decimal comma, and space or point to separate digits in powers of one thousand.\n\nSection::::Use of separators.\n", "Sometimes, it is desired to order text with embedded numbers using proper numerical order. For example, \"Figure 7b\" goes before \"Figure 11a\", even though '7' comes after '1' in Unicode. This can be extended to Roman numerals. This behavior is not particularly difficult to produce as long as only integers are to be sorted, although it can slow down sorting significantly. For example, Microsoft Windows does this when sorting file names.\n", "In the special context of quoting the prices of stocks, traded almost always in blocks of 100 or more shares and usually in blocks of many thousands, stock exchanges in the United States used eighths or sixteenths of dollars, until converting to decimals between September 2000 and April 2001.\n\nSimilarly, in the UK, the prices of government securities continued to be quoted in multiples of of a pound ( d or p) long after the currency was decimalised.\n\nSection::::Mauritania and Madagascar.\n", "The numbers that are represented by decimal numerals are the decimal fractions (sometimes called decimal numbers), that is, the rational numbers that may be expressed as a fraction, the denominator of which is a power of ten. For example, the numerals formula_5 represent the fractions , , . More generally, a decimal with digits after the separator represents the fraction with denominator , whose numerator is the integer obtained by removing the separator.\n", "Geographic numbers are also sometimes displayed in a format with a dash separating the code and number; this was formerly the recommended format for six major metropolitan areas in the UK, e.g. \"01x1-AAA BBBB\". They are sometimes also shown in a format with a space between the code and number, similar to the non-geographic format, e.g. \"01x1 AAA BBBB\".\n", "BULLET::::- SI style: or (in their own publications, the dot \".\" is used in the English version, and the comma \",\" in the French version).\n\nBULLET::::- In China, comma and space are used to mark digit groups, because dot is used as decimal separator. There is no universal convention on digit grouping, so both thousands grouping and no digit grouping can be found. Japan and Taiwan are similar; although when grouping by myriads, kanji or characters are frequently used as separators: 1億2345万6789 / 1億2345萬6789. Commas are used when grouping by thousands.\n", "The 22nd General Conference on Weights and Measures declared in 2003 that \"the symbol for the decimal marker shall be either the point on the line or the comma on the line\". It further reaffirmed that \"numbers may be divided in groups of three in order to facilitate reading; neither dots nor commas are ever inserted in the spaces between groups\" (e.g.). This usage has therefore been recommended by technical organizations, such as the United States' National Institute of Standards and Technology.\n", "In 1958, disputes between European and American delegates over the correct representation of the decimal separator nearly stalled the development of the ALGOL computer programming language. ALGOL ended up allowing different decimal separators, but most computer languages and standard data formats (e.g. C, Java, Fortran, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)) specify a dot.\n\nPreviously, signs along California roads expressed distances in decimal numbers with the decimal part in superscript, as in 3, meaning 3.7. Though California has since transitioned to mixed numbers with vulgar fractions, the older style remains on postmile markers and bridge inventory markers.\n\nSection::::Current standards.\n", "The convention for digit group separators historically varied among countries, but usually seeking to distinguish the delimiter from the decimal separator. Traditionally, English-speaking countries employed commas as the delimiter – 10,000 – and other European countries employed periods or spaces: 10.000 or . Because of the confusion that could result in international documents, in recent years the use of spaces as separators has been advocated by the superseded SI/ISO 31-0 standard, as well as by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, which have also begun advocating the use of a \"thin space\" in \"groups of three\". Within the United States, the American Medical Association's widely followed \"AMA Manual of Style\" also calls for a thin space. In some online encoding environments (for example, ASCII-only) a thin space is not practical or available, in which case a regular word space or no delimiter are the alternatives.\n", "In many contexts, when a number is spoken, the function of the separator is assumed by the spoken name of the symbol: comma or point in most cases. In some specialized contexts, the word decimal is instead used for this purpose (such as in ICAO-regulated air traffic control communications).\n\nIn mathematics the decimal separator is a type of radix point, a term that also applies to number systems with bases other than ten.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- There is no formal presentation of decimal addition. Students are instructed to begin by using colored pencils on 10,000 grid chart. The addition of decimals is related to students' work with whole number addition, with attention paid to place values so that students understand the reasoning behind lining up decimal points.\n", "American newspapers commonly use a comma as a shorthand for \"and\" in headlines. For example, \"The Washington Post\" had the headline \"A TRUE CONSERVATIVE: For McCain, Bush Has Both Praise, Advice.\"\n\nSection::::Numerical expressions.\n\nThere are many differences in the writing and speaking of English numerals, most of which are matters of style, with the notable exception of different definitions for billion.\n", "In some contexts, numbers and letters are used not so much as a basis for establishing an ordering, but as a means of labeling items that are already ordered. For example, pages, sections, chapters, and the like, as well as the items of lists, are frequently \"numbered\" in this way. Labeling series that may be used include ordinary Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, ...), Roman numerals (I, II, III, ... or i, ii, iii, ...), or letters (A, B, C, ... or a, b, c, ...). (An alternative method for indicating list items, without numbering them, is to use a bulleted list.)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04771	Why can you only see the at edges of your peripheral vision in the dark?	The center of your vision is filled with color sensitive cone cells. They're great at telling colors and giving a crisp image, but need a lot of light to work. The far periphery of your vision is mostly light sensitive rod cells. They can work even in extremely low light conditions, but can't differentiate colors. In a very dark room, the cones in the middle are useless but the rods at the edges can still resolve some detail. You may also notice that your vision is also oddly greyscale in the dark, because the rods are doing most of the work.	[ "Averted vision works because there are virtually no rods (cells which detect dim light in black and white) in the fovea: a small area in the center of the eye. The fovea contains primarily cone cells, which serve as bright light and color detectors and are not as useful during the night. This situation results in a decrease in visual sensitivity in central vision at night. Based on the early work of Osterberg (1935), and later confirmed by modern adaptive optics, the density of the rod cells usually reaches a maximum around 20 degrees off the center of vision. \n", "Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing & Health Professions defines the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) as \"one of two elevations of the lateral posterior thalamus receiving visual impulses from the retina via the optic nerves and tracts and relaying the impulses to the calcarine (visual) cortex\". In particular, the magnocellular system of the LGN is less affected by the removal of V1, which suggests that it is because of this system in the LGN that blindsight occurs. The LGN is made up of 6 layers, including layers 1 & 2, which are part of the magnocellular layers. The cells in these layers behave like that of M-retinal ganglion cells, are most sensitive to movement of visual stimuli and have large centre-surround receptive fields. M-retinal ganglion cells project to the magnocellular layers.\n", "The rim of the retina contains a large concentration of cone cells. The retina extends farthest in the superior-nasal 45° quadrant (in the direction from the pupil to the bridge of the nose) with the greatest extent of the visual field in the opposite direction, the inferior temporal 45° quadrant (from the pupil of either eye towards the bottom of the nearest ear). Vision at this extreme part of the visual field is thought to be possibly concerned with threat detection, measuring optical flow, color constancy, or circadian rhythm.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Averted vision\n\nBULLET::::- Bitemporal hemianopsia\n\nBULLET::::- Depth perception\n", "The retina contains two major types of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells used for vision: the rods and the cones.\n\nRods cannot distinguish colours, but are responsible for low-light (scotopic) monochrome (black-and-white) vision; they work well in dim light as they contain a pigment, rhodopsin (visual purple), which is sensitive at low light intensity, but saturates at higher (photopic) intensities. Rods are distributed throughout the retina but there are none at the fovea and none at the blind spot. Rod density is greater in the peripheral retina than in the central retina.\n", "Central vision is relatively weak in the dark (scotopic vision) since cone cells lack sensitivity at low light levels. Rod cells, which are concentrated further away from the fovea, operate better than cone cells in low light. This makes peripheral vision useful for detecting faint light sources at night (like faint stars). Because of this, pilots are taught to use peripheral vision to scan for aircraft at night. \n", "There are two types of photoreceptor cells, rods and cones, which are sensitive to different aspects of light. Rod cells are sensitive to the intensity of light over a wide frequency range, thus are responsible for black-and-white vision. Rod cells are not present on the fovea, the area of the retina responsible for central vision, and are not as responsive as cone cells to spatial and temporal changes in light. There are, however, twenty times more rod cells than cone cells in the retina because the rod cells are present across a wider area. Because of their wider distribution, rods are responsible for peripheral vision.\n", "The retinal must diffuse from the vision cell, out of the eye, and circulate via the blood to the liver where it is regenerated. In bright light conditions, most of the retinal is not in the photoreceptors, but is outside of the eye. It takes about 45 minutes of dark for \"all\" of the photoreceptor proteins to be recharged with active retinal, but most of the night vision adaptation occurs within the first five minutes in the dark. Adaptation results in maximum sensitivity to light. In dark conditions only the rod cells have enough sensitivity to respond and to trigger vision.\n", "Peripheral vision is weak in humans, especially at distinguishing detail, color, and shape. This is because the density of receptor and ganglion cells in the retina is greater at the center and lowest at the edges, and, moreover, the representation in the visual cortex is much smaller than that of the fovea (see visual system for an explanation of these concepts). The distribution of receptor cells across the retina is different between the two main types, rod cells and cone cells. Rod cells are unable to distinguish color and peak in density in the near periphery (at 18° eccentricity), while cone cell density is highest in the very center, the fovea, and from there declines rapidly (by an inverse linear function).\n", "Peripheral vision\n\nPeripheral vision, or \"indirect vision\", is vision as it occurs outside the point of fixation, i.e. away from the center of gaze. The vast majority of the area in the visual field is included in the notion of peripheral vision. \"Far peripheral\" vision refers to the area at the edges of the visual field, \"mid-peripheral\" vision refers to medium eccentricities, and \"near-peripheral\", sometimes referred to as \"para-central\" vision, exists adjacent to the center of gaze..\n\nSection::::Boundaries.\n\nSection::::Boundaries.:Inner boundaries.\n", "First, the classic (rod or cone) photoreceptor is depolarized in the dark, which means many sodium ions are flowing into the cell. Thus, the random opening or closing of sodium channels will not affect the membrane potential of the cell; only the closing of a large number of channels, through absorption of a photon, will affect it and signal that light is in the visual field. This system may have less noise relative to sensory transduction schema that increase rate of neural firing in response to stimulus, like touch and olfaction.\n", "BULLET::::- The nervous tunic (or retina) is made up of cells which are extensions of the brain, coming off the optic nerve. These receptors are light-sensitive, and include cones, which are less light-sensitive, but allow the eye to see color and provide visual acuity, and rod cells, which are more light-sensitive, providing night vision, but only seeing light and dark differences. Since only two-thirds of the eye can receive light, the receptor cells do not need to cover the entire interior of the eye, and line only the area from pupil to the optic disk. The part of the retina covered by light-sensitive cells is therefore termed the pars-optica retinae, and the blind part of the eye is termed the pars-ceaca retinae. The optic disk of the eye, however, does not contain any of these light-sensitive cells, as it is where the optic nerve leaves to the brain, so is a blind spot within the eye.\n", "The lateral geniculate nucleus is divided into laminae (zones), of which there are three types: the M-laminae, consisting primarily of M-cells, the P-laminae, consisting primarily of P-cells, and the koniocellular laminae. M- and P-cells receive relatively balanced input from both L- and M-cones throughout most of the retina, although this seems to not be the case at the fovea, with midget cells synapsing in the P-laminae. The koniocellular laminae receive axons from the small bistratified ganglion cells.\n", "The grain of a photographic mosaic has just as limited resolving power as the \"grain\" of the retinal mosaic. In order to see detail, two sets of receptors must be intervened by a middle set. The maximum resolution is that 30 seconds of arc, corresponding to the foveal cone diameter or the angle subtended at the nodal point of the eye. In order to get reception from each cone, as it would be if vision was on a mosaic basis, the \"local sign\" must be obtained from a single cone via a chain of one bipolar, ganglion, and lateral geniculate cell each. A key factor of obtaining detailed vision, however, is inhibition. This is mediated by neurons such as the amacrine and horizontal cells, which functionally render the spread or convergence of signals inactive. This tendency to one-to-one shuttle of signals is powered by brightening of the center and its surroundings, which triggers the inhibition leading to a one-to-one wiring. This scenario, however, is rare, as cones may connect to both midget and flat (diffuse) bipolars, and amacrine and horizontal cells can merge messages just as easily as inhibit them.\n", "Rods, which are extremely abundant (about 120 million), are in the periphery of the human retina. Rods respond only to faint levels of light and are very light sensitive, therefore, completely useless in daylight. Cones have three types of pigments with different color sensitivities, whereas rods only have one and so are achromatic (colorless). Because of the distribution of rods and cones in the human eye, people have good color vision near the fovea (where cones are) but not in the periphery (where the rods are).\n", "Visual information coming from the eye goes through the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus and then reaches the visual cortex. The part of the visual cortex that receives the sensory inputs from the thalamus is the primary visual cortex, also known as visual area 1 (V1, Brodmann area 17), and the striate cortex. The extrastriate areas consist of visual areas 2 (V2, Brodmann area 18), 3, 4, and 5 (V3, V4, V5, all Brodmann area 19).\n", "Section::::Structure.:Optic tract.\n\nInformation from the right \"visual field\" (now on the left side of the brain) travels in the left optic tract. Information from the left \"visual field\" travels in the right optic tract. Each optic tract terminates in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the thalamus.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Lateral geniculate nucleus.\n", "Section::::Boundaries.:Outer boundaries.\n\nThe outer boundaries of peripheral vision correspond to the boundaries of the visual field as a whole. For a single eye, the extent of the visual field can be (roughly) defined in terms of four angles, each measured from the fixation point, i.e., the point at which one's gaze is directed. These angles, representing four cardinal directions, are 60° upwards, 60° nasally (towards the nose), 70–75° downwards, and 100–110° temporally (away from the nose and towards the temple). For both eyes the combined visual field is 130–135° vertically and 200–220° horizontally.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "In details, the normal human eye contains three different types of cones, with different ranges of spectral sensitivity. The brain combines the signals from neighboring cones to distinguish different colors. There is only one type of rod, but the rods are more sensitive than the cones, so in dim light they are the dominant photoreceptors active, and without information provided by the separate spectral sensitivity of the cones it is impossible to discriminate colors. In the fovea \"centralis\", cones predominate, and are present at high density. The macula is thus responsible for the central, high-resolution, color vision that is possible in good light; and this kind of vision is impaired if the macula is damaged, for example in macular degeneration.\n", "The human retina contains about 120 million rod cells, and 6 million cone cells. The number and ratio of rods to cones varies among species, dependent on whether an animal is primarily diurnal or nocturnal. Certain owls, such as the nocturnal tawny owl, have a tremendous number of rods in their retinae. In the human visual system, in addition to the photosensitive rods & cones, there are about 2.4 million to 3 million ganglion cells, with 1 to 2% of them being photosensitive. The axons of ganglion cells form the two optic nerves.\n", "The human retina has approximately 6 million cones and 120 million rods. Signals from the rods and cones converge on ganglion and bipolar cells for preprocessing before they are sent to the lateral geniculate nucleus. At the \"center\" of the retina (the point directly behind the lens) lies the fovea (or fovea centralis), which contains only cone cells; and is the region capable of producing the highest visual acuity or highest resolution. Across the rest of the retina, rods and cones are intermingled. No photoreceptors are found at the blind spot, the area where ganglion cell fibers are collected into the optic nerve and leave the eye.\n", "The cones respond to bright light and mediate high-resolution colour vision during daylight illumination (also called photopic vision). The rod responses are saturated at daylight levels and don't contribute to pattern vision. However, rods do respond to dim light and mediate lower-resolution, monochromatic vision under very low levels of illumination (called scotopic vision). The illumination in most office settings falls between these two levels and is called mesopic vision. At mesopic light levels, both the rods and cones are actively contributing pattern information. What contribution the rod information makes to pattern vision under these circumstances is unclear.\n", "The opposite problem, the inability to see in bright light, is known as \"hemeralopia\" and is much rarer.\n\nSince the outer area of the retina is made up of more rods than cones, loss of peripheral vision often results in night blindness. Individuals suffering from night blindness not only see poorly at night, but also require extra time for their eyes to adjust from brightly lit areas to dim ones. Contrast vision may also be greatly reduced.\n", "In most mammals, the axons of retinal ganglion cells are not myelinated where they pass through the retina. However, the parts of axons that are beyond the retina, are myelinated. This myelination pattern is functionally explained by the relatively high opacity of myelin—myelinated axons passing over the retina would absorb some of the light before it reaches the photoreceptor layer, reducing the quality of vision. There are human eye diseases where this does, in fact, happen. In some vertebrates, for example the chicken, the ganglion cell axons \"are\" myelinated inside the retina.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ganglion cell\n\nBULLET::::- Receptive field\n", "The retina at the back of the eye is what perceives stimuli, allowing them to travel through the occipital tract to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) within the thalamus. The data is then transmitted to the occipital lobe where the orientation and other recognizable factors are processed.\n", "Visual processing in the brain goes through a series of stages. Destruction of the primary visual cortex leads to blindness in the part of the visual field that corresponds to the damaged cortical representation. The area of blindness – known as a scotoma – is in the visual field opposite the damaged hemisphere and can vary from a small area up to the entire hemifield. Visual processing occurs in the brain in a hierarchical series of stages (with much crosstalk and feedback between areas). The route from the retina through V1 is not the only visual pathway into the cortex, though it is by far the largest; it is commonly thought that the residual performance of people exhibiting blindsight is due to preserved pathways into the extrastriate cortex that bypass V1. What is surprising is that activity in these extrastriate areas is apparently insufficient to support visual awareness in the absence of V1.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00997	It hit -88 °F (-66.6 °C) in Siberia. How cold is that really?	It's -88 degrees. Are you 5?	[ "On 25 June a temperature record was set in the Asian portion of Russia, at Belogorsk, at a reading of . The previous record in the Asian portion was set at Aksha on 21 July 2004.\n\nA heat wave started in Moscow on the 27 June, as temperatures reached , and stayed around for the rest of the week. It also caused temperatures to rise noticeably in Yakutia, the Siberian Kuznetsk Alatau mountain range and the Volga Federal District.\n\nOn 28 June Kvass sales boomed in Russia.\n", "Satellite measurements of the surface temperature of Antarctica, taken between 1982 and 2013, found a coldest temperature of −93.2 °C (−136 °F) on 10 August 2010, at . Although this is not comparable to an air temperature, it is believed that the air temperature at this location would have been lower than the official record lowest air temperature of −89.2 °C.\n\nSection::::Deepest ice.\n\nIce sheets on land, but having the base below sea level. Places under ice are not considered to be on land.\n\nSection::::Northern and southernmost points of land on Earth.\n", "Russia's weather forecasts said it was the most prolonged heat wave since 1981. Moscow's City Hall sent out water tankers to put water on the roads to prevent the tarmac from melting.\n\nMoscow's temperature was on 7 July. At the same time the heat in Yakutia recorded 35.3 °C. A record-breaking heat wave in late June saw temperatures reach 37 °C in several central Russian regions, sparking forest fires and causing heat stroke in many people in various parts of the Central Federal District and Ural Federal District.\n", "On 30 June, the heat in Yakutia reached the temperature of 35.3 °C, as both the Siberian Federal District and Ural Federal District began to overheat.\n\nBy the end of June, 1,244 people had drowned in Russia after swimming.\n\nOn 3 July, a heat wave hit parts of Ryazan Oblast, Krasnodar Krai, and the cities of Copenhagen, Bucharest and Budapest, killing a Romanian man with heat stroke. Heavy thunderstorms hit the High Swiss Alps, accompanied by heavy snow in some places.\n", "Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 °C. A ground temperature of 84 °C (183.2 °F) has been recorded in Port Sudan, Sudan. A ground temperature of 93.9 °C (201 °F) was recorded in Furnace Creek, Death Valley, California, United States on 15 July 1972; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded. The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 °C for dry, darkish soils of low thermal conductivity.\n", "On Earth, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. The range of climates and latitudes across the planet can offer extremes of temperature outside this range. The coldest air temperature ever recorded on Earth is , at Vostok Station, Antarctica on 21 July 1983. The hottest air temperature ever recorded was at 'Aziziya, Libya, on 13 September 1922, but that reading is queried. The highest recorded average annual temperature was at Dallol, Ethiopia. The coldest recorded average annual temperature was at Vostok Station, Antarctica.\n", "Satellite measurements of the surface temperature of Antarctica, taken between 1982 and 2013, found a coldest temperature of on 10 August 2010, at . Although this is not comparable to an air temperature, it is believed that the air temperature at this location would have been lower than the official record lowest air temperature of .\n\nSection::::Hottest.\n\nSection::::Hottest.:Highest temperatures ever recorded.\n\nAccording to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the highest temperature ever recorded was on 10 July 1913 in Furnace Creek (Greenland Ranch), California, United States, but the validity of this record is challenged \n", "Lowest temperature recorded on Earth\n\nThe lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July, 1983 by ground measurements. \n", "BULLET::::- 1974 – The warmest reliably measured temperature below the Antarctic Circle of +59 °F (+15 °C) is recorded at Vanda Station.\n\nBULLET::::- 1975 – The Tasman Bridge in Tasmania, Australia, is struck by the bulk ore carrier \"Lake Illawarra\", killing twelve people.\n\nBULLET::::- 1976 – The Khmer Rouge proclaim the Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea.\n", "Japan's Hokkaido island was hit by heavier snowfall, causing heavy travel disruption and some airport closures.\n\nBy January 4 about 30 people, including 28 children and an elderly man, died from cold-related causes in the last 11 days across Bangladesh as snow and a cold wave swept over the north and center of the nation. Freezing fog also occurred on the 4th in Punjab, India. Some parts of Bangladesh were the hardest hit with temperatures plummeting as low as 6 °C according to meteorologist Sanaul Haque, who predicted the cold wave may continue for another day.\n", "Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by . The highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded was at Furnace Creek, Death Valley, California, United States on 15 July 1972. In recent years a ground temperature of has been recorded in Port Sudan, Sudan. The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between for dry, darkish soils of low thermal conductivity.\n", "Section::::Temperature.\n\nThe standard measuring conditions for temperature are 1.2 meters above the ground out of direct sunlight (hence the term, x degrees \"in the shade\").\n\nSection::::High temperature.\n", "\"Siberian Express\" was the nickname coined by a meteorologist to describe the January 17, 1982 cold wave event hitting much of the United States. Also called \"Cold Sunday\", the event broke many all-time record lows.\n\nPaleoclimatologist Jack A. Wolfe published in 1992 about the geographic origin. The frozen Arctic Ocean produced the frigid air for the \"Siberian Express\", the high-pressure system in Siberia which was southward blocked by the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau, that transported the air down into North America.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Siberian High\n\nBULLET::::- Cold wave\n\nBULLET::::- Cold front\n\nBULLET::::- Pineapple Express\n\nBULLET::::- Pacific Organized Track System\n", "BULLET::::- The coldest continent on Earth is Antarctica. The coldest place on Earth is the Antarctic Plateau, an area of Antarctica around the South Pole that has an altitude of around . The lowest reliably measured temperature on Earth of 183.9 K (−89.2 °C, −128.6 °F) was recorded there at Vostok Station on 21 July 1983. The Poles of Cold are the places in the Southern and Northern Hemispheres where the lowest air temperatures have been recorded. (\"See List of weather records\").\n", "2008\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 Alaska cold wave – In early February, Alaska experienced the coldest temperatures for eight years, with Fairbanks nearing and Chicken, Alaska bottoming out at , a mere away from the record of . The first half of January also brought unusual cold weather and heavy snow to widespread regions of China and the Middle East.\n\n2007\n", "Section::::Cold spring in the Northern Hemisphere.:Asia.:India.\n\nIn January Delhi experienced night temperatures below , which was 4 to 5 degrees lower than the normal seasonal average. In the first week of January 2013, Delhi had a temperature of , the lowest in 44 years. The IFRC's Disaster Relief Emergency Fund donated 57,100 Swiss francs to support the Indian Red Cross Society in delivering immediate assistance to about 10,000 people. In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar the cold wave dropped the mercury to as low as which forced closure of all schools up to grade 13 until January 12.\n", "In the first half of July, average temperatures in Moscow were 6.2 °C above average. The hottest July on record in the city, in 1938, was an average of 5.3 °C higher than average.\n\nApproximately 400 people had drowned by mid-July.\n", "Section::::The list of events.:2009.:November 13.\n\nSection::::The list of events.:2009.:November 13.:China.\n\nHeavy snowfall in China causes a school building to collapse and the death of 38 people.\n\nSection::::The list of events.:2009.:November 25.\n\nSection::::The list of events.:2009.:November 25.:Russia.\n", "Record cold temperatures Northern Hemisphere\n\nThe coldest location in the Northern Hemisphere is not in the Arctic, but rather in the interior of Russia's Far East, in the upper-right quadrant of the maps. This is due to the region's continental climate, far from the moderating influence of the ocean, and to the valleys in the region that can trap cold, dense air and create strong temperature inversions, where the temperature increases, rather than decreases, with height. \n", "BULLET::::- Landgrove, VT: 21.8\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ball Mountain Lake, VT: 21\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bennington, VT: 20\"\n\nBULLET::::- North Bennington, VT: 20\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dorset, VT: 14\"\n\nBULLET::::- Peru, VT: 14\"\n\nBULLET::::- Wardsboro, VT: 14\"\n\nBULLET::::- South Newfane, VT: 13\"\n\nBULLET::::- Townshed Lake, VT: 12\"\n\nSection::::Snowfall totals.:Maine.\n\nBULLET::::- Bangor, ME: 25\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Pineapple Express\n\nBULLET::::- January 2010 North American winter storms\n\nBULLET::::- February 5–6, 2010 North American blizzard\n\nBULLET::::- February 9–10, 2010 North American blizzard\n\nBULLET::::- February 25–27, 2010 North American blizzard\n\nBULLET::::- March 2010 nor'easter\n\nBULLET::::- January 31 – February 2, 2011 North American blizzard\n\nBULLET::::- North American blizzard of 2006\n", "By January 4 about 30 people, including 28 children and an elderly man, died from cold-related causes in the last 11 days across Bangladesh as snow and a cold wave swept over the north and center of the nation. Freezing fog also occurred on the 4th in Punjab, India. Some parts of Bangladesh were the hardest hit with temperatures plummeting as low as 6 °C according to meteorologist Sanaul Haque, who predicted the cold wave may continue for another day.\n\nHeavy rain and severe cold hit southern Bangladesh and Italy.\n", "Section::::Meteorological history.\n", "A shot of tropical heat drawn unusually far southward hiked temperatures above normal in the city of Buenos Aires and across the north-central regions of the country.\n\nEven though normal high temperatures for late August are near , readings topped degrees at midweek, then topped out above degrees during the weekend. \n\nTemperatures hit on 29 August and finally on 31 August in Buenos Aires, making it the hottest day ever recorded in winter breaking the 1996 winter record of .\n", "On 5 July, the Russian emergency ministry confirmed that almost 300 overheating people had drowned swimming in various lakes, canals and rivers during the heat wave. In one case at least 63 people died in one day alone. An emergency ministry spokesman told the Ria Novosti news agency that 285 people had died in Russia's waterways. The 285 deaths occurred mainly due to the fact that they had swum in dangerous locations, they were ill-prepared and/or were dangerously drunk. A Bulgarian tourist also fell ill with sun stroke in Ryazan. Moscow was hit by a minor cholera outbreak on 5 July.\n", "BULLET::::- 1995 White Earthquake in southern Chile – On August 1995 southern Chile was struck by a cold wave consisting in two successive cold fronts. Fodder scarcity caused a severe livestock starvation. Cows and sheep were also buried in snow. In parts of Tierra del Fuego up to 80% of the sheep died.\n\nBULLET::::- December 1995 Great Britain cold wave – On the 30th of December the United Kingdom recorded a record low of in Altnaharra in Scotland equalling the record set on February 11, 1895 and January 10, 1982.\n\n1994\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "-88 F on the thermometer is different then the \"actual\" temperature." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The thermometer reading is the \"actual\" temperature." ]
2018-01129	Why can programs like Discord and Skype have little to no delay, but news broadcasts have a huge of delay for the field reporter portions?	News broadcasts are using satellite internet, which has higher latency than your typical DSL or fiber internet.	[ "Outside broadcasts (also known as \"remote broadcasts\" and \"field operations\") are when the editing and transmission of the news story are done outside the station's headquarters. Use of ENG has made possible the greater use of outside broadcasts.\n\n\"Some stations have always required reporters to shoot their own stories, interviews and even standup reports and then bring that material back to the station where the video is edited for that evening's newscast. At some of these stations, the reporters sometimes even anchor the news and introduce the packages they have shot and edited.\"\n", "The station airs a 30-minute local newscast every weekday at 6:00pm, and, as of 2019, a 17-minute local newscast at 12:13pm. In the past, CHOT had local news on weekends and a 15-minute noon newscast on weekdays, but recent cuts made by RNC Media had these newscasts replaced with Montreal-based TVA network news programs.\n\nSection::::Digital television and high definition.\n", "When broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used.\n\nBroadcasting forms a very large segment of the mass media.\n\nBroadcasting to a very narrow range of audience is called narrowcasting.\n\nSection::::Broadcasting.:Television.\n\nIn a broadcast system (television), journalists or reporters are also involved with editing the video material that has been shot alongside their research, and in working on the visual narrative of the story. Broadcast journalists often make an appearance in the news story at the beginning or end of the video clip.\n", "BULLET::::- National Geographic Abu Dhabi HD\n\nBULLET::::- Music:\n\nBULLET::::- MTV Live HD\n\nBULLET::::- Nat Geo Music HD\n\nBULLET::::- Music Now\n\nBULLET::::- VH-1\n\nBULLET::::- News:\n\nBULLET::::- BBC World News\n\nBULLET::::- CCTV News\n\nBULLET::::- CCTV Arabia\n\nBULLET::::- CNBC\n\nBULLET::::- FOX News\n\nBULLET::::- France 24 English\n\nBULLET::::- France 24 Arabic\n\nBULLET::::- NHK World\n\nBULLET::::- Bloomberg TV\n\nBULLET::::- OSN News\n\nBULLET::::- Sky News HD\n\nBULLET::::- Sky News Arabia HD\n\nBULLET::::- Sky News Arabia\n\nBULLET::::- Pinoy (Philippines)\n\nBULLET::::- DWRR 101.9 (MOR 101.9 FM)\n\nBULLET::::- AksyonTV International\n\nBULLET::::- TFC\n\nBULLET::::- Net 25 (channel 725)\n\nBULLET::::- Kapatid TV5\n\nBULLET::::- DZMM TeleRadyo\n\nBULLET::::- Cinema One Global\n", "Following the successful tests by the Voice of America's VOA Radiogram program, international and government shortwave broadcasters began testing and experimenting with digital data over shortwave broadcast channels using the Fldigi software.\n\nThese tests led to regular weekly digital broadcasts by the broadcasters listed below.\n\nBULLET::::- VOA Radiogram, service terminated in 2017 and continuing as Shortwave Radiogram.\n\nBULLET::::- In June 2017, following the demise of VOA Radiogram, Shortwave Radiogram began broadcasting digital data-streams using Fldigi via WRMI in Miami and \"Space Line\" in Bulgaria.\n\nBULLET::::- Radio Havana Cuba\n\nBULLET::::- Radio Moscow\n\nBULLET::::- Radio Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Radio Miami International\n", "Simulcasts via satellite can be a challenge, as there is a significant delay because of the distance - nearly round-trip - involved. Anything involving video compression (and to some extent audio data compression) also has an additional significant delay, which is noticeable when watching local TV stations on direct-broadcast satellites. Even though the process is not instantaneous, this is still considered a simulcast because it is not intentionally stored anywhere.\n", "Short-form news stories are what local news reporters deliver to their stations. Longer-form stories about the same topics are covered by national or international broadcast news magazines such as Dateline NBC, 20/20, Nightline, 48 Hours, 60 Minutes and Inside Edition. Depending upon the scope of the story, the number of crews vying for position at the story venue (press conference, court house, crime location, etc.) can potentially be dozens.\n", "Satellite latency can be detrimental to especially time-sensitive applications such as on-line gaming (although it only seriously affects the likes of first-person shooters while many MMOGs can operate well over satellite Internet), but IPTV is typically a simplex operation (one-way transmission) and latency is not a critical factor for video transmission.\n\nExisting video transmission systems of both analogue and digital formats already introduce known quantifiable delays. Existing DVB TV channels that simulcast by both terrestrial and satellite transmissions experience the same 0.25-second delay difference between the two services with no detrimental effect, and it goes unnoticed by viewers.\n\nSection::::Bandwidth requirements.\n", "There are three major factors when considering signal delay and propagation in relation to LORAN-C:\n\nBULLET::::1. Primary Phase Factor (PF) – This allows for the fact that the speed of the propagated signal in the atmosphere is slightly lower than in a vacuum.\n\nBULLET::::2. Secondary Phase Factor (SF) – This allows for the fact that the speed of propagation of the signal is slowed when traveling over the seawater because of the greater conductivity of seawater compared to land.\n", "Packages will usually be filmed at a relevant location and edited in an editing suite in a newsroom or a remote contribution edit suite in a location some distance from the newsroom. They may also be edited in mobile editing vans, or satellite vans or trucks (such as electronic news gathering vehicles), and transmitted back to the newsroom. Live coverage will be broadcast from a relevant location and sent back to the newsroom via fixed cable links, microwave radio, production truck, satellite truck, or via online streaming. Roles associated with television news include a technical director, floor director audio technician, and a television crew of operators running character graphics (CG), teleprompters, and professional video cameras. Most news shows are broadcast live.\n", "VoC now allows reporters to transmit live from moving vehicles, and is now frequently used for storm chasing and reporting live from the scene of other still-breaking news stories. This may be as simple as smartphone apps like FaceTime or other off-the-shelf solutions, or dedicated or proprietary solutions housed in a small backpack transceiver unit worn by the cameraman. However, cellular service may be degraded or completely unavailable in the event of a mass call event or widespread power outage, both frequently caused by a disaster.\n\nSection::::Technology referenced.\n\nBULLET::::- Major domestic USA carriers such as Verizon, Sprint, T-Mobile and AT&T\n", "Broadcasters across North America, particularly in the United States, regularly utilize a \"west-coast delay\" in which special events (including some award shows and several reality competition programs) broadcast live in the Eastern or Central Time Zones are then tape-delayed on the western half of the country, including California, which allows post-production staff to edit out any glitches that occurred during the live broadcast. In the U.S., however, this practice is now increasingly limited to live talent shows tape-delayed for West Coast viewers as major awards shows, beginning the 2010s, expanded to live global telecasts, including same-time continent-wide airings. Canada and Mexico, meanwhile, have multiple time zones but have routinely televised all live events simultaneously across both countries by the turn of the 21st century.\n", "A short delay is often used to prevent profanity, bloopers, nudity, or other undesirable material from making it to air, including more mundane problems such as technical malfunctions (an anchor's lapel microphone goes dead). In that instance, it is often referred to as a 'seven-second delay' or 'profanity delay'. Longer delays, however, may also be introduced, often to allow a show to air at the same time for the local market as is sometimes done with nationally broadcast programs in countries with multiple time zones. Considered as time shifting, that is often achieved by a \"tape delay,\" using a video tape recorder, modern digital video recorders, or other similar technology.\n", "In large-scale applications, such as in Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), very long delays (minutes to hours) between RTCP reports may occur, because of the RTCP bandwidth control mechanism required to control congestion (see Protocol functions). Acceptable frequencies are usually less than one per minute. This affords the potential of inappropriate reporting of the relevant statistics by the receiver or cause evaluation by the media sender to be inaccurate relative to the current state of the session. Methods have been introduced to alleviate the problems: RTCP filtering, RTCP biasing and hierarchical aggregation.\n\nSection::::Scalability in large deployments.:Hierarchical aggregation.\n", "These programs usually last for several hours and average delay minutes can vary as conditions change at the said ATC controlled area.\n", "As more venues install fiber optic cable, this is increasingly used. For news gathering, contribution over public internet is also now used. Modern applications such as hardware and software IP codecs have allowed the use of public 3G/4G networks to broadcast video and audio. The latency of 3G is around 100–500 ms, while 4G is less than 100 ms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- A2 (remote television production)\n\nBULLET::::- Electronic field production (EFP)\n\nBULLET::::- Electronic news-gathering (ENG)\n\nBULLET::::- Production truck\n\nBULLET::::- Remote broadcast\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Recreation of a full 1970s BBC Outside Broadcast production\n", "Early portable video systems recorded at a lower quality than broadcast studio cameras, which made them less desirable than non portable video systems. When the Portapak video camera was introduced in 1967, it was a new method of video recording, forever shifting ENG. \n", "An ordinary broadcast press pool is often confused with a \"host feed.\" While pool coverage is always handled by press organizations, a host feed is provided by a third party (usually the organization being covered). For example, under normal circumstances, the only cameras allowed in the chambers of Congress are those operated by government employees under rules established by congressional leaders. Under such circumstances, press organizations have three choices: take the host feed as it is, rely on unofficial feeds which may be unauthorized or illegal, or have no video at all.\n\nSection::::Expectations of pool members.\n", "Murphy says the program was based on his \"absolute hatred of anything journalistic and philosophical\" and an \"absolute love of enjoyment and fun and the light side in life\". He says it was based on his \"personal attention span. Some programs have one minute of plot and 27 minutes of fill in. I've always wondered why we just didn't have the minute and forget about the other 27 minutes.\" \n", "The exception turned out to be video journalists who work more as independent documentary film-makers, using their electronic field production (EFP) mobility and easier access to do stories that don’t have short deadlines. One example of this is award-winning video journalist Sasa Petricic, who works for CBC’s flagship daily newscast, The National, and reports solo from around the world. Tara Sutton another Canadian video journalist reported for multiple news outlets from Iraq and other conflicts and won many international awards. She has cited the unobtrusively small equipment of a video journalist as allowing her to move undercover more easily in the extreme danger of Iraq and access places where traditional news crews could not have gone without become targets.\n", "Many stations have some sort of television studio, which on major-network stations is often used for newscasts or other local programming. There is usually a news department, where journalists gather information. There is also a section where electronic news-gathering (ENG) operations are based, receiving remote broadcasts via remote pickup unit or satellite TV. Outside broadcasting vans, production trucks, or SUVs with electronic field production (EFP) equipment are sent out with reporters, who may also bring back news stories on video tape rather than sending them back live.\n", "International tape delays of live global events, intended by major television networks, dominated world television until the early 2010s. For example, during the Sydney Olympics in 2000 and the Beijing Olympics in 2008, daytime events were occurring at early morning hours in the Americas, Africa, and Europe but were aired in the afternoon and evening hours live entirely in Asia, Australia, and Oceania. That made some broadcasters show high-profile events twice (live and then rebroadcast during prime time), but others withheld the same event to be broadcast solely during prime time. Often, tape-delaying of those events would mean editing them down for time considerations, highlighting what the broadcaster feels are the most interesting portions of the event, or advertising.\n", "The remaining delay variation can be removed by buffering, at the expense of added time delay. If forward error correction is used, a small proportion of packets arriving after the deadline can be tolerated, since they can be dealt with by being discarded on receipt, and then treated in the same way as lost packets. Added time delay is particularly unwelcome in PTZ cameras as it makes operator control difficult at values over 250ms.\n\nSection::::Timing reconstruction.\n", "BULLET::::- 2000 - Brussels and - Amsterdam\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 - Lisbon\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 - Basel and - Vienna\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 - Warsaw and - Kiev\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 - Paris\n\nBULLET::::- \"2020\" \"\" - Vijfhuizen\n\nBULLET::::- \"2024\" \"\" - Munich\n\nSection::::Olympic Games.\n", "Programs such as news bulletins, current affairs programs, sport, some talk shows and political and special events utilize real time or online captioning. Live captioning is increasingly common, especially in the United Kingdom and the United States, as a result of regulations that stipulate that virtually all TV eventually must be accessible for people who are deaf and hard–of–hearing. In practice, however, these \"real time\" subtitles will typically lag the audio by several seconds due to the inherent delay in transcribing, encoding, and transmitting the subtitles. Real time subtitles are also challenged by typographic errors or mis-hearing of the spoken words, with no time available to correct before transmission.\n" ]	[ "If programs that are less credible than a news broadcast such as Skype and Discord have almost no delay, then so should the news broadcast." ]	[ "News broadcasts have sattelite internet, which has higher latency than typical DSL or fiber internet." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If programs that are less credible than a news broadcast such as Skype and Discord have almost no delay, then so should the news broadcast.", "If programs that are less credible than a news broadcast such as Skype and Discord have almost no delay, then so should the news broadcast." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "News broadcasts have sattelite internet, which has higher latency than typical DSL or fiber internet.", "News broadcasts have sattelite internet, which has higher latency than typical DSL or fiber internet." ]
2018-22170	Why was New York City so dangerous in the 70s + 80s and how did it get that way?	Crime was higher everywhere in the US then. It wasn’t just New York City. Crime rates rose until the 90’s, and have since dropped. No one is quite sure why. There are a lot of theories. One of my favorites is low level lead poisoning. We know that kids had higher blood lead levels on average back when leaded gasoline was still being used and lead paint was more common. We also know that lead exposure in kids can cause behavior and learning problems.	[ "After reaching an all-time peak in 1990, crime in New York City dropped dramatically through the rest of the 1990s. , New York City had statistically become one of the safest large cities in the U.S., with its crime rate being ranked 194th of the 210 American cities with populations over 100,000. New York City crime rates were comparable to those of the early 1960s.\n", "Among other problems the following were included:\n\nMeehan had claimed to be able to, along with 2,300 police officers, \"provide sufficient protection to straphangers\", but Sliwa had brought a group together to act upon crime, so that between March 1979 and March 1980, felonies per day dropped from 261 to 154. However, overall crime grew by 70% between 1979 and 1980.\n", "This was followed by the crack cocaine epidemic of the late 1980s and early 1990s, which was one factor in the city's homicide rate soaring to an all-time high. By 1990, New York, a city with 7.3 million people at the time, set a record of 2,262 murders, a record that has yet to be broken by any U.S. city. Petty thefts associated with drug addiction were also increasingly common.\n", "BULLET::::- June 4: 22-year-old drifter John Royster brutally beats a 32-year-old female piano teacher in Central Park, the first in a series of attacks over a period of eight days. Royster would go on to brutally beat another woman in Manhattan, rape a woman in Yonkers and beat a woman, Evelyn Alvarez, to death on Park Avenue on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. In 1998, Royster was sentenced to life in prison without parole.\n\nBULLET::::- July 17: TWA Flight 800 departs Kennedy airport and crashes in the Atlantic Ocean south of Long Island, killing all 230 people on board.\n", "Crime in New York City was high in the 1980s during the Mayor Edward I. Koch years, as the crack epidemic hit New York City, and peaked in 1990, the first year of Mayor David Dinkins' administration (1990–1993). During the administration of Mayor Rudolph Giuliani (1994–2001), there was a precipitous drop in crime in his first term, continuing at a slower rate in both his second term and under Mayor Michael Bloomberg (2002–2013).\n", "\"Freakonomics\" authors Steven Levitt and Steven Dubner attribute the drop in crime to the legalization of abortion in the 1970s, as they suggest that many would-be neglected children and criminals were never born. On the other hand, Malcolm Gladwell provides a different explanation in his book \"The Tipping Point\"; he argues that crime was an \"epidemic\" and a small reduction by the police was enough to \"tip\" the balance. Another theory is that widespread exposure to lead pollution from automobile exhaust, which can lower intelligence and increase aggression levels, incited the initial crime wave in the mid-20th century, most acutely affecting heavily trafficked cities like New York. A strong correlation was found demonstrating that violent crime rates in New York and other big cities began to fall after lead was removed from American gasoline in the 1970s.\n", "During the 1990s, the New York City Police Department (NYPD) adopted CompStat, broken windows policing, and other strategies in a major effort to reduce crime. The city's dramatic drop in crime has been variously attributed to a number of factors, including the end of the crack epidemic, the legalization of abortion, and the decline of lead poisoning in children.\n", "BULLET::::- September 2: Tourist Brian Watkins from Utah is stabbed to death in the Seventh Avenue – 53rd Street station by a gang of youths. Watkins was visiting New York with his family to attend the US Open Tennis tournament in Queens, when he was killed defending his family from a gang of muggers. The killing marked a low point in the record murder year of 1990 (in which 2,242 were recorded) and led to an increased police presence in New York.\n", "In the 1980s, the city economy was booming. Wall Street was fueling an economic surge in the real estate market. Despite this, crime was still an issue. Beginning in the 1990s, however, crime dropped substantially. Crime in New York City has continued to decline through the 21st century.\n", "BULLET::::- 1960s: Brooklyn, New York was forced to develop low-income infrastructure due to high immigration patterns. With large groups of Latin Americans and Puerto Ricans populating the area, Brooklyn encountered extreme gang violence as more organizations formed based around social class and race. Throughout this decade of immense immigration of Latinos and African Americans, the two populations made up two thirds of the gang population in New York.\n", "BULLET::::- June 4, 1996 – 22-year-old drifter John Royster brutally beats a 32-year-old female piano teacher in Central Park, the first in a series of attacks over a period of eight days. Royster would go on to brutally beat another woman in Manhattan, rape a woman in Yonkers and beat a woman, Evelyn Alvarez, to death on Park Avenue on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. In 1998, Royster was sentenced to life in prison without parole.\n", "BULLET::::- August 28: A 4 train crashes just north of 14th Street – Union Square, killing 5 people. Motorman Robert Ray, who was intoxicated, fell asleep at the controls and was convicted of manslaughter in 1992.\n\nBULLET::::- October 31: Scores, the first major gentlemen's club (strip club) in New York, opens.\n\nBULLET::::- December 28: Nine people were crushed to death trying to enter the Nat Holman gymnasium at CCNY. The crowd was trying to gain entry to a celebrity basketball game featuring hip-hop and rap performers including Heavy D and Sean Combs.\n", "BULLET::::- December 20, 1986 – A white mob in Howard Beach, Queens, attacks three black men whose car had broken down in the largely white neighborhood. One of the men, Michael Griffith is chased onto Shore Parkway where he is hit and killed by a passing car. The killing prompted several tempestuous marches through the neighborhood led by Al Sharpton.\n\nBULLET::::- July 9, 1987 – 12-year-old Jennifer Schweiger, a girl afflicted with Down syndrome, is abducted and murdered in Staten Island by a sex offender and suspected mass murderer, Andre Rand.\n", "In the 1960s, mayor Robert Wagner ordered an increase in the Transit Police force from 1,219 to 3,100 officers. During the hours at which crimes most frequently occurred (between 8:00 p.m. and 4:00 a.m.), the officers went on patrol in all stations and trains. In response, crime rates decreased, as extensively reported by the press.\n", "BULLET::::- November 19, 1986 – 20-year-old Larry Davis opens fire on NYPD officers attempting to arrest him in his sister's apartment in the Bronx. Six officers are wounded, and Davis eludes capture for the next 17 days, during which time he became something of a folk hero in the neighborhood. Davis was stabbed to death in jail in 2008.\n\nBULLET::::- November 24, 1986 – Two Port Authority police officers and a holdup were seriously shot and wounded in a shootout at a Queens diner.\n", "BULLET::::- December 8, 1980 – Ex-Beatle John Lennon is murdered in front of his home in The Dakota.\n\nBULLET::::- June 22, 1982 – Willie Turks, a black 34-year-old MTA worker, is set upon and killed by a white mob in the Gravesend section of Brooklyn. Eighteen-year-old Gino Bova was convicted of second-degree manslaughter in 1983.\n", "In the 1970s, job losses due to industrial restructuring caused New York City, including Manhattan, to suffer from economic problems and rising crime rates. While a resurgence in the financial industry greatly improved the city's economic health in the 1980s, New York's crime rate continued to increase through the decade and into the beginning of the 1990s.\n", "BULLET::::- September 2, 1990 – Utah tourist Brian Watkins is stabbed to death in the Seventh Avenue – 53rd Street station by a gang of youths. Watkins was visiting New York with his family to attend the US Open Tennis tournament in Queens when he was killed defending his family from a gang of muggers. The killing marked a low point in the record murder year of 1990 and led to an increased police presence in New York.\n", "BULLET::::- July 13, 1977 – Dominick Ciscone, a 17-year-old aspiring mobster, is shot and killed while hanging out with friends on Smith Street in the Carroll Gardens neighborhood of Brooklyn, the only homicide to occur during that year's blackout. Police investigate several local parties Ciscone was known to have had disputes with but do not identify any suspects. Despite several promising anonymous tips to police around the killing's 20th anniversary in 1997, it remains unsolved .\n", "BULLET::::- July 12–15: The 1976 Democratic National Convention was held at Madison Square Garden in Midtown Manhattan.\n\nBULLET::::- July 29: David Berkowitz (aka the \"Son of Sam\") kills one person and seriously wounds another in the first of a series of attacks that terrorized the city for the next year.\n\nBULLET::::- October 10: Giants NFL team ceases playing in New York and plays its first game in the Meadowlands at the new Giants Stadium.\n", "BULLET::::- June: Debut of the Staten Island Yankees, marking the return of baseball to the Island since the demise in 1887 of the New York Metropolitans.\n\nBULLET::::- October 31: EgyptAir Flight 990 departs Kennedy airport and crashes off the coast of Nantucket.\n\nBULLET::::- Blackplanet.com website launched.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Don Diva\" magazine headquartered in city.\n\nBULLET::::- Deaths in New York City from AIDS exceed 75,000 since the onset of the disease.\n\nSection::::Contemporary history.\n\nSection::::Contemporary history.:2000s.\n\nBULLET::::- 2000\n\nBULLET::::- January 21: American Psycho, film about a psychopathic serial killing investment banker in Manhattan, is released.\n", "BULLET::::- November 24: 2 Port Authority police officers and a holdup we're seriously shot and wounded in a shootout at a Queens diner.\n\nBULLET::::- December 20: A white mob in Howard Beach, Queens, attacks three African-American men whose car had broken down in the largely white neighborhood. One of the men, Michael Griffith is chased onto Shore Parkway where he is hit and killed by a passing car. The killing prompted several tempestuous marches through the neighborhood led by Al Sharpton.\n\nBULLET::::- Four World Financial Center built.\n\nBULLET::::- Le Bernardin restaurant in business.\n\nBULLET::::- 1987\n", "At the time, police morale was low and petty criminals who committed misdemeanors were not being arrested. William Bratton, who was appointed New York City Police Commissioner in 1994 and again in 2014, stated, \"The [NYPD] didn't want high performance; it wanted to stay out of trouble, to avoid corruption scandals and conflicts in the community. For years, therefore, the key to career success in the NYPD, as in many bureaucratic leviathans, was to shun risk and avoid failure. Accordingly, cops became more cautious as they rose in rank, right up to the highest levels.\" The city government did not implement broken windows theory at first, and the allowance of low-profile crime was thought by some at the time to have caused more high-profile crimes to occur. Formerly elegant movie theaters began to show porn, and hustlers were common. The area was so abandoned at one point during the time that the entire Times Square area paid the city only $6 million in property taxes, which is less than what a medium-sized office building in Manhattan typically would produce in tax revenue today in 1984 dollars.\n", "BULLET::::- January 24, 1975 – Fraunces Tavern, a historical site in lower Manhattan, is bombed by the FALN, killing 4 people and wounding more than 50.\n\nBULLET::::- December 29, 1975 – A bomb explodes in the baggage claim area of the TWA terminal at LaGuardia Airport, killing 11 and injuring 74. The perpetrators were never identified.\n\nBULLET::::- July 29, 1976 – David Berkowitz (aka the \"Son of Sam\") kills one person and seriously wounds another in the first of a series of attacks that terrorized the city for the next year.\n", "Cheap crack cocaine in East Harlem, which became a major issue in the 1980s, as author Russell Leigh Sharman puts it was \"largely responsible for the devaluation of human life in East Harlem: it radically affected the economy of violence in relation to the illegal drug trade.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-19402	why do some clouds appear darker than others? Does it have to do with density and sunlight?	It's the different height of the cloud itself. The darkness is how much shadow the top of the cloud is casting on the bottom of the cloud. E.g. A dark storm cloud is a very tall anvil cloud casting a huge shadow on its own bottom layers.	[ "All cloud varieties fall into one of two main groups. One group identifies the opacities of particular low and mid-level cloud structures and comprises the varieties \"translucidus\" (thin translucent), \"perlucidus\" (thick opaque with translucent or very small clear breaks), and \"opacus\" (thick opaque). These varieties are always identifiable for cloud genera and species with variable opacity. All three are associated with the stratiformis species of altocumulus and stratocumulus. However, only two varieties are seen with altostratus and stratus nebulosus whose uniform structures prevent the formation of a perlucidus variety. Opacity-based varieties are not applied to high clouds because they are always translucent, or in the case of cirrus spissatus, always opaque.\n", "Clouds obscure the view of other objects in the sky, though varying thicknesses of cloudcover have differing effects. A very thin cirrus cloud in front of the moon might produce a rainbow-colored ring around the moon. Stars and planets are too small or dim to take on this effect, and are instead only dimmed (often to the point of invisibility). Thicker cloudcover obscures celestial objects entirely, making the sky black or reflecting city lights back down. Clouds are often close enough to afford some depth perception, though they are hard to see without moonlight or light pollution.\n\nSection::::Visual presentation.:Other objects.\n", "The whiteness or darkness of clouds is a function of their depth. Small, fluffy white clouds in summer look white because the sunlight is being scattered by the tiny water droplets they contain, and that white light comes to the viewer's eye. However, as clouds become larger and thicker, the white light cannot penetrate through the cloud, and is reflected off the top. Clouds look darkest grey during thunderstorms, when they can be as much as 20,000 to 30,000 feet high.\n", "Stratocumulus clouds are same in appearance to altocumulus and are often mistaken for such. A simple test to distinguish these is to compare the size of individual masses or rolls: when pointing one's hand in the direction of the cloud, if the cloud is about the size of the thumb, it is altocumulus; if it is the size of one's fist, it is stratocumulus. This often does not apply when stratocumulus is of a broken, fractus form, when it may appear as small as altocumulus. Stratocumulus is also often, though not always, darker in colour than altocumulus.\n\nSection::::Description.:Optical effects.\n", "Stratocumulus Opacus is a dark layer of clouds covering entire sky without any break. However, the cloud sheet is not completely uniform, so that separate cloud bases still can be seen. This is the main precipitating type, however any rain is usually light. If the cloud layer becomes grayer to the point when individual clouds cannot be distinguished, stratocumulus turn into stratus clouds.\n\nStratocumulus Perlucidus is a layer of stratocumulus clouds with small spaces, appearing in irregular pattern, through which clear sky or higher clouds can be seen.\n", "Stratiform clouds are a layer of clouds that covers the entire sky, and which have a depth of between a few hundred to a few thousand feet thick. The thicker the clouds, the darker they appear from below, because little of the sunlight is able to pass through. From above, in an airplane, the same clouds look perfectly white, but from the ground the sky looks gloomy and grey.\n\nSection::::In the sciences, nature, and technology.:The greying of hair.\n", "Studies have shown that cloud liquid water path varies with changing cloud droplet size, which may alter the behavior of clouds and their albedo. The variations of the albedo of typical clouds in the atmosphere are dominated by the column amount of liquid water and ice in the cloud. Cloud albedo varies from less than 10% to more than 90% and depends on drop sizes, liquid water or ice content, thickness of the cloud, and the sun's zenith angle. The smaller the drops and the greater the liquid water content, the greater the cloud albedo, if all other factors are the same.\n", "The luminance or brightness of a cloud is determined by how light is reflected, scattered, and transmitted by the cloud's particles. Its brightness may also be affected by the presence of haze or photometeors such as halos and rainbows. In the troposphere, dense, deep clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very-dark-grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. High thin tropospheric clouds reflect less light because of the comparatively low concentration of constituent ice crystals or supercooled water droplets which results in a slightly off-white appearance. However, a thick dense ice-crystal cloud appears brilliant white with pronounced grey shading because of its greater reflectivity.\n", "There is essentially no direct sunlight under an overcast sky, so all light is then diffuse sky radiation. The flux of light is not very wavelength-dependent because the cloud droplets are larger than the light's wavelength and scatter all colors approximately equally. The light passes through the translucent clouds in a manner similar to frosted glass. The intensity ranges (roughly) from of direct sunlight for relatively thin clouds down to of direct sunlight under the extreme of thickest storm clouds.\n\nSection::::As a part of total radiation.\n\nOne of the equations for total solar radiation is:\n", "Polar mesospheric clouds form at an extreme-level altitude range of about . They are given the Latin name noctilucent because of their illumination well after sunset and before sunrise. They typically have a bluish or silvery white coloration that can resemble brightly illuminated cirrus. Noctilucent clouds may occasionally take on more of a red or orange hue. They are not common or widespread enough to have a significant effect on climate. However, an increasing frequency of occurrence of noctilucent clouds since the 19th century may be the result of climate change.\n", "The color of a cloud, as seen from the Earth, tells much about what is going on inside the cloud. Dense deep tropospheric clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very dark grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background. High tropospheric and non-tropospheric clouds appear mostly white if composed entirely of ice crystals and/or supercooled water droplets.\n", "BULLET::::- Clouds: Deep (optically thick) clouds may be quite noticeable in satellite imagery and yield characteristic NDVI values that ease their screening. However, thin clouds (such as the ubiquitous cirrus), or small clouds with typical linear dimensions smaller than the diameter of the area actually sampled by the sensors, can significantly contaminate the measurements. Similarly, cloud shadows in areas that appear clear can affect NDVI values and lead to misinterpretations. These considerations are minimized by forming composite images from daily or near-daily images. Composite NDVI images have led to a large number of new vegetation applications where the NDVI or photosynthetic capacity varies over time.\n", "Striking cloud colorations can be seen at any altitude, with the color of a cloud usually being the same as the incident light. During daytime when the sun is relatively high in the sky, tropospheric clouds generally appear bright white on top with varying shades of grey underneath. Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background. Red, orange, and pink clouds occur almost entirely at sunrise/sunset and are the result of the scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere. When the sun is just below the horizon, low-level clouds are gray, middle clouds appear rose-colored, and high clouds are white or off-white. Clouds at night are black or dark grey in a moonless sky, or whitish when illuminated by the moon. They may also reflect the colors of large fires, city lights, or auroras that might be present.\n", "BULLET::::- the \"cloud cover or cloud amount\" with values between 0 and 1\n\nBULLET::::- the \"cloud temperature at cloud top\" ranging from 150 to 340 K\n\nBULLET::::- the \"cloud pressure at top\" 1013 - 100 hPa\n\nBULLET::::- the \"cloud height\", measured above sea level, ranging from 0 to 20 km\n\nBULLET::::- the \"cloud IR emissivity\", with values between 0 and 1, with a global average around 0.7\n\nBULLET::::- the \"effective cloud amount\", the cloud amount weighted by the cloud IR emissivity, with a global average of 0.5\n\nBULLET::::- the \"cloud (visible) optical depth\" varies within a range of 4 and 10.\n", "Section::::Subforms.:Opacity-based varieties.\n\nStratus fractus are not divided into varieties, but stratus nebulosus on the other hand, are divided into two. The Stratus opacus variety appears as a nebulous or milky sheet of the nebulosus species, but are opaque enough to block the sun from view. Stratus Translucidus is another variety of the nebulosus species. These clouds are considered more thin than the opacus variety because this cloud is rather translucent, allowing the position of the sun or moon to be observed from earth's surface.\n\nSection::::Subforms.:Pattern-based variety.\n", "Section::::Luminance, reflectivity, and coloration.\n", "When the precipitation reaches the ground without completely evaporating, it is designated as the feature \"praecipitatio\". This normally occurs with altostratus opacus, which can produce widespread but usually light precipitation, and with thicker clouds that show significant vertical development. Of the latter, \"upward-growing\" cumulus mediocris produces only isolated light showers, while \"downward growing\" nimbostratus is capable of heavier, more extensive precipitation. Towering vertical clouds have the greatest ability to produce intense precipitation events, but these tend to be localized unless organized along fast-moving cold fronts. Showers of moderate to heavy intensity can fall from cumulus congestus clouds. Cumulonimbus, the largest of all cloud genera, has the capacity to produce very heavy showers. Low stratus clouds usually produce only light precipitation, but this always occurs as the feature praecipitatio due to the fact this cloud genus lies too close to the ground to allow for the formation of virga.\n", "Section::::Polar mesospheric cloud identification and classification.\n\nClouds that form in the mesosphere have a generally cirriform structure, but are not given Latin names based on that characteristic. Polar mesospheric clouds are the highest in the atmosphere and are given the Latin name noctilucent which refers to their illumination during deep twilight. They are sub-classified alpha-numerically according to specific details of their cirriform physical structure.\n\nSection::::Polar mesospheric cloud identification and classification.:Extreme-level cirriform.\n\nNoctilucent clouds are thin, mostly cirriform-looking clouds, based from about and occasionally seen in deep twilight after sunset and before sunrise.\n", "Low level clouds have no height-related prefixes, so stratiform and stratocumuliform clouds based around 2 kilometres or lower are known simply as stratus and stratocumulus. Small cumulus clouds with little vertical development (species humilis) are also commonly classified as low level.\n", "The altocumulus undulatus is a mid-level cloud (about 8000 - 20,000 ft or 2400 - 6100 m), usually white or grey with layers or patches containing undulations that resemble \"waves\" or \"ripples\" in water. Elements within the cloud (such as the edges of the undulations) are generally darker than those in cirrocumulus and smaller than those in stratocumulus. These clouds may appear both as patches or as covering the sky. The width of these clouds is generally less than 300 feet (91.44 meters) thick. The presence of altocumulus undulatus may indicate precipitation within the next 20 hours or simply an overcast day. \n", "Clouds are white for the same reason as ice. They are composed of water droplets or ice crystals mixed with air, very little light that strikes them is absorbed, and most of the light is scattered, appearing to the eye as white. Shadows of other clouds above can make clouds look gray, and some clouds have their own shadow on the bottom of the cloud.\n", "Clouds that have low densities, such as cirrus clouds, contain very little water, thus resulting in relatively low liquid water content values of around .03 g/m. Clouds that have high densities, like cumulonimbus clouds, have much higher liquid water content values that are around 1-3 g/m, as more liquid is present in the same amount of space. Below is a chart giving typical LWC values of various cloud types (Thompson, 2007).\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Maritime vs. continental.\n", "Cloud cover\n\nCloud cover (also known as cloudiness, cloudage, or cloud amount) refers to the fraction of the sky obscured by clouds when observed from a particular location. Okta is the usual unit of measurement of the cloud cover. The cloud cover is correlated to the sunshine duration as the least cloudy locales are the sunniest ones while the cloudiest areas are the least sunny places.\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Accessory clouds, supplementary features, and other derivative types.:Cloud-based supplementary features.\n\n\"Incus\" is the most type-specific supplementary feature, seen only with cumulonimbus of the species capillatus. A cumulonimbus incus cloud top is one that has spread out into a clear anvil shape as a result of rising air currents hitting the stability layer at the tropopause where the air no longer continues to get colder with increasing altitude.\n", "List of cloud types\n\nThe list of cloud types groups the tropospheric types as \"high\" (cirrus, cirrocumulus, cirrostratus), \"middle\" (altocumulus, altostratus), \"multi-level\" (nimbostratus, cumulus, cumulonimbus), and \"low\" (stratocumulus, stratus) according to the altitude level or levels at which each cloud is normally found. Small cumulus are commonly grouped with the low clouds because they do not show significant vertical extent. Of the multi-level genus-types, those with the greatest convective activity are often grouped separately as \"towering vertical\". The genus types all have Latin names.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13799	Why does our sense of taste become dull when we get sick?	A large part of your sense of taste comes from smell. When you’re sick with something sinus related, your nose gets clogged and you can’t smell as well, so you lose that part of taste.	[ "Dysgeusia, or an alteration in taste perception, is common, especially for those who are receiving concomitant radiation therapy to the neck and mouth area. \"Taste blindness\", or an altered sense of taste, is a temporary condition that occurs because of effects on taste buds that are mostly located in the tongue. Sometimes, only partial recovery of taste occurs. Common complaints are of food tasting too sweet or too bitter or of a continuous metallic taste.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.\n", "If the flavor has been encountered before the subject becomes ill, the effect will not be as strong or will not be present. This quality is called latent inhibition. Conditioned taste aversion is often used in laboratories to study gustation and learning in rats.\n\nAversions can also be developed to odors as well as to tastes.\n", "Studies on conditioned taste aversion which involved irradiating rats were conducted in the 1950s by Dr. John Garcia, leading to it sometimes being called the Garcia effect.\n\nConditioned taste aversion sometimes occurs when sickness is merely coincidental to, and not caused by, the substance consumed. For example, a person who becomes very sick after consuming vodka-and-orange-juice cocktails may then become averse to the taste of orange juice, even though the sickness was caused by the over-consumption of alcohol. Under these circumstances, conditioned taste aversion is sometimes known as the \"Sauce-Bearnaise Syndrome\", a term coined by Seligman and Hager.\n\nSection::::Garcia's study.\n", "Distortions in the taste buds may give rise to dysgeusia. In a study conducted by Masahide Yasuda and Hitoshi Tomita from Nihon University of Japan, it has been observed that patients suffering from this taste disorder have fewer microvilli than normal. In addition, the nucleus and cytoplasm of the taste bud cells have been reduced. Based on their findings, dygeusia results from loss of microvilli and the reduction of Type III intracellular vesicles, all of which could potentially interfere with the gustatory pathway. Radiation to head and neck also results in direct destruction of taste buds, apart from effects of altered salivary output.\n", "The tongue can also feel other sensations not generally included in the basic tastes. These are largely detected by the somatosensory system. In humans, the sense of taste is conveyed via three of the twelve cranial nerves. The facial nerve (VII) carries taste sensations from the anterior two thirds of the tongue, the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) carries taste sensations from the posterior one third of the tongue while a branch of the vagus nerve (X) carries some taste sensations from the back of the oral cavity.\n", "The cause of this heightened response is unknown, although it is thought to be related to the presence of the TAS2R38 gene, the ability to taste PROP and PTC, and, at least in part, due to an increased number of fungiform papillae. Any evolutionary advantage to supertasting is unclear. In some environments, heightened taste response, particularly to bitterness, would represent an important advantage in avoiding potentially toxic plant alkaloids. In other environments, increased response to bitterness may have limited the range of palatable foods.\n\nSection::::Cause.:TAS2R38.\n", "Pungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to pungent agents.\n", "The main causes of taste disorders are head trauma, infections of upper respiratory tract, exposure to toxic substances, iatrogenic causes, medicines, and glossodynia (\"Burning Mouth Syndrome (BMS)\").\n\nHead trauma can cause lesions in regions of the central nervous system which are involved in processing taste stimuli, including thalamus, brain stem, and temporal lobes; it can also cause damage to neurological pathways involved in transmission of taste stimuli.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Neurological damage.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\n\"Calvatia craniiformis\" is an edible species. Young puffballs with a firm, white gleba have a mild odor and pleasant taste. Early 20th-century mycologist Charles McIlvaine noted over a century ago that \"the slightest change to yellow makes it bitter.\" Versatile in cooking, the puffball absorbs flavors well.\n", "Taste aversion is fairly common in humans. When humans eat bad food (e.g., spoiled meat) and get sick, they may find that food aversive until extinction occurs, if ever. Also, as in nature, a food does not have to \"cause\" the sickness for it to become aversive. A human who eats sushi for the first time and who happens to come down with an unrelated stomach virus may still develop a taste aversion to sushi. Even something as obvious as riding a roller coaster (causing nausea) after eating the sushi will influence the development of taste aversion to sushi. Humans might also develop aversions to certain types of alcoholic beverages because of vomiting during intoxication.\n", "Out of all the sensory modalities, olfaction contributes most to the sensation and perception of flavor processing. Olfaction has two sensory modalities, orthonasal smell, the detection of odor molecules originating outside the body, and retronasal smell, the detection of odor molecules originating during mastication. It is retronasal smell, whose sensation is felt in the mouth, that contributes to flavor perception. Anthropologically, over human evolution, the shortening of the nasopharynx and other shifts in bone structure suggest a constant improvement of flavor perception capabilities.\n", "The neural processing of taste is affected at nearly every stage of processing by concurrent somatosensory information from the tongue, that is, mouthfeel. Scent, in contrast, is not combined with taste to create flavor until higher cortical processing regions, such as the insula and orbitofrontal cortex.\n\nSection::::Human sensory system.\n\nThe human sensory system consists of the following subsystems:\n\nBULLET::::- Visual system\n\nBULLET::::- Auditory system\n", "This particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. Asian countries within the sphere of, mainly, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultural influence, often wrote of pungency as a fifth or sixth taste.\n", "More evidence that suggests the relationship between tactile and taste extinction in the tongue comes from a patient with a right parieto-occipital glioblastoma, tested with local applications of the four basic tastants (bitter, salty, sour, sweet), or with touch and pin prick stimuli to the two sides of the tongue. The patient missed most of the left hemitongue stimuli on bilateral stimulation, or less frequently wrongly attributed to them the quality of the concurrent right stimulus. Combinations of taste and mechanical stimuli showed an interference of left side stimuli on the perception of right stimuli, suggesting a complex alteration of the central tactile and gustatory representations of both sides of the tongue. Given that taste perception is usually co-mingled with tactile sensations, it is possible that left-sided gustatory extinction in severe left buccal hemineglect was secondary to left-sided lingual tactile extinction.\n", "While naming a flavor or food refines its representation strengthens its recall in memory, the patterns and tendencies in word choice to describe flavor suggests limits to the our perception and communication. In describing the flavor of wine, tasters tend to use words that function as a combination of visual and texture descriptors, and references to objects with similar odorant profiles. Color perception heavily influences the word choice describing a flavor; the color of word's semantic reference is often congruent with the food's color when the taster can see the food.\n", "In addition, the analysis of saliva should be performed, as it constitutes the environment of taste receptors, including transport of tastes to the receptor and protection of the taste receptor. Typical clinical investigations involve sialometry and sialochemistry. Studies have shown that electron micrographs of taste receptors obtained from saliva samples indicate pathological changes in the taste buds of patients with dysgeusia and other gustatory disorders.\n\nSection::::Treatments.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Artificial saliva and pilocarpine.\n", "Adaptive memory behaviours have been observed in animal species, as well as humans. Dr. John Garcia discovered that taste aversion conditioning in rats results in a lasting association between sickness and an ingested substance, and that aversion can be established after only one trial. This rapid learning led others to the idea that rats have biological dispositions for learning to associate sickness with a taste memory as a result of its evolutionary history. The results of a study that compared rats and quail in the acquisition of taste aversion suggested that rats rely on their memory of taste to avoid nausea while quail relied on their visual memory. Since the rat is a nocturnal feeder and has poor vision, it was suggested that they rely on taste cues to learn to avoid toxic substances, leading to a highly developed chemical sense system.\n", "Section::::Raw chilli taste.\n\nWhen eating a whole white chili and chewing for at least 10 seconds before swallowing (not recommended for untrained tasters) the heat may be first felt aggressively in the back of the throat, up the nose, then eventually moves to the roof of the mouth and finally the tongue where the pain is intense, at which point there can be gustatory sweating and tears from the eyes. Some tasters note the strong, fruity Fatalii flavour, which is quite distinct, as being almost identical to the yellow version. Others find it milder.\n", "The existence of neglect and/or extinction in taste is less explored than olfaction, even though in humans the ability to localize taste stimuli presented on the tongue has been previously described. In the case of a patient with a wide parietal-occipital tumor, tactile extinction on the upper limbs and extinction of taste sensations on the left part of the tongue where seen when two tastes were presented simultaneously on each hemitongue. The results of the assessment revealed there is unimodal taste extinction and displacement of taste sensations under crossmodal taste-tactile stimulation. In particular, when a touch was delivered to the right hemi-tongue and a taste was applied on the left hemi-tongue, the patient repeatedly reported bilateral taste stimulation, thus surprisingly extinguishing the right touch and partially misplacing the left taste stimulus. Gustatory extinction also seems to occur consequently to a severe tactile extinction.\n", "I have experienced a strange syndrome whenever I have eaten out in a Chinese restaurant, especially one that served northern Chinese food. The syndrome, which usually begins 15 to 20 minutes after I have eaten the first dish, lasts for about two hours, without hangover effect. The most prominent symptoms are numbness at the back of the neck, gradually radiating to both arms and the back, general weakness and palpitations...\n", "Taste or gustation (adjectival form: gustatory) is one of the traditional five senses. It refers to the capability to detect the taste of substances such as food, certain minerals, and poisons, etc. The sense of taste is often confused with the \"sense\" of flavor, which is a combination of taste and smell perception. Flavor depends on odor, texture, and temperature as well as on taste. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds, or gustatory calyculi, concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue. There are five basic tastes: sweet, bitter, sour, salty and umami. Other tastes such as calcium and free fatty acids may also be basic tastes but have yet to receive widespread acceptance. The inability to taste is called ageusia.\n", "Some people with HSAN2 experience a diminished sense of taste due to the loss of a type of taste bud on the tip of the tongue called lingual fungiform papillae.\n", "Studies on rats to determine how they react to different tasting liquids and injections indicate this difference. Scientists measured the facial and somatic reactions of rats after exposure to a flavored solution (sucrose or salt) which do not induce abnormal feelings. However, immediately after the rat ingests the solution, the rat is injected with a drug that induces nausea. The rat subsequently expresses a disgust reaction towards the solution, seen by mouth gaping. This is a Pavlovian conditioned response as the rat is associating the disgust with the solution that it drank immediately before the injection. The rat experiences taste \"aversion\". This is similar to when a human, for example, eats a steak that is perfectly safe and edible and coincidentally contracts a stomach bug and starts vomiting within a few hours of eating the steak. Although the human may know that the vomiting was due to a virus and not from eating the steak, the conditioned response in the brain associates the steak with vomiting due to the timing and the human may avoid steak because he has developed a learned taste aversion to the steak.\n", "Stimulus generalization is another learning phenomenon that can be illustrated by conditioned taste aversion. This phenomenon demonstrates that we tend to develop aversions even to types of food that resemble the foods which cause us illness. For example, if one eats an orange and gets sick, one might also avoid eating tangerines and clementines because they look similar to oranges, and might lead one to think that they are also dangerous.\n", "During the experiments rats were given one taste, sight, sound as a neutral stimulus. Later the rats would be exposed to radiation or drugs (the unconditioned stimulus), which would make the rats sick. Through these experiments, Garcia discovered that if a rat became nauseated after presented with a new taste, even if the illness occurred several hours later, the rat would avoid that taste. This contradicted the belief that, for conditioning to occur, the unconditioned response (in this case, sickness) must immediately follow the conditioned stimulus-to-be (the taste). Secondly, Garcia discovered that the rats developed aversions to tastes, but not to sights or sounds, disproving the previously held theory that any perceivable stimulus (light, sound, taste, etc.) could become a conditioned stimulus for any unconditioned stimulus.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21399	Why does cotton clothing shrink when washed/dried?	Cotton (like other materials) absorbs a lot of water and stretches/expands when wet, so when you dry it on cool/low/air dry it retains its shape for the most part, but when dried on high or hot it draws out so much water that the fibers shrink back on themselves due to the heat, and its usually not very reversible.	[ "There are various procedures to minimise the residual shrinkage of the fabrics,it begins with right selection of yarn count or denier to achieve particular g.s.m(Grams per square meters),Right selection of tightness factor of loops (which is called loop length then chemical procedures like mercerising of cotton,Resin of cotton in case of woven materials, Pre-heat-setting and post-heat setting of synthetic and blended fabrics( Heat setting is a thermal process taking place mostly in either a steam atmosphere or a dry heat environment. The effect of the process gives fibers, yarns or fabric dimensional stability). \n", "Novice users of modern laundry machines sometimes experience accidental shrinkage of garments, especially when applying heat. For wool garments, this is due to scales on the fibers, which heat and agitation cause to stick together. In cold countries they dry it with their fireplaces, others just have many or buy more garments in preparation for winter or cold times. Other fabrics are stretched by mechanical forces during production, and can shrink slightly when heated (though to a lesser degree than wool). Some clothes are \"pre-shrunk\" to avoid this problem.\n", "This factor also plays a vital role in the shrinking of the products. The products which are loosely woven or knitted are prone to shrink more and tightly knitted and woven products are more stable. The main reason is that knitted fabrics shrinkage is because they are made by interlooping the yarn which is comparatively a loose and flexible structure whereas woven are considered more stable and less sensitive to shrinkage.\n\nBULLET::::- Finishing applications and procedures\n", "Section::::Types of shrinkage.\n\nShrinkage is a change in dimensions across the length and width of the fabric after washing, usage and when exposed to relaxing of fabrics. Mainly shrinkage is of two types one is minus shrinkage and other is plus shrinkage. Skew (twisting of the vertical grains) is also observed along with shrinkage. Abnormal twisting is also considered as a non-conformity. \n\nBULLET::::1. Contraction: Any noticeable decrease in dimensions is known as Contraction(minus) shrinkage.\n\nBULLET::::2. Expansion: Any noticeable increase or expansion in dimension is known as Expansion (plus) shrinkage.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nBULLET::::- Composition and properties of the fibres\n", "Finishing on machines like sanphorizing Mechanical shrinking (sometimes referred to as sanforizing), whereby the fabric is forced to shrink width and/or lengthwise, creates a fabric in which any residual tendency to shrink after subsequent laundering is minimal compacting machines. For wool garments, shrinkage is due to scales on the fibers which heat, water and agitation cause to stick together. Other fabrics are stretched by mechanical forces during production, and can shrink slightly when heated (though to a lesser degree than wool). Some clothes are shrunk in the factory to avoid this problem.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of laundry topics\n", "The number of ends per inch in a piece of woven cloth varies depending on the stage of manufacture. Before the cloth is woven, the warp has a certain number of ends per inch, which is directly related to the size reed being used. After weaving, the number of ends per inch will increase, and it will increase again after being washed. This increase in the number of ends per inch (and picks per inch) and shrinkage in the size of the fabric is known as the take-up. The take-up is dependent on many factors, including the material and how tightly the cloth is woven. Tightly woven fabric shrinks more (and thus the number of ends per inch increases more) than loosely woven fabric, as do more elastic yarns and fibers.\n", "When working with the textiles, it should be placed on a clean, flat surface which is larger than the textile itself, so that the whole piece is supported evenly. Although it is supported, never place anything on top of the textile while it is in the flat position.\n", "A further possibility is mercerizing, during which the fabric is treated with caustic soda solution to cause swelling of the fibres. This results in improved lustre, strength and dye affinity. Cotton is mercerized under tension, and all alkali must be washed out before the tension is released or shrinkage will take place. Mercerizing can take place directly on grey cloth, or after bleaching.\n\nSection::::Finishing of cotton.:Coloration.\n", "Fibres to fabric conversion implies lots of mechanical tensions and forces during manufacturing, which includes following steps for fibre to yarn conversion with spinning then fabric with weaving, knitting.\n\nSection::::Test methods.\n\nThe different test methods are used as per the final destination of the product (Europe, U.S.A., etc) and the expected washing or laundry methods in practice. Mainly I.S.O. and AATCC standards are used for shrinkage testing. There are few brands which are customizing the test method as per their quality norms.\n\nTest Method(s):\n\nBULLET::::- AATCC Test Method 135\n\nBULLET::::- AATCC Test Method 150\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 6330\n\nBULLET::::- CAN/CGSB 58\n", "Textile stabilization\n\nTextile stabilization is a conservation method used to stabilize weak points in textile pieces and prevent further degradation or damage to the fabric. \n\nSection::::Methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Localized and Overall Support.\n\nFabric may be used to provide support for the garment by stabilizing weak sections or by creating a backing or lining for the piece. Darning may be utilized on coarsely-woven fabrics with localized areas of damage. \n\nSection::::Methods.:Localized and Overall Support.:Fabric Properties.\n\nBULLET::::- Should not cause damage through friction with the original fabric\n\nBULLET::::- Be of similar or lighter weight than the original fabric.\n", "Heat and humidity can both contribute and a textile’s deterioration. However, excessive dryness may also cause damage, especially to elastic fibers, such as wool, which rely on some amount of moisture to maintain their flexibility (Putnam and Finch). Additionally, temperature and humidity should be kept as constant as possible; changes in either of these may cause the textile fibers to expand and contract, which, over time, can also cause damage and deterioration to the textile. For this reason, both storage and display areas should be fitted with monitoring equipment to gauge the temperature and humidity of rooms, display cases, enclosed storage facilities, and work areas.\n", "Depending on the size that has been used, the cloth may be steeped in a dilute acid and then rinsed, or enzymes may be used to break down the size.\n\nSection::::Finishing of cotton.:Purification and preliminary processes.:Scouring.\n", "Crease formation in woven or knitted fabric composed of cellulose during washing or folding is the main drawback of cotton fabrics. The molecular chains of the cotton fibers are attached with each other by weak hydrogen bonds. During washing or folding, the hydrogen bonds break easily and after drying new hydrogen bonds form with the chains in their new position and the creases are stabilized. If crosslinking between the polymer chains can be introduced by crosslinking chemicals, then it reinforces the cotton fibers and prevents the permanent displacement of the polymer chains when the fibers are stressed. It is therefore much more difficult for creases to form or for the fabric to shrink on washing.\n", "In yarns for handcrafts such as knitting or crochet, hanks are not a fixed length but are sold in units by weight, most commonly 50 grams. Depending on the thickness of the strand as well as the inherent density of the material, hanks can range widely in yardage per 50 gram unit; for example, 440 yards for a lace weight mohair, to 60 yards for a chunky weight cotton. Special treatments to the materials that add cost, such as mercerisation or labor-intensive hand-painting of colors, can influence a manufacturer's desired length per unit as well. Knitters and crocheters rewind the hanks into balls or centre-pull skeins prior to use, in order to prevent the yarn from becoming tangled.\n", "Cotton acts as a carbon sink as it contains cellulose and this contains 44,44% carbon. However, due to carbon emissions from fertiliser application, use of mechanized tools to harvest the cotton, ... cotton manufacture tends to emit more CO² than what it stores in the form of cellulose.\n", "Ideally, temperature should be kept around 70 degrees Fahrenheit, though some slight fluctuation in either direction is permissible, as long as it occurs gradually. For instance, temperature may be slightly lower in winter to save energy costs, but the change should be effected slowly, so as not to place the fibers under undue stress.\n", "An important and oldest textile finishing is brushing or raising. Using this process a wide variety of fabrics including blankets, flannelettes and industrial fabrics can be produced. The process of raising consists of lifting from the body of the fabric a layer of fibers which stands out from the surface which is termed as \"pile\". The formation of pile on a fabric results in a \"lofty\" handle and may also subdue the weave or pattern and color of the cloth.\n", "Calendering is the third important mechanical process, in which the fabric is passed between heated rollers to generate smooth, polished or embossed effects depending on roller surface properties and relative speeds.\n\nSection::::Finishing of cotton.:Finishing.:Chemical finishing.\n\nMany other chemical treatments may be applied to cotton fabrics to produce low flammability, crease resist and other special effects. \n\nSection::::Finishing of cotton.:Finishing.:Shrinking.\n\nMechanical shrinking (sometimes referred to as sanforizing), whereby the fabric is forced to shrink width and/or lengthwise, creates a fabric in which any residual tendency to shrink after subsequent laundering is minimal.\n\nSection::::Standard finishes.\n\nSection::::Standard finishes.:Quality-oriented.\n\nBULLET::::- Calendering\n\nBULLET::::- Decatising\n", "As with moving or working with dry pieces, the textile should be washed in a flat, fully supported position. Usually this is achieved through the use of screens like the ones used in vacuuming, though these may be supported in a frame of some kind for added stability. The textile should be sandwiched between two screens. If the piece is particularly delicate or fragile, it may be wrapped in netting, then placed between the screens. \n", "The woven cotton fabric in its loom-state not only contains impurities, including warp size, but requires further treatment in order to develop its full textile potential. Furthermore, it may receive considerable added value by applying one or more finishing processes.\n\nBULLET::::- Desizing\n\nBULLET::::- Scouring\n\nBULLET::::- Bleaching\n\nBULLET::::- Mercerising\n\nBULLET::::- Singeing\n\nBULLET::::- Raising\n\nBULLET::::- Calendering\n\nBULLET::::- Shrinking (Sanforizing)\n\nBULLET::::- Dyeing\n\nBULLET::::- Printing\n\nSection::::Processing of cotton.:Economic, environmental and political consequences of cotton manufacture.\n\nProduction of cotton requires arable land.\n", "Section::::Physical methods.\n\nThe second technique treats cloth like a grid work of particles connected to each other by springs. Whereas the geometric approach accounted for none of the inherent stretch of a woven material, this physical model accounts for stretch (tension), stiffness, and weight:\n\nBULLET::::- s terms are elasticity (by Hooke's Law)\n\nBULLET::::- b terms are bending\n\nBULLET::::- g terms are gravity (see Acceleration due to gravity)\n\nNow we apply the basic principle of mechanical equilibrium in which all bodies seek lowest energy by differentiating this equation to find the minimum energy.\n\nSection::::Particle/energy methods.\n", "Textile warp sizing, also known as tape sizing, of warp yarn is essential to reduce breakage of the yarn and thus production stops on the weaving machine. On the weaving machine, the warp yarns are subjected to several types of actions i.e. cyclic strain, flexing, abrasion at various loom parts, and inter yarn friction.\n\nWith sizing, the strength — abrasion resistance — of the yarn will improve and the hairiness of yarn will decrease. The degree of improvement of strength depends on adhesion force between fiber and size, size penetration, as well as encapsulation of yarn.\n", "Non-polar solvents are also good for some fabrics, especially natural fabrics, as the solvent does not interact with any polar groups within the fabric. Water binds to these polar groups which results in the swelling and stretching of proteins within fibers during laundering. Also, the binding of water molecules interferes with weak attractions within the fiber, resulting in the loss of the fiber's original shape. After the laundry cycle, water molecules will dry off. However, the original shape of the fibers has already been distorted and this commonly results in shrinkage. Non-polar solvents prevent this interaction, protecting more delicate fabrics.\n", "Composition and content determine the type and percentage of fibres. Natural fibres shrink more than synthetic fibres. Synthetic fibres are more stable due to their crystalline and thermoplastic nature. They do not shrink, whereas natural fibres are more prone to shrink because of more amorphous region in their fibre structure which allows more absorption of water, swelling of fibres and increased lubricity increases the shrinking tendency. Blended fabrics normally synthetic and natural are also considered more stable.\n\nBULLET::::- Structure of the fabric/ knit or weave, loose and tight structure\n", "When the fabric is heated, the molecules are more easily reoriented. In the case of cotton fibres, which are derivatives of cellulose, the hydroxyl groups that crosslink the cellulose polymer chains are reformed at high temperatures, and become somewhat \"locked in place\" upon cooling the item. In permanent press pressed clothes, chemical agents such as dimethylol ethylene urea are added as crosslinking agents.\n\nSection::::Avoid.\n\nAvoid ironing can be obtained not using spin cycle in the washing machine.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic robot\n\nBULLET::::- Hair iron\n\nBULLET::::- Laundry symbol\n\nBULLET::::- Mangle (machine)\n\nBULLET::::- Ironing mannequin\n\nBULLET::::- Self-service laundry\n\nBULLET::::- Washing machine\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03954	Why has no country yet extradited Polanski to the US if he is so easy to find and a convicted fugitive?	Polanski is a French citizen. France (like many nations) won't extradite its own citizens to face foreign charges. That policy is very common and dates back to Greek and Roman laws (upon which most European legal systems are based). He's cautious in his foreign travel not to travel to nations that would extradite him to the US (nations that perform extradition form a treaty which can be read by attorneys who can advise people as to what they say and mean). Would you want the US to send you to a third world country over bogus charges? Let's say you made a video that was shown in Thailand insulting their King which is a [serious offense]( URL_0 ). French people don't want to take that risk either. Sometimes that means that bad results happen, and that's life.	[ "A critical step will most likely be a move to stop the extradition before United States authorities send the required documents to Switzerland. Mr. Polanski's team may do so by arguing either that his crime does not qualify for extradition, because he was originally to have been sentenced to less than a year in prison, or that he has already effectively served his sentence, during a 42-day psychiatric evaluation.\n", "On 21 October, after Swiss authorities had rejected Polanski's initial pleas to be released on bail pending the result of any extradition hearing, one of his lawyers, Georges Kiejman, floated the idea of a possible voluntary return to the United States in an interview with the radio station Europe 1: \"If this process drags on, it is not completely impossible that Roman Polanski could choose to go finally to explain himself in the United States where the arguments in his favor exist.\"\n", "Polanski was jailed near Zürich for two months, then put under house arrest at his home in Gstaad while awaiting decision of appeals fighting extradition. On 12 July 2010, the Swiss rejected the United States' request, declared Polanski a \"free man\" and released him from custody. He remains the subject of an Interpol red notice issued in 2005 at the request of the United States.\n", "In 1978, Polanski became a fugitive from American justice and could no longer work in countries where he might face arrest or extradition.\n\nSection::::Film director.:1970s.:\"Tess\" (1979).\n", "In January 2014, newly uncovered emails from 2008 by a Los Angeles County Superior Court Judge, Larry P. Fidler, indicated that if Polanski returned to the United States for a hearing, the conduct of the judge who had originally presided over the case, Laurence A. Rittenband, might require that Polanski be freed. These emails were related to a 2008 documentary film by Marina Zenovich. In late October 2014, Polanski was questioned by prosecutors in Kraków.\n", "Polanski's attorneys assert that the judge suggested to them that he would send the director to prison and order him deported. In response to the threat of imprisonment, Polanski bought a one-way ticket to England and fled the United States. Shortly after Polanski fled, Rittenband denied he ever did anything that the 2008 documentary would go on to allege, by issuing the following statement:\n", "Polanski was told by his attorney that \"the judge could no longer be trusted\" and that the judge's representations were \"worthless\". Polanski decided not to appear at his sentencing. He told his friend, director Dino De Laurentis, \"I've made up my mind. I'm getting out of here.\" the day before sentencing, Polanski left the country on a flight to where he had a home. One day later, he left for As a French citizen, he has been protected from extradition and has lived mostly in France since then. However, since he fled the United States before final sentencing, the charges are still pending.\n", "I then stated that an appropriate sentence would be for Mr. Polanski to serve out the remainder of the 90-day period for which he had been sent to Chino, provided Mr. Polanski were to be deported by the Immigration and Naturalization Bureau, by stipulation or otherwise, at the end of the 90 days. I expressly stated that I was aware that the court lacked authority to order Mr. Polanski deported directly or as a condition of probation. However, based on the facts before me, I believed that the safety and welfare of the citizens of California required that Mr. Polanski be kept out of circulation for more than 90 days. However, since Mr. Polanski is an alien who had pleaded guilty to an act of moral turpitude, I believe that the interests of the citizens of California could be adequately safeguarded by a shorter jail term if Mr. Polanski would thereafter absent himself from the country.\n", "I then stated that an appropriate sentence would be for Mr. Polanski to serve out the remainder of the 90-day period for which he had been sent to Chino, provided Mr. Polanski were to be deported by the Immigration and Naturalization Bureau, by stipulation or otherwise, at the end of the 90 days. I expressly stated that I was aware that the court lacked authority to order Mr. Polanski deported directly or as a condition of probation. However, based on the facts before me, I believed that the safety and welfare of the citizens of California required that Mr. Polanski be kept out of circulation for more than 90 days. However, since Mr. Polanski is an alien who had pleaded guilty to an act of moral turpitude, I believe that the interests of the citizens of California could be adequately safeguarded by a shorter jail term if Mr. Polanski would thereafter absent himself from the country.\n", "The Swiss Federal Department of Justice and Police said Polanski was put \"in provisional detention.\" An arrest warrant or extradition to the United States could be subject to judicial review by the Federal Criminal Court and then the Federal Supreme Court, according to a ministry spokesman. Polanski announced that he intended to appeal extradition and hired lawyer Lorenz Erni to represent him. On 6 October his initial request for bail was refused by the Federal Department of Justice and Police; a spokesperson commented, \"we continue to be of the opinion that there is a high risk of flight.\"\n", "Rittenband once vowed to remain on the bench until Polanski was behind bars, but retired in 1989, when he was 83 years old. Rittenband issued an arrest warrant for Polanski when he fled in 1978; Polanski was arrested in September 2009 in Switzerland, while traveling to a film festival there, but was later released and allowed to return to France.\n", "Preparations for a movie he was working on about the Dreyfus affair had been stalled by the extradition request.\n\nOn 3 May 2018, Polanski was removed from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, with the decision referencing the case.\n\nSection::::Legal history.:Sexual abuse case.:Documentary films.\n", "On 26 September 2009, Polanski was detained by Swiss police at Zurich Airport while trying to enter Switzerland, in relation to his outstanding 1978 U.S. arrest warrant. Polanski had planned to attend the Zurich Film Festival to receive a Lifetime Achievement Award. The arrest followed a request by the United States that Switzerland apprehend Polanski. U.S. investigators had learned of his planned trip from a fax sent on 22 September 2009, from the Swiss Justice Ministry to the United States Department of Justice's Office of International Affairs, which had given them enough time to negotiate with Swiss authorities and lay the groundwork for an arrest. Polanski had been subject of an Interpol red notice at the request of the United States since 2005.\n", "In 2013, Samantha Geimer published her view on the rape in her autobiography \"\".\n\nIn late October 2014, Polanski was questioned by prosecutors in Kraków, and released. Back in 2010 the Polish prosecutor general stated that under Polish law too much time had passed since the crime for Polanski to be extradited. On 25 February 2015, Polanski appeared in a Polish court for a hearing on the U.S. request for extradition. The judge scheduled another hearing to be held in April or sooner, to give time to review documents that arrived from Switzerland.\n", "On 12 July 2010, the Swiss authorities announced that they would not extradite Polanski to the U.S. in part due to a fault in the American request for extradition. Polanski was no longer subject to house arrest, or any monitoring by Swiss authorities. In a press conference held by Swiss Justice Minister Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, she stated that Polanski's extradition to the U.S. was rejected, in part, because U.S. officials failed to produce certain documents, specifically \"confidential testimony from a January 2010 hearing on Mr. Polanski's original sentencing agreement.\" According to Swiss officials, the records were required to determine if Polanski's 42-day court-ordered psychiatric evaluation at Chino State Prison constituted Polanski's whole sentence according to the now-deceased Judge Rittenband. Reasoning that if this was the correct understanding, then \"Roman Polanski would actually have already served his sentence and therefore both the proceedings on which the U.S. extradition request is founded and the request itself would have no foundation.\"\n", "In 2010, Charlotte Lewis, accused Polanski of predatory sexual conduct against her when she was 16 years old, claiming that Polanski insisted that she sleep with him in return for casting her in \"Pirates\". \n\nIn December 2016, the Supreme Court of Poland rejected an request for Polanski's extradition. Polanski is a dual citizen of France and Poland, and lived in France, which does not extradite its citizens.\n\nSection::::Reported cases.:Woody Allen case.\n", "Roman Polanski\n\nRajmund Roman Thierry Polański (born 18 August 1933) is a French-Polish film director, producer, writer, and actor. Since 1978, he has been a fugitive from the U.S. criminal justice system, having fled the country while awaiting sentencing in his sexual abuse case, in which he pleaded guilty to statutory rape.\n", "On 30 October 2015, Polish judge Dariusz Mazur denied a request by the United States to extradite Polanski. According to the judge, allowing Polanski to be returned to American law enforcement would be an \"obviously unlawful\" act, depriving the filmmaker of his freedom and civil liberty. His lawyers argued that extradition would violate the European Convention on Human Rights. Polanski holds dual citizenship with Poland and France.\n", "Polanski fled initially to London on 1 February 1978, where he maintained a residence. A day later he traveled on to France, where he held citizenship, avoiding the risk of extradition to the United States by Britain. Consistent with its extradition treaty with the United States, France can refuse to extradite its own citizens, and an extradition request later filed by US officials was denied. The United States could have requested that Polanski be prosecuted on the California charges by the French authorities. Polanski has never returned to England and later sold his home there. The United States could still request the arrest and extradition of Polanski from other countries should he visit them, and Polanski has avoided visits to countries (such as the UK) that were likely to extradite him and mostly travelled and worked in France, Germany, the Czech Republic and Poland. In 1979, Polanski gave a controversial interview with novelist Martin Amis in which, discussing his conviction, he said \"If I had killed somebody, it wouldn't have had so much appeal to the press, you see? But ... fucking, you see, and the young girls. Judges want to fuck young girls. Juries want to fuck young girls. Everyone wants to fuck young girls!\"\n", "Although set in Paris, the film was first scheduled to shoot in Warsaw in 2014, for economic reasons. However, production was postponed after Polanski moved to Poland for filming and the U.S. Government filed extradition papers. The Polish government eventually rejected them, by which time new French film tax credits had been introduced, allowing the film to shoot on location in Paris. It was budgeted at €60m and was again set to start production in July 2016, however its production was postponed as Polanski waited on the availability of a star, whose name was not announced. In a 2017 interview Polanski discussed the difficulty of the project:\n", "On 12 July 2010, the Swiss court rejected the U.S. request and released Polanski from custody.\n\nSection::::Arrest in Zurich.:Reactions to the arrest.\n\nIn reaction to the arrest, the foreign ministers of both France and Poland urged Switzerland to release Polanski, who holds dual citizenship of both countries, but subsequently withdrew their support for Polanski.\n\nSection::::Arrest in Zurich.:Reactions to the arrest.:France.\n", "Section::::Rape case.:Original reactions to his flight.\n\nFilmmaker Joseph Losey (who exiled himself to the UK after being blacklisted by HUAC) responded to Polanski's flight by saying \"I have not contacted him – and I'm not going to.\" Actor Robert Stack called his flight \"a coward's way out,\" and then added \"the ranks are closing in on him.\"\n\nSection::::Rape case.:Post-conviction.\n", "The Court denied Polanski's petition in an opinion filed on 24 December. The Court reasoned that since Polanski had adequate legal remedies in 1977 and at present in 2009, there was no reason to carve out a special exception to the fugitive disentitlement doctrine. In arriving at that holding, the Court pointed out that neither side had realized that Polanski had the option of simply asking to be sentenced \"in absentia\", which would result in a hearing where Polanski could directly attack the trial judge's alleged malfeasance in 1977. On 6 January 2010, upon remand to the superior court, Polanski's lawyers followed the appellate court's advice and presented a notarized letter from Polanski in which he asked to be sentenced \"in absentia\". The court asked the parties to brief the issue and scheduled a hearing for 25 January. At the hearing, Superior Court Judge Peter Espinoza ruled Polanski must be present in court for sentencing.\n", "On 27 November 2015, Poland decided it will not extradite Polanski to the U.S. after prosecutors declined to challenge the court's ruling, agreeing that Polanski had served his punishment and did not need to face a U.S. court again. Preparations for a movie he was working on had been stalled by the extradition request from last year.\n\nOn 6 December 2016, the Supreme Court of Poland ruled to reject an appeal filed by Polish Minister of Justice Ziobro, and to uphold the October 2015 ruling.\n", "On 26 September 2009, Polanski was arrested while in Switzerland at the request of United States authorities. The arrest brought renewed attention to the case and stirred controversy, particularly in the United States and Europe. Polanski was defended by many prominent individuals, including Hollywood celebrities and European artists and politicians, who called for his release. American public opinion was reported to run against him, however, and polls in France and Poland showed that strong majorities favored his extradition to the United States.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "The US can force other countries to extradite suspected criminals to them." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal", "normal" ]	[ "Polanski is a French citizen, they won't extradite him and he is careful not to travel to countries that might extradite him to the US." ]
2018-09639	Why are ants suicidally drawn to a glass of soapy water?	Ants would normally float on water due to surface tension. That is because the water molecules at the surface stick together, acting like a very weak, but seemingly solid surface. Strong enough to allow [small insects to float on top]( URL_0 ). So normally, when an ant touches water to taste or drink it, it's able to rest some of its legs on the surface without sinking. But soap molecules prevent the water molecules from sticking together, breaking the surface tension. Insects can't deal with that, and are very likely to drown if they fall in. I suspect that there was something in the soap that smelled like food to the ants, so they climbed into the glass to see if it's food - thinking that it's safe to get back out. Touching the water to taste it, they fell in and drowned.	[ "BULLET::::- Workers of the tropical leafcutter ant bringing leaf fragments back to the nest are at risk of attack by parasitodic phorid flies, who often land on leaf fragments and then proceed to oviposit (egg-lay) into the ant's head. To help combat this, small workers (minims) in at least seven species of \"Atta\" hitchhike on the leaves, deterring parasitoid attack. Many possible additional functions of hitchhiking have been proposed, some pertinent to social immunity; evidence exists that the primary function of hitchhiking minims' is actually to inspect and clean the leaf fragments prior to their entry into the colony, removing microbial parasites and contaminants.\n", "The screen cuts to another scene. Some of the ants unfortunately saw the food, they called for their partners to come and then the numerous ants swarmed toward the picnic foods and carried them around. Donald saw the ants and frantically chased them away. Donald angrily ranted at those ants, and then he decided to put out infinite flypaper to let the ants stick on it to get rid of them.\n", "Inspired by earlier computer simulations that predicted a symmetry breaking phenomenon when panicked humans escape from a room with two equivalent exits, E. Altshuler and coworkers from the University of Havana designed the experiment described in the section above, which revealed the symmetry breaking effect in the leaf-cutting ant \"Atta insularis\".\n", "Suicidal defences by workers are also noted in a Brazilian ant, \"Forelius pusillus\", where a small group of ants leaves the security of the nest after sealing the entrance from the outside each evening.\n", "From the statistical point of view, human beings and ants seem to behave in a similar way in certain scenarios, such as evacuation from a room or cell under stress, resulting in symmetry breaking phenomena: while ants increase their tendency to follow each other under stress, human beings seem to forget about Emergency evacuation strategies, and just run towards the door where most people run to. However, the enormous physical and behavioural differences between humans and ants imply also big differences in their collective behavior.\n", "It is thought that species that possess a more intricate and developed prefrontal cortex have more of an ability of experiencing empathy. It has however been found that empathic and altruistic responses may also be found in sand dwelling Mediterranean ants. Researcher Hollis studied the \"Cataglyphis cursor\" sand dwelling Mediterranean ant and their rescue behaviors by ensnaring ants from a nest in nylon threads and partially buried beneath the sand. The ants not ensnared in the nylon thread proceeded to attempt to rescue their nest mates by sand digging, limb pulling, transporting sand away from the trapped ant, and when efforts remained unfruitful, began to attack the nylon thread itself; biting and pulling apart the threads. Similar rescue behavior was found in other sand-dwelling Mediterranean ants, but only \"Cataglyphis floricola\" and \"Lasius grandis\" species of ants showed the same rescue behaviors of transporting sand away from the trapped victim and directing attention towards the nylon thread. It was observed in all ant species that rescue behavior was only directed towards nest mates. Ants of the same species from different nests were treated with aggression and were continually attacked and pursued, which speaks to the depths of ants discriminative abilities. This study brings up the possibility that if ants have the capacity for empathy and/or altruism, these complex processes may be derived from primitive and simpler mechanisms.\n", "The second experiment involves a further step before opening the doors: an insect repellent fluid is poured into the cell at its center through a small hole in the glass cover. As a result, ants get very excited. If the experiment is realized many times, we see that the number of ants escaping by one of the doors (which can be randomly either the left one or the right ones) is significantly higher than the number of ants escaping by the other one, i.e., the escape symmetry is broken. The crowding of ants at one of the doors while the other one may be eventually free results in an inefficient evacuation in terms of time.\n", "Within a few years, the Ants had taken over the entire South America. The weapon of mass destruction that they used was a suicide bomb. They also used advanced technological weapons, for example, the Ants used a kind of searching, powerful light, somewhat green in colour that took away human sight in an instant. \n", "With the phone lines dead due to a car crash outside the house, preventing the survivors to call the police, they decide to hide out in the basement. However, Mrs. Perch is revealed to be stung, and a giant wasp births from her body, killing her. Flora is also killed, and Paul, Julia, Caruthers, and Sydney escape to the basement. They decide to escape in the catering van, although Paul has left his keys outside. He manages to retrieve the keys, killing a wasp in the process, although Sydney is also revealed to be stung, and a wasp births from his body, and begins controlling him before Paul, and Julia subdue him.\n", "A scorpion asks a frog to carry it across a river. The frog hesitates, afraid of being stung by the scorpion, but the scorpion argues that if it did that, they would both drown. The frog considers this argument sensible and agrees to transport the scorpion. The scorpion climbs onto the frog's back and the frog begins to swim, but midway across the river, the scorpion stings the frog, dooming them both. The dying frog asks the scorpion why it stung, to which the scorpion replies \"I couldn't help it. It's in my nature.\" \n\nSection::::Synopsis.:Moral.\n", "E. Altshuler and coworkers were able to reproduce their symmetry breaking experiments in ants using a simplified version of the theoretical model proposed earlier by Helbing et al. for humans, based on the fact that walkers tend to follow the general direction of motion of their neighbors (\"Vicsek's rule\"), and such herd behavior increases as the so-called \"panic parameter\" increases. In the case of ants, the panic parameter is supposed to be low when no repellent is used, and high when the repellent is used.\n", "The humor magazine \"National Lampoon\" parodied the story in a short story called \"Leiningen and the Snails\", in which the title character faces a swarm of \"army snails\", and has \"merely three weeks\" to think of a way to defend the plantation. He eventually brings in by air enough garlic and butter to cook all the snails into escargot.\n\nIn November 2018, the short story was adapted for BBC Radio 4's \"15 Minute Drama\" series with Timothy Watson playing the title character.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiningen Versus the Ants\" by Carl Stephenson (A history of the work) (archived link)\n", "Thomas introduces one of his key metaphors of humans behaving like ants. He suggests that this metaphor is not used because humans do not like to be compared to insects that, as a society, can function as an organism. There are many examples of animals acting as a large organism when in large groups from termites and slime molds to birds and fish. Thomas argues that the communication of results in science puts humans in the same model as these other species. As all scientists communicate and build on each other's work in order to explore that which we do not know.\n", "Autothysis in \"C. saundersi\" is common during territorial battles with other ant species or groups. Territorial weaver ants (\"Oecophylla smaragdina\") are known to stalk and attack \"C. saundersi\" for territory as well as for predation. Self-sacrifice of \"C. saundersi\" workers is likely to help the colony as a whole by ensuring that the colony retains its foraging territory. Therefore, such behavior would continue within a population given that the behavior was already genetically present within the majority of workers.\n\nSection::::Defenses.:Defense against predation.\n", "The ant \"Atta insularis\" (commonly called \"bibijagua\" in Cuba) displays a high degree of swarm intelligence, like most social insects, which has made them great survivors through millions of years of evolution. In Cuba, a person may be described as \"smarter than \"bibijaguas\"\" (\"\"sabe mas que las bibijaguas\"\"). The poor evacuation efficiency illustrated by the phenomenon of symmetry breaking in escaping ants is one of the few examples where bibijaguas do not seem to behave collectively in a smart way.\n\nSection::::Explanations.\n", "A more \"biologically-sensible\" model based on the deposition of an alarm pheromone by ants under stress also reproduces the symmetry breaking phenomenon, with the advantage that it also predicts the experimental output for different concentrations of ants in the cell.\n\nThe pheromone mechanism shares the key element of the previous models: stressed ants tend to \"follow the crowd\".\n\nSection::::Ants vs. humans escaping in panic.\n", "BULLET::::- Infanticide is practiced by male hippopotami, most likely in order to improve their chances of reproductive success. They tend to commit infanticide within 50 days of post parturition, especially when water sources are scarce and dominance hierarchies are challenged.\n\nSection::::Types of Species-Typical Behavior.:Sensory/Motor Activity.\n\nDifferent species perceive the world in different ways. The nervous systems of species develop in concert with certain anatomical features in order to produce sensory environments common to most members of that species.\n\nBULLET::::- Because mantis shrimp can visually sense and process ultraviolet light, they react to it, while animals like dogs do not.\n", "Search patterns often appear random. One such is the Lévy walk, that tends to involve clusters of short steps with occasional long steps. It is a good fit to the behaviour of a wide variety of organisms including bacteria, honeybees, sharks and human hunter-gatherers.\n\nSection::::Foraging.:Assessment.\n", "The basic idea is that the action of the repellent induces herd behavior in the ants. When ants are in \"panic\", they experience a strong tendency to follow each other. As a result, if a random fluctuation in the system produces a locally large amount of ants trying to reach one of the two doors, the fluctuation can be amplified because ants tend to follow the direction of the majority of individuals. Then, that specific door becomes crowded.\n", "Leiningen, the owner of a plantation in the Brazilian rainforest, is warned by the district commissioner that a swarm of ferocious and organised soldier ants is approaching and that he must flee. Unlike his neighbours, Leiningen is not about to give up years of hard work and planning to \"an act of God\", as he believes in the superiority of the human brain and has already made preparations. He convinces his workers to stay and fight with him.\n", "Section::::Reaction.\n", "There was a toad who lived in a pond full of fish and would eat to his fill daily, however as he grew old he could not fish and so grew hungry. As the toad sat there, old, hungry and sad, thinking of a solution, a passing crab took pity on him and asked what the problem was. The toad told the crab that fishermen were going to come and take all the fish, so he was going to die of hunger. The crab told all the fish the news and they all went to the toad for advice. The toad suggested moving to a new and safer pond nearby, and he offered to transport two fish daily. The fish took upon his offer, but the toad would take the fish and would eat them and spit their bones out near the other pond. One day the crab asked to be transferred as he had become lonely, so the toad took him, but when they arrived the crab saw the heap of bones and realised what the toad had been doing the whole time, and so quickly grabbed the toad in its pincers and snapped its neck.\n", "Later, Nick forces himself to stay still, and plugs his nose and ears with a torn latex glove. Meanwhile, Grissom manages to get a close screenshot of the ants and identifies them as Solenopsis invicta, a species of fire ant. These are only present in nurseries in Nevada, as the natural soil is unsuited to them, so he cross-references the Expedition's range and the narrowed webcam trace area to narrow the search area to two nurseries. Sara remembers the comment that Kelly made about her work at a garden center, and the CSIs race to the location.\n", "BULLET::::- Antaeus in Manhattan\n\nThomas returns to his pondering of the social behaviors of insects in this essay. He discusses the change in behavior of insects in groups and singular insects. We have used insects and their behavior to convey lessons, rules, and virtues and now they have been used in art. Thomas describes an art exhibit with living ants, surrounded by humans who act in a similar manner to the ants themselves.\n\nBULLET::::- The MBL\n", "The scorpion ant is an insect-like organism with pincers and a potentially deadly sting that lives in colonies. In Darkover Landfall a member of an expedition stepped on a nest and aroused the inhabitants, leading to his painful and sudden death.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Banshee.\n" ]	[ "Ants purposely drown in soapy water. ", "Ants are drawn to soapy water." ]	[ "Soap breaks the surface tension of water causing the ants to fall in when looking for food. ", "There was someting in the water that smelled good to the ants." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Ants purposely drown in soapy water. ", "Ants are drawn to soapy water." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Soap breaks the surface tension of water causing the ants to fall in when looking for food. ", "There was someting in the water that smelled good to the ants." ]
2018-17351	Why do pigeons walk with that head bobbing motion?	They can focus better when their eyes aren't moving. When they're doing the head-bob, it's because they are looking for food. They stop moving their head, focus on the little bits that might be edible, and then move it forward. It's not to do with balance. When they aren't hunting for food, they don't head-bob. There are other birds that head-bob for the same reason, including Chickens, Cranes, and Magpies. The behavior is noted in at least 8 of the 27 families of birds. URL_0 URL_1	[ "The wings are large, and have eleven primary feathers; pigeons have strong wing muscles (wing muscles comprise 31–44% of their body weight) and are among the strongest fliers of all birds.\n\nIn a series of experiments in 1975 by Dr.Mark B. Friedman, using doves, their characteristic head bobbing was shown to be due to their natural desire to keep their vision constant. It was shown yet again in a 1978 experiment by Dr.Barrie J. Frost, in which pigeons were placed on treadmills; it was observed that they did not bob their heads, as their surroundings were constant.\n\nSection::::Description.:Feathers.\n", "This bird has an cooing advertising call that consist of a loud, deep, guttural \"'neah-ah, neah-ah, neah-ah, neah-ah\" or \"naw-aw, naw-naw\" or \"uh-wah, uh-wah, uh-wah\". This call is so deep in timber that it is comes described as cow-like. A call, probably consisting of an excitement call, has been described as a crow-like \"krawk, krawk\".\n\nSection::::Habitat.\n", "The Spinifex pigeon and Crested pigeons have been recorded in versions of an Aboriginal Children's story from Central Australia, conveying rich symbolic meanings between the \"Geophaps\" species and associations by the Arandic people with 'kurdaitchas' (a person who sets out to kill or harm someone, often in revenge, and who leaves no trace.\n", "Singing behaviour:\n", "To obtain steady images while flying or when perched on a swaying branch, birds hold the head as steady as possible with compensating reflexes. Maintaining a steady image is especially relevant for birds of prey. Because the image can be centered on the deep fovea of only one eye at a time, most falcons when diving use a spiral path to approach their prey after they have locked on to a target individual. The alternative of turning the head for a better view slows down the dive by increasing drag while spiralling does not reduce speeds significantly.\n\nSection::::Perception.:Edges and shapes.\n", "All species of Pigeons and Doves are described as having short necks and legs, and a short, slender bill.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Head toss:\" This behavior, shown by every observed dog, is a prompt for attention, food or a sign of frustration, expressed in varying degrees depending on the level of arousal. In the complete expression, the head is swept to one side, nose rotated through a 90° arc to midline, then rapidly returned to the starting position. The entire sequence takes 1–2 seconds. The mildest expression is a slight flick of the head to the side and back. During this behavior, the characteristic contrasting black and white chin markings are displayed.\n", "The term \"columba\" comes from the Latin \"columba\", \"a dove\", the feminine form of \"columbus\", \"a male dove\", itself the latinisation of the Greek κόλυμβος (\"kolumbos\"), \"diver\", which derives from the verb κολυμβάω (\"kolumbaō\"), \"to dive, plunge headlong, swim\". The feminine form of \"kolumbos\", κολυμβίς (\"kolumbis\"), \"diver\", was the name applied by Aristophanes and others to the common rock pigeons of Greece, because of the \"swimming\" motion made by their wings when flying.\n\nSection::::Systematics.\n", "In Colombia, the species is called \"Maria mulata\", and is the official bird of Cartagena de Indias. Cartagena artist, Enrique Grau, had an affinity for these birds and, because of this inspiration, many Colombian monuments and artistic works were created in honor of the bird's intelligence, adaptability, cheerfulness, sociability, collaborative tendencies, diligence, craftiness, and ability to take advantage of adversity.\n\nIn Austin, Texas, it is commonly found congregating near the city's numerous food trucks.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "The rock pigeon has been domesticated for hundreds of years. It has been bred into several varieties kept by hobbyists, of which the best known is the homing pigeon or racing homer. Other popular breeds are tumbling pigeons such as the Birmingham roller, and fancy varieties that are bred for certain physical characteristics such as large feathers on the feet or fan-shaped tails. Domesticated rock pigeons are also bred as carrier pigeons, used for thousands of years to carry brief written messages, and release doves used in ceremonies. White doves are also commonly used in magic acts.\n\nSection::::In religion.\n", "Tumbler pigeons\n\nTumbler pigeons are varieties of domesticated pigeons descendant from the rock dove that have been selected for their ability to tumble or roll over backwards in flight.\n\nThis ability has been known in domesticated breeds of pigeons for centuries. In Wendell Levi's book \"The Pigeon\", reference is made to pigeons with this tumbling ability existing in India before the year 1590. Charles Darwin, in his book \"The Origin of Species\", makes reference to the Short-faced Tumbler which was a popular breed during his lifetime, and still can be found exhibited at pigeon shows today.\n", "All \"Geophaps\" pigeons exhibit a bowing display during courtship. The Spinifex pigeon and Crested pigeon's display is performed with a raising and fanning out of the tail with their folded wings partly opened to display their iridescent wing marks to their potential partner. The other members of the \"Geophaps\" displays and bows in a very similar manner.\n", "Motmots often move their tails back and forth in a wag-display that commonly draws attention to an otherwise hidden bird. Research indicates that motmots perform the wag-display when they detect predators (based on studies on turquoise-browed motmot) and that the display is likely to communicate that the motmot is aware of the predator and is prepared to escape. This form of interspecific pursuit-deterrent signal provides a benefit to both the motmot and the predator: the display prevents the motmot from wasting time and energy fleeing, and the predator avoids a costly pursuit that is unlikely to result in capture.\n", "Pigeons showed mirror-related behaviours during the mirror test.\n\nSection::::Discrimination abilities of pigeons.\n", "Section::::Calls.\n\nThree distinct calls have been described. The first, ‘coo-oo, eee’, might be related to nestlings. The second, ‘coo-oo, ooo’, is distinctly louder but still soft. The third, ‘cor-or’, is \"a quiet, croaky, almost guttural utterance\", not unlike the call of the domestic pigeon. During times of flocking and mass feeding, this pigeon has a short raucous call. This last call has been described as \"a distant flying fox or domestic pig\".\n\nSection::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "Three subspecies are recognised:\n\nBULLET::::- \"V. c. demissus\" (Friedmann, 1928) – north Somalia\n\nBULLET::::- \"V. c. coronatus\" (Boddaert, 1783) – Ethiopia and east Africa to Zambia and South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- \"V. c. xerophilus\" Clancey, 1960 – southwest Angola to west South Africa and west Zimbabwe\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nThe crowned lapwing is easily recognized by its combination of brown and white colours, with most tellingly, a black crown intersected by an annular white halo. Adults are noisy and conspicuous.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.\n", "The call is nasal, croaking and far-carrying.\n", "Research by Jon Hagstrum of the US Geological Survey suggests that homing pigeons use low-frequency infrasound to navigate. Sound waves as low 0.1 Hz have been observed to disrupt or redirect pigeon navigation. The pigeon ear, being far too small to interpret such a long wave, directs pigeons to fly in a circle when first taking air, in order to mentally map such long infrasound waves.\n", "This conspicuous fiscal can often be seen in small groups perching in the open especially noticeable on telegraph poles and wires. It characteristically waggles its long tail from side to side excitedly. It can be distinguished from the common fiscal, \"Lanius collaris\", by its gray back and more robust shape.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "If the pigeon became alert, it would often stretch out its head and neck in line with its body and tail, then nod its head in a circular pattern. When aggravated by another pigeon, it raised its wings threateningly, but passenger pigeons almost never actually fought. The pigeon bathed in shallow water, and afterwards lay on each side in turn and raised the opposite wing to dry it.\n", "A light-mediated mechanism that involves the eyes and is lateralized has been examined somewhat, but developments have implicated the trigeminal nerve in magnetoception. Research by Floriano Papi (Italy, early 1970s) and more recent work, largely by Hans Wallraff, suggest that pigeons also orient themselves using the spatial distribution of atmospheric odors, known as olfactory navigation.\n\nOther research indicates that homing pigeons also navigate through visual landmarks by following familiar roads and other man-made features, making 90-degree turns and following habitual routes, much the same way that humans navigate.\n", "When circling overhead, the white underwing of the bird becomes conspicuous. In its flight, behaviour, and voice, which is more of a dovecot \"coo\" than the phrase of the wood pigeon, it is a typical pigeon. Although it is a relatively strong flier, it also glides frequently, holding its wings in a very pronounced V shape as it does. Though fields are visited for grain and green food, it is often not plentiful enough as to be a viewed as pest.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Element Characteristics:\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Head:\" Lightly curved, longish and narrow with a fairly flat frontal. The crest develops from the back of the shoulders and runs up to the apex, and here developing into a sharp conical point upon the head. The feathers from both sides of the shoulders converge together into a ridge or niche which runs up the back of the neck to form the crest.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eyes:\" Very vivid, the iris is dark orange in color and is surrounded by a very slightly developed cere which is light pink to flesh in coloration.\n", "The male's mating display is a ritual flight, which, as with many other pigeons, consists of a rapid, near-vertical climb to height followed by a long glide downward in a circle, with the wings held below the body in an inverted \"V\" shape. At all other times, flight is typically direct using fast and clipped wing beats and without use of gliding.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03563	Why can't we bring back to life a dead body?	Once you're dead, the oxygen flow to your brain halts, and within minutes chemical reactions start to ruin the nerve cells in your brain. Once they're ruined there's no restarting them.	[ "The minor elixirs for recalling a man's ethereal breaths, the pills for countering the three Messenger-corpses [召魂小丹三使之丸], and lesser medicines made from the Five Brilliances and the Eight Minerals will sometimes melt hard ice instantly or keep one afloat in water. They can intercept ghosts and gods, lay tigers and leopards, and disperse accumulations in the digestive system and our organs. They dislodge the two lackeys of illness from the heart region and the diaphragm (Tso, Ch'eng 10.5); they raise those who have just died; return frightened ethereal breaths to the body they had quit. All these are common, everyday medicines. And, if they can still restore the dead to life, why should the superior medicines not be able to make the living immortal? (5, tr. Ware 1966: 102) \n", "When Lt. Eve Dallas and Detective Delia Peabody are called to the murder scene of Dr. Wilfred B. Icove Sr., things already don't make sense. Dr. Icove was renowned as a sainted genius of cosmetic and reconstructive surgery, and no one, not even his son Wilfred Icove Jr., benefits from his death. What's even stranger are the security disks that reveal a woman (with initials DNA) walking into Icove's office, killing him with a single stab in the heart and walking out again.\n", "In his book \"Mind Children\", roboticist Hans Moravec proposed that a future supercomputer might be able to resurrect long-dead minds from the information that still survived. For example, this information can be in the form of memories, filmstrips, medical records, and DNA.\n\nRay Kurzweil, American inventor and futurist, believes that when his concept of singularity comes to pass, it will be possible to resurrect the dead by digital recreation.\n", "Section::::Corpse Reviver №2 & №2.\n", "In many countries, the law requires that dead bodies be chilled with dry ice or mechanical refrigeration to prevent microbial growth, though there are no laws mandating embalming, contrary to popular belief. Many cultures around the world use no artificial cooling at all, and bodies are regularly held for several days before their final disposal.\n\nSpecial circumstances, such as an extended time between death and burial, or the transportation of remains on commercial flights (which often require unembalmed bodies to travel in expensive specialized containers), may necessitate embalming.\n", "Bodies submerged in a peat bog may become naturally \"embalmed\", arresting decomposition and resulting in a preserved specimen known as a bog body. The time for an embalmed body to be reduced to a skeleton varies greatly. Even when a body is decomposed, embalming treatment can still be achieved (the arterial system decays more slowly) but would not restore a natural appearance without extensive reconstruction and cosmetic work, and is largely used to control the foul odors due to decomposition.\n\nAn animal can be preserved almost perfectly, for millions of years in a resin such as amber.\n", "This condition of apparent death or interruption of vital signs may be similar to a medical interpretation of suspended animation. It is only possible to recover signs of life if the brain and other vital organs suffer no cell deterioration, necrosis or molecular death principally caused by oxygen deprivation or excess temperature (especially high temperature).\n", "In a post-apocalyptic future, a male zombie still in the early stages of decay lives in a community of the dead in an abandoned airport near the city. He cannot remember his name, and refers to himself as “R”. After the collapse of human civilization, zombies hunt for the living, seeking to eat their brains; doing so allows them to relive the memories, feelings, and thoughts of their prey. Zombies whose flesh has completely decayed away are known as Boneys; others are known as Fleshies. R, a Fleshy, is unusual as he shows distaste for eating human flesh, and can form several coherent syllables in one breath.\n", "Cryopreservation of people or large animals is not reversible with current technology. The stated rationale for cryonics is that people who are considered dead by current legal or medical definitions may not necessarily be dead according to the more stringent information-theoretic definition of death.\n\nSome scientific literature is claimed to support the feasibility of cryonics. Medical science and cryobiologists generally regards cryonics with skepticism.\n\nSection::::Life extension.\n", "Section::::False risks.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Tombling Day\" \"(originally published in \"Shenandoah\", Fall 1952)\": In a small town in Missouri, an unused graveyard will be emptied to later be part of a new road. The locals agreed to remove the old bones. An old woman exhumes her then fiancé and brings his coffin home for a final requiem. She is astonished to discover that her beloved remains exactly as he was buried 60 years ago: a jolly 23-year old man. The woman suddenly feels her old age oppressive, as she is unable to match her past beauty.\n", "The human race has spread to many star systems which are named the Greater Commonwealth. There are Inner Worlds, where most—if not all—of the citizens are \"Higher humans\"—humans who utilise biononics. Biononics enable the human body to essentially live forever as they rejuvenate the human body on a constant basis. Almost every human has a memory cell insert which records every piece of information stored in the owner's brain. In the event of bodyloss (death), this data can be downloaded into a clone of the original human, effectively eliminating death. Using so called secure stores, this data can even be stored in a second facility. If the memory cell is lost re-life is still possible, although without an uninterrupted continuity (a \"restore\" from a memory cell usually enables a clone to know how he died).\n", "This is not possible in a donation from someone pronounced dead.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Much interest and debate surround the question of what happens to one's consciousness as one's body dies. The belief in the permanent loss of consciousness after death is often called \"eternal oblivion\". Belief that the stream of consciousness is preserved after physical death is described by the term \"afterlife\". Neither are likely to ever be confirmed without the ponderer having to actually die.\n\nSection::::In biology.\n", "In an alternate version of 18th Century England scientist Victor Frankenstein discovered a method of reanimating a corpse with a soul that could think, feel and speak. After his creation was destroyed another method was used to replace the missing Soul with an artificial soul known as \"Necroware.\" It can be upgraded like a computer program, though the corpses are unable to speak, feel or think for themselves. \n", "BULLET::::- Josh Robert Thompson as the voice of Morgan Freeman\n\nSection::::Cast and characters.:Guest.\n\nBULLET::::- Rory Scovel as Cool Pharmacist (\"A Body and a Puddle\")\n\nBULLET::::- Seth Morris as Nude Beach Bully 1 (\"A Body and an Actor\")\n\nBULLET::::- John Gemberling as Nude Beach Bully 2 (\"A Body and an Actor\")\n\nBULLET::::- Ron Funches as Terry (\"A Body and a Plane\")\n\nBULLET::::- Eugene Cordero as Gregory (\"A Body and a High School Reunion\")\n\nBULLET::::- Diona Reasonover as Julie (\"A Body and Some Pants\")\n\nBULLET::::- Brody Stevens as Brody (\"A Body and Some Pants)\n", "Section::::Conception.\n", "Section::::Plot.:2007.\n", "While the existence of necrofauna is still largely hypothetical, a Pyrenean ibex was the first and only animal to have undergone the de-extinction process with moderate success. The \"unextinct\" or revived animal was born, but then died several minutes later due to a lung defect.\n", "BULLET::::- Neil Casey as Dead Guy (\"A Body and Some Pants\")\n\nBULLET::::- Rich Fulcher as Derek (\"A Body and an Ex-Con\")\n\nBULLET::::- Dana Gaier as Daria (\"A Body and a Jet Ski\")\n\nBULLET::::- Matthew Glave as Mel (\"A Body and a Breakup\")\n\nBULLET::::- Monika Smith as Katie (\"A Body and a Breakup\")\n\nBULLET::::- Brandon Wardell as Edvard (\"A Body and a Breakup\")\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Background.\n", "In his 1994 book \"The Physics of Immortality\", American physicist Frank J. Tipler, an expert on the general theory of relativity, presented his Omega Point Theory which outlines how a resurrection of the dead could take place at the end of the cosmos. He posits that humans will evolve into robots which will turn the entire cosmos into a supercomputer which will, shortly before the Big Crunch, perform the resurrection within its cyberspace, reconstructing formerly dead humans (from information captured by the supercomputer from the past light cone of the cosmos) as avatars within its metaverse.\n", "In another story Newburgh tells of a woman whose husband recently died. The husband revives from the dead and comes to visit her at night in her bedchamber and he \"...not only terrified her on awaking, but nearly crushed her by the insupportable weight of his body.\" This happens for three nights, and the revenant then repeats these nocturnal visits with other nearby family and neighbours and \"...thus become a like serious nuisance,\" eventually extending his walks in the broad daylight around the village. Eventually the problem was solved by the bishop of Lincoln who wrote a letter of absolution, upon which the man's tomb was opened wherein it was seen his body was still there, the letter was placed on his chest, and the tomb re-interred and sealed.\n", "While most people can afford to get resleeved at the end of their lives, they are unable to update their bodies and most go through the full aging process each time, which discourages most from resleeving more than once or twice. So while normal people can live indefinitely in theory, most choose not to. Only the wealthy are able to acquire replacement bodies on a continual basis. The long-lived are called Meths, a reference to the Biblical figure Methuselah. The very rich are also able to keep copies of their minds in remote storage, which they update regularly. This ensures that even if their stack is destroyed, they can be resleeved.\n", "One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. As a point in time, death would seem to refer to the moment at which life ends. Determining when death has occurred is difficult, as cessation of life functions is often not simultaneous across organ systems. Such determination therefore requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is difficult, due to there being little consensus on how to define life.\n", "Some scientists believe that the dead may one day be \"resurrected\" through simulation technology.\n\nSection::::Research.:Young blood injection.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00254	Why does rapid changing weather cause people to get sick?	The simple answer to your question is that it doesn’t. There is no evidence that temperature changes make one sick. Instead, people likely make false correlations (X% of people get sick on any given day and some of those days have temperature changes) or other factors that happened with a temperature change — plants blooming in spring, a cold front that brings new allergens in the air — are actually a cause rather than the temperature change per se.	[ "Infectious disease often accompanies extreme weather events, such as floods, earthquakes and drought. These local epidemics occur due to loss of infrastructure, such as hospitals and sanitation services, but also because of changes in local ecology and environment. For example, malaria outbreaks have been strongly associated with the El Niño cycles of a number of countries (India and Venezuela, for example). El Niño can lead to drastic, though temporary, changes in the environment such as temperature fluctuations and flash floods. Because of global warming there has been a marked trend towards more variable and anomalous weather. This has led to an increase in the number and severity of extreme weather events. This trend towards more variability and fluctuation is perhaps more important, in terms of its impact on human health, than that of a gradual and long-term trend towards higher average temperature.\n", "Section::::Environment.\n\nThis pathogen has a wide geographical distribution. Strains of the pathogen are present throughout various climates worldwide. Temperature can affect how symptoms appear on the host. Optimal temperature for growth of \"C. acutatum\" is 25 degrees Celsius. For instance, in weather with high humidity, orange colored spores appear on the hosts’ lesions. Specifically in strawberries, this disease appears to be more harmful in warm climates. \" \"Transference of disease occurs when conidia are spread by water, specifically rain or irrigation water. Another way of contamination is from infected equipment or wind. \n\nSection::::Management.\n\nSection::::Management.:Cultural Control.\n", "Airborne transmission of disease depends on several physical variables endemic to the infectious particle. Environmental factors influence the efficacy of airborne disease transmission; the most evident environmental conditions are temperature and relative humidity. The sum of all the factors that influence temperature and humidity, either meteorological (outdoor) or human (indoor), as well as other circumstances influencing the spread of the droplets containing the infectious particles, as winds, or human behavior, sum up the factors influencing the transmission of airborne diseases.\n", "The mould is highly weather sensitive. During the time when the weather is cool, wet, or overcast the disease can evolve in a greenhouse or field. The disease spreads rapidly because of the pathogen. The rate of continental spread is based on the potential for high levels of inoculum and effective wind spores. When the weather is clear, dry, and hot the disease usually stops spreading and more than likely stops all together.\n\nSection::::Spreading the disease.\n", "Currently, pathogens take 10-16% of the global harvest and this level is likely to rise as plants are at an ever-increasing risk of exposure to pests and pathogens. Historically, cold temperatures at night and in the winter months would kill off insects, bacteria and fungi. The warmer, wetter winters are promoting fungal plant diseases like soybean rust to travel northward. Soybean rust is a vicious plant pathogen that can kill off entire fields in a matter of days, devastating farmers and costing billions in agricultural losses. Another example is the Mountain Pine Beetle epidemic in BC, Canada which killed millions of pine trees because the winters were not cold enough to slow or kill the growing beetle larvae. The increasing incidence of flooding and heavy rains also promotes the growth of various other plant pests and diseases. On the opposite end of the spectrum, drought conditions favour different kinds of pests like aphids, whiteflies and locusts.\n", "Warming oceans and a changing climate are resulting in extreme weather patterns which have brought about an increase of infectious diseases—both new and re-emerging. These extreme weather patterns are creating extended rainy seasons in some areas, and extended periods of drought in others, as well as introducing new climates to different regions. These extended seasons are creating climates that are able to sustain vectors for longer periods of time, allowing them to multiply rapidly, and also creating climates that are allowing the introduction and survival of new vectors.\n\nSection::::Impact on disease.:Impact on infectious diseases.:Impact of warmer and wetter climates.\n", "This trend towards more variability and fluctuation is perhaps more important, in terms of its impact on human health, than that of a gradual and long-term trend towards higher average temperature. Infectious disease often accompanies extreme weather events, such as floods, earthquakes and drought. These local epidemics occur due to loss of infrastructure, such as hospitals and sanitation services, but also because of changes in local ecology and environment.\n\nSection::::Health.:Diseases.\n", "With increasing weather extreme trends, vector and water-borne diseases, as well as allergies become more prevalent in these conditions. These infectious diseases and what accompanies them (mosquitoes, tics etc.) rely upon the environment to spread and survive. The reproduction and spread of these diseases are severely affected by weather fluctuations.\n", "Environment plays a key role on whether the disease develops in a plant or not. While the host plant and microbe may be present, if the environment is not conducive, then there will not be disease. Pythium root dysfunction develops in the roots of creeping bentgrass in the fall, winter, and spring when mean soil temperatures are between 50-70℉. This pathogen reduces the ability of roots to absorb water and nutrients from the soil, which makes the disease much more harmful during times of stress, such as low fertility, low soil oxygen levels, and especially drought. Because of this, symptoms are most common during warm periods in the summer when soil temperature is within key range.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\n\"Didymella bryoniae\" is common in the Southern U.S. and other subtropical or tropical locations . Most infections occur during rainy/wet seasons, in which the humid is greater than 90% and the temperature is roughly 20-24 °C . Humidity seems to be a larger factor than temperature when it comes to infection success . \"D. bryoniae\" can also be found in temperate regions, especially where winter squash and pumpkins are grown . This pathogen is also common in greenhouses where cucumbers are grown .\n", "Another result of the warming oceans are stronger hurricanes, which will wreak more havoc on land, and in the oceans, and create more opportunities for vectors to breed and infectious diseases to flourish. Extreme weather also means stronger winds. These winds can carry vectors tens of thousands of kilometers, resulting in an introduction of new infectious agents to regions that have never seen them before, making the humans in these regions even more susceptible.\n\nSection::::Extreme weather events.:Glacial melting.\n", "BULLET::::- Climate and living area. Rainfall (number of rainy days being more important than total precipitation), mean of sunshine daily hours, latitude, altitude are characteristic agents to take in account when assessing the possibility of spread of any airborne infection. Furthermore, some infrequent or exceptional extreme events also influence the dissemination of airborne diseases, as tropical storms, hurricanes, typhoons, or monsoons. Climate conditions determine temperature, winds and relative humidity in any territory, either all year around or at isolated moments (days or weeks). Those are the main factors affecting the spread, duration and infectiousness of droplets containing infectious particles. For instance, influenza virus, is spread easily in northern countries (north hemisphere), because of climate conditions which favour the infectiousness of the virus but on the other hand, in those countries, lots of bacterial infections cannot spread outdoor most of the year, keeping in a latent stage.\n", "The disease can tolerate warm or freezing temperature, but favorable conditions for the disease include wet and humid weather. Irrigated fields provide a favorable environment for the disease. The disease has become quite prevalent in semi-tropical regions, but can found all over the world where wheat is grown. Strong winds that blow soils help contribute to the spread of disease. When the spread is initiated by wind blown soil particles, symptoms will be found most readily towards the edges of the field.\n\nSection::::Management of BLS.\n", "A changing climate thus affects the prerequisites of population health: clean air and water, sufficient food, natural constraints on infectious disease agents, and the adequacy and security of shelter. A warmer and more variable climate leads to higher levels of some air pollutants. It increases the rates and ranges of transmission of infectious diseases through unclean water and contaminated food, and by affecting vector organisms (such as mosquitoes) and intermediate or reservoir host species that harbour the infectious agent (such as cattle, bats and rodents). Changes in temperature, rainfall and seasonality compromise agricultural production in many regions, including some of the least developed countries, thus jeopardising child health and growth and the overall health and functional capacity of adults. As warming proceeds, the severity (and perhaps frequency) of weather-related disasters will increase – and appears to have done so in a number of regions of the world over the past several decades. Therefore, in summary, global warming, together with resultant changes in food and water supplies, can indirectly cause increases in a range of adverse health outcomes, including malnutrition, diarrhea, injuries, cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, and water-borne and insect-transmitted diseases.\n", "Section::::Environment.\n\n\"P. megakarya\" is found in Central and Western Africa. During the cooler wetter times of the year, there is a spike in the incidents of black pod disease as when compared to the hotter more dry times of the year. The disease has a spike shortly after a rainfall.\n", "As climate change proceeds, more Erythromelalgia outbreaks may occur because of the extreme weather events that are projected to increase in coming decades.\n\nSection::::Impact on disease.:Impact on infectious diseases.\n", "Power outages can also occur within areas experiencing heat waves due to the increased demand for electricity (i.e. air conditioning use). The urban heat island effect can increase temperatures, particularly overnight.\n\nSection::::Extreme temperatures.:Cold waves.\n", "A 2015 study found that artificial cloudiness caused by contrail \"outbreaks\" reduces the difference between daytime and nighttime temperatures. The former are decreased and the latter are increased, in comparison to temperatures the day before and the day after such outbreaks. On days with outbreaks the day/night temperature difference was diminished by about 6 °F in the U.S. South and 5 °F in the Midwest.\n", "Arguably one of the worst effects that drought has directly on human health is the destruction of food supply. Farmers who depend on weather to water their crops lose tons of crops per year due to drought. Plant growth is severely stunted without adequate water, and plant resistance mechanisms to fungi and insects weaken like human immune systems. The expression of genes is altered by increased temperatures, which can also affect a plant's resistance mechanisms. One example is wheat, which has the ability to express genes that make it resistant to leaf and stem rusts, and to the Hessian fly; its resistance declines with increasing temperatures.\n", "The disease cycle starts when the pathogen overwinters as mycelium or fruiting structures in leaf debris and spores are spread by rain splash infecting new leaves as they emerge in the spring when conditions are favorable. Disease development is most successful in cool daytime temperatures and cold nighttime temperatures, high relative humidity, and wet conditions. \n", "Understanding the climate conditions that can lead to rust outbreaks is an important component for management strategies, but this was not well understood in the early decades of this epidemic. More recent information has shown that certain weather patterns such as high humidity, wet pine needles, and temperatures around for approximately 18 days can increase the spread of basiodiospores and therefore increase disease severity. \n", "Other diseases on the rise due to extreme weather include hantavirus, schistosomiasis, onchocerciasis (river blindness), and tuberculosis. It also causes the rise in hay fever, as when the weather gets warmer there is a rise in pollen levels in the air.\n\nProjected increases in temperature would make parts of southwest Asia uninhabitable, when temperature combined with high humidity reaches a wet-bulb temperature of 35 °C, the threshold for a fit human to survive in well-ventilated conditions.\n", "According to the World Meteorological Organization, the severe heat waves across the Northern Hemisphere in the summer of 2018, are linked to climate change, as well as events of extreme precipitation. The results were an increase in mortality of the elderly, severe declines in crop yields, as well as the biggest algae bloom in the Baltic sea in decades. This had the effect of poisoning water both for human and animal use. Additionally, nuclear power plants in Europe were having issues, because the water in the rivers, that is used for cooling the reactors, was too warm. This had the effect of electricity grids crashing across four continents. The impacts were severe, even in the countries that are considered well prepared to deal with the impacts of climate change.\n", "Communicable diseases are increased due to many pathogens and bacteria that are being transported by the water. In floods where there are many fatalities in the water there is a hygienic problem with the handling of bodies, due to the panic stricken mode that comes over a town in distress. There are many water contaminated diseases such as cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis E and diarrheal diseases, to mention a few. There are certain diseases that are directly correlated with floods they include any dermatitis and any wound, nose, throat or ear infection. Gastrointestinal disease and diarrheal diseases are very common due to a lack of clean water during a flood. Most of clean water supplies are contaminated when flooding occurs. Hepatitis A and E are common because of the lack of sanitation in the water and in living quarters depending on where the flood is and how prepared the community is for a flood.\n", "Epidemic EM appears quite common in southern China, most likely due to a sharp decline in temperature following by a rapid increase of temperature and the effects this has on the body. It is postulated that the acral small superficial arteries intensely constrict and dilate during the sharp decline of temperature, whereas a sharp increase of temperature, the intense expansion of capillaries irritate the nerve endings around, and thus lead to syndromes including (first and second degree) burning pain, increased temperature, erythema and swelling. As climate change proceeds, more EM outbreaks may occur because of the extreme weather events that are projected to increase in coming decades thus making Erythromelalgia the first known disease, that isn't of infectious origin, that could be directly affected by climate change.\n" ]	[ "Rapidly changing weather causes people to get sick." ]	[ "Rapidly changing weather does not cause people to get sick." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Rapidly changing weather causes people to get sick." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Rapidly changing weather does not cause people to get sick." ]
2018-16996	why is it not common practice to eat bugs in North America?	Why should we? We don’t have the agricultural and protein deficiencies that usually prompt eating gross crawly things.	[ "The leafcutter ant \"Atta laevigata\" is traditionally eaten in some regions of Colombia and northeast Brazil. In southern Africa, the widespread moth \"Gonimbrasia belina\"'s large caterpillar, the \"mopani\" or \"mopane worm\", is a source of food protein. In Australia, the witchetty grub is eaten by the indigenous population. The grubs of \"Hypoderma tarandi\", a reindeer parasite, were part of the traditional diet of the Nunamiut people. \"Udonga montana\" is a pentatomid bug that has periodic population outbreaks and is eaten in northeastern India.\n", "The anthropologist Marvin Harris has suggested that the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have other protein sources which require more work to obtain, such as poultry or cattle, though there are cultures which feature both animal husbandry and entomophagy. Examples can be found in Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe where strong cattle-raising traditions co-exist with entomophagy of insects like the mopane worm. In addition, people in cultures where entomophagy is common are not indiscriminate in their choice of insects, as Thai consumers of insects perceive edible insects not consumed within their culture in a similar way as Western consumers.\n", "In Thailand, certain insects are also consumed, especially in northern provinces. Traditional markets in Thailand often have stalls selling deep-fried grasshoppers, cricket (\"ching rit\"), bee larvae, silkworm (\"non mai\"), ant eggs (\"khai mot\") and termites.\n\nThe use of insects as an ingredient in traditional foodstuffs in places such as Hidalgo in Mexico has been on a large enough scale to cause their populations to decline.\n\nSection::::Eating insects in human cultures.:Western culture.\n", "For a list of edible insects consumed locally see: List of edible insects by country.\n\nSection::::Edible insects.:Edible insects for industrialized mass production.\n\nIn Western markets such as Europe and North America, academics as well as large-scale insect food producers such as \"Entomofarms\" in Canada, \"Aspire Food Group\" in the United States, \"Protifarm\" in the Netherlands, and \"Bühler Group\" in Switzerland, focus on four insects species suitable for human consumption as well as industrialized mass production:\n\nBULLET::::- House cricket (\"Acheta domesticus\")\n\nBULLET::::- European migratory locust (\"Locusta migratoria\")\n\nBULLET::::- Mealworms (\"Tenebrio molitor\") as larvae\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hydrophilus affinis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oecophylla smaragdina\"\n\nSection::::Malaysia.\n\nInsects eaten in Sabah:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rhynchophorus ferrugineus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apis dorsata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apis cerana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ropalidia\" spp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leptocorisa oratoria\" (rice ear bug)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nezara viridula\" (green stinkbug)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Erionata thrax\" (banana leaf-roller pupa)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Orientopsaltria spp.\" (brown and green cicadas)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dundubia spp.\" (light green cicadas)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oecophylla smaragdina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Camponotus gigas\" (giant forest ant)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haaniella grayi grayi\" (stick insect eggs)\n\nSection::::Mexico.\n\nMexico insects:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Comadia redtenbacheri\" (mezcal worm)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aegiale hesperiaris\" (maguey worm)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sphenarium\" spp. (chapulines)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liometopum apiculatum\" larvae (escamol)\n\nBULLET::::- Several \"Choleoptera\" larvae (chahuis)\n\nSection::::New Caledonia.\n", "Section::::Disadvantages.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:Spoilage.\n\nSpore forming bacteria can spoil both raw and cooked insect protein, threatening to cause food poisoning. While edible insects must be processed with care, simple methods are available to prevent spoilage. Boiling before refrigeration is recommended; drying, acidification, or use in fermented foods also seem promising.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:Toxicity.\n", "Section::::Advantages of eating insects.:Food security.:Indigenous cultivation.\n", "Table below combined the data from two studies published in Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, and summarized the potential hazards of the top five insect species consumed by humans.\n\nHazards in insects that are shown above can be controlled by various ways. Allergic hazard can be labelled on the package to avoid consumed by the allergy susceptible consumers. Selective farming can be used to minimize chemical hazard, whereas microbial and parasitical hazard can be controlled by cooking processes.\n\nSection::::Food safety.:Regulation and authorisation.\n\nSection::::Food safety.:Regulation and authorisation.:Switzerland.\n", "On 1 May 2017, Switzerland has approved the following insect species as food:\n\nBULLET::::- House cricket (\"Acheta domesticus\")\n\nBULLET::::- European locust (\"Locusta migratoria\")\n\nBULLET::::- Mealworms (\"Tenebrio molitor\") as larvae\n\nUnder certain conditions, these may be offered to consumers as whole animals, pulverized, or processed in food products.\n\nSection::::Food safety.:Regulation and authorisation.:EU.\n", "BULLET::::- Human interactions with insects\n\nBULLET::::- Human interactions with insects in southern Africa\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Calder, Daniel. \"The Dietitian's Guide to Eating Bugs\" 2013 ebook \n\nBULLET::::- Holt, Vincent. \"Why Not Eat Insects?\" 1885 Pamphlet Full text of the 1885 pamphlet \"Why Not Eat Insects\" by Vincent Holt, with French cuisine recipes\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Nejame, Sam. \"Man Bites Insect\" \"New York Times Sunday Magazine\". 10 February 2008.]\n\nBULLET::::- Dicke, Marcel. \"Why not eat insects?\", \"TEDxAmsterdam\". Retrieved 12 March 2011.\n\nBULLET::::- Risk profile related to production and consumption of insects as food and feed European Food Safety Authority 2015\n", "List of edible insects by country\n\nThe following are edible insects that are locally consumed, as listed by country.\n\nSection::::Australia.\n\nBULLET::::- Honeypot ant\n\nBULLET::::- Witchetty grub\n\nSection::::China.\n\nWasp species eaten in Yunnan, China:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vespa velutinia auraria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vespa tropica ducalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vespa analis nigrans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vespa variabilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vespa sorror\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vespa basalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vespa magnifica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vespa mandarinia mandarinia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vespa bicolor bicolor\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Provespa barthelemyi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Polistes sagittarius\"\n\nOther insects consumed in China:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tenebrio molitor\" (mealworm)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Omphisa fuscidentalis\" (bamboo borer)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bombyx mori\" (silkworm pupa)\n\nSection::::India.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Darthula hardwickii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Udonga montana\n\nSection::::Indonesia.\n", "Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects are inadvertently present in many foods, especially grains. Food safety laws in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit their quantity. According to cultural materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris, the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have other protein sources such as fish or livestock.\n", "Section::::Farming, production, and processing.\n\nEdible insects are raised as livestock in specialized insect farms. In North American as well as European countries such as the Netherlands or Belgium, insects are produced under strict food law and hygiene standard for human consumption.\n", "The eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults of certain insects have been eaten by humans from prehistoric times to the present day. Around 3,000 ethnic groups practice entomophagy. Human insect-eating is common to cultures in most parts of the world, including Central and South America, Africa, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Eighty percent of the world's nations eat insects of 1,000 to 2,000 species. In some societies, primarily western nations, entomophagy is uncommon or taboo. Today, insect eating is uncommon in North America and Europe, but insects remain a popular food elsewhere, and some companies are trying to introduce insects as food into Western diets. FAO has registered some 1,900 edible insect species and estimates that there were, in 2005, some two billion insect consumers worldwide. They suggest eating insects as a possible solution to environmental degradation caused by livestock production.\n", "The book has recipes that are organized by bug and it says how to store the insects. Some of the insects are crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, termites, ants, and bees. There is also a list of references, places to purchase insects, and organizations that put on insect events at which bugs are available to sample. The book says that U.S. Food and Drug Administration allows as many as 56 insect parts in every peanut butter and jelly sandwich, up to 60 aphids in 3 ounces of frozen broccoli, and two or three fruit-fly maggots per 200 grams of tomato juice.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Copris carinicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Copris nevinsoni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paracopris punctulatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Microcopris reflexus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paracopris\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gymnopleurus melanarius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heliocopris bucephalus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heteronychus lioderes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liatongus rhadamitus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onitis niger\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onitis subopagus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus orientalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus avocetta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus bonasus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus khonmiinitnoi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus papulatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus sagittarius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus seniculus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus ragoides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus tragus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus tricornis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus trituber\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Onthophagus\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sternocera aequisignata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sternocera ruficornis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hemiptera\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diplonychus\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lethocerus indicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anoplocnemis phasiana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homoeocerus\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cylindrostethus scrutator\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laccotrephes rubber\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ranatra longipes thai\"\n", "Section::::Basis for using insects in feed.:Frequently consumed insect species.\n\nThere are quite a few debated estimates of numbers of edible insect species ranging from 1000 to 1900 species globally. Order of most consumed species of insect varies by region due to different environment, ecosystems, and climate. The table below lists top five insects consumed by humans worldwide, retrieved from Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security by Arnold van Huis, Joost Van Itterbeeck, Harmke Klunder, Esther Mertens, Afton Halloran, Giulia Muir and Paul Vantomme.\n", "Cases of lead poisoning after consumption of chapulines were reported by the California Department of Health Services in November 2003. Adverse allergic reactions are also a possible hazard.\n\nSection::::Promotion and policy instruments.\n\nThe Food and Agriculture Organization has displayed an interest in developing entomophagy on multiple occasions. In 2008, the FAO organized a conference to \"discuss the potential for developing insects in the Asia and Pacific region.\". According to Durst, FAO efforts in entomophagy will focus on regions in which entomophagy has been historically accepted but has recently experienced a decline in popularity.\n", "BULLET::::- Termites are either eaten alive directly where they're found or are brought home to be roasted over coals or fried.\n\nBULLET::::- Cicadas are boiled, fried, or sautéed.\n\nBULLET::::- Water bugs may be eaten whole, steamed, fried, or roasted and canned.\n\nBULLET::::- Scorpions are skewered alive and fried in oil.\n\nBULLET::::- Tarantulas are fried in oil or roasted over a fire.\n\nIn Silveiras, Brazil, residents pluck the wings off ants and then either fry them or dip them in chocolate. In Thailand, crickets are gathered fresh in the morning and then fried.\n\nSection::::Slaughter methods.:Industrial farms.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ranatra varripes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anisops barbutus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anisops bouvieri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pygopalty\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tessaratoma papillosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tessaratoma javanica\"\n\nBULLET::::- Odonata\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aeshna\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceriagrion\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Epophtalmia vittigera bellicose\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rhyothemis\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- Hymenoptera\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apis dorsata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apis florea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oecophylla smaragdina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carebara castanea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vespa affinis indosinensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Orthoptera\n\nBULLET::::- \"Acrida cinerea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Acrida\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chondacris rosea\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chortippus\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cyrtacanthacris tatarica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ducetia japonica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Locusta migratoria\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mecopoda elongate\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oxya\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parapleurus\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Patanga japonica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Patanga succincta\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shirakiacris shirakii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trilophidia annulata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atractomorpha\" sp.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cybister tripunctatus asiaticus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cybister limbatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cybister rugosus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hydaticus rhantoides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Laccophilus pulicarius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Copelatus\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rhantaticus congestus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xylotrupes gideon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oryctes rhinoceros\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Adoretus\" spp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Agestrata orichalca\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anomala anguliceps\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anomala antique\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anomala chalcites\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anomala cupripes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anomala pallida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apogonia\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chaetadoretus cribratus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Holotrichia\" 2 spp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Maladera\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pachnessa\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Protaetia\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sophrops absceussus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"S. bituberculatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"S. rotundicollis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sophrops\" 2 spp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphodius crenatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphodius marginellus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphodius putearius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphodius\" sp.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cathasius birmanicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cathasius molossus\"\n", "Cave paintings in Altamira, north Spain, which have been dated from about 30,000 to 9,000 BC, depict the collection of edible insects and wild bee nests, suggesting a possibly entomophagous society. Cocoons of wild silkworm (\"Triuncina religiosae\") were found in ruins in Shanxi Province of China, from 2,000 to 2,500 years BC. The cocoons were discovered with large holes in them, suggesting the pupae were eaten. Many ancient entomophagy practices have changed little over time compared with other agricultural practices, leading to the development of modern traditional entomophagy.\n\nSection::::Eating insects in human cultures.\n\nSection::::Eating insects in human cultures.:Traditional cultures.\n", "In general, many insects are herbivorous and less problematic than omnivores. Cooking is advisable in ideal circumstances since parasites of concern may be present. But pesticide use can make insects unsuitable for human consumption. Herbicides can accumulate in insects through bioaccumulation. For example, when locust outbreaks are treated by spraying, people can no longer eat them. This may pose a problem since edible plants have been consumed by the locusts themselves.\n", "Many cultures embrace the eating of insects. Edible insects have long been used by ethnic groups in Asia, Africa, Mexico and South America as cheap and sustainable sources of protein. Up to 2,086 species are eaten by 3,071 ethnic groups in 130 countries. The species include 235 butterflies and moths, 344 beetles, 313 ants, bees and wasps, 239 grasshoppers, crickets and cockroaches, 39 termites, and 20 dragonflies, as well as cicadas. Insects are known to be eaten in 80 percent of the world's nations. \n", "Section::::Slaughter methods.:Hobbyist entomophagy.\n\nSome \"how to\" guides for eating insects make no mention of freezing or other euthanasia methods. For example, Miles Olson recommends\n\nBULLET::::- suffocating or roasting ants\n\nBULLET::::- decapitating, gutting, and then stewing, roasting, or sautéing slugs\n\nBULLET::::- steaming and slicing snails\n\nBULLET::::- frying, roasting, toasting, suffocating, or drowning crickets\n\nBULLET::::- drowning, squeezing, and then stir frying or stewing earthworms\n\nBULLET::::- eating aphids raw\n\nand so on.\n\nThe website Insects Are Food suggests refrigerating insects to slow them down without killing them, prior to boiling or otherwise cooking them.\n" ]	[ "North Americans should consider eating bugs in North America." ]	[ "There is no real reason for North Americans to resort to eating bugs as their is no protein defeciency." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "North Americans should consider eating bugs in North America.", "North Americans should consider eating bugs in North America." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is no real reason for North Americans to resort to eating bugs as their is no protein defeciency.", "There is no real reason for North Americans to resort to eating bugs as their is no protein defeciency." ]
2018-04006	Does my whole house generator always consume the same amount power to run or does it vary contingent upon how much electricity were using ?	The bigger the load you put on it the harder the generator has to work and the more fuel it consumes. It will try to always spin at the same speed so when a load is applied it slows the generator which then consumes more fuel to get back up to speed and stay there The generator behaves very similarly to your car engine. If you're cruising on the highway and the engine is running at 2500 RPM its not consuming a lot of fuel because it doesn't need much power, but if you're carrying a lot and trying to accelerate up a hill and its at 2500 RPM then it'll consume a lot more fuel because it needs more power despite running at the same speed.	[ "Often a set might be given all three ratings stamped on the data plate, but sometimes it may have only a standby rating, or only a prime rating.\n\nSection::::Generator sizing and rating.:Sizing.\n", "In a conventional power station, the DNC rating is simply the maximum rated output minus the power consumed onsite. It is sometimes termed the \"switchyard\" output, and takes no account of transmission losses in the grid, which may be considerable in the case of a remote hydro station for example. Most but not all quoted power station ratings are DNC ratings rather than the simple capacity of the alternators.\n", "Generators must provide the anticipated power required reliably and without damage and this is achieved by the manufacturer giving one or more ratings to a specific generator set model. A specific model of a generator operated as a standby generator may only need to operate for a few hours per year, but the same model operated as a prime power generator must operate continuously. When running, the standby generator may be operated with a specified - e.g. 10% overload that can be tolerated for the expected short running time. The same model generator will carry a higher rating for standby service than it will for continuous duty. Manufacturers give each set a \"rating\" based on internationally agreed definitions.\n", "Typical application - a generator running a continuous unvarying load, or paralleled with the mains and continuously feeding power at the maximum permissible level 8,760 hours per year. This also applies to sets used for peak shaving /grid support even though this may only occur for say 200 hours per year.\n\nAs an example if in a particular set the Standby Rating were 1000 kW, then a Prime Power rating might be 850 kW, and the Continuous Rating 800 kW. However these ratings vary according to manufacturer and should be taken from the manufacturer's data sheet.\n", "The sum of the power outputs of generators on the grid is the production of the grid, typically measured in gigawatts (GW). The total energy produced is the integral of the power outputs, which is measured in gigawatt hours (GWh).\n\nSection::::Features.:Transmission losses.\n\nIt might be expected that demand and production might be equal, however, in practice power is lost in transmission lines and transformers in the transmission grid.\n\nSection::::Features.:Capacity and firm capacity.\n\nThe sum of the maximum power outputs (nameplate capacity) of the generators attached to an electrical grid might be considered to be the capacity of the grid.\n", "However, in practice, they are never run flat out simultaneously. Typically, some generators are kept running at lower output powers (spinning reserve) to deal with failures as well as variation in demand. In addition generators can be off-line for maintenance or other reasons, such as availability of energy inputs (fuel, water, wind, sun etc.) or pollution constraints.\n\n\"Firm capacity\" is the maximum power output on a grid that is immediately available over a given time period, and is a far more useful figure.\n\nSection::::Features.:Interconnectors.\n", "Some power plants are run at almost exactly their rated capacity all the time, as a non-load-following base load power plant, except at times of scheduled or unscheduled maintenance.\n\nHowever, many power plants usually produce much less power than their rated capacity.\n\nIn some cases a power plant produces much less power than its rated capacity because it uses an intermittent energy source.\n\nOperators try to pull maximum available power from such power plants, because their marginal cost is practically zero, but the available power varies widely—in particular, it may be zero during heavy storms at night.\n", "Typical application - where the generator is the sole source of power for say a remote mining or construction site, fairground, festival etc.\n\nBase Load (Continuous) Rating based on: Applicable for supplying power continuously to a constant load up to the full output rating for unlimited hours. No sustained overload capability is available for this rating. Consult authorized distributor for rating. (Equivalent to Continuous Power in accordance with ISO8528, ISO3046, AS2789, DIN6271, and BS5514). This rating is not applicable to all generator set models\n", "Section::::Generator size.\n\nGenerating sets are selected based on the electrical load they are intended to supply, the electrical load's characteristics such as kW, kVA, var, harmonic content, surge currents (e.g., motor starting current) and non-linear loads. The expected duty (such as emergency, prime or continuous power) as well as environmental conditions (such as altitude, temperature and exhaust emissions regulations) must also be considered.\n\nMost of the larger generator set manufacturers offer software that will perform the complicated sizing calculations by simply inputting site conditions and connected electrical load characteristics.\n\nSection::::Power plants – electrical \"island\" mode.\n", "BULLET::::- Seasonal (during dark winters more electric lighting and heating is required, while in other climates hot weather boosts the requirement for air conditioning)\n\nBULLET::::- Weekly (most industry closes at the weekend, lowering demand)\n\nBULLET::::- Daily (such as the morning peak as offices open and air conditioners get switched on)\n\nBULLET::::- Hourly (one method for estimating television viewing figures in the United Kingdom is to measure the power spikes during advertisement breaks or after programmes when viewers go to switch a kettle on )\n", "Electricity demand can also be separated as base load and peak demand. Base load refers to constant, or unvarying, demand for electricity. In Ontario, base load amounts to approximately 13,000 MW and is met by nuclear and hydroelectric power. These supply options generally have low operating costs. Nuclear stations are limited in their capability to rapidly change their output. Hydroelectric stations can rapidly change their output and are typically used to adjust grid supply to match instantaneous demand.\n", "Large generators are also used onboard ships that utilize a diesel-electric powertrain. Voltages and frequencies may vary in different installations.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nEngine-generators are used to provide electrical power in areas where utility (central station) electricity is unavailable, or where electricity is only needed temporarily. Small generators are sometimes used to provide electricity to power tools at construction sites. \n\nTrailer-mounted generators supply temporary installations of lighting, sound amplification systems, amusement rides etc. You can use a wattage chart to calculate the estimated power usage for different types of equipment to determine how many watts are necessary in a portable generator.\n", "The two most common distinctions between customer classes are load size and usage profile. In many cases, time-of-use (TOU) and load factor are more significant factors than load size. Contribution to peak-load is an extremely important factor in determining customer rate class (e.g. large users are normally charged on a per kVA basis based on their monthly peak load). Consumer loads may be characterized as peak, off-peak, base load, and seasonal. Utilities rate each load differently, because each has different implications for a power system and costs.\n", "For dispatchable power, this capacity depends on the internal technical capability of the plant to maintain output for a reasonable amount of time (for example, a day), neither momentarily nor permanently, and without considering external events such as lack of fuel or internal events such as maintenance. Actual output can be different from nameplate capacity for a number of reasons depending on equipment and circumstances. \n\nSection::::Non-dispatchable power.\n", "Power systems deliver energy to loads that perform a function. These loads range from household appliances to industrial machinery. Most loads expect a certain voltage and, for alternating current devices, a certain frequency and number of phases. The appliances found in residential settings, for example, will typically be single-phase operating at 50 or 60 Hz with a voltage between 110 and 260 volts (depending on national standards). An exception exists for larger centralized air conditioning systems as in some countries these are now typically three-phase because this allows them to operate more efficiently. All electrical appliances also have a wattage rating, which specifies the amount of power the device consumes. At any one time, the net amount of power consumed by the loads on a power system must equal the net amount of power produced by the supplies less the power lost in transmission.\n", "Electric power is usually measured in kilowatts (kW). Electric energy is usually measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). For example, if an electric load that draws 1.5 kW of electric power is operated for 8 hours, it uses 12 kWh of electric energy. In the United States, a residential electric customer is charged based on the amount of electric energy one uses. On the customer bill, the electric utility states the amount of electric energy, in kilowatt-hours (kWh), that the customer used since the last bill, and the cost of the energy per kilowatt-hour (kWh).\n", "A resistive load bank, the most common type, provides equivalent loading for both generators and prime movers. That is, for each kilowatt (or horsepower) of load applied to the generator by the load bank, an equal amount of load is applied to the prime mover by the generator. A resistive load bank, therefore, removes energy from the complete system: load bank from generator—generator from prime mover—prime mover from fuel. Additional energy is removed as a consequence of resistive load bank operation: waste heat from coolant, exhaust and generator losses and energy consumed by accessory devices. A resistive load bank impacts upon all aspects of a generating system.\n", "One confounding factor with estimating plug load energy use is the discrepancy between the rated or nameplate energy power consumption and the actual average power consumption, which can be as little as 10-15% of the nameplate value.\n", "In practice, the exact frequency of the grid varies around the nominal frequency, reducing when the grid is heavily loaded, and speeding up when lightly loaded. However, most utilities will adjust the frequency of the grid over the course of the day to ensure a constant number of cycles occur. This is used by some clocks to accurately maintain their time.\n\nSection::::Operating factors.\n", "Typically however it is the size of the maximum load that has to be connected and the acceptable maximum voltage drop which determines the set size, not the ratings themselves. If the set is required to start motors, then the set will have to be at least three times the largest motor, which is normally started first. This means it will be unlikely to operate at anywhere near the ratings of the chosen set.\n", "According to National Grid plc chief executive officer Steve Holliday in 2015, baseload is \"outdated\", as microgrids would become the primary means of production, and large powerplants relegated to supply the remainder.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Capacity factor\n\nBULLET::::- Energy demand management\n\nBULLET::::- Grid energy storage\n\nBULLET::::- Load balancing (electrical power)\n\nBULLET::::- Smart grid\n\nBULLET::::- Load following power plant\n\nBULLET::::- Peaking power plant\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Base Load Power Plants - Fundamentals of Electricity - Broken\n\nBULLET::::- Levelized Costs of Electricity Production by Technology - Broken\n\nBULLET::::- The Energy Resources and Economics Workbook (.doc) - Broken\n", "For a given period of time, a higher level of power causes more energy to be used. For a given power level, a longer run period causes more energy to be used. For a given amount of energy, a higher level of power causes that energy to be used in less time.\n\nSection::::Misuse of watts per hour.\n", "Generated power entering the grid is metered at the high-voltage side of the generator transformer. Any power losses in the generator transformer are therefore accounted to the generating company, not to the grid system. The power loss in the generator transformer does not contribute to the grid losses.\n\nSection::::Grid description.:Power flow.\n", "In principle, any appliance that operates to a duty cycle (such as industrial or domestic air conditioners, water heaters, heat pumps and refrigeration) could be used to provide a constant and reliable grid balancing service by timing their duty cycles in response to system load.\n", "Many gen-set manufacturers have software programs that enable the correct choice of set for any given load combination. Sizing is based on site conditions and the type of appliances, equipment, and devices that will be powered by the generator set.\n\nSection::::Fuels.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02014	What determines whether you owe or are owed taxes at the end of the year?	Most people throughout the year allow their employer to take a percentage of each paycheck and send it to the IRS, basically prepaying their taxes. This amount that is sent is basically an estimate, based on a few key pieces of information (how much is earned, how many dependents, etc) At the end of the year, you get a form called the W-2 that lists how much has been paid already to the IRS. When you fill out the tax forms and actually file taxes, the number that you owe is probably not going to match what you've already sent in. If you sent too much, the IRS will send you back the extra money, and if you sent too little, you'll have to pay the balance. Most people choose to estimate a little high, because it's easier to budget around a smaller paycheck each month and to get a little bonus earlier in the year from the tax rebate than to have to pay a lump sum when taxes are due.	[ "In the rental industry, there are specialized revenue accruals for rental income which crosses month end boundaries. These are normally utilized by rental companies who charge in arrears, based on an anniversary of a contract date. For example, a rental contract which began on 15 January, being invoiced on a recurring monthly basis will not generate its first invoice until 14 February. Therefore, at the end of the January financial period an accrual must be raised for sixteen days' worth of the monthly charge. This may be a simple pro-rate basis (e.g. 16/31 of the monthly charge) or may be more complex if only week days are being charged or a standardized month is being used (e.g. 28 days, 30 days etc.)\n", "Time and manner of payment of property taxes varies widely. Property taxes in many jurisdictions are due in a single payment by January 1. Many jurisdictions provide for payment in multiple installments. In some jurisdictions, the first installment payment is based on prior year tax. Payment is generally required by cash or check delivered or mailed to the taxing jurisdiction.\n\nSection::::Liens and seizures.\n", "Penalty for Failure to Timely Pay Tax: If a taxpayer fails to pay the balance due shown on the tax return by the due date (even if the reason of nonpayment is a bounced check), there is a penalty of 0.5% of the amount of unpaid tax per month (or partial month), up to a maximum of 25%.\n", "Year 4- $10,000 deduction taken. $5,000 deducted on June 30. $5,000 deducted \n\non December 31.\n\nYear 5- $10,000 deduction taken. $5,000 deducted on June 30. $5,000 deducted \n\non December 31.\n\nYear 6- $5,000 deduction taken on June 30.\n\nSection::::Practical effects.\n", "Taxpayers generally must self assess income tax by filing tax returns. Advance payments of tax are required in the form of withholding tax or estimated tax payments. Taxes are determined separately by each jurisdiction imposing tax. Due dates and other administrative procedures vary by jurisdiction. April 15 following the tax year is the last day for individuals to file tax returns for federal and many state and local returns. Tax as determined by the taxpayer may be adjusted by the taxing jurisdiction.\n\nSection::::Basics.\n", "Where a taxpayer has filed an income or excise tax return that shows a balance due but does not pay that balance by the due date of the return (without extensions), a different charge applies. This charge has two components: an interest charge, computed as described above, and second a penalty of 0.5% per month applied to the unpaid balance of tax and interest. The 0.5% penalty is capped at 25% of the total unpaid tax.\n\nThe underestimate penalty and interest on late payment are automatically assessed.\n\nSection::::Penalties for failure to timely file returns or timely pay tax.\n", "Generally, IRS Form 1099-C is to be filed along with reporting Form 1096 by the end of January of the year following the date when the debt was canceled. However, if that date falls on a weekend, the filing date is postponed to the next business day.\n\nSection::::Special circumstances.\n\nSection::::Special circumstances.:\"Rail Joint\" doctrine.\n", "Section::::Causes.:January–February.:Awards calendar.\n", "Net operating loss\n\nUnder U.S. Federal income tax law, a net operating loss (NOL) occurs when certain tax-deductible expenses exceed taxable revenues for a taxable year. If a taxpayer is taxed during profitable periods without receiving any tax relief (e.g. a refund) during periods of NOLs, an unbalanced tax burden results. Consequently, in some situations, Congress allows taxpayers to use the losses in one year to offset the profits of other years. \n\nSection::::Calculating the NOL amount.\n", "For example, a company receives an annual software license fee paid out by a customer upfront on January 1. However, the company's fiscal year ends on May 31. So, the company using accrual accounting adds only five months' worth (5/12) of the fee to its revenues in profit and loss for the fiscal year the fee was received. The rest is added to \"deferred income\" (liability) on the balance sheet for that year.\n", "In cases where a taxpayer does not have enough money to pay the entire tax bill, the IRS can work out a payment plan with taxpayers, or enter into a collection alternative such as a partial payment Installment Agreement, an Offer in Compromise, placement into hardship or \"currently non-collectable\" status or file bankruptcy.\n\nFor years for which no return has been filed, there is no statute of limitations on civil actions – that is, on how long the IRS can seek taxpayers and demand payment of taxes owed.\n", "Section::::Example.\n\nConsider you are a taxpayer with five-year property worth $50,000. Also, assume that the property depreciates $10,000 per year. \n\nYear 1- limited to half of the deduction normally entitled in a full year. One \n\ndeduction of $5,000 allowed at the end of the year, since the property is put into\n\nservice on July 1, year 1.\n\nYear 2- $10,000 deduction taken. $5,000 deducted on June 30. $5,000 deducted \n\non December 31.\n\nYear 3- $10,000 deduction taken. $5,000 deducted on June 30. $5,000 deducted \n\non December 31.\n", "Section::::Exclusions.:Reduction in Tax Attributes.\n\nSection::::Exclusions.:Reduction in Tax Attributes.:General.\n\nIf COD income is excluded from gross income, the taxpayer's tax attributes must be reduced, which is done through IRS Form 982 (Reduction of Tax Attributes Due to Discharge of Indebtedness). A taxpayer's tax attributes are, and must be reduced in the following order:\n\nBULLET::::- Net operating loss (NOL) - Any NOL of the taxable year of the discharge\n\nBULLET::::- NOL carryover - Any NOL carryover to the taxable year of the discharge\n", "Section::::Special circumstances.:Nonrecourse debt.\n\nWhether secured debt is recourse or nonrecourse can have significant consequences if the debt is settled in foreclosure of the secured property. Generally, while the net gain or loss is the same regardless of the classification of the debt (it will always be the difference between the basis of the burdened property and the amount of the debt), there are potentially huge tax differences.\n", "The US tax system allows individuals and entities to choose their [[tax year]]. Most individuals choose the calendar year. There are restrictions on choice of tax year for some [[closely held corporation\|closely held]] entities. Taxpayers may change their tax year in certain circumstances, and such change may require IRS approval.\n", "After the calendar year, Canadian residents file a T1 Tax and Benefit Return for individuals. It is due April 30, or June 15 for self-employed individuals and their spouses, or common-law partners. It is important to note, however, that any balance owing is due on or before April 30. Outstanding balances remitted after April 30 may be subject to interest charges, regardless of whether the taxpayer's filing due date is April 30 or June 15.\n", "Section::::Loss carry back and carry forward mechanisms.\n\nGenerally the NOL must be carried back to the two tax years before the NOL year. For example, the tax loss from 2015 must be carried back to 2013 or 2014. Any remaining amount can be carried forward for up to 20 years. The taxpayer can elect to waive the carry back and therefore carry all of the loss to future years. Once the 20-year carry forward period expires, the taxpayer cannot deduct any part of the remaining NOL.\n", "Therefore, if formula_7 refers to an arbitrary year, formula_8 is government spending and formula_9 is tax revenue for the respective year, then\n\nIf formula_11 is last year's debt (the debt accumulated up to and including last year), and formula_12 is the interest rate attached to the debt, then the total deficit for year \"t\" is\n\nwhere the first term on the right side is interest payments on the outstanding debt.\n\nFinally, this year's debt can be calculated from last year's debt and this year's total deficit, using the government budget constraint:\n", "Auditors typically prepare an aging structure of accounts payable for a better understanding of outstanding debts over certain periods (30, 60, 90 days, etc.). Such structures are helpful in the correct presentation of the balance sheet as of fiscal year end.\n\nSection::::Automation.\n", "In Canada, income tax is deducted by the employer under the PAYE tax system. For self-employed or investment earning individuals, who owe greater than $3000 in net taxes in 2019 and one of the previous two years. Taxes must be paid in a series of quarterly installments during the year that the income is earned. A significant decrease in income for self-employed individuals or a forgotten deduction on the TD1 form can result in an overpayment of taxes. Those who file their taxes online by the deadline of April 30th should receive their refund within 2 weeks, while those who file by paper can expect a longer turnaround period of 8 weeks. The Canada Revenue Agency will pay compounded daily interest on delayed refunds, beginning on the later of May 31st or 31 days after you filling a return. Refunds are paid by cheque or direct deposit, with the direct deposit being the quicker option of the two. In some cases the CRA may keep some or all of a refund. These cases include owed tax balances, Garnishment, and the existence of outstanding government debt. \n", "Section::::Statistical analyses.\n", "2) Every village/town/city has an authorization for adjusting its coefficient on property tax (they are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 - which means how many times the originally assessed tax will be multiplied)\n\n3) Tax year is the calendar year\n\n4) Tax return must be handed by the end of January of the tax year. If payer did it in the previous tax year and circumstances of taxes did not change, then the payer does not have to hand tax return and the tax is assessed automatically by the relevant authority\n", "The reduction in tax attributes is made after the determination of the tax imposed for the taxable year of the discharge.\n\nWhen reducing NOL or capital loss carryovers, the reduction in tax attributes must be in the order of the taxable years that each carryover was created in.\n\nWhen reducing general business credit or foreign tax credit carryovers, the reduction in tax attributes must be made in order that the carryovers are taken into account.\n\nSection::::Exclusions.:Reduction in Tax Attributes.:Policy Reasons Behind Reducing Tax Attributes.\n", "For example, a company receives an annual software license fee paid out by a customer upfront on the January 1. However the company's fiscal year ends on May 31. So, the company using accrual accounting adds only five months worth (5/12) of the fee to its revenues in profit and loss for the fiscal year the fee was received. The rest is added to \"deferred income\" (liability) on the balance sheet for that year.\n\nSection::::General rule.:Advances.\n", "BULLET::::- 50% or more of the aggregate gross receipts of the taxpayer for the three taxable years preceding the discharge is attributable to the trade or business of farming\n\nHowever, such a taxpayer must be a \"qualified person\" as defined in 26 U.S.C. § 49(a)(1)(D)(iv)\n\nThere are additional rules as well regarding the total amount excludable, which cannot exceed the sum of tax attributes and business and investment assets.\n\nSection::::Exclusions.:Qualified real business property indebtedness.\n\nA qualified real property business indebtedness is indebtedness which\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02892	Why do obsessed fans develop the desire to kill celebrities or the object of their obsession and idolization?	I'm sure someone with psychology credentials will come up with a much better response, but my guess is that it has something to do with a sense rejection. These people "fall in love" with the people they are obsessed with and feel rejected that the feelings they have are not mutual. In extreme cases this manifests in a real world way (e.g. they stalk their obsession and there are legal repercussions) but in many it's probably mostly imaginary or fantasized. Out of rejection-driven rage they get revenge by trying to kill their obsession and/or they attempt this based on the "well, if I can't have you then no one will!" mentality. In any case, I'm sure that there's also some undercurrent of jealousy in play as well.	[ "These fans will often hold a crush on a major movie star, pop star, athlete or celebrity (see teen idol). The groupie is an example, a fan of a particular band or musician, who will follow them on concert tours. The degree of devotion to celebrities can range from a simple crush to the deluded belief that they have a special relationship with the star which does not exist. In extreme cases, this can lead to celebrity worship syndrome, stalking behavior. This can easily switch to hatred of the previously loved celebrity, and result in attempts at violent attacks, one notable incident being the death of Rebecca Schaeffer by a stalking fan in 1989.\n", "Section::::Classifications.:Love obsessional.\n", "This is an intermediate level of obsession that is associated with neuroticism as well as behaviors linked to psychoticism. An example of an intense-personal attitude toward a celebrity would include claims such as “I consider my favorite celebrity to be my soul mate.” It has been found that in particular, people who worship celebrities in this manner often have low self-esteem with regards to their body type, especially if they think that the celebrity is physically attractive. The effects of intense-personal celebrity worship on body image are seen in some cases of cosmetic surgery. Females who have high levels of obsession are more accepting of cosmetic surgery than those who do not obsess over celebrities to this extent.\n", "Though low levels of celebrity worship (entertainment-social) are not associated with any clinical measures, medium levels of celebrity worship (intense-personal) are related to fantasy proneness (approximately 10% of the shared variance), while high levels of celebrity worship (borderline-pathological) share a greater association with fantasy proneness (around 14% of the shared variance) and dissociation (around 3% of the shared variance, though the effect size of this is small and most probably due to the large sample size). This finding suggests that as celebrity worship becomes more intense, and the individual perceives having a relationship with the celebrity, the more the individual is prone to fantasies.\n", "In prison, Homer is interrogated for the letters, and for the assault on Bill. However, it becomes clear that Homer is not the one who has been killing the models.\n", "A number of historical, ethnographic, netnographic and auto-ethnographic studies in diverse academic disciplines such as film studies, media studies, cultural studies and consumer research, which – unlike McCutcheon et al. focused mainly on a student sample (with two exceptions) – have actually studied real fans in the field, have come to very different conclusions that are more in line with Horton & Wohl's original concept of parasocial interaction or an earlier study by Leets.\n", "Simple obsessional stalking constitutes a majority of all stalking cases, anywhere from 69–79%, and is dominated by males. This form of stalking is generally associated with individuals who have shared previous personal relationships with their victims. However, this is not necessarily the case between a common member of the public exhibiting celebrity worship syndrome and the famous person with whom they are obsessed. Individuals that meet the criteria of being labeled as a “simple obsessional stalker” tend to share a set of characteristics including an inability to have successful personal relationships in their own lives, social awkwardness, feelings of powerlessness, a sense of insecurity, and very low self-esteem. Of these characteristics, low self-esteem plays a large role in the obsession that these individuals develop with their victim, in this case, the famous person. If the individual is unable to have any sort of connection to the celebrity with which they are obsessed, their own sense of self-worth may decline.\n", "Another explanation, used by Chuck Palahniuk, is that this exaggeration of modern celebrity culture is created out of a need for drama and spectacle. In the book \"Haunted\", he describes the pattern of creating a celebrity as a god-like figure, and once this image is created, the desire to destroy it and shame the individual in the most extreme ways possible. Tabloid magazines are the prototype example of this theory.\n\nSection::::Posthumous fame.\n", "Section::::Classifications.:Entertainment-social.\n\nThis level of admiration is linked to a celebrity’s ability to capture the attention of their fans. Entertainment-social celebrity worship is used to describe a relatively low level of obsession. An example of a typical entertainment-social attitude would be “My friends and I like to discuss what my favorite celebrity has done.”\n", "As the name suggests, individuals who demonstrate this sort of stalking behavior develop a love obsession with somebody who they have no personal relation to. Love obsessional stalking accounts for roughly 20–25% of all stalking cases. The people that demonstrate this form of stalking behavior are likely to suffer from a mental disorder, commonly either schizophrenia or paranoia. Individuals that are love obsessional stalkers often convince themselves that they are in fact in a relationship with the subject of their obsession. For example, a woman who had been stalking David Letterman for a total of five years claimed to be his wife when she had no personal connection to him. Other celebrities who have fallen victim to this form of stalking include Jennifer Aniston, Halle Berry, Jodie Foster, and Mila Kunis, along with numerous other A-list stars.\n", "Section::::Classifications.:Erotomanic.\n", "\"Celebrity worship\" is a term coined by Lynn E. McCutcheon, Diane D. Ashe, James Houran in a series of articles published primarily in the \"North American Journal of Psychology\" and a non-peer reviewed working paper series called \"Current Issues in Social Psychology\", the \"Journal of Psychology\" and \"British Journal of Psychology\".\n", "It may also be seen in the form of obsessively following celebrities on social media, although considered the lowest level of celebrity worship. It has been seen to have a number of negative effects with regards the development of unhealthy eating tendencies, poor body image and low self esteems especially in young adolescents. This can be supported by a study carried out on a group of female adolescents between the ages of (17–20).\n\nSection::::Classifications.:Intense-personal.\n", "I have an obsession with death and sex. Those two things are also the nexus of horror films, which I've been obsessing over lately. I’ve been watching horror movies and 1950s science fiction movies. My re-release is called \"The Fame Monster\" so I've just been sort of bulimically eating and regurgitating monster movies and all things scary. I've just been noticing a resurgence of this idea of monster, of fantasy, but in a very real way. If you notice in those films, there's always a juxtaposition of sex with death.\n", "Within a clinical context the effect of celebrity might be more extreme, particularly when considering extreme aspects of celebrity worship. Relationships between the three classifications of celebrity worship (entertainment-social, intense-personal and borderline-pathological celebrity worship and obsessiveness), ego-identity, fantasy proneness and dissociation were examined. Two of these variables drew particular attention: fantasy proneness and dissociation. Fantasy proneness involves fantasizing for a duration of time, reporting hallucinatory intensities as real, reporting vivid childhood memories, having intense religious and paranormal experiences. Dissociation is the lack of a normal integration of experiences, feelings, and thoughts in everyday consciousness and memory; in addition, it is related to a number of psychiatric problems.\n", "This can be again supported by a study carried out, which investigated the link between mass media and its direct correlation to poor self-worth/ body image in a sample group of females between the ages of (17–20).\n", "Section::::Classifications.:Borderline-pathological.\n\nThis classification is the most severe level of celebrity worship. Often, it is expressed by statements like “If someone gave me one thousand dollars, I would consider spending it on a sanitary napkin used by my favorite celebrity.”\n\nSection::::Mental health.\n", "These acts of adoration are societally limited to adolescent youth, or menopausal women, in both instances blaming \"these two periods of hormonal lunacy\" on the irrational, overtly sexual behaviour. For instance, Cheryl Cline, in her text entitled \"Essays from Bitch: The Women's Rock Newsletter with Bite\", discusses how women need to keep their interests hidden once they pass adolescence. In her own words, \"[i]t's a sign of maturity to pack up all the posters, photos, magazines, scrapbooks, and unauthorized biographies you so lovingly collected and shove them in the back of the closet. Furthermore, while discussing Beatlemania and the crazed Beatles fangirl behaviour, Barbara Ehrenreich, Elizabeth Heiss, and Gloria Jacobs mention how the 'only cure' for what was at the time considered an affliction was age, and that similarly to \"the girls who had screamed for Frank Sinatra,\" the Beatles fangirls would \"[grow] up to be responsible, settled housewives.\"\n", "Celebrities also typically have security staff at their home, to protect them from similar threats.\n\nSection::::Cult of celebrity.\n\nSection::::Cult of celebrity.:15 minutes of fame.\n", "There is also a book written by Loren Coleman called \"The Copycat Effect\" that describes the effect that the media has on crimes and suicides, which are inspired by crimes that have been widely covered across the media. Coleman's view on the media is that the constant coverage of these events, rather than the events with a positive message, gives these criminals a type of fame. The five minutes of fame, book or movie that is dedicated to these criminals provokes individuals with a tendency to behave in a similar way. Due to this type of fame, the \"copycat effect\" takes place.\n", "BULLET::::- Jack Nicholson: Temporary Co-host in \"Nick in a Coma\". He proved to be more professional and had a minor crush on Cindy Crawford. He lost his professionalism when he admitted he was annoyed with the fan girls being around Leonardo DiCaprio, Gerry Rosenthal, that lead to an eventual match between them.\n\nBULLET::::- Gilbert Gottfried: temporary interviewer and co-host. Very professional, though at times selfish.\n", "Evidence indicates that poor mental health is correlated with celebrity worship. Researchers have examined the relationship between celebrity worship and mental health in United Kingdom adult samples. One study found evidence to suggest that the intense-personal celebrity worship dimension was related to higher levels of depression and anxiety. Similarly, another study in 2004, found that the intense-personal celebrity worship dimension was not only related to higher levels of depression and anxiety, but also higher levels of stress, negative affect, and reports of illness. Both these studies showed no evidence for a significant relationship between either the entertainment-social or the borderline-pathological dimensions of celebrity worship and mental health.\n", "The “dual entertainment path model” suggested by scholar Kineta Hung shows that fans and non-fans adopt different ways to engage with their favorite celebrities For non-fans, they usually pay attention to celebrities and the released news to escape from boredom. In contrast, Hung theorizes that fans put a much higher emotional investment in order to create an individual “bond” with celebrities, which gives them pleasure and a sense of satisfaction. According to Hung, fans may typically try to become physically and mentally closer to their idols by attending concerts, movies, and fan-meetings. In extreme circumstances, fans may become obsessed with celebrities and invade their privacy by stalking them. Scholar Jens Hoffman has argued that this is a result of a pathological fixation, as fans exhibiting this can believe that there is a special connection between their favorite celebrities and themselves, even though such a relationship does not exist in reality. Once unsatisfied, this fixation can lead fans to invade celebrity privacy out of disappointment and resentment.\n", "Killers who have a strong desire for fame or to be renowned for their actions desire media attention as a way of validating and spreading their crimes; fear is also a component here, as some serial killers enjoy causing fear. An example is Dennis Rader, who sought attention from the press during his murder spree.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "Such memorabilia includes the paintings, writings, and poems of these killers. Recently, marketing has capitalized even more upon interest in serial killers with the rise of various merchandise such as trading cards, action figures, and books such as \"The Serial Killer Files: The Who, What, Where, How, and Why of the World's Most Terrifying Murderers\" by Harold Schechter, and \"The A-Z Encyclopedia of Serial Killers\" by Schecter and David Everitt. Some serial killers attain celebrity status in the way they acquire fans, and may have previous personal possessions auctioned off on websites like eBay. A few examples of this are Ed Gein's 150-pound stolen gravestone and Bobby Joe Long's sunglasses.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-19946	If a satellite leaves Earth transmitting live video back to us, assuming it continues to do so until it reaches a distance a light year away, how do we experience the video as it gets farther away from us?	You experience it normally, as continuous video, because the satellite is transmitting continuously, and it will take decades or perhaps a century to actually get to 1 LY away, so you get 100 years worth of video feed. Transmission delay would happen only if you had to, say, use a remote, to change the satellite feed. In that case, it would take a year for your remote control signal to reach the satellite, and another year for the new satellite feed to reach you. It's like a tennis ball machine shooting balls at you on automatic as you move away, you still get hit hit hit hit hit hit hit hit with the continuous stream of balls. On the other hand, if you're playing tennis with someone and you move away, the one ball that you're playing with takes longer and longer to travel.	[ "On 8 July 2014, Russia launched the METEOR-M No. 2 weather satellite (also known as METEOR-M2) with LRPT on board.\n\nInstructions for receiving LRPT images from this satellite are posted on the\n\nInternet.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- High-resolution picture transmission (HRPT)\n\nSection::::Notes and references.\n\nBULLET::::- Metop HRPT/LRPT User Station Elements Design Specification, document EPS.ASPI.DS.0675, which documents the design specification of an HRPT User Station and an LRPT User Station. To download this, google: EPS.ASPI.DS.0675 site:eumetsat.int\n", "On January 24, 2018 Richard Burley of NASA reported that they were trying to establish communication with the satellite using the NASA Deep Space Network. Two days later, Burley reported that engineers at Goddard Space Flight Center successfully acquired the signal, and confirmed on January 30, 2018 that IMAGE is the source. It is not known when the satellite started broadcasting, but re-examination of old data recorded by Tilley and fellow satellite tracker Cees Bassa showed transmissions from the same satellite in October 2016 and May 2017. Bassa hypothesized that while the 2007 eclipse did not manage to reset the satellite, another one did the trick, probably sometime between 2014 and 2016.\n", "Satellite operator SES broadcast an 8K television signal via its satellite system for the first time in May 2018. The 8K demonstration content, with a resolution of 7680×4320 pixels, a frame rate of 60 frames per second and 10-bit colour depth, was encoded in HEVC and transmitted at a rate of 80 Mbit/s via the Astra 3B satellite during SES's Industry Days conference in Luxembourg.\n", "On April 17, 2012, DirecTV began carrying KUNP's high definition signal as part of its local broadcast station package for the Portland area (on channel 47). Up until that point, the satellite provider only carried the station's standard definition signal.\n\nSection::::Digital television.\n\nSection::::Digital television.:Digital channels.\n\nThe station's digital channel is multiplexed:\n\nSection::::Digital television.:Analog-to-digital conversion.\n", "In May 2018 SES broadcast an 8K television signal via its satellite system for the first time, as part of its Industry Days conference at the Luxembourg HQ. The 8K demonstration content, with a resolution of 7680x4320 pixels, a frame rate of 60 frames per second and 10-bit colour depth, was encoded in HEVC and transmitted at a rate of 80 Mbit/s via the Astra 3B satellite.\n", "ULTRASAT has been designed to cover an unprecedentedly large field of view with a highly sensitive UV camera, with repeat image times as short as 5 minutes. To maximize the number of detected events, ULTRASAT will point to regions at high celestial latitudes, avoiding the Milky Way with its high concentration of \"nearby\" stars, diffuse background and galactic dust blocking much of the light from distant galaxies where these events occur.\n", "Today, with the advent of personal computers, all that is required is dedicated software (many of which offer \"free\" versions ) and a sound card. The sound card acquires and digitizes the slow scan video (in the audible range) coming from the speaker, phones, or line-out of the receiver, and then the software will process the various visible and infrared channels of the AVHRR sensor. Most software will automatically save every image and publish processed image onto the website of choice, putting up a new image on every pass of an APT satellite.\n\nSection::::Receiving images.:Displaying the images.:Enhanced images.\n", "In May 2019, for the first time in Europe, 8K demonstration content was received via satelliite without the need for a separate external receiver or decoder. At the 2019 SES Industry Days conference at Betzdorf, Luxembourg broadcast quality 8K content (with a resolution of 7680x4320 pixels at 50 frames/s) was encoded using a Spin Digital HEVC encoder (at a bit rate of 70 Mbit/s), uplinked to a single 33 MHz transponder on SES' Astra 28.2°E satellites and the downlink received and displayed on a Samsung 82in Q950RB production model TV.\n\nSection::::Satellite fleet.\n", "By March 30, 2016, \"New Horizons\" had reached the halfway point of transmitting this data. The transfer was completed on October 25, 2016 at 21:48 UTC, when the last piece of data—part of a Pluto–Charon observation sequence by the Ralph/LEISA imager—was received by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory.\n\nAt a distance of from the Sun and from Ultima Thule as of November 2018, \"New Horizons\" is of the constellation Sagittarius at relative to the Sun. The brightness of the Sun from the spacecraft is magnitude −18.5.\n\nSection::::Mission extension.\n", "On March 4, 2018 the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University reported detecting the signal from the satellite, but it was too faint to lock onto.\n\nOn May 9, 2018 Scott Tilley again detected a strong signal from IMAGE. Hours later NASA and APL engineers had locked onto the signal and were receiving telemetry. Commands were transmitted to IMAGE, but for unknown reasons the spacecraft only acknowledged receipt of a fraction of those commands.\n", "BULLET::::- Acquisition of signal — A pass, in spaceflight and satellite communications, is the period in which a satellite or other spacecraft is above the local horizon and available for radio communication with a particular ground station, satellite receiver, or relay satellite (or, in some cases, for visual sighting). The beginning of a pass is termed \"acquisition of signal\"; the end of a pass is termed \"loss of signal\". The point at which a spacecraft comes closest to a ground observer is the \"time of closest approach\".\n", "Streaming is a guaranteed delivery style of service. A terminal requests a context of X bandwidth (currently 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, or 256kbit/s) and, if the current spot beam has enough resources available, it is allocated a guaranteed chunk of the available bandwidth. So if it asks for an 8k streaming context, the terminal will at all times be able to send data at 8kbit/s.\n\nStreaming contexts are billed by time.\n\nSection::::Data services.:Background.\n", "An APT signal is continuously broadcast, with reception beginning at the start of the next line when the receiver is within radio range. Images can be received in real-time by relatively unsophisticated, inexpensive receivers during the time the satellite is within radio range, which typically lasts 8 to 15 minutes.\n\nSection::::Receiving images.:Radio receiver.\n", "The flyby anomaly was first noticed during a careful inspection of DSN Doppler data shortly after the Earth flyby of the Galileo spacecraft on 8 December 1990. While the Doppler residuals (observed minus computed data) were expected to remain flat, the analysis revealed an unexpected 66 mHz shift, which corresponds to a velocity increase of 3.92 mm/s at perigee. Investigations of this effect at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and the University of Texas have not yielded a satisfactory explanation. \n", "Only downlinks from the satellite are affected, uplinks from the Earth are normally not, as the planet \"shades\" the Earth station when viewed from the satellite. Satellites in geosynchronous orbit are irregularly affected based on their inclination. Reception from satellites in other orbits are frequently but only momentarily affected by this, and by their nature the same signal is usually repeated or relayed on another satellite, if a tracking dish is used at all. Satellite radio and other services like GPS are not affected, as they use no receiving dish, and therefore do not concentrate the interference. (GPS and certain satellite radio systems use non-geosynchronous satellites.)\n", "Section::::Digital television.\n\nSection::::Digital television.:Analog-to-digital conversion.\n\nKMSS-TV discontinued regular programming on its analog signal, over UHF channel 33, on June 12, 2009, the official date in which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition UHF channel 34, using PSIP to display the station's virtual channel as its former UHF analog channel 33.\n\nSection::::Programming.\n", "On NOAA POES system satellites, the two images are 4 km / pixel smoothed 8-bit images derived from two channels of the advanced very-high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR) sensor. The images are corrected for nearly constant geometric resolution prior to being broadcast; as such, the images are free of distortion caused by the curvature of the Earth.\n", "BULLET::::- Those who live in areas designated as being part of the Remote Central & Eastern Australia licence area.\n\nBULLET::::- Those who live outside the Remote Central & Eastern Australia licence area and meet any of these conditions:\n\nBULLET::::- live in an area predicted to have no terrestrial digital coverage\n\nBULLET::::- have approval to view the existing Optus Aurora service; due to being in a signal black spot\n\nBULLET::::- those who do not have Optus Aurora approval, in which they may apply for VAST from 6 months before the switchover in their licence area.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Background.\n\nThe distance between a satellite navigation receiver and a satellite can be calculated from the time it takes for a signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver. To calculate the delay, the receiver must align a pseudorandom binary sequence contained in the signal to an internally generated pseudorandom binary sequence. Since the satellite signal takes time to reach the receiver, the satellite's sequence is delayed in relation to the receiver's sequence. By increasingly delaying the receiver's sequence, the two sequences are eventually aligned.\n", "As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer to cross the sky and \"set\" when they go behind the Earth. Therefore, to provide continuous communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites, so one will always be in the sky for transmission of communication signals. However, due to their relatively small distance to the Earth their signals are stronger.\n\nSection::::Satellite orbits.:Low Earth orbit (LEO).\n", "The imager data is gathered into image \"strips\" of 2048 pixels wide and 8 rows tall before being compressed. Each packet contains three of these image strips, one for each image channel. To reconstruct a 2048x2048 image requires 256 consecutive AVHRR image packets.\n\nSection::::Current status and future.\n\nAlthough LRPT is on the European MetOp-A satellite launched on 19 October 2006, LRPT was permanently deactivated on that vehicle after causing interference with the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder (HIRS).\n", "Six frames from the 1949 footage were released under the Freedom of Information Act to Porcher Taylor, a professor at the University of Richmond in Virginia, and a scholar at the Washington-based Center for Strategic and International Studies specializing in satellite intelligence and diplomacy, in 1995.\n", "The timing and duration of passes depends on the characteristics of the orbit a satellite occupies, as well as the ground topography and any occulting objects on the ground (such as buildings), or in space (for planetary probes, or for spacecraft using relay satellites). An observer directly on the ground track of the satellite will experience the greatest ground pass duration. Path loss is greatest toward the start and end of a ground pass, as is Doppler shifting for Earth-orbiting satellites.\n", "On 10 January 2010, the Australian Government announced a new satellite service to deliver digital television and radio channels to Australian viewers who reside in remote and rural areas, or who can't obtain adequate television signal in an existing metropolitan or regional terrestrial broadcast area, commonly referred to as being in a \"black spot\". Initially, the service was only available to viewers in and around Mildura, Victoria, to coincide with Australia's first analog television switch-off. On 15 December 2010, the service was made available to viewers in the existing Remote Central and Eastern Australia and Mt Isa licence areas. In April 2011, the Western VAST service began for Regional and Remote Western Australia viewers.\n", "Fast moving satellites can have a Doppler shift of dozens of kilohertz relative to a ground station. The speed, thus magnitude of Doppler effect, changes due to earth curvature. Dynamic Doppler compensation, where the frequency of a signal is changed progressively during transmission, is used so the satellite receives a constant frequency signal.\n\nDoppler shift of the direct path can be estimated by the following formula:\n\nformula_34\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02288	Why is natural gas an energy source but hydrogen gas and fossil fuels are considered forms of energy storage?	Both natural gas and fossil fuels are considered to be energy sources, because we can extract them from the Earth and then burn them for energy. Hydrogen is not considered to be an energy source, because we can't go out and just dig some up. We have to make it, usually by spending energy to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. When we later burn the hydrogen, we get less energy back than we spent to produce the hydrogen in the first place. Thus hydrogen is a form of energy storage (storing the energy used to perform hydrolysis on the water, and getting some of it back later).	[ "Hydrogen is usually considered an energy carrier, like electricity, as it must be produced from a primary energy source such as solar energy, biomass, electricity (e.g. in the form of solar PV or via wind turbines), or hydrocarbons such as natural gas or coal. Conventional hydrogen production using natural gas induces significant environmental impacts; as with the use of any hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide is emitted.\n\nSection::::Production and storage.\n", "Power to liquid is similar to power to gas, however the hydrogen produced by electrolysis from wind and solar electricity isn't converted into gases such as methane but into liquids such as methanol. Methanol is easier to handle than gases, and requires fewer safety precautions than hydrogen. It can be used for transportation, including aircraft, but also for industrial purposes or in the power sector.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Other chemical.:Biofuels.\n", "A natural gas network may be used for the storage of hydrogen. Before switching to natural gas, the UK and German gas networks were operated using towngas, which for the most part consisted of hydrogen. The storage capacity of the German natural gas network is more than 200,000 GWh which is enough for several months of energy requirement. By comparison, the capacity of all German pumped storage power plants amounts to only about 40 GW·h. Similarly UK pumped storage is far less than the gas network. The transport of energy through a gas network is done with much less loss (<0.1%) than in a power network (8%). The use of the existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen was studied by NaturalHy\n", "Power-to-Gas is an energy process and storage technology, which takes the excess power generated by wind turbines, solar power, or biomass power plants and converts carbon dioxide and water into methane using electrolysis, enabling it be stored. The excess electricity can then be held in existing reserves, including power and natural gas grids. This allows for seasonally adjusted storage of significant amounts of power and the provision of CO2-neutral fuels in the form of the resulting renewable energy source gas.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The largest consumer of fossil fuels in modern agriculture is ammonia production (for fertilizer) via the Haber process, which is essential to high-yielding intensive agriculture. The specific fossil fuel input to fertilizer production is primarily natural gas, to provide hydrogen via steam reforming. Given sufficient supplies of renewable electricity, hydrogen can be generated without fossil fuels using methods such as electrolysis. For example, the Vemork hydroelectric plant in Norway used its surplus electricity output to generate renewable ammonia from 1911 to 1971.\n", "The author further argues that alternative sources of energy will be insufficient. As petroleum sources become scarce, environmentally harmful or risky technologies such as coal and nuclear will become necessary but not sufficient for our energy needs. Hydroelectric, solar, and wind power, even in combination with coal and nuclear, will also be far from sufficient. Kunstler does not consider hydrogen to be a true energy source since one cannot drill into the earth and obtain hydrogen. Hydrogen must be extracted from other energy sources, such as natural gas or using electricity at a total net loss of energy.\n", "Oklahoma: Renewable energy goal established. Oklahoma established a goal for electric utilities in the state to have 15% of the total installed generation capacity to be derived from renewable sources by 2015. Eligible renewable resources include wind, solar, hydropower, hydrogen, and several others.\n\nWest Virginia: Net metering standards implemented. Net metering is available to all retail electricity customers. System capacity limits vary depending on the customer type and the electric utility type. Systems that generate electricity using alternative resources, including hydrogen, are allowed.\n\nSection::::Hydrogen for transportation.\n", "Renewable energy resources such as Solar energy, wind energy, small hydroelectricity (e.g. Swimming hydroelectric power plant), geothermal energy and biomass fuels are becoming increasingly attractive. Solar, Photovoltaics, water and wind energy do not send pollutants into the air as occurs with coal and petroleum energy.\n\nHydrogen storage (storage by hydrogen)\n\nThe objectives are to store H in solid metal hydrides from which it can be readily recovered by heating which is an alternative and safe, highly volume efficient storage method. The final aim is to provide a storage technology that is attractive both economically and environmentally.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Other chemical.:Power to gas.:Hydrogen.\n\nThe element hydrogen can be a form of stored energy. Hydrogen can produce electricity via a hydrogen fuel cell.\n\nAt penetrations below 20% of the grid demand, renewables do not severely change the economics; but beyond about 20% of the total demand, external storage becomes important. If these sources are used to make ionic hydrogen, they can be freely expanded. A 5-year community-based pilot program using wind turbines and hydrogen generators began in 2007 in the remote community of Ramea, Newfoundland and Labrador. A similar project began in 2004 on Utsira, a small Norwegian island.\n", "Section::::Costs.\n\nDeployment of hydrogen can provide a cost-effective option to displace fossil fuels in applications where emissions reductions would otherwise be impractical and/or expensive. These may include heat for buildings and industry, conversion of natural gas-fired power stations, and fuel for aviation and possibly heavy trucks. However switching from natural gas to low-carbon heating is more costly if the carbon costs of natural gas are not reflected in its price.\n", "Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gasses, a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen. Analyses comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuel-cell vehicles to the refining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines do not agree on whether a net reduction of ozone and greenhouse gasses would result. Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs. As of 2016, 14.9 percent of U.S. electricity was produced from renewable sources. In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, Iceland is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen, and Denmark is using wind.\n", "Different production methods each have differing associated investment and marginal costs. The energy and feedstock could originate from a multitude of sources, i.e. natural gas, nuclear, solar, wind, biomass, coal, other fossil fuels, and geothermal.\n\nBULLET::::- Natural gas at small scale: Uses steam reformation. Requires of gas, which, if produced by small 500 kg/day reformers at the point of dispensing (i.e., the filling station), would equate to 777,000 reformers costing $1 trillion and producing 150 million tons of hydrogen gas annually. Obviates the need for distribution infrastructure dedicated to hydrogen. $3.00 per GGE (Gallons of Gasoline Equivalent)\n", "Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen, with one common method being the hydrogen reformer. Hydrogen has many applications: it is a primary feedstock for the chemical industry, a hydrogenating agent, an important commodity for oil refineries, and the fuel source in hydrogen vehicles.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Animal and fish feed.\n\nProtein rich animal and fish feed is produced by feeding natural gas to Methylococcus capsulatus bacteria on commercial scale.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Other.\n\nNatural gas is also used in the manufacture of fabrics, glass, steel, plastics, paint, and other products.\n\nSection::::Environmental effects.\n\nSection::::Environmental effects.:Effect of natural gas release.\n", "Since 2009, electricity generation has been the largest use of natural gas in the US. Electricity generated by natural gas has been by far the fastest-growing source of electricity in the US since the 1990s. Natural gas became the second-largest source of US electricity in 2006, when it surpassed nuclear power. In late 2015, natural gas surpassed coal as the largest source of electricity generated in the United States.\n", "Maryland: Legislation adds fuel cells as eligible net metering resource. House Bill 821 was passed in May 2010, adding fuel cells among the list of eligible customer-generators for net energy metering. System size is limited to 2 megawatts.\n\nNew York: \n", "In the first method, hydrogen is injected into the natural gas grid or is used in transport or industry. The second method is to combine the hydrogen with carbon dioxide to produce methane using a methanation reaction such as the Sabatier reaction, or biological methanation, resulting in an extra energy conversion loss of 8%. The methane may then be fed into the natural gas grid. The third method uses the output gas of a wood gas generator or a biogas plant, after the biogas upgrader is mixed with the hydrogen from the electrolyzer, to upgrade the quality of the biogas.\n", "A key advantage of using natural gas is the existence, in principle, of most of the infrastructure and the supply chain, which is non-interchangeable with hydrogen. Methane today mostly comes from non-renewable sources but can be supplied or produced from renewable sources, offering net carbon neutral mobility. In many markets, especially the Americas, natural gas may trade at a discount to other fossil fuel products such as petrol, diesel or coal, or indeed be a less valuable by-product associated with their production that has to be disposed. Many countries also provide tax incentives for natural gas powered vehicles due to the environmental benefits to society. Lower operating costs and government incentives to reduce pollution from heavy vehicles in urban areas have driven the adoption of NGV for commercial and public uses, i.e. trucks and buses.\n", "It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2007 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%, amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world. Non-fossil sources in 2006 included hydroelectric 6.3%, nuclear 8.5%, and others (geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, waste) amounting to 0.9%. World energy consumption was growing about 2.3% per year.\n", "The UK National Grid believes that at least 15% of all gas consumed could be made from matter such as sewage, food waste such as food thrown away by supermarkets and restaurants and organic waste created by businesses such as breweries.\n\nIn the United States, analysis conducted in 2011 by the Gas Technology Institute determined that renewable gas from waste biomass including agricultural waste has the potential to add up to 2.5 quadrillion Btu annually, being enough to meet the natural gas needs of 50% of American homes. \n", "End users include Port Operators, Farms, Green Community residential development or and Renewable power operators. Gas is sold to gas grid or transported and used to fuel fixed engines or fuel cell that run 24r to pump water or make power for business and communities projects.\n\nHydrogen Equipment along with Engineering and Service provision makes Secure Supplies is well positioned to supply key markets globally.\n", "Hydrogen is being developed as an electrical energy storage medium. Hydrogen is produced, then compressed or liquefied, cryogenically stored at −252.882 °C, and then converted back to electrical energy or heat. Hydrogen can be used as a fuel for portable (vehicles) or stationary energy generation. Compared to pumped water storage and batteries, hydrogen has the advantage that it is a high energy density fuel.\n", "Underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in underground caverns, salt domes and depleted oil and gas fields. Large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in underground caverns by Imperial Chemical Industries for many years without any difficulties. The European Hyunder project indicated in 2013 that storage of wind and solar energy using underground hydrogen would require 85 caverns.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Other chemical.:Power to gas.:Methane.\n\nMethane is the simplest hydrocarbon with the molecular formula CH. Methane is more easily stored and transported than hydrogen. Storage and combustion infrastructure (pipelines, gasometers, power plants) are mature.\n", "Hydrogen is not an energy resource, except in the hypothetical context of commercial nuclear fusion power plants using deuterium or tritium, a technology presently far from development. The Sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen, but this process is difficult to achieve controllably on Earth. Elemental hydrogen from solar, biological, or electrical sources requires more energy to make than is obtained by burning it, so in these cases hydrogen functions as an energy carrier, like a battery. Hydrogen may be obtained from fossil sources (such as methane), but these sources are unsustainable.\n", "Neither industry directly replaces hydrocarbons. Reykjavík, Iceland, had a small pilot fleet of city buses running on compressed hydrogen, and research on powering the nation's fishing fleet with hydrogen is under way. For more practical purposes, Iceland might process imported oil with hydrogen to extend it, rather than to replace it altogether.\n", "The share of coal and nuclear in power generation is much higher than their share in installed capacity, because coal and nuclear plants provide base load and thus are running longer hours than natural gas and petroleum plants which typically provide peak load, while wind turbines and solar plants produce electricity when they can and natural gas fills in as required to compensate.\n\nBULLET::::1. Gas includes Natural Gas and Other Gases.\n\nBULLET::::2. Solar includes Photovoltaics and Thermal.\n\nBULLET::::3. Misc includes Misc generation, Pumped storage, and Net imports.\n\nBULLET::::4. Bio Other includes Waste, Landfill Gas, and Other.\n" ]	[ "Fossil fuels are considered forms of energy storage, not energy sources.", "Fossil fuels are not considered an energy source. " ]	[ "Fossil fuels are considered to be energy sources.", "Fossil fuels are considered to be an energy source. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Fossil fuels are considered forms of energy storage, not energy sources.", "Fossil fuels are not considered an energy source. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Fossil fuels are considered to be energy sources.", "Fossil fuels are considered to be an energy source. " ]
2018-16254	How does marijuana/other drugs give you a uppy feeling and or make you see things?	All drugs function by binding to other molecules or cellular structures. The ones that produce mind-altering effects are binding to molecules and cellular structures in the brain that regulate our emotions and perceptions. This changes how active or effective those molecules or cells are, which changes how we feel or interpret the sensory data we receive.	[ "One explanatory model for the experiences provoked by psychedelics is the \"reducing valve\" concept, first articulated in Aldous Huxley's book \"The Doors of Perception\". In this view, the drugs disable the brain's \"filtering\" ability to selectively prevent certain perceptions, emotions, memories and thoughts from ever reaching the conscious mind. This effect has been described as \"mind expanding\", or \"consciousness expanding\", for the drug \"expands\" the realm of experience available to conscious awareness.\n\nWhile possessing a unique mechanism of action, cannabis or marijuana has historically been regarded alongside the classic psychedelics.\n\nSection::::Research chemicals and designer drugs.\n", "A variety of psychoactive drugs, including alcohol, have notable effects on consciousness. These range from a simple dulling of awareness produced by sedatives, to increases in the intensity of sensory qualities produced by stimulants, cannabis, empathogens–entactogens such as MDMA (\"Ecstasy\"), or most notably by the class of drugs known as psychedelics. LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, Dimethyltryptamine, and others in this group can produce major distortions of perception, including hallucinations; some users even describe their drug-induced experiences as mystical or spiritual in quality. The brain mechanisms underlying these effects are not as well understood as those induced by use of alcohol, but there is substantial evidence that alterations in the brain system that uses the chemical neurotransmitter serotonin play an essential role.\n", "Whilst promoting the 2016 superhero film \"Deadpool\", Ryan Reynolds did his take on the PSA in character. First he says \"Hi. Deadpool here, with a very important announcement.\" He holds up a chimichinga saying \"This is your brain. Actually, it's a chimichinga. But, I'm making a point, because...\" And points to a giant chimichinga on the table saying \"This... is your brain on IMAX. Bigger is better, right?\" Followed by clips from the film.\n\nWhen children's television series \"SpongeBob SquarePants\" aired on MTV in 2008, a promo was made to play before the show began that parodied this ad.\n", "Probably the most common, widely recognised psychedelic experiential phenomenon is the alteration in visual perception; this includes surfaces in the environment appearing to ripple and undulate; Albert Hoffman, the discoverer of LSD, described how during his bicycle ride home after his first deliberate LSD self-administration: \"Everything in my field of vision wavered and was distorted as if seen in a curved mirror\". Psychedelic visual alteration also includes spontaneous formation of complex flowing geometric visual patterning in the visual field. When the eyes are open, the visual alteration is overlaid onto the objects and spaces in the physical environment; when the eyes are closed the visual alteration is seen in the 'inner world' behind the eyelids. These visual effects increase in intensity with higher dosages, and also when the eyes are closed.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Cosmic Serpent\" and \"Intelligence in Nature\" by Jeremy Narby\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use\" by Richard Evans Schultes\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vine of the Soul: Medicine Men, Their Plants and Rituals in the Colombian Amazonia\" by Richard Evans Schultes\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Art of Shamanic Healing\" by Wade Davis\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" by Carlos Castaneda\n\nSection::::Subjective effects of psychedelic drugs.\n\nBULLET::::- Harris, Joel R. \"Into the heart of the Amazon in search of Truth\", 2008\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" edited by Rak Razam\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Doors of Perception\" and \"Heaven and Hell\" by Aldous Huxley\n", "Not all people have the same internal perceptual ability. For many, when the eyes are closed, the perception of darkness prevails. However, some people are able to perceive colorful, dynamic imagery. The use of hallucinogenic drugs increases the subject's ability to consciously access visual (and auditory, and other sense) percepts.\n", "A psychedelic experience is a temporary altered state of consciousness induced by the consumption of psychedelic drugs (the best known of which are LSD and psilocybin 'magic' mushrooms). The psychedelic altered state of consciousness is commonly characterised as a higher (elevated or transcendent) state relative to ordinary (sober) experience; for example, the psychologist Benny Shanon observed from ayahuasca trip reports: \"the assessment, very common with ayahuasca, that what is seen and thought during the course of intoxication defines the real, whereas the world that is ordinarily perceived is actually an illusion.\"\n", "Cannabis produces many other subjective effects, including an increased enjoyment of food taste and aroma, and marked distortions in the perception of time (where experiencing a \"rush\" of ideas can create the subjective impression of much time passing). At higher doses, effects can include altered body image, auditory and/or visual illusions, pseudohallucinations, and ataxia from selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes. In some cases, cannabis can lead to acute psychosis and dissociative states such as depersonalization and derealization.\n", "Another important practitioner in this field is Stanislav Grof, who pioneered the use of LSD in psychotherapy. Grof characterised psychedelic experiencing as \"non-specific amplification of unconscious mental processes\", and he analysed the phenomenology of the LSD experience (particularly the experience of psychospiritual death and rebirth) in terms of Otto Rank's theory of the unresolved memory of the primal birth trauma.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Altered state of consciousness\n\nBULLET::::- Cannabis and time perception\n\nBULLET::::- Eight-circuit model of consciousness\n\nBULLET::::- Psychedelic drug\n\nBULLET::::- Set and setting\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "In 2018, professional chef Todd Sugimoto was cast to mimic the original motions and lines from the first PSA, from 1987. The concept was meant to help raise awareness on the changing laws and perception of legal cannabis. Filmed in a posh and modern apartment, the chef asks if there is anyone out there who still isn't clear on the effects of cannabis on the brain. He holds up an egg and says, \"This is your brain,\" before motioning to a frying pan and adding, \"This is cannabis.\" He then cracks open the egg, then a montage of skillful chopping and advanced chef techniques are shown prior to a reveal of a gourmet egg dish, as he says, \"This is your brain on cannabis.\" Finally he looks up at the camera and asks, \"Any questions?\"\n", "Presentation of paraphernalia works by presenting a patient with physical items relative to their respective addiction. For example, an alcohol abuser might have a bottle of liquor placed in front of him, and a marijuana addict, a pipe. However, despite the fact that the objects are real, the environment in which they are presented is far from realistic. Learning how to turn down substances in a lab setting is much different than turning them down at an actual party—thus, the instructional process is limited.\n\nSection::::Evolution.:Actor-based simulation.\n", "Thomas Metzinger has discussed the effects of substances such as LSD, dimethyltryptamine, and mescaline in his \"Being No One\" (2003). Metzinger describes the hallucinatory component of the psychedelic experience as \"epistemically vacuous\" i.e. it provides no epistemic knowledge. In spite of this, Metzinger still believes that philosophers and consciousness researchers would have much to gain if they were \"well traveled in phenomenal state space, if they were cultivated in terms of the richness of their own inner experience\" through the psychedelic experience. According to Metzinger, psychedelic experiences could change researchers' theoretical intuitions as well as serving as a form of 'mental culture', an analogue to Physical culture.\n", "Psychedelic drugs can be used to alter the brain cognition and perception, some believing this to be a state of higher consciousness and transcendence. Typical psychedelic drugs are hallucinogens including LSD, DMT (Dimethyltryptamine), cannabis, peyote, and psilocybin mushrooms. According to Wolfson, these drug-induced altered states of consciousness may result in a more long-term and positive transformation of self.\n\nAccording to Dutta, psychedelic drugs may be used for psychoanalytic therapy, as a means to gain access to the higher consciousness, thereby providing patients the ability to access memories that are held deep within their mind.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ātman (Buddhism)\n\nSection::::Sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Erowid is a web site dedicated entirely to providing information about psychoactive drugs, with an impressive collection of trip reports, materials collected from the web and usenet, and a bibliography of scientific literature\n\nBULLET::::- Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies is a nonprofit research and educational organization which carries out clinical trials and other research in order to assess the potential medicinal uses of psychedelic drugs and develop them into medicines.\n", "No clear connection has been made between psychedelic drugs and organic brain damage. However, hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a diagnosed condition wherein certain visual effects of drugs persist for a long time, sometimes permanently, although science and medicine have yet to determine what causes the condition.\n\nA large epidemiological study in the U.S. found that other than personality disorders and other substance use disorders, lifetime hallucinogen use was not associated with other mental disorders, and that risk of developing a hallucinogen use disorder was very low.\n\nSection::::How hallucinogens affect the brain.\n", "According to a 2009 study published in the \"Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease,\" the hallucinations are caused by the brain misidentifying the source of what it is currently experiencing, a phenomenon called faulty source monitoring.\n\nA study conducted on individuals who underwent REST while under the effects of Phencyclidine (PCP) showed a lower incidence of hallucination in comparison to participants who did not take PCP. The effects of PCP also appeared to be reduced while undergoing REST. The effects PCP has on reducing occurrences of hallucinatory events provides a potential insight into the mechanisms behind these events. \n", "Hallucinogens cause perceptual and cognitive distortions without delirium. The state of intoxication is often called a “trip”. Onset is the first stage after an individual ingests (LSD, psilocybin, or mescaline) or smokes (dimethyltryptamine) the substance. This stage may consist of visual effects, with an intensification of colors and the appearance of geometric patterns that can be seen with one’s eyes closed. This is followed by a plateau phase, where the subjective sense of time begins to slow and the visual effects increase in intensity. The user may experience synesthesia, a crossing-over of sensations (for example, one may “see” sounds and “hear” colors). In addition to the sensory-perceptual effects, hallucinogenic substances may induce feelings of depersonalization, emotional shifts to a euphoric or anxious/fearful state, and a disruption of logical thought. Hallucinogens are classified chemically as either indolamines (specifically tryptamines), sharing a common structure with serotonin, or as phenethylamines, which share a common structure with norepinephrine. Both classes of these drugs are agonists at the 5-HT receptors; this is thought to be the central component of their hallucinogenic properties. Activation of 5-HT may be particularly important for hallucinogenic activity. However, repeated exposure to hallucinogens leads to rapid tolerance, likely through down-regulation of these receptors in specific target cells.\n", "Starting in the mid-20th century, psychedelic drugs has been the object of extensive attention in the Western world. They have been and are being explored as potential therapeutic agents in treating depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder, alcoholism, drug addiction, cluster headaches, and other ailments. Early military research focused on their use as incapacitating agents. Intelligence agencies tested these drugs in the hope that they would provide an effective means of interrogation, with little success.\n", "An alternative explanation holds that a possible effect of vestibular dysfunction includes responses in the form of the modulation of noradrenergic and serotonergic activity due to a misattribution of vestibular symptoms to the presence of imminent physical danger resulting in the experience of anxiety or panic, which subsequently generate feelings of derealization.\n\nCannabis, psychedelics, dissociatives, antidepressants, caffeine, nitrous oxide, albuterol, and nicotine can all produce feelings resembling derealization, particularly when taken in excess. It can result from alcohol withdrawal or benzodiazepine withdrawal. Opiate withdrawal can also cause feelings of derealization.\n", "BULLET::::- \"True Hallucinations\" by Terence McKenna\n\nBULLET::::- \"Erin\" by Robert Dickins\n\nSection::::Political possibilities of psychedelic drugs.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Island\" by Aldous Huxley\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wisdom's Maw\" by Todd Brendan Fahey\n\nBULLET::::- \"Acid Dreams: The CIA, LSD and the Sixties Rebellion\" by Martin A. Lee\n\nBULLET::::- \"Beyond the Basin\" by Alexander Beiner\n\nBULLET::::- \"To Fathom Hell or Soar Angelic\" by Ben Sessa\n\nSection::::Direct inspiration of the psychedelic experience.\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" by Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner, Richard Alpert; based on \"Karma-Glin-Pa Bar Do Thos Grol\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Food of the Gods: the Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge\" by Terence McKenna\n", "In the film \"Batman Forever\" (1995), the character the Riddler parodies the commercial saying, \"This is your brain on the box. This is my brain on the box. Does anybody else feel like a fried egg?!\" It is also spoofed in \"Scary Movie 2\" (2001) in which rapper Beetlejuice appears in Shorty's skull, representing his brain on drugs.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIt is likely that humans have consumed psychoactive plants in the ritual context of shamanism for thousands of years prior to the advent of Western civilization and the supplanting of indigenous cultural values. Anthropological archaeologist Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff studied the shamanic rituals of the indigenous Tucano people of South America and found that their shamanic practices primarily served to maintain ecological balance in the rainforest habitat. Experts speculate that the ecological values of shamanism are an attribute of the psychedelic experience.\n", "BULLET::::- \"When the Impossible Happens: Adventures in Non-Ordinary Reality\" (2006) by Stanislav Grof\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Ultimate Journey: Consciousness and the Mystery of Death\" (2006) by Stanislav Grof\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Secret Chief\" by Myron Stolaroff\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" by Daniel Pinchbeck\n\nBULLET::::- \"Psychedelics Encyclopedia\" by Peter Stafford (And/Or Press, 1977)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Psychedelic Drug Treatments\" (2015) by Ben Sessa\n\nBULLET::::- \"Taking The Psychedelic Leap: Ayahuasca, Mushrooms, and Other Visionary Plants along the Spiritual Path\" (2018) by Richard L. Haight\n\nSection::::The anthropology of psychedelic drugs.\n\nBULLET::::- \"On Drugs\" by David Lenson of the University of Massachusetts Amherst comparative literature department\n", "After using mescaline in 1953, Aldous Huxley wrote the Doors of Perception where he advanced the theory that psychedelic compounds could produce mystical experiences and knowledge, \"what the visionary, the medium, even the mystic were talking about\" and what eastern philosophy described with terms like Satcitananda, the Godhead, Suchness, Void, Not-self and Dharmakaya. Huxley also quotes the philosopher C. D. Broad, which held that the brain and nervous might act as a reducing valve of all the stimuli in the universe:\n", "A poster produced in the early 1990s called \"Famous Brains on Drugs\" parodied the concept by having eggs appear in the frying pan in forms intended to remind the viewer of certain people. For instance, a pan labeled \"Saddam Hussein\" had an egg with a crosshair over it, and a pan labeled \"Milli Vanilli\" contained a box of imitation eggs. There have also been parody T-shirts, such as versions based on \"The Simpsons\" (\"This is your brain on donuts\", showing a X-ray of Homer Simpson's head) and the Yankees–Red Sox rivalry (shirts targeted to both alliegiances of the famed rivalry), among others.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12955	Why is it illegal to park your car on the street facing the opposite direction of traffic?	Because when you pull into traffic you will pull into a oncoming lane. Plus potential for obstruction of view.	[ "Section::::Around the world.:France.\n\nSimilar parking regulations exist in France.\n\nSection::::Popular culture.\n\nBULLET::::- In the \"Seinfeld\" episode \"The Alternate Side,\" George Costanza gets a job moving cars from one side of the street to the other.\n\nBULLET::::- The novel \"Tepper Isn't Going Out\" is based on the quest for parking in New York City.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Golden Girls episode \"An Illegitimate Concern\", Rose explains how the inhabitants of her hometown of Saint Olaf were confused by opposite side of the street parking as, 'It doesn't matter which side of the street you park on, there's ALWAYS an opposite SIDE...'\n", "The law is a year-round rule, suspended only for holidays and certain events. Signs are posted with the scheduled street sweeping times, and drivers must make sure their vehicles are on the correct side of the street or risk being ticketed or towed. The law can be confusing to visitors, who often choose to park in high-priced parking garages or use valet parking rather than risking fines. Even for locals, parking tickets are common; working late or oversleeping may cause a car to be left for too long on the wrong side of the street. Avoiding a ticket can consume a great deal of time, as drivers must search for other available spaces or sit double parked until the designated time, regardless of when street sweepers actually pass.\n", "Section::::Around the world.:Denmark.\n\nIn Denmark (\"datoparkering\"), the rules are exactly the opposite of those in Sweden, with parking prohibited on the morning of odd dates on the side of the street where houses have \"even\" numbers.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:Belgium.\n", "Alternate-side parking\n\nAlternate side parking is a traffic law that dictates on which side of a street cars can be parked on a given day. The law is intended to promote efficient flow of traffic, as well as to allow street sweepers and snowplows to reach the curb without parked cars impeding their progress. Some proponents also regard the law, which can be quite inconvenient for drivers, as a way to encourage the use of public transportation.\n\nIn many towns and cities, alternate side parking is reserved for certain times of year, or only used during a snow emergency.\n", "Section::::Around the world.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:New York City.\n\nFrom the beginning, the New York City alternate-side parking law was \"assailed\" by opponents as actually impeding the efficient flow of traffic. The system was created by Paul Rogers Screvane, former commissioner for the department of sanitation in Queens, New York.\n", "Section::::Around the world.:New York City.:Example.\n\nOn a street running east to west, cars must be moved from the south side of the street for a few hours a day every Monday, Wednesday and Friday. On Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday they must be moved from the north side. On Sunday and certain holidays, they can be left where they are. The specific times will vary from street to street. The days on which the rules are suspended may also vary from city to city and even from neighborhood to neighborhood.\n\nSection::::Around the world.:Sweden.\n", "Proper use requires that both drivers and pedestrians are aware of the traffic rules at such intersections. In some countries, that has led to a removal of at least individual installations. However, critics have dismissed these moves as further subordinating pedestrians to cars and consider the shared turns of motor vehicles and pedestrians as unnecessarily intimidating.\n", "The RIRO restriction typically is enforced through physical barriers such as a traffic island in an intersection to direct vehicles into the permitted turn, and to restrict vehicles from traveling through the intersection. The major road itself often has a median separating the two directions of traffic. The restriction may also be achieved by signage, but when a median or other barrier is not present in the median of the major road, RIRO configurations have been found to result in significant violation rates.\n", "The legal use of hook turns by motor vehicles is relatively rare, but has been implemented in some jurisdictions (notably Melbourne, Australia) to keep the center of a road free from congestion for use by trams or other services.\n\nSection::::Performing a hook turn.\n\nThe Australian Road Rules set out the procedure for performing a hook turn in Australia, as well as other jurisdictions with left-hand traffic. In jurisdictions with right-hand traffic the lane of the turning vehicle is reversed.\n", "Parking minimums are also set for parallel, pull-in, or diagonal parking, depending on what types of vehicles are allowed to park in the lot or a particular section of it. Parking minimums initially took hold in the middle of the last century, as a way to ensure that traffic to new developments wouldn't use up existing spaces.\n\nBig cars may not fit properly in assigned parking spaces, creating issues with entering or leaving the car or blocking adjacent parking spaces.\n", "In Baltimore, after the 2010 blizzards on February 5–6 and February 9–10, Mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake announced that the city would not enforce an existing ban on the practice. She said that it could not be stopped, just like \"people saying Hon\" could not be stopped.\n", "Hence organisations such as the Cyclists Touring Club are usually opposed to all proposed echelon parking schemes, though there are some alternatives, such as back-in angle parking (slanted the \"wrong\" way, with the driver reversing into the space, rather than reversing out), which can overcome many of the issues of safety.\n\nSection::::Patterns.:Other parking methods.\n", "U-turns are often prohibited for various reasons. Sometimes a sign indicates the legality of U-turns. However, traffic regulations in many jurisdictions specifically prohibit certain types of U-turns. Laws vary by jurisdiction as to when a U-turn may or may not be legal. Examples of jurisdictions with codified U-turn prohibitions include the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia and the U.S. states of Colorado and Oregon. In Alberta, U-turns are prohibited in certain circumstances, for example (ref. Alberta Regulation 304/2002, Division 7):\n", "George and Elaine look for a parking space near Jerry's building so they can meet him at his apartment to watch a big televised boxing match. George spends a good deal of time positioning himself perfectly (bragging to Elaine about his ability to parallel park) to back into a space. Mike, also there for the fight at Jerry's, enters the same space, front first. The two argue over who is entitled to the space, all the while blocking traffic. Mike argues that he entered the space first, while George argues that he saw it first and that entering front first instead of using the prescribed parallel parking method is illegitimate. People walking by on the street witness the altercation and begin debating the merits of each side. A truck carrying a supply of ice-cream needs to get through, but the two cars are blocking his away, so the driver orders them to move the cars. George and Mike get neutral people to move the cars (since they don't trust each other to do so) and reposition them after the truck is past.\n", "In the early 1920s this reconfiguration of American city transport infrastructure around the automobile, at the instigation of traffic engineers, resulted in the rewriting of an old English common law (which had previously defined the street as a space where all users were equal) to define the street as a space which privileges cars, allocating them the right of way (except at intersections).\n", "Section::::Ancient Assyria.\n\nPossibly the first parking restrictions were put in place in Nineveh, the capital of ancient Assyria in c.700 BC. The restrictions are due to their king Sennacherib (704 to 681 BC) and pertained to the sacred main processional way through Nineveh. The oldest parking signs ever discovered read \"Royal Road – let no man decrease it\". The penalty for parking a chariot on this road was death followed by impaling outside one's own home.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Overspill parking\n\nBULLET::::- Predatory towing\n\nBULLET::::- Traffic ticket\n\nBULLET::::- Carwalking\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Europe.\n", "Depending on the location of the parking space, the time allowed to park may be fixed by regulation, and a fee may be required to use the parking space. It may be designated for free parking. When the demand for spaces outstrips supply vehicles may overspill park onto the sidewalk, grass verges and other places which were not designed for the purpose.\n\nSection::::Patterns.\n\nFor most motorised vehicles, there are three commonly used arrangements of parking spaces — parallel parking, perpendicular parking, and angle parking. These are self-park configurations where the vehicle driver is able to access the parking independently.\n", "BULLET::::- Parking for longer than the maximum time, often that is 24 hours.\n\nBULLET::::- Parking facing against the direction of traffic (considered confusing to moving drivers, especially at night).\n\nBULLET::::- Parking outside marked squares, for example angle parking where only parallel parking is allowed.\n\nBULLET::::- Parking near a red zone.\n\nFines or parking citations may result if any of the above criteria are met.\n\nSection::::United States.\n\nIn 1926, American merchants listed downtown traffic congestion as their most serious difficulty. Unenforced curbside parking and lack of off-street parking facilities were listed as the primary problems. Customers went where they could park.\n", "It is often necessary not only to communicate parking restrictions, but also to have available a workable deterrent. The deterrent can take physical forms such as vehicle immobilisation exemplified by the wheel clamp, and non-physical forms such as levying parking charges on the registered vehicle owners. Sometimes photography is used to record violations.\n\nOn both public and private land, physical restrictions include: parking bollards, parking poles that swivel from horizontal to vertical, gated entry and exit with time-dependent charges. This is an expanding subject.\n\nSection::::Economics.:Parking price elasticity.\n", "In some cities, parallel parking adjacent to bicycle lanes is permitted. This puts the bike lane in the dangerous door zone, but angle parking eliminates this hazard. Compared to parallel parking, reverse angle parking often provides more parking spaces in a given length of street, though this will vary depending on site conditions such as street width and the locations of driveways and fire hydrants.\n", "In New York City, drivers who \"block the box\" are subject to a moving violation that comes with a US$90.00 penalty. Mayor Michael Bloomberg, noting that the ten-minute ticketing process actually contributes to overall traffic congestion, has asked the New York State Legislature to remove “blocking the box” from the moving violation category. This reclassification would give more traffic agents authority to write tickets and change the current ticketing procedure, which requires that the issuing officer physically stop the violating car in traffic.\n\nSection::::Enforcement.:Virginia Beach, Virginia.\n", "In Sweden, alternate side parking (\"datumparkering\") is applied in zones covering an entire city, with signs indicating this at the city perimeter. Inside such date zones (\"datumzon\"), parking is prohibited on the morning of odd dates on the side of the street where houses have odd numbers. The drivers must think of what date it is the next morning if they leave the car in the evening. Inspired by Stockholm, more and more Swedish cities are abandoning such confusing zones and instead provide permanent parking on one or both sides of the street, with the exception for one day per week during December through May, when snowplowing and sweeping of sand can be required. The day when parking is prohibited is posted on a sign for each street.\n", "Some countries use the priority-to-the-right rule, despite driving on the left. Australia uses the priority-to-the-right rule at four-way intersections where the roads all have equal priority, but specific rules apply for T-intersections. Singapore also uses priority-to-the-right, as well as priority to vehicles going straight and turning vehicles to give way to vehicles going straight.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Local abolition in Belgium.\n", "The origin of this practice may be outside the United States, as it is also a common practice in southern Italy.\n\nSection::::Legality.\n\nThe practice has been outlawed in some places, including the city of Washington, D.C., where enforcement is strict and violators are ticketed. Some places specifically prohibit the practice, with levels of enforcement that vary. Sanctions against violators may include fines and confiscation of the markers. Other places either do not enforce or make legal allowances for this activity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03471	why plasticizers like BPA are so bad for human bodies, and are there safe options?	This really depends on the individual material. BPA specifically can mimic the hormone estrogen, tricking your body that it has higher levels of estrogen than it really does. DEHP may prevent the hormone androgen from doing its thing in the body. DINP may help cause cancer. TEC on the other hand is mostly harmless.	[ "Some \"BPA free\" plastics are made from epoxy containing a compound called bisphenol S (BPS). BPS shares a similar structure and versatility to BPA and has been used in numerous products from currency to thermal receipt paper. Widespread human exposure to BPS was confirmed in an analysis of urine samples taken in the U.S., Japan, China, and five other Asian countries. Researchers found BPS in all the receipt paper, 87 percent of the paper currency and 52 percent of recycled paper they tested. The study found that people may be absorbing 19 times more BPS through their skin than the amount of BPA they absorbed, when it was more widely used.\n", "A 2009 review of the biological impacts of plasticizers on wildlife published by the Royal Society with a focus on aquatic and terrestrial annelids, molluscs, crustaceans, insects, fish and amphibians concluded that BPA affects reproduction in all studied animal groups, impairs development in crustaceans and amphibians and induces genetic aberrations.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Positions of national and international bodies.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Positions of national and international bodies.:World Health Organization.\n", "BPA is a commonly well-known substance that is an ingredient used to harden plastic that can also cause a wide range of disorders. Cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and abnormalities in liver enzymes are a few disorders that can arise from even small exposure to this chemical. Although these effects have been more widely studied than other types of plastics, it is still used in the production of much clothing (polyester).\n", "Section::::Occurrence.\n\nBPA is rarely encountered in industrial products: it is invariably bound in a polymeric structure. Concerns therefore about exposure focus on the degradation, mainly by hydrolysis, of these polymers and the plastic objects derived therefrom.\n\nPolycarbonate plastic, which is formed from BPA, is used to make a variety of common products including baby and water bottles, sports equipment, medical and dental devices, dental fillings sealants, CDs and DVDs, household electronics, eyeglass lenses, foundry castings, and the lining of water pipes.\n", "Similar to humans, animals exposed to plasticizers can experience developmental defects. Specifically, sheep have been found to have lower birth weights when prenatally exposed to bisphenol A. Exposure to BPA can shorten the distance between the eyes of a tadpole. It can also stall development in frogs and can result in a decrease in body length. In different species of fish, exposure can stall egg hatching and result in a decrease in body weight, tail length, and body length.\n\nSection::::Effects on humans.\n", "Children may be more susceptible to BPA exposure than adults (see health effects). \n", "Section::::Safety.:Fertility.:Sexual function.\n\nHigher BPA exposure has been associated with increased self-reporting of decreased male sexual function but few studies examining this relationship have been conducted.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Asthma.\n", "BULLET::::- Bisphenol A ChemSub Online, retrieved 8 April 2015\n\nBULLET::::- How to Protect Your Baby from BPA (Bisphenol A) Brochure, 2 pages, 2009, Massachusetts Department of Public Health, retrieved 8 April 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic Not Fantastic with Bisphenol A 19 February 2008 By David Biello, www.scientificamerican.com, retrieved 8 April 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Hazard in a bottle. The plastics industry's Pyrrhic victory Attempt to regulate BPA in California defeated, \"The Economist\", 22 August 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Alternatives to BPA containers not easy for U.S. foodmakers to find Lyndsey Layton. Washington Post, 23 February 2010. retrieved 8 April 2015\n", "Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical used to make plastics, and is frequently used to make baby bottles, water bottles, sports equipment, medical devices, and as a coating in food and beverage cans. Scientists are concerned about BPA's behavioral effects on fetuses, infants, and children at current exposure levels because it can affect the prostate gland, mammary gland, and lead to early puberty in girls. BPA mimics and interferes with the action of estrogen—an important reproduction and development regulator. It leaches out of plastic into liquids and foods, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found measurable amounts of BPA in the bodies of more than 90 percent of the U.S. population studied. The highest estimated daily intakes of BPA occur in infants and children. Many plastic baby bottles contain BPA, and BPA is more likely to leach out of plastic when its temperature is increased, as when one warms a baby bottle or warms up food in the microwave.\n", "Section::::Biomedical history.\n", "BPA is a known endocrine disruptor, and numerous studies have found that laboratory animals exposed to low levels of it have elevated rates of diabetes, mammary and prostate cancers, decreased sperm count, reproductive problems, early puberty, obesity, and neurological problems. Early developmental stages appear to be the period of greatest sensitivity to its effects, and some studies have linked prenatal exposure to later physical and neurological difficulties. Regulatory bodies have determined safety levels for humans, but those safety levels are currently being questioned or are under review as a result of new scientific studies. A 2011 study that investigated the number of chemicals pregnant women are exposed to in the U.S. found BPA in 96% of women.\n", "A minority of companies have stated what alternative compound(s) they use. Following an inquiry by Representative Edward Markey (D-Mass) seventeen companies replied, xxx said they were going BPA-free. None of the companies said they are or were going to use Bisphenol S; only four stated the alternative to BPA that they will be using. ConAgra stated in 2013 \"alternate liners for tomatoes are vinyl...New aerosol cans are lined with polyester resin\", Eden Foods stated that only their \"beans are canned with a liner of an oleoresinous c-enamel that does not contain the endocrine disruptor BPA. Oleoresin is a mixture of oil and resin extracted from plants such as pine or balsam fir\", Hain Celestial Group will use \"modified polyester and/ or acrylic … by June 2014 for our canned soups, beans, and vegetables\", Heinz stated in 2011 it \"intend[s] to replace epoxy linings in all our food containers…. We have prioritized baby foods\", and in 2012 \"no BPA in any plastic containers we use\".\n", "Section::::Safety.:Health effects.:United States expert panel conclusions.\n", "Section::::Health and environmental concerns.:Case studies.\n", "The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food. Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase body weight of lab animals' offspring. A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease.\n\nAs of January 2010, the LA Times newspaper reports that the United States FDA is spending $30 million to investigate indications of BPA being linked to cancer.\n", "In 2013, the FDA posted on its web site: \"Is BPA safe? Yes. Based on FDA's ongoing safety review of scientific evidence, the available information continues to support the safety of BPA for the approved uses in food containers and packaging. People are exposed to low levels of BPA because, like many packaging components, very small amounts of BPA may migrate from the food packaging into foods or beverages.\" FDA issued a statement on the basis of three previous reviews by a group of assembled Agency experts in 2014 in its \"Final report for the review of literature and data on BPA\" that said in part, \"The results of these new toxicity data and studies do not affect the dose-effect level and the existing NOAEL (5 mg/kg bw/day; oral exposure).\"\n", "Different expression of ERR-γ in different parts of the body may account for variations in bisphenol A effects. For instance, ERR-γ has been found in high concentration in the placenta, explaining reports of high bisphenol accumulation in this tissue.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Environmental effects.\n", "Bisphenol A affects gene expression related to the thyroid hormone axis, which affects biological functions such as metabolism and development. BPA can decrease thyroid hormone receptor (TR) activity by increasing TR transcriptional corepressor activity. This then decreases the level of thyroid hormone binding proteins that bind to triiodothyronine. By affecting the thyroid hormone axis, BPA expoure can lead to hypothyroidism.\n\nSection::::Effects on humans.:Clinical significance.:Sex hormones.\n", "Due to the use of chemical additives during plastic production, plastics have potentially harmful effects that could prove to be carcinogenic or promote endocrine disruption. Some of the additives are used as phthalate plasticizers and brominated flame retardants. Through biomonitoring, chemicals in plastics, such as BPA and phthalates, have been identified in the human population. Humans can be exposed to these chemicals through the nose, mouth, or skin. Although the level of exposure varies depending on age and geography, most humans experience simultaneous exposure to many of these chemicals. Average levels of daily exposure are below the levels deemed to be unsafe, but more research needs to be done on the effects of low dose exposure on humans. A lot is unknown on how severely humans are physically affected by these chemicals. Some of the chemicals used in plastic production can cause dermatitis upon contact with human skin. In many plastics, these toxic chemicals are only used in trace amounts, but significant testing is often required to ensure that the toxic elements are contained within the plastic by inert material or polymer.\n", "When BPA is exposed to high temperatures or changes in pH, the ester bond linking BPA monomers is hydrolysed. Free BPA then competes with oestrogen for ERα and ERβ binding sites. When BPA successfully binds the receptor, it interacts with ERE and increases expression of target genes like WNT-4 and RANKL; two key players in stem cell proliferation and carcinogenesis. BPA was also shown to inactivate p53 which prevents tumour formation as it triggers apoptosis.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Fertility.\n", "Section::::Safety.:Positions of national and international bodies.:United Kingdom.\n\nIn December 2009, responding to a letter from a group of seven scientists that urged the UK Government to \"adopt a standpoint consistent with the approach taken by other Governments who have ended the use of BPA in food contact products marketed at children\", the UK Food Standards Agency reaffirmed, in January 2009, its view that \"exposure of UK consumers to BPA from all sources, including food contact materials, was well below levels considered harmful\".\n\nSection::::Safety.:Positions of national and international bodies.:Turkey.\n", "BPA can disrupt normal, physiological levels of sex hormones. It does this by binding to globulins that normally bind to sex hormones such as androgens and estrogens, leading to the disruption of the balance between the two. BPA can also affect the metabolism or the catabolism of sex hormones. It often acts as an antiandrogen or as an estrogen, which can cause disruptions in gonadal development and sperm production.\n\nSection::::Reduction efforts.\n", "In a 2011 study researchers looked at 455 common plastic products and found that 70% tested positive for estrogenic activity. After the products had been washed or microwaved the proportion rose to 95%. The study concluded: \"Almost all commercially available plastic products we sampled, independent of the type of resin, product, or retail source, leached chemicals having reliably-detectable EA [endocrine activity], including those advertised as BPA-free. In some cases, BPA-free products released chemicals having more EA than BPA-containing products.\" A systematic review published in 2015 found that \"based on the current literature, BPS and BPF are as hormonally active as BPA, and have endocrine disrupting effects.\"\n", "Section::::Safety.:Animal research.\n\nThe first evidence of the estrogenicity of bisphenol A came from experiments on rats conducted in the 1930s, but it was not until 1997 that adverse effects of low-dose exposure on laboratory animals were first reported.\n\nBisphenol A is an endocrine disruptor that can mimic estrogen and has been shown to cause negative health effects in animal studies. Bisphenol A closely mimics the structure and function of the hormone estradiol by binding to and activating the same estrogen receptor as the natural hormone. Early developmental stages appear to be the period of greatest sensitivity to its effects,\n", "The major human exposure route to BPA is diet, including ingestion of contaminated food and water.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14367	If smoking cigarettes makes your lungs weaker, then why does it become easier to smoke overtime?	You have hairs in your windpipe that make you cough when you smoke. Smoking destroys these, so you cough less once you've been smoking for longer.	[ "Classic lung diseases are a complication of HIV/AIDS with emphysema being a source of disease. HIV is cited as a risk factor for the development of emphysema regardless of smoking status. HIV associated emphysema occurs over a much shorter time than that associated with smoking. It is thought that an understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the triggering of HIV associated emphysema may help in the understanding of the mechanisms of the development of smoking-related emphysema.\n\nSection::::By location.:Lungs.:Ritalin lung.\n", "A person's increased risk of contracting disease is directly proportional to the length of time that a person continues to smoke as well as the amount smoked. However, if someone stops smoking, then these chances gradually decrease as the damage to their body is repaired. A year after quitting, the risk of contracting heart disease is half that of a continuing smoker. The health risks of smoking are not uniform across all smokers. Risks vary according to the amount of tobacco smoked, with those who smoke more at greater risk. Smoking so-called \"light\" cigarettes does not reduce the risk.\n", "Some smokers can achieve long-term smoking cessation through willpower alone. Smoking, however, is highly addictive, and many smokers need further support. The chance of quitting is improved with social support, engagement in a smoking cessation program, and the use of medications such as nicotine replacement therapy, bupropion, or varenicline. Combining smoking-cessation medication with behavioral therapy is more than twice as likely to be effective in helping people with COPD stop smoking, compared with behavioral therapy alone.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Occupational health.\n", "When cigar smokers don't inhale or smoke few cigars per day, the risks are only slightly above those of never smokers. Risks of lung cancer increase with increasing inhalation and with increasing number of cigars smoked per day, but the effect of inhalation is more powerful than that for number of cigars per day. When 5 or more cigars are smoked per day and there is moderate inhalation, the lung cancer risks of cigar smoking approximate those of a one pack per day cigarette smoker. As the tobacco smoke exposure of the lung in cigar smokers increases to approximate the frequency of smoking and depth of inhalation found in cigarette smokers, the difference in lung cancer risks produced by these two behaviors disappears.\n", "Asthma, COPD, and smokers have reduced airflow ability. People who suffer from asthma and COPD show decreases in exhaled air due to inflammation of the airways. This inflammation causes narrowing of the airways which allows less air to be exhaled. Numerous things cause inflammation some examples are cigarette smoke and environmental interactions such as allergies, weather, and exercise. In smokers the inability to exhale fully is due to the loss of elasticity in the lungs. Smoke in the lungs causes them to harden and become less elastic, which prevents the lungs from expanding or shrinking as they normally would.\n", "BULLET::::- Within 48 hours, nerve endings and sense of smell and taste both start recovering\n\nBULLET::::- Within 3 months, circulation and lung function improve\n\nBULLET::::- Within 9 months, there are decreases in cough and shortness of breath\n\nBULLET::::- Within 1 year, the risk of coronary heart disease is cut in half\n\nBULLET::::- Within 5 years, the risk of stroke falls to the same as a non-smoker, and the risks of many cancers (mouth, throat, esophagus, bladder, cervix) decrease significantly\n", "BULLET::::- Emphysema is another disease of the lungs, whereby the elastin in the walls of the alveoli is broken down by an imbalance between the production of neutrophil elastase (elevated by cigarette smoke) and alpha-1 antitrypsin (the activity varies due to genetics or reaction of a critical methionine residue with toxins including cigarette smoke). The resulting loss of elasticity in the lungs leads to prolonged times for exhalation, which occurs through passive recoil of the expanded lung. This leads to a smaller volume of gas exchanged per breath.\n", "More unprotonated nicotine in tobacco smoke increases smoke \"strength\", \"impact\", or \"kick\". However, the irritation and harshness of smoke at higher pH makes it harder for smokers to inhale it. Cigarette design ensures that the smoke has enough unprotonated nicotine to rapidly transfer nicotine into the brain but not so much of it as to be too harsh for the smoker. Variability in the acid-base nature of tobacco leaf is considerable. Flue-cured (\"bright\") tobacco typically produces acidic smoke, whereas air-cured (\"burley\") tobacco typically produces basic smoke. The natural acids in tobacco smoke (e.g., formic acid, acetic acid, and propionic acid) can protonate nicotine, while the natural bases (e.g., ammonia) tend to neutralize the acids and keep more nicotine in the unprotonated form. Acidic tobacco additives such as levulinic acid are used as \"smoothing\" agents to reduce smoke harshness.\n", "Inhaling smoke into the lungs, no matter the substance, has adverse effects on one's health. The incomplete combustion produced by burning plant material, like tobacco or cannabis, produces carbon monoxide, which impairs the ability of blood to carry oxygen when inhaled into the lungs. There are several other toxic compounds in tobacco that constitute serious health hazards to long-term smokers from a whole range of causes; vascular abnormalities such as stenosis, lung cancer, heart attacks, strokes, impotence, low birth weight of infants born by smoking mothers. 8% of long-term smokers develop the characteristic set of facial changes known to doctors as smoker's face.\n", "According to the Nurses' Health Study, the risk of pulmonary adenocarcinoma increases substantially after a long duration of tobacco smoking: smokers with a previous smoking duration of 30–40 years are more than twice as likely to develop lung adenocarcinoma compared to never-smokers (relative risk of approximately 2.4); a duration of more than 40 years increases relative risk to 5.\n", "Quitting smoking at any point during pregnancy is more beneficial than continuing to smoke throughout the entire nine months of pregnancy, especially if it is done within the first trimester (within the first 12 weeks of pregnancy). A recent study suggests, however, that women who smoke anytime during the first trimester put their fetus at a higher risk for birth defects, particularly congenital heart defects (structural defects in the heart of an infant that can hinder blood flow) than women who have never smoked. That risk only continues to increase the longer into the pregnancy a woman smokes, as well as the larger number of cigarettes she is smoking. This continued increase in risk throughout pregnancy means that it can still be beneficial for a pregnant woman to quit smoking for the remainder of her gestation period.\n", "Section::::Gateway drug theory.\n\nThe relationship between tobacco and other drug use has been well-established, however the nature of this association remains unclear. The two main theories are the phenotypic causation (gateway) model and the correlated liabilities model. The causation model argues that smoking is a primary influence on future drug use, while the correlated liabilities model argues that smoking and other drug use are predicated on genetic or environmental factors.\n\nSection::::Cessation.\n", "Smoking is also linked to susceptibility to infectious diseases, particularly in the lungs (pneumonia). Smoking more than 20 cigarettes a day increases the risk of by two to four times, and being a current smoker has been linked to a fourfold increase in the risk of invasive disease caused by the pathogenic bacteria \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\". It is believed that smoking increases the risk of these and other pulmonary and respiratory tract infections both through structural damage and through effects on the immune system. The effects on the immune system include an increase in CD4+ cell production attributable to nicotine, which has tentatively been linked to increased HIV susceptibility.\n", "Smoking, gastric reflux, and hypothyroidism are all risk factors for Reinke's edema. The symptoms of Reinke's edema are considered to be chronic symptoms because they develop gradually over time and depend on how long the individual is exposed to the risk factor. In the case of smoking, as long as the individual continues the habit of smoking, the Reinke's edema will continue to progress. This is true for other risk factors as well, such as untreated gastric reflux and overuse of the voice, which is common to professions such as singers and radio announcers.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "The tobacco industry has reduced tar and nicotine yields in cigarette smoke since the 1960s. This has been achieved in a variety of ways including use of selected strains of tobacco plant, changes in agricultural and curing procedures, use of reconstituted sheets (reprocessed tobacco leaf wastes), incorporation of tobacco stalks, reduction of the amount of tobacco needed to fill a cigarette by expanding it (like puffed wheat) to increase its \"filling power\", and by the use of filters and high-porosity wrapping papers. However, just as a drinker tends to drink a larger volume of beer than of wine or spirits, so many smokers tend to modify their smoking pattern inversely according to the strength of the cigarette being smoked. In contrast to the standardized puffing of the smoking machines on which the tar and nicotine yields are based, when a smoker switches to a low-tar, low nicotine cigarette, they smoke more cigarettes, take more puffs and inhale more deeply. Conversely, when smoking a high-tar, high-nicotine cigarette there is a tendency to smoke and inhale less.\n", "Smoking also increases the chance of heart disease, stroke, atherosclerosis, and peripheral vascular disease. Several ingredients of tobacco lead to the narrowing of blood vessels, increasing the likelihood of a blockage, and thus a heart attack or stroke. According to a study by an international team of researchers, people under 40 are five times more likely to have a heart attack if they smoke.\n\nExposure to tobacco smoke is known to increase oxidative stress in the body by various mechanisms, including depletion of plasma antioxidants such as vitamin C.\n", "Smoking tends to increase blood cholesterol levels. Furthermore, the ratio of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, also known as the \"good\" cholesterol) to low-density lipoprotein (LDL, also known as the \"bad\" cholesterol) tends to be lower in smokers compared to non-smokers. Smoking also raises the levels of fibrinogen and increases platelet production (both involved in blood clotting) which makes the blood thicker and more likely to clot. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying component in red blood cells), resulting in a much stabler complex than hemoglobin bound with oxygen or carbon dioxide—the result is permanent loss of blood cell functionality. Blood cells are naturally recycled after a certain period of time, allowing for the creation of new, functional red blood cells. However, if carbon monoxide exposure reaches a certain point before they can be recycled, hypoxia (and later death) occurs. All these factors make smokers more at risk of developing various forms of arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). As the arteriosclerosis progresses, blood flows less easily through rigid and narrowed blood vessels, making the blood more likely to form a thrombosis (clot). Sudden blockage of a blood vessel may lead to an infarction (stroke or heart attack). However, it is also worth noting that the effects of smoking on the heart may be more subtle. These conditions may develop gradually given the smoking-healing cycle (the human body heals itself between periods of smoking), and therefore a smoker may develop less significant disorders such as worsening or maintenance of unpleasant dermatological conditions, e.g. eczema, due to reduced blood supply. Smoking also increases blood pressure and weakens blood vessels.\n", "Smoking also causes major damages to the heart, causing coronary heart disease, which is the number-1 killer in the United States. Cigarette smoke causes shrinkage in the arteries, which heightens their chance of developing peripheral vascular disease. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, also known as the CDC, smoking can increase a person's risk of developing heart disease and getting a stroke as much as 2 to 4 times more than an average non-smoker.\n", "Glantz conducts research on a wide range of issues including the effects of secondhand smoke on the heart by studying reductions in heart attacks observed when smoke-free policies are enacted, and how the tobacco industry fights tobacco control programs. His research on the effects of secondhand smoke on blood and blood vessels concludes that, in terms of heart disease, the effects of secondhand smoke are nearly as large as those of smoking. One such study demonstrated a large and rapid reduction in the number of people admitted to the hospital with heart attacks in Helena, Montana, after that community made all workplaces and public places smokefree.\n", "On spirometry, as a restrictive lung disease, both the FEV1 (forced expiratory volume in 1 second) and FVC (forced vital capacity) are reduced so the FEV1/FVC ratio is normal or even increased in contrast to obstructive lung disease where this ratio is reduced. The values for residual volume and total lung capacity are generally decreased in restrictive lung disease.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nPulmonary fibrosis creates scar tissue. The scarring is permanent once it has developed. Slowing the progression and prevention depends on the underlying cause:\n", "Narrowing of the airways occurs due to inflammation and scarring within them. This contributes to the inability to breathe out fully. The greatest reduction in air flow occurs when breathing out, as the pressure in the chest is compressing the airways at this time. This can result in more air from the previous breath remaining within the lungs when the next breath is started, resulting in an increase in the total volume of air in the lungs at any given time, a process called hyperinflation or air trapping. Hyperinflation from exercise is linked to shortness of breath in COPD, as breathing in is less comfortable when the lungs are already partly filled. Hyperinflation may also worsen during an exacerbation.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Psychosocial.\n\nIn addition to the specific neurological changes in nicotinic receptors, there are other changes that occur as dependence develops. Through various conditioning mechanisms (operant and cue/classical), smoking comes to be associated with different mood and cognitive states as well as external contexts and cues.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nThere are treatments for nicotine dependence, although the majority of the evidence focuses on treatments for cigarette smokers rather than people who use other forms of tobacco (e.g., chew, snus, pipes, hookah, e-cigarettes). Evidence-based medicine can double or triple a smoker's chances of quitting successfully.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medication.\n", "A recent small-scale study led by nicotine researcher Neal Benowitz found that smokers who were switched to cigarettes with tobacco that contained progressively less nicotine did not compensate by smoking more cigarettes, although a significant minority of the smokers in the research withdrew from the study citing a dislike of the taste of the reduced-nicotine cigarettes. These results differ greatly from those obtained in earlier studies by Benowitz and others, where filter-based nicotine reduction was found to result in compensatory smoking behaviours. According to a USCF article on the study, Benowitz wanted to simulate a societal scenario in which the nicotine content of cigarettes would be progressively regulated downward.\n", "Permissive hypercapnia and hypoxaemia allow the patient to be ventilated at less aggressive settings and can, therefore, mitigate all forms of ventilator-associated lung injury\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nVALI is most common in people receiving mechanical ventilation for acute lung injury or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ALI/ARDS).\n\n24 percent of people mechanically ventilated will develop VALI for reasons other than ALI or ARDS. The incidence is probably higher among people who already have ALI/ARDS, but estimates vary widely. The variable estimates reflect the difficulty in distinguishing VALI from progressive ALI/ARDS.\n", "In many respects, nicotine acts on the nervous system in a similar way to caffeine. Some writings have stated that smoking can also increase mental concentration; one study documents a significantly better performance on the normed Advanced Raven Progressive Matrices test after smoking.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17781	Why is Australia a continent and Greenland not?	Australia sits on a tectonic plate it shares with only a few smaller islands. Greenland is part of the North American tectonic plate. While we're on that note, everything in California west of the San Andreas fault is part of the Pacific Plate along with Hawaii :) Edit: like this: URL_0	[ "Greenland is the world's largest island, with an area of over 2.1 million km, while Australia, the world's smallest continent, has an area of 7.6 million km, but there is no standard of size that distinguishes islands from continents, or from islets. \n\nThere is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology.\n\nContinents are the largest landmass of a particular continental plate; this holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere and tectonic plate (the Australian plate).\n", "In terms of associating islands with either continent, the boundary is usually drawn between Greenland and Iceland. The Norwegian islands of Jan Mayen and Svalbard in the Arctic Ocean are usually associated with Europe. Iceland and the Azores are protrusions of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and are associated with and peopled from Europe, even though they have areas on the North American Plate. (Definitions of \"continents\" are a physical and cultural construct dating back centuries, long before the advent or even knowledge of plate tectonics; thus, defining a \"continent\" falls into the realm of physical and cultural geography, while continental plate definitions fall under plate tectonics in the realm of geology.)\n", "By convention, \"continents are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, ideally separated by expanses of water.\" Several of the seven conventionally recognized continents are not discrete landmasses separated completely by water. The criterion \"large\" leads to arbitrary classification: Greenland, with a surface area of is considered the world's largest island, while Australia, at is deemed the smallest continent.\n\nEarth's major landmasses all have coasts on a single, continuous World Ocean, which is divided into a number of principal oceanic components by the continents and various geographic criteria.\n\nSection::::Definitions and application.:Extent.\n", "The Prince Edward Islands are located between Africa and Antarctica, and are the territory of South Africa, an African country. The Australian Macquarie Island and the New Zealand Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands, and Campbell Islands, are all located between the Oceanian countries of Australia and New Zealand and Antarctica.\n\nAustralia's Heard Island and McDonald Islands and the French Kerguelen Islands are located on the Kerguelen Plateau, on the Antarctic continental plate. The French Crozet Islands, Île Amsterdam, Île Saint-Paul, and the Norwegian Bouvet Island are also located on the Antarctic continental plate, and are not often associated with other continents.\n", "From the perspective of geology or physical geography, \"continent\" may be extended beyond the confines of continuous dry land to include the shallow, submerged adjacent area (the continental shelf) and the islands on the shelf (continental islands), as they are structurally part of the continent.\n\nFrom this perspective, the edge of the continental shelf is the true edge of the continent, as shorelines vary with changes in sea level. In this sense the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are part of Europe, while Australia and the island of New Guinea together form a continent.\n", "The Australian continent, being part of the Indo-Australian plate (more specifically, the Australian plate), is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. New Zealand is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of Zealandia. New Zealand and Australia are both part of the Oceanian sub-region known as Australasia, with New Guinea being in Melanesia. \n", "The Portuguese Atlantic island possession of the Azores is from Europe and from Africa, and is usually grouped with Europe if grouped with any continent. By contrast, the Canary and Madeira islands (including the Desertas Islands and the Savage Islands) off the Atlantic coast of Morocco are much closer to, and usually grouped with, Africa (the Canary Islands are only from the African coast at their closest point, while Madeira is from Africa and from Europe).\n", "When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice ages, greater areas of continental shelf were exposed as dry land, forming land bridges. At those times Australia–New Guinea was a single, continuous continent. Likewise, the Americas and Afro-Eurasia were joined by the Bering land bridge. Other islands such as Great Britain were joined to the mainlands of their continents. At that time there were just three discrete continents: Afro-Eurasia-America, Antarctica, and Australia-New Guinea.\n\nSection::::Definitions and application.:Number.\n\nThere are several ways of distinguishing the continents:\n", "Europe ends in the west at the Atlantic Ocean, although Iceland and the Azores archipelago (in the Atlantic, between Europe and North America) are usually considered European, as is the Norwegian Svalbard archipelago in the Arctic Ocean. Greenland is geographically part of North America, but politically associated with Europe as it is part of the Kingdom of Denmark, although it has extensive home rule and EU law no longer applies there.\n\nSection::::Africa and Asia.\n", "In many of these cases, the \"subcontinents\" concerned are on different tectonic plates from the rest of the continent, providing a geological justification for the terminology. Greenland, generally reckoned as the world's largest island on the northeastern periphery of the North American Plate, is sometimes referred to as a subcontinent. This is a significant departure from the more conventional view of a subcontinent as comprising a very large peninsula on the fringe of a continent.\n", "Antarctica was sighted in 1820 during the First Russian Antarctic Expedition and described as a continent by Charles Wilkes on the United States Exploring Expedition in 1838, the last continent identified, although a great \"Antarctic\" (antipodean) landmass had been anticipated for millennia. An 1849 atlas labelled Antarctica as a continent but few atlases did so until after World War II.\n", "In 1984 W. Filewood suggested the name \"Meganesia\", meaning \"great island\" or \"great island-group\", for both the Pleistocene continent and the present-day lands, and this name has been widely accepted by biologists. Others have used \"Meganesia\" with different meanings: travel writer Paul Theroux included New Zealand in his definition and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii. Another biologist, Richard Dawkins, coined the name \"Australinea\" in 2004. \"Australia-New Guinea\" has also been used.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Indigenous peoples.\n", "Greenland – autonomous Nordic nation that is a constituent country of the Kingdom of Denmark. Greenland comprises the Island of Greenland and adjacent islands located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically and ethnically an Arctic island nation associated with the continent of North America, politically and historically Greenland is associated with Europe, specifically Iceland, Norway, and Denmark. In 1978, Denmark granted home rule to Greenland, making it an equal member of the Danish Realm. Greenland is, by area, the world's largest island which is not a continent in its own right.\n", "Geologically, the continents largely correspond to areas of continental crust that are found on the continental plates. However, some areas of continental crust are regions covered with water not usually included in the list of continents. Zealandia is one such area (see submerged continents below).\n\nIslands are frequently grouped with a neighbouring continent to divide all the world's land into geopolitical regions. Under this scheme, most of the island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form a geopolitical region called \"Oceania\".\n\nSection::::Definitions and application.\n", "The most restricted meaning of \"continent\" is that of a continuous area of land or mainland, with the coastline and any land boundaries forming the edge of the continent. In this sense the term \"continental Europe\" (sometimes referred to in Britain as \"the Continent\") is used to refer to mainland Europe, excluding islands such as Great Britain, Ireland, Malta and Iceland, and the term \"continent of Australia\" may refer to the mainland of Australia, excluding Tasmania and New Guinea. Similarly, the \"continental United States\" refers to the 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia in central North America and may include Alaska in the northwest of the continent (the two being separated by Canada), while excluding Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Guam in the oceans.\n", "The term \"continent\" translates Greek , properly \"landmass, terra firma\", the proper name of Epirus and later especially used of Asia (i.e. Asia Minor),\n", "BULLET::::- While much of the rest of the world underwent significant cooling and thus loss of species diversity, Australia–New Guinea was drifting north at such a pace that the overall global cooling effect was roughly equalled by its gradual movement toward the equator. Temperatures in Australia–New Guinea, in other words, remained reasonably constant for a very long time, and a vast number of different animal, fungal and plant species were able to evolve to fit particular ecological niches.\n", "As long as it appeared on maps at all, the continent minimally included the unexplored lands around the South Pole, but generally much larger than the real Antarctica, spreading far north – especially in the Pacific Ocean. New Zealand, first seen by the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642, was regarded by some as a part of the continent.\n\nSection::::Mapping the southern continent.:18th century.\n", "The United States of America controls numerous territories in Oceania, including the state of Hawaii and the territories of Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and American Samoa.\n\nSection::::Europe and Africa.\n\nThe European and African mainlands are non-contiguous, and the delineation between these continents is thus merely a question of which islands are to be associated with which continent. At its nearest point, Morocco and the European portion of Spain are separated by only .\n", "In the initial configuration of Rogers and Santosh (2002), South Africa, Madagascar, India, Australia, and attached parts of Antarctica are placed adjacent to the western margin of North America, whereas Greenland, Baltica (Northern Europe), and Siberia are positioned adjacent to the northern margin of North America, and South America is placed against West Africa. In the same year (2002), Zhao et al. (2002) proposed an alternative configuration of Columbia, in which the fits of Baltica and Siberia with Laurentia and the fit of South America with West Africa are similar to those of the Rogers and Santosh (2002) configuration, whereas the fits of India, East Antarctica, South Africa, and Australia with Laurentia are similar to their corresponding fits in the configuration of Rodinia.\n", "Historically in Greco-Roman geography, \"Africa\" meant Ancient Libya, and its eastern extent was taken to be around Marmarica, at the \"Catabathmus Magnus\", placing Egypt in Asia entirely.\n", "Over the centuries the idea of Terra Australis gradually lost its hold. In 1615, Jacob le Maire and Willem Schouten's rounding of Cape Horn proved that Tierra del Fuego was a relatively small island, while in 1642 Abel Tasman's first Pacific voyage proved that Australia was not part of the mythical southern continent. Much later, James Cook sailed around most of New Zealand in 1770, showing that even it could not be part of a large continent. On his second voyage he circumnavigated the globe at a very high southern latitude, at some places even crossing the south polar circle, showing that any possible southern continent must lie well within the cold polar areas. There could be no extension into regions with a temperate climate, as had been thought before. In 1814, Matthew Flinders published the book \"A Voyage to Terra Australis.\" Flinders had concluded that the Terra Australis as hypothesized by Aristotle and Ptolemy did not exist, so he wanted the name applied to what he saw as the next best thing: \"Australia\". He wrote:\n", "There is no probability, that any other detached body of land, of nearly equal extent, will ever be found in a more southern latitude; the name Terra Australis will, therefore, remain descriptive of the geographical importance of this country, and of its situation on the globe: it has antiquity to recommend it; and, having no reference to either of the two claiming nations, appears to be less objectionable than any other which could have been selected.\n\n...with the accompanying note at the bottom of the page:\n", "Section::::Europe and North America.:Islands.\n\nThe geographical notion of a continent stands in opposition to islands and archipelagos.\n\nNevertheless, there are some islands that are considered part of Europe in a political sense.\n\nThis most notably includes the British Isles (part of the European continental shelf and during the Ice Age of the continent itself), besides the islands of the North Sea, the Baltic Sea and the Mediterranean which are part of the territory of a country situated on the European mainland, and usually also the island states of Iceland and Malta.\n", "BULLET::::- A five-continent model is obtained from this model by excluding Antarctica as uninhabited. This is used, for example in the United Nations and in the Olympic Charter in its description of the Olympic flag.\n\nThe term \"Oceania\" refers to a group of island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean, together with the continent of Australia. Pacific islands with ties to other continents (such as Japan, Hawaii or Easter Island) are usually grouped with those continents rather than Oceania. This term is used in several different continental models instead of Australia.\n\nSection::::Area and population.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Continents are very large islands." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Continents are land that is on a different tectonic plate than other land." ]
2018-02074	How do bedbugs know you’re asleep and then come out to bite you?	They sense the heat off of your body when you lay down at night. There's a cool/disturbing YouTube vid I watched where they took a hair dryer and the bed bugs went crazy.	[ "Bed bug bites are caused primarily by two species of the insect \"Cimex\": \"Cimex lectularius\" (the common bed bug) and \"Cimex hemipterus\". Their size ranges between 1 and 7 mm. They spread by crawling between nearby locations or by being carried within personal items. Infestation is rarely due to a lack of hygiene but is more common in high-density areas. Diagnosis involves both finding the bugs and the occurrence of compatible symptoms. Bed bugs spend much of their time in dark, hidden locations like mattress seams or cracks in the wall.\n", "Similar to humans, pets can also be bitten by bed bugs. The signs left by the bites are the same as in case of people and cause identical symptoms (skin irritation, scratching etc).\n\nSection::::Insect.\n", "Early research shows that the common drug taken to get rid of parasitic worms, ivermectin (Stromectol), also kills bed bugs when taken by humans at normal doses. The drug enters the human bloodstream and if the bedbugs bite during that time, the bedbug will die in a few days. Ivermectin is also effective against mosquitoes, which can be useful controlling malaria.\n\nSection::::Predators.\n", "DNA from human blood meals can be recovered from bed bugs for up to 90 days, which means they can be used for forensic purposes in identifying on whom the bed bugs have fed.\n\nSection::::Feeding habits.:Feeding physiology.\n", "\"Cimex lectularius\" is an obligate parasite of humans. Testing a sample of a residence's bed bug population and screening for bites could reveal possible recent visitors to the structure, as they have been observed to feed approximately once a week in temperate conditions. A recent re-emergence of bedbug populations in North America as well as growing interest in the field of forensics may prove bedbugs to be useful investigative tools. Recent studies have revealed that human DNA can be recovered from bed bugs for up to 60 days after feeding, thus demonstrating the potential use of this insect in forensic entomology \n", "Bedbugs prefer to hide in and around the bed frame but it can still be a good idea to put a tight cotton cover on mattress and bedding to prevent access.\n\nSection::::Pesticides.:Pesticide resistance.\n", "According to legend, the only way to keep the Tokoloshe away at night is to put a brick beneath each leg of one's bed. However, this will not protect anything but the person whose bed it is along with the bed itself, as it may instead cause havoc not involving said people. They get their power from a hot poker thrust into the crown of the body during creation.\n\nSection::::Influence.\n\nBULLET::::- Running gags about Tokoloshes are common in the South African daily comic strip \"Madam & Eve\".\n", "To find a host, ticks use a behaviour known as 'questing' - climbing onto vegetation and waving forelegs slowly until a host comes within reach. When on the host, they may not attack immediately, but wander for up to two hours until attaching on the back of the host's head or behind an ear. Certain chemicals such as carbon dioxide (hence the use of 'dry ice' baits) as well as heat and movement serve as stimuli for questing behaviour.\n", "Section::::Physical isolation.\n\nIsolation of humans is attempted with numerous devices and methods including zippered bed bug-proof mattress covers, bed-leg moat devices, and other barriers. However, even with isolated beds, bed bug infestations persist if the bed itself is not free of bed bugs, or if it is re-infested, which could happen quite easily.\n", "This method requires a freezer capable of maintaining, and set to, a temperature below . Most home freezers are capable of maintaining this temperature.\n\nSection::::Fungus.\n", "A definitive diagnosis of health effects due to bed bugs requires a search for and finding of the insect in the sleeping environment as symptoms are not sufficiently specific. Bed bugs classically form a line of bites colloquially referred to as \"breakfast, lunch, and dinner\" and rarely feed in the armpit or behind the knee which may help differentiate it from other biting insects. If the number in a house is large a pungent sweet odor may be described. There are specially trained dogs that can detect this smell.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Detection.\n", "Bedbugs have mouth parts that saw through the skin, and inject saliva with anticoagulants and painkillers. Sensitivity of humans varies from extreme allergic reaction to no reaction at all (about 20%). The bite usually produces a swelling with no red spot, but when many bugs feed on a small area, reddish spots may appear after the swelling subsides. The bite marks may appear in a straight line.\n", "Basket-work panels were put around beds and shaken out in the morning in the UK and in France in the 19th century. Scattering leaves of plants with microscopic hooked hairs around a bed at night, then sweeping them up in the morning and burning them, was a technique reportedly used in Southern Rhodesia and in the Balkans.\n\nBean leaves have been used historically to trap bedbugs in houses in Eastern Europe. The trichomes on the bean leaves capture the insects by impaling the feet (tarsi) of the insects. The leaves are then destroyed.\n\nSection::::History.:20th century.\n", "A traditional Balkan method of trapping bed bugs is to spread bean leaves in infested areas. The trichomes (microscopic hooked hairs) on the leaves trap the bugs by piercing the tarsi joints of the bed bug's arthropod legs. As a bug struggles to get free, it impales itself further on the bean leaf's trichomes. The bed bugs and leaves then can be collected and destroyed. Researchers are examining ways to reproduce this capability with artificial materials.\n\nSection::::Organic materials.:Essential oils.\n", "Many claims have been made about essential oils killing bed bugs. However, they are unproven. The FTC is now filing a suit against companies making these claims about these oils, specifically about cedar, cinnamon, lemongrass, peppermint, and clove oils.\n\nSection::::Contaminated belongings.\n", "Section::::Sensors.\n", "Section::::Behavior.\n", "Although occasionally applied as a safe indoor pesticide treatment for other insects, boric acid is ineffectual against bed bugs because bed bugs do not groom.\n\nSection::::Organic materials.\n\nSection::::Organic materials.:Bean leaves.\n", "Individual responses to bites vary, ranging from no visible effect (in about 20–70%), to small macular spots, to prominent wheals and bullae formations along with intense itching that may last several days. The bites often occur in a line. A central spot of bleeding may also occur due to the release of anticoagulants in the bug's saliva.\n", "Section::::Life stages.\n\nBed bugs have five immature nymph life stages and a final sexually mature adult stage. They shed their skins through ecdysis at each stage, discarding their outer exoskeleton, which is somewhat clear, empty exoskeletons of the bugs themselves. Bed bugs must molt six times before becoming fertile adults, and must consume at least one blood meal to complete each molt.\n", "In the Archepiscopal Archives of Udine, Ginzburg came across the 16th and 17th century trial records which documented the interrogation of several \"benandanti\" and other folk magicians. Historian John Martin of Trinity University in San Antonio, Texas would later characterize this lucky find as the sort of \"discovery most historians only dream of.\"\n", "Bed bugs can exist singly, but tend to congregate once established. Although strictly parasitic, they spend only a tiny fraction of their lifecycles physically attached to hosts. Once a bed bug finishes feeding, it relocates to a place close to a known host, commonly in or near beds or couches in clusters of adults, juveniles, and eggs—which entomologists call harborage areas or simply harborages to which the insect returns after future feedings by following chemical trails. These places can vary greatly in format, including luggage, inside of vehicles, within furniture, among bedside clutter—even inside electrical sockets and nearby laptop computers. Bed bugs may also nest near animals that have nested within a dwelling, such as bats, birds, or rodents. They are also capable of surviving on domestic cats and dogs, though humans are the preferred host of \"C. lectularius\".\n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Neuroanatomy.\n", "Section::::Ghosts.:Robert.\n", "\"M. flavitarsis \"wasps also locate prey by smell. In one study, holes were made in a leaf and placed near a plant that had holes made in its leaves twelve days prior. Once caterpillar larvae were placed on the leaf, the time for the wasp to locate the larvae was recorded. It was found that \"M. flavitarsis\" are more likely to approach the freshly damaged leaf, which release mechanical odors that serve as cues for the wasps. In studies, these wasps are more likely to approach a leaf based on olfactory cues, rather than visual cues. This shows that presented olfactory stimuli are processed before the wasp processes visual stimuli.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02142	What's the fundamental difference between Dubstep and Synthwave, when both sound almost alike?	Synthwave uses sounds from vintage synthesizers to make nostalgic-sounding music (usually focused on the 1980s) based on classic synthpop, synth-based movie scores, etc. Dubstep is more mainstream club/dance music based on fractured, lurching rhythms, and really energetic “bass drops” where the music builds to a climax and suddenly cuts out to reintroduce a driving bass beat. They dont really sound much alike if youre familiar with the genres. Sorta like asking whats the difference between death metal and indie rock :D	[ "Section::::History.:2009–present: mainstream influence.\n", "Section::::Later developments and decline in popularity.:Brostep and American developments.\n", "The increasing notability of the skweee genre has resulted in releases such as the \"Eero Johannes\" album on Planet Mu and the \"Skweee Tooth\" compilation on Ramp Recordings.\n\nSection::::Skweee and dubstep.\n", "In an \"Invisible Jukebox\" interview with \"The Wire\", Kode9 commented on a MRK1 track, observing that listeners \"have internalized the double-time rhythm\" and the \"track is so empty it makes [the listener] nervous, and you almost fill in the double time yourself, physically, to compensate\".\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Wobble bass.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Rhythm.\n\nDubstep rhythms are usually syncopated, and often shuffled or incorporating tuplets. The tempo is nearly always in the range of 138–142 beats per minute, with a clap or snare usually inserted every third beat in a bar. In its early stages, dubstep was often more percussive, with more influences from 2‑step drum patterns. A lot of producers were also experimenting with tribal drum samples, such as Loefah's early release \"Truly Dread\" and Mala's \"Anti-War Dub\".\n", "Section::::Later developments and decline in popularity.:Decline in popularity.\n", "Skweee has, during late 2008 and early 2009, started to influence the sound of dubstep. A thread started on the dubstepforum made the scene aware of skweee. Producers such as Rusko, Gemmy, Joker, Zomby, Rustie, among others, have given their take on the sound, resulting in several releases on the boundary between skweee and dubstep. The gap between dubstep and skweee has been further bridged by artists such as DJ Pontificate and underground ambient artist Chohmo, as evidenced by the former's release \"Skweeeal\".\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Interview with skweee pioneer Pavan\n", "The influence of dubstep on more commercial or popular genres can be identified as far back as 2007, with artists such as Britney Spears using dubstep sounds; critics observed a dubstep influence in the song \"Freakshow\", from the 2007 album \"Blackout\", which Tom Ewing described as \"built around the 'wobbler' effect that's a genre standby.\" Benga and Coki's single \"Night\" still continued to be a popular track on the UK dance chart more than a year after its release in late 2007, still ranking in the top five at the start of April 2008 on Pete Tong's BBC Radio 1 dance chart list.\n", "Section::::Later developments and decline in popularity.\n\nSection::::Later developments and decline in popularity.:Post-dubstep.\n", "Section::::History.:2005–08: growth.\n", "Much like drum and bass before it, dubstep started to become incorporated into other media. In 2007, Benga, Skream, and other dubstep producers provided the soundtrack to much of the second series of Dubplate Drama, which aired on Channel 4 with a soundtrack CD later released on Rinse Recordings. A track by Skream also featured in the second series of the teen drama \"Skins\", which also aired on Channel 4 in early 2008.\n", "BULLET::::- Deeper Roots 10 - Mykal Rose 'Throw Some Stone' / Ranking Joe 'Don't Follow Babylon' (M Records 270)\n\nBULLET::::- Rob Smith Meets Twilight Circus 'Jungle Dub Rasta' (M Records 280)\n\nBULLET::::- Brother Culture - Foundation Rockers 10 (M Records 340)\n\nBULLET::::- DJ Spooky / Twilight Circus / Alter Echo - Dub Summit EP / Picture Disc (M Records 330)\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Rose & Ranking Joe - Manasseh Meets Blood And Fire 10 (M Records 350)\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Rose / Vin Gordon / Brother Culture - Better Mus Come 10 (M Records 390)\n", "Originally, dubstep releases had some structural similarities to other genres like drum and bass and UK garage. Typically this would comprise an intro, a main section (often incorporating a bass drop), a midsection, a second main section similar to the first (often with another drop), and an outro.\n", "The music website Allmusic has described dubstep's overall sound as \"tightly coiled productions with overwhelming bass lines and reverberant drum patterns, clipped samples, and occasional vocals.\" According to Simon Reynolds, dubstep's constituents originally came from \"different points in the 1989—99 UK lineage: bleep 'n' bass, jungle, techstep, Photek-style neurofunk, speed garage, [and] 2 step.\" Reynolds comments that the traces of pre-existing styles \"worked through their intrinsic sonic effects but also as signifiers, tokenings-back addressed to \"those who know\"\".\n", "The summer of 2007 saw dubstep's musical palette expand further, with Benga and Coki scoring a crossover hit (in a similar manner to Skream's \"Midnight Request Line\") with the track \"Night\", which gained widespread play from DJs in a diverse range of genres. BBC Radio 1 DJ Gilles Peterson named it his record of 2007, and it was also a massive hit in the equally bassline-orientated, but decidedly more four-to-the-floor genre of bassline house, whilst Burial's late 2007 release \"Untrue\" (which was nominated for the 2008 Nationwide Mercury Music Prize in the UK) incorporated extensive use of heavily manipulated, mostly female, 'girl next door' vocal samples. Burial has spoken at length regarding his intent to reincorporate elements of musical precursors such as 2-step garage and house into his sound.\n", "Dubstep originated from DnB slowed down to half speed and mixed with dub reggae, as experimental mixes on B-sides of garage records.\n\nIntelligent Dance Music (IDM) is a form of art music based on DnB and other electronic dance musics, exploring their boundaries using ideas from science, technology, contemporary classical music and progressive rock, often creating un-danceable, art gallery style music. Pioneered by Aphex Twin, Squarepusher and other artists on Warp Records.\n", "In early 2010, a new variation in hardstyle, named dubstyle was introduced. Dubstyle is the name given to the genre fusion of hardstyle and dubstep. Dubstyle tends to have reversed wobble basslines and take the kick styling of hardstyle tracks, while combining them with the rhythm, groove, and dubstep tempo and effects a fusion of elements of hardstyle with a dubstep rhythm, usually a 2-step or a breakstep rhythm. Because of the sporadic beat in dubstyle, the bass is often more dragged out and/or it doesn't follow a strict offbeat pattern that regular hardstyle incorporates, which in turn results in dubstyle basslines bearing similarities to dubstep basslines.\n", "Dubstep\n\nDubstep is a genre of electronic dance music that originated in South London in the late 1990s. It is generally characterised by sparse, syncopated rhythmic patterns with prominent sub-bass frequencies. The style emerged as an offshoot of UK garage, drawing on a lineage of related styles such as 2-step and dub reggae, as well as jungle, broken beat, and grime. In the United Kingdom, the origins of the genre can be traced back to the growth of the Jamaican sound system party scene in the early 1980s.\n", "Section::::History.:2002–05: evolution.\n\nAll throughout 2003, DJ Hatcha pioneered a new direction for dubstep on Rinse FM and through his sets at Forward». Playing sets cut to 10\" one-off reggae-style dubplates, he drew exclusively from a pool of new South London producers—first Benga and Skream, then also Digital Mystikz and Loefah—to begin a dark, clipped and minimal new direction in dubstep.\n", "In the summer of 2008, Mary Anne Hobbs invited Cyrus, Starkey, Oneman, DJ Chef, Silkie, Quest, Joker, Nomad, Kulture and MC Sgt Pokes to the BBC's Maida Vale studios for a show called \"Generation Bass\". The show was the evolution from her seminal BBC Radio 1 Dubstepwarz Show in 2006, and further documented another set of dubstep's producers.\n", "Section::::History.:Dance music in the 21st century.\n\nSection::::History.:Dance music in the 21st century.:Dubstep.\n\nDubstep is a genre of electronic dance music that originated in South London in the late 1990s. It is generally characterized by sparse, syncopated rhythmic patterns with bass lines that contain prominent sub-bass frequencies. The style emerged as an offshoot of UK garage, drawing on a lineage of related styles such as 2-step, dub reggae, jungle, broken beat, and grime. In the United Kingdom the origins of the genre can be traced back to the growth of the Jamaican sound system party scene in the early 1980s.\n", "One characteristic of certain strands of dubstep is the wobble bass, often referred to as the \"wub\", where an extended bass note is manipulated rhythmically. This style of bass is typically produced by using a low-frequency oscillator to manipulate certain parameters of a synthesiser such as volume, distortion or filter cutoff. The resulting sound is a timbre that is punctuated by rhythmic variations in volume, filter cutoff, or distortion. This style of bass is a driving factor in some variations of dubstep, particularly at the more club-friendly end of the spectrum.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Structure, bass drops, rewinds, and MCs.\n", "Section::::Expansion: 1960s.:Jamaican dub music.\n", "BULLET::::- Infected Mushroom\n\nSection::::List.:J.\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Beats\n\nBULLET::::- Jakwob\n\nBULLET::::- James Blake\n\nBULLET::::- JDevil\n\nBULLET::::- Jauz\n\nBULLET::::- Joker\n\nBULLET::::- Joy Orbison\n\nBULLET::::- Juakali\n\nSection::::List.:K.\n\nBULLET::::- Kahn\n\nBULLET::::- Katy B\n\nBULLET::::- Klaypex\n\nBULLET::::- Killbot\n\nBULLET::::- Knife Party\n\nBULLET::::- KOAN Sound\n\nBULLET::::- Kode9\n\nBULLET::::- Kill the Noise\n\nBULLET::::- Krewella\n\nBULLET::::- Kromestar\n\nSection::::List.:L.\n\nBULLET::::- Labrinth\n\nBULLET::::- Liquid Stranger\n\nBULLET::::- Lindsey Stirling\n\nBULLET::::- Loefah\n\nSection::::List.:M.\n\nBULLET::::- The M Machine\n\nBULLET::::- Magnetic Man\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Martin\n\nBULLET::::- Martyn\n\nBULLET::::- Modestep\n\nBULLET::::- Mount Kimbie\n\nBULLET::::- MRK1\n\nBULLET::::- Mt Eden\n\nSection::::List.:N.\n\nBULLET::::- Navene-k\n\nBULLET::::- Nero\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Nice\n\nBULLET::::- Noisia\n\nSection::::List.:P.\n\nBULLET::::- Pegboard Nerds\n\nBULLET::::- Pinch\n", "In early 2011, the term \"post-dubstep\" (sometimes known as bass music) was used to describe club music that was influenced by certain aspects of dubstep. Such music often references earlier dubstep productions as well as UK garage, 2-step and other forms of underground electronic dance music. Artists producing music described as post-dubstep have also incorporated elements of ambient music and early R&B. The latter in particular is heavily sampled by three artists described as post-dubstep: Mount Kimbie, Fantastic Mr Fox and James Blake. The tempo of music typically characterised as post-dubstep is approximately 130 beats per minute.\n" ]	[ "Dupstep and Synthwave sound almost alike." ]	[ "Dubstep and Synthwave do not sound much alike if you are familiar with the genres. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Dupstep and Synthwave sound almost alike." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Dubstep and Synthwave do not sound much alike if you are familiar with the genres. " ]
2018-08781	Did the Occupy Wall Street movement have any permanent impact?	Like all movements like this, it's complicated. The problem with the Occupy movement was that it never had a unified message. They were protesting the "1%", but they never really made it clear what their demands were or how they wanted them to be met. Largely because Occupy organizers themselves couldn't agree on that themselves. The movement ultimately got co-opted by far-left radicals, lost public support, then it just sort of fizzled out after the police raids. Yet politics in the west tends to be a bit more of a slow burn. Movements like this never really having an immediate impact. Both Occupy and the Tea Party did work as catalysts towards the growing tide of populism we're seeing in America today. Both Bernie Sanders and Donald Trump were populist, anti-establishment candidates who saw strong grass roots support.	[ "By January 2012 general assemblies were still popular around the world even though many of the Occupy camps had been dispersed either voluntarily or by police action. However some journalists had begun to report incidents of infighting among different groups and a general tendency for discussions to become more insular and trivial.\n", "The idea of society as a terminally unresponsive, nonconversant entity would certainly be news to the generations of labor and gender-equality advocates who persistently engaged the social order with demands for the ballot and the eight-hour workday. It would likewise ring strangely in the ears of the leaders of the civil rights movement, who used a concerted strategy of nonviolent protest as a means of addressing an abundance-obsessed white American public who couldn’t find the time to regard racial inequality as a pressing social concern. The explicit content of such protests, meanwhile, indicted that same white American public on the basis of the civic and political standards—or rather double standards—of equality and opportunity that fueled the nation’s chauvinist self-regard.\n", "In March 2012, former U.S. Vice President Al Gore called on activists to \"occupy democracy\", explaining that \"Our democracy has been hacked. It no longer works to serve the best interests of the people of this country.\" Also in November 2011, Paul Mason said that the Occupy movement had started to dynamically shape the global policy response to the Late-2000s financial crisis, being mentioned so often at the 2011 G20 summit that if Occupy had been a brand \"it would have a profile to die for among the super-elite\". Various journalists along with Jared Bernstein former chief economist and economic adviser to Vice President Joe Biden, have suggested that Occupy influenced the President's January 2012 State of the Union address, with the movement creating the political space for Obama to shift to the economic left and speak about the desirability of the rich paying a greater share of the tax burden. Inequality has remained a central theme of President Obama's reelection campaign, yet he no longer mentions the Occupy movement by name, which analysts say reflects the fact that by early 2012 Occupy had become a divisive issue, unpopular with some of the public.\n", "In the United States, the protests have helped shift the focus of national dialogue from the federal budget deficit to economic problems many ordinary Americans face, such as unemployment, the large amount of student and other personal debt that burdens middle class and working class Americans, and other major issues of social inequality, such as homelessness. The movement appears to have generated a national conversation about income inequality, as evidenced by the fact that print and broadcast news mentioned the term \"income inequality\" more than five times more often during the last week of October 2011 than during the week before the occupation began. Longer term effects are much less clear, as according to Google search trends, in the years since 2012 interest has waned. Occupy movement raised awareness regarding what organizers consider undeserved wealth and lack of fairness in American society. Labor unions have become bolder in the tactics they employ and have been using digital social media more effectively thanks to the Occupy movement. In New York City, the Occupy Wall Street protest has also provided hundreds of protesters to help in picket actions conducted by labor unions.\n", "BULLET::::- Ingar Solty (2014). \"Is the Global Crisis Ending the Marriage of Capitalism and Liberal Democracy? (Il-)Legitimate Political Power and the New Global Anti-Capitalist Mass Movements in the Context of the Internationalization of the State,\" in M. Lakitsch, Ed., \"Political Power Reconsidered: State Power and Civic Activism between Legitimacy and Violence\" (LIT), pp 161–204 Is the Global Crisis Ending the Marriage of Capitalism and Liberal Democracy? (Il-)Legitimate Political Power and the New Global Anti-Capitalist Mass Movements in the Context of the Internationalization of the State\n\nBULLET::::- Richard G. Wilkinson and Kate Pickett (2009). \".\" Allen Lane.\n", "Political change is the most studied aspect of social movement impacts, and possibly the most hotly contested. Some have argued that because democratic governments are completely permeable to the public, social movements can only create inequality in representation; however, this view has been discredited.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Political opportunity\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Amenta, Edwin, Neal Caren, and Sheera Joy Olasky. \"Age for Leisure? Political Mediation and the Impact of the Pension Movement on U.S. Old-Age Policy\" in Readings on Social Movements: Origins, Dynamics, and Outcomes edited by Doug McAdam and David A. Snow, pp. 698–715, University of Chicago Press. 2005.\n", "A study of 342 US protests covered by \"The New York Times\" newspaper from 1962 to 1990 showed that such public activities usually affected the company's publicly traded stock price. The most intriguing aspect of the study's findings revealed that the amount of media coverage the event received was of the most importance to this study. Stock prices fell an average of one-tenth of a percent for every paragraph printed about the event.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Activist Wisdom, a book about protesters in Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Anti-globalization movement\n\nBULLET::::- Fare strike\n\nBULLET::::- First Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nBULLET::::- Gandhigiri\n", "These currents largely constrained disruptive protest until the 1999 demonstrations against the World Trade Organization. In an unprecedented success for post-Vietnam era civil disobedience, the WTO Ministerial Conference opening ceremonies were shut down completely, host city Seattle declared a state of emergency for nearly a week, multilateral trade negotiations between the wealthy and developing nations collapsed, and all of this was done without fatalities. This occurred in the midst of mass rioting which had been set off by militant anarchists (some of them in a black bloc formation), nonviolent civil disobedience organized by various NGOs (including Public Citizen and Global Exchange) and the Seattle Direct Action Network (DAN), and a mass permitted march organized by the AFL-CIO.\n", "Non-state institutions can also be targeted and changed by social movements, as is the case for any boycott or divestment campaign. Other movements can take place within the workplace itself, as with labor organizing or cooperative movements. Scholars have begun analysis of institution-specific campaigns, and have theorized that there are four institutional characteristics which make it vulnerable to change: 1) Rapid growth in terms of money or members, 2) diffuseness or decentralization of organization, 3) strength of links between clients and professionals, and 4) ties to the state.\n\nSection::::Types of impact.:Cultural.\n", "A study looked at the impact of Social Networking Sites (SNS) on various demographics and their political activity. Not surprisingly college students used SNS for political activity the most but this was followed by a more unlikely group, those that had not completed high school. In addition the probability for non-White citizens to consume political information was shown to be higher than that of Whites. These two outcomes go in the face of normal predictors of political activity. Despite these surprising findings older generations, men and whites showed the highest levels of political mobilization. Acts of political mobilization, such as fundraising, volunteering, protesting require the most continued interest, resources and knowledge (Nam, 2010).\n", "Until 2011, the Great Divergence had not been a major political issue in America, but stagnation of middle-class income was. In 2009 the Barack Obama administration White House Middle Class Working Families Task Force convened to focus on economic issues specifically affecting middle-income Americans. In 2011, the Occupy movement drew considerable attention to income inequality in the country.\n", "The Occupy movement has \"already transformed beyond recognition from its original state\" and \"campaigns have emerged outside the constraint of the trademark Occupy tactics.\" These campaigns include Occupy Sandy which has provided needed relief to the New York area since Hurricane Sandy hit, Occupy London's Occupy Economics group that hosted, and was praised by the Bank of England's Executive Director for Financial Stability, Occupy the SEC, which monitors US financial regulatory matters, The Rolling Jubilees program of Strike Debt, which is raising money to retire \"zombie debt,\" debt, such as medical bills, that the individual cannot re-pay, Occupy University, which has developed and made accessible free educational materials, and the Debt Collective, a successor of Strike Debt, worked to get students of a fraudulent for-profit college absolved of their debt with some success.\n", "However, the demonstration in 1983 was a unique event, as demonstrations have not been a focus for Timbro. Instead, developing and spreading ideas directed towards media and pundits have remained the main strategy. During the 1980s, book publishing became increasingly important, even extended into fiction. \"Operation Garbo\", a literary effort to influence security policy, was a great success leading to media coverage that was instrumental to ideological debates.\n", "Throughout the 1960s–1980s, dissidents in the civil and human rights movement engaged in a variety of activities: The documentation of political repression and rights violations in samizdat (unsanctioned press); individual and collective protest letters and petitions; unsanctioned demonstrations; an informal network of mutual aid for prisoners of conscience; and, most prominently, civic watch groups appealing to the international community. All of these activities came at great personal risk and with repercussions ranging from dismissal from work and studies to many years of imprisonment in labor camps and being subjected to punitive psychiatry.\n", "Income inequality and Wealth Inequality were focal points of the Occupy Wall Street protests. This focus by the movement was studied by Arindajit Dube and Ethan Kaplan of the University of Massachusetts Amherst, who noted that \"inequality in the U.S. has risen dramatically over the past 40 years. So it is not too surprising to witness the rise of a social movement focused on redistribution ... Greater inequality may reflect as well as exacerbate factors that make it relatively more difficult for lower-income individuals to mobilize on behalf of their interests ... Yet, even the economic crisis of 2007 did not initially produce a left social movement ... Only after it became increasingly clear that the political process was unable to enact serious reforms to address the causes or consequences of the economic crisis did we see the emergence of the OWS movement ... Overall, a focus on the 1 percent concentrates attention on the aspect of inequality most clearly tied to the distribution of income between labor and capital ... We think OWS has already begun to influence the public policy making process.\"\n", "The movement was also criticized for not building a sustainable base of support and instead fading quickly after its initial spark in late 2011 through early 2012. This may be attributed to Occupy's lack of legislative victories, which left the protestors with a lack of measurable goals. It was also argued that the movement was too tied to its base, Zuccotti Park. Evidence of this lies in the fact that when the police evicted the protestors on November 15, the movement largely dissipated. While there is evidence that the movement had an enduring impact, protests and direct mentions of the Occupy Movement quickly became uncommon.\n", "Three years later, income inequality had become a major part of the political discourse and \"The Atlantic\" Magazine declared \"The Triumph of Occupy Wall Street\"\n\nSection::::National monitoring and crackdown.\n", "During the 1960s there was a growth in the amount of social movement activity in both Europe and the United States. With this increase also came a change in the public perception around social movements. Protests were now seen as making politics better and essential for a healthy democracy. The classical approaches were not able to explain this increase in social movements. Because the core principle of these approaches was that protests were held by people who were suffering from structural weaknesses in society, it could not explain that the growth in social movement was preceded by a \"growth\" in welfare rather than a \"decline\" in welfare. Therefore, there was a need for new theoretical approaches.\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n\nSection::::Bibliography.:Books.\n\nGee, T (2011) \"Counterpower: making change happen\" New Internationalist Publishing: Oxford, UK \n\nGee, T (2013) \"You can't evict an idea: What can we learn from Occupy?\" Housmans: London, UK \n\nSection::::Bibliography.:Chapters.\n\nGee, T (2012) The children of the children of the revolution. In: Coatman, C. & Shrubsole, G. [Ed] \"Regeneration\" Lawrence & Wisehart: London, UK 109-116 \n\nSection::::Bibliography.:Articles.\n\nGee, T (2008) Is Poverty History Yet? \"Scottish Left Review\" (47) 20-21 \n\nGee, T (2008) Will Red and Green Ever be Seen? \"Scottish Left Review\" (46) 18-19 \n", "Two years later, Piven and Cloward published the controversial \"Poor People's Movements\", which argued that power structures are threatened by disorganized and disruptive people. This provoked a major backlash among Social Movement Theorists, and the idea that organization in social movements is harmful has been largely discredited. They also argue that social movement organizations will be most successful when there is a divide among the elites, and some elites are forced to side with the poor. This was received more favorably, and was a catalytic idea in the political mediation model.\n", "In a 2011 interview on \"Fox News Sunday\", Democratic Party chairperson Howard Dean stated that the occupy movement has \"changed the dialogue\" in terms of American politics. He remarked, \"most people in this country believe now that there's 1 percent that has a lot and a 99 percent that gets treated not so well.\"\n\nIn April 2012, the Occupy movement in the U.S. evolved plans for the 2012 Republican National Convention in Tampa, Florida starting August 27 and the September 3, 2012 Democratic National Convention involving Occupy Charlotte.\n\nSection::::IRS.\n", "The report was released just as concerns of the Occupy Wall Street movement were beginning to enter the national political debate. According to the CBO, between 1979 and 2007 the incomes of the top 1% of Americans grew by an average of 275%. During the same time period, the 60% of Americans in the middle of the income scale saw their income rise by 40%. Since 1979 the average pre-tax income for the bottom 90% of households has decreased by $900, while that of the top 1% increased by over $700,000, as federal taxation became less progressive. From 1992 to 2007 the top 400 income earners in the U.S. saw their income increase 392% and their average tax rate reduced by 37%. In 2009, the average income of the top 1% was $960,000 with a minimum income of $343,927.\n", "American society saw an increase in student activism again in the 1990s. The popular education reform movement has led to a resurgence of populist student activism against standardized testing and teaching, as well as more complex issues including military/industrial/prison complex and the influence of the military and corporations in education There is also increased emphasis on ensuring that changes that are made are sustainable, by pushing for better education funding and policy or leadership changes that engage students as decision-makers in schools. Notably, universities participated in the Disinvestment from South Africa movement; University of California, Berkeley, after student activism became the first institution to disinvest completely from companies implicated in and profiting from apartheid.\n", "On October 11, SMU economics professor Ravi Batra wrote an article stating that the Occupy Wall Street movement heralds the end of \"crony capitalism\". He argues that government policies since the Reagan Administration have greatly contributed to increase inequalities and economic problems in the U.S. and that the OWS movement should push for their repeal. On October 15, 2011, over 350 people attended a solidarity march that was coordinated with all the other Occupy movements across the world.\n", "The group gathered together a minority which argued that almost without exception the international left had undertaken no serious rexamination of world perspectives and economy since a \"stagnation phase\" in the 1970s and 1980s. It felt that as a result the international left had been unable to explain either the marginalisation of the left or the failure of important protest movements against capitalism (such as the anti-capitalist movement, anti-war movement and Social Forum movements) to sink significant roots into the world working-class.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06705	how does putting a needle on a vinyl convert it into sound?	Sound is just vibrations in the air. The needle rides little bumps on the record, creating the vibration pattern needed, just in a very small level. The rest of the device amplifies these vibrations enough that they cause the air exiting the speaker to be vibrating enough for the vibrations to reach your ear, which you hear as music	[ "BULLET::::- Lipman, Samuel,\"The House of Music: Art in an Era of Institutions\", 1984. See the chapter on \"Getting on Record\", pp. 62–75, about the early record industry and Fred Gaisberg and Walter Legge and FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording).\n\nBULLET::::- Millard, Andre J., \"America on record : a history of recorded sound\", Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1995.\n\nBULLET::::- Millard, Andre J., \" From Edison to the iPod\", UAB Reporter, 2005, University of Alabama at Birmingham.\n", "In some ways similar to the laser turntable is the IRENE scanning machine for disc records, which images with microphotography, invented by a team of physicists at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories.\n\nAn offshoot of IRENE, the Confocal Microscope Cylinder Project, can capture a high-resolution three-dimensional image of the surface, down to 200 µm. In order to convert to a digital sound file, this is then played by a version of the same 'virtual stylus' program developed by the research team in real-time, converted to digital and, if desired, processed through sound-restoration programs.\n\nSection::::Formats.\n\nSection::::Formats.:Types of records.\n", "Between the invention of the phonograph in 1877 and the first commercial digital recordings in the early 1970s, arguably the most important milestone in the history of sound recording was the introduction of what was then called \"electrical recording\", in which a microphone was used to convert the sound into an electrical signal that was amplified and used to actuate the recording stylus. This innovation eliminated the \"horn sound\" resonances characteristic of the acoustical process, produced clearer and more full-bodied recordings by greatly extending the useful range of audio frequencies, and allowed previously unrecordable distant and feeble sounds to be captured.\n", "For a sound to be recorded by the Phonograph, it has to go through three distinct steps. First, the sound enters a cone-shaped component of the device, called the microphone diaphragm. That sound causes the microphone diaphragm, which is connected to a small metal needle, to vibrate. The needle then vibrates in the same way, causing its sharp tip to etch a distinctive groove into a cylinder, which was made out of tinfoil.\n\nSection::::The phonograph.:Playback.\n", "Among the vast and often rapid changes that have taken place over the last century of audio recording, it is notable that there is one crucial audio device, invented at the start of the \"Electrical Era\", which has survived virtually unchanged since its introduction in the 1920s: the electro-acoustic transducer, or loudspeaker. The most common form is the dynamic loudspeaker – effectively a dynamic microphone in reverse. This device typically consists of a shallow conical diaphragm, usually of a stiff paper-like material concentrically pleated to make it more flexible, firmly fastened at its perimeter, with the coil of a moving-coil electromagnetic driver attached around its apex. When an audio signal from a recording, a microphone, or an electrified instrument is fed through an amplifier to the loudspeaker, the varying electromagnetic field created in the coil causes it and the attached cone to move backward and forward, and this movement generates the audio-frequency pressure waves that travel through the air to our ears, which hear them as sound. Although there have been numerous refinements to the technology, and other related technologies have been introduced (e.g. the electrostatic loudspeaker), the basic design and function of the dynamic loudspeaker has not changed substantially in 90 years, and it remains overwhelmingly the most common, sonically accurate and reliable means of converting electronic audio signals back into audible sound.\n", "Electric sound recording and reproduction are electrical or mechanical techniques and devices for the inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. Acoustic analog recording is achieved by a small microphone diaphragm that can record sound waves on a phonograph (in which a stylus senses grooves on a record) or magnetic tape. The first practical sound recording and reproduction device was the mechanical phonograph cylinder, invented by Thomas Edison in 1877 and patented in 1878. \n", "Section::::Magnetic recording.\n\nSection::::Magnetic recording.:Magnetic wire recording.\n\nWire recording or magnetic wire recording is an analog type of audio storage in which a magnetic recording is made on thin steel or stainless steel wire.\n", "BULLET::::- 1945 : The Hammond Organ Company commissioned John Hanert to design the Hanert Synthesizer\n\nBULLET::::- 1946 : Jennings Musical Instruments releases the Univox\n\nBULLET::::- 1946 : Raymond Scott patented the Orchestra Machine\n\nBULLET::::- 1947 : Constant Martin constructed the Clavioline\n\nBULLET::::- 1948 : Bell Laboratories reveal the first transistor\n\nBULLET::::- 1948 : The microgroove 33-1/3 rpm vinyl record (LP) is introduced by Columbia Records\n\nBULLET::::- 1951 : Pultec introduces the first passive program equalizer, the EQP-1\n\nBULLET::::- 1952 : Harry F. Olson and Herbert Belar invent the RCA Synthesizer\n", "Section::::Magnetic tape.\n", "BULLET::::- The German physicist Curt Stille (1873-1957) records magnetic sound for film, on a perforated steel band. First, this \"Magnettonverfahren\" has no success. Years later it is rediscovered for amateur films, providing easy dubbing. A \"Daylygraph\" or Magnettongerät had amplifier and equalizer, and a mature Magnettondiktiergerät called \"Textophon\".\n\nBULLET::::- Based on patents, which he had purchased of silence, brings the Englishman E. Blattner the \" Blattnerphone \"the first magnetic sound recording on the market. It records on a thin steel band.\n", "Section::::The revival of vinyl.\n", "Section::::Internal workings.:Vinyl/CD time code.:Finding position.\n\nThe time codes themselves consist of 40 individual bits, or 20 cycles on each channel's waveform. On the right channel the bit sequence of 0, 0, 0, 1 represents the start sequence for a single time code. Those four bits along with the four corresponding bits on the left channel and the next 16 bits on each channel can be decoded as an integer position value which represents where the needle is on the record.\n\nSection::::Internal workings.:Vinyl/CD time code.:Finding speed.\n", "BULLET::::- Valdemar Poulsen of Denmark was awarded U.S. Patent No. 661,619 for the first sound recording device, which he called the telegraphone. In the summer of 1898, Poulsen found that a telephone, connected to an electromagnet (which, in turn moved along a piece of piano wire) could electronically store the sound of his voice; and that the sound could be \"played back\" to a telephone receiver by moving the magnet back over the wire.\n\nBULLET::::- Born: \"Carbine\" Williams, American inventor, in Cumberland County, North Carolina (d. 1975)\n\nSection::::November 14, 1900 (Wednesday).\n", "Section::::1950s to 1980s.\n", "The next great advancement in analog sound recording came in the form of the telegraphone, which was created by Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen between 1898 and 1900. This machine was vastly different from the gramophone or the phonograph, in that instead of recording sound mechanically, it recorded using a process called electromagnetism.\n\nPoulsen was able to transmit an electrical signal, much like the one that would broadcast over the radio or a telephone, and then capture it on a magnetizable element, in this case a length of steel wire, which was wrapped around a bass drum.\n\nSection::::Telegraphone.:Problems.\n", "BULLET::::- The company RCA Victor presents to the public the first real LP record, the 35 cm diameter and 33.33 RPM give sufficient playing time for an entire orchestral work. But the new turntables are initially so expensive that they are only gain broad acceptance after the Second World War - then as vinyl record.\n\nBULLET::::- The French physicist René Barthélemy leads in Paris the first public television with clay before. The BBC launches first Tonversuche in the UK.\n", "A gramophone record, commonly known as a record, or a vinyl record, is an analog sound storage medium consisting of a flat disc with an inscribed, modulated spiral groove. The groove usually starts near the periphery and ends near the center of the disc. Ever since Thomas Edison invented the phonograph in 1877, it produced distorted sound because of gravity's pressure on the playing stylus. In response, Emile Berliner invented a new medium for recording and listening to sound in 1887 in the form of a horizontal disc, originally known as the \"platter\".\n\n1887 Slot machine\n", "Between the invention of the phonograph in 1877 and the advent of digital media, arguably the most important milestone in the history of sound recording was the introduction of what was then called \"electrical recording\", in which a microphone was used to convert the sound into an electrical signal that was amplified and used to actuate the recording stylus. This innovation eliminated the \"horn sound\" resonances characteristic of the acoustical process, produced clearer and more full-bodied recordings by greatly extending the useful range of audio frequencies, and allowed previously unrecordable distant and feeble sounds to be captured.\n", "The first 45 rpm record created for sale was \"PeeWee the Piccolo\" RCA 47-0147 pressed in yellow translucent vinyl at the Sherman Avenue plant, Indianapolis on December 7, 1948, by R. O. Price, plant manager.\n\nIn the 1970s, the government of Bhutan produced now-collectible postage stamps on playable vinyl mini-discs.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "BULLET::::- A laser turntable is a phonograph that plays gramophone records using a laser beam as the pickup instead of a conventional diamond-tipped stylus. This playback system has the unique advantage of avoiding physical contact with the record during playback; instead, a focused beam of light traces the signal undulations in the vinyl, with zero friction, mass and record wear. The laser turntable was first conceived by Robert S. Reis, while working as a consultant of analog signal processing for the United States Air Force and the United States Department of Defense.\n\n1984 LCD projector\n", "Until the mid-1920s records were played on purely mechanical record players usually powered by a wind-up spring motor. The sound was \"amplified\" by an external or internal horn that was coupled to the diaphragm and stylus, although there was no real amplification: the horn simply improved the efficiency with which the diaphragm's vibrations were transmitted into the open air. The recording process was in essence the same non-electronic setup operating in reverse, but with a recording stylus engraving a groove into a soft waxy master disc and carried slowly inward across it by a feed mechanism.\n", "In 1901 The Gold Molded (originally spelled Moulded) process was perfected for commercial use by Thomas Edison and Jonas Aylsworth (Edison's Chemist) with input from Walter Miller, the Recording Manager of Edison Records. This discussion was gleaned from facts provided by Walter Miller, Jonas Aylsworth, Thomas Edison, Adolphe Melzer, and Charles Wurth.\n", "Section::::Music and record production.:1960s.\n\nBULLET::::- The Revels\n", "Keen to make use of the new recorders as soon as possible, Crosby invested $50,000 of his own money into Ampex, and the tiny six-man concern soon became the world leader in the development of tape recording, revolutionizing radio and recording with its famous Ampex Model 200 tape deck, issued in 1948 and developed directly from Mullin's modified Magnetophones.\n\nSection::::Magnetic recording.:Multitrack recording.\n", "Section::::Electrical recording.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15010	how is measured the thermical sensation, the temperature that we feel	Thermoception (yes, that's actually what this is called) isn't actually sensing temperature, but sensing heat flux (or, the movement of heat into or out of your body). Because heat flux is determined in part by temperature differences, the greater the difference in temperature between you and the object you're touching, the hotter or colder it will feel to you. However, heat flux is also partially controlled by heat capacity and conductivity, or the ability of a substance to hold on to heat and to move heat. The result of this is that an object with more heat capacity/conductivity will feel hotter or colder than another object at the same temperature with a lower heat capacity/conductivity. The most common example of this would be metal vs. wood at room temperature; the metals will feel cooler because they have a much higher heat capacity and conductivity, and are much more accepting of the heat your body puts out naturally.	[ "Other important devices for measuring temperature include:\n\nBULLET::::- Thermocouples\n\nBULLET::::- Thermistors\n\nBULLET::::- Resistance temperature detector (RTD)\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrometer\n\nBULLET::::- Langmuir probes (for electron temperature of a plasma)\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared\n\nBULLET::::- Other thermometers\n", "Section::::Indirect methods of temperature measurement.\n\nIn theory any physical phenomenon exhibiting a temperature dependence could be used as a thermometer, measuring temperature indirectly. Some of these properties have been exploited. For example, blackbody radiation allows one to measure the temperature in a blast furnace or kiln, or the temperature of a distant star\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal expansion\n\nBULLET::::- Pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Density\n\nBULLET::::- Thermochromism\n\nBULLET::::- Fluorescence\n\nBULLET::::- Optical absorbance spectra\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical resistance\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical potential\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical resonance\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear magnetic resonance\n\nBULLET::::- Magnetic susceptibility\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Taking a person's temperature is an initial part of a full clinical examination. There are various types of medical thermometers, as well as sites used for measurement, including:\n\nBULLET::::- In the rectum (rectal temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- In the mouth (oral temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- Under the arm (axillary temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- In the ear (tympanic temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- in the nose\n\nBULLET::::- In the vagina (vaginal temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- In the bladder\n\nBULLET::::- On the skin of the forehead over the temporal artery\n\nSection::::Variations.\n", "The first physician that put thermometer measurements to clinical practice was Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738). In 1866, Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt (1836–1925) invented a clinical thermometer that produced a body temperature reading in five minutes as opposed to twenty. In 1999, Dr. Francesco Pompei of the Exergen Corporation introduced the world's first temporal artery thermometer, a non-invasive temperature sensor which scans the forehead in about two seconds and provides a medically accurate body temperature.\n\nSection::::Registering.\n", "BULLET::::- 1654 — Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, made sealed tubes part filled with alcohol, with a bulb and stem, the first modern-style thermometer, depending on the expansion of a liquid, and independent of air pressure\n\nBULLET::::- 1695 — Guillaume Amontons improved the thermometer\n\nSection::::Timeline.:1700s.\n\nBULLET::::- 1701 — Newton publishes a method of determining the rate of heat loss of a body and introduces a scale, which had 0 degrees represent the freezing point of water, and 12 degrees for human body temperature.\n", "Medical thermometer\n\nA medical thermometer (also called clinical thermometer) is used for measuring human or animal body temperature. The tip of the thermometer is inserted into the mouth under the tongue (\"oral\" or \"sub-lingual temperature\"), under the armpit (\"axillary temperature\"), or into the rectum via the anus (\"rectal temperature\").\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe medical thermometer began as an instrument more appropriately called a water thermoscope, constructed by Galileo Galilei circa 1592–1593. It lacked an accurate scale with which to measure temperature and could be affected by changes in atmospheric pressure.\n", "Under some conditions it becomes possible to measure temperature by a direct use of the Planck's law of black-body radiation. For example, the cosmic microwave background temperature has been measured from the spectrum of photons observed by satellite observations such as the WMAP. In the study of the quark–gluon plasma through heavy-ion collisions, single particle spectra sometimes serve as a thermometer.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Non-invasive thermometry.\n\nDuring recent decades, many thermometric techniques have been developed. \n", "The process of measurement goes as follows. First, a sample of the substance is cooled as close to absolute zero as possible. At such temperatures, the entropy approaches zerodue to the definition of temperature. Then, small amounts of heat are introduced into the sample and the change in temperature is recorded, until the temperature reaches a desired value (usually 25°C). The obtained data allows the user to integrate the equation above, yielding the absolute value of entropy of the substance at the final temperature. This value of entropy is called calorimetric entropy.\n\nSection::::Interdisciplinary applications of entropy.\n", "A thermometer is called primary or secondary based on how the raw physical quantity it measures is mapped to a temperature. As summarized by Kauppinen et al., \"For primary thermometers the measured property of matter is known so well that temperature can be calculated without any unknown quantities. Examples of these are thermometers based on the equation of state of a gas, on the velocity of sound in a gas, on the thermal noise voltage or current of an electrical resistor, and on the angular anisotropy of gamma ray emission of certain radioactive nuclei in a magnetic field.\"\n", "For day-to-day use, the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS) is used, defining temperature in terms of characteristics of the several specific sensor types required to cover the full range. One such is the electrical resistance of a thermistor, with specified construction, calibrated against operationally defined fixed points.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Electric current.\n\nElectric current is defined in terms of the force between two infinite parallel conductors, separated by a specified distance. This definition is too abstract for practical measurement, so a device known as a current balance is used to define the ampere operationally.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Mechanical hardness.\n", "In order to make a temperature measurement of an object using an infrared imager, it is necessary to estimate or determine the object's emissivity. For quick work, a thermographer may refer to an emissivity table for a given type of object, and enter that value into the imager. The imager would then calculate the object's contact temperature based on the value entered from the table and the object's emission of infrared radiation as detected by the imager.\n", "While an individual thermometer is able to measure degrees of hotness, the readings on two thermometers cannot be compared unless they conform to an agreed scale. Today there is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale. Internationally agreed temperature scales are designed to approximate this closely, based on fixed points and interpolating thermometers. The most recent official temperature scale is the International Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends from to approximately .\n\nSection::::Temperature.:Early developments.\n\nVarious authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to Hero of Alexandria. The thermometer was not a single invention, however, but a development.\n", "Temperature measurement using modern scientific thermometers and temperature scales goes back at least as far as the early 18th century, when Gabriel Fahrenheit adapted a thermometer (switching to mercury) and a scale both developed by Ole Christensen Rømer. Fahrenheit's scale is still in use in the United States for non-scientific applications.\n", "The photons (particles of light), like the light emitted from a hot object, tell us about the temperature of the system. To measure them, special detectors are necessary: the crystals of the PHOS, which are as dense as lead and as transparent as glass, will measure them with fantastic precision in a limited region, while the PMD and in particular the EMCal will measure them over a very wide area. The EMCal will also measure groups of close particles (called \"jets\") which have a memory of the early phases of the event.\n\nSection::::The ALICE detectors.:Calorimeters.:Photon spectrometer.\n", "Section::::Precision, accuracy, and reproducibility.\n\nThe precision or resolution of a thermometer is simply to what fraction of a degree it is possible to make a reading. For high temperature work it may only be possible to measure to the nearest 10 °C or more. Clinical thermometers and many electronic thermometers are usually readable to 0.1 °C. Special instruments can give readings to one thousandth of a degree. However, this precision does not mean the reading is true or accurate, it only means that very small changes can be observed.\n", "Other fixed points used in the past are the body temperature (of a healthy adult male) which was originally used by Fahrenheit as his upper fixed point ( to be a number divisible by 12) and the lowest temperature given by a mixture of salt and ice, which was originally the definition of . (This is an example of a Frigorific mixture). As body temperature varies, the Fahrenheit scale was later changed to use an upper fixed point of boiling water at .\n", "Apparent temperature\n\nApparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans, caused by the combined effects of air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed. The measure is most commonly applied to the perceived outdoor temperature. However it also applies to indoor temperatures, especially saunas and when houses and workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled.\n\nBULLET::::- The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above . In humid conditions, the air feels much hotter because less perspiration evaporates from the skin.\n", "BULLET::::- 1845 — Francis Ronalds invents the first successful Barograph based on photography\n\nBULLET::::- 1848 — Lord Kelvin (William Thomson) – Kelvin scale, in his paper, \"On an Absolute Thermometric Scale\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1849 — Eugène Bourdon – Bourdon_gauge (manometer)\n\nBULLET::::- 1849 — Henri Victor Regnault – Hypsometer\n\nBULLET::::- 1864 — Henri Becquerel suggests an optical pyrometer\n\nBULLET::::- 1866 — Thomas Clifford Allbutt invented a clinical thermometer that produced a body temperature reading in five minutes as opposed to twenty.\n\nBULLET::::- 1871 — William Siemens describes the Resistance thermometer at the Bakerian Lecture\n", "The temperature of the air near the surface of the Earth is measured at meteorological observatories and weather stations, usually using thermometers placed in a shelter such as Stevenson screen, a standardized well-ventilated white-painted instrument shelter. The thermometers should be positioned 1.25–2 m above the ground. Details of this setup are defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).\n", "Section::::Calibration.\n\nSection::::Calibration.:Temperature sensors.\n", "Many outside factors affect the measured temperature as well. \"Normal\" values are generally given for an otherwise healthy, non-fasting adult, dressed comfortably, indoors, in a room that is kept at a normal room temperature, , during the morning, but not shortly after arising from sleep. Furthermore, for oral temperatures, the subject must not have eaten, drunk, or smoked anything in at least the previous fifteen to twenty minutes, as the temperature of the food, drink, or smoke can dramatically affect the reading.\n", "Temperature measurement\n\nTemperature measurement, also known as thermometry, describes the process of measuring a current local temperature for immediate or later evaluation. Datasets consisting of repeated standardized measurements can be used to assess temperature trends.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- 1701 — Ole Christensen Rømer made one of the first practical thermometers. As a temperature indicator it used red wine. (Rømer scale), The temperature scale used for his thermometer had 0 representing the temperature of a salt and ice mixture (at about 259 s).\n\nBULLET::::- 1709 — Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit constructed alcohol thermometers which were reproducible (i.e. two would give the same temperature)\n", "\"\" br\n\n\"Q\" = the dry heat loss, or power, recorded by the manikinbr\n\n\"t\" = the skin temperature of the manikinbr \n\n\"t\" = the equivalent temperature of the room (the calibration temperature)\n\nThis factor may then be used to calculate equivalent temperature during further experiments in which radiant temperature and air velocity are not controlled using the equation:br\n\nSection::::Setup.\n", "Temperature examination in the rectum is the traditional gold standard measurement used to estimate core temperature (oral temperature is affected by hot or cold drinks and mouth-breathing). Rectal temperature is expected to be approximately one Fahrenheit degree higher than an oral temperature taken on the same person at the same time. Ear thermometers measure eardrum temperature using infrared sensors. The blood supply to the tympanic membrane is shared with the brain. However, this method of measuring body temperature is not as accurate as rectal measurement and has a low sensitivity for fevers, missing three or four out of every ten fevers in children. Ear temperature measurement may be acceptable for observing trends in body temperature but is less useful in consistently identifying fevers.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04738	How does cryotherapy (temps of -150F) not cause frostbite/skin damage?	> How does cryotherapy (temps of -150F) not cause frostbite/skin damage? It does cause frostbite/skin damage which is how it is used to remove skin lesions and such similar things. It freezes them and kill them.	[ "Section::::Ice pack therapy.\n\nIce pack therapy is a treatment of cold temperatures to an injured area of the body. Though the therapy is extensively used, and it is agreed that it alleviates symptoms, testing has produced conflicting results about its efficacy.\n", "Cryotherapy, the use of ice or cold in a therapeutic setting, has become one of the most common treatments in orthopedic medicine. The primary reason for using cryotherapy in acute injury management is to lower the temperature of the injured tissue, which reduces the tissue's metabolic rate and helps the tissue to survive the period following the injury. It is well documented that metabolic rate decreases by application of cryotherapy.\n", "Section::::Whole body cryotherapy.:Adverse effects.\n\nReviews of whole body cryotherapy have called for research studies to implement active surveillance of adverse events, which are suspected of being underreported. If the cold temperatures are produced by evaporating liquid nitrogen, there is the risk of inert gas asphyxiation as well as frostbite.\n\nSection::::Whole body cryotherapy.:Partial body.\n\nPartial body cryotherapy (PBC) devices also exist. If the cold temperatures are produced by evaporating liquid nitrogen, there is the risk of inert gas asphyxiation as well as frostbite.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cryonics\n\nBULLET::::- Cold shock response\n\nBULLET::::- Cold compression therapy\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Therapeutic hypothermia, which lowers the patient's body temperature to levels between , is used to help reduce the risk of the ischemic injury to the brain following a period of insufficient blood flow. Periods of insufficient blood flow may be caused by cardiac arrest, stroke, or brain trauma. Non-invasively induced therapeutic hypothermia has been shown to reduce mortality of successfully resuscitated cardiac arrest victims by 35 percent and increase the chance of a good neurologic outcome by 39 percent.\n\nSection::::Device description.\n", "In addition to their use in cryosurgery, several types of cold aerosol sprays are used for short-term pain relief. Ordinary spray cans containing tetrafluoroethane, dimethyl ether, or similar substances, are used to numb the skin prior to or possibly in place of local anesthetic injections, and prior to other needles, small incisions, sutures, and so on. Other products containing chloroethane are used to ease sports injuries, similar to ice pack therapy.\n\nSection::::Whole body cryotherapy.\n", "Studies have shown that the body activates the hunting reaction after only 10 minutes of cryotherapy, at temperatures less than 49 °F (9.5 °C). The hunting response is a cycle of vasoconstriction (decreased blood flow), then vasodilation (increased blood flow) that increases the delivery of oxygen and nutrient rich blood to the tissue. Increased blood flow can slow cell death, limit tissue damage and aid in the removal of cellular debris and waste products. Under normal circumstances the hunting reaction would be essential to tissue health but only serves to increase pain, inflammation and cell death as excess blood is forced into the area.\n", "Based on the premise that fat cells are more easily damaged by cooling than skin cells (such as popsicle panniculitis), cryolipolysis was developed to apply low temperatures to tissue via thermal conduction. In order to avoid frostbite, a specific temperature level and exposure are determined, such as 45 minutes at . While the process is not fully understood, it appears that fatty tissue that is cooled below body temperature, but above freezing, undergoes localized cell death (\"apoptosis\") followed by a local inflammatory response that gradually over the course of several months results in a reduction of the fatty tissue layer.\n", "Cryotherapy\n\nCryotherapy, sometimes known as cold therapy, is the local or general use of low temperatures in medical therapy. Cryotherapy may be used to treat a variety of tissue lesions. The most prominent use of the term refers to the surgical treatment, specifically known as cryosurgery or cryoablation. Cryosurgery is the application of extremely low temperatures to destroy abnormal or diseased tissue and is used most commonly to treat skin conditions.\n", "Therapeutic hypothermia, e.g. during heart surgery on a \"cold\" heart (generated by cold perfusion without any ice formation) allows for much longer operations and improves recovery rates for patients.\n\nSection::::Scientific societies.\n", "Section::::Main methods to prevent risks.:Persufflation.\n", "Cryotherapy by application of liquid nitrogen to the skin has been used to kill cutaneous larvae migrans, but the procedure has a low cure rate and a high incidence of pain and severe skin damage, so it now is passed over in favor of suitable pharmaceuticals. Topical application of some pharmaceuticals has merit, but requires repeated, persistent applications and is less effective than some systemic treatments.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "BULLET::::- Intracellular ice formation: While some organisms and tissues can tolerate some extracellular ice, any appreciable intracellular ice is almost always fatal to cells.\n\nSection::::Main methods to prevent risks.\n\nThe main techniques to prevent cryopreservation damages are a well established combination of \"controlled rate and slow freezing\" and a newer flash-freezing process known as \"vitrification\".\n\nSection::::Main methods to prevent risks.:Slow programmable freezing.\n", "Section::::Management.:Procedures.\n\nSection::::Management.:Procedures.:Cryotherapy.\n\nLiquid nitrogen (−195.8 °C) is the most commonly used destructive therapy for the treatment of AK in the United States. It is a well-tolerated office procedure that does not require anesthesia. Cryotherapy is particularly indicated for cases where there are fewer than 15 thin, well-demarcated lesions. Caution is encouraged for thicker, more hyperkeratotic lesions, as dysplastic cells may evade treatment. Treatment with both cryotherapy and field treatment can be considered for these more advanced lesions. Cryotherapy is generally performed using an open-spray technique, wherein the AK is sprayed for several seconds.\n", "Cryoablation is also currently being used to treat fibroadenomas of the breast. Fibroadenomas are benign breast tumors that are found in approximately 10% of women (primarily ages 15–30).\n\nIn this procedure which has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), an ultrasound-guided probe is inserted into the fibroadenoma and extremely cold temperatures are then used to destroy the abnormal cells. Over time the cells are reabsorbed into the body. The procedure can be performed in a doctor's office setting with local anesthesia and leaves very little scarring compared to open surgical procedures.\n\nSection::::Catheter-based procedures.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n", "In 2004, the technology was pioneered in the midwest United States at Miami Valley Hospital in Dayton, Ohio by Mark Krebs, MD, FACC, Matthew Hoskins, RN, BSN and Ken Peterman, RN, BSN. These electrophysiology experts were successful in curing the first 12 candidates in their facility.\n", "The Company preserves small diameter human saphenous vein conduits (3mm to 6mm) for use in peripheral vascular reconstructions and coronary bypass surgery. Failure to achieve revascularization of an obstructed vessel may result in the loss of a limb or even death of the patient. When patients require bypass surgery, the surgeon’s first choice\n", "Section::::Results.\n\nCryosurgery is a minimally invasive procedure, and is often preferred to more traditional kinds of surgery because of its minimal pain, scarring, and cost; however, as with any medical treatment, there are risks involved, primarily that of damage to nearby healthy tissue. Damage to nerve tissue is of particular concern.\n", "A common method of freezing lesions is using liquid nitrogen as the cooling solution. This cold liquid may be sprayed on the diseased tissue, circulated through a tube called a cryoprobe, or simply dabbed on with a cotton or foam swab.\n\nSection::::Method.:Carbon dioxide.\n\nCarbon dioxide is also available as a spray and is used to treat a variety of benign spots. Less frequently, doctors use carbon dioxide \"snow\" formed into a cylinder or mixed with acetone to form a slush that is applied directly to the treated tissue.\n\nSection::::Method.:Argon.\n", "Cryoablation\n\nCryoablation is a process that uses extreme cold to destroy tissue. Cryoablation is performed using hollow needles (cryoprobes) through which cooled, thermally conductive, fluids are circulated. Cryoprobes are positioned adjacent to the target in such a way that the freezing process will destroy the diseased tissue. Once the probes are in place, the attached cryogenic freezing unit removes heat from (\"cools\") the tip of the probe and by extension from the surrounding tissues.\n\nAblation occurs in tissue that has been frozen by at least three mechanisms:\n", "Body temperature, which is systematically measured and reported as a vital sign, contributes to maintenance of normal physiology and affects the processes that lead to recovery after illness. Complete and proper functioning of the body is dependent on maintaining a core temperature between . A core temperature above 41.5 °C or below 33.5 °C causes a fast decline in proper functioning of the body and may result in injury or death. Intentional manipulation of body temperature has been studied as a treatment strategy for head injuries since the 1900s. In the 1980s, the use of hypothermia on dogs after cardiac arrest demonstrated positive outcomes including neurological status and survival. In 2005, the American Heart Association implemented recommendations and guidelines for mild hypothermia in post-resuscitation support after cardiac arrest with return of spontaneous circulation.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Cryosurgery is the application of extreme cold to destroy abnormal or diseased tissue. The application of ultra-cold liquid causes damage to the treated tissue due to intracellular ice formation. The degree of damage depends upon the minimum temperature achieved and the rate of cooling. Cryosurgery is used to treat a number of diseases and disorders, most especially skin conditions like warts, moles, skin tags and solar keratoses. Liquid nitrogen is usually used to freeze the tissues at the cellular level. The procedure is used often as it is relatively easy and quick, can be done in the doctors surgery, and is deemed quite low risk. If a cancerous lesion is suspected then excision rather than cryosurgery may be deemed more appropriate.\n", "Section::::Cryopreservation in nature.\n\nMany living organisms are able to tolerate prolonged periods of time at temperatures below the freezing point of water. Most living organisms accumulate cryoprotectants such as antinucleating proteins, polyols, and glucose to protect themselves against frost damage by sharp ice crystals. Most plants, in particular, can safely reach temperatures of −4 °C to −12 °C.\n\nSection::::Cryopreservation in nature.:Bacteria.\n\nThree species of bacteria, \"Carnobacterium pleistocenium\", \"Chryseobacterium greenlandensis\", and \"Herminiimonas glaciei\", have reportedly been revived after surviving for thousands of years frozen in ice.\n", "Cryosurgery\n\nCryosurgery is the use of extreme cold in surgery to destroy abnormal or diseased tissue; thus, it is the surgical application of cryoablation. The term comes from the Greek words cryo (κρύο) (\"icy cold\") and surgery (\"cheirourgiki\" – χειρουργική) meaning \"hand work\" or \"handiwork\".\n\nCryosurgery has been historically used to treat a number of diseases and disorders, especially a variety of benign and malignant skin conditions.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n" ]	[ "Cryotherapy doesn't cause frostbite to the skin." ]	[ "Cryotherapy does cause frostbite which is exactly how it works. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cryotherapy doesn't cause frostbite to the skin." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cryotherapy does cause frostbite which is exactly how it works. " ]
2018-12383	Does marine life survive when lightning strikes a large body of water?	Yes, because salt water is an excellent conductor of electricity, much better than fish. The electricity can spread out in all directions with very little resistance, and the fish are something that it just goes around. It's not at all like the situation people find themselves in; people are OK conductors surrounded by air which is a good insulator. Electricity always takes the path of least resistance and that's through the person, not the air. In the ocean it's through the water, not the fish.	[ "BULLET::::- Dauvin, J.-C., J.C. Sorbe, & J.C. Lorgeré., (1995). Benthic Boundary Layer macrofauna from the upper continental slope and the Cap Ferret canyon (Bay of Biscay). \"Oceanologica Acta\" 18: 113–122.\n\nBULLET::::- Dauvin, J.-C., N. Desroy, L. Denis, & T. Ruellet., (2008). Does the \"Phaeocystis\" bloom affect the diel migration of the suprabenthos community. \"Marine Pollution Bulletin\" 56 (1): 77–87.\n\nBULLET::::- Davoult, D., (1988). Note sur la reproduction et l´écologie du Cumacé \"Cumopsis goodsiri\" (van Beneden, 1861). \"Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France\" 113 (3): 285–292.\n", "A number of predatory copepods exist throughout the Delta, about which relatively little is known. \"Sinocalanus doerri\", \"Acartiella sinensis\", and \"Tortanus dextrilobatus\" all appear to be morphologically capable of predation upon other copepods. Each was introduced to the estuary, probably through ballast water exchange since the 1980s. Generally, they are not in sufficient abundance to negatively impact copepod consumers; however, periodic blooms of \"S. doerri\" and \"A. sinensis\" occur which have not been well studied.\n\nSection::::Consumers.:Macroinvertebrates.\n", "Various surveys of the West African seashore have found barnacles and gastropods dominating the invertebrate community (Gauld and Buchanan, 1959; Yankson and Akpabey, 2001; Yankson and Kendall, 2001; Lamptey, Armah and Allotey, 2009).\n", "\"Limnoithona tetraspina\" has become the numerically dominant cyclopoid copepod since its introduction in 1993. It feeds primarily upon ciliates and microflagellates, but unlike \"P. forbesi\", it is relatively impervious to predation by clams or fish, hence its abundance. Energetically, \"L. tetraspina\" may be a dead end for the food web; these copepods are either advected out of the system by tides and currents, or die and fall down to the benthos, where they may be available to the microbial loop, or to detritivores.\n\nSection::::Consumers.:Predatory copepods.\n", "Primary consumers rely upon primary production as a main food source. The most important consumers of the pelagic web of the LSZ are copepods, along with the rotifers, flagellates and ciliates mentioned above. All species of calanoid copepods have declined under high predation pressure from the recently introduced Amur River clam (\"Corbula amurensis\"). Because of this, and because copepods rely upon both photosynthetic and detrital food sources, copepods in the LSZ have limited feedback on primary production, unlike marine and lentic systems where copepods can graze down blooms in a matter of days.\n", "Anything beyond a work area buffer zone for sediment spill is considered the potential impact area. In the open sea the impact of concern is almost exclusively with the sessile bottom communities, since empirical data show that fish effectively avoid the impacted area. The siltation chiefly affects the bottom community in two ways: The suspended sediment may interfere with the food gathering of filtering organisms, and the sediment accumulation on the bottom may bury organisms to the point that they starve or even die. Only if the concentration is extreme will it decrease the light level sufficiently for impacting primary productivity. An accumulation of as little as 1 mm may kill coral polyps.\n", "The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation also reports records from Lake Erie, but gives no references and declares that the current status of this population is unknown.\n\nAt this time, there are no recorded negative impacts in the Great Lakes system. There are also no known impacts in other water bodies at present.\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Habitat.\n", "Mammals of the Metedeconk include those typically found at New Jersey rivers, such as river otters and beavers. Aquatic life includes many species of fish and jellyfish, including one species whose bodies are about two-inches long and appear clear in daylight, but glow blue by night.\n\nSection::::Hurricane Sandy.\n", "Section::::Status.:Threats.:Environmental hazards.\n\nHeavy metals, residues of many plant and insect venoms and plastic waste flotsam are not biodegradable. Sometimes, cetaceans consume these hazardous materials, mistaking them for food items. As a result, the animals are more susceptible to disease and have fewer offspring.\n\nDamage to the ozone layer reduces plankton reproduction because of its resulting radiation. This shrinks the food supply for many marine animals, but the filter-feeding baleen whales are most impacted. Even the Nekton is, in addition to intensive exploitation, damaged by the radiation.\n", "One of the most critical issues is ingestion of plastic debris, specifically microplastics. Many mesopelagic fish species migrate to the surface waters to feast on their main prey species, zooplankton and phytoplankton, which are mixed with microplastics in the surface waters. Additionally, research has shown that even zooplankton are consuming the microplastics themselves. Mesopelagic fish play a key role in energy dynamics, meaning they provide food to a number of predators including birds, larger fish and marine mammals. The concentration of these plastics has the potential to increase, so more economically important species could become contaminated as well. Concentration of plastic debris in mesopelagic populations can vary depending on geographic location and the concentration of marine debris located there. In 2018, approximately 73% of approximately 200 fish sampled in the North Atlantic had consumed plastic.\n", "Section::::Flora and fauna.\n\nPhytoplankton content in August is mostly composed of green algae, with minor populations of diatom and golden algae, and no presence of cyanobacteria. Among Zooplankton the most common is various species of rotifers, with occurrence of copepods, bosminidae, and ciliates.\n", "Other calanoid copepods that may be of significance are the recently introduced \"Sinocalanus doerri\" and \"Acartiella sinensis\". Little is known about the life histories of these organisms, although based upon their morphology, they may prey on other copepods. They appear in irregular cycles of abundance, during which they may dominate the zooplankton.\n", "A total of 230,000 documented marine species exist, including about 20,000 species of marine fish, with some two million marine species yet to be documented. Marine species range in size from the microscopic, including plankton and phytoplankton which can be as small as 0.02 micrometres, to huge cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises), including the blue whale – the largest known animal reaching up to in length. Marine microorganisms, including bacteria and viruses, constitute about 70% of the total marine biomass.\n\nSection::::Water.\n", "The importance of both phytoplankton and zooplankton is also well-recognized in extensive and semi-intensive pond fish farming. Plankton population based pond management strategies for fish rearing have been practised by traditional fish farmers for decades, illustrating the importance of plankton even in man-made environments.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aeroplankton\n\nBULLET::::- Algal bloom\n\nBULLET::::- Biological pump\n\nBULLET::::- Gelatinous zooplankton\n\nBULLET::::- Holoplankton\n\nBULLET::::- Ichthyoplankton\n\nBULLET::::- Iron fertilization\n\nBULLET::::- Meroplankton\n\nBULLET::::- Nekton\n\nBULLET::::- Ocean acidification\n\nBULLET::::- Paradox of the plankton\n\nBULLET::::- Phytoplankton\n\nBULLET::::- Primary production\n\nBULLET::::- Seston\n\nBULLET::::- Veliger\n\nBULLET::::- Zooplankton\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "This snail is a primary consumer and directly depends on phytoplankton. When the phytoplankton is reduced, the population of \"Limacina rangii\" is also reduced, and it can even disappear as happened in McMurdo Sound in the summer of 2000-2001. It is considered an indicator species of the health of the ecosystem. Under different conditions in McMurdo Sound there can be over 300 individuals per m, which is over 20% of the biomass of zooplankton.\n", "Mesopelagic fish have a global distribution, with exceptions in the Arctic Ocean. The mesopelagic is home to a significant portion of the world's total fish biomass; one study estimated mesopelagic fish could be 95% of the total fish biomass. Another estimate puts mesopelagic fish biomass at 1 billion tons. This ocean realm could contain the largest fishery in the world and there is active development for this zone to become a commercial fishery.\n", "Weather disasters and other natural occurrences are also sources of mortality. The West Indian manatee and Dugong face risks from hurricanes and cyclones, which are predicted to increase in the future. These storms may also damage seagrass populations. Exposure to brevetoxin from \"Karenia brevis\" during a red tide event are also sources of mortality; they may be able to be exposed to brevetoxin after a red tide has subsided, as it could settle on seagrasses. African manatees can become stranded during the dry season when rivers and lakes become too small or dry up completely.\n", "The website Tektite Underwater Habitat Museum reports that at the end of display at Fort Mason, the habitat was dismantled by welding school students and the metal was recycled.\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n\nThere were nine studies on the ecology of coral reef fishes carried out during the Tektite series:\n\nBULLET::::- influence of herbivores on marine plants\n\nBULLET::::- bio-acoustic studies\n\nBULLET::::- observations on cleaner shrimps\n\nBULLET::::- isopods associated with reef fishes\n\nBULLET::::- behavior of reef fishes in relation to fish pots\n\nBULLET::::- bioturbation by the sand tilefish\n\nBULLET::::- escape response in a damsel fish\n\nBULLET::::- nocturnal-diurnal changeover in activity patterns, and\n", "The water salinities where the species has been reported from range from 0% to 49%, indicating the species can adapt to a wide range of waters. Studies in West Africa found marked differences in the sex ratios of populations in brackish waters, with females very rarely seen in such environments once they are mature. Research in the coastal waters of Ghana suggests the availability of food is the primary control on the species distribution in inshore waters.\n", "Vertically migrating zooplankton can also actively transport nutrients to different zones of the water column. Zooplankton feed in the surface waters at night, and then by day release fecal pellets to the midwaters, which can transport C, N, and P to the deeper waters. In the NPSG the zooplankton community is not static but fluctuates seasonally and is dominated by copepods, euphausiids, and chaetognaths.\n", "Section::::Animal species.:Chordates.:Tunicates.\n\nBULLET::::- Golden star tunicate (\"Botryllus schlosseri\")\n\nBULLET::::- Chain tunicate (\"Botrylloides violaceus\")\n\nBULLET::::- Orange sheath tunicate (\"Botrylloides diegensis\")\n\nBULLET::::- Sea grapes (\"Molgula manhattensis\")\n\nBULLET::::- Sea vase (\"Ciona intestinalis\")\n\nSection::::Animal species.:Cnidarians.\n\nBULLET::::- Moon jellyfish (\"Aurelia aurita\") A common sight that washes up on the shores of Rockaways, Queens every summer.\n\nBULLET::::- Lion's mane jellyfish (\"Cynanea capillata)\" The largest known jellyfish. Prefers the deepest waters just past the Verazzano Bridge and near Sandy Hook.\n\nBULLET::::- White cross hydromedusa (\"Staurophora mertensi\")\n\nBULLET::::- Tubular hydroid (\"Ectopleura crocea\")\n\nSection::::Animal species.:Cnidarians.:Corals.\n\nBULLET::::- Northern cup coral (\"Astrangia poculata\")\n\nSection::::Animal species.:Echinoderms.\n\nBULLET::::- Atlantic starfish (\"Asterias forbesi\")\n", "A population explosion of \"M. atlantica\" in the North Sea in 1989 caused major changes in the composition of the community. The siphonophere was present at densities of five hundred per cubic metre and this depleted the copepods normally present. This resulted in a reduction in the grazing pressure on the phytoplankton and an increase in their growth, causing an algal bloom and other cascading ecosystem effects.\n", "BULLET::::- List of marine molluscs of Cuba\n\nLists of molluscs of surrounding countries:\n\nBULLET::::- List of non-marine molluscs of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of non-marine molluscs of the Bahamas\n\nBULLET::::- List of non-marine molluscs of Haiti\n\nBULLET::::- List of non-marine molluscs of Jamaica\n\nBULLET::::- List of non-marine molluscs of the Cayman Islands\n\nBULLET::::- List of non-marine molluscs of Mexico\n\nSection::::References.\n\nThis article incorporates CC-BY-3.0 text from the reference \n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Hance J. (28 June 2010). \"Long-ignored freshwater molluscs in Cuba under threat\". mongabay.com\n", "BULLET::::- Quijón, P.A., & P.V.R. Snelgrove., (2005). Predation regulation of sedimentary faunal structure: potential effects of a fishery-induced switch in predators in a Newfoundland sub-Arctic fjord. \"Oecologia\" 144 (1): 125–136.\n\nBULLET::::- Quintana, R., (1986). Las comunidades bentonicas antarticas. \"Boletin Antartico Chileno\" 6 (1): 44–54.\n\nSection::::R.\n\nBULLET::::- Rachor, E., Arntz, W.E., Rumohr, H., and Mantau, K-H., (1982). Seasonal and long-term population fluctuations in \"Diastylis rathkei\" (Crustacea: Cumacea) on Kiel Bay and German Bight Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 16: 141 -150.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Coryne producta\" Cannot identify this one\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coryne pusilla\" Gaertner, 1774\n\nBULLET::::- \"Slabberia halterata\" Forbes, 1846\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stauridiosarsia baukalion\" (Pagès, Gili & Bouillon, 1992)syn. Dipurena baukalion\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stauridiosarsia ophiogaster\" (Haeckel, 1879)syn. Dipurena ophiogaster\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sarsia tubulosa\" (M. Sars, 1835)\n\nSection::::Class Hydrozoa, subclass Hydroidolina.:Suborder Capitata.:Family Halimedusidae.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Urashimea globosa\" Kishinouye, 1910\n\nSection::::Class Hydrozoa, subclass Hydroidolina.:Suborder Capitata.:Family Milleporidae.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Millepora tenella\" Esper, 1795 – Fire coral? – taxon inquirendum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Millepora tenera\" Boschma, 1949 – Fire coral?\n\nBULLET::::- \"Millepora platyphylla\" Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1834\n\nSection::::Class Hydrozoa, subclass Hydroidolina.:Suborder Capitata.:Family Moerisiidae.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moerisia inkermanica\" Paltschikowa-Osroumowa, 1925\n\nSection::::Class Hydrozoa, subclass Hydroidolina.:Suborder Capitata.:Family Pennariidae.\n" ]	[ "Marine life possibly may die if they are in water when lightning strikes." ]	[ "Marine life will survive because salt water is an excellent conductor of electricity, whereas marine life is not, and the electricity will spread out around them." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Marine life possibly may die if they are in water when lightning strikes.", "Marine life possibly may die if they are in water when lightning strikes." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Marine life will survive because salt water is an excellent conductor of electricity, whereas marine life is not, and the electricity will spread out around them.", "Marine life will survive because salt water is an excellent conductor of electricity, whereas marine life is not, and the electricity will spread out around them." ]
2018-02856	How does a phone or laptop measure the percentage charge of its battery?	Batteries lose voltage as they discharge: they aren’t giving out electricity as well as when they are full. A device can measure that, and calculate how dead a battery is based on its particular voltage.	[ "A BMS may monitor the state of the battery as represented by various items, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Voltage: total voltage, voltages of individual cells, minimum and maximum cell voltage or voltage of periodic taps\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature: average temperature, coolant intake temperature, coolant output temperature, or temperatures of individual cells\n\nBULLET::::- State of charge (SOC) or depth of discharge (DOD), to indicate the charge level of the battery\n\nBULLET::::- State of health (SOH), a variously-defined measurement of the remaining capacity of the battery as % of the original capacity\n", "Both ammeters and voltmeters individually or together can be used to assess the operating state of an automobile battery and charging system.\n\nSection::::Electronic devices.\n\nA battery indicator is a feature of many electronic devices. In mobile phones, the battery indicator usually takes the form of a bar graph - the more bars that are showing, the better the battery's state of charge.\n\nSection::::Computers.\n", "Section::::Integrated battery testers.\n\nThere are many types of integrated battery testers, each one corresponding to a specific condition testing procedure, according to the type of battery being tested, such as the “421” test for lead-acid vehicle batteries. Their common principle is based on the empirical fact that after having applied a given current for a given number of seconds to the battery, the resulting voltage output is related to the battery's overall condition, when compared to a healthy battery's output.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Power Equipment Engine Technology By Edward Abdo\n\nBULLET::::- Automotive Technology: A Systems Approach By Jack Erjavec\n", "battery desires to be charged and discharged in constant rate such as Coulomb-counting. This method gives precise estimation of battery SoC, but they are protracted, costly, and interrupt main battery performance. Therefore, researchers are looking for some online techniques. In general there are five methods to determine SoC indirectly:\n\nBULLET::::- chemical\n\nBULLET::::- voltage\n\nBULLET::::- current integration\n\nBULLET::::- Kalman filtering\n\nBULLET::::- pressure\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Chemical method.\n", "BULLET::::- Capacity in mAh: mAh stands for milli Ampere-hour and measures the amount of power flow that can be supplied by a certain power bank at a specific voltage. Many manufacturers rate their products at 3.7 V, the voltage of cell(s) inside. Since USB outputs at 5 V, calculations at this voltage will yield a lower mAh number. For example, a battery pack advertised with a 3000 mAh capacity (at 3.7 V) will produce 2220 mAh at 5 V. Power losses due to efficiency of the charging circuitry also occur.\n", "Battery tester\n\nA battery tester is an electronic device intended for testing the state of an electric battery, going from a simple device for testing the charge actually present in the cells and/or its voltage output, to a more comprehensive testing of the battery's condition, namely its capacity for accumulating charge and any possible flaws affecting the battery's performance and security.\n\nSection::::Simple battery testers.\n\nThe most simple battery tester is a DC ammeter, that indicates the battery's charge rate.\n\nDC voltmeters can be used to estimate the charge rate of a battery, provided that its nominal voltage is known.\n", "This model is different from the other models discovered because it relies only on knowledge of the battery discharge voltage curve and access to battery voltage sensor which is available in all modern Smartphones. The basic idea for this model technique is to use battery state of discharge with running training software programs to control phone component power and activity states. Each individual Smartphone component is held in a specific state for a significant period of time and the change in battery state of discharge is captured using built-in battery voltage sensors. The first challenging idea is to convert battery voltage readings into power consumption. This is determined by state of discharge (which is total consumed energy by battery) variation within a testing interval captured by voltage sensors that will eventually drive the following equation.\n", "Section::::Determining SoC.:Voltage method.\n\nThis method converts a reading of the battery voltage to SoC, using the known discharge curve (voltage vs. SoC) of the battery. However, the voltage is more significantly affected by the battery current (due to the battery's electrochemical kinetics) and temperature. This method can be made more accurate by compensating the voltage reading by a correction term proportional to the battery current, and by using a look-up table of battery's open circuit voltage vs. temperature.\n", "For Ni-Cd and NiMH batteries, the voltage across the battery increases slowly during the charging process, until the battery is fully charged. After that, the voltage \"decreases\", which indicates to an intelligent charger that the battery is fully charged. Such chargers are often labeled as a ΔV, \"delta-V,\" or sometimes \"delta peak\", charger, indicating that they monitor the voltage change.\n", "SOC, or state of charge, is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for a battery. SOC cannot be determined by a simple voltage measurement, because the terminal voltage of a battery may stay substantially constant until it is completely discharged. In some types of battery, electrolyte specific gravity may be related to state of charge but this is not measurable on typical battery pack cells, and is not related to state of charge on most battery types. Most SOC methods take into account voltage and current as well as temperature and other aspects of the discharge and charge process to in essence count up or down within a pre-defined capacity of a pack. More complex state of charge estimation systems take into account the Peukert effect which relates the capacity of the battery to the discharge rate.\n", "A laptop's battery is charged using an external power supply which is plugged into a wall outlet. The power supply outputs a DC voltage typically in the range of 7.2—24 volts. The power supply is usually external and connected to the laptop through a DC connector cable. In most cases, it can charge the battery and power the laptop simultaneously. When the battery is fully charged, the laptop continues to run on power supplied by the external power supply, avoiding battery use. The battery charges in a shorter period of time if laptop is turned off or sleeping. The charger typically adds about to the overall transporting weight of a laptop, although some models are substantially heavier or lighter. Most 2016-era laptops use a smart battery, a rechargeable battery pack with a built-in battery management system (BMS). The smart battery can internally measure voltage and current, and deduce charge level and SoH (State of Health) parameters, indicating the state of the cells.\n", "Section::::Capacity and discharge.:C rate.\n\nThe C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or discharged. It is defined as the current through the battery divided by the theoretical current draw under which the battery would deliver its nominal rated capacity in one hour. It has the units h. \n", "In fact, it is a stated goal of battery design to provide a voltage as constant as possible no matter the SoC, which makes this method difficult to apply.\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Current integration method.\n\nThis method, also known as \"coulomb counting\", calculates the SoC by measuring the battery current and integrating it in time.\n", "In a battery electric vehicle (BEV), hybrid vehicle (HV), or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), SoC for the battery pack is the equivalent of a fuel gauge.\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.\n\nUsually, SoC cannot be measured directly but it can be estimated from direct measurement variables in two ways: offline and online. In offline techniques, the\n", "Computers may give a signal to users that an internal standby battery needs replacement. Portable computers using rechargeable batteries generally give the user some indication of the remaining operating time left on the battery. A Smart Battery System uses a controller integrated with an interchangeable battery pack to provide a more accurate indication of the state of battery charge. \n\nSection::::Batteries not part of a system.\n", "For example, for a battery with a capacity of 500 mAh, a discharge rate of 5000 mA (i.e., 5 A) corresponds to a C-rate of 10 (per hour), meaning that such a current can discharge 10 such batteries in one hour. Likewise, for the same battery a charge current of 250 mA corresponds to a C-rate of 1/2 (per hour), meaning that this current will increase the state of charge of this battery by 50% in one hour.\n", "BULLET::::- First, a battery management system evaluates the SoH of the battery under its management and reports it.\n\nBULLET::::- Then, the SoH is compared to a threshold (typically done by the application in which the battery is used), to determine the suitability of the battery to a given application.\n\nKnowing the SoH of a given battery and the SoH threshold of a given application:\n\nBULLET::::- a determination can be made whether the present battery conditions make it suitable for that application\n\nBULLET::::- an estimate can be made of the battery's useful lifetime in that application\n\nSection::::SoH evaluation.:Parameters.\n", "Additionally, a BMS may calculate values based on the above items, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Maximum charge current as a charge current limit (CCL)\n\nBULLET::::- Maximum discharge current as a discharge current limit (DCL)\n\nBULLET::::- Energy [kWh] delivered since last charge or charge cycle\n\nBULLET::::- Internal impedance of a cell (to determine open circuit voltage)\n\nBULLET::::- Charge [Ah] delivered or stored (sometimes this feature is called Coulomb counter)\n\nBULLET::::- Total energy delivered since first use\n\nBULLET::::- Total operating time since first use\n\nBULLET::::- Total number of cycles\n\nSection::::Functions.:Communication.\n", "To overcome the shortcomings of the voltage method and the current integration method, a Kalman filter can be used. The battery can be modeled with an electrical model which the Kalman filter will use to predict the over-voltage, due to the current. In combination with coulomb counting, it can make an accurate estimation of the state of charge. The strength of a Kalman filter is that it is able to adjust its trust of the battery voltage and coulomb counting in real time.\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Pressure method.\n", "Where E is the rated battery energy capacity and SOD (Vi) is the battery state of discharge at voltage Vi and P is the average power consumption in the time interval t1 and t2. The state of discharge can be estimated using look up table where the relationship between present voltage and SOD is captured. Determining the energy is also an issue because the energy is changing as the battery gets old. The new batteries have the total energy written on their back but the value can’t be true for all time. It can estimate the energy at highest and lowest discharge rate to decrease the error. The internal resistance also has significant impact on the discharged current. To decrease the effect of internal resistance all the phone components can be switched to their lowest power modes to minimize the discharge current when taking a voltage reading. Finally, this method uses a piece-wise linear function to model the non-linear relationship between SOF and battery voltage.\n", "The battery's open-circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge. If the connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of each cell can be determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole, otherwise the overall battery voltage may be assessed.\n\nSection::::Voltages for common usage.\n", "In addition, the designer of the battery management system defines an arbitrary weight for each of the parameter's contribution to the SoH value. The definition of how SoH is evaluated can be a trade secret.\n\nSection::::SOH threshold.\n\nAs stated before, the method by which the battery management system evaluates the SoH of a battery is arbitrary.\n", "Batteries that are part of a system, such as computer batteries, can have their properties checked and logged in operation to assist in determining remaining charge. A real battery can be modeled as an ideal battery with a specified EMF, in series with an internal resistance. As a battery discharges, the EMF may drop or the internal resistance increase; in many cases the EMF remains more or less constant during most of the discharge, with the voltage drop across the internal resistance determining the voltage supplied. Determining the charge remaining in many battery types not connected to a system that monitors battery use is not reliably possible with a voltmeter. In battery types where EMF remains approximately constant during discharge, but resistance increases, voltage across battery terminals is not a good indicator of capacity. A meter such as an equivalent series resistance meter (ESR meter) normally used for measuring the ESR of electrolytic capacitors can be used to evaluate internal resistance. ESR meters fitted with protective diodes cannot be used, a battery will simply destroy the diodes and damage itself. An ESR meter known not to have diode protection will give a reading of internal resistance for a rechargeable or non-rechargeable battery of any size down to the smallest button cells which gives an indication of the state of charge. To use it, measurements on fully charged and fully discharged batteries of the same type can be used to determine resistances associated with those states.\n", "Internally, a smart battery can measure voltage and current, and deduce charge level and SoH (State of Health) parameters, indicating the state of the cells. Externally, a smart battery can communicate with a smart battery charger and a \"smart energy user\" via the bus interface. A smart battery can demand that the charging stop, request charging, or demand that the smart energy user stop using power from this battery. There are standard specifications for smart batteries: Smart Battery System, MIPI BIF and many ad-hoc specifications.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Battery charger\n\nBULLET::::- CMOS battery\n\nBULLET::::- Rechargeable battery\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Since no measurement can be perfect, this method suffers from long-term drift and lack of a reference point: therefore, the SoC must be re-calibrated on a regular basis, such as by resetting the SoC to 100% when a charger determines that the battery is fully charged (using one of the other methods described here).\n\nSection::::Determining SoC.:Combined approaches.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05975	Who controls the addition of new words into the English language and who gave them the right to do so?	Nobody and everybody does, really. If someone comes up with a new word and starts using it, other people might hear it and start using it too. Eventually it might become really widespread. Dictionary makers and the like regularly add new words that have become widely used, in order to better reflect the language they depict. Thus the word has been "added" to the English language, but in reality a lot of people were probably already using it. [The OED's recent additions.]( URL_0 )	[ "Formation of new words, called neologisms, based on Greek and/or Latin roots (for example \"television\" or \"optometry\") is a highly productive process in English and in most modern European languages, so much so that it is often difficult to determine in which language a neologism originated. For this reason, lexicographer Philip Gove attributed many such words to the \"international scientific vocabulary\" (ISV) when compiling \"Webster's Third New International Dictionary\" (1961). Another active word-formation process in English is acronyms, words formed by pronouncing as a single word abbreviations of longer phrases (e.g. \"NATO\", \"laser\").\n\nSection::::Vocabulary.:Word origins.\n", "In reaction, some writers tried either to resurrect older English words, such as \"gleeman\" for musician, \"sicker\" (itself an early borrowing from Latin \"sēcūrus\") for certainly, \"inwit\" for conscience, and \"yblent\" for confused, or to make new words from Germanic roots, e.g. \"endsay\" for conclusion, \"yeartide\" for anniversary, \"foresayer\" for prophet. However, few of these words remain in common use.\n\nSection::::History.:Modern English.\n", "Section::::History.:Early Modern English.\n\nIn the 16th and 17th centuries, controversy over needless foreign borrowings from Latin and Greek (known as \"inkhorn terms\") was rife. Critics argued that English already had words with identical meanings. However, many of the new words gained an equal footing with the native Germanic words, and often replaced them.\n", "English, besides forming new words from existing words and their roots, also borrows words from other languages. This adoption of words from other languages is commonplace in many world languages, but English has been especially open to borrowing of foreign words throughout the last 1,000 years. The most commonly used words in English are West Germanic. The words in English learned first by children as they learn to speak, particularly the grammatical words that dominate the word count of both spoken and written texts, are mainly the Germanic words inherited from the earliest periods of the development of Old English.\n", "In 1989, science fiction writer Poul Anderson wrote a text about basic atomic theory called \"Uncleftish Beholding\". It was written using only words of Germanic origin, and was meant to show what English scientific works might look like without foreign borrowings. In 1992, Douglas Hofstadter jokingly referred to the style as \"Ander-Saxon\". This term has since been used to describe any scientific writings that use only Germanic words.\n\nAnderson used techniques including:\n\nBULLET::::- extension of sense (\"motes\" for 'particles');\n", "In a 2012 paper by Alexander M. Petersen and co-authors, they found a \"dramatic shift in the birth rate and death rates of words\": Deaths have increased and births have slowed. The authors also identified a universal \"tipping point\" in the life cycle of new words at about 30 to 50 years after their origin, they either enter the long-term lexicon or fall into disuse.\n", "The ongoing influx of new words into the English language (for example) helps make it a rich field for investigation into language change, despite the difficulty of defining precisely and accurately the vocabulary available to speakers of English. Throughout its history English has not only borrowed words from other languages but has re-combined and recycled them to create new meanings, whilst losing some old words.\n", "English forms new words from existing words or roots in its vocabulary through a variety of processes. One of the most productive processes in English is conversion, using a word with a different grammatical role, for example using a noun as a verb or a verb as a noun. Another productive word-formation process is nominal compounding, producing compound words such as \"babysitter\" or \"ice cream\" or \"homesick\". A process more common in Old English than in Modern English, but still productive in Modern English, is the use of derivational suffixes (\"-hood\", \"-ness\", \"-ing\", \"-ility\") to derive new words from existing words (especially those of Germanic origin) or stems (especially for words of Latin or Greek origin).\n", "While some new words enter English as slang, most do not. Some words are adopted from other languages; some are mixtures of existing words (portmanteau words), and some are new creations made of roots from dead languages.\n\nSection::::Word origins.\n\nA computerized survey of about 80,000 words in the old \"Shorter Oxford Dictionary\" (3rd ed.) was published in \"Ordered Profusion\" by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973) that estimated the origin of English words as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- French: 28.3%\n\nBULLET::::- Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%\n", "However, on the opposite side of the spectrum there are also many words in the current lexicon that are false cognates, spelled similarly but varying in pronunciation. Changing the spelling of these words could prevent confusion of \"are\" and \"area\", \"rein\" and \"reinvent\", \"ampersand\" and \"ampere\", \"caterpillar\" and \"cater\", \"ready\" and \"readjust\", \"man\" and \"many\", \"now\" and \"nowhere\", etc. False positives will occur no matter what system is used.\n\nSection::::Obstacles and criticisms.:Cognates in other languages.\n", "Non-English words may be anglicised by changing their form and/or pronunciation to something more familiar to English speakers. Changing grammatical endings is especially common. The Latin word \"obscenus\" has been imported into English in the modified form \"obscene\" . The plural form of a foreign word may be modified to more conveniently fit English norms, like using \"indexes\" as the plural of index, rather than indices, as in Latin. The word \"opera\" (itself the plural form of the Latin word \"opus\") is understood in English to be a singular noun, so it has received an English plural form, \"operas\". The English word \"damsel\" is an anglicisation of the Old French \"damoisele\" (modern \"demoiselle\"), meaning \"young lady\". Another form of anglicising is the inclusion of a foreign article as part of a noun (such as alkali from the Arabic \"al-qili\"). \"Rotten Row\", the name of a London pathway that was a fashionable place to ride horses in the 18th and 19th centuries, is an adaptation of the French phrase \"Route du Roi\". The word \"genie\" has been anglicized via Latin from jinn or djinn from , originally meaning demon or spirit. Some changes are motivated by the desire to preserve the pronunciation of the word in the original language, such as the word \"schtum\", which is phonetic spelling for the German word \"stumm\", meaning silent.\n", "Other words in English (and also in French and German) are formed via \"foreign\" word-formation processes, particularly processes seen in Greek and Latin word-formation. These word types are often known as \"neo-classical\" (or \"neo-Latin\") words and are often found in academic learned vocabulary domains (such as in science fields), as well as in inkhorn terms coined in the 17th and 18th centuries. Words of this nature are borrowed from either Greek or Latin or have been newly coined based upon Greek and Latin word-formation processes. It is possible to detect varying degrees of foreignness.\n", "The English language has borrowed many words from other cultures or languages. For examples, see Lists of English words by country or language of origin and Anglicization.\n", "In back-formation a new word is created, often by removing elements thought to be affixes. For example, Italian \"pronuncia\" (\"pronunciation; accent\") is derived from the verb \"pronunciare\" (\"to pronounce; to utter\") and English \"edit\" derives from \"editor\". Some cases of back-formation are based on folk etymology.\n\nSection::::Examples in English.\n\nIn linguistic change caused by folk etymology, the form of a word changes so that it better matches its popular rationalisation. Typically this happens either to unanalyzable foreign words or to compounds where the word underlying one part of the compound becomes obsolete.\n\nSection::::Examples in English.:Loanwords.\n", "Section::::English language.:Assimilation of foreign words.\n\nEnglish has proved accommodating to words from many languages. Scientific terminology, for example, relies heavily on words of Latin and Greek origin, but there are a great many non-scientific examples. Spanish has contributed many words, particularly in the southwestern United States. Examples include , , , , and states' names such as and . , , , , and from Portuguese; and \"prima donna\" from Italian. Modern French has contributed , , , and many more. \n", "This term does not cover the unmodified adoption of foreign words into English (kindergarten); the unmodified adoption of English words into foreign languages (internet, computer, web), or the voluntary or enforced adoption of the English language or of British or American customs and culture in other countries or ethnic groups, also known as social and economic anglicisation. (Examples being the action of the English crown in the Celtic regions of the United Kingdom, in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and Cornwall; the policy on use of the English language as one of the causes contributing to the South African Wars (1879–1915); or the adoption of English as a personal, preferred language in countries where that language is not native, but has become for historical reasons the language of government, commerce, and instruction.)\n", "More than 600 new words, senses, and subentries have been added to the OED in December 2018, including \"to drain the swamp\", \"TGIF\", and \"burkini\". South African editions were added too like \"eina\", \"dwaal\", and \"amakhosi\". The \"taffety tarts\" word entered the OED for the first time.\n\nSection::::Formats.\n\nSection::::Formats.:Compact editions.\n", "These proposals generally did not attract serious consideration because they were too radical or were based on an insufficient understanding of the phonology of English. However, more conservative proposals were more successful. James Howell in his \"Grammar\" of 1662 recommended minor changes to spelling, such as changing \"logique\" to \"logic\", \"warre\" to \"war\", \"sinne\" to \"sin\", \"toune\" to \"town\" and \"tru\" to \"true\". Many of these spellings are now in general use.\n", "Increased literacy and travel facilitated the adoption of many foreign words, especially borrowings from Latin and Greek from the time of the Renaissance. In the 17th century, Latin words were often used with their original inflections, but these eventually disappeared. As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable, the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country. During the period, loan words were borrowed from Italian, German, and Yiddish. British acceptance of and resistance to Americanisms began during this period.\n", "New vocabulary is generally created through an analysis of the word, its etymology, and reference to the six source languages. If a word can be created through vocabulary already existing in the language then it will usually be adopted without need for a new radical (such as wikipedio for \"Wikipedia\", which consists of wiki + enciklopedio for \"encyclopedia\"), and if not an entirely new word will be created. The word alternatoro for example was adopted in 1926, likely because five of the six source languages used largely the same orthography for the word, and because it was long enough to avoid being mistaken for other words in the existing vocabulary. Adoption of a word is done through consensus, after which the word will be made official by the union. Care must also be taken to avoid homonyms if possible, and usually a new word undergoes some discussion before being adopted. Foreign words that have a restricted sense and are not likely to be used in everyday life (such as the word \"intifada\" to refer to the conflict between Israel and Palestine) are left untouched, and often written in italics.\n", "Word formation\n\nIn linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The boundary between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define: a new use of an old word can be seen as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form. See 'conversion'. \n\nSection::::Types.\n\nThere are a number of methods of word formation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Blending.\n", "Linguistic purism in the English language is the belief that words of native origin should be used instead of foreign-derived ones (which are mainly Latinate and Greek). \"Native\" can mean \"Anglo-Saxon\" or it can be widened to include all Germanic words. In its mildest form, it merely means using existing native words instead of foreign-derived ones (such as using \"begin\" instead of \"commence\"). In a less mild form, it also involves coining new words from Germanic roots (such as \"wordstock\" for \"vocabulary\"). In a more extreme form, it also involves reviving native words which are no longer widely used (such as \"ettle\" for \"intend\"). The resulting language is sometimes called Anglish (coined by the author and humorist Paul Jennings), or Roots English (referring to the idea that it is a \"return to the roots\" of English). The mild form is often advocated as part of Plain English, but the more extreme form has been and is still a fringe movement; the latter can also be undertaken as a form of constrained writing.\n", "English linguistic purism is discussed by David Crystal in the \"Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language\". The idea dates at least to the inkhorn term controversy of the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 19th century, writers such as Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy and William Barnes advocated linguistic purism and tried to introduce words like \"birdlore\" for \"ornithology\" and \"bendsome\" for \"flexible\". A notable supporter in the 20th century was George Orwell, who advocated what he saw as plain Saxon words over complex Latin or Greek ones, and the idea continues to have advocates today.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Spelling reformers argue that, although some of these links may be hidden by a reform, others would become more noticeable. For example, Axel Wijk's 1959 proposal \"Regularised English\" proposed changing \"height\" to \"hight\", which would link it more closely to the related word \"high\".\n\nIn some cases, English spelling of foreign words has diverged from the current spellings of those words in the original languages, such as the spelling of \"connoisseur\" that is now spelled \"connaisseur\" in French after a French-language spelling reform in the 19th century.\n", "Early Modern English as a literary medium was unfixed in structure and vocabulary in comparison to Greek, Hebrew and Latin, and was in a constant state of flux. When William Shakespeare began writing his plays, the English language was rapidly absorbing words from other languages due to wars, exploration, diplomacy and colonization. By the age of Elizabeth, English had become widely used with the expansion of philosophy, theology and physical sciences, but many writers lacked the vocabulary to express such ideas. To accommodate this, writers such as Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney, Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare expressed new ideas and distinctions by inventing, borrowing or adopting a word or a phrase from another language, known as neologizing. Scholars estimate that, between the years 1500 and 2018, nouns, verbs and modifiers of Latin, Greek and modern Romance languages added 30,000 new words to the English language.\n" ]	[ "A single person or group controls the addition of new words into the English language.", "Someone controls the addition of new words into the English language." ]	[ "Words are created by people and used until it becomes widespread and gets added to dictionaries by dictionary makers to reflect the language.", "Nobody controls the addition of new words into the English language, but dictionary makers may add new words if they're used often." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A single person or group controls the addition of new words into the English language.", "Someone controls the addition of new words into the English language." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Words are created by people and used until it becomes widespread and gets added to dictionaries by dictionary makers to reflect the language.", "Nobody controls the addition of new words into the English language, but dictionary makers may add new words if they're used often." ]
2018-01292	Why does paint stick to some surfaces and not others (silicon etc.) ?	Surface energy. A liquid will spread on a high energy surface (like water on clean glass) and bead up on a low energy surface (like silicone or Teflon). Like a water drop becoming a sphere to minimize its air-water interface, a liquid drop on a surface will take on a shape with the lowest energy. This is measured quantitatively as the contact angles of the system. If you want to paint on silicone, you will need a specially formulated paint, which exist for archetechtural coating applications.	[ "There actually is no chemical bond between paint and an underlying surface. Paint adheres simply through physical forces like Van der Waals. When paint is first applied to a surface it goes on as a thick wet coating. As the solvent is allowed to evaporate out, the pigment plates which are attracted to one another stack up to form layers. The binder polymerizes essentially locking the pigment plates together. What remains is a uniform coating of binder and pigment. Anti-graffiti coatings make paints unable to adhere to the surface.\n\nSection::::Types of coatings.\n", "New surfaces are constantly being created as larger pigment particles get broken down into smaller subparticles. These newly formed surfaces consequently contribute to larger surface energies, whereby the resulting particles often become cemented together into aggregates. Because particles dispersed in liquid media are in constant thermal or Brownian motion, they exhibit a strong affinity for other pigment particles nearby as they move through the medium and collide. This natural attraction is largely attributed to the powerful short-range Van der Waals forces, as an effect of their surface energies.\n", "Paints and lacquers are coatings that mostly have dual uses of protecting the substrate and being decorative, although some artists paints are only for decoration, and the paint on large industrial pipes is presumably only for the function of preventing corrosion.\n\nFunctional coatings may be applied to change the surface properties of the substrate, such as adhesion, wettability, corrosion resistance, or wear resistance. In other cases, e.g. semiconductor device fabrication (where the substrate is a wafer), the coating adds a completely new property, such as a magnetic response or electrical conductivity, and forms an essential part of the finished product.\n", "The result is a highly durable connection between paint coat and substrate. The water glass binding agent is highly resistant to UV light. While dispersions based on acrylate or silicone resin over the years tend to grow brittle, chalky, and crack under UV, the inorganic binder water glass remains stable. The chemical fusion with the substrate and the UV stability of the binder are the fundamental reasons for the extraordinarily high lifetime of silicate paints.\n", "Paint adhesion testing\n\nIn the paint and coating industries, paint adhesion testing is often used to determine if the paint or coating will adhere properly to the substrates to which they are applied. There are several different tests to measure the resistance of paints and coatings from substrates: cross-cut test, scrape adhesion, pull-off test, and others.\n\nSection::::Scrape Adhesion Test.\n", "As a gas or as a gaseous suspension, the paint is suspended in solid or liquid form in a gas that is sprayed on an object. The paint sticks to the object. This is called \"spray painting\" an object. The reasons for doing this include:\n\nBULLET::::- The application mechanism is air and thus no solid object touches the object being painted;\n\nBULLET::::- The distribution of the paint is uniform, so there are no sharp lines;\n\nBULLET::::- It is possible to deliver very small amounts of paint;\n", "Section::::Physics.:Wear.:Rubbing Wear or Fretting.\n\nThe rubbing wear occurs in systems subject to more or less intense vibrations, which cause relative movements between the surfaces in contact with the order of the nanometer. These microscopic relative movements cause both adhesive wear, caused by the displacement itself, and abrasive wear, caused by the particles produced in the adhesive phase, which remain trapped between the surfaces. This type of wear can be accelerated by the presence of corrosive substances and the increase in temperature.\n\nSection::::Physics.:Wear.:Erosion Wear.\n", "There are two common types of paint used today. The first are water-based paints such as latex and acrylic paint, and the second are oil-based paints. The paint of choice will depend on the substrate to be painted upon and the desired end result. All paints have the same basic structure:\n", "Generally, adhesive wear occurs when two bodies slide over or are pressed into each other, which promote material transfer. This can be described as plastic deformation of very small fragments within the surface layers. The asperities or microscopic high points (surface roughness) found on each surface affect the severity of how fragments of oxides are pulled off and added to the other surface, partly due to strong adhesive forces between atoms, but also due to accumulation of energy in the plastic zone between the asperities during relative motion.\n", "Many plastics, such as polyethylene and polypropylene, have chemically inert and nonporous surfaces with low surface tensions causing them to be non-receptive to bonding with printing inks, coatings, and adhesives. Although results are invisible to the naked eye, surface treating modifies surfaces to improve adhesion.\n", "The sheen or gloss level of a paint is principally determined by the ratio of resinous, adhesive binder which solidifies after drying, and solid, powdery pigment. The more binder the coating contains, the more regular reflection will be made from its smooth surface; conversely, with less binder, grains of pigment become exposed to the surface, scattering the light and providing matte effect. To a lesser extent, gloss is also affected by other factors: refraction index of the pigment particles, viscosity and refraction index of the binder. \n", "PVC affects both physical and optical properties of a paint. Matte paints have less binder, which makes them more susceptible to mechanical damages (however, they are less visible than on glossy surfaces). Optimum quantity of binder provides a smooth surface at which all extender & pigment particles are tightly bonded by reducing little quantity of Binder can damage surface. However, at a certain PVC, called \"critical PVC\" (CPVC), the extenders & Pigments are already saturated with binder and the surface becomes solid and matt, without protruding particles; adding more binder (lowering PVC) will affect the sheen. CPVC generally depends on the binder-pigment system used, and generally falls in the 1–9% range.\n", "An addition to the electrostatic coating (or e-coating) process is dipping electrically conductive parts into a tank of paint that is then electrostatically charged. The ionic bond of the paint to the metal creates the paint coating, in which its thickness is directly proportional to the length of time the parts are left in the tank and the time the charge remains active. Once the parts are removed from the paint tank, they are rinsed off to remove any residual paint that is not ionically bonded, leaving a thin film of electrostatically bonded paint on the surface of the part.\n", "Section::::Handling in comparison with other media.\n", "Section::::Solid-gas interface.:Structure.\n\nReal surfaces may be macroscopically homogeneous, but their microscopic heterogeneity plays a crucial role in the relationship between the metal and its oxide.\n\nSection::::Solid-gas interface.:Structure.:Transition metal oxides.\n", "Section::::Surface structure and stability.:Surface stability.:Defect sites.\n\nDefect sites can interfere with the stability of metal oxide surfaces, so it is important to locate and determine methods to control these sites. Oxides exhibit an abundance of point defect sites. \n", "The type of mechanism and the amplitude of surface attraction varies between different materials but are amplified by an increase in the density of \"surface energy\". Most solids will adhere on contact to some extent. However, oxidation films, lubricants and contaminants naturally occurring generally suppress adhesion, and spontaneous exothermic chemical reactions between surfaces generally produce a substance with low energy status in the absorbed species.\n", "BULLET::::- Solvent - this is the bulk of the paint, it is used to keep the paint workable when it is wet. After paint is applied to a surface the solvent evaporates, the pigment and binder will coalesce together to form a uniform coating. The solvent is water for water-based paints, and an oil for oil-based paints.\n", "\"Hard\" bottom paints, or \"nonsloughing\" bottom paints, are made in several types. \"Contact leaching\" paints \"create a porous film on the surface. Biocides are held in the pores, and released slowly.\" Another type of hard bottom paint includes Teflon and silicone coatings which are too slippery for growth to stick. SealCoat systems, which must be professionally applied, dry with small fibers sticking out from the coating surface. These small fibers move in the water, preventing bottom growth from adhering.\n\nSection::::Environmental concerns.\n", "Metals can be coated with paint or other less conductive metals (\"passivation\"). This prevents the metal surface from being exposed to electrolytes. Scratches exposing the metal substrate will result in corrosion. The region under the coating adjacent to the scratch acts as the anode of the reaction.\n\nSee Anodizing\n\nSection::::Corrosion.:Prevention of corrosion.:Sacrificial anodes.\n", "A material's charge remains neutral when a surface is created by the law of charge conservation, but individual Bravais lattice planes, defined by their Miller indices, may be non-polar or polar based on their symmetry. A dipole moment increases the surface Gibbs free energy, but the greater polarizability of oxygen ions as compared to metals allows polarization to decrease the surface energy and thus increase the ability of metals to form oxides. Consequently, different exposed metal faces may adhere weakly to non-polar oxide faces, but be able to perfectly wet a polar face.\n\nSection::::Solid-gas interface.:Structure.:Defects.\n", "Many plastics are considerably sensitive to atomic oxygen and ionizing radiation. Coatings resistant to atomic oxygen are a common protection method, especially for plastics. Silicone-based paints and coatings are frequently employed, due to their excellent resistance to radiation and atomic oxygen. However, the silicone durability is somewhat limited, as the surface exposed to atomic oxygen is converted to silica which is brittle and tends to crack.\n\nSection::::Solving corrosion.\n", "Silicon based coatings are hydrophobic, which means the surface repels water. This reduces the effects of photo-oxidation of surfaces.\n", "BULLET::::- A chemical (typically a solvent) can be sprayed along with the paint to dissolve together both the delivered paint and the chemicals on the surface of the object being painted;\n\nBULLET::::- Some chemical reactions in paint involve the orientation of the paint molecules.\n\nIn the liquid application, paint can be applied by direct application using brushes, paint rollers, blades, scrapers, other instruments, or body parts such as fingers and thumbs.\n", "Section::::Coating methods.\n\nThe coating material can be applied by various methods, including brushing, spraying, dipping or selectively coating by robots. Different methods of curing and drying are available depending on the conformal coating material. Nearly all modern conformal coatings contain a fluorescent dye to aid in coating coverage inspection.\n\nSection::::Coating methods.:Brush coating.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03581	Why do we mostly not notice the "strangeness" of a dream until we are awake?	In short, because the parts of your brain that are responsible for determining if something is "strange" or "believable" are asleep at the time.	[ "Aristotle explains that during sleep there is an absence of external sensory stimulation. While sleeping with our eyes closed, the eyes are unable to see, and so in this respect we perceive nothing while asleep. He compares hallucinations to dreams, saying \"...the faculty by which, in waking hours, we are subject to illusion when affected by disease, is identical with that which produces illusory effects in sleep.\" When awake and perceiving, to see or hear something incorrectly only occurs when one \"actually\" sees or hears something, thinking it to be something else. But in sleep, if it is still true that one does not see, hear, or experience sense perception in the normal way, then the faculty of sense, he reasons, must be affected in some different way.\n", "Section::::Function.:Neurological theories.:As excitations of long-term memory.\n\nEugen Tarnow suggests that dreams are ever-present excitations of long-term memory, even during waking life. The strangeness of dreams is due to the format of long-term memory, reminiscent of Penfield & Rasmussen's findings that electrical excitations of the cortex give rise to experiences similar to dreams. During waking life an executive function interprets long-term memory consistent with reality checking. Tarnow's theory is a reworking of Freud's theory of dreams in which Freud's unconscious is replaced with the long-term memory system and Freud's \"Dream Work\" describes the structure of long-term memory.\n", "Creator Sean Oliver is quoted, \"The dream is still a mystery. People live their lives thinking that we understand it, but the truth is we don’t, we ignore it. If we can’t accurately comprehend the dream state then perhaps some of our assumptions about normal consciousness are misguided as well. I think we should all explore that.\"\n", "During deep slow-wave sleep, imagery is primarily driven by the hippocampus in the process of long-term memory consolidation and predominantly include memories of events “as they happened” without the random novel combination of objects seen in REM sleep dreams. During REM sleep, however, the communication between neocortex and hippocampus is disrupted by high ACh level.\n", "During REM sleep, the release of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin and histamine is completely suppressed.\n\nDuring most dreams, the person dreaming is not aware that they are dreaming, no matter how absurd or eccentric the dream is. The reason for this may be that the prefrontal cortex, the region of the brain responsible for logic and planning, exhibits decreased activity during dreams. This allows the dreamer to more actively interact with the dream without thinking about what might happen, since things that would normally stand out in reality blend in with the dream scenery.\n", "The visual nature of dreams is generally highly phantasmagoric; that is, different locations and objects continuously blend into each other. The visuals (including locations, characters/people, objects/artifacts) are generally reflective of a person's memories and experiences, but conversation can take on highly exaggerated and bizarre forms. Some dreams may even tell elaborate stories wherein the dreamer enters entirely new, complex worlds and awakes with ideas, thoughts and feelings never experienced prior to the dream.\n", "In clinical literature, the dream is considered as being of distorted and censored material through which surface images deviously hide latent truth. The eidetic also has latent material below its surface image but its latency continuously progresses toward revealing its hidden truth. Oswald Kroh (1922), Allport (1924), Wilder Penfield (1952), Lawrence Kubie (1952), and Akhter Ahsen (1977), all agree that though a person may change or may unknowingly introduce new details, “he is definitely unable to introduce into his image features which are at variance with the normal constitution of things.”\n\nSection::::Criteria for distinction.:Distinction from hypnotic and hypnagogic image.\n", "Illusory dreams are defined as dreams that contain impossible, incongruent, or bizarre content and are hypothesized to stem from memory circuits accumulating efficacy errors. In theory, old memories having undergone synaptic efficacy refreshment multiple times throughout one's lifetime result in accumulating errors that manifest as illusory dreams when stimulated. Qualities of illusory dreaming have been linked to delusions observed in mental disorders. Illusory dreams are believed to most likely stem from older memories that experience this accumulation of errors in contrast to authentic dreams that stem from more recent experiences.\n\nSection::::Influences on dreaming.\n", "We must suppose that, like the little eddies which are formed in rivers, so the movements are each a continuous process, often remaining like what they were when first started, but often, too, broken, into other forms by collisions with obstacles. This gives the reason why no dreams occur in sleep after meals, or to sleepers who are extremely young, e.g., to infants. The movement in such cases is excessive, owing to the heat generated from the food. Hence, just as in a liquid, if one vehemently disturbs it, sometimes no reflected image appears, while at other times one appears, indeed, but utterly distorted, so as to seem quite unlike its original; while, when once the motion has ceased, the reflected images are clear and plain; in the same manner during sleep the images, or residuary images are clear and plain; in the same manner during sleep the images, or residuary movements, which are based upon the sensory impressions, become sometimes quite obliterated by the above described motion when too violent; while at other times the sights are indeed seen, but confused and weird, and the dreams are incoherent, like those of persons who are atrabilious, or feverish, or intoxicated with wine. For all such affections, being spirituous, cause much commotion and disturbance.\n", "Blechner calls disjunctive cognitions \"the commonplace bizarreness of dreamlife.\" Some things that happen in dreams feel bizarre to the dreamer, but disjunctive cognitions usually do not. Another commonplace bizarreness of dreams is the interobject, in which the dreamer sees something between two objects, as in: I dreamt of something \"between a swimming pool and an aqueduct,\" or \"between a cell-phone and a baby.\" \n", "During the night, many external stimuli may bombard the senses, but the brain often interprets the stimulus and makes it a part of a dream to ensure continued sleep. Dream incorporation is a phenomenon whereby an actual sensation, such as environmental sounds, is incorporated into dreams, such as hearing a phone ringing in a dream while it is ringing in reality or dreaming of urination while wetting the bed. The mind can, however, awaken an individual if they are in danger or if trained to respond to certain sounds, such as a baby crying.\n", "The sleep laboratory environment is another major source of methodological issues. Sleep laboratories are an unnatural, awkward environment for sleeping. The subject may feel discomfort and anxiety, which may make sleep more difficult and of inferior quality. This is the well-known first night effect. Complete adaptation to the sleep laboratory may take four days or longer, which is longer than the duration of most laboratory studies. Also, the content of dreams at the laboratory has been observed to be different from dreams at home. Similarly, the laboratory environment may alter the content of dreams recalled from spontaneous awakenings at the end of a night's sleep, as indicated by high frequency of laboratory references in morning spontaneous awakenings in REM and NREM dream reports).\n", "A dream is something that comes into contact with the mind; an external event is something that impinges on the body. Hence our feelings by day and our dreams by night are the result of contacts made by mind or body. it follows that if we can concentrate the maid in abstraction, our feelings and our dreams will vanish of themselves. Those who rely on their waking perceptions will not argue about them. Those who put faith in dreams do not understand the processes of change in the external world. \"The pure men of old passed their waking existence in self-oblivion, and slept without dreams.\" How can this be dismissed as an empty phrase? \n", "The dreamer recognizes a character's identity, even though the appearance does not match the identity. Such dreams are usually not experienced as bizarre, despite the fact that such a statement in waking life would be considered psychotic. In waking life, most people would assume that they misidentified the person and correct for it, but not in dreams.\n", "The characteristics of REM sleep consistently contain a similar set of features. While dreaming people regularly falsely believe that they are awake unless they implement lucidity. Dreams contain multimodal pseudo-perceptions; sometimes any or all sensory modalities are present, but most often visual and motoric. Dream imagery can change quickly and is regularly of a bizarre nature, but reports also contain many images and events that are a part of day-to-day life. In dreams there is a reduction or absence of self-reflection or other forms of meta-cognition relative to during waking life. Dreams are also characterized by a lack of \"orientational stability; persons, times, and places are fused, plastic, incongruous and discontinuous\". In addition, dreams form a single narrative to explain and integrate all dream elements. Lastly, NREM reports contain thought-like mentation and depictions of current concerns more frequently than REM reports.\n", "REM sleep episodes and the dreams that accompany them lengthen progressively through the night, with the first episode being shortest, of approximately 10–12 minutes duration, and the second and third episodes increasing to 15–20 minutes. Dreams at the end of the night may last as long as 15 minutes, although these may be experienced as several distinct episodes due to momentary arousals interrupting sleep as the night ends. Dream reports can be reported from normal subjects 50% of the time when they are awakened prior to the end of the first REM period. This rate of retrieval is increased to about 99% when awakenings are made from the last REM period of the night. The increase in the ability to recall dreams appears related to intensification across the night in the vividness of dream imagery, colors, and emotions. \n", "[...]And while you sleep you don’t know what happens either, what could have been changed while you have been sleeping. If things are different when you woke up just now, it could have been different before and you might not have remembered. Or if it is the same, the scenery, one way or the other you don’t see much of it. Or, it could be that you do not remember this, something else you remember, you sleep, you wake up so many times, so often, you don’t know when you are asleep and when you are awake, why be awake, now you may be asleep, what you remember you may remember in sleep, wake up in a dream, remember inside a dream, different memory other things you remember when you are in a dream, you have a different life in the dream, you remember who you are what you did, and even though you may not be the person you were when again you wake up you don’t doubt who you are in the dream, even when you are changing and you are changing continuously, you don’t wonder, things are naturally so, it is not strange, you are changing continuously, your body, around you, everything everywhere, you are somebody else, but you are the same, you are him.[..]\n", "Herodotus in his \"The Histories\", writes \"The visions that occur to us in dreams are, more often than not, the things we have been concerned about during the day.\"\n", "Section::::Other associated phenomena.:Recall.:Individual differences.\n", "Faraday noted that \"one finding has emerged pretty firmly from modern research, namely that the majority of dreams seem in some way to reflect things that have preoccupied our minds during the previous day or two.\"\n\nIn the 1980s and 1990s, Wallace Clift and Jean Dalby Clift further explored the relationship between images produced in dreams and the dreamer's waking life. Their books identified patterns in dreaming, and ways of analyzing dreams to explore life changes, with particular emphasis on moving toward healing and wholeness.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\n\"Dream etiquette\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dream dictionary\n\nBULLET::::- Dream journal\n\nBULLET::::- Dream sharing\n", "Metaphor is the language of the REM state. French scientist Michel Jouvet suggested that REM sleep is concerned with programming the central nervous system to carry out instinctive behaviours. William Dement and colleagues discovered that the amount of REM sleep a foetus or newborn has depends on how mature an animal is at birth. Animals born relatively mature have little REM sleep as foetuses and after birth, while animals born immature have a considerable amount. During REM sleep, foetuses and newborns are programmed with the instincts that they must seek to complete in the environment. As the sense organs start to receive inputs from the environment, the brain ‘pattern matches’ to the instinctive templates programmed in during REM sleep. According to the theory, just as programming instincts involves creating a pattern or template for which an analogue can be found in the environment (twig-like materials, a friendly human face, etc.), so it makes sense that deactivation also uses sensory analogues or metaphors, enabling the brain to draw on images which represent the unexpressed emotional arousals of the day.\n", "Disjunctive cognition can also involve time perception. It is quite common to dream that as an adult, one goes back to a time and place of one's childhood. In this case, the perceived age of the dreamer is disjunctive with the setting of the dream. It is much less common to perceive the opposite: dreaming of oneself as a child, where the time and place are that of one's adulthood. However, it is common to dream of other people whom one knew at an earlier age appearing in the present. This is especially frequent in the dreams of people who have lost close relatives. For example, Aharon Appelfeld reported: \"I dreamed about my parents. They had not aged since we were together sixty-three years ago in Prague, and their faces expressed amazement that I had grown older. We were briefly united in mutual astonishment, and I knew that I had something important to tell them. But, as in every profound dream, I could not get the words out.\"\n", "There is evidence that certain medical conditions (normally only neurological conditions) can impact dreams. For instance, some people with synesthesia have never reported entirely black-and-white dreaming, and often have a difficult time imagining the idea of dreaming in only black and white.\n\nSection::::Interpretations.\n\nSection::::Interpretations.:Common interpretations.\n", "Disjunctive cognition\n\nDisjunctive cognition is a common phenomenon in dreams, first identified by psychoanalyst Mark Blechner, in which two aspects of cognition do not match each other. The dreamer is aware of the disjunction, yet that does not prevent it from remaining. The most frequent disjunction is between appearance and identity, such as \"I knew it was my mother, even though it didn't look like her.\"\n", "The recollection of dreams is extremely unreliable, though it is a skill that can be trained. Dreams can usually be recalled if a person is awakened while dreaming. Women tend to have more frequent dream recall than men. Dreams that are difficult to recall may be characterized by relatively little affect, and factors such as salience, arousal, and interference play a role in dream recall. Often, a dream may be recalled upon viewing or hearing a random trigger or stimulus. The \"salience hypothesis\" proposes that dream content that is salient, that is, novel, intense, or unusual, is more easily remembered. There is considerable evidence that vivid, intense, or unusual dream content is more frequently recalled. A dream journal can be used to assist dream recall, for personal interest or psychotherapy purposes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00292	Why do they say that a natural catastrophe negatively costs tremendous amount of money? Doesn't it create jobs and keeps the money moving?	I think this is called the Broken-Window-Fallacy. You're right, people working to repair the destruction caused by a catastrophe can have positive impacts on the economy. But if the catastrophe had not happened those people could have worked on something else and created something new. Instead they are only working to recover the state before the catastrophe. So after all the catastrophe sets the economy back.	[ "Natural disasters can also affect political relations with countries and vice versa. Violent conflicts within states can exacerbate the impact of natural disasters by weakening the ability of states, communities and individuals to provide disaster relief. Natural disasters can also worsen ongoing conflicts within states by weakening the capacity of states to fight rebels. In developed countries like the US, studies find that incumbents lose votes when the electorate perceives them as responsible for a poor disaster response. In Chinese and Japanese history, it has been routine for era names or capital cities and palaces of emperors to be changed after a major natural disaster, chiefly for political reasons such as association with hardships by the populace and fear of upheaveal. (i.e. in East Asian government chronicles, such fears were recorded in a low profile way as an unlucky name or place requiring change.) Disasters and responses can dictate political careers; the once popular President Benigno Aquino III of Philippines, following a weak and confused response to Typhoon Yolanda which killed over 6,000 people and survivors were largely left to fend for themselves, this widely accepted sentiment carried over and the President never recovered his popularity, his hand picked successor Mar Roxas lost the subsequent election to a rival party in a landslide vote. Post-disaster mishandling can spread despair as bad news travels fast and far, and contribute to the appeal of electing a strongman out of sheer desperation.\n", "The coastal zone (the area both within 100 kilometres distance of the coast and 100 metres elevation of sea level) is home to a large and growing proportion of the global population. Over 50 percent of the global population and 65 percent of cities with populations over five million people are in the coastal zone. In addition to the significant number of people at risk of coastal flooding, these coastal urban centres are producing a considerable amount of the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP). People's lives, homes, businesses and city infrastructure like roads, railways and industrial plants are all at risk of coastal flooding with massive potential social and economic costs. The recent earthquakes and tsunami in Indonesia in 2004 and in Japan in March 2011 clearly illustrate the devastation coastal flooding can produce. Indirect economic costs can be incurred if economically important sandy beaches are eroded away resulting in a loss of tourism in areas dependent on the attractiveness of those beaches.\n", "A \"natural disaster\" is the consequence of a natural hazard (e.g. volcanic eruption, earthquake, landslide) which moves from potential into an active phase, and as a result affects human activities. Human vulnerability, exacerbated by the lack of planning or lack of appropriate emergency management, leads to financial, structural, and human losses. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster, their resilience. This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: \"disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability\". A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas.\n", "One of the key conclusions of this study is that \"Effective management of the consequences of\n\ncatastrophes would appear to be a more significant factor than whether catastrophe insurance hedges the economic impact of the catastrophe\".\n\nWhile there are technical elements to this report it is highly recommended to those who wish to engage their senior management in the value of crisis management.\n\nSection::::Lessons learned in crisis management.:Crisis as Opportunity.\n", "A study carried out by David R. Easterling et al. identified societal impacts in the United States. Losses caused by catastrophes, defined by the property insurance industry as storms causing insured losses over $5 million in the year of occurrence, have grown steadily in the United States from about $100 million annually in the 1950s to $6 billion per year in the 1990s, and the annual number of catastrophes grew from 10 in the 1950s to 35 in the 1990s.”\n", "The commission initially set the acceptable risk for complete failure of every \"dike ring\" in the country at 1 in 125,000 years. But, it found that the cost of building to this level of protection could not be supported. It set \"acceptable\" risks by region as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- North and South Holland (excluding Wieringermeer): 1 per 10,000 years\n\nBULLET::::- Other areas at risk from sea flooding: 1 per 4,000 years\n\nBULLET::::- Transition areas between high land and low land: 1 per 2,000 years\n", "There is some evidence that geological disasters do more economic harm than climate-related disasters, in the long term. Geological disasters, such as landslides and earthquakes, happen with little immediate warning and kill many people. Climate-related disasters, such as hurricanes, are more predictable on a scale of days to hours, and kill fewer people. Such warning saves people, but not immovable property. This suggests that killing people does long-lasting economic harm, while destroying capital is not as harmful to GDP growth.\n", "In the cases of humanitarian crises, especially natural disasters such as tornadoes, tsunamis and earthquakes, these incidences leave environmental and ecological impacts on the regions affected. The aftermaths of natural disasters can lead to a significant decrease in natural resources while making the region prone to future issues. For example, if a forest fire occurs in a large region, the area may be susceptible to air pollution, dust clouds, release of carcinogenic gases and others. Forest ecological wildlife, for example, is severely impacted by such events. In the cases of water natural disasters such as floods and tsunamis, extensive damage due to the water is prevalent. Fish, corals and other ocean life is impacted, which further impacts the livelihoods of fishermen.\n", "The most important \"dike ring area\" is the South Holland coast region. It is home to four million people, most of whom live below normal sea level. The loss of human life in a catastrophic flood here can be very large because there is typically little warning time with North Sea storms. Comprehensive evacuation is not a realistic option for the Holland coastal region.\n", "Edward C. Prescott and Rajnish Mehra first proposed the Equity Premium Puzzle in 1985. In 1988, Rietz suggested that large and infrequent economic shocks could explain the equity premium (the premium of equity securities over fixed income assets). However, it was not deemed feasible at the time, because it seemed that such events were too rare and could not occur in reality. The theory was forgotten until 2005, when Robert Barro provided evidence of nations from around the world from the 19th and 20th century, showing that these events were possible and have happened. Since his papers, others have submitted different ideas regarding rare disasters' impact on other economic phenomenon. However, many economists remain skeptical of how much rare disasters really explain the equity premium and Mehra still expresses doubt as to the validity of the theory.\n", "Barro and subsequent economists have provided historical evidence to support this claim. Using this evidence, Barro shows that rare disasters occur frequently and in large magnitude, in economies around the world from a period from the mid-19th century to the present day.\n", "Much of the equity premium puzzle can be explained by the rare disaster scenarios proposed by Barro and Rietz. The basic reasoning is that if people are aware that rare disasters (i.e. the Great Depression or World War I and World War II) may occur, but the disaster never occurs during their lives, then the equity premium will appear high.\n", "As coastal flooding is typically a natural process, it is inherently difficult to prevent flood occurrence. If human systems are affected by flooding, an adaption to how that system operates on the coast through behavioral and institutional changes is required, these changes are the so-called \"non-structural\" mechanisms of coastal flooding response. Building regulations, coastal hazard zoning, urban development planning, spreading the risk through insurance and enhancing public awareness are some ways of achieving this. Adapting to the risk of flood occurrence, can be the best option if the cost of building defense structures outweighs any benefits or if the natural processes in that stretch of coastline add to its natural character and attractiveness. A more extreme and often difficult to accept response to coastal flooding is abandoning the area (also known as managed retreat) prone to flooding. This however raises issues for where the people and infrastructure affected would go and what sort of compensation should/could be paid.\n", "Researchers have been studying disasters for more than a century, and for more than forty years disaster research. The studies reflect a common opinion when they argue that all disasters can be seen as being human-made, their reasoning being that human actions before the strike of the hazard can prevent it developing into a disaster. All disasters are hence the result of human failure to introduce appropriate emergency management measures. Hazards are routinely divided into natural or human-made, although complex disasters, where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific disaster may spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami, resulting in coastal flooding.\n", "BULLET::::- Demand surge (an increase in labor rates and other repair costs after major natural disasters) could increase property losses by 20 percent.\n\nBULLET::::- Agricultural losses and other costs to repair lifelines, dewater (drain) flooded islands, and repair damage from landslides, brings the total direct property loss to nearly $400 billion, of which $20 to $30 billion would be recoverable through public and commercial insurance.\n\nBULLET::::- Power, water, sewer, and other lifelines experience damage that takes weeks or months to restore.\n\nBULLET::::- Flooding evacuation could involve 1.5 million residents in the inland region and delta counties.\n", "The first edition of \"At Risk\" (1994) applied the approach once again to a range of so-called 'natural' disasters, which were found to be significantly magnified by inequality and capitalist greed, leaving affected people in a 'reproduction squeeze'. This they called the 'pressure-release model', where root causes – power, structures, resources, political systems, economic systems lie behind disaster pressures – e.g. lack of local institutions, rapid urbanisation. These lead to unsafe conditions – physical environment, local economy, vulnerability, public actions. On the physical side of the equation is a natural hazard. Risk=hazard+vulnerability.\n", "Economic hardship due to a temporary decline in tourism, rebuilding costs, or food shortages leading to price increases is a common after-effect of severe flooding. The impact on those affected may cause psychological damage to those affected, in particular where deaths, serious injuries and loss of property occur.\n", "As coasts become more developed, the vulnerability component of the equation increases as there is more value at risk to the hazard. The likelihood component of the equation also increases in terms of there being more value on the coast so a higher chance of hazardous situation occurring. Fundamentally humans create hazards with their presence. In a coastal example, erosion is a process that happens naturally on the Canterbury Bight as a part of the coastal geomorphology of the area and strong long shore currents. This process becomes a hazard when humans interact with that coastal environment by developing it and creating value in that area.\n", "Research has shown the impact of further investment in effective preparedness, as the benefits with regards to reducing humanitarian caseloads far outweigh the costs; a case study of Niger showed positive cost and benefit results across all scenarios. Three different scenarios were modelled, from the absolute level of disaster loss, to the potential reduction in disaster loss and the discount rate. It is estimated that every $1 spent results in $3.25 of benefit in the most conservative scenario. This increases to $5.31 of benefit for the least conservative scenario.\n\nSection::::Some issues and challenges.:Partnerships and inter-organisational co-ordination.\n", "Insurance premiums in coastal hazard areas are an inconsequential determinant of property values, given the significant amenity values provided by the coast in terms of views and local recreation. Sea-level rise, coastal erosion, and the exacerbating interaction between these two natural phenomena are likely to pose a significant threat for the loss of capital assets in coastal areas in the future. It is hard to say if the vulnerability to coastal hazards by those residing there is perceived, yet dominated by the amenity value of coasts, or simply ignored.\n\nSection::::Coastal erosion hazards.\n", "On the heavily developed East Coast of USA, a strong correlation exists between human development, determined by satellite imagery, and reduced rates of erosion, even when studied at regional scales. A combination of the relative permanence of urban infrastructure and coastal defense efforts made to protect such infrastructure is likely the cause of such a relationship. Even after destructive storm events, evidence suggest that US East and Gulf Coast communities tend to rebuild homes and structures that are larger than before the event.\n", "The environmental risks can be acute and life-threatening. According to the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT), between 2003 and 2013, there were 380 industrial accidents reported, affecting 207 668 people and resulting in over US$22 million in losses. Climate change is having an unprecedented effect on the occurrence of natural disasters and the associated risk of environmental emergencies. With climate change already stretching the disaster relief system, future climate-related emergency events will generate increased and more costly demands for assistance.\n\nSection::::Context.\n\nAll disasters have some environmental impacts. \n", "Coastal erosion is one of the most significant hazards associated with the coast. Not in terms of a rare massive release of energy or material resulting in loss of life, as is associated with tsunami and cyclones, but in terms of a continual chronic release that forms a threat to infrastructure, capital assets and property.\n\nSection::::Coastal erosion hazards.:Beach erosion process.\n", "Many examples exist of one natural hazard triggering or increasing the probability of one or more other natural hazards. For example, an earthquake may trigger landslides, whereas a wildfire may increase the probability of landslides being generated in the future. A detailed review of such interactions across 21 natural hazards identified 90 possible interactions, of varying likelihood and spatial importance. There may also be interactions between these natural hazards and anthropic processes. For example, groundwater abstraction may trigger groundwater-related subsidence.\n", "The risk-free interest rate (the interest received on fixed income, like bonds issued by extremely safe entities, typically governments) may also be explained by rare disasters. Using data in the United States, the rare disaster model shows that the risk-free rate falls by a large margin (from 0.127 to 0.035) when a rare disaster with the probability of 0.017 is introduced into the data set.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02670	How can we prove that a problem is NP if we don't know whether or not P=NP?	NP is a superset of P — all problems in P are also problems in NP — so proving that something is in NP doesn't actually say anything about whether or not it's in P. What they most likely meant when they said that a problem is proven to be NP is that it's NP-complete, which means that it's both in NP and is at least as hard as any problem in NP. If P != NP, then all NP-complete problems are not in P, whereas if P = NP, then all NP-complete problems are in P.	[ "Take \"M\" to be the empty message sequence, here we will show that \"N\" can be computed in polynomial space, and that \"N\" = Pr[\"V\" accepts \"w\"]. First, to compute \"N\", an algorithm can recursively calculate the values \"N\" for every \"j\" and \"M\". Since the depth of the recursion is \"p\", only polynomial space is necessary. The second requirement is that we need \"N\" = Pr[\"V\" accepts \"w\"], the value needed to determine whether \"w\" is in A. We use induction to prove this as follows.\n", "SAT is in NP because any assignment of Boolean values to Boolean variables that is claimed to satisfy the given expression can be \"verified\" in polynomial time by a deterministic Turing machine. (The statements verifiable in polynomial time by a deterministic Turing machine\" and solvable in polynomial time by a non-deterministic Turing machine\" are totally equivalent, and the proof can be found in many textbooks, for example Sipser's \"Introduction to the Theory of Computation\", section 7.3., as well as in the Wikipedia article on NP).\n", "The above example can be generalized for any decision problem. Given any instance I of problem P and witness W, if there exists a \"verifier\" V so that given the ordered pair (I, W) as input, V returns \"yes\" in polynomial time if the witness proves that the answer is \"yes\" and \"no\" in polynomial time otherwise, then P is in NP.\n", "For instance, the Boolean satisfiability problem is NP-complete by the Cook–Levin theorem, so \"any\" instance of \"any\" problem in NP can be transformed mechanically into an instance of the Boolean satisfiability problem in polynomial time. The Boolean satisfiability problem is one of many such NP-complete problems. If any NP-complete problem is in P, then it would follow that P = NP. However, many important problems have been shown to be NP-complete, and no fast algorithm for any of them is known.\n", "If \"j\" is even, \"m\" is a message from \"V\" to \"P\". By the definition of \"N\",\n\nThen, by the inductive hypothesis, we can say this is equal to\n\nFinally, by definition, we can see that this is equal to Pr[\"V\" accepts \"w\" starting at \"M\"].\n\nIf \"j\" is odd, \"m\" is a message from \"P\" to \"V\". By definition,\n\nThen, by the inductive hypothesis, this equals\n\nThis is equal to Pr[\"V\" accepts \"w\" starting at \"M\"] since:\n\nbecause the prover on the right-hand side could send the message \"m\" to maximize the expression on the left-hand side. And:\n", "But notice that if we are given a particular subset we can \"efficiently verify\" whether the subset sum is zero, by summing the integers of the subset. If the sum is zero, that subset is a \"proof\" or witness for the answer is \"yes\". An algorithm that verifies whether a given subset has sum zero is a \"verifier\". Clearly, summing the integers of a subset can be done in polynomial time and the subset sum problem is therefore in NP.\n", "Now suppose that a given problem in NP can be solved by the nondeterministic Turing machine , where \"Q\" is the set of states, Σ is the alphabet of tape symbols, is the initial state, is the set of accepting states, and is the transition relation. Suppose further that \"M\" accepts or rejects an instance of the problem in time \"p\"(\"n\") where \"n\" is the size of the instance and \"p\" is a polynomial function.\n\nFor each input, \"I\", we specify a Boolean expression which is satisfiable if and only if the machine \"M\" accepts \"I\".\n", "Research mathematicians spend their careers trying to prove theorems, and some proofs have taken decades or even centuries to find after problems have been stated—for instance, Fermat's Last Theorem took over three centuries to prove. A method that is guaranteed to find proofs to theorems, should one exist of a \"reasonable\" size, would essentially end this struggle.\n\nDonald Knuth has stated that he has come to believe that P = NP, but is reserved about the impact of a possible proof:\n\nSection::::Consequences of solution.:P ≠ NP.\n", "The concept of an interactive proof system was first introduced by Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali, and Charles Rackoff in 1985. An interactive proof system consists of two machines, a prover, \"P\", which presents a proof that a given string \"n\" is a member of some language, and a verifier, \"V\", that checks that the presented proof is correct. The prover is assumed to be infinite in computation and storage, while the verifier is a probabilistic polynomial-time machine with access to a random bit string whose length is polynomial on the size of \"n\". These two machines exchange a polynomial number, \"p\"(\"n\"), of messages and once the interaction is completed, the verifier must decide whether or not \"n\" is in the language, with only a 1/3 chance of error. (So any language in BPP is in IP, since then the verifier could simply ignore the prover and make the decision on its own.)\n", "On top of this, they also showed that the graph nonisomorphism problem, the complement of the graph isomorphism problem, has a zero-knowledge proof. This problem is in co-NP, but is not currently known to be in either NP or any practical class. More generally, Russell Impagliazzo and Moti Yung as well as Ben-Or et al. would go on to show that, also assuming one-way functions or unbreakable encryption, that there are zero-knowledge proofs for \"all\" problems in IP = PSPACE, or in other words, anything that can be proved by an interactive proof system can be proved with zero knowledge.\n", "Based on the definition alone it is not obvious that NP-complete problems exist; however, a trivial and contrived NP-complete problem can be formulated as follows: given a description of a Turing machine \"M\" guaranteed to halt in polynomial time, does there exist a polynomial-size input that \"M\" will accept? It is in NP because (given an input) it is simple to check whether \"M\" accepts the input by simulating \"M\"; it is NP-complete because the verifier for any particular instance of a problem in NP can be encoded as a polynomial-time machine \"M\" that takes the solution to be verified as input. Then the question of whether the instance is a yes or no instance is determined by whether a valid input exists.\n", "An answer to the P = NP question would determine whether problems that can be verified in polynomial time can also be solved in polynomial time. If it turned out that P ≠ NP, it would mean that there are problems in NP that are harder to compute than to verify: they could not be solved in polynomial time, but the answer could be verified in polynomial time.\n\nAside from being an important problem in computational theory, a proof either way would have profound implications for mathematics, cryptography, algorithm research, artificial intelligence, game theory, multimedia processing, philosophy, economics and many other fields.\n\nSection::::Example.\n", "The question is whether or not, for all problems for which an algorithm can \"verify\" a given solution quickly (that is, in polynomial time), an algorithm can also \"find\" that solution quickly. Since the former describes the class of problems termed NP, while the latter describes P, the question is equivalent to asking whether all problems in NP are also in P. This is generally considered one of the most important open questions in mathematics and theoretical computer science as it has far-reaching consequences to other problems in mathematics, and to biology, philosophy and cryptography (see P versus NP problem proof consequences). A common example of an NP problem not known to be in P is the Boolean satisfiability problem.\n", "While a method for computing the solutions to NP-complete problems quickly remains undiscovered, computer scientists and programmers still frequently encounter NP-complete problems. NP-complete problems are often addressed by using heuristic methods and approximation algorithms.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nNP-complete problems are in NP, the set of all decision problems whose solutions can be verified in polynomial time; \"NP\" may be equivalently defined as the set of decision problems that can be solved in polynomial time on a non-deterministic Turing machine. A problem \"p\" in NP is NP-complete if every other problem in NP can be transformed (or reduced) into \"p\" in polynomial time.\n", "The concept of NP-completeness was introduced in 1971 (see Cook–Levin theorem), though the term \"NP-complete\" was introduced later. At the 1971 STOC conference, there was a fierce debate between the computer scientists about whether NP-complete problems could be solved in polynomial time on a deterministic Turing machine. John Hopcroft brought everyone at the conference to a consensus that the question of whether NP-complete problems are solvable in polynomial time should be put off to be solved at some later date, since nobody had any formal proofs for their claims one way or the other. This is known as the question of whether P=NP.\n", "NP contains all problems in P, since one can verify any instance of the problem by simply ignoring the proof and solving it. NP is contained in PSPACE—to show this, it suffices to construct a PSPACE machine that loops over all proof strings and feeds each one to a polynomial-time verifier. Since a polynomial-time machine can only read polynomially many bits, it cannot use more than polynomial space, nor can it read a proof string occupying more than polynomial space (so we do not have to consider proofs longer than this). NP is also contained in EXPTIME, since the same algorithm operates in exponential time.\n", "We must show that for every 0 ≤ \"j\" ≤ \"p\" and every \"M\", \"N\" = Pr[\"V\" accepts \"w\" starting at \"M\"], and we will do this using induction on \"j\". The base case is to prove for \"j\" = \"p\". Then we will use induction to go from \"p\" down to 0.\n", "As additional evidence for the difficulty of the problem, essentially all known proof techniques in computational complexity theory fall into one of the following classifications, each of which is known to be insufficient to prove that P ≠ NP:\n\nThese barriers are another reason why NP-complete problems are useful: if a polynomial-time algorithm can be demonstrated for an NP-complete problem, this would solve the P = NP problem in a way not excluded by the above results.\n", "In order to demonstrate that IP ⊆ PSPACE, we present a simulation of an interactive proof system by a polynomial space machine. Now, we can define:\n\nand for every 0 ≤ \"j\" ≤ \"p\" and every message history \"M\", we inductively define the function \"N\":\n\nwhere:\n\nwhere Pr is the probability taken over the random string \"r\" of length \"p\". This expression is the average of \"N\", weighted by the probability that the verifier sent message \"m\".\n", "Here we have constructed a polynomial space machine that uses the best prover \"P\" for a particular string \"w\" in language \"A\". We use this best prover in place of a prover with random input bits because we are able to try every set of random input bits in polynomial space. Since we have simulated an interactive proof system with a polynomial space machine, we have shown that IP ⊆ PSPACE, as desired.\n\nSection::::Proof of IP = PSPACE.:PSPACE ⊆ IP.\n", "Section::::Results about difficulty of proof.\n\nAlthough the P = NP problem itself remains open despite a million-dollar prize and a huge amount of dedicated research, efforts to solve the problem have led to several new techniques. In particular, some of the most fruitful research related to the P = NP problem has been in showing that existing proof techniques are not powerful enough to answer the question, thus suggesting that novel technical approaches are required.\n", "Given any decision problem in NP, construct a non-deterministic machine that solves it in polynomial time. Then for each input to that machine, build a Boolean expression which says that the input is passed to the machine, the machine runs correctly, and the machine halts and answers \"yes\". Then the expression can be satisfied if and only if there is a way for the machine to run correctly and answer \"yes\", so the satisfiability of the constructed expression is equivalent to asking whether or not the machine will answer \"yes\".\n\nSection::::Proof.\n", "The first natural problem proven to be NP-complete was the Boolean satisfiability problem, also known as SAT. As noted above, this is the Cook–Levin theorem; its proof that satisfiability is NP-complete contains technical details about Turing machines as they relate to the definition of NP. However, after this problem was proved to be NP-complete, proof by reduction provided a simpler way to show that many other problems are also NP-complete, including the game Sudoku discussed earlier. In this case, the proof shows that a solution of Sudoku in polynomial time could also be used to complete Latin squares in polynomial time. This in turn gives a solution to the problem of partitioning tri-partite graphs into triangles, which could then be used to find solutions for the special case of SAT known as 3-SAT, which then provides a solution for general Boolean satisfiability. So a polynomial time solution to Sudoku leads, by a series of mechanical transformations, to a polynomial time solution of satisfiability, which in turn can be used to solve any other NP-problem in polynomial time. Using transformations like this, a vast class of seemingly unrelated problems are all reducible to one another, and are in a sense \"the same problem\".\n", "Equivalent to the verifier-based definition is the following characterization: NP is the class of decision problems solvable by a non-deterministic Turing machine that runs in polynomial time. That is to say, \"P\" is in NP whenever \"P\" is recognized by some polynomial-time non-deterministic Turing machine \"M\" with an existential acceptance condition, meaning that \"w ∈ P\" if and only if some computation path of \"M(w)\" leads to an accepting state. This definition is equivalent to the verifier-based definition because a non-deterministic Turing machine could solve an NP problem in polynomial time by non-deterministically selecting a certificate and running the verifier on the certificate. Similarly, if such a machine exists, then a polynomial time verifier can naturally be constructed from it.\n", "Nobody has yet been able to determine conclusively whether NP-complete problems are in fact solvable in polynomial time, making this one of the great unsolved problems of mathematics. The Clay Mathematics Institute is offering a US$1 million reward to anyone who has a formal proof that P=NP or that P≠NP.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04674	Stephen Hawking was an ardent supporter of the many-universes interpretation. I always figured it was mostly theoretical and not backed by science (please forgive me I’m a novice in this field). How can we actually explain that such a phenomenon actually exists using scientific evidence?	Well theory is a big part of science. I’m not sure about the specifics of his many universes interpretation, but from what I know about a lot of scientific theories we see today, you get some weird evidence from experiments, then you come up with a possible explanation, you do more experiments, maybe get weird evidence, maybe get what you expect, and you keep changing the idea until you get it right. For example, our theory of gravity is pretty good, we know a lot and can predict a lot, but we’re still working on it and trying to find evidence for how it works. As far as this theory, from what I know, the evidence he was trying to explain is sort of unclear, there’s not a lot of information out there yet, and there are competing theories. The best ELI5 explanation for theory I ever saw was one that explained it like a game of connect the dots where you don’t have all the dots. When there aren’t a lot of dots, then you can get creative and plant dots here or there to make your own image, but as you get more dots, and rule out other dots, some designs stop working. Eventually, after dots are gathered and drawings are made, one drawing just sort of works better than all the others, and in the ideal world that drawing is the one that gets taught in schools. Remember that scientists are people though, and not just in the sense that they can be influenced by funding or personal gain, but that they are individuals, with unique creative vision. Stephen Hawking will live on in the minds and hearts of many, because he had creativity when connecting the dots, and skill at predicting where they would be. One day we might be talking about a post where Stephen Hawking was proven right, but maybe we’ll see one where he was proven wrong. As a good scientist, I know Hawking would have been happy either way, because on that day we all learned something. (Sorry if I’m not specific or vague enough, tried my best to keep it ELI5 worthy without sacrificing content, don’t know how well I did that haha) Edit: A user in the comments below pointed out that the multi-universes interpretation would be better classified as a hypothesis than a theory. To my best knowledge, the difference between the two can be slim but is important. A hypothesis ~~is~~ can be your best guess at the explanation for evidence (didn’t fully hit the money here, made a more detailed comment in the replies), and it is something you want to test to try and prove it or disprove it. A theory is what you actually try to put out there as your explanation, and usually comes after the hypothesis was tested. I’m not sure if there’s a bar that is set for what gets to be a hypothesis and what isn’t, but typically a theory needs to be peer reviewed before scientists will talk about it seriously. The issue with the word theory is that there’s a different meaning for people in academia and people who aren’t in academia, and that miscommunication can lead to small problems in day to day conversation, and large problems when decisions need to be made. Bottom line is, keep thinking about the world, keep learning, be happy when you’re right, be happy when you’re wrong. Also I fixed a typo that was bugging me.	[ "However, the poll is controversial. For example, Victor J. Stenger remarks that Murray Gell-Mann's published work explicitly rejects the existence of simultaneous parallel universes. Collaborating with James Hartle, Gell-Mann is working toward the development a more \"palatable\" \"post-Everett quantum mechanics\". Stenger thinks it's fair to say that most physicists dismiss the many-world interpretation as too extreme, while noting it \"has merit in finding a place for the observer inside the system being analyzed and doing away with the troublesome notion of wave function collapse\".\n", "Max Tegmark has affirmed in numerous statements that absurd or highly unlikely events are inevitable under the MWI interpretation. To quote Tegmark, \"Things inconsistent with the laws of physics will never happen - everything else will... it's important to keep track of the statistics, since even if everything conceivable happens somewhere, really freak events happen only exponentially rarely\". \n", "Around 2010, scientists such as Stephen M. Feeney analyzed Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) data and claimed to find evidence suggesting that our universe collided with other (parallel) universes in the distant past. However, a more thorough analysis of data from the WMAP and from the Planck satellite, which has a resolution 3 times higher than WMAP, did not reveal any statistically significant evidence of such a bubble universe collision. In addition, there was no evidence of any gravitational pull of other universes on ours.\n\nSection::::Proponents and skeptics.\n", "Related to the \"many-worlds\" idea are Richard Feynman's \"multiple histories\" interpretation and H. Dieter Zeh's \"many-minds\" interpretation.\n\nSection::::Classification schemes.:Max Tegmark's four levels.:Level IV: Ultimate ensemble.\n\nThe ultimate mathematical universe hypothesis is Tegmark's own hypothesis.\n\nThis level considers all universes to be equally real which can be described by different mathematical structures.\n\nTegmark writes: \n\nHe argues that this \"implies that any conceivable parallel universe theory can be described at Level IV\" and \"subsumes all other ensembles, therefore brings closure to the hierarchy of multiverses, and there cannot be, say, a Level V.\"\n", "Although several versions of many-worlds have been proposed since Hugh Everett's original work, they all contain one key idea: the equations of physics that model the time evolution of systems \"without\" embedded observers are sufficient for modelling systems which \"do\" contain observers; in particular there is no observation-triggered wave function collapse which the Copenhagen interpretation proposes. Provided the theory is linear with respect to the wavefunction, the exact form of the quantum dynamics modelled, be it the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation, relativistic quantum field theory or some form of quantum gravity or string theory, does not alter the validity of MWI since MWI is a metatheory applicable to all linear quantum theories, and there is no experimental evidence for any non-linearity of the wavefunction in physics. MWI's main conclusion is that the universe (or multiverse in this context) is composed of a quantum superposition of very many, possibly even non-denumerably infinitely many, increasingly divergent, non-communicating parallel universes or quantum worlds.\n", "The many-worlds interpretation has some similarity to modal realism in philosophy, which is the view that the possible worlds used to interpret modal claims exist and are of a kind with the actual world. Unlike the possible worlds of philosophy, however, in quantum mechanics counterfactual alternatives can influence the results of experiments, as in the Elitzur–Vaidman bomb-testing problem or the Quantum Zeno effect. Also, while the worlds of the many-worlds interpretation all share the same physical laws, modal realism postulates a world for every way things could conceivably have been.\n\nSection::::Speculative implications.:Time travel.\n", "Frank J. Tipler, although a strong advocate for the many-worlds interpretation, has expressed some skepticism regarding this aspect of the theory. In a 2015 interview he stated \"We simply don't know...it might be that the modulus over the wavefunction of that possibility [i.e. an extremely absurd yet physically possible event] is zero in which case there is no such world...There are universes out there, which you could imagine which...would not be actualized.\" \n\nSection::::Speculative implications.:Similarity to modal realism.\n", "A decision-theoretic derivation of the Born rule from Everettarian assumptions, was produced by David Deutsch (1999) and refined by Wallace (2002–2009) and Saunders (2004). Some reviews have been positive, although the status of these arguments remains highly controversial; some theoretical physicists have taken them as supporting the case for parallel universes. In the \"New Scientist\" article, reviewing their presentation at a September 2007 conference, Andy Albrecht, a physicist at the University of California at Davis, is quoted as saying \"This work will go down as one of the most important developments in the history of science.\"\n", "The “worlds” in the many worlds theory is then just the complete measurement history up until and during the measurement in question, where splitting happens. These “worlds” each describe a different state of the universal wave function and cannot communicate. There is no collapse of the wavefunction into one state or another, but rather you just find yourself in the world leading up to what measurement you have made and are unaware of the other possibilities that are equally real.\n\nSection::::History.:The many-minds interpretation.\n", "Section::::MWI overview.:Many-minds.\n\nThe \"many-minds\" interpretation is a multi-world interpretation that defines the splitting of reality on the level of the observers' minds. In this, it differs from Everett's many-worlds interpretation, in which there is no special role for the observer's mind.\n\nSection::::Common objections.\n", "Theoretical cosmology studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the Big Bang theory. A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside black holes, with our own Big Bang being a white hole on the inside of a black hole in another parent universe. Multiverse theories claim that every possibility of quantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes.\n\nSection::::Scientific inquiry and perspectives.:Scientific questions about the mind.\n", "Section::::MWI overview.:Copenhagen interpretation.\n\nIn the Copenhagen interpretation, the mathematics of quantum mechanics allows one to predict probabilities for the occurrence of various events. When an event occurs, it becomes part of the definite reality, and alternative possibilities do not. There is no necessity to say anything definite about what is not observed.\n\nSection::::MWI overview.:The universe decaying to a new vacuum state.\n", "Section::::Fantasy.:Fantasy multiverses.\n\nThe idea of a multiverse is as fertile a subject for fantasy as it is for science fiction, allowing for epic settings and godlike protagonists. The most epic and far-ranging fantasy \"multiverse\" is that of Michael Moorcock, who actually named the concept in a 1963 science fiction novel \"The Sundered Worlds\". Like many authors after him, Moorcock was inspired by the many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, saying: \n", "The many-minds interpretation of quantum theory is many-worlds with the distinction between worlds constructed at the level of the individual observer. Rather than the worlds that branch, it is the observer’s mind.\n", "The accepted terminology is somewhat misleading because it is incorrect to regard the universe as splitting at certain times; at any given instant there is one state in one universe.\n\nSection::::MWI overview.:Relative state.\n\nIn his 1957 doctoral dissertation, Everett proposed that rather than modeling an isolated quantum system subject to external observation, one could mathematically model an object as well as its observers as purely physical systems within the mathematical framework developed by Paul Dirac, von Neumann and others, discarding altogether the \"ad hoc\" mechanism of wave function collapse.\n", "Asher Peres was an outspoken critic of MWI. For example, a section in his 1993 textbook had the title \"Everett's interpretation and other bizarre theories\". Peres not only questioned whether MWI is really an \"interpretation\", but rather, if \"any\" interpretations of quantum mechanics are needed at all. An interpretation can be regarded as a purely formal transformation, which adds nothing to the rules of the quantum mechanics. Peres seems to suggest that positing the existence of an infinite number of non-communicating parallel universes is highly suspect per those who interpret it as a violation of Occam's razor, i.e., that it does not minimize the number of hypothesized entities. However, it is understood that the number of elementary particles are not a gross violation of Occam's razor, one counts the types, not the tokens. Max Tegmark remarks that the alternative to many-worlds is \"many words\", an allusion to the complexity of von Neumann's collapse postulate. On the other hand, the same derogatory qualification \"many words\" is often applied to MWI by its critics who see it as a word game which obfuscates rather than clarifies by confounding the von Neumann branching of possible worlds with the Schrödinger parallelism of many worlds in superposition.\n", "The many-worlds interpretation could be one possible way to resolve the paradoxes that one would expect to arise \"if\" time travel turns out to be permitted by physics (permitting closed timelike curves and thus violating causality). Entering the past would itself be a quantum event causing branching, and therefore the timeline accessed by the time traveller simply would be another timeline of many. In that sense, it would make the Novikov self-consistency principle unnecessary.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Jeffrey A. Barrett, \"The Quantum Mechanics of Minds and Worlds\", Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999.\n", "According to Martin Gardner, the \"other\" worlds of MWI have two different interpretations: real or unreal; he claims that Stephen Hawking and Steven Weinberg both favour the unreal interpretation. Gardner also claims that the nonreal interpretation is favoured by the majority of physicists, whereas the \"realist\" view is only supported by MWI experts such as Deutsch and Bryce DeWitt. Hawking has said that \"according to Feynman's idea\", all the other histories are as \"equally real\" as our own, and Martin Gardner reports Hawking saying that MWI is \"trivially true\". In a 1983 interview, Hawking also said he regarded the MWI as \"self-evidently correct\" but was dismissive towards questions about the interpretation of quantum mechanics, saying, \"When I hear of Schrödinger's cat, I reach for my gun.\" In the same interview, he also said, \"But, look: All that one does, really, is to calculate conditional probabilities—in other words, the probability of A happening, given B. I think that that's all the many worlds interpretation is. Some people overlay it with a lot of mysticism about the wave function splitting into different parts. But all that you're calculating is conditional probabilities.\" Elsewhere Hawking contrasted his attitude towards the \"reality\" of physical theories with that of his colleague Roger Penrose, saying, \"He's a Platonist and I'm a positivist. He's worried that Schrödinger's cat is in a quantum state, where it is half alive and half dead. He feels that can't correspond to reality. But that doesn't bother me. I don't demand that a theory correspond to reality because I don't know what it is. Reality is not a quality you can test with litmus paper. All I'm concerned with is that the theory should predict the results of measurements. Quantum theory does this very successfully.\" For his own part, Penrose agrees with Hawking that QM applied to the universe implies MW, although he considers the current lack of a successful theory of quantum gravity negates the claimed universality of conventional QM.\n", "BULLET::::3. \"Reality is an undivided wholeness.\" This interpretation, associated with David Bohm and Walter Heitler, suggests that the state of the entire universe may be implicated in any quantum measurement. Herbert highlights the apparent interaction of widely separated entangled particles, which may be represented by a single combined wave function, or \"shared reality\", in a high-dimensional configuration space.\n\nBULLET::::4. The many-worlds interpretation. Devised by Hugh Everett, this interpretation does away with the conceptual problem of wave function collapse by supposing that all possible outcomes occur equally, in a constantly branching tree of parallel universes.\n", "Many-worlds is often referred to as a theory, rather than just an interpretation, by those who propose that many-worlds can make testable predictions (such as David Deutsch) or is falsifiable (such as Everett) or by those who propose that all the other, non-MW interpretations, are inconsistent, illogical or unscientific in their handling of measurements; Hugh Everett argued that his formulation was a metatheory, since it made statements about other interpretations of quantum theory; that it was the \"only completely coherent approach to explaining both the contents of quantum mechanics and the appearance of the world.\" Deutsch is dismissive that many-worlds is an \"interpretation\", saying that calling it an interpretation \"is like talking about dinosaurs as an 'interpretation' of fossil records.\"\n", "CT does not require distinct worlds for distinct possibilities – “a single world may provide many possibilities, since many possible individuals inhabit it” (Lewis 1986:230). CT can satisfy multiple counterparts in one possible world.\n\nSection::::Motivations for counterpart theory.:Temporal parts.\n", "The many-worlds interpretation is an interpretation of quantum mechanics that asserts the objective reality of the universal wavefunction and denies the actuality of wavefunction collapse. The existence of the other worlds makes it possible to remove randomness and action at a distance from quantum theory and thus from all physics. Many-worlds implies that all possible alternate histories and futures are real, each representing an actual \"world\" (or \"universe\"). In layman's terms, the hypothesis states there is a very large—perhaps infinite—number of universes, and everything that could possibly have happened in our past, but did not, has occurred in the past of some other universe or universes. The theory is also referred to as MWI, the relative state formulation, the Everett interpretation, the theory of the universal wavefunction, many-universes interpretation, multiverse theory or just many-worlds.\n", "Universes members all grew up in housing projects in New York City and starting performing poetry in the \"thriving spoken-word scene\" of the late 1990s, namely, The NuYorican Poets Cafe. Based out of The Bronx, NY, the company was born and raised of the artistic environment created by Steven Sapp and Mildred Ruiz, also co-founders of THE POINT Community Development Corporation (Hunts Point) in 1993. The Company was founded by Steven Sapp and Mildred Ruiz-Sapp and currently consists of four core members: Steven Sapp, Mildred Ruiz-Sapp, Gamal Abdel Chasten and William Ruiz (a.k.a. Ninja).\n", "MWI is considered by some to be unfalsifiable and hence unscientific because the multiple parallel universes are non-communicating, in the sense that no information can be passed between them. Others claim MWI is directly testable. \n\nSection::::Reception.:Polls.\n\nAdvocates of MWI often cite a poll of 72 \"leading cosmologists and other quantum field theorists\" conducted by the American political scientist David Raub in 1995 showing 58% agreement with \"Yes, I think MWI is true\".\n", "In his 2003 \"New York Times\" opinion piece, \"A Brief History of the Multiverse\", author and cosmologist Paul Davies offered a variety of arguments that multiverse theories are non-scientific: \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00195	What does a producer do and why are they so valuable in media? Films/tv/radio. How can some films have so many?	There's different Producers. Producers are the project managers of various aspects of a production (thus producer > production). An Executive Producer does the wheeling and dealing. They may be named EP after they give money as a sort of 'hey, this guy is in on the project' to investors, or may be a working EP, who actually gets investors, seals deals on locations, etc. A Line Producer does the day to day management of stuff on set. Coordinating everyone on the backend, the actors, director, etc. Then the Film's Producer manages all of this together to make sure the film comes out. A Producer may be a Line Producer and/or an Executive Producer as well as the film's major Producer.	[ "BULLET::::- 2009: Jeanette DePatie, Brandon Grande, and Chris Pfaff\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: John Heinsen, Derek Hildebrant, and Chris Thomes\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: Dina Benadon\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Felicia Wong\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: Michael Palmieri\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: Brian Seth Hurst\n\nBULLET::::- 2015: Vicente Williams\n\nBULLET::::- 2016: Caitlin Burns\n\nBULLET::::- 2017: Emily Barclay Ford\n\nBULLET::::- 2018: Renee Rosenfeld\n\nBULLET::::- 2019: Kate McCallum\n\nSection::::The Marc A. Levey Distinguished Service Award.:History.\n", "Producer\n\nProducer or producers may refer to:\n\nSection::::Occupations.\n\nBULLET::::- Producer (agriculture), a farm operator\n\nBULLET::::- Film producer, oversees the making of films\n\nBULLET::::- Executive producer, contributes to the film's budget and usually does not work on set\n\nBULLET::::- Line producer, manager during daily operations\n\nBULLET::::- Impresario, a producer or manager in the theatre and music industries\n\nBULLET::::- Radio producer, oversees the making of a radio show\n\nBULLET::::- Record producer, manages sound recording\n\nBULLET::::- Television producer, oversees all aspects of video production on a television program\n\nBULLET::::- Theatrical producer, oversees the staging of theatre productions\n", "BULLET::::- 2002: Marian Rees\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: Hawk Koch\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Debra Hill\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Kathleen Kennedy\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Gale Anne Hurd\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: David V. Picker\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Tim Gibbons\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Marshall Herskovitz\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: Dorothea Petrie\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Fred Baron\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: Carole Beams\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: Mark Gordon\n\nSection::::The AP Council Commitment Award.\n", "A segment producer produces one or more single specific segments of a multi-segment film or television production.\n\nSection::::Types.:Field producer.\n\nA field producer helps the producer by overseeing all of the production that takes place outside of the studio in specific locations for the film.\n\nSection::::Responsibilities.\n\nSection::::Responsibilities.:Development (film rights).\n", "Section::::Types.:Co-producer.\n\nA co-producer is a member of a team of producers that perform all of the functions and roles that a single producer would have in a single given project.\n\nSection::::Types.:Coordinating producer or production coordinator.\n\nA coordinating producer coordinates the work/role of multiple producers who are trying to achieve a shared result.\n\nSection::::Types.:Associate producer or assistant producer.\n\nThe associate or assistant producer helps the producer during the production process. They can sometimes be involved in coordinating others' jobs, such as creating peoples' schedules and hiring the main talent.\n\nSection::::Types.:Segment producer.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" (2005) – Executive Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sahara\" (2005) – Co-Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" (2002) – Executive Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Possession\" (2002) – Executive Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"It Was an Accident\" (2000) – Executive Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Love's Labours Lost\" (2000) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hamlet\" (1996) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"In the Bleak Midwinter\" (1995) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Othello\" (1995) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mary Shelly's Frankenstein\" (1994) – Associate Producer, Unit Production Manager\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Muppet Christmas Carol\" (1992) – Line Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nightbreed\" (1990) – Production Supervisor\n", "Film producer\n\nA film producer is a person who oversees film production. Either employed by a production company or working independently, producers plan and coordinate various aspects of film production, such as selecting the script; coordinating writing, directing, and editing; and arranging financing.\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 - \"Beauty and the Beast\" - Studio Executive\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 - \"Aladdin\" - Studio Executive\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 - \"The Lion King\" - Studio Executive\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 - \"Pocahontas\" - Studio Executive\n\nBULLET::::- 1996 - \"Space Jam\" - Studio Executive\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 - \"Quest For Camelot\" - Studio Executive\n\nBULLET::::- 1999 - \"The Iron Giant\" - Studio Executive\n\nBULLET::::- 2002 - \"\" - Executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 - \"Igor\" - Producer\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 - \"Saving Santa\" - Executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 - \"The Hero of Color City\" - Producer\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 - \"Bunyan and Babe\" - Producer\n\nSection::::Awards.\n", "The Producers Guild determines which credited producers are eligible for certification via a thorough vetting process, requiring initial application from the film's owner/distributor and candid input from its producers, as well as numerous third party sources, which may include the film's director(s), writer(s), editor(s), cinematographer or other department heads. The Guild uses the same process to recommend which producers are eligible for producing honors and awards, including the Guild's \"Darryl F. Zanuck Award\" and the Academy Award for Best Picture given by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.\n", "The producer also supervises the pre-production, production, and post-production stages of filmmaking. One of the most important tasks is to hire the director and other key crew members. Whereas the director makes the creative decisions during the production, the producer typically manages the logistics and business operations, though some directors also produce their own films. The producer is tasked with making sure the film is delivered on time and within budget, and has the final say on creative decisions. Finally, the producer will oversee the marketing and distribution.\n", "Section::::Filmography.\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2018) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Terminal\" (2018) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Breathe\" (2017) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Legend of Tarzan\" (2016) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cinderella\" (2015) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Frank\" (2014) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2014) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2\" (2011) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Page Eight\" (2011) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1\" (2010) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\" (2009) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\" (2007) – Producer\n", "Most video and computer games are developed by third-party developers. In these cases, there may be external and internal producers. External producers may act as \"executive producers\" and are employed by the game's publisher. Internal producers work for the developer itself and have more of a hands-on role. Some game developers may have no internal producers, however, and may rely solely on the publisher's producer.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cosh Boy\" (1953) - producer, directed by Lewis Gilbert\n\nBULLET::::- \"Albert, R.N.\" (1953) - producer, directed by Lewis Gilbert\n\nBULLET::::- \"Harmony Lane\" (1954) (short) - producer, directed by Lewis Gilbert\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Sea Shall Not Have Them\" (1954) - producer, directed by Lewis Gilbert\n\nBULLET::::- \"Escapade\" (1955) - producer, directed by Philip Leacock\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cast a Dark Shadow\" (1955) - executive producer, directed by Lewis Gilbert\n\nBULLET::::- \"Reach for the Sky\" (1956) - producer, directed by Lewis Gilbert\n\nBULLET::::- \"Seven Thunders\" (1957) - producer, directed by Hugo Fregonese\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rent\" (2005) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Good Shepherd\" (2006) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bridge and Tunnel\" (2006) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Winter of Frankie Machine\" (2007) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sugarland\" (2007) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"First Man\" (2007) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"36\" (2007) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"What Just Happened\" (2008) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Public Enemies\" (2009) - executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Little Fockers\" (2010) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Education of Dee Dee Ricks\" (2011) - executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Being Flynn\" (2012) - executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"NYC 22\" (2012) - executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Inside Out\" (2013) - executive producer\n", "BULLET::::- Tim Burton\"The Nightmare Before Christmas\", \"Cabin Boy\", \"James and the Giant Peach\", \"9\"\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Capra \"It Happened One Night\", \"Mr. Deeds Goes to Town\", \"Lost Horizon\", \"Mr. Smith Goes to Washington\", \"It's a Wonderful Life\", \"State of the Union\"\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Carrey\"Bruce Almighty\", \"Fun with Dick and Jane\"\n\nBULLET::::- Charlie Chaplin\"City Lights\", \"Modern Times\", \"The Great Dictator\", \"Limelight\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ethan Coen\"Blood Simple\", \"Raising Arizona\", \"Barton Fink\", \"Fargo\", \"No Country for Old Men\"\n\nBULLET::::- Harry Cohn\"It Happened One Night\", \"Twentieth Century\", \"Lost Horizon\"\n", "Section::::Career process.\n\nThere are many different ways to become a film producer. Stanley Kramer started as an editor and writer, while other producers started as actors or directors.\n", "Section::::Filmography.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lady Is Willing\" (1942) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Spoilers\" (1942) – executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pittsburgh\" (1942) – executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Follow the Boys\" (1944) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Strange Affair of Uncle Harry\" (1945) – executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Red River\" (1948) – executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moonrise\" (1948) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- Orson Welles's \"Macbeth\" (1948) – executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Red Pony\" (1949) – executive producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Glass Menagerie\" (1950) – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Streetcar Named Desire\" (1951) which was nominated for an Academy Award – producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Seven Year Itch\" (1955) – producer\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Creature Walks Among Us\" (1956) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mole People\" (1956) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Deadly Mantis\" (1957) – Producer; Original story\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Land Unknown\" (1957) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gun for a Coward\" (1957) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Colossus of New York\" (1958) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Space Children\" (1958) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lady Takes a Flyer\" (1958) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Raw Wind in Eden\" (1958) – Producer\n\nBULLET::::- \"As Young as We Are\" (1958) – Producer; Original Story\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Party Crashers\" (1958) – Producer; Original Story\n", "In the classical music field, Judith Sherman has won Grammy for Producer of the Year, Classical, five times and has been nominated twelve times. Anthony Tommasini, a music critic for The New York Times is quoted as stating, \"In the struggling field of classical recording, it's the producers who take the real risks and make things happen.\"\n\nWilma Cozart Fine produced hundreds of recordings for Mercury Records.\n", "Section::::Responsibilities.:Pre-production.\n\nDuring production, the producer's job is to make sure the film stays on schedule and under budget. They will always be in contact with directors and other key creative team members.\n\nSection::::Responsibilities.:Production.\n\nFor various reasons, producers cannot always personally supervise all parts of their production. For example, some producers run a company which also deals with film distribution. Also, cast and film crew often work at different times and places, and certain films even require a second unit.\n\nSection::::Responsibilities.:Post-production.\n", "BULLET::::- Sam Spiegel\"The African Queen\", \"The Bridge on the River Kwai\", \"Lawrence of Arabia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Steven Spielberg\"The Goonies\", \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\", \"Poltergeist\", \"Transformers\" (executive)\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Stiller\"Blades of Glory\", \"Zoolander\", \"The Ruins\", \"Tropic Thunder\"\n\nBULLET::::- Erich von Stroheim\"Blind Husbands\", \"The Wedding March\"\n\nBULLET::::- Josef von Sternberg\"The Docks of New York\", \"The Scarlet Empress\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gabrielle Tana\"Someone Else's America\", \"Animals with the Tollkeeper\", \"On the Ropes\", \"The Moth\", \"The Duchess\", \"Coriolanus\", \"The Invisible Woman\", \"Philomena\", \"Run (short)\", \"Dancer (Documentary)\", \"Mindhorn\", \"Ideal Home\", \"The White Crow\", \"Stan and Ollie\", \"My Zoe (2018)\"\n\nBULLET::::- Quentin Tarantino\"From Dusk till Dawn\", \"Hostel\", \"Grindhouse\"\n", "During this stage of the production process, producers bring together people like the film director, cinematographer, and production designer. Unless the film is supposed to be based on an original script, the producer has to find an appropriate screenwriter. If an existing script is considered flawed, they are able to order a new version or make the decision to hire a script doctor. The producer also has the final say on hiring the film director, cast members, and other staff. In some cases, they also have the last word when it comes to casting questions. A producer's role will also consist of approving locations, the studio hire, the final shooting script, the production schedule, and the budget. More time and money spent in pre-production can reduce the time and money wasted during production time.\n", "For various reasons, producers cannot always supervise all of the production. In this case, the main producer or executive producer may hire and delegate work to associate producers, assistant producers, line producers or unit production managers.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nDifferent types of producers and their roles within the industry today include:\n\nSection::::Types.:Executive producer.\n\nThe executive producer oversees all of the other producers working on the same project. They make sure that the producers are fulfilling their roles on the given production. They can also be in charge of managing the film's finances and handling all other business aspects of the film.\n", "BULLET::::- 2001 \"Triumph of the Beasts\" & \"The Beasts Within\" producer\n\nBULLET::::- 2002 \"Human Instinct\" director\n\nBULLET::::- 2003 \"Human Senses\" director\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 \"Meet the Ancestors\": \"The Hunt for Darwin's Beagle\" director\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 \"Bermuda Triangle: Beneath the Waves\" director\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 \"The Truth About Killer Dinosaurs\" director\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 \"Horizon\"/\"Nova\": \"The Ghost in Your Genes\" producer & director\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 \"\" director & writer\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 \"Last Man Standing\": \"Wolof Wrestling\" producer & director\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 \"In Search of Medieval Britain\" producer\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 \"James May's Big Ideas\" producer\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 \"Planet Dinosaur\" producer & director\n", "BULLET::::- Carlo Ponti\"Doctor Zhivago\", \"War and Peace\", \"Attila\"\n\nBULLET::::- Norman Priggen \"The Servant\", \"Accident\", \"The Go-Between\", \"The Assassination of Trotsky\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ramu\"AK 47\", \"Lockup Death\", \"Kalasipalya\", \"Ganga\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hal Roach \"Sons of the Desert\"\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Rodriguez\"El Mariachi\", \"Desperado\", \"From Dusk till Dawn\", \"Grindhouse\"\n\nBULLET::::- Albert S. Ruddy\"The Godfather\", \"Million Dollar Baby\", \"The Longest Yard\"\n\nBULLET::::- Scott Rudin\"No Country for Old Men\", \"School of Rock\", \"The Royal Tenenbaums\", \"Clueless\"\n\nBULLET::::- Harry Saltzman\"James Bond\", \"Battle of Britain\", \"The Ipcress File\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24304	Why do various different cultures eat spicy food? The thrill/challenge, or does spicy food survive longer without going off?	Spiciness is primarily caused by the presence of a chemical called capsaicin, which is found in chili peppers. This isn't the only chemical that causes spiciness but it's the one most associated with heat. Capsaicin, while mildly irritating to humans, is a much more serious irritant to other mammals and for some species is actually just straight deadly. This means that in the earliest days of agriculture, peppers were (more than other plants) immune to insects and other pests. Peppers while not having an insane shelf life, can be easily dried and powdered. In addition, the heat from peppers causes our bodies to release pain endorphins. So just kinda generally a lot of advantages to getting used to spiciness.	[ "Two of the hottest chilies in the world, the Naga Viper and Infinity chili were developed in the United Kingdom and are available as sauces which have been claimed to be the hottest natural chili sauces (without added pepper extract) available in the world (The Naga Viper and Infinity were considered the hottest two chili peppers in the world until the Naga Viper was unseated by the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion in late 2011.)\n\nSection::::Styles.:Europe.:Portugal.\n\n\"Piri piri\" is the popular chili sauce; the term \"piri piri\" came to English through the Portuguese language through contact with Portuguese Mozambique.\n\nSection::::Styles.:Oceania.\n\nSection::::Styles.:Oceania.:Pacific Islands.\n", "Chili (Hindi: mirch), fresh, semi-dried or dried, is a crucial ingredient throughout South Asia, with multiple strains having arrived through Portuguese trade from the sixteenth century. Many varieties are now popular in different parts of the sub-continent such as Naga Chilli from Nagaland, Chamba Chukh from Himachal Pradesh, Guntur Chilli from Andhra Pradesh, Jwala Chilli from Gujarat among others. Hot sauces proper, however, were not common until recent decades, as varieties such as bhut jolokia and naga morich attained global fame.\n\nBULLET::::- Chilli Chutney - Indian chilli pepper condiment with spices and herbs\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Middle East.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Middle East.:Levant.\n", "The pungent sensation provided by chili peppers, black pepper and other spices like ginger and horseradish plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world, such as Korean, Persian, Turkish, Tunisian, Ethiopian, Hungarian, Indian, Burmese, Indonesian, Laotian, Singaporean, Malaysian, Bangladeshi, Mexican, Peruvian, Caribbean, Pakistani, Somali, Southwest Chinese (including Sichuan cuisine), Sri Lankan, Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable dishes other than the ones mentioned elsewhere in this article include:\n\nBULLET::::- Arrabbiata sauce from Italy is a tomato-based sauce for pasta always including dried hot chilies.\n\nBULLET::::- Puttanesca sauce is tomato-based with olives, capers, anchovy and, sometimes, chilies.\n\nBULLET::::- Paprikash from Hungary uses significant amounts of mild, ground, dried chilies, known as paprika, in a braised chicken dish.\n\nBULLET::::- Chiles en nogada from the Puebla region of Mexico uses fresh mild chilies stuffed with meat and covered with a creamy nut-thickened sauce.\n\nBULLET::::- Curry dishes usually contain fresh or dried chiles.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Papaitan\" — Filipino goat or beef tripe and offal soup flavored with bile\n\nBULLET::::- \"Patsás\" (Greek: πατσάς) — Greek, tripe stew seasoned with red wine vinegar and garlic (\"skordostoubi\") or thickened with \"avgolemono\", widely believed to be a hangover remedy\n\nBULLET::::- Philadelphia Pepper Pot soup — American (Pennsylvania) tripe soup with peppercorns\n\nBULLET::::- \"Phở\" — Vietnamese noodle soup with many regional variations, some of which include tripe\n\nBULLET::::- Pickled tripe — pickled white honeycomb tripe once common in the Northeastern United States\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pieds paquets\", Provençal dish, consists of stuffed sheep's offal and sheep's feet stewed together\n", "Because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with mucous membranes, it is commonly used in food products to provide added spice or \"heat\" (piquancy), usually in the form of spices such as chili powder and paprika. In high concentrations, capsaicin will also cause a burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale. Because people enjoy the heat, there has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like curry, chili con carne, and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and salsa.\n", "Capsinoid chemicals provide the distinctive tastes in \"C. annuum\" variants. In particular, capsaicin creates a burning sensation (\"hotness\"), which in extreme cases can last for several hours after ingestion. A measurement called the Scoville scale has been created to describe the hotness of peppers and other foods.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Traditional medicine.\n\nHot peppers are used in traditional medicine as well as food in Africa. English botanist John Lindley described \"C. annuum\" in his 1838 \"Flora Medica\" thus:\n\nIn Ayurveda, \"C. annuum\" is classified as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Guna\" (properties) – \"ruksha\" (dry), \"laghu\" (light) and \"tikshna\" (sharp)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasa\" (taste) – \"katu\" (pungent)\n", "BULLET::::- Chile de árbol - A thin and potent Mexican chili pepper also known as bird's beak chile and rat's tail chile. Their heat index uses to be between 15,000 and 30,000 Scoville units, but it can reach over 100,000 units. In cooking substitutions, the Chile de árbol pepper can be traded with Cayenne pepper.\n\nBULLET::::- Habanero - Habanero pepper sauces were known as the hottest natural pepper sauces, but nowadays species like Bhut jolokia, Naga jolokia or Trinidad Scorpion Moruga are even five or ten-fold hotter.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Zhug\", a hot sauce in Middle Eastern cuisine, made from fresh hot peppers seasoned with coriander, garlic, and various spices\n\nBULLET::::- \"Muhammara\" or \"acuka\", a hot pepper dip in Levantine cuisine\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ajika\", a dip in Caucasian cuisine, based on a boiled preparation of hot red peppers, garlic, herbs, and spices\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chermoula\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tabil\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gochujang\", a fermented hot pepper dip made from red chilies in Korean cuisine\n\nBULLET::::- List of African dishes\n\nBULLET::::- Berber cuisine\n\nBULLET::::- List of dips\n\nBULLET::::- List of sauces\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Tunisian Harissa Recipesource.com\n\nBULLET::::- The Japanese Discover Tunisian Harissa allvoices.com\n", "BULLET::::- Harissa – Tunisian hot chili sauce whose main ingredients are \"piri piri\" , serrano peppers and other hot chili peppers and spices such as garlic paste, coriander, red chili powder, caraway as well as some vegetable or olive oil.\n\nBULLET::::- Hawaij – name given to a variety of Yemenite ground spice mixtures used primarily for soups and coffee.\n\nBULLET::::- Herbes de Provence – mixture of dried herbs typical of Provence.\n\nBULLET::::- Jerk spice – Jstyle of cooking native to Jamaica in which meat is dry-rubbed or wet marinated with a very hot spice mixture called Jamaican jerk spice.\n", "BULLET::::- Pumpkin pie spice (United States)\n\nBULLET::::- Quatre épices (France)\n\nBULLET::::- Ras el hanout (North Africa)\n\nBULLET::::- Sharena sol (literally \"colorful salt\", Bulgaria)\n\nBULLET::::- Shichimi tōgarashi (Japan)\n\nBULLET::::- Speculaas (Belgium and Netherlands)\n\nBULLET::::- Thuna Paha (Sri Lanka)\n\nBULLET::::- Vegeta (Croatia)\n\nBULLET::::- Za'atar (Middle East)\n\nSection::::Handling spices.\n", "Pique sauce\n\nPique is a Puerto Rican hot sauce commonly found at restaurants and roadside stands. Homemade versions of this type of sauce are made by steeping hot peppers in vinegar, with seasonings and fresh herbs. One popular variant is habanero peppers with pineapple and fresh recao leaves. The longer it sits, the hotter it gets.\n\nDifferent types of Island ajíes picantes (hot peppers) will have varying amounts of heat, the hottest of all is the ají caballero.\n\nSection::::Pique criollo.\n", "Peppers are also used widely in Italian cuisine, and the hot species are used all around the southern part of Italy as a common spice (sometimes served with olive oil). \"Capsicum\" peppers are used in many dishes; they can be cooked by themselves in a variety of ways (roasted, fried, deep-fried) and are a fundamental ingredient for some delicatessen specialities, such as \"nduja\".\n\nCapsicums are also used extensively in Sri Lankan cuisine as side dishes.\n\nThe Maya and Aztec people of Mesoamerica used \"Capsicum\" fruit in cocoa drinks as a flavouring.\n", "BULLET::::- Kung pao chicken (Mandarin Chinese: 宫保鸡丁 \"gōng bǎo jī dīng\") from the Sichuan region of China uses small hot dried chilies briefly fried in oil to add spice to the oil then used for frying.\n\nBULLET::::- Mole poblano from the city of Puebla in Mexico uses several varieties of dried chilies, nuts, spices, and fruits to produce a thick, dark sauce for poultry or other meats.\n", "Hot pepper sauces, as they are most commonly known there, feature heavily in Caribbean cuisine like Caribbean style Bacchanal Pepper Sauce. They are prepared from chilli peppers and vinegar, with fruits and vegetables added for extra flavor. The most common peppers used are habanero and Scotch bonnet, the latter being the most common in Jamaica. Both are very hot peppers, making for strong sauces. Over the years, each island developed its own distinctive recipes, and home-made sauces are still common.\n\nSection::::Styles.:North America.:West Indies.:Trinidad.\n", "BULLET::::- A delicious way to spice up your lunch or dinner is to make an appetizer, and this traditional dip might be just the answer. With a very easy to follow recipe, \"lëng me speca\" (lit. dip with peppers) is a typical Kosovar appetizer. This spicy dip is served with bread (traditionally)\n", "Yellow ají is one of the ingredients of Peruvian cuisine and Bolivian cuisine. It is used as a condiment, especially in many dishes and sauces. In Peru the chilis are mostly used fresh, and in Bolivia dried and ground. Common dishes with ají \"amarillo\" are the Peruvian stew \"Ají de gallina\" (\"Hen Chili\"), \"Papa a la Huancaína\" and the Bolivian \"Fricase Paceno\", among others. In Ecuadorian cuisine, Ají amarillo, onion, and lemon juice (amongst others) are served in a separate bowl with many meals as an optional additive.\n", "Spices offer a variety of qualities, the medicinal quality of spices such as horseradish with its strong and bitter taste were believed by the Greeks to alleviate back pain, and its use for treatment of scurvy led to its being worth its weight in gold. Other such characteristics of horseradish that is indicative of many other kinds of spices such as its use as a diuretic.\n\nCommon Medicinal Spices by Genre:\n\nBULLET::::- Hot, Pungent:\n\nBULLET::::- Warm, Fragrant:\n\nBULLET::::- Savory:\n\nSection::::Products and uses.:Ritual use.\n", "BULLET::::- Peruvian cuisine uses sauces based mostly in different varieties of \"ají\" combined with several ingredients, most notably salsa huancaína based on fresh cheese and salsa de ocopa based on peanuts or nuts.\n\nSection::::Cuisines.:Middle Eastern cuisines.\n\nBULLET::::- Fesenjān is a traditional Iranian sauce of pomegranates and walnuts served over meat and/or vegetables which was traditionally served for Yalda or end of winter and the Nowruz ceremony.\n\nSection::::Cuisines.:Caucasian cuisines.\n\nBULLET::::- Ajika is a spicy hot sauce originating in Abkhazia, widely used in Georgian cuisine and found also in parts of Russia and Turkey.\n", "Section::::Varieties.:Middle East.:Turkey.\n\nBULLET::::- Biber salçası – Turkish red pepper paste\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Middle East.:Yemen.\n\nSahawiq ( \"saḥawaq\") is produced by grinding fresh peppers with garlic, coriander, and sometimes other ingredients. It is popular both in Yemen and in Israel, where it was brought by Yemenite Jews, and where it is called סחוג \"s'khug\".\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Europe.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Europe.:Hungary.\n\n\"Erős Pista\" (lit. \"Strong Steve\") and \"Piros Arany\" (lit. \"Red Gold\") hot pepper paste, both made from minced hot paprika (Capsicum annuum L.); paprika is commonly grown in Hungary and both hot and mild paprika are in common usage there.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chutney\n\nBULLET::::- Curry paste\n", "BULLET::::- Gulai Sumsum, gulai of cow bone marrow\n\nBULLET::::- Gulai Gajeboh, cow fat gulai\n\nBULLET::::- Gulai Itiak, duck gulai\n\nBULLET::::- Gulai Talua, boiled eggs gulai\n\nBULLET::::- Gulai Kepala Ikan Kakap Merah, red snapper's head gulai\n\nBULLET::::- Gulai Jariang, jengkol stinky bean gulai\n\nBULLET::::- Dendeng Batokok, thin crispy beef\n\nBULLET::::- Dendeng Balado, thin crispy beef with chili\n\nBULLET::::- Paru goreng, fried cow lung\n\nBULLET::::- Ayam bakar, grilled spicy chicken\n\nBULLET::::- Ayam balado, chicken in chili\n\nBULLET::::- Ayam goreng, fried chicken with spicy granules\n\nBULLET::::- Ayam Lado Ijo, chicken in green chili\n", "BULLET::::- Carolina Reaper - The Carolina Reaper® is a super hot pepper which has been described as a roasted sweetness delivering an instant level of heat. Developed by Puckerbutt Founder Ed Currie in Rock Hill, South Carolina, the Carolina Reaper averages over 1.5 million SHU and was awarded the Guinness World Record in November of 2013.\n", "BULLET::::- Jalapeño - These sauces include green and red jalapeño chilis, and chipotle (ripened and smoked). Green jalapeño and chipotle are usually the mildest sauces available. Red jalapeño sauce is generally hotter.\n\nBULLET::::- Naga Bhut Jolokia - The pepper is also known as Bhut Jolokia, ghost pepper, ghost chili pepper, red naga chilli, and ghost chilli. In 2007, Guinness World Records certified that the Ghost Pepper (Bhut Jolokia) was the world's hottest chili pepper, 400 times hotter than Tabasco sauce; however, in 2011 it has since been superseded by the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion.\n", "Capsicum is the generic name of the chili pepper plant, which is a native domesticated plant from Mesoamerica. Capsaicin reduces the bacterial load when something can not be refrigerated. In Mesoamerica, the capsaicin spice was also used to relieve joint pain, and as an intestinal stimulant, so capsicum is also known as a medicinal plant. The peppers from capsicum plants can be used in a fresh or dried state. A dried chile pepper is stronger and more effective than a fresh chile pepper.\n", "Mexicans prefer to eat chili peppers chopped, but when making hot sauces they are typically focused more on flavor than on intense heat. Chipotles are a very popular ingredient of Mexican hot sauce and although the sauces are hot, the individual flavors of the peppers are more pronounced. Vinegar is used sparingly or not at all in Mexican sauces, but some particular styles are high in vinegar content similar to the American Louisiana-style sauces. Some hot sauces may include using the seeds from the popular achiote plant for coloring or a slight flavor additive. The process of adobos (marinade) has been used in the past as a preservative but now it is mainly used to enhance the flavor of the peppers and they rely more on the use of vinegar. Mexican-style sauces are primarily produced in Mexico but they are also produced internationally. The Spanish term for sauce is salsa, and in English-speaking countries usually refers to the often tomato-based, hot sauces typical of Mexican cuisine, particularly those used as dips. There are many types of salsa which usually vary throughout Latin America.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Spicy foods are eaten by certain cultures either because of the challenge of eating them or because of preservative qualities." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There are agricultural and health benefits that peppers have over other crops." ]
2018-06380	How do we know universe is approximately 14 billion years old?	The first method is to use the current expansion rate and work backwards to find out how long it took for the universe to expand to its current size. The second method involves looking at stars. Imagine there is a stopwatch somewhere in this universe that says it has been running for 13 billion years. The existence of this stopwatch means that that universe is at least 13 billion years old. The oldest stars act as this stopwatch, by finding out the age of the oldest stars we can find, we can find out the youngest age the universe can be. Since both methods depend on different things, if both methods give roughly the same answer, we know that it's likely to be correct.	[ "In physical cosmology, the age of the universe is the time elapsed since the Big Bang. The current measurement of the age of the universe is billion (10) years within the Lambda-CDM concordance model. The uncertainty has been narrowed down to 21 million years, based on a number of studies which all gave extremely similar figures for the age. These include studies of the microwave background radiation, and measurements by the \"Planck\" spacecraft, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe and other probes. Measurements of the cosmic background radiation give the cooling time of the universe since the Big Bang, and measurements of the expansion rate of the universe can be used to calculate its approximate age by extrapolating backwards in time.\n", "This more than 20-billion-year timeline of our universe shows the best estimates of major events from the universe's beginning to anticipated future events. Zero on the scale is the present day. A large step on the scale is one billion years; a small step, one hundred million years. The past is denoted by a minus sign: e.g., the oldest rock on Earth was formed about four billion years ago and this is marked at -4e+09 years, where 4e+09 represents 4 times 10 to the power of 9. The \"Big Bang\" event most likely happened 13.8 billion years ago; see age of the universe.\n", "NASA's Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) project's nine-year data release in 2012 estimated the age of the universe to be years (13.772 billion years, with an uncertainty of plus or minus 59 million years).\n\nHowever, this age is based on the assumption that the project's underlying model is correct; other methods of estimating the age of the universe could give different ages. Assuming an extra background of relativistic particles, for example, can enlarge the error bars of the WMAP constraint by one order of magnitude.\n", "Section::::Physical science.:Cosmology.\n\nIn physical cosmology, the present time in the chronology of the universe is estimated at 13.8 billion years after the singularity determining the arrow of time. \n", "The age of the universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in good agreement with other estimates using the ages of the oldest stars, both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars.\n", "Johannes Schedler's project has identified a quasar CFHQS 1641+3755 at 12.7 billion light-years away, when the universe was just 7% of its present age. On July 11, 2007, using the 10-metre Keck II telescope on Mauna Kea, Richard Ellis of the California Institute of Technology at Pasadena and his team found six star forming galaxies about 13.2 billion light years away and therefore created when the universe was only 500 million years old. Only about 10 of these extremely early objects are currently known. More recent observations have shown these ages to be shorter than previously indicated. The most distant galaxy observed as of October 2016, GN-z11, has been reported to be 32 billion light years away, a vast distance made possible through space-time expansion (redshift z=11.1; comoving distance of 32 billion light-years; lookback time of 13.4 billion years).\n", "From about 9.8 billion years of cosmic time, the universe's large-scale behavior is believed to have gradually changed for the third time in its history. Its behavior had originally been dominated by radiation (relativistic constituents such as photons and neutrinos) for the first 47,000 years, and since about 377,000 years of cosmic time, its behavior had been dominated by matter. During its matter-dominated era, the expansion of the universe had begun to slow down, as gravity reigned in the initial outward expansion. But from about 9.8 billion years of cosmic time, observations show that the expansion of the universe slowly stops decelerating, and gradually begins to accelerate again, instead.\n", "At this point of the very early universe, the metric that defines distance within space, suddenly and very rapidly changed in scale, leaving the early universe at least 10 times its previous volume (and possibly much more). This is equivalent to a linear increase of at least 10 times in every spatial dimension – equivalent to an object 1 nanometer (10 m, about half the width of a molecule of DNA) in length, expanding to one approximately 10.6 light years (about 62 trillion miles) long in a tiny fraction of a second. This change is known as inflation.\n", "In 2015, the Planck Collaboration estimated the age of the universe to be billion years, slightly higher but within the uncertainties of the earlier number derived from the WMAP data. By combining the Planck data with external data, the best combined estimate of the age of the universe is old.\n\nSection::::Assumption of strong priors.\n", "The discovery of microwave cosmic background radiation announced in 1965 finally brought an effective end to the remaining scientific uncertainty over the expanding universe. It was a chance result from work by two teams less than 60 miles apart. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson were trying to detect radio wave echoes with a supersensitive antenna. The antenna persistently detected a low, steady, mysterious noise in the microwave region that was evenly spread over the sky, and was present day and night. After testing, they became certain that the signal did not come from the Earth, the Sun, or our galaxy, but from outside our own galaxy, but could not explain it. At the same time another team, Robert H. Dicke, Jim Peebles, and David Wilkinson, were attempting to detect low level noise which might be left over from the Big Bang and could prove whether the Big Bang theory was correct. The two teams realized that the detected noise was in fact radiation left over from the Big Bang, and that this was strong evidence that the theory was correct. Since then, a great deal of other evidence has strengthened and confirmed this conclusion, and refined the estimated age of the universe to its current figure.\n", "Receiving light and other signals from distant astronomical sources can even take much longer. For example, it has taken 13 billion (13) years for light to travel to Earth from the faraway galaxies viewed in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field images. Those photographs, taken today, capture images of the galaxies as they appeared 13 billion years ago, when the universe was less than a billion years old. The fact that more distant objects appear to be younger, due to the finite speed of light, allows astronomers to infer the evolution of stars, of galaxies, and of the universe itself.\n", "BULLET::::- 770 million years: Quasar ULAS J1120+0641, one of the most distant, forms. One of the earliest galaxies to feature a supermassive black hole suggesting that such large objects existed quite soon after the Big Bang. The large fraction of neutral hydrogen in its spectrum suggests it may also have just formed or is in the process of star formation.\n", "The age of the Earth (actually the Solar System) was first accurately measured around 1955 by Clair Patterson at 4.55 billion years, essentially identical to the modern value. For H ~ 75 (km/s)/Mpc, the inverse of H is 13.0 billion years; so after 1958 the Big Bang model age was comfortably older than the Earth.\n", "The exact timings of the first stars, galaxies, supermassive black holes, and quasars, and the start and end timings and progression of the period known as reionization, are still being actively researched, with new findings published periodically. As of 2019, the earliest confirmed galaxies date from around 380–400 million years (for example GN-z11), suggesting surprisingly fast gas cloud condensation and stellar birth rates, and observations of the Lyman-alpha forest and other changes to the light from ancient objects allows the timing for reionization, and its eventual end, to be narrowed down. But these are all still areas of active research.\n", "By a variety of independent means, scientists have determined that the Earth is approximately 4.54 billion years old.\n", "Section::::Current appearance of the Universe.\n\nThe universe has appeared much the same as it does now, for many billions of years. It will continue to look similar for many more billions of years into the future.\n\nBased upon the emerging science of nucleocosmochronology, the Galactic thin disk of the Milky Way is estimated to have been formed 8.8 ± 1.7 billion years ago.\n\nSection::::Current appearance of the Universe.:Dark energy dominated era.\n", "This measurement is made by using the location of the first acoustic peak in the microwave background power spectrum to determine the size of the decoupling surface (size of the universe at the time of recombination). The light travel time to this surface (depending on the geometry used) yields a reliable age for the universe. Assuming the validity of the models used to determine this age, the residual accuracy yields a margin of error near one percent.\n\nSection::::Planck.\n", "The space probes WMAP, launched in 2001, and Planck, launched in 2009, produced data that determines the Hubble constant and the age of the universe independent of galaxy distances, removing the largest source of error.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Age of the Earth\n\nBULLET::::- Anthropic principle\n\nBULLET::::- Cosmic Calendar (age of universe scaled to a single year)\n\nBULLET::::- Cosmology\n\nBULLET::::- Dark Ages Radio Explorer\n\nBULLET::::- Expansion of the universe\n\nBULLET::::- Hubble Deep Field\n\nBULLET::::- Illustris project\n\nBULLET::::- Multiverse\n\nBULLET::::- Observable universe\n\nBULLET::::- Redshift observations in astronomy\n\nBULLET::::- Static universe\n\nBULLET::::- \"The First Three Minutes\" (1977 book by Steven Weinberg)\n", "The Lambda-CDM concordance model describes the evolution of the universe from a very uniform, hot, dense primordial state to its present state over a span of about 13.8 billion years of cosmological time. This model is well understood theoretically and strongly supported by recent high-precision astronomical observations such as WMAP. In contrast, theories of the origin of the primordial state remain very speculative. If one extrapolates the Lambda-CDM model backward from the earliest well-understood state, it quickly (within a small fraction of a second) reaches a singularity. This is known as the \"initial singularity\" or the \"Big Bang singularity\". This singularity is not understood as having a physical significance in the usual sense, but it is convenient to quote times measured \"since the Big Bang\" even though they do not correspond to a physically measurable time. For example, \"10 seconds after the Big Bang\" is a well-defined era in the universe's evolution. If one referred to the same era as \"13.8 billion years minus 10 seconds ago\", the precision of the meaning would be lost because the minuscule latter time interval is eclipsed by uncertainty in the former.\n", "If so, this would represent a contradiction, since objects such as galaxies, stars and planets could not have existed in the extreme temperatures and densities shortly after the Big Bang.\n\nSince around 1997–2003, the problem is believed to be solved by most cosmologists: modern cosmological measurements lead to a precise estimate of the age of the universe (i.e. time since the Big Bang) of 13.8 billion years, and recent age estimates for the oldest objects are either younger than this, or consistent allowing for measurement uncertainties.\n\nSection::::Early years.\n", "BULLET::::- The IceCube Neutrino Observatory announces that they have traced a neutrino that hit their Antarctica-based research station in September 2017 back to its point of origin in a blazar 3.7 billion light-years away. This is the first time that a neutrino detector has been used to locate an object in space.\n\nBULLET::::- Using NASA's Hubble and ESA's Gaia, astronomers make the most precise measurements to date of the universe's expansion rate – a figure of 73.5 km (45.6 miles) per second per megaparsec – reducing the uncertainty to just 2.2 percent.\n", "In some newer operating systems, codice_2 has been widened to 64 bits. This expands the times representable by approximately 293 billion years in both directions, which is over twenty times the present age of the universe per direction.\n", "The standard model of cosmology is based on a model of space-time called the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (\"FLRW\") metric. A metric provides a measure of distance between objects, and the FLRW metric is the exact solution of Einstein's field equations if some key properties of space such as homogeneity and isotropy are assumed to be true. The FLRW metric very closely matches overwhelming other evidence, showing that the universe has expanded since the Big Bang.\n", "Matter continues to draw together under the influence of gravity, to form galaxies. The stars from this time period, known as Population II stars, are formed early on in this process, with more recent Population I stars formed later. Gravitational attraction also gradually pulls galaxies towards each other to form groups, clusters and superclusters. The Hubble Ultra Deep Field observatory has identified a number of small galaxies merging to form larger ones, at 800 million years of cosmic time (13 billion years ago) (this age estimate is now believed to be slightly overstated).\n", "BULLET::::- 8 July – Astronomers report that a new method to determine the Hubble constant, and resolve the discrepancy of earlier methods, has been proposed based on the mergers of pairs of neutron stars, following the detection of the neutron star merger of GW170817. Their measurement of the Hubble constant is (km/s)/Mpc.\n\nBULLET::::- 10 July – Anthropologists report the discovery of 210,000 year old remains of a Homo sapiens and 170,000 year old remains of a Neanderthal in Apidima Cave in southern Greece, over 150,000 years older than previous H. sapiens finds in Europe.\n\nBULLET::::- 11 July\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03523	Why when going on a low carb diet I start to crave carbs uncontrollably? Is it like a carbohydrate withdrawal?	tl;dr Yes. Your body is very much used to take in carbs as (likely) your biggest energy source, in addition to that, carbs are the easiest-to-digest energy source that your body can handle (being already pretty close to the basic Glucose that the energy production needs). So the body is used to an easy way out of the need of energy, therefore it wants to get exactly that.	[ "Ten to forty percent of patients will experience nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, itching skin, increased body temperature, trembling and weakness. One to five percent of patients may experience back and chest pain, dizziness, anemia, chills and sweating, metallic taste, tachycardia and respiratory distress.\n", "The involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the development of metabolic syndrome is indisputable. Endocannabinoid overproduction may induce reward system dysfunction and cause executive dysfunctions (e.g., impaired delay discounting), in turn perpetuating unhealthy behaviors. The brain is crucial in development of metabolic syndrome, modulating peripheral carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.\n", "Section::::Health aspects.\n\nSection::::Health aspects.:Adherence.\n\nIt has been repeatedly found that in the long-term, all diets with the same calorific value perform the same for weight loss, except for the one differentiating factor of how well people can faithfully follow the dietary programme. A study comparing groups taking low-fat, low-carbohydrate and Mediterranean diets found at six months the low-carbohydrate diet still had most people adhering to it, but thereafter the situation reversed: at two years the low-carbohydrate group had the highest incidence of lapses and dropouts. This may be due to the comparatively limited food choice of low-carbohydrate diets.\n", "Psychological dependence has also been observed with the occurrence of withdrawal symptoms when consumption of these foods stops by replacement with foods low in sugar and fat. Because this addictive behavior is not biological, one cannot develop a trait that codes for an eating disorder, so professionals address this by providing behavior therapy and by asking a series of questions called the YFAS questionnaire, a diagnostic criteria of substance dependence.\n", "Section::::Health aspects.:Body weight.\n\nStudies have shown that people losing weight with a low-carbohydrate diet, compared to a low-fat diet, have very slightly more weight loss initially, equivalent to approximately 100kcal/day, but that the advantage diminishes over time and is ultimately insignificant. The Endocrine Society state that \"when calorie intake is held constant [...] body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet.\"\n", "Sugary and high-fat food have both been shown to increase the expression of ΔFosB, an addiction biomarker, in the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens; however, there is very little research on the synaptic plasticity from compulsive food consumption, a phenomenon which is known to be caused by ΔFosB overexpression.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\n\"Food addiction\" refers to compulsive overeaters who engage in frequent episodes of uncontrolled eating (binge eating). \n", "Low-carbohydrate diets are associated with increased mortality, but they may miss the health advantages – such as increased intake of dietary fiber – afforded by high-quality carbohydrates found in legumes and pulses, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Disadvantages of the diet might include halitosis, headache and constipation, and in general the potential adverse effects of carbohydrate-restricted diets are under-researched, particularly for possible risks of osteoporosis and cancer incidence.\n", "For the compulsive overeater, ingesting trigger foods causes the release of the chemical messengers serotonin and dopamine in the brain. This could be another indicator that neurobiological factors contribute to the addictive process. Conversely, abstaining from addictive food and food eating processes causes withdrawal symptoms for those with eating disorders. The resulting decreased levels of serotonin in the individual may trigger higher levels of depression and anxiety.\n", "Section::::Carbohydrates.:Low carbohydrate ketogenic diets.\n", "Carisoprodol, meprobamate, and related drugs such as tybamate, have the potential to produce physical dependence of the barbiturate type following periods of prolonged use. Withdrawal of the drug after extensive use may require hospitalization in medically compromised patients. In severe cases the withdrawal can mimic the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal including the potentially lethal status epilepticus.\n", "In addition to binge eating, compulsive overeaters may also engage in \"grazing\" behavior, during which they continuously eat throughout the day. These actions result in an excessive overall number of calories consumed, even if the quantities eaten at any one time may be small.\n", "The public has become confused by the way in which some diets, such as the Zone diet and the South Beach diet are promoted as \"low-carbohydrate\" when in fact they would more properly be termed \"medium\" carbohydrate diets.\n\nSection::::Adoption and advocacy.:Carbohydrate-insulin hypothesis.\n", "Fructose (for example, as found in many industrial sweeteners) has four calories per gram but has a very low glycemic index and does not cause insulin production, probably because β cells have low levels of GLUT5. Leptin, an appetite-regulating hormone, is not triggered following consumption of fructose. This may for some create an unsatisfying feeling after consumption which might promote binge behavior that culminates in an increased blood triglyceride level arising from fructose conversion by the liver.\n", "Carbohydrate is one of three major macronutrients found in food. The other major macronutrients are protein and fat. Carbohydrate in its simplest form is known as glucose and can contribute to a rise in blood sugar. In people with diabetes, the body’s ability to keep blood sugar at a normal level is impaired. Dietary management of carbohydrate consumed is one tool used to help optimize blood sugar levels.\n\nSection::::Carbohydrate content of foods.\n", "Much of the research into low-carbohydrate dieting has been of poor quality and studies which reported large effects have garnered disproportionate attention in comparison to those which are methodologically sound. Higher quality studies tend to find no meaningful difference in outcome between low-fat and low-carbohydrate dieting. Low-quality meta-analyses have tended to report favourably on the effect of low-carbohydrate diets: a systematic review found that 9 out of 10 meta-analyses with positive conclusions were affected by publication bias.\n\nSection::::Health aspects.:Cardiovascular health.\n", "During binges, compulsive overeaters may consume between 5,000 and 15,000 food calories daily (far more than is healthy), resulting in a temporary release from psychological stress through an addictive high not unlike that experienced through drug abuse. Compulsive overeaters tend to show brain changes similar to those of drug addicts, a result of excessive consumption of highly processed foods.\n", "Compared to controls, recovered anorexics show reduced activation in the reward system in response to food, and reduced correlation between self reported liking of a sugary drink and activity in the striatum and ACC. Increased binding potential of [11C]raclopride in the striatum, interpreted as reflecting decreased endogenous dopamine due to competitive displacement, has also been observed.\n", "Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective, or marginally more effective, than low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss in the short term. In the long term, effective weight maintenance depends on calorie restriction, not the ratio of macronutrients in a diet. The hypothesis proposed by diet advocates that carbohydrate causes undue fat accumulation via the medium of insulin, and that low-carbohydrate diets have a \"metabolic advantage\", has been falsified by experiment.\n", "BULLET::::- Social Reward Dependence has also been associated with the temporal lobes, the caudate Grey Matter Density (GMD) in the orbitofrontal cortex and the basal ganglia of the ventral striatum. These structures, which are rich in dopamine receptors, are known to play a crucial role in reward receipt, Incentive anticipation and simple and discrete primary and secondary rewards prediction errors. These significant findings show a correlation between primary reward processing circuits and reward dependence, keeping with the fMRI research studies that demonstrated that, following the experience of complex rewards the activation of the striatal circuits occur.\n\nSection::::Relationship to clinical disorders.\n", "With funding from the Laura and John Arnold Foundation, in 2012 Taubes co-founded the Nutrition Science Initiative (NuSI), with the aim of raising over $200 million to undertake a \"Manhattan Project for nutrition\" and validate the hypothesis. Intermediate results, published in the \"American Journal of Clinical Nutrition\" did not provide convincing evidence of any advantage to a low-carbohydrate diet as compared to diets of other composition – ultimately a very low-calorie, ketogenic diet (of 5% carbohydrate) \"was not associated with significant loss of fat mass\" compared to a non-specialized diet with the same calories; there was no useful \"metabolic advantage\". In 2017 Kevin Hall, a NIH researcher hired to assist with the project, wrote that the carbohydrate-insulin hypothesis had been falsified by experiment. Hall wrote \"the rise in obesity prevalence may be primarily due to increased consumption of refined carbohydrates, but the mechanisms are likely to be quite different from those proposed by the carbohydrate–insulin model\".\n", "Food addiction has some physical signs and symptoms. Decreased energy; not being able to be as active as in the past, not being able to be as active as others around, also a decrease in efficiency due to the lack of energy. Having trouble sleeping; being tired all the time such as fatigue, oversleeping, or the complete opposite and not being able to sleep such as insomnia. Other physical signs and symptoms are restlessness, irritability, digestive disorders, and headaches.\n\nIn extreme cases food addiction can result in suicidal thoughts.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "The reasons for yo-yo dieting are varied but often include embarking upon a hypocaloric diet that was initially too extreme. At first the dieter may experience elation at the thought of weight loss and pride in their rejection of food. Over time, however, the limits imposed by such extreme diets cause effects such as depression or fatigue that make the diet impossible to sustain. Ultimately, the dieter reverts to their old eating habits, now with the added emotional effects of failing to lose weight by restrictive diet. Such an emotional state leads many people to eating more than they would have before dieting, causing them to rapidly regain weight.\n", "Food binges may be followed by feelings of guilt and depression; for example, some will cancel their plans for the next day because they \"feel fat.\" Binge eating also has implications on physical health, due to excessive intake of fats and sugars, which can cause numerous health problems.\n\nUnlike individuals with bulimia nervosa, compulsive overeaters do not attempt to compensate for their bingeing with purging behaviors, such as fasting, laxative use, or vomiting. When compulsive overeaters overeat through binge eating and experience feelings of guilt after their binges, they can be said to have binge eating disorder (BED).\n", "Most dietary carbohydrates consist of varying proportions of two simple sugars, glucose and fructose. Fructose may be metabolized into liver glycogen, but it is ineffective at raising muscle glycogen levels (which is the objective of carbohydrate loading). Consequently, sources of high-fructose carbohydrates, such as fruit and sugar-based foods, are less than optimal for the task. The classic carb-loading meal is pasta, whose caloric content is primarily due to starch, a polymer of glucose . Other high-starch meals which include bread, rice, and potatoes are also part of the correct regimen.\n", "The composition of carbohydrates in the athlete's diet during carbohydrate loading is as important as their share of the overall caloric regimen . \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01295	how do fraternities work? Do they serve any real function to the university?	Benefits to University: - Provides a social network for students who join. - Provides social and extracurricular events for students without the need for university resources. - Provides opportunities for students to gain experience holding leadership positions. - Often provides housing, which can be limited on some campuses. - Depending on a university's relationship with fraternities and sororities, it can provide the university with ways to regulate social events that can't be applied as easily to non-Greek events. - Fraternities and sororities typically require some amount of philanthropy, which benefit the community and improve a school's reputation. - Provides for networking opportunities that can help students with their careers. - Increased donations from alumni. Harm to University: - "Pledging" a fraternity or sorority often involves hazing, which can mentally and physically distress students. There have even been instances of people dying due to hazing. - Fraternities and sororities generally throw parties with alcohol, which can lead to irresponsible behavior, injuries, crime, etc. This is bad for students and the university's reputation. - Associating mainly with one's own brothers or sisters may limit interactions with other students and/or decrease the diversity of people a student gets to know. - Students may feel pressured to spend unnecessary amounts of time and money on matters related to their chapter. - Dealing with fraternities and sororities requires time on the part of the university's staff, often requiring hiring people specifically for this purpose. - Promotion of "fratty" culture, which can include immature behavior, sexism, sexual misconduct, excessive alcohol consumption, etc.	[ "Section::::Student life.:Greek life.\n\nGreek letter social organizations at the University of Illinois at Chicago create smaller communities within the larger University environment for the purposes of facilitating growth in the areas of scholarship, personal and leadership development, campus involvement and community service. The creeds and rituals that guide the individual organizations are based on values and ethics that foster the highest ideals and behavior.\n\nFraternal organizations have been a core component of the campus community since the 1970s. Currently there are 27 social fraternities and sororities, including both general and culturally based organizations.\n\nSection::::Student life.:Greek life.:Fraternities.\n\nBULLET::::- Alpha Epsilon Pi\n", "BULLET::::- Lambda: University of California, Berkeley February 11, 1875 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Mu: Stevens Institute of Technology 1883 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Nu: University of Texas at Austin 1892 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Xi: Cornell University October 13, 1868 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Omicron: Yale University September 11, 1877 Inactive\n\nBULLET::::- Pi: Northwestern University 1952 Inactive\n\nBULLET::::- Rho: Lafayette College January 30, 1874 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Sigma University of Illinois Inactive\n\nBULLET::::- Tau: University of Alabama April 20, 1920 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Upsilon: Hobart College November 14, 1860 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Phi: Amherst College October 29, 1873 Inactive\n\nBULLET::::- Chi: Dartmouth College 1902 Inactive, exists as local Chi Heorot\n", "Section::::Honor, professional, service and recognition societies.:Service societies.\n\nListed with dates of local founding and national conference membership, if any, these are/were non-residential organizations designed to provide campus and community service. These organizations are self-governed.br\n\nSection::::Religious-themed fraternities and sororities.\n", "BULLET::::- California State University, Los Angeles Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Los Angeles University Development Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Los Angeles University-Student Union\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Monterey Bay Employee Housing\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Monterey Bay Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Northridge Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Northridge University Student Union\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Sacramento University Union\n\nBULLET::::- California State University San Marcos Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Stanislaus Auxiliary and Business Services\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Stanislaus Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Stanislaus University Union\n\nBULLET::::- The Campanile Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- Capital Public Radio\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 - University of California, San Diego\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 - Western Illinois University\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 - University of Colorado Boulder\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 - University of Pittsburgh\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 - University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 - North Dakota State University\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 - University of Delaware\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 - Purdue University\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 - Arizona State University-Tempe\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 - Louisiana State University\n\nBULLET::::- 2020 - University of Dayton\n\nSection::::Annual Conference.:Awards.\n\nAt each annual conference, the following awards are given out:\n\nBULLET::::- NACURH Distinguished Service Award\n\nBULLET::::- NACURH First Year Experience Award\n\nBULLET::::- NACURH Hallenbeck Lifetime Service Award\n", "Examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- College Historical Society\n\nBULLET::::- Literary and Historical Society\n\nBULLET::::- RCSI Biological Society\n\nBULLET::::- The Law Society (University College Dublin)\n\nBULLET::::- Literary and Debating Society (NUI Galway)\n\nBULLET::::- UCC Philosophical Society\n\nBULLET::::- UCD Dramsoc\n\nBULLET::::- University College Dublin Symphony Orchestra\n\nBULLET::::- University Philosophical Society\n\nSection::::Student societies by location.:Netherlands.\n", "Professional and Honor societies are coordinated at a lower level of administrative involvement by the various academic departments within the University and its several colleges, and of these, some operate merely cooperatively, with no involvement from the University at all.\n", "Section::::Meetings and benefits.\n\nLike other \"collegia\", the College of Aesculapius and Hygia would have a monthly business meeting \"(conventus)\" at which a dinner was served.\n\nTwo types of distributions for members were funded: \"sportulae\", \"handouts\" in the form of cash gifts; and four occasions when \"sportulae\" were accompanied by bread and wine for a meal: the \"love feast\" on February 22 when Roman families commemorated their beloved dead; a \"Violet Day\" on March 22; a \"Rose Day\" on May 11; and the founding of the college on November 8. The full cycle of events was:\n", "There are currently 21 social fraternities that are a part of the Interfraternity Council (IFC) in Davis. The IFC representatives attend weekly meetings to guarantee that all UC Davis rules and regulations are followed. The meetings are also used to inform the fraternities about all upcoming activities throughout the week. The 21 fraternities are: Alpha Epsilon Pi, Alpha Gamma Omega, Alpha Gamma Rho, Alpha Sigma Phi, Chi Phi, Delta Chi, Delta Lambda Phi, Delta Sigma Phi, Kappa Sigma, Phi Delta Theta, Phi Kappa Psi, Pi Kappa Alpha, Pi Kappa Phi, Sigma Alpha Mu, Sigma Chi, Sigma Nu, Sigma Phi Epsilon, Tau Kappa Epsilon, Theta Chi, Theta Xi, and Zeta Psi.\n", "BULLET::::- California State University, Chico Research Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Chico University Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Dominguez Hills Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, East Bay Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Fresno Association\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Fresno Athletic Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Fresno Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Fullerton Auxiliary Services Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Fullerton Housing Authority\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Fullerton Philanthropic Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University Institute\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Long Beach Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- California State University, Los Angeles Auxiliary Services\n", "BULLET::::- Order of the Sword & Shield or ΟΣΣ Omicron Sigma Sigma, 2011?, honors for homeland security, intelligence, emergency management and protective security disciplines\n\nBULLET::::- ΤΣ Tau Sigma, 2014, honoring transfer students for academic achievement and involvement\n\nBULLET::::- ΣΑΛ Sigma Alpha Lambda, 20xx, leadership and service honors\n\nBULLET::::- ΣΛΧ Sigma Lambda Chi, 2017, construction management honors\n\nBULLET::::- ΦΒΔ Phi Beta Delta, 1990?, international scholars honors\n", "Over 90 years later, as of 2017, Minnesota hosts 37 academic fraternities, 23 academic sororities, 61 honors societies, 31 professional societies, and 4 service- or religious-focused chapters.\n\nSection::::Impact on campus, and population.\n", "Fraternities: Alpha Chi Rho, Alpha Tau Omega, Lambda Chi Alpha, Phi Delta Theta, Phi Gamma Delta, Phi Kappa Psi, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, Sigma Chi, Sigma Nu\n\nSororities: Alpha Delta Pi, Alpha Omicron Pi, Chi Omega, Delta Gamma, Gamma Phi Beta, Sigma Sigma Sigma, Zeta Phi Beta,\n\nService fraternity: Alpha Phi Omega\n\nWomen's music fraternity: Sigma Alpha Iota\n\nAcademic honorary societies: Alpha Kappa Delta, Delta Phi Alpha, Eta Sigma Phi, Omicron Delta Epsilon, Omicron Delta Kappa, Phi Alpha Theta, Phi Beta Kappa, Phi Sigma Iota, Pi Lambda Sigma, Pi Sigma Alpha, Psi Chi\n", "Since inception, these organizations have delivered an outsized influence and benefit to the campus: A first indicator of this impact is the fact of hundreds of pages devoted to the myriad of Greek Letter organizations profiled in each issue of the Minnesota Gopher Yearbook during its century-long publication run. These organizations have served as a primary hub of the student experience at the University for their entire existence, for active members, regular guests and alumni.\n", "Social fraternities and sororities have been a part of the University of California at Davis since 1913. Approximately 8% of the university's undergraduate students are involved in the school's fraternities and sororities. One sorority, Sigma Alpha Epsilon Pi, was featured during the first season of the MTV reality show \"Sorority Life\".\n", "BULLET::::- Donald P. Katherine B. Loker University Student Union\n\nBULLET::::- Forty-Niner Shops\n\nBULLET::::- Foundation for the California State University, San Bernardino\n\nBULLET::::- Franciscan Shops\n\nBULLET::::- Fresno State Programs for Children\n\nBULLET::::- Humboldt State University Advancement Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- Humboldt State University Center\n\nBULLET::::- Humboldt State University Enterprise Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- Humboldt State University Sponsored Programs Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- North Campus - University Park Development Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego State University Research Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- San Francisco State University Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- San Francisco State University Student Center\n\nBULLET::::- San Jose State University Research Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- San Marcos University Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- Santos Manuel Student Union\n", "University of Virginia Greek life\n\nf\n\nUniversity of Virginia Greek life encompasses the collegiate Greek organizations on the grounds of the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, Virginia. Greek life at the university began in the 1850s with the establishment of a number of fraternities, and the system has since expanded to include sororities, professional organizations, service fraternities, honor fraternities, and cultural organizations. The Greek system has been significant to the history of the University of Virginia, and the history of the university's Greek system includes the founding of Kappa Sigma and Pi Kappa Alpha, two national fraternities.\n", "BULLET::::- Shane Smith - president (founder)\n\nBULLET::::- Craig Fowler - vice president (founder)\n\nBULLET::::- Aaron Bellar - chaplain\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Douglass - pledgemaster\n\nBULLET::::- Cary Odom - secretary\n\nBULLET::::- Jon Cline - treasurer\n\nBULLET::::- Daryl Dixon - historian\n\nBULLET::::- David \"Icky\" Kyle - parliamentarian\n\nBULLET::::- Zach Brown\n\nBULLET::::- Jonathan Kuhlmann\n", "Greek organizations at Washington & Jefferson College\n", "Interfraternity Council fraternities include Alpha Epsilon Pi, Alpha Kappa Lambda, Alpha Sigma Phi, Delta Chi, Delta Upsilon, Phi Kappa Psi, Phi Kappa Sigma, Phi Kappa Theta, Phi Sigma Kappa, Omega Delta, Pi Kappa Phi, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, Sigma Alpha Mu, Sigma Nu,and Tau Kappa Epsilon.\n\nUnited Greek Council fraternities and sororities include Alpha Phi Gamma, Alpha Psi Lambda, Alpha Sigma Omega, Chi Sigma Tau, Gamma Phi Omega, Kappa Delta Chi, Kappa Pi Beta, Kappa Phi Lambda, Lambda Upsilon Lambda, Lambda Theta Phi, Phi Rho Eta, Sigma Lambda Beta, Sigma Lambda Gamma, and Tau Phi Sigma.\n", "Harvard does not have secret societies in the usual sense, though it does have final clubs, fraternities, sororities, and a variety of other secret or semi-secret organizations.\n", "Professional fraternities and sororities\n\nProfessional fraternities, in the North American fraternity system, are organizations whose primary purpose is to promote the interests of a particular profession and whose membership is restricted to students in that particular field of professional education or study. This may be contrasted with service fraternities and sororities, whose primary purpose is community service, and general or social fraternities and sororities, whose primary purposes are generally aimed towards some other aspect, such as the development of character, friendship, leadership, or literary ability.\n", "BULLET::::- National Society of Black Engineers\n\nBULLET::::- National Students of Speech & Language Hearing Association\n\nBULLET::::- Natural Science and Mathematics Joint Council\n\nBULLET::::- Neuroscience Alliance\n\nBULLET::::- Opera Club\n\nBULLET::::- PCI Club\n\nBULLET::::- PE Major Club\n\nBULLET::::- Peace & Conflict International\n\nBULLET::::- Percussion Club\n\nBULLET::::- Phi Alpha Delta (Law Fraternity International)\n\nBULLET::::- Philosophy Club\n\nBULLET::::- Physical Therapy Graduate Program Club\n\nBULLET::::- Power & Energy Society\n\nBULLET::::- Pre-Dental Association\n\nBULLET::::- Pre-Occupational Therapy Club\n\nBULLET::::- Pre-Physical Therapy Organization\n\nBULLET::::- Pre-Physicians Assistants\n\nBULLET::::- Pre-Vet Club\n\nBULLET::::- Professional Interior Design Students\n\nBULLET::::- Psychology Society\n\nBULLET::::- Public Health Club\n\nBULLET::::- Public Relations Student Society of America\n", "BULLET::::- Alpha: University of Virginia May, 1859 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Beta: Massachusetts Institute of Technology May 27, 1873 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Gamma: Emory University May 19, 1869 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Delta: Rutgers University March 19, 1867 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Epsilon: Hampden-Sydney College March 2, 1867 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Zeta: Franklin & Marshall College December 1, 1854 Inactive\n\nBULLET::::- Eta: University of Georgia April 16, 1867 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Theta: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute May 25, 1878 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Iota: Ohio State University 1883 Active\n\nBULLET::::- Kappa: University of Wisconsin–Madison 1916 Expelled from Interfraternity Council on March 18, 2015\n", "Many such societies exist which operate as honoraries on one campus, and which may have been at one time actual meeting societies, and which are kept alive by one or two dedicated local alumni or an alumni affairs or Dean's office person, who see to it that an annual initiation are held every year. Some of these frankly state that they are honoraries, other seek to perpetuate the image of a continuing active society where there is none.\n" ]	[ "Fraternities offer little or no functionality to universities. " ]	[ "There are many benefits and opportunities that can come from fraternities." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Fraternities offer little or no functionality to universities. ", "Fraternities offer little or no functionality to universities. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "There are many benefits and opportunities that can come from fraternities.", "There are many benefits and opportunities that can come from fraternities." ]
2018-02542	Why is that scene in Toy Story where Woody was getting fixed so satisfying to most people?	It's got a name. Autonomous sensory meridian response aka brain tinglies. Different triggers for different people. Some people like whispering, other scratching, or careful attention to something, just to name a few things. There are countless videos on youtube with all sorts of possible triggers.	[ "BULLET::::- (voiced by Teddy Newton) – A character based on the real-life toy of the same name. He can only speak when his receiver is lifted from its cradle. He lives in the Caterpillar Room, and has been at Sunnyside for years. He becomes an ally to Woody. When Woody returns to Sunnyside, Chatter Telephone says that coming back was a mistake because Lotso had since improved his security. Although his advice is to lay low, he reluctantly gives Woody instructions on how to escape Sunnyside. For this, he is later beaten and broken by Lotso's crew for helping the toys escape until he finally talks. He apologizes to Woody. In the credits, he has been repaired and is shown happily attending a toy party in the Butterfly Room.\n", "The film continues from \"Toy Story 3\", where Sheriff Woody and Buzz Lightyear, among their other toy friends, have found new appreciation after being given by Andy to Bonnie. They are introduced to Forky, a spork that has been made into a toy, and embark on a road trip adventure. The film is dedicated to actor Don Rickles and animator Adam Burke, who died on April 6, 2017 and October 8, 2018, respectively.\n", "On Christmas Day at their new home, Woody and Buzz stage another reconnaissance mission in order to prepare for the new toy arrivals; one of the toys is Mrs. Potato Head, to Mr. Potato Head's joy. As Woody jokingly asks what might be worse than Buzz, they discover Andy's new gift is a puppy, resulting in the two sharing a worried smile.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Hanks as Woody, a pull-string cowboy doll.\n\nBULLET::::- Tim Allen as Buzz Lightyear, a space ranger action figure and Woody's rival, who later becomes his best friend.\n", "The others find a tourist trap and conclude Woody is there. As they drive in, their vehicle mysteriously breaks down. Jerry tries to fix his jeep and the girls go skinny dipping in a nearby oasis. As they swim, Mr. Slausen - the owner of said tourist trap - appears holding a shotgun. Though outwardly polite he also seems embittered by the decline of his tourist trap since the highway was moved away. The nude girls feel awkward in the water as he chats and they apologize for trespassing.\n", "A. O. Scott of \"The New York Times\" stated \"This film—this whole three-part, 15-year epic—about the adventures of a bunch of silly plastic junk turns out also to be a long, melancholy meditation on loss, impermanence and that noble, stubborn, foolish thing called love.\" Owen Gleiberman from \"Entertainment Weekly\" gave the film an \"A\" saying \"Even with the bar raised high, \"Toy Story 3\" enchanted and moved me so deeply I was flabbergasted that a digitally animated comedy about plastic playthings could have this effect.\" Gleiberman also wrote in the next issue that he, along with many other grown men, cried at the end of the film. Michael Rechtshaffen of \"The Hollywood Reporter\" also gave the film a positive review, saying \"Woody, Buzz and playmates make a thoroughly engaging, emotionally satisfying return.\"\n", "The film's opening sequence reveals how Bo is separated from Woody: after coordinating the rescue of RC, Bo and her sheep are given away by Andy's mother, and although Woody tries to convince Bo to stay, she states that she understands that part of the cycle of a toy is being taken away. For a brief moment, Woody considers going with Bo, but changes his mind after realizing that Andy needs him.\n", "Mick LaSalle of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" described director Dahl as \"a master of inciting fear and dread\" and the film as \"a striking piece of filmmaking ... For a good 45 minutes of its two-hour running time, \"Unforgettable\" has the viewer in a state of oppressive tension. The rest of the time you're just nervous.\"\n", "He is the only human in the films to observe toys actually coming to life, when near the end of the first film, Woody and Sid's mutant toys decide to rescue Buzz by scaring Sid, which causes him to become very frightened of toys. The last straw is Woody coming alive while Sid is holding him and telling him to \"play nice\". This causes Sid to panic and run back into his house screaming, and then to his room when his sister scares him with her toy doll.\n", "Section::::Appearances.:Films.:\"Toy Story 4\".\n\nIn \"Toy Story 4\", Buzz plays a somewhat more subdued role, since the film focuses more on Woody. He still acts as Woody's moral support, and he also learns about the \"inner voice\". But Buzz misinterprets \"inner voice\" as his physical voice box, and he uses it to guide him to what he must do next.\n\nSection::::Appearances.:\"Buzz Lightyear of Star Command\".\n", "Walter Lantz had been criticized from the start that Woody's garish appearance was detrimental to the appeal of the burgeoning star. The addition of white gloves on Woody's hands (like those of cartoon counterparts Mickey Mouse and Bugs Bunny) marked the first notable attempt at giving the woodpecker a more streamlined character design. By the following film, \"The Barber of Seville\", Woody's appearance would get a complete makeover, making \"Ration Bored\" the last \"Woody Woodpecker\" film featuring the original manic design.\n\nSection::::Production notes.\n", "Sid has various mutant toys who are assembled by him from mixed pieces of several toys that belong to him and Hannah. Sid's mutant toys do not speak, but they understand Morse code. Buzz and Woody initially think that they are cannibals who are going to eat them, before they learn that the toys are actually friendly and compassionate. They fix Buzz's broken arm, Janie and the Pteranodon, and also help Woody implement his plan to save Buzz from Sid. They surround Sid as Woody tells him how much they hate being mutilated, and they all rejoice in victory after Woody frightens Sid away with his own voice. After Sid is scared by his toys, he sees Sally, then runs off in fright, thinking that Sally will come to life. Sid's mutant toys include:\n", "For Woody's action, the king gives him his reward: a ticket for a two-week vacation in Acapulco. In the final scene, we see Woody enjoying his prize relaxing in a chair. A gorgeous Mexican waitress in a red bikini and a sombrero comes, offering the woodpecker a drink of lemonade. Woody thanks her, and ends the cartoon with his laugh.\n", "In the years since its release, the film has been acclaimed by critics as one of Eastwood's most satisfying (albeit underrated) directorial achievements, and the scenes between the convict (Costner) and his young captive (T. J. Lowther) have been acknowledged as some of the most delicately crafted sequences in all of Eastwood's body of work. \"Cahiers du cinéma\" selected \"A Perfect World\" as the best film of 1993.\n", "BULLET::::- A monkey toy, based on the Musical Jolly Chimp toy from the 1960s, monitors the Sunnyside Daycare security cameras at night, and can alert Lotso and the gang of any toys attempting to escape by screeching into a microphone to broadcast over the intercom. Chatter Telephone tells Woody that he must get rid of the monkey before he and his friends can escape. Woody and Slinky manage to wrap the monkey up in Scotch Tape and trap it in a filing cabinet. In the credits, the monkey is seen happily playing its clash cymbals while wearing star-shaped sunglasses.\n", "Buzz impresses the other toys with his various features and Andy begins to favor him, making Woody feel rejected compared to the newer, sleeker and more advanced Buzz Lightyear. As Andy prepares for a family outing at a restaurant called Pizza Planet, his mother allows him to bring one toy. Fearing that Andy will choose Buzz, Woody attempts to trap him behind a desk but ends up accidentally knocking him out of a window. The other toys, except Bo Peep and Slinky, rebel against Woody and condemn him for \"murdering\" Buzz out of jealousy. Before they could exact revenge, Andy takes Woody and leaves for Pizza Planet. When the family stops for gas, Woody finds that Buzz has hitched a ride on their van. They have a fight, only to find the family has left without them, stranding them. They manage to make their way to the restaurant by hitching a ride on a pizza delivery truck. Buzz, still thinking that he is a real space ranger despite Woody's attempts to convince him otherwise, gets them stuck in a crane game where they are taken by Andy's toy-destroying neighbor, Sid Phillips.\n", "During Andy's childhood nine years earlier, his sister Molly gives away her toy Bo Peep and her sheep Billy, Goat and Gruff. Woody considers going with her, but realizes that Andy still needs him. Years later, Andy donates his toys to Bonnie. While everyone is enjoying their new lives, Woody is often left in the closet and doesn’t get played with. \n", "A tree surgeon halts his car in front of a hollow tree in the forest and hangs up a sign saying, \"Doctor Is In.\" The tree, however, belongs to Woody, who is awakened by the surgeon's drill. Determined to protect his home, Woody jams a cake pan over the drill, which the surgeon tugs at furiously. The doctor then treats the tree with repeated intervention from Woody.\n\nSection::::Production notes.\n", "It was difficult for crew members to perceive the film's quality during much of the production process when the finished footage was in scattered pieces and lacked elements like music and sound design. Some animators felt the film would be a significant disappointment commercially, but felt animators and animation fans would find it interesting. According to Lee Unkrich, one of the original editors of \"Toy Story\", a scene was cut out of the original final edit. The scene features Sid, after Pizza Planet, torturing Buzz and Woody violently. Unkrich decided to cut right into the scene where Sid is interrogating the toys because the creators of the movie thought the audience would be loving Buzz and Woody at that point. Another scene, where Woody was trying to get Buzz's attention when he was stuck in the box crate, was shortened because the creators felt it would lose the energy of the movie. Peter Schneider had grown optimistic about the film as it neared completion, and announced a United States release date of November, coinciding with Thanksgiving weekend and the start of the winter holiday season.\n", "That is why the Woody Woodpecker adventures had problems with censorship and the press because of the violence. But perhaps because of his behavior and personality, the Woody Woodpecker did not always have happy endings in his episodes. In several of them, our hero ended with a bump on the head echoing his characteristic laughter in a melancholy tone.\n", "As \"The New York Times\" put it, \"this is a delicate area indeed\", going on to describe the film as \"more unsettling than rewarding, and certainly more contrived than compassionate\".\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical.\n", "Mathrubhumi wrote that the film should be watched to know more about the amazing talent Clint and the film will haunt the audience as the face of Clint, with colour palette follows you. The vacuum created by Clint's death is unbearable and the film is special for the same reason. Manorama said that it is the responsibility of audience to promote this small, but beautiful film with many touching scenes not to get drowned in the crowd of commercial potboilers. Mangalam wrote that the director Harikumar has made a simple, emotional and believable film of an unusual life.\n\nSection::::Release.:Festivals.\n", "While Woody attempts to escape from Sid's house, Buzz, finally realizing that he is a toy after watching a Buzz Lightyear action figure TV commercial and trying but failing to fly out a window, sinks into despondency. Sid plans to launch Buzz on a firework rocket, but his plans are delayed by a thunderstorm. Woody tells Buzz about the joy he can bring to Andy as a toy, restoring his confidence. The next morning, Woody and Sid's mutant creature toys rescue Buzz just as Sid is about to launch the rocket by ordering Sid to no longer destroy toys, much to Sid’s horror and he goes running into his house and tells his sister, Hannah that his toys are alive. Woody and Buzz escape just as Andy and his family drive away toward their new home.\n", "Woody's Magic Touch\n\nWoody's Magic Touch is a Woody Woodpecker cartoon that was released in theaters on May 1, 1971. It was one of the first Woody cartoons in 5 years that was animated by someone, other than Les Kline or Al Coe. In that case, it was Virgil Ross who animated this and the next four cartoons in that same year.\n\nIn addition to Grace Stafford, who provides Woody's voice, Dal McKennon guest stars.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "While in Rapid City, South Dakota, Woody goes on a bender and hits his head while stumbling back to their motel room. David takes him to the hospital to get his head stitched up. David learns that they will be passing through Woody's hometown of Hawthorne, Nebraska, and suggests they spend the night with Woody's family. Woody is against the idea, but they end up going anyway.\n", "Talk of a sequel to \"Toy Story\" began around a month after the film's opening, in December 1995. A few days after the original film's release, Lasseter was traveling with his family and found a young boy clutching a Woody doll at an airport. Lasseter described how the boy's excitement to show it to his father touched him deeply. Lasseter realized that his character no longer belonged to him only, but rather it belonged to others, as well. The memory was a defining factor in the production of \"Toy Story 2\", with Lasseter moved to create a great film for that child and for everyone else who loved the characters.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01927	If we can only taste what our saliva can break down, and the only enzyme in our saliva is amylase, then can we only taste carbohydrates?	You cannot only taste what your saliva can break down. You can taste all molecules that bind to the receptors on your tongue and in your nose.	[ "-Glucose does not occur naturally in higher living organisms, but can be synthesized in the laboratory. -Glucose is indistinguishable in taste from -glucose, but cannot be used by living organisms as a source of energy because it cannot be phosphorylated by hexokinase, the first enzyme in the glycolysis pathway. One of the known exceptions is in \"Burkholderia caryophylli\", a plant pathogenic bacterium, which contains the enzyme -threo-aldose 1-dehydrogenase which is capable of oxidizing -glucose.\n", "Unfortunately the crash landing caused the replicators to go on the fritz—every time you ask for a pizza, a slice is missing. When you ask the computer why it keeps holding back a slice, it claims it needs to taste the pizza first to be sure it's kosher, and that this is a feature. Feature. Right. As if that isn't bad enough, the only drinks the replicators seem to be able to produce are Diet Mountain Dew and Caffeine Free Pepsi.\n", "A 2016 study suggested that humans can taste starch (specifically, a glucose oligomer) independently of other tastes such as sweetness. However, no specific chemical receptor has yet been found for this taste.\n\nSection::::Nerve supply and neural connections.\n\nThe glossopharyngeal nerve innervates a third of the tongue including the circumvallate papillae. The facial nerve innervates the other two thirds of the tongue and the cheek via the chorda tympani.\n", "\"Bad carbohydrates\", such as those in sweets, potatoes, rice and white bread, may not be taken together with fats, especially during Phase 1 of the Method. According to Montignac's theory, these combinations will lead to the fats in the food being stored as body fat. (Some kinds of pasta, such as \"al dente\" durum wheat spaghetti, some varieties of rice, such as long-grain Basmati, whole grains and foods rich in fiber, have a lower GI.)\n", "The ability to taste sweetness often atrophies genetically in species of carnivores who do not eat sweet foods like fruits, including bottlenose dolphins, sea lions, spotted hyenas and fossas.\n\nSection::::Sweet receptor pathway.\n", "Despite the wide variety of chemical substances known to be sweet, and knowledge that the ability to perceive sweet taste must reside in taste buds on the tongue, the biomolecular mechanism of sweet taste was sufficiently elusive that as recently as the 1990s, there was some doubt whether any single \"sweetness receptor\" actually exists.\n", "BULLET::::- Presynaptic parasympathetic fibers to the submandibular ganglion, providing secretomotor innervation to two salivary glands: the submandibular gland and sublingual gland and to the vessels of the tongue, which when stimulated, cause a dilation of blood vessels of the tongue.\n\nSection::::Function.:Taste.\n\nThere are similarities between the tastes the chorda tympani picks up in sweeteners between mice and primates, but not rats. Relating research results to humans is therefore not always consistent.\n", "The cat family was shown in 2005 to lack the TAS1R2 protein, one of two required for function of the sweetness sensory receptor; a deletion in the relevant gene (\"Tas1r2\") causes a shift in the genetic reading frame, leading to transcription stopping early and no detectable mRNA or protein produced.\n", "Carbohydrate is found in a number of foods including fruits, starchy vegetables (such as peas, potatoes, and corn), grains, milk and yogurt, legumes, and desserts. In general, foods such as meat, eggs, cheese, fats, and non-starchy vegetables (such as greens and broccoli) have little to no carbohydrate. Other foods free of carbohydrate include small quantities of certain condiments, unsweetened coffee and tea, and sugar free sodas.\n", "Food enters the mouth where the first stage in the digestive process takes place, with the action of the tongue and the secretion of saliva. The tongue is a fleshy and muscular sensory organ, and the very first sensory information is received via the taste buds in the papillae on its surface. If the taste is agreeable, the tongue will go into action, manipulating the food in the mouth which stimulates the secretion of saliva from the salivary glands. The liquid quality of the saliva will help in the softening of the food and its enzyme content will start to break down the food whilst it is still in the mouth. The first part of the food to be broken down is the starch of carbohydrates (by the enzyme amylase in the saliva).\n", "The pseudogenes mentioned earlier are produced by a number of gene silencing events, the rate of which is constant throughout primate species. Several of these pseudogenes maintain a role in modulating taste response, however. By studying the silencing events in humans, it is possible to theorize the selective pressures on humans throughout their evolutionary history. As is the case with the usual distribution of human genetic variation, the highest rate of diversity in \"TAS2R\" pseudogenes was often found in African populations. This was not the case with two pseudogene loci: \"TAS2R6P\" and \"TAS2R18P\", where the highest diversity was found in non-African populations. This suggests that the functional versions of these genes arose before the human migration out of Africa into an area where selective constraint did not remove non-functional versions of these gene loci. This allowed the pseudogene frequency to increase, creating genetic variance at those loci. This is an example of relaxed environmental constraint allowing silencing mutations to lead to pseudogenization of once important loci.\n", "Ascaric (bishop of Palencia)\n\nAscaric ( or \"Ascarico\", ), a Visigoth, was the fourth known Bishop of Palencia from about 639 to about 673. He only appears as a signatory of the canons of the Eighth Council of Toledo in 653. A local tradition, however, places him at the side of king Wamba during the Septimanian rebellion of Paul and Hilderic in 672. To Ascaric is sometimes credited the reedification of Palencia and the deposition of the relics of Antoninus of Pamiers in the Crypt of San Antolín.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n", "The sugar concentration in salivary secretions can vary. Blood sugar levels are reflected in salivary gland secretions. High salivary glucose (HSG) levels are a glucose concentration ≥ 1.0 mg/d, n = 175) and those with low salivary glucose (LSG) levels are 0.1 mg/dL n = 2,537). Salivary gland secretions containing high levels of sugar change the oral microbiome and contributes to an environment that is conductive to the formation of dental caries and gingivitis.\n\nSection::::Salivary glands.\n", "Some people with HSAN2 experience a diminished sense of taste due to the loss of a type of taste bud on the tip of the tongue called lingual fungiform papillae.\n", "Various receptors have also been proposed for salty tastes, along with the possible taste detection of lipids, complex carbohydrates, and water. Evidence for these receptors is, however, shaky at best, and is often unconvincing in mammal studies. For example, the proposed ENaC receptor for sodium detection can only be shown to contribute to sodium taste in \"Drosophilia\".\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.:Carbonation.\n\nAn enzyme connected to the sour receptor transmits information about carbonated water.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.:Fat.\n", "Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.\n", "Carbohydrate chemistry is a large and economically important branch of organic chemistry. Some of the main organic reactions that involve carbohydrates are:\n\nBULLET::::- Carbohydrate acetalisation\n\nBULLET::::- Cyanohydrin reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Lobry de Bruyn–van Ekenstein transformation\n\nBULLET::::- Amadori rearrangement\n\nBULLET::::- Nef reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Wohl degradation\n\nBULLET::::- Koenigs–Knorr reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Carbohydrate digestion\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bioplastic\n\nBULLET::::- Fermentation\n\nBULLET::::- Glycobiology\n\nBULLET::::- Glycoinformatics\n\nBULLET::::- Glycolipid\n\nBULLET::::- Glycome\n\nBULLET::::- Glycomics\n\nBULLET::::- Glycosyl\n\nBULLET::::- Macromolecule\n\nBULLET::::- Low-carbohydrate diet\n\nBULLET::::- Pentose phosphate pathway\n\nBULLET::::- Photosynthesis\n\nBULLET::::- Resistant starch\n\nBULLET::::- Saccharic acid\n\nBULLET::::- Carbohydrate NMR\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Carbohydrates, including interactive models and animations (Requires MDL Chime)\n", "As a crossroad between carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, pyruvate carboxylase expression in gluconeogenic tissues, adipose tissues and pancreatic islets must be coordinated. In conditions of over nutrition, PC levels are increased in pancreatic β-cells to increase pyruvate cycling in response to chronically elevated levels of glucose. In contrast, PC enzyme levels in the liver are decreased by insulin; during periods of overnutrition adipocyte tissue is expanded with extreme expression of PC and other lipogenic enzymes. Hepatic control of glucose levels is still regulated in an over nutrition situation, but in obesity induced type 2 diabetes the regulation of peripheral glucose levels is no longer under regulation of insulin.\n", "The proportion of carbohydrate in a diet is not linked to the risk of type 2 diabetes, although there is some evidence that diets containing certain high-carbohydrate items – such as sugar-sweetened drinks or white rice – are associated with an increased risk. Some evidence indicates that consuming fewer carbohydrate foods may reduce biomarkers of type 2 diabetes. \n", "Lingual organoids are organoids that recapitulate, at least partly, aspects of the tongue physiology. Epithelial lingual organoids have been generated using BMI1 expressing epithelial stem cells in three-dimensional culture conditions through the manipulation of EGF, WNT, and TGF-β. This organoid culture, however, lacks taste receptors, as these cells do not arise from Bmi1 expressing epithelial stem cells. Lingual taste bud organoids containing taste cells, however, have been created using the LGR5+ or CD44+ stem/progenitor cells of circumvallate (CV) papilla tissue. These taste bud organoids have been successfully created both directly from isolated Lgr5- or LGR6-expressing taste stem/progenitor cells. and indirectly, through the isolation, digestion, and subsequent culturing of CV tissue containing Lgr5+ or CD44+ stem/progenitor cells.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Virtually all non-tasters (dd) cannot taste PTC, while homozygous tasters (\"TT\") occasionally report an inability or weak ability to taste the chemical. The heterozygous genotype (\"Tt\") has the \"leakiest\" phenotype as reduced or absent tasting ability is relatively common. This is formally called a \"heterozygous effect\".\n\nSection::::Genetics.:Harris – Kalmus' threshold solutions and differentiation.\n", "The tongue can also feel other sensations not generally included in the basic tastes. These are largely detected by the somatosensory system. In humans, the sense of taste is conveyed via three of the twelve cranial nerves. The facial nerve (VII) carries taste sensations from the anterior two thirds of the tongue, the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) carries taste sensations from the posterior one third of the tongue while a branch of the vagus nerve (X) carries some taste sensations from the back of the oral cavity.\n", "Taste in the gustatory system allows humans to distinguish between safe and harmful food, and to gauge foods’ nutritional value. Digestive enzymes in saliva begin to dissolve food into base chemicals that are washed over the papillae and detected as tastes by the taste buds. The tongue is covered with thousands of small bumps called papillae, which are visible to the naked eye. Within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds. The exception to this are the filiform papillae that do not contain taste buds. There are between 2000 and 5000 taste buds that are located on the back and front of the tongue. Others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, and in the throat. Each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells.\n", "Human studies have shown that sweet taste receptors are not only found in tongue, but also in the lining of gastrointestinal tract as well as nasal epithelium, pancreatic islet cells, sperm and testes. It is proposed that the presence of sweet taste receptors in the GI tract controls the feeling of hunger and satiety.\n" ]	[ "Humans can only taste what saliva can break down" ]	[ "Humans can taste all molecules that bind to the receptors on your tongue and in your nose." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans can only taste what saliva can break down" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans can taste all molecules that bind to the receptors on your tongue and in your nose." ]
2018-17262	How do birds see the fish they are hunting for from such high distance?	They have eyes better suited for this task. Like the nose of a dog. A dogs nose can smell 200 times better than a human nose and has a way bigger "smelling" surface.	[ "extremely little light is available; the view from below is like the sky at twilight. The sabertooth fish use their telescopic, upward-pointing eyes—which are thus adapted for improved terminal vision at the expense of lateral vision—to pick out squid, cuttlefish, and smaller fish silhouetted against the gloom above them.\n", "Birds that fish by stealth from above the water have to correct for refraction particularly when the fish are observed at an angle. Reef herons and little egrets appear to be able to make the corrections needed when capturing fish and are more successful in catching fish when strikes are made at an acute angle and this higher success may be due to the inability of the fish to detect their predators. Other studies indicate that egrets work within a preferred angle of strike and that the probability of misses increase when the angle becomes too far from the vertical leading to an increased difference between the apparent and real depth of prey.\n", "The shorter focal length of shearwater eyes give them a smaller, but brighter, image than is the case for pigeons, so the latter has sharper daytime vision. Although the Manx shearwater has adaptations for night vision, the effect is small, and it is likely that these birds also use smell and hearing to locate their nests.\n", "Towards the centre of the retina is the fovea (or the less specialised, area centralis) which has a greater density of receptors and is the area of greatest forward visual acuity, i.e. sharpest, clearest detection of objects. In 54% of birds, including birds of prey, kingfishers, hummingbirds and swallows, there is second fovea for enhanced sideways viewing. The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres which carry messages from the eye to the relevant parts of the brain. Like mammals, birds have a small blind spot without photoreceptors at the optic disc, under which the optic nerve and blood vessels join the eye.\n", "The depth that the water appears to be when viewed from above is known as the \"apparent depth\". This is an important consideration for spearfishing from the surface because it will make the target fish appear to be in a different place, and the fisher must aim lower to catch the fish. Conversely, an object above the water has a higher \"apparent height\" when viewed from below the water. The opposite correction must be made by an archer fish.\n", "Night-useful spectral range techniques can sense radiation that is invisible to a human observer. Human vision is confined to a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum called visible light. Enhanced spectral range allows the viewer to take advantage of non-visible sources of electromagnetic radiation (such as near-infrared or ultraviolet radiation). Some animals such as the mantis shrimp Trout can see using much more of the infrared and/or ultraviolet spectrum than humans.\n\nSection::::Types of ranges.:Intensity range.\n\nSufficient intensity range is simply the ability to see with very small quantities of light.\n", "Besides owls, bat hawks, frogmouths and nightjars also display good night vision. Some bird species nest deep in cave systems which are too dark for vision, and find their way to the nest with a simple form of echolocation. The oilbird is the only nocturnal bird to echolocate, but several \"Aerodramus\" swiftlets also utilise this technique, with one species, Atiu swiftlet, also using echolocation outside its caves.\n\nSection::::Variations across bird groups.:Water birds.\n", "\"A lineatus\" and other surface wave detecting fish have a limited range in which they can detect surface waves. The ratio of source distance/swim distance ranges between 0.84 and 1.20, and the means range from 0.98 to 1.07. This translates to an accuracy of 85% or higher when stimuli are 6–19 cm from the fish, decreasing to 76% at 14 cm. As the wave source gets farther from a fish, the fish's ability to accurately determine distance decreases until it can no longer detect the waves.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Nervous system.\n\nBirds have acute eyesight—raptors (birds of prey) have vision eight times sharper than humans—thanks to higher densities of photoreceptors in the retina (up to 1,000,000 per square mm in \"Buteos\", compared to 200,000 for humans), a high number of neurons in the optic nerves, a second set of eye muscles not found in other animals, and, in some cases, an indented fovea which magnifies the central part of the visual field. Many species, including hummingbirds and albatrosses, have two foveas in each eye. Many birds can detect polarised light.\n", "Yet another evolutionary example of chromostereopsis comes from cuttlefish. It has been suggested that cuttlefish estimate the distance of prey via stereopsis. Additional evidence suggests that their choice of camouflage is also sensitive to visual depth based on color-induced depth effects.\n\nSection::::Methods of testing.\n\nMany different methods of testing have been employed to view the effects of chromostereopsis on depth perception in humans. Technological progress has allowed for accurate, efficient, and more conclusive testing, in relation to the past, where individuals would merely observe the occurrence.\n", "Visual or auditory signals and their association with food and other rewards have been well studied, and birds have been trained to recognize and distinguish complex shapes. This is probably an important ability that aids their survival..\n\nSection::::Studies.:Spatial and temporal abilities.\n", "The visual system in fish is augmented by other sensing systems with comparable or complementary functions. Some fish are blind, and must rely entirely on alternate sensing systems. Other senses which can also provide data about location or distant objects include hearing and echolocation, electroreception, magnetoception and chemoreception (smell and taste). For example, catfish have chemoreceptors across their entire bodies, which means they \"taste\" anything they touch and \"smell\" any chemicals in the water. \"In catfish, gustation plays a primary role in the orientation and location of food\".\n", "\"Some birds, most notably oilbirds, also use echolocation, just as bats do. These birds live in caves and use their rapid chirps and clicks to navigate through dark caves where even sensitive vision may not be useful enough.\"\n\nSection::::In animals.:Fish.\n\nFish have a narrow hearing range compared to most mammals. Goldfish and catfish do possess a Weberian apparatus and have a wider hearing range than the tuna.\n\nSection::::In marine mammals.\n", "BULLET::::- Behaviour of the threat: In horned lizards, FID decreased as the distance between a turning predator and prey increased, but was greater when the predator turned toward than away from the fleeing animal. The FID and alert response of American robins to approaching humans was investigated; the greatest FID was when the approaching person was not on paths and was looking at the birds, while the lowest FID occurred when the person was on a path and not looking at the robins. The authors suggested this indicated that they use gaze direction to assess risk.\n", "Section::::Distance sensory systems.\n", "The visual ability of birds of prey is legendary, and the keenness of their eyesight is due to a variety of factors. Raptors have large eyes for their size, 1.4 times greater than the average for birds of the same weight, and the eye is tube-shaped to produce a larger retinal image. The resolving power of an eye depends both on the optics, large eyes with large apertures suffers less from diffraction and can have larger retinal images due to a long focal length, and on the density of receptor spacing. The retina has a large number of receptors per square millimeter, which determines the degree of visual acuity. The more receptors an animal has, the higher its ability to distinguish individual objects at a distance, especially when, as in raptors, each receptor is typically attached to a single ganglion. Many raptors have foveas with far more rods and cones than the human fovea (65,000/mm in American kestrel, 38,000 in humans) and this provides these birds with spectacular long distance vision. It is proposed that the shape of the deep central fovea of raptors can create a telephoto optical system, increasing the size of the retinal image in the fovea and thereby increasing the spatial resolution. Behavioural studies show that some large eyed raptors (Wedge-tailed eagle, Old world vultures) and have ca 2 times higher spatial resolution than humans, but many medium and small sized raptors have comparable or lower spatial resolution.\n", "In most raptors a prominent eye ridge and its feathers extends above and in front of the eye. This \"eyebrow\" gives birds of prey their distinctive stare. The ridge physically protects the eye from wind, dust, and debris and shields it from excessive glare. The osprey lacks this ridge, although the arrangement of the feathers above its eyes serves a similar function; it also possesses dark feathers in front of the eye which probably serve to reduce the glare from the water surface when the bird is hunting for its staple diet of fish.\n\nSection::::Variations across bird groups.:Nocturnal birds.\n", "Cats, like rats, are nocturnal animals, sensitive to tactual cues from their vibrissae. But the cat, as a predator, must rely more on its sight. Kittens were observed to have excellent depth-discrimination. At four weeks, the earliest age that a kitten can skillfully move about, they preferred the shallow side of the cliff. When placed on the glass over the deep side, they either freeze or circle backward until they reach the shallow side of the cliff.\n\nSection::::The study in different species.:Turtles.\n", "UV vision may also be related to foraging and other communication behaviors.\n\nMany species of fish can see the ultraviolet end of the spectrum, beyond the violet.\n\nUltraviolet vision is sometimes used during only part of the life cycle of a fish. For example, juvenile brown trout live in shallow water where they use ultraviolet vision to enhance their ability to detect zooplankton. As they get older, they move to deeper waters where there is little ultraviolet light.\n", "Section::::Equipment.:Glasses.\n\nOne of the keys to bowfishing is having a good visual of the target. In order to see the fish in the water on a sunny day, polarized sun glasses are helpful. They cut the glare on top of the water so it makes it easier to see what is below the surface. Different tints and lens colors make a difference in the color of water the hunter is fishing in, from darker brown to clearer blue and green. At night glasses are unnecessary, as lights are used to see through the water.\n\nSection::::Boats.\n", "The shape and function of the eyes in aquatic animals are dependent on water depth and light exposure: limited light exposure results in a retina similar to that of nocturnal terrestrial mammals. Additionally, cetaceans have two areas of high ganglion cell concentration (\"best-vision areas\"), where other aquatic mammals (e.g. seals, manatees, otters) only have one.\n", "In the traditional sense, aeroecology has been limited to observations taken from the ground of biological organisms occupying the airspace above. This may include near-surface foraging behavior or moon-watching passage migrants using human observers equipped with optics. With the advent and adoption of technologies such as thermographic cameras, marine radar, and NEXRAD to aeroecological studies, the ability to detect and track sufficiently large animals in the aerospere was revolutionized.\n\nSection::::Radar aeroecology.\n", "While tetrachromatic vision is not exclusive to birds (insects, reptiles, and crustaceans are also sensitive to short wavelengths), some predators of UVS birds cannot see ultraviolet light. This raises the possibility that ultraviolet vision gives birds a channel in which they can privately signal, thereby remaining inconspicuous to predators. However, recent evidence does not appear to support this hypothesis.\n\nSection::::Perception.\n\nSection::::Perception.:Contrast sensitivity.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Seeing Sense\": A vulture can spot a carcass from a great distance, the four-eyed fish can see above and below water simultaneously, a fly’s multi-faceted eye sees a very different world than a human eye, while other insects can see into ultra-violet light. And lions have an area on the retina which actually empathises with their prey.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03302	Why do people take the time to make computer viruses? It seems like a lot of work just to be a jerk, do they make money? How?	Most computer viruses are created with the intent to profit from them. This can take a few different forms though. Ransomeware encrypts your files until you pay the ransom, this is perhaps the largest threat in recent memory. Others search for data related to banking or other profitable information. Some enable the creator to take over the computer and use it's resources and/or network connection for other nefarious purposes. All that aside, most are created with some form of profit in mind. Then there are those who create them "because they can". Ever done something on a dare or because you wanted to see if you could or how far you could go? For some people creating viruses is like that. How many computers can they infect? Are they able to make a virus go worldwide? Personal or public prestige and challenge, et cetera. And then there's the even smaller subset of white hat viruses. Yeah, that's a thing. There are people who create viruses to patch security vulnerabilities. Example: URL_0 And sure, some create them for fun. It's not terribly difficult if you know your programming. Since a rather large number of people don't actually update their computers often, known security vulnerabilities are easily exploited. Remember WannaCry? The patch for that vulnerability was released several months before it became a worldwide problem and gained national news sensationalism. Software providers will discover a vulnerability, release a patch for it, then release the details for the vulnerability and patch some time later after giving people a reasonable amount of time to update their systems. This release also gives hackers a roadmap on how to attack those unpatched systems still online. Lastly there's the viruses that search for information. Whether government secrets or university research or protected business info, viruses can look for info and report matches back to the creator/controller. I'm not even going to talk about the nation-state created viruses. Bottom line is it can be for any reason in the human psyche, but mostly it's for profit. Turn on automatic updates. Source: am slightly drunk cybersecurity major.	[ "Script kiddies have at their disposal a large number of effective, easily downloadable programs capable of breaching computers and networks. Such programs have included remote denial-of-service WinNuke, trojans, Back Orifice, NetBus and Sub7 vulnerability scanner/injector kit Metasploit and often software intended for legitimate security auditing.\n\nScript kiddies vandalize websites both for the thrill of it and to increase their reputation among their peers. Some more malicious script kiddies have used virus toolkits to create and propagate the Anna Kournikova and Love Bug viruses.\n", "In April, 1988, Bulgaria's specialised magazine for computers, 'Компютър за Вас' (Computer for You), issued an article which explained in detail the nature of computer viruses and even methods for writing them. A few months after that, Bulgaria was \"visited\" by several foreign viruses, namely \"Vienna\", \"Ping Pong\" and \"Cascade\". The interest spawned by both the article and the viruses was huge, and soon, young Bulgarian programmers began to search for ways to devise their own viruses.\n", "The third victim of infection was the notorious bluepill Shane Black. This man was an unfortunate victim of the Smith Virus who, once infected, gained the ability to spread the code to others. This quickly led to a small scale outbreak, with several more bluepills becoming infected and joining forces in their hunt for power. He and the other infected were eventually cleansed and returned to their bluepill lives. Shane Black's troubles continued, as he was one of the bluepills recorded to have first witnessed Unlimited redpills practising their newfound powers at the Uriah wharf. This triggered a resurgence of the memories formed during his Smith infection and he soon became volatile and insane. He is reported to have been mercifully killed shortly afterwards.\n", "Another parody of virus hoaxes is the \"honor system virus\" which has been circulated under the name Amish Computer Virus, manual virus, the Blond Computer Virus, the Irish Computer Virus, the Syrian Computer Virus, the Norwegian Computer Virus, Albanian Virus, Newfie Virus, the Unix Computer Virus, the Mac OS 9 virus, Discount virus and many others. This joke email claims to be authored by the Amish or other similar low-technology populations who have no computers, programming skills or electricity to create viruses and thus ask you to delete your own hard drive contents manually after forwarding the message to your friends.\n", "BULLET::::- Computer virus hoaxes became widespread as viruses themselves began to spread. A typical hoax is an email message warning recipients of a non-existent threat, usually forging quotes supposedly from authorities such as Microsoft and IBM. In most cases the payload is an exhortation to distribute the message to everyone in the recipient's address book. Thus the e-mail \"warning\" is itself the \"virus.\" Sometimes the hoax is more harmful, e.g., telling the recipient to seek a particular file (usually in a Microsoft Windows operating system); if the file is found, the computer is deemed to be infected unless it is deleted. In reality the file is one required by the operating system for correct functioning of the computer.\n", "Resembling the cases of other computer virus writers, a few days later the mayor of Sneek, Mayor Sieboldt Hartkamp made a tentative job offer to De Wit in the local administration's IT department, saying the city should be proud to have produced such a talented young man.\n", "Ludwig had his own virus-writing periodical, \"Computer Virus Developments Quarterly\". He also held the \"First International Virus Writing Competition\", which promised a monetary reward of $200 for the creator of the smallest DOS-based, parasitic file infecter.\n", "Most hoaxes are sensational in nature and easily identified by the fact that they indicate that the virus will do nearly impossible things, like blow up the recipient's computer and set it on fire, or less sensationally, delete everything on the user's computer. They often include fake announcements claimed to originate from reputable computer organizations together with mainstream news media. These bogus sources are quoted in order to give the hoax more credibility. Typically, the warnings use emotive language, stress the urgent nature of the threat and encourage readers to forward the message to other people as soon as possible.\n", "Fake virus alerts, telling people of non-existent threats to their computer, are commonly distributed by email. Fake virus have become a prevalent part of internet culture pop ups claiming to be giveaways, store coupons and giveaway hoaxes.\n\nSection::::Marketing.\n\nBULLET::::- Hidden meanings in logos\n", "More recently, malware distributors have been utilizing SEO poisoning techniques by pushing infected URLs to the top of search engine results about recent news events. People looking for articles on such events on a search engine may encounter results that, upon being clicked, are instead redirected through a series of sites before arriving at a landing page that says that their machine is infected and pushes a download to a \"trial\" of the rogue program. A 2010 study by Google found 11,000 domains hosting fake anti-virus software, accounting for 50% of all malware delivered via internet advertising.\n", "Virus writers use social engineering deceptions and exploit detailed knowledge of security vulnerabilities to initially infect systems and to spread the virus. The vast majority of viruses target systems running Microsoft Windows, employing a variety of mechanisms to infect new hosts, and often using complex anti-detection/stealth strategies to evade antivirus software. Motives for creating viruses can include seeking profit (e.g., with ransomware), desire to send a political message, personal amusement, to demonstrate that a vulnerability exists in software, for sabotage and denial of service, or simply because they wish to explore cybersecurity issues, artificial life and evolutionary algorithms.\n", "On his blog, Wicked Rose discussed his preference for spear phishing attacks. First, during the collection phase information is gathered using open source information or from employee databases or mailboxes of a company's system. He may also conduct analysis on user ID's which allows them to track and understand their activities. Finally he conducts the attack using the information collected and someone is likely to open the infected document.\n", "Section::::Parodies.\n\nThe virus hoax has become part of the culture of the twenty-first century and the gullibility of novice computer users convinced to delete files on the basis of hoaxes has been parodied in several popular jokes and songs.\n\nOne such parody is \"Weird Al\" Yankovic's song \"Virus Alert\" from the album Straight Outta Lynwood. The song makes fun of the exaggerated claims that are made in virus hoaxes, such as legally changing your name or opening a rift in time and space.\n", "In the \"Friends\" episode \"The One in Barbados, Part One\", Ross Geller's laptop was infected by the Kournikova worm when Chandler Bing checked his email on it. The version of the worm in the episode was more malicious than the real thing, as it deleted Ross' entire hard drive, including his speech on paleontology, when it was opened. Moreover, the computer was a PowerBook G4, with which Windows-targeting malware would not be compatible.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of computer viruses\n\nBULLET::::- List of convicted computer criminals\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of notable computer viruses and worms\n", "The 18-year-old Buenos Aires programmer who created the Worm Generator toolkit, removed the application's files from his website later in February 2001. \"Once they heard my alias being mentioned on television, my friends recommended that I do so,\" he told ZDNet Latin America in an interview.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "Also in 1988, a mailing list named VIRUS-L was started on the BITNET/EARN network where new viruses and the possibilities of detecting and eliminating viruses were discussed. Some members of this mailing list were: Alan Solomon, Eugene Kaspersky (Kaspersky Lab), Friðrik Skúlason (FRISK Software), John McAfee (McAfee), Luis Corrons (Panda Security), Mikko Hyppönen (F-Secure), Péter Szőr, Tjark Auerbach (Avira) and Vesselin Bontchev (FRISK Software).\n", "The annual workshop is the biggest CARO event. The workshop is usually organized and hosted by one anti-virus firm in their home country. Workshops started in 2007 and the attendance is limited to 120-130 top anti-malware experts with a strict policy of no photography or recordings of any kind:\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Reykjavik, Iceland (organized by F-Prot)\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Hoofddorp, the Netherlands (Norman)\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Budapest, Hungary (Virus Buster)\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Helsinki, Finland (F-Secure)\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: Prague, Czech Republic (AVAST Software)\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Munich, Germany (Trend Micro and McAfee)\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: Bratislava, Slovakia (ESET)\n", "In 1982, a program called \"Elk Cloner\" was the first personal computer virus to appear \"in the wild\"—that is, outside the single computer or [computer] lab where it was created. Written in 1981 by Richard Skrenta, a ninth grader at Mount Lebanon High School near Pittsburgh, it attached itself to the Apple DOS 3.3 operating system and spread via floppy disk. On its 50th use the Elk Cloner virus would be activated, infecting the personal computer and displaying a short poem beginning \"Elk Cloner: The program with a personality.\" In 1984 Fred Cohen from the University of Southern California wrote his paper \"Computer Viruses – Theory and Experiments\". It was the first paper to explicitly call a self-reproducing program a \"virus\", a term introduced by Cohen's mentor Leonard Adleman. In 1987, Fred Cohen published a demonstration that there is no algorithm that can perfectly detect all possible viruses. Fred Cohen's theoretical compression virus was an example of a virus which was not malicious software (malware), but was putatively benevolent (well-intentioned). However, antivirus professionals do not accept the concept of \"benevolent viruses\", as any desired function can be implemented without involving a virus (automatic compression, for instance, is available under the Windows operating system at the choice of the user). Any virus will by definition make unauthorised changes to a computer, which is undesirable even if no damage is done or intended. On page one of \"Dr Solomon's Virus Encyclopaedia\", the undesirability of viruses, even those that do nothing but reproduce, is thoroughly explained.\n", "Virus hoaxes are usually harmless and accomplish nothing more than annoying people who identify it as a hoax and waste the time of people who forward the message. Nevertheless, a number of hoaxes have warned users that vital system files are viruses and encourage the user to delete the file, possibly damaging the system. Examples of this type include the jdbgmgr.exe virus hoax and the SULFNBK.EXE hoax.\n\nSome consider virus hoaxes and other chain e-mails to be a computer worm in and of themselves. They replicate by social engineering—exploiting users' concern, ignorance, and disinclination to investigate before acting.\n", "BULLET::::- December: Ralf Burger presented the Virdem model of programs at a meeting of the underground Chaos Computer Club in Germany. The Virdem model represented the first programs that could replicate themselves via addition of their code to executable DOS files in COM format.\n\nSection::::1981–1989.:1987.\n\nBULLET::::- Appearance of the Vienna virus, which was subsequently neutralized – the first time this had happened on the IBM platform.\n", "A virus may also send a web address link as an instant message to all the contacts (e.g., friends and colleagues' e-mail addresses) stored on an infected machine. If the recipient, thinking the link is from a friend (a trusted source) follows the link to the website, the virus hosted at the site may be able to infect this new computer and continue propagating. Viruses that spread using cross-site scripting were first reported in 2002, and were academically demonstrated in 2005. There have been multiple instances of the cross-site scripting viruses in the \"wild\", exploiting websites such as MySpace (with the Samy worm) and Yahoo!.\n", "BULLET::::- Appearance of Lehigh virus (discovered at its namesake university), boot sector viruses such as Yale from US, Stoned from New Zealand, Ping Pong from Italy, and appearance of first self-encrypting file virus, Cascade. Lehigh was stopped on campus before it spread to the wild, and has never been found elsewhere as a result. A subsequent infection of Cascade in the offices of IBM Belgium led to IBM responding with its own antivirus product development. Prior to this, antivirus solutions developed at IBM were intended for staff use only.\n", "An example of a macro virus is the Melissa virus which appeared in March 1999. When a user opens a Microsoft Word document containing the Melissa virus, their computer becomes infected. The virus then sends itself by email to the first 50 people in the person’s address book. This made the virus replicate at a fast rate.\n\nNot all macro viruses are detected by antivirus software. Caution when opening email attachments and other documents decreases the chance of becoming infected.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Malware\n\nBULLET::::- Computer virus\n\nBULLET::::- Computer worm\n\nBULLET::::- Trojan horse (computing)\n\nBULLET::::- Ransomware (malware)\n\nBULLET::::- Spyware\n", "The term \"computer virus\" may be used as an overarching phrase to include all types of true viruses, malware, including computer worms, Trojan horses, most rootkits, spyware, dishonest adware and other malicious and unwanted software (though all are technically unique), and proves to be quite financially lucrative for criminal organizations, offering greater opportunities for fraud and extortion whilst increasing security, secrecy and anonymity. Worms may be utilized by organized crime groups to exploit security vulnerabilities (duplicating itself automatically across other computers a given network), while a Trojan horse is a program that appears harmless but hides malicious functions (such as retrieval of stored confidential data, corruption of information, or interception of transmissions). Worms and Trojan horses, like viruses, may harm a computer system's data or performance. Applying the Internet model of organized crime, the proliferation of computer viruses and other malicious software promotes a sense of detachment between the perpetrator (whether that be the criminal organization or another individual) and the victim; this may help to explain vast increases in cyber-crime such as these for the purpose of ideological crime or terrorism. In mid July 2010, security experts discovered a malicious software program that had infiltrated factory computers and had spread to plants around the world. It is considered \"the first attack on critical industrial infrastructure that sits at the foundation of modern economies,\" notes the \"New York Times.\"\n", "He started his career as a systems analyst in 1984, and while working at an insurance company he was challenged in 1989 by a Trojan incident, in fact a very early version of ‘ransomware’ malware, the AIDS Trojan Horse. His system got infected by inserting a (5.25’’) floppy with ‘aids/HIV’-related information (a questionnaire), resulting in a lock down of his system and a request to pay $189. Figuring out how to get around this malware kindled Eddy Willems’ interest in computer viruses and resulted in a well received solution for this Trojan malware. Furthermore, it kick started his anti-virus and anti-malware career. Ever since, Eddy Willems compiles and maintains a reference library on the subject of viruses and malware.\n" ]	[ "Computer viruses are created to be a jerk to others." ]	[ "Computer viruses are created with the intent to profit from them." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Computer viruses are created to be a jerk to others." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Computer viruses are created with the intent to profit from them." ]
2018-09625	Why are fluorescent colors special and why did they not seem to exist before the 80's?	Other people have addressed your comment about the timeframe. Here's why they are special: Normal colors reflect the color you see and absorb anything else (a blue shirt absorbs red, yellow, green, etc. but reflects blue). This means that if there light hitting the shirt has 100 brightness units, the shirt can reflect up to 100 brightness units back. Fluorescent colors are able to absorb energy from beyond the range we can see (UV) and then re-emit it in a color we can see. So a fluorescent blue shirt could reflect up to 100 brightness units back of blue, and absorb another 100 brightness units of UV and emit them back as blue light, giving off 200 brightness units of blue in a room where everything else is only giving off 100.	[ "Brothers Robert and Joseph Switzer of Berkeley, California, began investigating fluorescence in the 1930s using a black light to identify naturally occurring fluorescent compounds, hitting first upon Murine eye wash. By mixing these compounds with shellac, they invented the first black light fluorescent paints. Joseph used these paints in his amateur magic show and sold magic kits based on the black light fluorescent costumes they created.\n", "Section::::History.:Commercialization of fluorescent lamps.\n\nAll the major features of fluorescent lighting were in place at the end of the 1920s. Decades of invention and development had provided the key components of fluorescent lamps: economically manufactured glass tubing, inert gases for filling the tubes, electrical ballasts, long-lasting electrodes, mercury vapor as a source of luminescence, effective means of producing a reliable electrical discharge, and fluorescent coatings that could be energized by ultraviolet light. At this point, intensive development was more important than basic research.\n", "introduction in 1946 was by Westinghouse and General Electric and Showcase/Display Case fixtures were introduced by Artcraft Fluorescent Lighting Corporation in 1946. During the following year, GE and Westinghouse publicized the new lights through exhibitions at the New York World's Fair and the Golden Gate International Exposition in San Francisco. Fluorescent lighting systems spread rapidly during World War II as wartime manufacturing intensified lighting demand. By 1951 more light was produced in the United States by fluorescent lamps than by incandescent lamps.\n", "Fluorescent lights were first available to the public at the 1939 New York World's Fair. Improvements since then have largely been better phosphors, longer life, and more consistent internal discharge, and easier-to-use shapes (such as compact fluorescent lamps). Some high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps couple their even-greater electrical efficiency with phosphor enhancement for better color rendition.\n", "Even though the patent issue was not completely resolved for many years, General Electric's strength in manufacturing and marketing gave it a pre-eminent position in the emerging fluorescent light market. Sales of \"fluorescent lumiline lamps\" commenced in 1938 when four different sizes of tubes were put on the market. They were used in fixtures manufactured by three leading corporations, Lightolier, Artcraft Fluorescent Lighting Corporation, and Globe Lighting. The Slimline fluorescent ballast's public\n", "The fluorescent lamp first became common in the late 1930s. These lamps are a form of discharge lamp where a small current causes a gas in the tube to glow. The typical glow is strong in ultraviolet but weak in visible light. The glass envelope is coated in a mixture of phosphors that are excited by the ultraviolet light and emit visible light. Fluorescent lamps are much more efficient than incandescent lamps, and for a short time became popular in street lighting both because of the efficiency and the novelty value. Fluorescent lamps for street lighting were first introduced to the public for commercial uses at the 1939 World's Fair.\n", "BULLET::::- A total internal reflection fluorescence microscope is a type of microscope with which a thin region of a specimen, usually less than 200 nm, can be observed. It can also be used to observe the fluorescence of a single molecule, making it an important tool of biophysics and quantitative biology. Daniel Axelrod invented the first total internal reflection fluorescence microscope in 1981.\n\n1981 Space shuttle\n", "Section::::History.:Early discharge lamps.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Metal-halide lamp\n\nBULLET::::- List of light sources\n\nBULLET::::- Gas-filled tube\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Emanuel Gluskin, “The fluorescent lamp circuit”, (Circuits & Systems Expositions)\n\nBULLET::::- IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, Part I: Fundamental Theory and Applications 46(5), 1999 (529–544).\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Popular Science\", January 1940 \"Fluorescent Lamps\"\n\nBULLET::::- T5 Fluorescent Systems — Lighting Research Center Research about the improved T5 relative to the previous T8 standard\n\nBULLET::::- NASA: The Fluorescent Lamp: A plasma you can use\n\nBULLET::::- Museum of Electric Lamp Technology\n", "In 1934, Arthur Compton, a renowned physicist and GE consultant, reported to the GE lamp department on successful experiments with fluorescent lighting at General Electric Co., Ltd. in Great Britain (unrelated to General Electric in the United States). Stimulated by this report, and with all of the key elements available, a team led by George E. Inman built a prototype fluorescent lamp in 1934 at General Electric’s Nela Park (Ohio) engineering laboratory. This was not a trivial exercise; as noted by Arthur A. Bright, \"A great deal of experimentation had to be done on lamp sizes and shapes, cathode construction, gas pressures of both argon and mercury vapor, colors of fluorescent powders, methods of attaching them to the inside of the tube, and other details of the lamp and its auxiliaries before the new device was ready for the public.\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1981 Philips sells their first Compact Fluorescent Energy Saving Lamps, with integrated conventional ballast.\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 Thorn Lighting Group exhibits the ceramic discharge metal-halide lamp.\n\nBULLET::::- 1985 Osram answers with the first electronic Energy Saving Lamps to be very successful\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 Ching W. Tang and Steven Van Slyke at Eastman Kodak create the first practical organic light-emitting diode (OLED).\n\nBULLET::::- 1990 Michael Ury, Charles Wood, and several colleagues develop the sulfur lamp.\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 Philips invents a fluorescent lightbulb that lasts 60,000 hours using magnetic induction.\n", "While Becquerel was interested primarily in conducting scientific research into fluorescence, Thomas Edison briefly pursued fluorescent lighting for its commercial potential. He invented a fluorescent lamp in 1896 that used a coating of calcium tungstate as the fluorescing substance, excited by X-rays, but although it received a patent in 1907, it was not put into production. As with a few other attempts to use Geissler tubes for illumination, it had a short operating life, and given the success of the incandescent light, Edison had little reason to pursue an alternative means of electrical illumination. Nikola Tesla made similar experiments in the 1890s, devising high-frequency powered fluorescent bulbs that gave a bright greenish light, but as with Edison's devices, no commercial success was achieved.\n", "Mercury vapor lamps continued to be developed at a slow pace, especially in Europe, and by the early 1930s they received limited use for large-scale illumination. Some of them employed fluorescent coatings, but these were used primarily for color correction and not for enhanced light output. Mercury vapor lamps also anticipated the fluorescent lamp in their incorporation of a ballast to maintain a constant current.\n", "Ethidium bromide and variants were developed in the 1950s, and in 1994, fluorescent proteins or FPs were introduced. Green fluorescent protein or GFP was discovered by Osamu Shimomura in the 1960s and was developed as a tracer molecule by Douglas Prasher in 1987. FPs led to a breakthrough of live cell imaging with the ability to selectively tag genetic protein regions and observe protein functions and mechanisms. For this breakthrough, Shimomura was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2008.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe development of methods to detect and identify biomolecules has been motivated by the ability to improve the study of molecular structure and interactions. Before the advent of fluorescent labeling, radioisotopes were used to detect and identify molecular compounds. Since then, safer methods have been developed that involve the use of fluorescent dyes or fluorescent proteins as tags or probes as a means to label and identify biomolecules. Although fluorescent tagging in this regard has only been recently utilized, the discovery of fluorescence has been around for a much longer time.\n", "Edmund Germer, Friedrich Meyer, and Hans Spanner patented a high-pressure vapor lamp in 1927. George Inman later teamed with General Electric to create a practical fluorescent lamp, sold in 1938 and patented in 1941. Circular and U-shaped lamps were devised to reduce the length of fluorescent light fixtures. The first fluorescent light bulb and fixture were displayed to the general public at the 1939 New York World's Fair.\n", "The development of the neon light also was significant for the last key element of the fluorescent lamp, its fluorescent coating. In 1926 Jacques Risler received a French patent for the application of fluorescent coatings to neon light tubes. The main use of these lamps, which can be considered the first commercially successful fluorescents, was for advertising, not general illumination. This, however, was not the first use of fluorescent coatings; Becquerel had earlier used the idea and Edison used calcium tungstate for his unsuccessful lamp. Other efforts had been mounted, but all were plagued by low efficiency and various technical problems. Of particular importance was the invention in 1927 of a low-voltage “metal vapor lamp” by Friedrich Meyer, Hans-Joachim Spanner, and Edmund Germer, who were employees of a German firm in Berlin. A German patent was granted but the lamp never went into commercial production.\n", "Fluorescence of certain rocks and other substances had been observed for hundreds of years before its nature was understood. By the middle of the 19th century, experimenters had observed a radiant glow emanating from partially evacuated glass vessels through which an electric current passed. One of the first to explain it was the Irish scientist Sir George Stokes from the University of Cambridge in 1852, who named the phenomenon \"fluorescence\" after fluorite, a mineral many of whose samples glow strongly because of impurities. The explanation relied on the nature of electricity and light phenomena as developed by the British scientists Michael Faraday in the 1840s and James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s.\n", "Section::::Other lighting technologies.:Cold-cathode fluorescent lamps.\n", "Many different circuits have been used to operate fluorescent lamps. The choice of circuit is based on AC voltage, tube length, initial cost, long term cost, instant versus non-instant starting, temperature ranges and parts availability, etc.\n", "Artcraft Fluorescent Lighting Corporation was one of the top three manufacturers of fluorescent lighting fixtures in the United States, and became the \" Saks Fifth Avenue\" of the industry, from the time of the public introduction of the fluorescent lamp at the 1939 World's Fair. Being a pioneer of fluorescent fixture manufacturing, various designs and shapes of fixtures were tried by the company in the beginning with various bulb shapes being introduced until it was settled upon that the liner design was the most desirable to customers. Artcraft announced a liner showcase striplight fixture and slimline ballast in 1946.\n", "Section::::History.:Neon lamps.\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 T5 lamps with cool tip are introduced to become the leading fluorescent lamps with up to 117 lm/W with good color rendering. These and almost all new fluorescent lamps are to be operated on electronic ballasts only.\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 The first commercial sulfur lamp is sold by Fusion Lighting.\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 Shuji Nakamura at Nichia labs invents the first practical blue and with additional phosphor, white LED, starting an LED boom.\n\nSection::::21st century.\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 Ushio Lighting demonstrates the first LED Filament.\n", "Section::::Phosphors and the spectrum of emitted light.:Color temperature.\n", "Since fluorescence emission differs in wavelength (color) from the excitation light, an ideal fluorescent image shows only the structure of interest that was labeled with the fluorescent dye. This high specificity led to the widespread use of fluorescence light microscopy in biomedical research. Different fluorescent dyes can be used to stain different biological structures, which can then be detected simultaneously, while still being specific due to the individual color of the dye.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02742	How do scientists determine whether an animal's behaviour is normal or abnormal?	At first there's no way to tell, if it's a primeape for example you could compare it to others. However until you document many or a herd it's too uncertain to get accurate results.	[ "The most reliable and valid animal models developed are the canine (narcoleptic dogs) and the rodent (orexin-deficient mice) ones which helped investigating the narcolepsy and set the focus on the role of orexin in this disorder.\n\nSection::::Research.:Animal model.:Dog.\n", "Section::::Behavioural model.:Evaluation of the behavioural model.\n", "Lesions aren't the only way to discover the role of a structure in species-typical behavior; scientists also use stimulation. In a 1957 experiment, physiologist Walter Hess used an electrode to stimulate a certain part of a resting cat's brainstem; immediately after the stimulation, the cat stood up and arched its back with erect hair - a species-typical behavior in which cats engage when frightened. The behavior lasted as long as the stimulation lasted, and ended as soon as the stimulation ended. Later experiments revealed that even if the same part of the brain is stimulated with the same amount of energy for the same period of time, the intensity of the elicited behavior changes depending on the context. In 1973, behavioral physiologist Erich von Holst attached an electrode to one part of a chicken's brainstem, and recorded the (admittedly somewhat subjective) data. When briefly stimulated without any unusual environmental factors, the chicken was restless. When briefly stimulated in the presence of a human fist, the chicken reacted with a slightly threatening posture, and in the presence of a weasel, the chicken took a very threatening pose, with feathers bristling. In short, the brainstem elicits species-typical behavior that is appropriate to the surrounding environment.\n", "Abnormal behaviour in animals can be defined in several ways. Statistically, abnormal is when the occurrence, frequency or intensity of a behaviour varies statistically significantly, either more or less, from the normal value. This means that theoretically, almost any behaviour could become abnormal in an individual. Less formally, 'abnormal' includes any activity judged to be outside the normal behaviour pattern for animals of that particular class or age. For example, infanticide may be a normal behaviour and regularly observed in one species, however, in another species it might be normal but becomes 'abnormal' if it reaches a high frequency, or in another species it is rarely observed and any incidence is considered 'abnormal'. This list does not include one-time behaviours performed by individual animals that might be considered abnormal for that individual, unless these are performed repeatedly by other individuals in the species and are recognised as part of the ethogram of that species.\n", "Most abnormal behaviours can be categorised collectively (e.g., eliminative, ingestive, stereotypies), however, many abnormal behaviours fall debatedly into several of these categories and categorisation is therefore not attempted in this list. Some abnormal behaviours may be related to environmental conditions (e.g. captive housing) whereas others may be due to medical conditions. The list does not include behaviours in animals that are genetically modified to express abnormal behaviour (e.g. Reeling mice).\n\nBULLET::::- Abnormal sexual behaviour; various types.\n\nBULLET::::- Activity anorexia; a condition where animals exercise excessively while simultaneously reducing their food intake.\n", "Studies of dogs, and dog related matters, are carried out and published: in general, by those who have mastered the relevant literature or aspects of it, and the formal structure of the subject (National and International Kennel Club breeding, health, and show regulations etc.); in specific, by biologists, geneticists, zoologists, behaviourists, and others scientists, historians, veterinarians and breed specialists.\n", "BULLET::::- Gentle handling: during the sleep deprivation period, the animal and its polysomnograph record are continuously observed; when the animal displays sleep electrophysiological signals or assumes a sleep posture, it is given objects to play with and activated by acoustic and, if necessary, tactile stimuli. Although subjective, this technique is used for total sleep deprivation as well as REM or NREM sleep deprivation. This technique often requires polysomnography.\n", "Abnormal behavior of birds in captivity can be defined in several ways. Statistically, 'abnormal' is when the occurrence, frequency or intensity of a behaviour varies statistically significantly, either more or less, from the normal value. This means that theoretically, almost any behaviour could become 'abnormal' in an individual. Less formally, 'abnormal' includes any activity judged to be outside the normal behaviour pattern for captive birds of that particular class or age. For example, running rather than flying may be a normal behaviour and regularly observed in one species, however, in another species it might be normal but becomes 'abnormal' if it reaches a high frequency, or in another species it is rarely observed and any incidence is considered 'abnormal'. This article does not include 'one-off' behaviours performed by individual birds that might be considered abnormal for that individual, unless these are performed repeatedly by other individuals in the species and are recognised as part of the ethogram of that species.\n", "Veterinary surgeons recognize that the psychological state of a captive or domesticated animal must be taken into account if its behavior and health are to be understood and optimized.\n\nCommon causes of disordered behavior in captive or pet animals are lack of stimulation, inappropriate stimulation, or overstimulation. These conditions can lead to disorders, unpredictable and unwanted behavior, and sometimes even physical symptoms and diseases. For example, rats who are exposed to loud music for a long period will ultimately develop unwanted behaviors that have been compared with human psychosis, like biting their owners.\n", "Section::::The Neuroscience of Species-Typical Behavior.\n\nSpecies-typical behaviors are almost always a product of nervous systems, meaning that they're created and influenced by species' genetic code and social and natural environment; this implies that they are strongly influenced by evolution. The phenomenon of the breast crawl is a classic example of this: the vast majority of human newborns, when placed on a reclined mother’s abdomen, will find and begin to suckle on one of the mother’s breasts without any assistance.\n\nSection::::The Neuroscience of Species-Typical Behavior.:Brain Structures.\n", "BULLET::::- For the first diagnostic category of impaired social behaviour, mice are subject to a social assay intended to represent typical autistic social deficits. Normal social behaviour for mice includes sniffing, following, physical contact and allogrooming. Vocal communication could be used as well.\n\nBULLET::::- There are a number of ways the second diagnostic category can be observed in mice. Examples of repetitive behaviours can include excessive circling, self-grooming and excessive digging. Usually these behaviours would be performed consistently within a long measurement of time (i.e. self-grooming for 10 minutes).\n", "One example of fixed action patterns is the courtship and aggression behaviour of the male three-spined stickleback during the mating season, described in a series of studies by Niko Tinbergen. During spring, male sticklebacks change colour, establish a territory and build a nest. They attack male sticklebacks that enter their territory, but court females and entice them to enter the nest to lay eggs. Tinbergen used crude models of sticklebacks to investigate which features of male and female sticklebacks elicited attack and courtship behaviour from male sticklebacks. Tinbergen's main findings were that male sticklebacks responded in a relatively invariant way and attacked a model with a red belly, but in contrast, courted a model with a swollen belly.\n", "Section::::Main characters.:Sasquatch.\n", "On the other hand, the veterinarian may also perform clinical diagnosis based on the posture, activity state, rest state and frequency of the puppy when he or she is sick. According to these clinical manifestations, it can be judged as primary head tremor or idiopathic head tremor. And based on these can draw a diagnostic method.\n", "In a survey in 2003, it was found that 89% of singly-housed primates exhibited self-injurious or abnormal stereotypyical behaviors including pacing, rocking, hair pulling, and biting among others.\n", "Section::::The study in different species.:Cows.\n", "Studies into the mechanisms underlying behavioural adjustments fall into a category of animal behaviour research described by Tinbergen.\n\nStudies of animal behaviour typically pertain to one of Tinbergen’s four questions, and these can be applied to studies regarding chemical pollution. Questions of causation focus on how pollutant-exposure disrupts the mechanisms behind normal behaviour. For example, when differences in sexual behaviours were noted in wildlife after the introduction of DDT, biochemical experiments on rats were able to show that the pollutant was inhibiting androgen binding to androgen receptors. \n", "Section::::Behavioral disorders.:Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD).:Animal models.\n\nAnimals exhibiting obsessive and compulsive behaviors that resemble OCD in humans have been used as a tool for elucidating possible genetic influences on the disease, potential treatments, and to better understand the pathology of this behavior in general. While such models are useful, they are also limited; it is unclear whether the behavior is ego dystonic in animals. That is, it is difficult to evaluate whether an animal is aware that its behavior is excessive and unreasonable and whether this awareness is a source of anxiety.\n", "Some examples of ways in which rats and mice, two of the most common animal models, have been used to represent human OCD are provided below.\n\nLever pressing in rats\n", "Section::::Care and use of animals.:Pain and suffering.\n\nThe extent to which animal testing causes pain and suffering, and the capacity of animals to experience and comprehend them, is the subject of much debate.\n\nAccording to the USDA, in 2016 501,560 animals (61%) (not including rats, mice, birds, or invertebrates) were used in procedures that did not include more than momentary pain or distress. 247,882 (31%) animals were used in procedures in which pain or distress was relieved by anesthesia, while 71,370 (9%) were used in studies that would cause pain or distress that would not be relieved.\n", "Section::::The Neuroscience of Species-Typical Behavior.:Instinct And Experience.\n", "Once an integrated behavior tree has been composed, there are a number of important operations that can be performed upon it.\n\nSection::::Key concepts.:Operations on integrated behavior trees.:Inspection: defect detection and correction.\n", "Dogs as well as other species like cats or horses can also exhibit spontaneous narcolepsy with similar symptoms as the one reported in humans. The attacks of cataplexy in dogs can involve partial or full collapse. Narcolepsy with cataplexy was identified in a few breeds like Labrador retrievers or Doberman pinschers where it was investigated the possibility to inherit this disorder in the autosomal recessive mode. According to a reliable canine model for narcolepsy would be the one in which the narcoleptic symptoms are the result of a mutation in the gene HCRT 2. The animals affected exhibited excessive daytime sleepiness with a reduced state of vigilance and severe cataplexy resulted after palatable food and interactions with the owners or with other animals.\n", "Section::::Dissertation on animal behavior.\n", "Also, organisms tend to have a normal biological developmental pathway as a central nervous system ages and/or learns. Deviations for a species' normal development frequently will result in behaviour dysfunction, or death, of that organism.\n\nSection::::Effects of labeling.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04409	What's the least dangerous way to fall off a high building?	For surviving, legs first. You'll be crippled for life but you have a slightly higher chance of not dying. For anything else, flat on your back would distribute the force most evenly, but risk damaging your spinal cord. Just...don't fall off a tall building?	[ "Section::::Safety.\n\nTower climbers may be injured or killed by falling objects, structural collapses and equipment failures. Some of the more frequently encountered hazards include falls from great heights; electrical hazards; hazards associated with hoisting personnel and equipment with base-mounted drum hoists; inclement weather; and structural collapse of towers.\n\nSection::::Safety.:In the United States.\n", "BULLET::::- On May 13, 1983, a 17-year-old boy from Delaware, Ohio was attending a graduation party with his classmates when he fell about to his death down the elevator shaft of the Eiffel Tower. He had climbed a large fence onto an emergency stairwell and then into the shaft for an unknown reason and was struck by the elevator's counterweight. He became tangled in the cables and fell when the elevator at the bottom started back up again.\n\nSection::::Kings Island.:Firehawk.\n", "BULLET::::- The 1978 film version of the John Buchan story \"The Thirty Nine Steps\" features Richard Hannay (Robert Powell) hanging from the minute hand on the clock face of Big Ben.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1983 martial arts film \"Project A\", Jackie Chan also paid an homage to Lloyd (whom he has frequently cited as an influence on his work) by falling from a clock tower.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1962, the \"dangling from the skyscraper\" scene was included in \"Harold Lloyd's World of Comedy\", a compilation movie produced by Harold Lloyd himself. The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival and created a renewal of interest in the comedian by introducing him to a new generation.\n\nBULLET::::- The 1972 \"Dad's Army\" episode \"Time on My Hands\" features men hanging precariously from the hands of a clock tower.\n", "Physically removed the hazard—is the most effective hazard control. For example, if employees must work high above the ground, the hazard can be eliminated by moving the piece they are working on to ground level to eliminate the need to work at heights.\n\nSection::::Components of the hierarchy.:Substitution.\n", "In a multi-story building, an internal stairway (away from broken windows) often acts as a safe haven, due to the stairs reinforcing the walls and blocking any major debris falling from above. If a stairway is lined with windows, then there would be the danger of flying glass, so an interior stairway, or small inner room, would be preferable.\n", "Section::::Environmental modification.:Safety technology.\n\nImportant improvements to prevent falls at home or indeed, anywhere, include provision of handrails and grab bars, which should be easy to grip or grasp and should be near any stairs, or change in floor level. Floors should always be flat and level, with no exposed corners or edges to trip the unwary. Patterned floors can be dangerous if they create misleading or distorted images of the floor surface, so should be avoided.\n", "Section::::Falling correctly.\n\nBreaking one’s neck can be avoided if a climber learns how to fall correctly. Volker Schöffl and Tomas Küpper of Germany reviewed many reports of injuries caused by climbers who grabbed something as they fell. They analyzed the information and determined the best way to fall.\n", "Injuries caused by falls from buildings vary depending on the building's height and the age of the person. Falls from a building's second floor/story (American English) or first floor/storey (British English and equivalent idioms in continental European languages) usually cause injuries but are not fatal. Overall, the height at which 50% of children die from a fall is between four and five storey heights (around ) above the ground.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "The load and horizontal line geometry in horizontal lifelines usually creates falls in excess of the 6 ft limit of the standard, limiting HLL design to standard-defined \"qualified persons\". (The recognition of these basic weaknesses have resulted in most temporary \"wrapped structure\" HLL anchors, which were anchors made from a wire rope wrapped around a structure and its ends fastened together by wire rope clips, being replaced by fixed-point anchors or HLL systems designed by defined \"qualified\" persons.)\n\nSection::::Fall clearance.\n", "Two people have survived falls by not falling more than a floor. On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto a ledge on the 85th floor by a gust of wind and left with a broken hip. On April 25, 2013, a man fell from the 86th floor observation deck, but he landed alive with minor injuries on an 85th-floor ledge where security guards brought him inside and paramedics transferred him to a hospital for a psychiatric evaluation.\n\nSection::::Incidents.:Shootings.\n", "BULLET::::- Two of the high-wire \"Flying Wallendas\" were killed when their famous 7-person pyramid collapsed during a tightrope walking performance at the Shrine Circus at the State Fair Coliseum in Detroit. Dieter Schepp, who had lost his footing and caused the group to topple, and Richard Faughnan both died of head injuries after falling 36 feet to the concrete arena floor. Mario Wallenda was paralyzed as a result of the accident, and Karl Wallenda and Jana Schepp were hospitalized for their injuries.\n", "BULLET::::- Kirill Oreshkin, the Moscow-based \"Russian Spiderman\" has published pictures of himself in the midst of dangerous stunts on some of Russia's tallest buildings. Oreshkin started scaling buildings as a hobby in 2008 and videos of his ascents have also been posted on YouTube.\n\nBULLET::::- Angela Nikolau, a Russian model whose rooftopping adventures have vaulted her into worldwide fame.\n\nBULLET::::- Wu Yongning, known as the Chinese Superman, died in 2017 while performing a rooftopping stunt.\n", "BULLET::::- Harry Gardiner, who climbed over 700 buildings in the United States and Europe between 1905 and 1918, usually wearing street clothes and tennis shoes, with no climbing equipment.\n\nIn the 1930s, Whipplesnaith (Noël Symington) climbed many buildings in Cambridge, England.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Alain Robert\n\nBULLET::::- BASE jumping\n\nBULLET::::- Urban exploration\n\nBULLET::::- Night climbing in Cambridge\n\nBULLET::::- \"Doorways in the Sand\"\n\nBULLET::::- Parkour\n\nBULLET::::- \"Safety Last!\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Night Climbers of Oxford\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Night Climbers of Cambridge\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Assassin's Creed\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Alain Robert Official website\n\nBULLET::::- BBC announces Ascent of the Arche de la Defence\n", "BULLET::::- On June 26, 1986, the ten-year anniversary of the tower's opening, high-rise firefighting and rescue advocate Dan Goodwin, in a sponsored publicity event, used his hands and feet to climb the outside of the tower, a feat he performed twice on the same day. Following both ascents, he used multiple rappels to descend to the ground.\n\nBULLET::::- The Glass Floor, at an elevation of , opened to the public on June 26, 1994.\n", "Collapse zones are traditionally established by a commanding officer. The collapse zone itself should be as wide as the structure and as tall, plus half the height. The reason for this increase in height is that the worst-case scenario (and the most common), a 90° Angle Collapse, must be assumed. A collapse zone should be established with barricade tape and should be enforced if necessary.\n\nSection::::Obstacles.\n", "BULLET::::- U.S. Bank Tower (Los Angeles 1990) - the first building destroyed by the alien ships in the film \"Independence Day\" (1996); in \"The Day After Tomorrow\" by a Category F-5 Tornado (2004) and in \"2012\" (2009) the city including the U.S. Bank Tower gets destroyed due to Magnitude 10+ earthquakes.\n\nBULLET::::- Rialto Tower (Melbourne 1986) - featured in \"Ghost Rider\" (2007). The Ghost Rider is seen riding vertically up the tower to elude the authorities.\n", "They were the most common cause of injury seen in emergency departments in the United States. One study found that there were nearly 7.9 million emergency department visits involving falls, nearly 35.7% of all encounters.\n\nIn 2000, in the USA 717 workers died of injuries caused by falls from ladders, scaffolds, buildings, or other elevations. More recent data in 2011, found that STFs contributed to 14% of all workplace fatalities in the United States that year.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Falls Among Older Adults: Brochures and Posters (in English, Spanish, and Chinese) US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\n", "In August 1999, French urban climber Alain \"Spiderman\" Robert, using only his bare hands and bare feet, scaled the building's exterior glass and steel wall all the way to the top. A thick fog settled in near the end of his climb, making the last 20 stories of the building's glass and steel exterior slippery.\n\nSection::::Naming rights.\n", "The strategy of individuals in evacuating buildings was investigated by John Abrahams in 1994. The independent variables were the complexity of the building and the movement ability of the individuals. With increasing complexity and decreasing motion ability, the strategy changes from \"fast egress\", through \"slow egress\" and \"move to safe place inside building\" (such as a staircase), to \"stay in place and wait for help\". The third strategy is the notion of using a designated \"safe haven\" on the floor. This is a section of the building that is reinforced to protect against specific hazards, such as fire, smoke or structural collapse. Some hazards may have safe havens on each floor, while a hazard such as a tornado, may have a single safe haven or safe room. Typically persons with limited mobility are requested to report to a safe haven for rescue by first responders. In most buildings, the safe haven will be in the stairwell.\n", "Section::::Hazards.:Falls from rocks.\n", "On Halloween weekend 2011 a 45-year-old woman attempted to climb the 28 story building by using the scaffolding (being used for renovations) on the east side of the building. Reports say she leaned back on the scaffolding and plummeted 200 feet to her death in front of hundreds of spectators. She was pronounced dead at the scene. The woman was not a student.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Neuer Zollhof\" in Düsseldorf\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Reichenturm\" in Bautzen\n\nBULLET::::- The Leaning Tower of Suurhusen (\"Schiefer Turm von Suurhusen\") (according to Guinness World Records the most tilted tower in the world that is unintentionally tilted)\n\nBULLET::::- The Leaning Tower of Dausenau (\"Schiefer Turm von Dausenau\") (slightly further leaning than the Tower of Suurhusen, disqualified by Guinness World Records for being a ruin instead of a tower)\n\nBULLET::::- The 14th-century bell tower of the Church of Our Dear Lady in Bad Frankenhausen\n\nSection::::Europe.:Hungary.\n\nBULLET::::- Szécsény Firewatch Tower, leaning 3 degrees\n\nSection::::Europe.:Ireland.\n", "Section::::Building climber.:Notable building climbs.:North Tower of the World Trade Center.\n", "BULLET::::- James A Dearing, who scaled the Rutherford County Courthouse in 1923, but fell to his death after completing the climb. His stage name was Roy Royce.\n\nBULLET::::- Harry F Young, who was hired in 1923 to climb the Hotel Martinique in New York City, to promote the silent movie \"Safety Last!\". He lost his grip on the ascent, and fell nine stories to his death.\n\nBULLET::::- George Polley, who climbed between 1910 and 1920. He died at the age of 29 from a brain tumour.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04472	Animals getting saved from extinction.	I believe the smallest population size to prevent inbreeding is ~4000 individuals. If the species is limited to < 1000 individuals then inbreeding will be a serious problem which might cause the species to die out completely. There are methods to slow inbreeding such as planned mating with less-related members, cross-breeding with another compatible species, screening for recessive genes etc. However when the population size is small, genetic mutations occur at a faster rate and cause the species to rapidly adapt. It might be that a new species will emerge or genetic defects will accumulate until the population is no longer viable.	[ "Section::::History.\n", "Over 50% of the world's species are estimated to be at risk of extinction. Internationally, 199 countries have signed an accord to create Biodiversity Action Plans that will protect endangered and other threatened species. In the United States, such plans are usually called Species Recovery Plans.\n\nSection::::IUCN Red List.\n", "BULLET::::- climate change, and the protection of ‘carbon sinks' such as rainforests and areas of high biodiversity value\n\nBULLET::::- national and international biodiversity policy and implementation to protect habitats critical to the survival of many native species;\n\nSection::::Awards.\n", "BULLET::::- Habitat Conservation Plans: Habitat Conservation Plans is an effort by the US Fish and Wild Life Service and the Environmental Protection Agency to protect species and their endangerment by providing economical incentives to conserve their habitats and protect these species from endangerment.\n", "Section::::Mission statement.\n\nThe organization has put forth a mission statement to outline what it wishes to achieve. It lists three main goals:\n\nBULLET::::1. Rescue, rehabilitate and reintroduce to the wild injured and orphaned wildlife.\n\nBULLET::::2. Educate others about the importance of conserving wild animals and the ecosystems that sustain them.\n\nBULLET::::3. Research and develop the knowledge and understanding necessary for the conservation and management of wildlife.\n\nSection::::Progress.\n", "BULLET::::2. Protect endangered and threatened species and their habitats.\n\nBULLET::::3. Restore the health of once-vulnerable species and their habitats.\n\nSection::::Areas of work.\n", "Section::::Context and trends.\n", "Governments sometimes see the loss of native species as a loss to ecotourism, and can enact laws with severe punishment against the trade in native species in an effort to prevent extinction in the wild. Nature preserves are created by governments as a means to provide continuing habitats to species crowded by human expansion. The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity has resulted in international Biodiversity Action Plan programmes, which attempt to provide comprehensive guidelines for government biodiversity conservation. Advocacy groups, such as The Wildlands Project and the Alliance for Zero Extinctions, work to educate the public and pressure governments into action.\n", "\"All the animals we’ll see over the course of the series are disappearing because of one species: humans. We know that we are using more than our fair share of the planet and its resources and we must now redress this imbalance. Any effort to do so – no matter how big or small – is valuable, if we wish to ensure a future that is healthy for all life on planet Earth so we have to save earth from various types of Pollution, Waste food, Drained Water etc. The earth is our mother planet in which we born and understand learn to speak, learn to walk and learned everything that we are now able to do. \"It is only planet in our solar system on which life exists which incredible biodiversity. People all over the world celebrate this grand event all to protect flora and fauna and clean up the earth on which we live. Our life will be waste if we have no any goal. Without any goal we will feel unlucky, waste life etc. But if we don't Save Planet Earth then, our Earth will be destroyed and we can't live. So, Save Planet Earth.\n", "Flagship species projects have sometimes been successful in saving the species and its habitat, as with the American bald eagle and the manatee.\n\nSection::::Choosing species.\n", "Section::::Modern American conservation movement.:Notable Events.:Ecotourism.\n", "BULLET::::- The Nature Conservancy is a US charitable environmental organization that works to preserve the plants, animals, and natural communities that represent the diversity of life on Earth by protecting the lands and waters they need to survive.\n", "Section::::Context and trends.:Holocene extinction.\n", "The trade in parrots for pets, alligator hide handbags, dried seahorse curios, elephant ivory, and ramin pool cues—just a few examples of the billion dollar international trade in wildlife and plants. Few people realize the scope and impact of this trade that has been responsible for the decline of wild populations of a number of species of animals and plants.\n", "Section::::Background.:2. Saving Gorillas.\n\nIn the first of nine 30-minute films focussing on particular threatened species, pop star Will Young travels to Cameroon to report on the plight of the lowland gorilla. Although more numerous than its mountain-dwelling cousins, its numbers are declining fast due to habitat loss and poaching.\n\nSection::::Background.:3. Saving Tigers.\n", "BULLET::::- Endangered Species Act – the organization is a leading voice on the Endangered Species Act and the protection and defense of threatened and endangered species in North America. The organization launched the Center for Conservation Innovation in 2017. As part of its leadership on the ESA, the organization launched the Center for Conservation Innovation (CCI) as a new initiative to improve endangered species conservation in the United States that uses data, technology and interdisciplinary approaches to pioneer innovative solutions to conservation problems. It is the largest searchable database of ESA documents, ESAdocs Search, spanning nearly 14,000 documents and growing.\n", "BULLET::::- Expand the Partners in Flight network and increase financial resources to support landbird conservation activities.\n\nSection::::Working Groups.\n", "BULLET::::- Waterway restoration - Weed - Wetland conservation - Wildlife corridor - Wildlife reserve - Woodland management - Water Conservation Order - Waterbar - Wilderness area - Wildlife Conservation Society - Wildlife trade - World Commission on Protected Areas - World Conference on Breeding Endangered Species in Captivity as an Aid to their Survival - World Heritage Site - World Network of Biosphere Reserves\n\nSection::::Z.\n\nBULLET::::- Zoo\n\nSection::::Conventions, protocols, panels and summits.\n\nBULLET::::- Biosafety protocol - Montreal 2000\n\nBULLET::::- Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas\n", "BULLET::::- Indian rhinoceros in Pakistan (ongoing)\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian otter in Japan (ongoing)\n\nBULLET::::- Père David's deer in China (successful)\n\nBULLET::::- Persian leopard in Russia (ongoing)\n\nBULLET::::- Przewalski's horse in Mongolia (ongoing)\n\nBULLET::::- Red fox in Sobaeksan National Park, South Korea (ongoing)\n\nBULLET::::- Sarus cranes in Thailand (ongoing)\n\nBULLET::::- Short-tailed albatross in Japan (successful)\n", "Attention is being given to endangered species globally, notably through the Convention on Biological Diversity, otherwise known as the Rio Accord, which includes 189 signatory countries that are focused on identifying endangered species and habitats. Another notable conservation organization is the IUCN, which has a membership of over 1,200 governmental and non-governmental organizations.\n", "Section::::Accomplishments.\n\nSection::::Accomplishments.:Reintroduction of Species.\n", "Section::::Successes and failures.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Critically endangered\" - \"extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Endangered\" - \"very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vulnerable\" - \"high risk of extinction in the wild in medium-term future\", and\n\nBULLET::::- \"Conservation dependent\" - \"focus of a specific conservation program\" without which the species would enter one of the above categories.\n\nThe EPBC Act also recognises and protects threatened ecosystems such as plant communities, and Ramsar Convention wetlands used by migratory birds.\n", "BULLET::::5. the effects of introduced taxa, hybridisation, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites.\n\nBULLET::::2. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of ≥ 50% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.\n", "BULLET::::- Yarkon bleak fish in Israel (successful)\n\nSection::::Reintroduction programs.:North America.\n\nBULLET::::- American bison to El Carmen Nature Reserve and Janos Biosphere Reserve in Mexico, Banff National Park in Alberta\n\nBULLET::::- American flamingo to Anegada, British Virgin Islands (successful)\n\nBULLET::::- Black-footed ferret in Canada, United States and Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- Blanding's turtle in Canada\n\nBULLET::::- California condor in California and Mexico (ongoing)\n\nBULLET::::- California bighorn sheep in Oregon (successful)\n\nBULLET::::- Fisher in Washington State (ongoing)\n\nBULLET::::- Golden eagle in United States\n\nBULLET::::- Bald eagle to Channel Islands National Park, California\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01801	Why aren't there gas caps on both sides of a car?	Because it's a waste of money, weight, and space, and for what? Do you actually need it? Adding gas caps requires two filler necks, two gas caps, two gas doors, two gas cap locks and sensors, it adds a failure point to the evap system, it requires extra cutouts in the body, and typically removes possible storage or component space in the car.	[ "Driving caps serve no function in the operation of a pipe and may even be incapable of doing so. This is because the driving cap is cast from a material selected for its strength and not its corrosion resistance. Thus replacement of the driving cap with a different fitting becomes necessary to prevent failures in materials handling pipe. Also, driving caps are not attractive in appearance, which is detrimental in residential and ornamental applications.\n", "Likewise for safety reasons, the filler could no longer be in the middle back of the car in the crumple zone and thus had to be on the side of the car. Which side is a series of trade-offs: driver's side is easier to access, and mechanically simpler for gas cap locks; passenger side is safer (away from passing traffic in roadside fill-ups). Asymmetric sliding doors may also dictate placement and some minivan doors will collide with a fillup in progress.\n\nSection::::Aircraft.\n\nAircraft typically use three types of fuel tanks: integral, rigid removable, and bladder.\n", "In 1967, equipment specifications by such major fleet purchasers as the City and County of Los Angeles, California encouraged the voluntary installation in most new cars sold in the US of safety devices, systems, and design features including:\n\nBULLET::::- Elimination of protruding knobs and controls in passenger compartment\n\nBULLET::::- Additional padding on the instrument panel and other interior surfaces\n\nBULLET::::- Mounting points for front outboard shoulder belts\n\nBULLET::::- Four-way hazard flashers\n\nBULLET::::- A uniform P-R-N-D-L gear sequence for automatic transmission gear selectors\n\nBULLET::::- Dual-circuit brake hydraulic systems\n", "BULLET::::- In some cases, automobiles may be equipped with run-flat tires and thus not require a separate spare tire. Other vehicles may carry a can of tire repair foam, to repair punctured tires, although these often do not work in the case of larger punctures, and are useless in the event of a blow-out.\n\nSection::::Storage.\n", "A print ad for the 1973 Subaru GL coupé referred to the engine as \"quadrozontal\" The large bumpers required in the United States sat on hydraulic units; these were not a part of the original design and thus intruded considerably into the luggage compartment.\n", "In the early and mid-1990s, airbags became a standard feature of steering wheels and dashboards.\n\nSection::::Fashion in instrumentation.\n", "BULLET::::- ACME thread. This type has a threaded fitting onto which the bowser nozzle is screwed before the trigger is pulled to establish a seal before fuel transfer. This type is used in Australia, US, Germany, Belgium, Republic of Ireland. Some LPG filling stations in the United Kingdom also use ACME.\n", "On September 9, 1966, the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act became law in the U.S., the first mandatory federal safety standards for motor vehicles.\n\nEffective in 1966, US-market passenger cars were required to be equipped with padded instrument panels, front and rear outboard lap belts, and white reverse (backup) lamps.\n", "Section::::United States.:U.S. Air Force.\n", "In October 1972, the US Congress enacted the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Saving Act (MVICS), which required NHTSA to issue a bumper standard that yields the \"maximum feasible reduction of cost to the public and to the consumer\". Factors considered included the costs and benefits of implementation, the standard's effect on insurance costs and legal fees, savings in consumer time and inconvenience, as well as health and safety considerations.\n", "In the Soviet Union the GAZ-M20 Pobeda came into production in 1946, about one month after the first 1946 Kaiser rolled off the production line, and in Britain the Standard Vanguard went on sale the following year. In 1948 Czechoslovakian Tatra 600 began production.\n\nFord and General Motors followed the trend with their own designs in 1949.\n\nSection::::Examples of \"ponton\" in automotive contexts.\n", "Modern cars often feature remote opening of the fuel tank fuel filler flap using an electric motor or cable release. For both convenience and security, many modern fuel tanks cannot be opened by hand or otherwise from the outside of the car.\n\nSection::::Automotive fuel tanks.:Reserve tank.\n", "Bleed screws are not common on cars today and are only necessary when design of an engine's cooling system results in areas where air can be trapped in the system. Air in the system can lead to overheating of the engine and in modern cars also to poor vehicle operation (e.g. problems with the AC system or incorrect engine idle).\n\nSection::::Applications.:Hydraulic braking systems.\n", "Ardun heads for the Ford flathead were perhaps the first use of a hemispherical head on a readily available American V8. First offered in 1947 as an aftermarket product, these heads converted the Ford flathead to overhead valves operating in a hemispherical chamber. Zora Arkus-Duntov, who later worked for GM and was a major force behind the development of the Chevrolet Corvette, and his brother Yura, were the \"AR\" \"DUN\" of \"Ardun.\"\n", "Many modern car engines have multiple ignition coils (one for each pair of cylinders) built into a coil pack, eliminating the need for a distributor and coil wire. Some car engines use a small ignition coil mounted on top of each spark plug, eliminating the need for spark plug wires entirely.\n\nSection::::Risks and Prevention.\n", "Section::::Glass tube type.\n\nNorth-American built automobiles up to at least 1986 had electrical systems protected by cylindrical glass cartridge fuses rated 32 volts DC and current ratings from 4 amperes to 30 amperes. These are known as \"SFE\" fuses, as they were designed by the Society of Fuse Engineers to prevent the insertion of a grossly inadequate or unsafe fuse into the vehicle's fuse panel.\n\nThese SFE fuses all have a inch diameter, and the length varies according to the rating of the fuse.\n", "The first panic bar, made by Von Duprin, was available by 1908 in many models and configurations.\n\nIn the US, building exit requirements are generally controlled by model codes such as the International Building Code and/or the NFPA Life Safety Code. Adoption of regulations varies by location and may occur at the city, county, or state level.\n", "Section::::Limitations.\n\nAlthough the millions of installed airbags in use have an excellent safety record, some limitations on their ability to protect car occupants exist.\n\nThe original implementation of front airbags did little to protect against side collisions, which can be more dangerous than frontal collisions because the protective crumple zone in front of the passenger compartment is completely bypassed. Side airbags and protective airbag curtains are increasingly being required in modern vehicles to protect against this very common category of collisions.\n", "As it is generally easy to remove and carry off, the distributor cap can be taken off as a means of theft prevention. Although not practical for everyday use, because it is essential for the starting and running of the engine, its removal thwarts any attempt at hot-wiring the vehicle.\n\nSection::::Direct and distributorless ignition.\n", "Section::::Drawbacks.\n", "During the development of the chassis, Ford learned that its initial design caused smaller vehicles (such as a Ford Taurus) to become severely overridden in a head-on collision. In the test, the tire of the Excursion drove up to the windshield of the Taurus, reducing the chance of survival for the Taurus driver. As a response, Ford modified the chassis to include an under-bumper \"blocker beam\"; the device was initially tested by the French transportation ministry in 1971. For the rear of the chassis, Ford chose to include a trailer hitch as standard equipment in production to reduce underriding in rear-end collisions by smaller vehicles.\n", "Positive crankcase ventilation was first factory-installed on a widespread basis by law on all new 1961-model cars first sold in California. The following year, New York required it. By 1964, most new cars sold in the U.S. were so equipped by voluntary industry action so as not to have to make multiple state-specific versions of vehicles. PCV quickly became standard equipment on all vehicles worldwide because of its benefits not only in emissions reduction but also in engine internal cleanliness and oil lifespan.\n", "BULLET::::- 5.4L Ford F-150 (3-valve)\n\nBULLET::::- 5.3L GMC Sierra (LMG V8)\n\nBULLET::::- 4.6L Lincoln Town Car (2-valve)\n\nBULLET::::- 4.6L Mercury Grand Marquis\n\nBULLET::::- 4.7L Dodge Durango\n\nBULLET::::- 4.7L Dodge Ram Pickup 1500 Series\n\nBULLET::::- 4.7L Chrysler Aspen\n\nBULLET::::- 4.7L Jeep Commander\n\nBULLET::::- 4.7L Jeep Grand Cherokee\n\nBULLET::::- 4.7L Dodge Dakota\n\nBULLET::::- 3.3L Dodge Caravan, Grand Caravan and Caravan Cargo\n\nBULLET::::- 2.7L Chrysler Sebring Sedan\n\nBULLET::::- 2006\n\nBULLET::::- 3.0L Ford Taurus sedan and wagon (2-valve)*\n\nBULLET::::- 4.6L Ford Crown Victoria (2-valve, excluding taxi and police units)\n\nBULLET::::- 5.4L Ford F-150 (3-valve. Available in December 2005)\n\nBULLET::::- 4.6L Lincoln Town Car (2-valve)\n", "The two-door had a wheelbase; four-door, station wagon, and the El Camino had a wheelbase; and the stretched-wheelbase wagon had a wheelbase. 1968 model year A-body 2-door hardtops and convertibles had a vent wing window assembly - 1969-72 models had a one piece door glass where GM's Astro Ventilation system (first used with the 1966 Buick Riviera) was phased in. \n", "Section::::United States.:U.S. Navy.\n" ]	[ "Cars should have two gas caps.", "It would be effecient to have gas caps on both sides of a car. " ]	[ "Cars having two gas caps would be a waste of space for little to no gain.", "Having two gas caps is unnecessary and would be a waste of space, money and weight." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cars should have two gas caps.", "It would be effecient to have gas caps on both sides of a car. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cars having two gas caps would be a waste of space for little to no gain.", "Having two gas caps is unnecessary and would be a waste of space, money and weight." ]
2018-01593	How can I go to sleep hungry and then wake up the next morning with no desire to eat until a couple hours later?	I think jxtom has the right idea. When you go to sleep, your parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest) is activated. This relaxes your digestive tract making you feel hungrier. When you wake up, cortisol levels rise. I'm not sure if this would cause you to not have a desire to eat, but I know it affects many hormones associated with appetite. That's about all I know.	[ "Section::::Premeal hunger.\n\nPrior to consuming a meal, the body's energy reserves are in reasonable homeostatic balance. However, when a meal is consumed, there is a homeostasis-disturbing influx of fuels into the bloodstream. When the usual mealtime approaches, the body takes steps to soften the impact of the homeostasis-disturbing influx of fuels by releasing insulin into the blood, and lowering the blood glucose levels. It is this lowering of blood glucose levels that causes premeal hunger, and not necessarily an energy deficit.\n\nSection::::Similar conditions.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Night Eating Syndrome: In NES, individuals have recurrent episodes of eating at night, such as eating after awakening from sleep or excess calorie intake after the evening meal. This eating behavior is not culturally acceptable by group norms, such as the occasional late-night munchies after a gathering. NES includes an awareness and recall of the eating, is not better explained by external influences such as changes in the individual's sleep-wake cycle, and causes significant distress and/or impairment of functioning. Though not defined specifically in \"DSM-5\", research criteria for this diagnosis proposed adding the following criteria (1) the consumption of at least 25% of daily caloric intake after the evening meal and/or (2) evening awakenings with ingestions at least twice per week.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Criteria.\n\nThe diagnostic criteria utilized by the International Classification of Sleep Disorders-Third Edition (ICSD-3) include some dysfunctional eating when the person wake up during the main sleep period, eating unusual or toxic food, negative health consequences. The patient could be injured during these episodes and he might not be conscious and won’t remember them. This criterion differentiates SRED from Night eating syndrome(NES). Patients with NES are conscious during the episode.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Metabolism involves two biochemical processes that occur in living organisms. The first is anabolism, which refers to the build up of molecules. The second is catabolism, the breakdown of molecules. These two processes work to regulate the amount of energy the body uses to maintain itself. During non-REM sleep, metabolic rate and brain temperature are lowered to deal with damages that may have occurred during time of wakefulness.\n\nSection::::Normal metabolism.\n\nAfter eating, the pancreas releases insulin. Insulin signals muscle and fat cells to absorb glucose from food. As a result, blood glucose levels return to normal.\n", "Appetite is another sensation experienced with eating; it is the desire to eat food. There are several theories about how the feeling of hunger arises. A healthy, well-nourished individual can survive for weeks without food intake, with claims ranging from three to ten weeks. The sensation of hunger typically manifests after only a few hours without eating and is generally considered to be unpleasant. Satiety occurs between 5 and 20 minutes after eating.\n", "Section::::Interpersonal variability.\n", "Two psychological processes appear to be involved in regulating short-term food intake: liking and wanting. Liking refers to the palatability or taste of the food, which is reduced by repeated consumption. Wanting is the motivation to consume the food, which is also reduced by repeated consumption of a food and may be due to change in memory-related processes. Wanting can be triggered by a variety of psychological processes. Thoughts of a food may intrude on consciousness and be elaborated on, for instance, as when one sees a commercial or smells a desirable food.\n\nSection::::Long-term regulation of hunger and food intake.\n", "A working pancreas continually secretes small amounts of insulin into the blood to maintain normal glucose levels, which would otherwise rise from glucose release by the liver, especially during the early morning dawn phenomenon. This insulin is referred to as \"basal insulin secretion\", and constitutes almost half the insulin produced by the normal pancreas.\n\nBolus insulin is produced during the digestion of meals. Insulin levels rise immediately as we begin to eat, remaining higher than the basal rate for 1 to 4 hours. This meal-associated (\"prandial\") insulin production is roughly proportional to the amount of carbohydrate in the meal.\n", "BULLET::::- \"About the Man Who Began Flying After Meeting Her,\" originally published in \"The Guardian\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Up the Mountain Coming Down Slowly,\" originally published in \"McSweeney's #10\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"There Are Some Things He Should Keep to Himself\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"When They Learned to Yelp\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"After I Was Thrown in the River and Before I Drowned,\" originally published in \"Speaking with the Angel\"\n\nSection::::Publication details.\n\n\"There Are Some Things He Should Keep to Himself,\" which consists solely of five blank pages, is not included in the paperback edition.\n", "Environmental signals and ghrelin are not the only signals that initiate hunger, there are other metabolic signals as well. As time passes between meals, the body starts to take nutrients from long-term reservoirs. When the glucose levels of cells drop (glucoprivation), the body starts to produce the feeling of hunger. The body also stimulates eating by detecting a drop in cellular lipid levels (lipoprivation). Both the brain and the liver monitor the levels of metabolic fuels. The brain checks for glucoprivation on its side of the blood–brain barrier (since glucose is its fuel), while the liver monitors the rest of the body for both lipoprivation and glucoprivation.\n", "There are two peptides in the hypothalamus that produce hunger, melanin concentrating hormone (MCH) and orexin. MCH plays a bigger role in producing hunger. In mice, MCH stimulates feeding and a mutation causing the overproduction of MCH led to overeating and obesity. Orexin plays a greater role in controlling the relationship between eating and sleeping. Other peptides in the hypothalamus that induce eating are neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related protein (AGRP).\n", "The set-point theories of hunger and eating are a group of theories developed in the 1940s and 1950s that operate under the assumption that hunger is the result of an energy deficit and that eating is a means by which energy resources are returned to their optimal level, or energy set-point. According to this assumption, a person's energy resources are thought to be at or near their set-point soon after eating, and are thought to decline after that. Once the person's energy levels fall below a certain threshold, the sensation of hunger is experienced, which is the body's way of motivating the person to eat again. The set-point assumption is a negative feedback mechanism. Two popular set-point theories include the glucostatic set-point theory and the lipostatic set-point theory.\n", "Night eating syndrome (NES) is an eating disorder, characterized by a delayed circadian pattern of food intake. Although there is some degree of comorbidity with binge eating disorder, it differs from binge eating in that the amount of food consumed in the evening/night is not necessarily objectively large nor is a loss of control over food intake required. It was originally described by Dr. Albert Stunkard in 1955 and is currently included in the other specified feeding or eating disorder category of the DSM-5. Research diagnostic criteria have been proposed and include evening hyperphagia (consumption of 25% or more of the total daily calories after the evening meal) and/or nocturnal awakening and ingestion of food two or more times per week. The person must have awareness of the night eating to differentiate it from the parasomnia sleep-related eating disorder (SRED). Three of five associated symptoms must also be present: lack of appetite in the morning, urges to eat in the evening/at night, belief that one must eat in order to fall back to sleep at night, depressed mood, and/or difficulty sleeping.\n", "Matthew P Walker, a psychology and neuroscience professor at UC Berkley, published a study during which the participants were deprived of sleep for one night. The New York Times summarized his study as such, \"On days when the subjects had not had proper sleep, fattening foods like potato chips and sweets stimulated stronger responses in a part of the brain that helps govern the motivation to eat. But at the same time, the subjects experienced a sharp reduction in activity in the frontal cortex, a higher level part of the brain where consequences are weighted and rational decisions are made.” A brain that has been deprived of sleep for one night is more likely to respond more intensely to junk food but also has the decreased ability to curb that desire. These results were consistent even as the subjects were given extra calories to compensate for the amount of energy expended during those extra hours that the subjects stayed awake, which indicates that one's craving for junk food is not a response to offset an energy deficit. Walker further speculates that one of the biological basis for this reaction could the buildup of adenosine, a metabolic byproduct that may degrade communication between networks in the brain. Adenosine is cleared from the brain during sleep.\n", "The set-point theories of hunger and eating present a number of weaknesses. \n\nBULLET::::- The current epidemic of obesity and other eating disorders undermines these theories.\n\nBULLET::::- The set-point theories of hunger and eating are inconsistent with basic evolutionary pressures related to hunger and eating as they are currently understood.\n\nBULLET::::- Major predictions of the set-point theories of hunger and eating have not been confirmed.\n\nBULLET::::- They fail to recognize other psychological and social influences on hunger and eating.\n\nSection::::Positive-incentive perspective.\n", "BULLET::::- \"On Wanting to Have Three Walls up Before She Gets Home,\" originally published in \"The Guardian\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Climbing to the Window, Pretending to Dance,\" originally published in \"The New Yorker\" in a slightly different form as \"Measuring the Jump\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"She Waits, Seething, Blooming,\" originally published in \"The Guardian\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Quiet\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Your Mother and I,\" originally published in \"h2s04\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Naveed,\" originally published in \"The Guardian\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Notes for a Story of a Man Who Will Not Die Alone,\" originally published in another form in \"Ninth Letter\"\n", "While reviewing log data of blood glucose after the fact, signs of Somogyi rebound should be suspected when blood glucose numbers seem \"higher\" after the insulin dosage has been raised, particularly in the morning. One simple way to determine if nocturnal hypoglycemia may be causing morning hyperglycemia is to have the patient have a high protein snack with a small amount of carbohydrates at bedtime. This will help keep the blood sugar up overnight and prevent the Somogyi effect. If the morning blood sugar decreases, this is indicative of the Somogyi effect and the daily insulin should be decreased.\n\nSection::::Avoidance.\n", "An individual's plan of eating may call for the exclusion of certain triggering behaviors. For example, a person who knows that eating after a certain time in the evening triggers compulsive food behavior might include in their plan of eating a commitment to abstain from eating after that time of night; a person who knows that snacking between meals triggers compulsive food behavior would probably include in their plan of eating a commitment to abstain from chewing (or sucking) between meals.\n\nSection::::Demographics.\n", "\"\"When writing, I have a strong sense of what needs to be communicated. I then work with the artists in rehearsals until they have made the performances their own. In Antonio’s Breakfast this meant that the young guys spent time working out what they thought would feel natural for them to say and I trusted them implicitly and went with it.\"\" Daniel Mulloy from \"Get Your Short Film Funded, Made and Seen\" by Tricia Tuttle\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Lack of sufficient sleep has been suggested as a cause for weight gain or the difficulty in maintaining a healthy weight. Two hormones responsible for regulating hunger and metabolism are leptin, which inhibits appetite and increases energy expenditure, and ghrelin, which increases appetite and reduces energy expenditure. Studies have shown that chronic sleep deprivation is associated with reduced levels of leptin and elevated levels of ghrelin, which together result in increased appetite, especially for high fat and high carbohydrate foods. As a result, sleep deprivation over time may contribute to increased caloric intake and decreased self-control over food cravings, leading to weight gain.\n", "The hormones insulin and cholecystokinin (CCK) are released from the GI tract during food absorption and act to suppress feeling of hunger. CCK is key in suppressing hunger because of its role in inhibiting neuropeptide Y. Glucagon and epinephrine levels rise during fasting and stimulate hunger. Ghrelin, a hormone produced by the stomach, is a hunger stimulant.\n\nSection::::Short-term regulation of hunger and food intake.:Psychological factors.\n", "Binge eating is the core symptom of BED; however, not everyone who binge eats has BED. An individual may occasionally binge eat without experiencing many of the negative physical, psychological, or social effects of BED. This example may be considered an eating problem (or not), rather than a disorder. Precisely defining binge eating can be problematic, however binge eating episodes in BED are generally described as having the following potential features:\n\nBULLET::::- Eating much faster than normal, perhaps in a short space of time\n\nBULLET::::- Eating until feeling uncomfortably full\n\nBULLET::::- Eating a large amount when not hungry\n" ]	[ "Hunger is felt due to not eating and should continue until food is eaten. " ]	[ "Feeling hungry is caused by the parasympathetic nervous system and hormones associated with appetite. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Hunger is felt due to not eating and should continue until food is eaten. ", "Hunger is felt due to not eating and should continue until food is eaten. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Feeling hungry is caused by the parasympathetic nervous system and hormones associated with appetite. ", "Feeling hungry is caused by the parasympathetic nervous system and hormones associated with appetite. " ]
2018-04189	Why do our stomachs grumble when we’re hungry?	From what I remember, it's just your stomach digesting whatever food/liquid you've been eating previously. lt doesn't actually signal hunger, that's just what we as humans have come to associate it with. Pretty sure that's why	[ "BULLET::::- Louder rumbles may occur when one is hungry. Around two hours after the stomach has been emptied, it sends signals to the brain, which tells the digestive muscles to restart peristalsis in a wave called the migrating motor complex. Food left behind after the first cycle is swept up, and the vibrations of the empty stomach cause hunger. Appetite plays a big role in this situation. Peristalsis recurs about every hour, and one's appetite may cause 10- to 20-minute food cravings.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n\nThe scientific name borborygmus is related to the 16th-century French word \"borborygme\", itself from Latin, ultimately from Ancient Greek βορβορυγμός (\"borborygmós\"). The Greeks probably onomatopoetically coined the word.\n\nSection::::Other causes.\n\nOther causes of stomach rumbles:\n", "Section::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.\n\nThe patterns of GI contraction as a whole can be divided into two distinct patterns, peristalsis and segmentation. Occurring between meals, the migrating motor complex is a series of peristaltic wave cycles in distinct phases starting with relaxation, followed by an increasing level of activity to a peak level of peristaltic activity lasting for 5–15 minutes.\n\nThis cycle repeats every 1.5–2 hours but is interrupted by food ingestion. The role of this process is likely to clean excess bacteria and food from the digestive system.\n\nSection::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.:Peristalsis.\n", "BULLET::::- Stomach rumbles can form further along the gastrointestinal system when air is swallowed while talking, eating, and drinking. This phenomenon occurs in most people and is typical.\n\nSection::::Diseases and conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- Celiac disease is a condition that prevents the small intestine from absorbing parts of food that are needed to stay healthy. Consuming food containing gluten is dangerous for people with this disease: Intestinal villi help to absorb nutrients from food, but when gluten is consumed, the immune system attacks these villi as a result. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, nausea, and bulky or foul smelling stools.\n", "A series of radiographs can be used to examine the stomach for various disorders. This will often include the use of a barium swallow. Another method of examination of the stomach, is the use of an endoscope. A gastric emptying scan is considered the gold standard to assess gastric emptying rate.\n\nA large number of studies have indicated that most cases of peptic ulcers, and gastritis, in humans are caused by \"Helicobacter pylori\" infection, and an association has been seen with the development of stomach cancer.\n\nA stomach rumble is actually noise from the intestines.\n", "Peristalsis is one of the patterns that occur during and shortly after a meal. The contractions occur in wave patterns traveling down short lengths of the GI tract from one section to the next. The contractions occur directly behind the bolus of food that is in the system, forcing it toward the anus into the next relaxed section of smooth muscle. This relaxed section then contracts, generating smooth forward movement of the bolus at between 2–25 cm per second. This contraction pattern depends upon hormones, paracrine signals, and the autonomic nervous system for proper regulation.\n\nSection::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.:Segmentation.\n", "Section::::Motility.\n\nThe gastrointestinal tract generates motility using smooth muscle subunits linked by gap junctions. These subunits fire spontaneously in either a tonic or a phasic fashion. Tonic contractions are those contractions that are maintained from several minutes up to hours at a time. These occur in the sphincters of the tract, as well as in the anterior stomach. The other type of contractions, called phasic contractions, consist of brief periods of both relaxation and contraction, occurring in the posterior stomach and the small intestine, and are carried out by the muscularis externa.\n", "BULLET::::- A high-pitched, nasal \"che\" note is often given in response to the presence of predators in the nest area, other birds passing near the cave swallow's nest, or while the swallow is in flight. It is the note given most frequently when the bird is away from its nest site.\n\nBULLET::::- The first type of chattering is the most common, it is described as a \"short, clear weet or cheweet given at medium pitch with an ascending or descending inflection.\"\n", "A stomach rumble, also known as a bowel sound, peristaltic sound or bubble gut, is a rumbling, growling or gurgling noise produced by movement of the contents of the gastro-intestinal tract as they are propelled through the small intestine by a series of muscle contractions called peristalsis. A trained healthcare provider can listen to these intestinal noises with a stethoscope, but they may be audible enough to be heard with the naked ear and are known as stomach rumble or borborygmus (pronounced ; plural borborygmi) as the fluid and gas moves forward in the intestines (in the vicinity of but not actually within the stomach). The lack of bowel sounds is indicative of ileus, intestinal obstruction, or some other serious pathology.\n", "Joseph Haydn used this effect in the minuet of his Symphony No. 28, in the finale of the \"Farewell\" Symphony, No. 45, and throughout the finale of his String Quartet Op. 50, No. 6. The \"croaking\" or \"gurgling\" unison \"bariolage\" passages on D and A gives this quartet its nickname of \"The Frog\".\n\nIn the following example, from a violin sonata by Handel, the second measure is to be played with \"bariolage\". The repeated A is played on the open A string, alternating with Fs and Es fingered on the adjacent D string.\n", "Vocally, Savannahs may either chirp like their serval fathers, meow like their domestic mothers, both chirp and meow, or sometimes produce sounds which are a mixture of the two. Chirping is observed more often in earlier generations. Savannahs may also \"hiss\" – a serval-like hiss, quite different from a domestic cat's hiss – sounding more like a very loud snake. It can be alarming to humans not acquainted to such a sound coming from a cat.\n", "Migrating motor complexes (or migrating myoelectric complex or migratory motor complex or migratory myoelectric complex or MMC) are waves of electrical activity that sweep through the intestines in a regular cycle during fasting. These motor complexes trigger peristaltic waves, which facilitate transportation of indigestible substances such as bone, fiber, and foreign bodies from the stomach, through the small intestine, past the ileocecal sphincter, and into the colon. The MMC occurs every 45–180 minutes during the interdigestive phase (i.e., between meals) and is responsible for the rumbling experienced when hungry. It also serves to transport bacteria from the small intestine to the large intestine and to inhibit the migration of colonic bacteria into the terminal ileum.\n", "BULLET::::- The forward place of articulation is broad, with the tongue flat against the roof of the mouth from the alveolar ridge to the palate. The release is a sharp, plosive sound.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n\nPalatal clicks only occur in the southern African Khoisan languages (the Khoe, Kx'a, and Tuu families), where they are extremely common, and in Bantu languages such as Yeyi, Zulu and Xhosa.\n\nSection::::Fricated palatal clicks.\n", "Section::::Finance.\n", "A vulture is looking for food. He sees three baby deer who wandered away from their mother. The vulture starts charging at them, and the deer run into a clump of grass. Just then, the grass lowers, as the deer use \"Air Raid\" on the vulture. They shoot down the vulture, and the deer laugh in a villainous manner.\n", "This behavior has been observed on both sexes of Mutillids where the stridulatory organ is located on the second and third termite of the gaster, and consists of a \"file\" and a \"scraper\". Sound is produced when the \"file\" rubs the \"scraper,\" activated by dorsoventral movements. Although the function of stridulation in Mutillids is not clear, it has been proposed that these sounds may act as a defense mechanism or mating signal.\n\n= Sexes =\n", "The sound of the llama making groaning noises or going \"mwa\" (/mwaʰ/) is often a sign of fear or anger. If a llama is agitated, it will lay its ears back. One may determine how agitated the llama is by the materials in the spit. The more irritated the llama is, the further back into each of the three stomach compartments it will try to draw materials from for its spit.\n", "Twenty-five distinct vocalizations are recognized, many of which are used primarily for group communication within dense vegetation. Sounds classified as grunts and barks are heard most frequently while traveling, and indicate the whereabouts of individual group members. They may also be used during social interactions when discipline is required. Screams and roars signal alarm or warning, and are produced most often by silverbacks. Deep, rumbling belches suggest contentment and are heard frequently during feeding and resting periods. They are the most common form of intragroup communication.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Fears.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nSmooth muscle within the GI tract causes the involuntary peristaltic motion that moves consumed food down the esophagus and towards the rectum. The smooth muscle throughout most of the GI tract is divided into two layers: an outer longitudinal layer and an inner circular layer. Both layers of muscle are located within the muscularis externa. The stomach has a third layer: an innermost oblique layer.\n", "BULLET::::- Diverticulitis is a condition where small bulging sacs, usually found in the large intestine, become inflamed or infected. The most probable cause is a low-fiber diet, possibly a result of eating processed food. Diverticulitis is usually seen in about half the American population over the age of 60. Symptoms may include bloating, fever, and nausea.\n", "BULLET::::- Eairh (I have lower gas) - An infant uses the sound reflex \"\"Eairh\"\" to communicate they have flatulence or an upset stomach. The sound is produced when trapped air from a belch is unable to release and travels to the stomach where the muscles of the intestines tighten to force the air bubble out. Often, this sound will indicate that a bowel movement is in progress, and the infant will bend its knees, bringing the legs toward the torso. This leg movement assists in the ongoing process.\n", "The term \"gambeson\" is a loan from Old French \"gambeson\", \"gambaison\", originally \"wambais\", formed after the Middle High German term \"wambeis\" \"doublet\", in turn from Old High German \"wamba\" \"stomach\" (cognate to \"womb\").\n\nThe term \"aketon\", originally medieval French \"alcottonem\", might be a loan from Arabic \"al-qutn\" \"cotton (definite article - \"the\" cotton).\"\n", "Section::::Behaviour.:Communication.\n\nTwenty-five distinct vocalisations are recognised, many of which are used primarily for group communication within dense vegetation. Sounds classified as grunts and barks are heard most frequently while traveling, and indicate the whereabouts of individual group members. They may also be used during social interactions when discipline is required. Screams and roars signal alarm or warning, and are produced most often by silverbacks. Deep, rumbling belches suggest contentment and are heard frequently during feeding and resting periods. They are the most common form of intragroup communication.\n", "Rugae are only evident when an organ or tissue is deflated or relaxed. For example, rugae are evident within the stomach when it is deflated. However, when the stomach distends, the rugae unfold to allow for the increase in volume. On the other hand, plicae remain folded regardless of distension as is evident within the plicae of the small intestine walls.\n", "Section::::Mechanism of membrane fusion.:Zippering and fusion pore opening.\n" ]	[ "Stomach grumbles when you are hungry." ]	[ "Stomach rumbles are acutally digesting food. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Stomach grumbles when you are hungry." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Stomach rumbles are acutally digesting food. " ]
2018-09615	why do bubbles form around a glass of water if left overnight?	Water is pumped up to the water tower, and then gravity pulls it down and creates pressure in the pipes that bring the water to your house. There's also some pumping at the water purification plant to get the water through various filters to remove impurities. So basically, because of the pressure and because of the pumping, water has some air in it. When you let it sit overnight, the air comes out, similar to how CO2 in soda would come out and leave it flat if you were to leave a glass of soda on your table overnight. The pressure that kept the air in the water is gone, so the air slowly comes out of the water. The water will also taste a little bit flat, even if you chill it in the fridge, for the same reason (less air/oxygen in it).	[ "Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy, often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air bubbles coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure. Because cold water holds more air than warm water, small bubbles will appear in water. It has a high dissolved gas content that is heated or depressurized, which reduces how much dissolved gas the water can hold. The harmless cloudiness of the water disappears quickly as the gas is released from the water.\n\nSection::::Hot water supply.\n", "In October and November 2013, difficulties were encountered with the water supply to Dublin. The Ballymore Eustace water treatment works which processes water from its main supply, the Poulaphouca reservoir, experienced a change in water characteristics. The effect was that particles in the water would not settle, leaving tap water cloudy. As a result, the supply to the Dublin was restricted for two days.\n\nCryptosporidium contamination risk led to \"boil notices\" remaining in place in parts of County Roscommon for approximately six-years from 2009 to 2015.\n", "Section::::Air elimination.:Water-loop system.:Entrained air.\n\nEntrained air is air bubbles that travel around in the piping at the same velocity as the water. Air \"scoops\" are one example of products which attempt to remove this type of air.\n\nSection::::Air elimination.:Water-loop system.:Dissolved air.\n\nDissolved air is also present in the system water and the amount is determined principally by the temperature and pressure (see Henry's Law) of the incoming water. On average, tap water contains between 8-10% dissolved air by volume.\n", "A halocline can be easily created and observed in a drinking glass or other clear vessel. If fresh water is slowly poured over a quantity of salt water, using a spoon held horizontally at water-level to prevent mixing, a hazy interface layer, the halocline, will soon be visible due to the varying index of refraction across the boundary.\n\nA halocline is most commonly confused with a thermocline – a thermocline is an area within a body of water that marks a drastic change in temperature. \n", "Timothy Grey, a prep school master, takes a holiday to the Greek island of Crete, intending to find some solitude in which to paint. On arrival at his hotel, he asks to move his accommodation to a better chalet, near the water’s edge, which the hotel management agrees to with some reluctance. The reason becomes clear when he discovers that the chalet’s previous occupant had drowned while swimming at night. Also staying at the hotel is Stoll, a drunken and obnoxious American and his silent and apparently deaf wife. They spend every day out in a small boat, ostensibly fishing.\n", "On some nights when they had seen Ben dive late, the two had stayed at the spring after resurfacing until they saw bubbles on the surface, indicating that he was beginning to decompress in order to safely resurface. But on the night of the 18th, they instead went back to Taran's house for coffee.\n", "The temperature of the water in geyser pools and other geothermal features can be judged by the color of the bacteria living in the water. Changes in the size and color of bacteria mats at Economic Geyser imply that the geyser is heating up. Photographs of the geyser vent taken in the 1990s show a quiet pool very dark with algae. Photographs of the vent taken in 2006 show a pool of clear water with traces of the bacterial colors associated with higher temperatures.\n", "Use of tap water for initial carbonate rinses is fine as any chloride content in the water is low compared to the content found when the chlorides from the contaminated artefact have dissolved into the water. Later rinses should be with distilled water though it is to be noted that the chlorine of a chlorinated town water supply is likely to have evaporated from tap water inside 24 hours and therefore will not further contaminate the object.\n", "BULLET::::- On 25 June 2008, \"Cryptosporidium\" was found in England in water supplies in Northampton, Daventry, and some surrounding areas supplied from the Pitsford Reservoir, as reported on the BBC. People in the affected areas were warned not to drink tap water unless it had been boiled. Anglian Water confirmed that 108,000 households were affected, about 250,000 people. They advised that water might not be fit for human consumption for many weeks. The boil notice was lifted for all the affected customers on 4 July 2008.\n", "Daily cycles are also influenced by the activity of photosynthetic organisms. The lack of photosynthesis during nighttime hours in the absence of light can result in anoxic conditions intensifying throughout the night with a maximum shortly after sunrise.\n\nSection::::Biological adaptation.\n", "Local concentrations of carbon dioxide can reach high values near strong sources, especially those that are isolated by surrounding terrain. At the Bossoleto hot spring near Rapolano Terme in Tuscany, Italy, situated in a bowl-shaped depression about in diameter, concentrations of rise to above 75% overnight, sufficient to kill insects and small animals. After sunrise the gas is dispersed by convection. High concentrations of produced by disturbance of deep lake water saturated with are thought to have caused 37 fatalities at Lake Monoun, Cameroon in 1984 and 1700 casualties at Lake Nyos, Cameroon in 1986.\n\nSection::::In the oceans.\n", "Section::::Threats and Issues.:Salinity Intrusion.\n", "Legionellosis or Legionnaire's Disease is caused by a waterborne bacterium \"Legionella\" that grows best in slow-moving or still, warm water. The primary route of exposure is through the creation of an aerosol effect, most commonly from evaporative cooling towers or showerheads. A common source of Legionella in commercial buildings is from poorly placed or maintained evaporative cooling towers, which often release water in an aerosol which may enter nearby ventilation intakes. Outbreaks in medical facilities and nursing homes, where patients are immuno-suppressed and immuno-weak, are the most commonly reported cases of Legionellosis. More than one case has involved outdoor fountains in public attractions. The presence of Legionella in commercial building water supplies is highly under-reported, as healthy people require heavy exposure to acquire infection.\n", "The incident that led to the inspiration for the play was a moment in the 2003 Piers Morgan documentary \"The Importance of Being Famous\" where a young girl jumps up and down in a field for several minutes, then asks \"Am I famous yet?\" This quote was originally intended as the title of the play. However, after looking through a dictionary of quotations, he came across an old English proverb, \"It is folly to drown on dry land\". The title was changed accordingly, and a similar line was included towards the end of the play.\n", "The Susan Coolidge book \"Clover\" (1888), part of the Katy Series, mentions the water during a private train journey to Colorado: \"\"The car seems paved with bottles of Apollinaris and with lemons,\" wrote Katy to her father...Just as surely as it grows warm and dusty, and we begin to remember that we are thirsty, a tinkle is heard, and Bayard appears with a tray,--iced lemonade, if you please, made with Apollinaris water with strawberries floating on top! What do you think of that at thirty miles an hour?\"\"\n", "The Red Team began their work about 7 am EDT on Tuesday 12 April 1994. Gutierrez and Chilton slept in an extra hour because they were about an hour and a half late going to sleep the night before after working on an in-flight maintenance procedure to eliminate air bubbles that were collecting in the drinking and food preparation water. The astronauts connected the water dispensing hose directly to the supply tank, bypassing the galley water outlet. A later test during the Blue Team's shift indicated that bubbles still may get into the drink bags through the opening where water goes into the drink container.\n", "During the nighttime, the surface ocean cools because the atmospheric circulation is reduced due to the change in heat with the setting of the sun each day. Cooler water is less buoyant and will sink. This buoyancy effect causes water masses to be transported to lower depths even lower those reached during daytime. During the following daytime, water at depth is restratified or un-mixed because of the warming of the sea surface and buoyancy driving the warmed water upward. The entire cycle will be repeated and the water will be mixed during the following nighttime.\n", "Morning Geyser plays from a pool just beyond that of more frequently active Fountain Geyser, as seen from the boardwalk trail through the Fountain Paint Pots. Morning's maximum height may reach and just as wide, although most eruptions are smaller. Its duration is usually about 30 minutes, but durations of over one hour have been seen. Eruptions take the form of successive jets of water rather than a constant stream, many starting from a \"blue bubble\" resembling those observed at Fountain. Morning is sometimes observed to erupt simultaneously with Fountain, although most eruptions are independent.\n", "Section::::Habitats.:Dissolved oxygen.\n", "José Maria de Eça de Queirós \"The Capital\" (1925) includes the following passage: \"Then he became very affable with Arthur; offered him of his Apollinaris water to mix with the wine, gave him news about the little dog: it had arrived perfectly well, it was the joy of the girls! A darling!\"\n", "Section::::History.\n\nEffervescence has been observed in wine throughout history and has been noted by Ancient Greek and Roman writers, but the cause of this mysterious appearance of bubbles was not understood. Over time it has been attributed to phases of the moon as well as both good and evil spirits.\n", "The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classified Lake James as a mesotrophic lake in 1973, meaning that it had an intermediate level of nutrient enrichment. The EPA sampled the lake's water in May, August, and October of that year. Water temperature for Lake James ranged from in early August, and averaged for all of the samples taken that day. The lake's pH ranged between 7.3 and 8.5, with an average of 7.8. Dissolved oxygen is necessary for fish and other water organisms, and most fish need 3 to 5 milligrams per liter. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in Lake James ranged from 0.0 to 8.8 milligrams per liter for various depths during early August, and averaged 4.6.\n", "Lake Nyos is thermally stratified, with layers of warm, less dense water near the surface floating on the colder, denser water layers near the lake's bottom. Over long periods, carbon dioxide gas seeping into the cold water at the lake's bottom is dissolved in great amounts.\n\nMost of the time, the lake is stable and the remains in solution in the lower layers. However, over time, the water becomes supersaturated, and if an event such as an earthquake or landslide occurs, large amounts of may suddenly come out of solution.\n\nSection::::1986 disaster.\n", "In June 2008, Anglian Water found traces of Cryptosporidium in water supplies of Northamptonshire. The local reservoir at Pitsford was investigated and a European rabbit which had strayed into it was found, causing the problem. About 250,000 residents were affected; by 14 July 2008, 13 cases of cryptosporidiosis attributed to water in Northampton had been reported. Following the end of the investigation, Anglian Water lifted its boil notice for all affected areas on 4 July 2008. Anglian Water revealed that it will pay up to £30 per household as compensation for customers hit by the water crisis.\n\nSection::::Transport.\n", "The bacteria grow best in warm water, like the kind found in hot tubs, cooling towers, hot water tanks, large plumbing systems, or parts of the air-conditioning systems of large buildings. Indoor ornamental fountains have been confirmed as a cause of Legionnaires' disease outbreaks, in which submerged lighting as a heat source was attributed to the outbreak in all documented cases. Controlling the growth of \"Legionella\" in ornamental fountains is touched on in many of the listed guidelines, especially for solar water heating systems.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01262	How does the motion of rocking soothe a baby or, say, an adult on a hammock? What is it about the motion that appeals to or calms us?	The rocking motion has the effect of helping to synchronize the brain for sleep — both to fall asleep more quickly and possibly to achieve longer periods of deep, uninterrupted sleep. Maybe also this is a subliminal memory of being in the womb and feeling comforted by a mellow rock as the mother walked about.	[ "Indian people believe that the rocking motion soothes and relaxes the child and puts them to sleep quickly by replicating the comfort and security of the womb. Indian mothers claim that using a ghodiyu for their child can relieve baby colic symptoms due to the rocking motion which they believe relaxes the baby.\n", "The word rocking chair comes from the verb \"to rock\". The first known use of the term \"rocking chair\" was in 1766.\n\nSection::::Purpose.\n\nRocking chairs are often seen as evocative of parenting, as the gentle rocking motion can soothe infants.\n\nMany adults find rocking chairs soothing because of the gentle motion. Gentle rocking motion has been shown to provide faster onset of sleep than remaining stationary, mimicking the process of a parent rocking a child to sleep.\n", "Parental soothing (by rocking, holding etc) in infancy lays the foundations of the capacity to self-calm. Thereafter transitional objects can help maintain calmness, while pets as self-objects also promote soothing and calm.\n\nSection::::Cultivating calmness.\n", "President John F. Kennedy made the P & P Chair Company's rocking chair famous. In 1955, Kennedy, who suffered with chronic back problems, was prescribed swimming and the use of a rocking chair by his physician. The President so enjoyed the rocker that, after he was inaugurated in 1961, he took the chair on Air Force One when he traveled around the country and the world. He bought additional rockers for Camp David and for the Kennedy estates; and he gave them as gifts to friends, family, and heads of state. Kennedy's rocking chair from the White House is on permanent display at the John F. Kennedy Library and Museum.\n", "Good Rocking Tonight\n\n\"Good Rocking Tonight\" was originally a jump blues song released in 1947 by its writer, Roy Brown and was covered by many recording artists. The song includes the memorable refrain, \"Well I heard the news, there's good rocking tonight!\" The song anticipated elements of rock and roll music.\n\nSection::::Original song.\n", "Rocking the Boat: A Musical Conversation and Journey\n\nRocking the Boat: A Musical Conversation and Journey is a musical documentary by Hawaii-based film maker Jay Curlee. The feature includes interviews and performances by Delbert McClinton, Marcia Ball, Rodney Crowell, Stephen Bruton, Wayne Toups, Jimmy Hall, Paul Thorn, Jeffrey Steele and Teresa James. Sometime author, musician, sheriff and Texas gubernatorial candidate Kinky Friedman also stars.\n", "Section::::The 'Kennedy Rocker' rocking chair.\n", "Though American inventor Benjamin Franklin is sometimes credited with inventing the rocking chair, historians actually trace the rocking chair's origins to North America during the early 18th century, when Franklin was a child. Originally used in gardens, they were simply ordinary chairs with rockers attached. It was in 1725 that early rocking chairs first appeared in England. The production of wicker rocking chairs reached its peak in America during the middle of the 18th century. These wicker rockers, as they were popularly known, were famous for their craftsmanship and creative designs. Rocking cradles long predate rocking chairs however and an example exists from antiquity, found in the ruins of Herculaneum.\n", "Rocking chairs are also comfortable because, when a user sits in one without rocking, the chair automatically rocks backward until the sitter's center of gravity is met, thus granting an ergonomic benefit with the occupant kept at an un-stressed position and angle.\n\nVarieties of rockers include those mounted on a spring base (or platform) called \"platform rockers\" and those with swinging braces commonly known as gliders.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Stimming behaviors can consist of tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory, and vestibular stimming. Some common examples of stimming (sometimes called stims) include hand flapping, rocking, excessive or hard blinking, pacing, head banging, repeating noises or words, snapping fingers, and spinning objects. \n", "A massive 90 to 95 ton glacial erratic boulder near Halifax, Nova Scotia, can still be rocked with a lever, but used to move quite easily, before a band of sailors from the nearby Halifax garrison rocked it into a more stable configuration in the 1890s, and before its base was worn down by excessive rocking in the 1980s and '90s when a park was developed around it at Kidston Lake, in the Spryfield area of the municipality. It used to be a popular picnic destination; in Victorian times, people would travel from Halifax, climb upon it and spread their lunches, while enjoying the sensation of rocking gently while seated upon the huge rock.\n", "Section::::Research on Biological Motion.:Development in Children.\n", "Rocking chair\n\nA rocking chair or rocker is a type of chair with two curved bands (also known as rockers) attached to the bottom of the legs, connecting the legs on each side to each other. The rockers contact the floor at only two points, giving the occupant the ability to rock back and forth by shifting their weight or pushing lightly with their feet. Rocking chairs are most commonly made of wood. Some rocking chairs can fold.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "On a perceptual level, sea legs are a kind of Tetris effect. A person newly on land after spending long periods at sea may sense illusory rocking motion, having become accustomed to the constant work of adjusting to the boat making such movements (see \"Illusions of self-motion\" and \"Mal de debarquement\"). The poem \"Boots\" by Rudyard Kipling describes the effect, resulting from repetitive visual experience during a route march:\n", "BULLET::::- In the most important contemporary study on swaddling practices in maternity wards by Bystrova et al., it is shown that swaddling in the hours after birth is linked with delayed recovery from post-natal weight loss. A positive effect on the recovery is given by direct skin-to-skin contact between mother and baby in the hours after birth. Skin-to-skin contact was shown to reduce the impact of the stress of being born, with babies maintaining their body temperature to a greater degree than those swaddled in a nursery.\n", "The song is a primer of sorts on the popular black music of the era, making lyrical reference to Sweet Lorraine, Sioux City Sue, Sweet Georgia Brown, Caldonia, Elder Brown, and Deacon Jones. All of these characters had figured prominently in previous hit songs. The song has also been credited with being the most successful record to that point to use the word \"rock\" not as a euphemism for sex, but as a descriptive for the musical style, a connection which would become even clearer in 1954 when a version of \"Good Rockin' Tonight\" became Elvis Presley's second-ever single.\n", "Central pattern generators also contribute to locomotion in humans. In 1994, Calancie, et al. described the \"first well-defined example of a central rhythm generator for stepping in the adult human.\" The subject was a 37-year-old male who suffered an injury to the cervical spinal cord 17 years prior. After initial total paralysis below the neck, the subject eventually regained some movement of the arms and fingers and limited movement in the lower limbs. He had not recovered sufficiently to support his own weight. After 17 years, the subject found that when lying supine and extending his hips, his lower extremities underwent step-like movements for as long as he remained lying down. \"The movements (i) involved alternating flexion and extension of his hips, knees, and ankles; (ii) were smooth and rhythmic; (iii) were forceful enough that the subject soon became uncomfortable due to excessive muscle 'tightness' and an elevated body temperature; and (iv) could not be stopped by voluntary effort.\" After extensive study of the subject, the experimenters concluded that \"these data represent the clearest evidence to date that such a [CPG] network does exist in man.\" Four years later, in 1998, Dimitrijevic, et al. showed that the human lumbar pattern generating networks can be activated by drive to large-diameter sensory afferents of the posterior roots. When tonic electrical stimulation is applied to these fibers in motor complete spinal cord injured individuals (i.e., individuals in whom the spinal cord is functionally isolated from the brain) rhythmic, locomotor-like movement of the lower limbs can be elicited. These measurements were performed in supine position, thus minimizing peripheral feedback. Subsequent studies showed that these lumbar locomotor centers can form a large variety of rhythmic movements by combining and distributing stereotypical patterns to the numerous lower limb muscles.\n", "The earliest known recordings of the phrase were in several versions of \"The Camp Meeting Jubilee\", by both the Edison Male Quartet and the Columbia Quartette, recorded between 1896 and 1900. It contained the lyrics \"Keep on rockin' an' rolling in your arms/ Rockin' an' rolling in your arms/ Rockin' an' rolling in your arms/ In the arms of Moses.\" \"Rocking\" was also used to describe the spiritual rapture felt by worshippers at certain religious events, and to refer to the rhythm often found in the accompanying music.\n", "A recorded research of the healing aspects of music on an under developed baby delivered has been documented by a South American student which thesis was awarded doctoral degree for the work.\n\nSection::::Research Activities.:Psychiatric Research Institute, Arkansas.\n", "All of the babies who have taken part in the Rocking Ceremonies have their names recorded upon a plaque at the rear of St Mary's Church with their full name and the year in which they were 'Rocked'. In 2010 a sculpture of a cradle was made to celebrate the custom.\n", "The common rocking chair is believed to have been Roosevelt's, or may have come from an upstairs room in the Ferris Store where Roosevelt stayed on occasion. Rocking chairs were his favorite piece of furniture; all of his homes had rocking chairs, and Roosevelt once wrote, \"What true American does not enjoy a rocking-chair?\" \n", "Others report that natural tranquil surroundings have profound physiological effects on people suffering from stress. For example, Ullrich found that stress (as measured by blood pressure, muscle tension and skin conductance response), induced by showing videos of workplace injuries, improved significantly quicker following further viewing if videos included natural surroundings rather than busy traffic or shopping scenes. A recent study has demonstrated the benefits of simulating such environments for pain relief during bone marrow aspirate and biopsy.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Economic.\n", "One theory suggests the rhyme narrates a mother gently rocking her baby to sleep, as if the baby were riding the treetops during a breeze; then, when the mother lowers the baby to her crib, the song says \"down will come baby.\"\n", "Rocking and rolling\n\nRocking and rolling (also rock and roll) is a name for cueing techniques used in sound recording and video recording, particularly in analog recordings.\n\nIn sound recording, the reels of an open reel tape machine were \"rocked and rolled\" by turning them back and forth by hand, to cue recordings for playback, and especially for editing, which was done by cutting and splicing the tape. With the passing of reel-to-reel tape recording into obsolescence, the technique is now scarcely used.\n", "Neurological disorder patients may have sustained trauma to the brain or a disease such as Multiple sclerosis, Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) or Stroke, Traumatic brain injury (TBI), and cerebral palsy and resultant Toe walking. The spring-loaded tension system safely accommodates a patient's tone and Spasticity by moving with the patient during episodes of resistance or spasms. When tone is challenged with a consistent, even force that fatigues the muscle and mentally relaxes the patient, the spring tension systems then bring the patient back to their end-range to continue a low-load, prolonged-duration stretch (LLPS).\n\nAdditional neurological diagnoses include:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01985	What are the various forms of formula racing? What are some fundamental differences and similarities among all of them?	Indy is a different sport although the cars are similar. It is an all-American series, whereas all the Formula series explained here are ran under the International Automobile Federation, or FIA. Formula E is an all-electric series, starting in the season of 2014-2015, so it is still a very young sport, but has a lot of ex-F1 drivers such as Nelson Piquet Jr., Nick Heidfeld and Sebastien Buemi. Felipe Massa, who recently retired from F1, has also expressed an interest in driving in Formula E. Considering how young it is and that the development of cars has been restricted in the first seasons and is gradually being allowed in different parts to keep costs down and help new teams join, the series is generally quite tightly contested and driver skill matters quite a lot. A ready-to-race car has a maximum cost of $817,300 for the 2018-2019 season. The cars currently have at least 250 hp, a max speed of 225 km/h and can accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h in about three seconds. The cars use standardized chassis and have two cars per driver, switching cars about halfway as the battery of the first car runs dry. Formula 1 is the highest class of single-seater racing. The races are held all around the world, although 10 of the 21 races in this season are still held in Europe. The series is usually dominated by large, established teams, mostly so-called factory teams such as Mercedes, Renault and Ferrari, because of their large available resources. The cost of designing and building a mid-tier F1 car is estimated to be around $120 million. They can run at up to 375 km/h and have up to 8g cornering forces. Current power units are single-turbo 1.6-litre V6 hybrid engines. Exact specifications are unknown as teams closely guard their secrets, but they are generally believed to produce approximately 1,000 hp or more. F1 is normally considered the highest possible place in single-seater racing and is followed globally. You need to do well or win in lower series, such as Formula 3 and Formula 2, or national series, such as Japan's Super Formula, to be allowed to race in F1. No refueling is allowed in any Formula series and teams are limited in how much fuel can flow into the engine in a given amount of time. There is also a maximum limit of 105 kg of fuel used in a race. Formula 2, previously known as GP2, is the "feeder series" of Formula 2. It runs mostly on same tracks as F1 and is intended to be the place where future F1 drivers prove their skills. To help facilitate this, all teams are required to use the same engine, chassis and tyre suppliers, thus placing an emphasis on driver skill. This also helps keep costs down. The power units are 3.6-litre single-turbo V6 engines, allowing the cars to have a top speed of 320 km/h and accelerate from 0 to 200 km/h in 6.6 seconds. F2 champions normally get signed on by lower-tier F1 teams as race drivers or by low- or mid-tier teams as test drivers. Formula 3 is not actually a single series, but consists of several championship series. Europe, Australia, South America and Asia all have their own F3 championship, which is normally the first major stepping stone for drivers wishing to drive in F1. This is usually the highest level in regional racing, upwards from the national level. Doing well in F3 normally earns a driver a seat from F2 or even a test driver seat in F1. Like F2, F3 places an emphasis on driver skill, but does not limit development as much. F3 cars run 2.0-litre naturally aspirated 4-cylinder engines of a standardized construction, producing approximately 200 hp.	[ "Section::::Other Formula series.\n\nBULLET::::- ADAC Formel Masters\n\nBULLET::::- Atlantic Championship\n\nBULLET::::- China Formula Grand Prix\n\nBULLET::::- EuroBOSS Series\n\nBULLET::::- Florida Winter Series\n\nBULLET::::- Formula 1000\n\nBULLET::::- Formula 4 Sudamericana\n\nBULLET::::- Formula 4000 powered by Holden\n\nBULLET::::- Formula 500\n\nBULLET::::- Formula Acceleration 1\n\nBULLET::::- Formula Atlantic\n\nBULLET::::- Formula BMW\n\nBULLET::::- Formula Car Challenge\n\nBULLET::::- Formula Continental\n\nBULLET::::- Formula Ford\n\nBULLET::::- Formula Ford 1600\n\nBULLET::::- Formula LGB Hyundai\n\nBULLET::::- Formula LGB Swift\n\nBULLET::::- Formula Maruti\n\nBULLET::::- Formula Masters China\n\nBULLET::::- Formula SAE\n\nBULLET::::- Formula SCCA\n\nBULLET::::- Formula Student\n\nBULLET::::- Formula Vee\n\nBULLET::::- Formula Volkswagen South Africa Championship\n\nBULLET::::- French F4 Championship\n", "Section::::Competition events.:Endurance event.\n", "Section::::Defunct series.:Superleague Formula (2008–2011).\n", "Categories such as Formula Three and FIA Formula 2 Championship are described as feeder formulae, which refers to their position below Formula One on the career ladder of single-seater motor racing. There are two primary forms of racing formula: the open formula that allows a choice of chassis or engines and the control or \"spec\" formula that relies on a single supplier for chassis and engines. Formula Three is an example of an open formula, while Formula BMW is a control formula. There are also some exceptions on these two forms like Formula Ford where there is an open chassis formula but a restricted single brand engine formula.\n", "BULLET::::6. Tanner Foust – 7 wins (2006 at Road Atlanta; 2007 at Irwindale; 2008 at Englishtown and Sonoma; 2009 at Las Vegas; 2010 at Seattle and Irwindale)\n\nBULLET::::7. Rhys Millen – 7 wins (2004 at Irwindale; 2005 at Wall; 2006 at Infineon; 2008 at Road Atlanta and Seattle; 2011 at Las Vegas; 2012 at Las Vegas)\n\nBULLET::::8. Daigo Saito – 6 wins (2012 at Palm Beach and Irwindale; 2013 at Road Atlanta, Wall Speedway and Irwindale; 2014 at Irwindale)\n", "Formula Vee at the SCCA National Championship Runoffs\n\nFormula Vee is one of the oldest classes in SCCA and competed in the first SCCA National Championship Runoffs.\n\nFormula Vee was first introduced at the Runoffs in 1964 at Riverside International Raceway. The first edition was won by Lewis Kerr. The following decades saw many racing drivers compete in various different racing chassis. Michael Varacins is the most successful driver in the class winning seven times, at five different tracks. Varacins also builds his own chassis.\n", "Formula racing is a set of classes of motor vehicles, with their wheels outside, and not contained by, any bodywork of their vehicle. These have been globally classified as specific 'Formula' series - the most common being Formula One, and many others include the likes of Formula 3, Formula Ford, Formula Renault and Formula Palmer Audi. However, in North America, the IndyCar series is their pinnacle open-wheeled racing series. More recently, new open-wheeled series have been created, originating in Europe, which omit the 'Formula' moniker, such as GP2 and GP3. Former 'Formula' series include Formula 5000 and Formula Two.\n", "Section::::Americas.:Indy Pro 2000 Championship.\n\nThe Indy Pro 2000 Championship presented by Cooper Tires has been a racing driver development series since 2011, when it became governed by Indy Racing League, although the original series started in 1991 as the Star Mazda Championship. Drivers currently use Formula Mazda cars built by Star Race Cars with a 250 hp Mazda 'Renesis' rotary engine and Cooper tyres.\n\nSection::::Americas.:U.S. F2000.\n", "Formula racing\n\nFormula racing is any of several forms of open-wheeled single-seater motorsport road racing. The origin of the term lies in the nomenclature that was adopted by the FIA for all of its post-World War II single-seater regulations, or formulae. The best known of these formulae are Formula One, Formula Two, Formula Three and Formula Four. Common usage of \"formula racing\" encompasses other single-seater series, including the GP2 Series, which replaced Formula 3000 (which had itself been the effective replacement for Formula Two).\n", "Section::::Class definitions.:Class 1.\n\nThis is the main event, where teams compete with the cars they have designed and built. Teams are judged across 6 categories and must pass a rigorous inspection by judges before being allowed to compete for the dynamic events. There are usually 100-120 teams in this class.\n\nSection::::Class definitions.:Class 2.\n", "Section::::Competition events.:Autocross event.\n", "There are numerous categories that define the levels of competition for inshore powerboat racing. Much like circuit car racing, the highest levels are designated \"Formula\" followed by a number, and the principal of these is the Formula 1 Powerboat World Championship. Each \"Formula\" level follows a different set of regulations that specify the design of the boat and engine, as well as the rules of competition.\n", "Formula First, raced in the USA and New Zealand, employs the same chassis, but with upgraded motor, brakes and steering.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nThe class is based on a pre-1963 Volkswagen Beetle, utilizing a collection of the stock parts to form a competitive race car around a purpose-built tube frame and racing tires. The VW engine, transmission, front suspension, brakes and wheels are stock or modified stock parts. The chassis is a tube frame design and the body is fiberglass or carbon fiber. The intention of this class is for the average person to build and maintain the car.\n", "Section::::Defunct series.:Formula 3000 (1985–2004).\n\nThe Formula 3000 was created by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile in 1985 to become the final step for drivers before entering Formula One. Formula Two had become too expensive and was dominated by works-run cars with factory engines. Formula 3000 offered quicker, cheaper, more open racing. The series began as an open formula, but in 1986 tyres were standardized, followed by engines and chassis in 1996. The series ran until 2004 and was replaced in 2005 by the GP2 Series.\n\nSection::::Defunct series.:International Formula Master (2005–2009).\n", "In 2007, an offshoot called Formula Hybrid was inaugurated. It is similar to Formula SAE, except all cars must have gasoline-electric hybrid power plants. The competition takes place at the New Hampshire International Speedway. \n\nSection::::Summary of rules.\n\nSection::::Summary of rules.:Student competition.\n", "The NTT IndyCar Series is the premier level of American open wheel racing. The series, founded by Indianapolis Motor Speedway owner Tony George, began in 1996 as the \"Indy Racing League\" (IRL). In 2008, the series merged with the rival Champ Car World Series, formerly known as CART, to form the IndyCar Series.\n\nThe IndyCar Series is not an open formula. The league specifies the chassis, engine and tyre manufacturers, which are changed every three years. Currently, all teams run on Dallara chassis and Firestone tires and they can choose between a Honda and a Chevrolet engine.\n", "Formula Mazda\n\nFormula Mazda is a class of relatively affordable open wheel formula racing.\n", "BULLET::::9. James Deane – 6 wins (2017 at Long Beach, Road Atlanta, Seattle and Texas, 2018 at Wall Speedway, 2018 at Monroe)\n\nBULLET::::10. Aurimas Bakchis – 5 wins (2015 at Road Atlanta; 2016 at Seattle; 2017 at Wall Speedway; 2019 at Long Beach and Orlando)\n\nBULLET::::11. Justin Pawlak – 4 wins (2011 at Long Beach and Palm Beach; 2012 at Long Beach and Road Atlanta)\n\nBULLET::::12. Ryan Tuerck – 4 wins (2009 at Long Beach and Irwindale; 2015 at Orlando, 2019 at Wall Speedway)\n\nBULLET::::13. Tyler McQuarrie – 2 wins (2010 at Las Vegas; 2011 at Irwindale)\n", "Section::::Races Organized by FRD.:Clio Cup China Series(2009 – Present).\n\nClio Cup China Series is a one-make series held in China that featured Renault Clio since 2009. Originally begun by Renault Sport in Europe, managed and organised by Formula Racing Development (FRD) in China, the Clio Cup China Series is a one-make racing series featuring the Clio supermini car.\n\nOver the years, many experienced drivers from the region joined the race and even Hong Kong superstar Aaron Kwok once joined the series and won the Championship in 2009.\n", "BULLET::::- Italian F4 Championship\n\nBULLET::::- Masters Historic Formula One Championship\n\nBULLET::::- Monoposto Racing Club\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota Racing Series\n\nSection::::Defunct series.\n\nFormula series from the 21st century that could be categorised between Tier 1 and Tier 5 (see top of page), but are now defunct, are described below.\n\nSection::::Defunct series.:Formula Two (1947–1985; 2009–2012).\n", "The first Formula SAE competition was held in the parking lot of the UT baseball field (Disch-Falk field) on the University of Texas campus on Memorial Day weekend, 1981. Judges included legendary race car engineer/owner/driver and Indy 500 champion Jim Hall. While a sudden Texas rain storm sent everyone scrambling for cover just before the endurance event that day, the weather failed to dampen the spirits of the students, judges, or spectators and Formula SAE was born. \n", "Formula Ford was first introduced at the Runoffs in 1969 at Daytona. The first edition featured 21 drivers with Skip Barber won the race and scored the fastest lap. Most cars in the field were imported British Formula Ford cars such as the Merlyn, Lotus and Royale. Barber also won the second edition in 1970. The following decades saw many racing drivers competed in various different racing chassis. Dave Weitzenhof is the most successful driver in the class winning four times, each at Road Atlanta. \n", "BULLET::::3. Samuel Hübinette – 9 wins (2004 at Road Atlanta, Houston, and Infineon; 2005 at Road Atlanta and Chicago; 2006 at Long Beach, Chicago and Wall Speedway; 2007 at Summit Point)\n\nBULLET::::4. Chris Forsberg – 9 wins (2005 at Irwindale; 2007 at Road Atlanta and Infineon; 2008 at Long Beach; 2009 at Road Atlanta and Seattle; 2013 at Seattle; 2014 at Long Beach; 2018 at Orlando)\n\nBULLET::::5. Daijiro Yoshihara – 8 wins (2006 at Irwindale; 2007 at Seattle and Wall Speedway; 2010 at Road Atlanta and Wall Speedway; 2011 at Road Atlanta and Monroe; 2013 at Long Beach)\n", "The SCCA General Competition Rules define the Formula 1000 car as follows: \"A formula for purpose built, open-wheel, open cockpit racing cars. F1000\n\nallows converted Formula Continental, Formula 2000, Formula F, and\n\npurpose-built motorcycle-powered tube frame chassis.\"\n", "Cooper Tires presents the U.S. F2000 National Championship powered by Mazda is an American variation of the Formula Ford. The series was initially founded by Dan Andersen and Mike Foschi in 1990 and regularly fielded over 60 entries per race. In 2001, the series was sold to Jon Baytos who introduced a number of controversial rule changes that brought the series out of alignment with similar SCCA classes, which led to a reduction in participation and the end of the series in 2006. In 2010, the series returned under the leadership of Andersen with the intent to return F2000 to its status as a feeder formula for higher open wheel racing classes in the United States.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01757	What causes a company's stocks to go up or down every day? How is it related to a stock exchange?	A company’s stock price is merely its perceived value to people and how much people think it’s worth. The price of a stock is not definitively based upon whether a company is doing well or poorly - but that is generally the case as to what drives people’s notions on the value. Example 1: company has booming sales and will be announcing a large increase in profit the the financial year. Generally the price of its stock will increase as the company is seen to be doing well. Example 2: company was hacked and vital information leaked leading to poor publicity and decreasing sales. Generally the stock price will decrease. These are very basic examples and the price of stock will fluctuate due to an infinite number of reasons. But all in all, it depends on whether you think the stock is overvalued or undervalued based on your experience, gut feeling, research etc.	[ "Section::::Role of stock exchanges.:Barometer of the economy.\n\nAt the stock exchange, share prices rise and fall depending, largely, on economic forces. Share prices tend to rise or remain stable when companies and the economy in general show signs of stability and growth. A recession, depression, or financial crisis could eventually lead to a stock market crash. Therefore, the movement of share prices and in general of the stock indexes can be an indicator of the general trend in the economy.\n\nSection::::Listing requirements.\n", "William O'Neil reported that, since the 1950s, a market top is characterized by three to five distribution days in a major stock market index occurring within a relatively short period of time. Distribution is a decline in price with higher volume than the preceding session.\n\nSection::::Primary trends.:Market top.:Examples.\n\nThe peak for the U.S. stock market before the financial crisis of 2007-2008 was on October 9, 2007. The S&P 500 Index closed at 1,565 and the Nasdaq at 2861.50.\n\nSection::::Primary trends.:Market bottom.\n", "Major stock exchange groups (top 20 by market capitalization) of issued shares of listed companies, .\n\nBULLET::::- Note: \"Δ\" to UTC, as well as \"Open (UTC)\" and \"Close (UTC)\" columns contain valid data only for standard time in a given time zone. During daylight saving time period, the UTC times will be one hour less and Δs one hour more.\n\nSection::::Commodity exchanges.\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago Board of Trade\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago Mercantile Exchange\n\nBULLET::::- United States Mercantile Exchange\n\nBULLET::::- United States International Monetary Financial Futures and Options Exchange\n\nBULLET::::- United States Metal Exchange\n\nBULLET::::- New York Mercantile Exchange\n", "A common view of a stock market pattern is one that involves a specific time-frame (for example a 6-month chart with daily price intervals). In this kind of a chart one may create and observe any of the following trends or trend relationships:\n\nBULLET::::- A long-term trend, which may appear as linear\n\nBULLET::::- Intermediate term trends and their relationship to the long-term trend\n\nBULLET::::- Random price movements or consolidation (sometimes referred to as 'noise') and its relationship to one of the above\n", "Researchers have found that some of the biggest price deviations from random walks result from seasonal and temporal patterns. In particular, returns in January significantly exceed those in other months (January effect) and on Mondays stock prices go down more than on any other day. Observers have noted these effects in many different markets for more than half a century, but without succeeding in giving a completely satisfactory explanation for their persistence.\n", "Empirical studies have demonstrated that prices do not completely follow random walks. Low serial correlations (around 0.05) exist in the short term, and slightly stronger correlations over the longer term. Their sign and the strength depend on a variety of factors.\n", "Another example of the impact of volume on the accuracy of market capitalization is when a company has little or no trading activity and the market price is simply the price at which the most recent trade took place, which could be days or weeks ago. This occurs when there are no buyers willing to purchase the securities at the price being offered by the sellers and there are no sellers willing to sell at the price the buyers are willing to pay. While this is rare when the company is traded on a major stock exchange, it is not uncommon when shares are traded over-the-counter (OTC). Since individual buyers and sellers need to incorporate news about the company into their purchasing decisions, a security with an imbalance of buyers or sellers may not feel the full effect of recent news.\n", "The stock prices are likely to increase on the last trading day of the month and the mean returns are usually higher in the early days of a month opposed to the rest of the days. The reason, why this anomaly occurs, is due to the mental behaviour of the investors, who sell their shares in anticipation of a positive change and new information in the coming month.\n\nSection::::Calendar anomalies.:Turn-of-the-Year Effect.\n", "where p are the prices of the component stocks and d is the \"Dow Divisor\".\n\nEvents such as stock splits or changes in the list of the companies composing the index alter the sum of the component prices. In these cases, in order to avoid discontinuity in the index, the Dow Divisor is updated so that the quotations right before and after the event coincide:\n\nThe Dow Divisor was 0.14744568353097 on April 2, 2019. Presently, every $1 change in price in a particular stock within the average equates to a 6.782 (or 1 ÷ 0.14744568353097) point movement.\n\nSection::::Assessment.\n\nSection::::Assessment.:Market performance.\n", "In the stock market, a bellwether (\"barometer stock\" in the UK) is a stock that is believed to be a leading indicator of the direction of a sector, an industry or the market as a whole. Bellwether stocks are often used to determine the direction in which an industry or market is headed in the short term.\n", "Investors trading shares of a listed company know there are certain events that cause the share price to rise or fall — sudden changes in energy prices, a labor strike at a supplier, a poor month for the sales, for example. Trading the news is the technique of making a profit by trading financial instruments (stock, currency, etc.) just in time, and in accordance to the occurrence of those events.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Automatic.\n", "The movements of the prices in a market or section of a market are captured in price indices called stock market indices, of which there are many, e.g., the S&P, the FTSE and the Euronext indices. Such indices are usually market capitalization weighted, with the weights reflecting the contribution of the stock to the index. The constituents of the index are reviewed frequently to include/exclude stocks in order to reflect the changing business environment.\n\nSection::::Derivative instruments.\n", "BULLET::::- Finer screen: To identify the optimum intra-day price at which to buy or sell a given security\n\nSection::::Publications.\n", "A stock (or \"level variable\") in this broader sense is some entity that is accumulated over time by inflows and/or depleted by outflows. Stocks can only be changed via flows. Mathematically a stock can be seen as an accumulation or integration of flows over time – with outflows subtracting from the stock. Stocks typically have a certain value at each moment of time – e.g. the number of population at a certain moment.\n", "A doji is a key trend reversal indicator. This is particularly true when there is a high trading volume following an extended move in either direction. When a market has been in an uptrend and trades to a higher high than the previous three trading days, fails to hold that high, and closes in the lower 10% of that day's trading range, there is a high probability of a downtrend in the ensuing days. Likewise, when the market has been in a downtrend and trades to a new low that's lower than the three previous trading days, fails to hold that low, and closes in the upper 10% of that day's trading range, there is a high probability of an uptrend in the ensuing days.\n", "Rising moving average\n\nThe rising moving average is a technical indicator used in stock market trading. Most commonly found visually, the pattern is spotted with a moving average overlay on a stock chart or price series. When the moving average has been rising consecutively for a number of days, this is used as a buy signal, to indicate a rising trend forming.\n", "The price of a stock fluctuates fundamentally due to the theory of supply and demand. Like all commodities in the market, the price of a stock is sensitive to demand. However, there are many factors that influence the demand for a particular stock. The fields of fundamental analysis and technical analysis attempt to understand market conditions that lead to price changes, or even predict future price levels. A recent study shows that customer satisfaction, as measured by the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI), is significantly correlated to the market value of a stock. Stock price may be influenced by analysts' business forecast for the company and outlooks for the company's general market segment. Stocks can also fluctuate greatly due to pump and dump scams.\n", "The stock exchange maintains the following requirements for a stock to be included in the PSEi:\n\nBULLET::::- Minimum free float level of 15%.\n\nBULLET::::- This was increased from 12% before 2018.\n\nBULLET::::- A company must also meet the liquidity and capitalization criteria.\n\nSection::::Current components.\n\nThese are current as of February 18, 2019:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- PSE All Shares Index, index of almost all shares traded in the PSE\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Reuters page for .PSI\n\nBULLET::::- Bloomberg page for PCOMP:IND\n", "BULLET::::- Chart patterndistinctive pattern created by the movement of security or commodity prices on a chart\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclestime targets for potential change in price action (price only moves up, down, or sideways)\n\nBULLET::::- Dead cat bouncethe phenomenon whereby a spectacular decline in the price of a stock is immediately followed by a moderate and temporary rise before resuming its downward movement\n\nBULLET::::- Elliott wave principle and the golden ratio to calculate successive price movements and retracements\n\nBULLET::::- Fibonacci ratiosused as a guide to determine support and resistance\n\nBULLET::::- Momentumthe rate of price change\n", "Section::::Relative Performance Indexes.:List of Alpha Indexes.\n\nAlpha Indexes currently listed at NASDAQ are as given below.\n\nSection::::Calculation of Alpha Indexes.\n\nThe total daily return of a stock is defined as:\n\nformula_1\n\nwhere, formula_2 is target security price at end of day t, and formula_3 is the dividend paid by the security during day t.\n\nThe total daily benchmark return is defined similarly:\n\nformula_4\n\nThe daily updating formula for a relative performance index is defined as:\n\nformula_5\n\nwhere, b is a relative risk-adjustment coefficient.\n", "Some market speculators \"Fade\" the gap on the opening of a market. This means for example that if the S&P 500 closed the day before at 1150 (16:15 EST) and opens today at 1160 (09:30 EST), they will short the market expecting this \"upgap\" to close. A \"downgap\" would mean today opens at, for example, 1140, and the speculator buys the market at the open expecting the \"downgap to close\". The probability of this happening on any given day is around 70%, depending on the market. Once the probability of \"gap fill\" on any given day or technical position is established, then the best setups for this trade can be identified. Some days have such a low probability of the gap filling that speculators will trade in the direction of the gap.\n", "Section::::Weighting.\n", "Section::::By country.:Asia.:South Korea.\n", "Stocks with low price-to-sales ratio outperform the market and stocks with high price-to-sales ratios.\n\nSection::::Fundamental anomalies.:Low Price-to-Earnings (P/E).\n\nThe stocks with low price-to-earnings ratio are likely generate more returns and outperform the market, because they are usually undervalued due to investors becoming pessimistic after a bad previous performance or negative news regarding the stock.\n\nThe stocks with high price-to-earnings ratios tend to underperform than the index due to an overvaluation of the asset.\n\nSection::::Fundamental anomalies.:Volatility puzzle.\n\nIn an efficient market with fully rational investors volatility should not be high, because prices would change only if new relevant information arises.\n", "When a stock drifts through the neckline on small volume, there may be a \"wave up\", although it is not certain, but it is observed, the rally normally does not cross the general level of the Neckline and before selling pressure increases, the steep decline occurs and prices tumble with greater volume.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nBULLET::::- Most of the time Head and Shoulders are not perfectly shaped. This formation is slightly tilted upward or downward.\n\nBULLET::::- One shoulder may appear to droop.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03741	How are signals transmitted into a rotating thing. Like helicopter or tire	OK, so this is the rotor head of a UH-60 helicopter. I can tell you for a fact that wires you see in the pic are for the de-iceing system for the blades and droop stop system. These don't transmit any radio but push electricity to heater mats under the surface of the blade. this is done via a rotator stator with a brush system. The brushes drag across a plate to transmit the power. The system is disassembled and rebuilt every 960 flight hour(used to be 720 hr) to correct wear and erosion of the material. 17 years Army Aviation, 14 working on Blackhawks specific, last 4 doing phases (480 and 960 hour inspections)	[ "Communication with other devices is either through a 38,400 bit/s serial port dock, or through the 9,600 infrared link, the transmitter of which is mounted to the upper middle of the watch. It is possible to link two onHands via this infrared link to play various two-player games.\n", "Most direct TPMS systems use ultra high frequency (UHF) radio in one of the 'unlicensed' ISM bands (industrial, scientific and medical) for transmitting the data, often around 434 MHz in Europe and 315 MHz in much of the rest of the world. On some systems there is a separate receiver or antenna near each wheel whilst more commonly there is a single receiver which receives data from all of the wheels on the vehicle. Commonly this receiver is also used for remote keyless entry system (RKE) as this also usually uses UHF radio transmissions.\n", "If the vehicle is fitted with low frequency (LF) transmitters near each wheel, the vehicle may use these to force the sensors to transmit. In this case, the TPM may not transmit on its own, but the vehicle will periodically command the sensors to send their information.\n", "The US Navy bought the patent from Ilon and put researchers to work on it in the 1980s in Panama City. The US Navy has used it for transporting items around ships. In 1997, Airtrax Incorporated and several other companies each paid the US Navy $2,500 for rights to the technology, including old drawings of how the motors and controllers worked, to build an omnidirectional forklift truck that could maneuver in tight spaces such as the deck of an aircraft carrier. These vehicles are now in production.\n", "Also, the original position of the center, the final position of the center, and the position of the right wheel form a triangle which one can call \"B\". Since the center of the robot is equidistant to either wheel, and as they share the angle formed at the right wheel, triangles \"A\" and \"B\" are similar triangles. In this situation, the magnitude of the change of position of the center of the robot is one half of a unit. The angle of this change can be determined using the law of sines.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dead reckoning\n\nBULLET::::- Visual odometry\n", "Rotor-spinning is mostly used for cotton and is up to ten times faster than ring-spinning. Material is fed through the feed and the open roller individualizes the strands. It is then fed to the yarn arm through the fibre transportation tube. The rotor then spins the yarn around the rolling yarn arm, creating yarn.\n\nBULLET::::- Air jet-spun\n", "The original SelTrac system was based on inductive loops that provided a communications channel as well as positioning information. Normally an inductive loop is used solely as a communications system, with electromagnets on the vehicles or stations inducing currents in the loop that can be read at a distant location. In the case of SelTrac, the central computer sent data to the vehicles at 1200 bit/s on a 36 kHz carrier while the vehicles had 600 bit/s on a 56 kHz carrier. Separate antennae are used for transmission and reception.\n", "Despite the fact that in the mentioned experiments the interface between sensors and computer was implemented with the help of data input cards, such decision was a decisive step on the way of the appearance of the DAA. Then, there was only to solve the problem of direct digital data, obtained from sensing elements, input into computer, excluding the stage of preparation of punch card and operator assistance as a surplus link.\n\nApparently, it was Polikarpov B.I. who first drew attention to the potential possibilities of multichannel analyzers in the\n", "On the device, data can be entered by two methods: The first method is by using the joystick mounted to the front of the watch itself (a method that has been considered clumsy). The second method is by synchronizing data from a full-sized PC using the included software. A program called HandySurf also allows synchronizing internet content (such as Yahoo! News Headlines).\n", "Some mobile transmitter hunters use equipment based on exploiting the principle of Doppler shift. At least four antennas are mounted in a precise geometric pattern, often on the roof of a vehicle. Specialty electronics computes the amount of Doppler shift present in the received signals and determines a probable direction from which the signal originates. The direction is commonly displayed using LEDs oriented in a circle or a straight line. Advanced units can use a compass or GPS receiver to compute a direction relative to the instant motion of the vehicle.\n", "In the 1980s, a Japanese electronics company, Futaba, copied wheeled steering for RC cars. It was originally developed by Orbit for a transmitter specially designed for Associated cars It has been widely accepted along with a trigger control for throttle. Often configured for right hand users, the transmitter looks like a pistol with a wheel attached on its right side. Pulling the trigger would accelerate the car forward, while pushing it would either stop the car or cause it to go into reverse. Some models are available in left-handed versions.\n\nSection::::Mass production.\n", "Also, some vehicles have low frequency radio transmitters mounted near to each wheel which can be used to force the individual TPMs to transmit at will. These typically use similar technology to 125 kHz RFID tags where the transmitted field is predominantly magnetic and can be easily detected by a small LF antenna located in the TPM. This method of localisation is often referred to as a high line system.\n", "The first AGV was brought to market in the 1950s, by Barrett Electronics of Northbrook, Illinois, and at the time it was simply a tow truck that followed a wire in the floor instead of a rail. Out of this technology came a new type of AGV, which follows invisible UV markers on the floor instead of being towed by a chain. The first such system was deployed at the Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) in Chicago, Illinois to deliver mail throughout its offices.\n", "In 1981 SED Systems was awarded a contract to study the power requirements of a communications platform, while John F. Martin of Martin Communications and James DeLaurier at UTIAS studied aircraft configurations. In September 1982 the Department of Communications gave the go-ahead to form a formal study group within the CRC, which studied rectenna design, leading to several patents on thin-film versions.\n", "Optical fibers can be made into interferometric sensors such as fiber optic gyroscopes, which are used in the Boeing 767 and in some car models (for navigation purposes). They are also used to make hydrogen sensors.\n", "The invention of the rectenna in the 1960s made long distance wireless power transmission feasible. The rectenna was invented in 1964 and patented in 1969 by US electrical engineer William C. Brown, who demonstrated it with a model helicopter powered by microwaves transmitted from the ground, received by an attached rectenna. Since the 1970s, one of the major motivations for rectenna research has been to develop a receiving antenna for proposed solar power satellites, which would harvest energy from sunlight in space with solar cells and beam it down to Earth as microwaves to huge rectenna arrays. A proposed military application is to power drone reconnaissance aircraft with microwaves beamed from the ground, allowing them to stay aloft for long periods. In recent years, interest has turned to using rectennas as power sources for small wireless microelectronic devices. The largest current use of rectennas is in RFID tags, proximity cards and contactless smart cards, which contain an integrated circuit (IC) which is powered by a small rectenna element. When the device is brought near an electronic reader unit, radio waves from the reader are received by the rectenna, powering up the IC, which transmits its data back to the reader.\n", "BULLET::::- Robogals Asia Pacific SINE 2017, 23-25 September 2017, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Robogals EMEA SINE 2018, 10-12 February 2018, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, U.K.\n\nUpcoming conferences:\n\nBULLET::::- Robogals NA SINE 2018, Robogals AP SINE 2018\n\nSection::::Organisational structure.\n", "Electromagnetic clutches are also often found in AWD systems, and are used to vary the amount of power sent to individual wheels or axles.\n", "BULLET::::- The steering is operated by a rack and pinion system which normally only works as a feedback loop.\n\nBULLET::::- The rack takes the form of a double acting hydraulic ram, but is capable of taking over full steering function in the event of a hydraulic failure. During normal operation the rack and pinion merely provides a position indication to the steering control valve through the pinion shaft. The rack and pinion do the actual steering only in the absence of system hydraulic pressure.\n", "Other power steering systems (such as those in the largest off-road construction vehicles) have no direct mechanical connection to the steering linkage; they require electrical power. Systems of this kind, with no mechanical connection, are sometimes called \"drive by wire\" or \"steer by wire\", by analogy with aviation's \"fly-by-wire\". In this context, \"wire\" refers to electrical cables that carry power and data, not thin wire rope mechanical control cables.\n", "Section::::Application.:Industrial monitoring.:Machine health monitoring.\n\nWireless sensor networks have been developed for machinery condition-based maintenance (CBM) as they offer significant cost savings and enable new functionality.\n\nWireless sensors can be placed in locations difficult or impossible to reach with a wired system, such as rotating machinery and untethered vehicles.\n\nSection::::Application.:Industrial monitoring.:Data logging.\n", "BULLET::::- Direct digital synthesis\n\nSection::::Determining the frequency.:Frequency multiplication.\n", "Tactics for employing technicals were pioneered by the Sahrawi People's Liberation Army, the armed wing of the Polisario Front, fighting for independence against Mauritania (1975–79) and Morocco (1975–present) from headquarters in Tindouf, Algeria. Algeria provided arms and Land Rovers to Sahrawi guerrillas, who successfully used them in long-range desert raids against the less agile conventional armies of their opponents, recalling Sahrawi tribal raids (ghazzis) of the pre-colonial period. Polisario later gained access to heavier equipment, but four-wheel drive vehicles remain a staple of their arsenal.\n\nSection::::History.:Chadian–Libyan conflict.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn 1894, the first example of wirelessly controlling at a distance was during a demonstration by the British physicist Oliver Lodge, in which he made use of a Édouard Branly's coherer to make a mirror galvanometer move a beam of light when an electromagnetic wave was artificially generated. This was further refined by Guglielmo Marconi and William Preece, at a demonstration that took place on December 12, 1896, at Toynbee Hall in London, in which they made a bell ring by pushing a button in a box that was not connected by any wires.\n", "Usually a single-chip 4017 decade counter is used inside the receiver to decode the transmitted multiplexed PPM signal to the individual \"RC PWM\" signals sent to each RC servo.\n\nOften a Signetics NE544 IC or a functionally equivalent chip is used inside the housing of low-cost RC servos as the motor controller—it decodes that servo control pulse train to a position, and drives the motor to that position.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03838	why are crosshairs in ww2 planes cockpits allways shown moving a bit in movies and video games?	Frequently, this is being depicted through a first person perspective, and the person's head movement is being simulated. So the crosshairs appear to be moving in the field of view because their "eyes" are.	[ "An interesting variation is to have the background and foreground move in \"opposite\" directions. This creates an effect of rotation. An early example is the scene in Walt Disney's \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" where the Evil Queen drinks her potion, and the surroundings appear to spin around her.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nA predecessor to the multiplane camera was used by Lotte Reiniger for her animated feature \"The Adventures of Prince Achmed\" (1926). Berthold Bartosch, who worked with Reiniger, used a similar setup in his film \"L'Idee\" (1932). \n", "In some cases, Minox miniature cameras were given to people together with an Iron Cross.\n\nSection::::Post–World War II.\n", "Section::::Famous users.\n\nPerhaps the most famous Speed Graphic user was New York City press photographer Arthur \"Weegee\" Fellig, who covered the city in the 1930s and 1940s.\n\nBarbara Morgan used a Speed Graphic to photograph Martha Graham's choreography.\n\nIn the 1950s and 1960s,the iconic photo-journalists of the Washington Post and the former Washington Evening Star shot on Speed Graphics exclusively. Some of the most famous photographs of this era were taken on the device by the twin brothers, Frank P. Hoy (for the Post) and Tom Hoy (for the Star).\n", "Many computer editing programs can de-interlace video to give it more of a film look. An interlaced frame is actually the combination of two fields, one providing the odd-numbered scan lines and the other the even-numbered. Interlacing results in a type of motion blur known as \"combing\", and also shows \"interline twitter\" where vertical details approach the resolution limit, neither of which occur in film. De-interlacing can remove or reduce these artifacts, resulting in an appearance closer to that of film.\n", "While there are simple methods to produce somewhat satisfactory progressive frames from the interlaced image, for example by doubling the lines of one field and omitting the other (halving vertical resolution), or anti-aliasing the image in the vertical axis to hide some of the combing, there are sometimes methods of producing results far superior to these. If there is only sideways (X axis) motion between the two fields and this motion is even throughout the full frame, it is possible to align the scanlines and crop the left and right ends that exceed the frame area to produce a visually satisfactory image. Minor Y axis motion can be corrected similarly by aligning the scanlines in a different sequence and cropping the excess at the top and bottom. Often the middle of the picture is the most necessary area to put into check, and whether there is only X or Y axis alignment correction, or both are applied, most artifacts will occur towards the edges of the picture. However, even these simple procedures require motion tracking between the fields, and a rotating or tilting object, or one that moves in the Z axis (away from or towards the camera) will still produce combing, possibly even looking worse than if the fields were joined in a simpler method. \n", "Another problem is chromakeying images that were created on film stock is that some film stocks have a distinct ‘film grain’ to them. A large amount of film grain will often cause rough edges around the foreground object. Rough edges can be minimized to achieve a smoother transition between the edges of the ‘chroma keyed’ foreground object and the user selected background image.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Some important features of the MHI representation are:\n\nBULLET::::- It represents motion sequence in a compact manner. In this case, the silhouette sequence is condensed into a grayscale image, where dominant motion information is preserved.\n\nBULLET::::- MHI can be created and implemented in low illumination conditions where the structure cannot be easily detected otherwise.\n\nBULLET::::- The MHI representation is not so sensitive to silhouette noises, holes, shadows, and missing parts.\n\nBULLET::::- The gray-scale MHI is sensitive to the direction of motion because it can demonstrate the flow direction of the motion.\n", "The traditional way of representing (human) motion visually, is either by displaying individual frames from a video file as a keyframe display or by doing one or more forms of feature extraction and subsequent plotting of the resultant data. Neither of these are ideal to give a good impression of the actual motion happening in the sequence. Keyframe displays only show postures and not motion, while feature graphs often rely on multiple analysis steps. Motiongrams are useful as an intermediary step to show spatiotemporal information of a movement sequence, but with no need for doing a full analysis of the data.\n", "The concept of early cinema, “moving pictures,” is a direct evolution of the concept of a moving panorama. The first use of the scrolling background concept early on in film was rear projection. This technique, for example, was used when stationary actors were filming in a car that wasn’t actually moving, but instead had a projection of changing locales behind on the rear window to create the illusion that the car was moving, a trope often used in Hitchcock movies. Today, we have much more realistic computer technology to create this illusion of movement, but the image of a stationary object or actor in front of a changing background harkens back to the moving panorama scroll. Moving projections of clouds or passing objects on cycloramas at the back of a stage sometimes seen in modern live theater productions also utilize the illusion of seamless movement behind a stationary object that was popularized by the moving panorama of the nineteenth century.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Touch of Evil\" (directed by Orson Welles): Hank Quinlan is often shot in low angle to make him look menacing, large, and in-charge.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Saturday Night Fever\" (directed by John Badham): In the famous opening sequence, there are several shots from a low angle to emphasize Tony Manero's delusions that he is untouchable.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lady From Shanghai\" (directed by Orson Welles): examples of low-angle shot are during the scene where George Grisby is confronted by Broome and he shoots him.\n\nBULLET::::- Used while filming World Wrestling Entertainment interviews with André the Giant.\n", "Morphing algorithms continue to advance and programs can automatically morph images that correspond closely enough with relatively little instruction from the user. This has led to the use of morphing techniques to create convincing slow-motion effects where none existed in the original film or video footage by morphing between each individual frame using optical flow technology. Morphing has also appeared as a transition technique between one scene and another in television shows, even if the contents of the two images are entirely unrelated. The algorithm in this case attempts to find corresponding points between the images and distort one into the other as they crossfade.\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Munns wrote, \"One researcher, Bill Miller, found technical data from a Kodak technician that stated the K-100 cameras were tweaked so even when the dial is set to 16 fps, the camera actually runs at 18 fps. ... I have nine K-100 cameras now. ... I tried it on one camera, and got 18 fps, but the rest still need testing [and all with \"film running through the camera\"].\"\n\nSection::::Analysis.\n", "Preserving the color framing sequence of video across edits and between channels in video effects was an important issue in early analog composite videotape editing systems, as cuts between different color sequences would cause jumps in subcarrier phase, and mixing two signals of different field dominance would result in color artifacts on the part of the signal that was not in sync with the output color frame sequence.\n", "\"Swing Shift Maisie\", filmed at Grand Central Air Terminal, Glendale (Los Angeles), also used a Northrop A-17A, Seversky SEV-3 and Douglas DC-3 in some scenes.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "When the moving picture is displayed, each frame is flashed on a screen for a short time (nowadays, usually 1/24, 1/25 or 1/30 of a second) and then immediately replaced by the next one. Persistence of vision blends the frames together, producing the illusion of a moving image. \n", "Since shooting in a camera's raw format (if supported) the white balance can be arbitrarily changed in postprocessing as well at a later stage, white balance bracketing is particularly useful for reviewing different white balance settings in the field.\n\nSection::::Smooth Trans Focus function.\n\nThe Minolta Maxxum 7's STF function is an automatically calculated and pre-compensated seven-fold multi-exposure with depth-of-field bracketing which emulates the smooth bokeh effect of Smooth Trans Focus.\n\nSection::::Automatic dual-bracketing.\n", "Skitching is also performed on inline skates. It has appeared in video games, for example Skitchin' and Jet Set Radio.\n\nSection::::Types.:Bicycle skitching.\n", "Interlaced video had been originally designed for watching on a cathode-ray tube television set. Material recorded for interlaced presentation may exhibit combing or ghosting when it is rescaled, filmed out or watched on a computer or another progressive-scan device without proper deinterlacing.\n", "In video or cinematography, temporal aliasing results from the limited frame rate, and causes the wagon-wheel effect, whereby a spoked wheel appears to rotate too slowly or even backwards. Aliasing has changed its apparent frequency of rotation. A reversal of direction can be described as a negative frequency. Temporal aliasing frequencies in video and cinematography are determined by the frame rate of the camera, but the relative intensity of the aliased frequencies is determined by the shutter timing (exposure time) or the use of a temporal aliasing reduction filter during filming.\n", "poemOn the day of our arrival at the Bray Studios, we were shown to canvas director’s chairs with our names on the back and treated to rushes of some key action sequences. And I was literally left speechless when I saw Fokker D-7s with inverted engines and 1916-style insignia, Dr-1s with radial engines and smoke canisters on their landing gear struts, machine-guns that looked like Space Cadet props spouting flame without benefit of ammo tracks, every pilot wearing an Uhlan uniform and Battle of Britain style goggles, Gypsy Moths pretending to be Albatros D-3s, a Stampe presented as an RE-8—the anachronisms and goofs compounded. When I asked Delang about it later, he merely shrugged, rolled his eyes, and sighed resignedly. When I challenged the art director on something so glaring as a D-7 with curve-sided crosses, he shrugged, too. \"That kind of cross photographs better,\" he said. Ah, but how about those machine-guns with no ammo feed tracks? Another shrug. \"No big deal. People just watch the muzzle flashes.\"\n", "Moving the table on which the model is standing while the film is being exposed creates a slight, realistic blur. This technique was developed by Ladislas Starevich: when the characters ran, he moved the set in the opposite direction. This is seen in \"The Little Parade\" when the ballerina is chased by the devil. Starevich also used this technique on his films \"The Eyes of the Dragon\", \"The Magical Clock\" and \"The Mascot\". Aardman Animations used this for the train chase in \"The Wrong Trousers\" and again during the lorry chase in \"A Close Shave\". In both cases the cameras were moved physically during a 1-2 second exposure. The technique was revived for the full-length \"\".\n", "It proved useful to carry a technician in the Mi-24's crew compartment to handle a light machine gun in a window port. This gave the Mi-24 some ability to \"watch its back\" while leaving a target area. In some cases, a light machine gun was fitted on both sides to allow the technician to move from one side to the other without having to take the machine gun with him.\n", "BULLET::::- Weaving is done by adding consecutive fields together. This method does not cause any problems when the image has not changed between fields, but any change will result in artifacts known as \"combing,\" when the pixels in one frame do not line up with the pixels in the other, forming a jagged edge. This technique retains the full vertical resolution at the expense of half the temporal resolution (motion).\n", "The last scenes of the film - the scenes of the final match of the 1972 Olympic Games basketball tournament between the USSR and the US national teams - were filmed in the first filming days. Instead of a crowd of fans, advertising and other attributes of the Munich match, the shooting technique used the \"chromakey\" technology.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Box office.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Citizen Kane\" (directed by Orson Welles): there are many examples such as during the scene where Kane fires Leland. In fact, the scene where Leland confronts Kane after his defeat in the election is entirely shot in a low angle view.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Psycho\" (directed by Alfred Hitchcock): the house where Norman Bates lives is usually shot from a low angle.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Star Wars\" (directed by George Lucas): Darth Vader is often shot at a low angle, for example, the first time we see his character as he is walking down a hallway.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Crosshairs are actually moving" ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The view of the character is being simulated which makes things appear to be moving. " ]
2018-11572	What is the difference between a 200 calorie fasting deficit and a 200 calorie burning workout?	Working out gives you the cardiovascular benefits as well as raising your metabolism for a couple hours after workout which burns more calories.	[ "This table outlines the estimated distribution of energy consumption at different intensity levels for a healthy 20-year-old with a Max Heart Rate (MHR) of 200.\n\nThese estimates are valid only when glycogen reserves are able to cover the energy needs. If a person depletes glycogen reserves after a long workout (a phenomenon known as \"hitting the wall\") or during a low carbohydrate diet, the body will shift into ketosis and use mostly fat and muscle for energy. Intermittent fasting can be used to train the body to shift easily into ketosis.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Exercise physiology\n\nBULLET::::- Human power\n", "Circuit weight training is a form of exercise that uses a number of weight training exercise sets separated by short intervals. The cardiovascular effort to recover from each set serves a function similar to an aerobic exercise, but this is not the same as saying that a weight training set is itself an aerobic process.\n\nSection::::Practice of weight training.:Exercises for specific muscle groups.\n", "Section::::Without depletion.\n\nResearch in the 1980s led to a modified carbo-loading regimen that eliminates the depletion phase, instead calling for increased carbohydrate intake (to about 70% of total calories) and decreased training for three days before the event is the correct regimen.\n\nSection::::Short workout.\n", "Gibala's group published a less intense version of their regimen in a 2011 paper in \"Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise\". This was intended as a gentler option for sedentary people who had done no exercise for over a year. It included 3 minutes of warm-up, 10 repetitions of 60-second bursts at 60% peak power (80–95% of heart rate reserve) each followed by 60 seconds of recovery, and then a 5-minute cool-down.\n\nSection::::Branch.:Zuniga regimen.\n", "HIIT significantly lowers insulin resistance compared to continuous training or control conditions and leads to modestly decreased fasting blood glucose levels and increased weight loss compared to those who do not undergo a physical activity intervention. Another study found that HIIT was more effective than moderate-intensity continuous training at fasting insulin levels (31% decrease and 9% decrease, respectively).\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Fat oxidation.\n", "By alternating the “intensity of your workouts, you will burn more calories than you would by keeping a steady pace.\" While running, the runner's body uses a combination of carbohydrate and fat, with relatively more carbohydrate metabolized at faster speeds and relatively more fat the longer the workout lasts. A fartlek workout will allow the body to adapt to using both sources of energy, with the desired adaptation towards fat metabolism occurring during slower periods. In addition, varying speeds improves cardiovascular endurance slightly better than running at a steady pace for the same time and total distance.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Sports training variability.\n", "Intermittent fasting\n\nIntermittent fasting (intermittent energy restriction or intermittent calorie restriction) is an umbrella term for various eating diet plans that cycle between a period of fasting and non-fasting over a defined period. Intermittent fasting is under preliminary research to assess if it can produce weight loss comparable to long-term calorie restriction.\n\nThere is little evidence to support intermittent fasting and it has been described as a fad diet.\n\nSection::::Types and variants.\n\nThree methods of intermittent fasting are Alternate day fasting, whole-day fasting, and time-restricted feeding.\n", "Lowered-calorie diets have no positive effect on muscle hypertrophy for muscle of any fiber type. They may, however, decrease the thickness of subcutaneous fat (fat between muscle and skin), through an overall reduction in body fat, thus making muscle striations more visible.\n\nSection::::Risks and concerns.:Weight loss.\n\nExercises like sit-ups, or abdominal crunches, performs less work than whole-body aerobic exercises thereby expending fewer calories during exercise than jogging, for example.\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Cardiovascular fitness.:Cardiovascular disease.\n\nA 2015 meta-analysis comparing HIIT to moderate intensity continuous training (MICT) in people with coronary artery disease found that HIIT leads to greater improvements in VO max but that MICT leads to greater reductions in body weight and heart rate. A 2014 meta-analysis found that the cardiorespiratory fitness, as measured by VO max, of individuals with lifestyle-induced chronic cardiovascular or metabolic diseases (including high blood pressure, obesity, heart failure, coronary artery disease, or metabolic syndrome) who completed a HIIT exercise program was nearly double that of individuals who completed a MICT exercise program.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Metabolic effects.\n", "There is no specific formula to HIIT. Depending on one's level of cardiovascular development, the moderate-level intensity can be as slow as walking. A common formula involves a 2:1 ratio of work to recovery periods, for example, 30–40 seconds of hard sprinting alternated with 15–20 seconds of jogging or walking, repeated to failure.\n\nThe entire HIIT session may last between four and thirty minutes, meaning that it is considered to be an excellent way to maximize a workout that is limited by time constraints.\n", "Yoga Sculpt: When muscle meets yoga, Yoga Sculpt is born. Boost metabolism and build lean muscle mass as you move to upbeat tracks. You’ll combine free weights with CorePower Yoga 2 sequencing and cardio to intensify each yoga pose while mixing in strength-training moves like squats, lunges and bicep curls.\n\nCoreCardio Circuit:\n", "Aerobic interval training may benefit exercisers by allowing them to burn more calories in a shorter period, and by improving aerobic capability at a faster rate, when compared with continuous-intensity exercise. In overweight and obese individuals, high intensity interval training employing 4 sets of 4-minute intervals has been shown to improve VO max to a greater extent than isocaloric moderate continuous training, as well as to a greater extent than with a protocol using shorter, 1-minute intervals.\n", "BULLET::::- 8 to 12 repetitions of a resistance training exercise for each major muscle group at an intensity of 40% to 80% of a one-repetition max (RM) depending on the training level of the participant.\n\nBULLET::::- Two to three minutes of rest is recommended between exercise sets to allow for proper recovery.\n\nBULLET::::- Two to four sets are recommended for each muscle group\n", "Burnouts combine pyramids and drop sets, working up to higher weights with low reps and then back down to lower weights and high reps.There are a few different ways one could perform burnout sets but the main idea is to perform an exercise until failure. You should start with a weight that is 75% of the amount of the maximum amount of weight you can lift for 1 rep. Once you’ve performed the exercise to exhaustion, reduce the weight and perform another set until failure, which will usually consist of much fewer repetitions. Burnout sets sound very similar to supersets but there are differences in the results they produce. Supersets help increase muscle mass, but are more efficient for producing muscle definition and shape. Burnout sets help increase muscle growth because of the buildup of lactic acid in the muscle when it’s forced to the point of failure.\n", "By restricting their diet, the athlete may worsen their problem of low energy availability. Having low dietary energy from excessive exercise and/or dietary restrictions leaves too little energy for the body to carry out normal functions such as maintaining a regular menstrual cycle or healthy bone density.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Amenorrhea.\n", "BULLET::::- Higher intensity exercise, such as High-intensity interval training (HIIT), increases the resting metabolic rate (RMR) in the 24 hours following high intensity exercise, ultimately burning more calories than lower intensity exercise; low intensity exercise burns more calories during the exercise, due to the increased duration, but fewer afterwards.\n\nSection::::Success in aerobic exercise businesses.\n\nAerobic exercise has long been a popular approach to achieving weight loss and physical fitness, often taking a commercial form.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1970s, Judi Sheppard Missett helped create the market for commercial aerobics with her Jazzercise program\n", "The heart rate monitored group interval fitness concept is designed to stimulate metabolism, increase energy, and provide group support and accountability. A heart rate monitor is to be worn by the participant either around the chest or on the forearm. The desired result of the training regimen consists of more energy, visible and lasting toning, and extra calorie burn for up to 36-hours. The science behind this effect is known as excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC). Personal trainers lead Orangetheory Fitness sessions to bring participants the 60-minute workout that will push them into the EPOC zone. The training is designed to burn between 500-1000 calories per session. Including the afterburn effect, this number can reach up to 900 calories. \n", "In 1999 and 2001, The School of Health and Social Care at Oxford Brookes University independently evaluated the Green Gym projects in Oxfordshire and East Sussex, England and identified the following benefits from Green Gym tasks:\n\nBULLET::::- significant improvements in cardiovascular fitness, provided that they are performed regularly.\n\nBULLET::::- improved muscular strength (as measured by handgrip strength) leading to increased coping ability and reduced risk of functional limitations in later life.\n\nBULLET::::- almost a third more calories can be burnt in an hour of some Green Gym activities than in doing a step aerobics class.\n", "The situation becomes slightly more complex when preferred walking speed is introduced. The faster the pace, the more calories burned if weight loss is a goal. Maximum heart rate for exercise (220 minus age), when compared to charts of \"fat burning goals\" support many of the references that give the average of 1.4 m/s or 3 mph, as within this target range. Pedometers average 100 steps a minute in this range (depending on individual stride), or one and a half to two hours to reach a daily total of 10,000 or more steps (100 minutes at 100 steps per minute would be 10,000 steps).\n", "BULLET::::- Pre-exhaustion: Pre-exhaustion combines an isolation exercise with a compound exercise for the same muscle group. The isolation exercise first exhausts the muscle group, and then the compound exercise uses the muscle group's supporting muscles to push it further than would otherwise be possible. For example, the triceps muscles normally help the pectorals perform their function. But in the \"bench press\" the weaker triceps often fails first, which limits the impact on the pectorals. By preceding the bench press with the pec fly, the pectorals can be pre-exhausted so that both muscles fail at the same time, and both benefit equally from the exercise.\n", "Workouts elevate metabolism for up to 14 hours following 45-minutes of vigorous exercise.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Increased general physical health.\n", "Exercise modes noted as suitable for continuous training include indoor and outdoor cycling, jogging, running, walking, rowing, stair climbing, simulated climbing, Nordic skiing, elliptical training, aerobic riding, aerobic dancing, bench step aerobics, hiking, in-line skating, rope skipping, swimming, and water aerobics.\n\nSection::::Exercise intensities.\n\nAs the below examples illustrate, exercise intensity is measured in different ways and is defined inconsistently across studies. Forms of continuous exercise may be performed at multiple intensities for different health benefits; for example, long slow distance training can be performed at low or moderate intensities.\n\nSection::::Exercise intensities.:Low-intensity.\n\nExamples of low-intensity continuous exercise protocols include: \n", "Similar methods include Fred Hahn's Slow Burn system and Adam Zickerman's Power of 10 method. Zickerman's Power of Ten is identical to Super Slow in rep speed and philosophy. Hahn's Slow Burn method does not subscribe to the strict 10/10 rep tempo, and uses a heavier weight load than Super Slow. In Slow Burn training, the weight load chosen renders muscle fatigue in 40–90 seconds. Hahn also recommends two sessions per week for the vast majority of trainees. The word \"burn\" in Slow Burn is used to describe efficient fat burning via the use of a low carbohydrate eating regimen, NOT the feeling of burning muscles while doing the exercises.\n", "BULLET::::- Alternate Day Fasting (ADF) is the strictest form of IF besides religious fasting. This involves 24-hours complete fasting followed by a 24-hours non-fasting period.\n\nBULLET::::- There is a moderated form of ADF called alternate day modified fasting (ADMF) which allows the consumption of approximately 25% of daily calorie needs on fasting days instead of full fasting.\n", "BULLET::::- Supersets: Supersets combine two or more exercises with similar motions to maximize the amount of work of an individual muscle or group of muscles. The exercises are performed with no rest period between the exercises. An example would be doing bench press, which predominantly works the pectoralis and triceps muscles, and then moving to an exercise that works just the triceps such as the triceps extension or the pushdown.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03936	Why is it that hard for mobile apps to remember their exact state before re-start?	Many apps may not want to retain their state through a restart process because if something goes wrong with them it would then be impossible to return them to a known good state. It is a feature for them to restart into a default state which is known to be functional, not a limitation.	[ "Most mobile devices are sold with several apps bundled as pre-installed software, such as a web browser, email client, calendar, mapping program, and an app for buying music, other media, or more apps. Some pre-installed apps can be removed by an ordinary uninstall process, thus leaving more storage space for desired ones. Where the software does not allow this, some devices can be rooted to eliminate the undesired apps.\n", "BULLET::::3. Due to the cloud nature of Apps Script, functions related to date and time will produce results that seem to be incorrect due to the data crossing time zones. Using Date/Time objects and functions without very precise declaration and thorough testing may result in inaccurate results.\n\nSection::::Example.\n\nThe following code uses the Apps Script UI Services and DocList Services to display contents of a Google Drive folder in Tree format.\n", "A different form of race condition exists in file systems where unrelated programs may affect each other by suddenly using up available resources such as disk space, memory space, or processor cycles. Software not carefully designed to anticipate and handle this race situation may then become unpredictable. Such a risk may be overlooked for a long time in a system that seems very reliable. But eventually enough data may accumulate or enough other software may be added to critically destabilize many parts of a system. An example of this occurred with the near loss of the Mars Rover \"Spirit\" not long after landing. A solution is for software to request and reserve all the resources it will need before beginning a task; if this request fails then the task is postponed, avoiding the many points where failure could have occurred. Alternatively, each of those points can be equipped with error handling, or the success of the entire task can be verified afterwards, before continuing. A more common approach is to simply verify that enough system resources are available before starting a task; however, this may not be adequate because in complex systems the actions of other running programs can be unpredictable.\n", "There are two main approaches for checkpointing in such systems: coordinated checkpointing and uncoordinated checkpointing. In the coordinated checkpointing approach, processes must ensure that their checkpoints are consistent. This is usually achieved by some kind of two-phase commit protocol algorithm. In uncoordinated checkpointing, each process checkpoints its own state independently. It must be stressed that simply forcing processes to checkpoint their state at fixed time intervals is not sufficient to ensure global consistency. The need for establishing a consistent state (i.e., no missing messages or duplicated messages) may force other processes to roll back to their checkpoints, which in turn may cause other processes to roll back to even earlier checkpoints, which in the most extreme case may mean that the only consistent state found is the initial state (the so-called \"domino effect\").\n", "As batch applications began to handle tens to hundreds of thousands of transactions where each transaction might process one record from one file against several different files the need for the application to be restartable at some point without the need to rerun the entire job from scratch became imperative. Thus the \"checkpoint/restart\" capability was born, in which after a number of transactions had been processed, a \"snapshot\" or \"checkpoint\" of the state of the application could be taken, at which point if the application failed before the next checkpoint it could be restarted by giving it the checkpoint information and the last place in the transaction file where a transaction had successfully completed. The application could then restart at that point.\n", "One of the original and now most common means of application checkpointing was a \"save state\" feature in interactive applications, in which the user of the application could save the state of all variables and other data to a storage medium at the time they were using it and either continue working, or exit the application and at a later time, restart the application and restore the saved state. This was implemented through a \"save\" command or menu option in the application. In many cases it became standard practice to ask the user if they had unsaved work when exiting the application if they wanted to save their work before doing so.\n", "Software verifies activation every time it starts up, and sometimes while it is running. Some software even \"phones home\", checking a central database (across the Internet or other means) to check whether the specific activation has been revoked. Some software might stop working or reduce functionality if it cannot connect to the central database.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.\n\nBULLET::::- It can enforce software license agreement restrictions that may be legally invalid. For example, a company may refuse to reactivate software on an upgraded or new PC, even if the user may have a legal right to use the product under such circumstances.\n", "Self-relocation typically happens at load-time (after the operating system has loaded the software and passed control to it, but still before its initialization has finished), sometimes also when changing the program's configuration at a later stage during runtime.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Boot loaders.\n", "This can be helpful in a corporate environment when, for example, a well-behaved app has to co-exist with an application that has a memory leak. Without protection such as afforded by WSRM, the app runs more slowly and eventually crashes, because the misbehaving app eventually causes problems that affect every app that shares its memory space. With WSRM, an app can be limited to an isolated subset of hardware resources. As a result of this, the bad effects caused by the memory leak is limited to that subset.\n", "BULLET::::- Memory of the currently running kernel is overwritten by the new kernel, while the old one is still executing.\n\nBULLET::::- The new kernel will usually expect all hardware devices to be in a well defined state, in which they are after a system reboot because the system firmware resets them to a \"sane\" state. Bypassing a real reboot may leave devices in an unknown state, and the new kernel will have to recover from that.\n", "The practice is not limited to personal computers; mobile phones typically come with pre-loaded software provided by its manufacturer or service provider; similarly to their PC equivalents, they are sometimes tied to account management or other premium services offered by the provider. The practice was extended to smartphones via Android devices, as carriers often bundle apps provided by themselves and third-party developers with the device and, furthermore, install them into the System partition, making it so that they cannot be completely removed from the device without performing unsupported modifications to its firmware. Some of these apps may run in the background, consuming battery life, and may also duplicate functionality already provided by the phone itself; for example, Verizon Wireless has bundled phones with a redundant text messaging app known as \"Messages+\" (which is set as the default text messaging program in lieu of the stock messaging app included within the OS), and VZ Navigator (a subscription service redundant to the free Google Maps service).\n", "The problem with save state is it requires the operator of a program to request the save. For non-interactive programs, including automated or batch processed workloads, the ability to checkpoint such applications also had to be automated.\n\nSection::::Implementations for applications.:Checkpoint/Restart.\n", "On Android 6 permissions are not usually revokable, though there is AppOps mechanism in some OSes (it's usually present in vanilla Android and aftermarket OSes, but usually removed in stock OSes) allowing to deprive apps access to some personal data. In Android ≥6 apps can request permissions in run time, but this requires app developer collaboration (developer is free to use non-runtime permissions only and the app will likely crash if permission is not granted and the ones not granting the permission is not a target audience of an app) and some permissions marked as permissions in previous versions of the OS, like internet access, are non-revocable and are not even show on apps installation. This can be fixed with XPrivacy.\n", "If an application consists of a collection of processes working closely together, and if some but not all of the processes are scheduled for execution, the executing processes may attempt to communicate with those that are not executing, which will cause them to block. Eventually the other processes will be scheduled for execution, but by this time the situation may be reversed so that these processes also block waiting for interactions with others. As a result, the application makes progress at the rate of at most one interprocess interaction per time slice, and will have low throughput and high latency.\n", "With STM, this problem is simple to solve: simply wrapping two operations in a transaction makes the combined operation atomic. The only sticking point is that it is unclear to the caller, who is unaware of the implementation details of the component methods, when they should attempt to re-execute the transaction if it fails. In response, the authors proposed a retry command which uses the transaction log generated by the failed transaction to determine which memory cells it read, and automatically retries the transaction when one of these cells is modified, based on the logic that the transaction will not behave differently until at least one such value is changed.\n", "Apache Flink includes a lightweight fault tolerance mechanism based on distributed checkpoints. A checkpoint is an automatic, asynchronous snapshot of the state of an application and the position in a source stream. In the case of a failure, a Flink program with checkpointing enabled will, upon recovery, resume processing from the last completed checkpoint, ensuring that Flink maintains exactly-once state semantics within an application. The checkpointing mechanism exposes hooks for application code to include external systems into the checkpointing mechanism as well (like opening and committing transactions with a database system).\n", "This of course assumes that a new item will be already described by its attributes, which is not always the case. Consider the case of so called \"editorial\" features (e.g. director, cast, title, year), those are always known when the item, in this case movie, is added to the catalogue. However, other kinds of attributes might not be e.g. features extracted from user reviews and tags. Content-based algorithms relying on user provided features suffer from the cold-start item problem as well, since for new items if no (or very few) interactions exist, also no (or very few) user reviews and tags will be available.\n", "The codice_25 directive allows to wait for the asynchronous execution of the codelet to complete before launching another iteration. Finally the codice_24 directive outside the loop uploads the sgemm result.\n\nSection::::OpenHMPP directives.:Sharing data between codelets.\n\nThose directives map together all the arguments sharing the given name for all the group.\n\nThe types and dimensions of all mapped arguments must be identical.\n\nThe codice_28 directive maps several arguments on the device. \n", "Section::::Issues.:Random restarts.\n\nReports surfaced at the end of April 2017 that some Galaxy S8 devices were \"restarting by themselves\". Samsung has not yet commented on the issue.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Insecure facial recognition.\n", "STM can be implemented as a lock-free algorithm or it can use locking. There are two types of locking schemes: In encounter-time locking (Ennals, Saha, and Harris), memory writes are done by first temporarily acquiring a lock for a given location, writing the value directly, and logging it in the undo log. Commit-time locking locks memory locations only during the commit phase.\n", "BULLET::::- Scripting: The variety of devices makes executing a test script (scripting) a key challenge. As devices differ in keystrokes, input methods, menu structure and display properties single script does not function on every device.\n\nBULLET::::- Test method: There are two main ways of testing mobile applications: testing on real devices or testing on emulators. Emulators often miss issues that can only be caught by testing on real devices, but because of the multitude of different devices in the market, real devices can be expensive to purchase and time-consuming to use for testing.\n", "Apps for the platform are either made using Java ME, or as web apps, which are rendered by the Nokia Xpress browser which uses the Gecko rendering engine. The mobile operating system lacks true multitasking but the radio and music app can run in background mode (which is advertised as multitasking), while swiping to fastlane apps will actually close down previously opened applications instead of minimizing them.\n\nIt features a notification centre, named \"Fastlane\", which is accessible by swiping to the left of the home screen.\n", "The floating point and SIMD registers are large, and not used by every task (or thread) in the system. To make context switching faster, most common microprocessors support lazy state switching. Rather than storing the full state during a context switch, the operating system can simply mark the FPU \"not available\" in the hopes that the switched-to task will not need it. If the operating system has guessed correctly, time is saved. If the guess is wrong, the first FPU or SIMD instruction will cause a trap to the operating system, which can then save the state to the previous task and load the correct state for the current task.\n", "Metro-style apps are suspended when they are closed; suspended apps are terminated automatically as needed by a Windows app manager. Dynamic tiles, background components and contracts (interfaces for interacting with other apps) may require an app to be activated before a user starts it.\n\nFor six years, invoking an arbitrary Metro-style app or UWP app from the command line was not supported; this feature was first introduced in the Insider build 16226 of Windows 10, which was released on 21 June 2017.\n\nSection::::Development.\n\nSection::::Development.:Windows Runtime.\n", "On jailbroken devices, unsigned applications (applications installed through Cydia) cannot be deleted by the traditional method of holding a finger on the application and selecting delete as they are installed as System applications. Instead, they need to be removed through Cydia, unless CyDelete is installed, which allows for that method to be used.\n\nResearchers found that on mobile devices users organize icons on their SpringBoards mainly based on usage-frequency and relatedness of the applications, as well as for reasons of usability and aesthetics.\n\nSection::::Jailbroken devices.\n\nSection::::Jailbroken devices.:Display of icons.\n" ]	[ "Hard for mobile apps to remember their exact state." ]	[ "It is not hard, it is just not a good idea to always go back to that state as it could cause crashes that can't be fixed. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Hard for mobile apps to remember their exact state." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is not hard, it is just not a good idea to always go back to that state as it could cause crashes that can't be fixed. " ]
2018-04378	why doesn’t tin foil get hot in the oven?	It does. It just doesn't stay hot when you remove it. The foil is very thin and Al has a relatively low heat capacity, so the heat contained in the foil is fairly low. (Temperature and heat are not the same thing.) And Al foil is pretty good at radiating what heat it does have, so it cools rapidly.	[ "Tin was first replaced by aluminium in 1910, when the first aluminium foil rolling plant, \"Dr. Lauber, Neher & Cie.\" was opened in Emmishofen, Switzerland. The plant, owned by J.G. Neher & Sons, the aluminium manufacturers, started in 1886 in Schaffhausen, Switzerland, at the foot of the Rhine Falls, capturing the falls' energy to process aluminium. Neher's sons, together with Dr. Lauber, discovered the endless rolling process and the use of aluminium foil as a protective barrier in December 1907.\n", "Foil made from a thin leaf of tin was commercially available before its aluminium counterpart. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, tin foil was in common use, and some people continue to refer to the new product by the name of the old one. Tin foil is stiffer than aluminium foil. It tends to give a slight tin taste to food wrapped in it, which is a major reason it has largely been replaced by aluminium and other materials for wrapping food.\n", "Aluminium foil (or aluminum foil), often referred to with the misnomer tin foil, is aluminium prepared in thin metal leaves with a thickness less than ; thinner gauges down to are also commonly used. In the United States, foils are commonly gauged in thousandths of an inch or mils. Standard household foil is typically thick, and heavy duty household foil is typically . The foil is pliable, and can be readily bent or wrapped around objects. Thin foils are fragile and are sometimes laminated to other materials such as plastics or paper to make them more useful. Aluminium foil supplanted tin foil in the mid 20th century.\n", "Tin foil\n\nTin foil, also spelled tinfoil, is a thin foil made of tin. Actual tin foil was superseded after World War II by cheaper and more durable aluminium foil, which is still referred to as \"tin foil\" in many regions.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Silicone has a very specific use as cookware, since it is not rigid. Most silicon used in cooking is in the form of spatulas or molds, and as such serve a different purpose than the previously discussed materials.\n\nSection::::Interaction of cooking techniques.\n", "This heat is an advantage of this approach, so the used materials are not exposed to high temperatures and allow rapid cooling. A drawback is that this approach is not applicable for bond frame dimensions of few ten micrometres. This is based on the limited handling and structuring abilities of the foils at this small dimensions.\n", "Aluminium foils thicker than are impermeable to oxygen and water. Foils thinner than this become slightly permeable due to minute pinholes caused by the production process.\n", "This local intermixing process produces heat that is transmitted to the adjacent element layers. The reaction spreads through the foil in milliseconds. This energy release leads to a high temperature in the bonding interface. Meanwhile, the components outside the interface are not exposed to the high temperatures of the reaction. Besides the high interface energy, this reaction is also promoted by the low thickness and therefore the reduced diffusion path of the single metallic layers.\n", "The effect of microwaving thin metal films can be seen clearly on a Compact Disc or DVD (particularly the factory pressed type). The microwaves induce electric currents in the metal film, which heats up, melting the plastic in the disc and leaving a visible pattern of concentric and radial scars. Similarly, porcelain with thin metal films can also be destroyed or damaged by microwaving. Aluminium foil is thick enough to be used in microwave ovens as a shield against heating parts of food items, if the foil is not badly warped. When wrinkled, aluminium foil is generally unsafe in microwaves, as manipulation of the foil causes sharp bends and gaps that invite sparking. The USDA recommends that aluminium foil used as a partial food shield in microwave cooking cover no more than one quarter of a food object, and be carefully smoothed to eliminate sparking hazards.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Tin plating.\n", "Tin foil was once a common wrapping material for foods and drugs; replaced in the early 20th century by the use of aluminium foil, which is now commonly referred to as \"tin foil\", hence one use of the slang term \"tinnie\" or \"tinny\" for a small pipe for use of a drug such as cannabis or for a can of beer. Today, the word \"tin\" is often improperly used as a generic term for any silvery metal that comes in sheets. Most everyday materials that are commonly called \"tin\", such as aluminium foil, beverage cans, corrugated building sheathing and tin cans, are actually made of steel or aluminium, although tin cans (tinned cans) do contain a thin coating of tin to inhibit rust. Likewise, so-called \"tin toys\" are usually made of steel, and may have a coating of tin to inhibit rust. The original Ford Model T was known colloquially as the \"Tin Lizzy\".\n", "Section::::Uses.:Cooking.\n\nAluminium foil is also used for barbecuing delicate foods, such as mushrooms and vegetables. Using this method, sometimes called a hobo pack, food is wrapped in foil, then placed on the grill, preventing loss of moisture that may result in a less appealing texture.\n", "The plastic used for manufacture of the oven bag must be chosen so that it will not melt at the temperature during cooking and thus spoil the food. To this end, many oven bags are formed from a heat-resistant nylon or polyester.\n\nThe inventor of the plastic-based cooking bag is Gordon Lawry. However, Mr. Lawry was working for a company at the time and received payment of approximately 15 cents.\n", "As is the case with all metallic items, aluminium foil reacts to being placed in a microwave oven. This is because of the electromagnetic fields of the microwaves inducing electric currents in the foil and high potentials at the sharp points of the foil sheet; if the potential is sufficiently high, it will cause electric arcing to areas with lower potential, even to the air surrounding the sheet. Modern microwave ovens have been designed to prevent damage to the cavity magnetron tube from microwave energy reflection, and aluminium packages designed for microwave heating are available.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Art and decoration.\n", "Some lubrication is needed during the rolling stages; otherwise, the foil surface can become marked with a herringbone pattern. These lubricants are sprayed on the foil surface before passing through the mill rolls. Kerosene based lubricants are commonly used, although oils approved for food contact must be used for foil intended for food packaging.\n", "Foil made from a thin leaf of tin was commercially available before its aluminium counterpart. Tin foil was marketed commercially from the late nineteenth into the early twentieth century. The term \"tin foil\" survives in the English language as a term for the newer aluminium foil. Tin foil is less malleable than aluminium foil and tends to give a slight tin taste to food wrapped in it. Tin foil has been supplanted by aluminium and other materials for wrapping food.\n\nThe first audio recordings on phonograph cylinders were made on tin foil.\n\nSection::::History.:The first aluminium foil.\n", "Steel can wall thicknesses are now 30% thinner and weigh 40% less than 30 years ago, reducing the amounts of raw materials and energy required to make them. They are also up to 40% thinner than aluminium.\n\nSection::::Design and manufacture.:Magnetic properties.\n", "The 2006, European, RoHS regulations prompted the research needed to move from traditional lead-based solder connection processes to a more environmentally friendly approach. Much manufacturing is currently being done with tin-based solder to address this issue. Using tin requires much higher reflow temperatures and can result in rework stages due to electric shorts caused by tin-whiskers (electrically conductive structures formed in this process) and other issues in the manufacturing process which are avoided by the Occam process.\n", "In the absence of interstitial materials, as in a vacuum, the contact resistance will be much larger, since flow through the intimate contact points is dominant.\n\nSection::::Factors influencing contact conductance.:Surface roughness, waviness and flatness.\n", "The cooking surface is made of a glass-ceramic material which is a poor heat conductor, so only a little heat is lost through the bottom of the pot. In normal operation the cooking surface stays significantly cooler than with other stove cooking methods, but still needs to cool down before it can be safely touched.\n", "A rubber PTC heater is made from a special type of rubber which conducts electricity, but only up to a temperature which is defined at the production of the PTC rubber. Typical design temperatures are between 0–80 °C (32–176 °F). The resistivity of the rubber increases exponentially with temperature for all temperatures up to the design temperature. Hence, it has strong PTC properties for all temperatures and heats up rapidly. Above this temperature the rubber is an electrical isolator and cease to produce heat. This makes the heater self-limiting. The rubber foil is thin and flexible and can be formed to any shape and size.\n", "Tinsel wire is produced by wrapping several strands of thin metal foil around a flexible nylon or textile core. Because the foil is very thin, the bend radius imposed on the foil is much greater than the thickness of the foil, leading to a low probability of metal fatigue. Meanwhile, the core provides high tensile strength without impairing flexibility.\n\nTypically, multiple tinsel wires are jacketed with an insulating layer to form one conductor. A cord is formed from several conductors in either a round profile or a flat cable. \n\nSection::::Connections.\n", "Many fabrics can be coated or impregnated with silicone to form a strong, waterproof composite such as silnylon.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Cookware.\n\nBULLET::::- As a low-taint, non-toxic material, silicone can be used where contact with food is required. Silicone is becoming an important product in the cookware industry, particularly bakeware and kitchen utensils.\n\nBULLET::::- Silicone is used as an insulator in heat-resistant potholders and similar items; however, it is more conductive of heat than similar less dense fiber-based products. Silicone oven mitts are able to withstand temperatures up to , allowing reaching into boiling water.\n", "Section::::Welding techniques.:Contact welding.\n\nThis is the same as spot welding except that heat is supplied with thermal conduction of the pincher tips instead of electrical conduction. Two plastic parts are brought together where heated tips pinch them, melting and joining the parts in the process.\n\nSection::::Welding techniques.:Hot plate welding.\n", "Tinplate made via hot-dipped tin plating is made by cold rolling steel or iron, pickling to remove any scale, annealing to remove any strain hardening, and then coating it with a thin layer of tin. Originally this was done by producing individual or small packs of plates, which became known as the \"pack mill process\". In the late 1920s \"strip mills\" began to replace pack mills, because they could produce the raw plates in larger quantities and more economically.\n\nSection::::Tinning processes.:Electroplating.\n" ]	[ "Tin foil doesn't get hot in the oven." ]	[ "Tin foil does get hot it just cools down very rapidly when removed from the oven. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Tin foil doesn't get hot in the oven." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Tin foil does get hot it just cools down very rapidly when removed from the oven. " ]
2018-15469	Why can’t you enter/exit the Earth’s atmosphere slowly?	The earth is moving at an insanely fast speed in orbit. In order to enter or leave the atmosphere you must be going faster than that speed. Is as simply as I can put it I think.	[ "For Earth, atmospheric entry occurs at the Kármán line at an altitude of 100 km (62.14 mi / ~ 54 nautical mi) above the surface, while at Venus atmospheric entry occurs at 250 km (155.3 mi / ~135 nautical mi) and at Mars atmospheric entry at about 80 km (50 mi / ~ 43.2 nautical mi). Uncontrolled, objects reach high velocities while accelerating through space toward the Earth under the influence of Earth's gravity, and are slowed by friction upon encountering Earth's atmosphere. Meteors are also often travelling quite fast relative to the Earth simply because their own orbital path is different from that of the Earth before they encounter Earth's gravity well. Most controlled objects enter at hypersonic speeds due to their suborbital (e.g., intercontinental ballistic missile reentry vehicles), orbital (e.g., the Soyuz), or unbounded (e.g., meteors) trajectories. Various advanced technologies have been developed to enable atmospheric reentry and flight at extreme velocities. An alternative low-velocity method of controlled atmospheric entry is buoyancy which is suitable for planetary entry where thick atmospheres, strong gravity, or both factors complicate high-velocity hyperbolic entry, such as the atmospheres of Venus, Titan and the gas giants.\n", "Ballistic warheads and expendable vehicles do not require slowing at reentry, and in fact, are made streamlined so as to maintain their speed. Furthermore, slow-speed returns to Earth from near-space such as parachute jumps from balloons do not require heat shielding because the gravitational acceleration of an object starting at relative rest from within the atmosphere itself (or not far above it) cannot create enough velocity to cause significant atmospheric heating.\n", "Section::::Entry vehicle design considerations.\n\nThere are four critical parameters considered when designing a vehicle for atmospheric entry:\n\nBULLET::::1. Peak heat flux\n\nBULLET::::2. Heat load\n\nBULLET::::3. Peak deceleration\n\nBULLET::::4. Peak dynamic pressure\n", "In most situations it is impractical to achieve escape velocity almost instantly, because of the acceleration implied, and also because if there is an atmosphere, the hypersonic speeds involved (on Earth a speed of 11.2 km/s, or 40,320 km/h) would cause most objects to burn up due to aerodynamic heating or be torn apart by atmospheric drag. For an actual escape orbit, a spacecraft will accelerate steadily out of the atmosphere until it reaches the escape velocity appropriate for its altitude (which will be less than on the surface). In many cases, the spacecraft may be first placed in a parking orbit (e.g. a low Earth orbit at 160–2,000 km) and then accelerated to the escape velocity at that altitude, which will be slightly lower (about 11.0 km/s at a low Earth orbit of 200 km). The required additional change in speed, however, is far less because the spacecraft already has significant orbital velocity (in low Earth orbit speed is approximately 7.8 km/s, or 28,080 km/h).\n", "In common usage, the initial point is on the surface of a planet or moon. On the surface of the Earth, the escape velocity is about 11.2 km/s, which is approximately 33 times the speed of sound (Mach 33) and several times the muzzle velocity of a rifle bullet (up to 1.7 km/s). However, at 9,000 km altitude in \"space\", it is slightly less than 7.1 km/s.\n", "Atmospheric entry\n\nAtmospheric entry is the movement of an object from outer space into and through the gases of an atmosphere of a planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite. There are two main types of atmospheric entry: uncontrolled entry, such as the entry of astronomical objects, space debris, or bolides; and controlled entry (or reentry) of a spacecraft capable of being navigated or following a predetermined course. Technologies and procedures allowing the controlled atmospheric entry, descent, and landing of spacecraft are collectively termed as EDL.\n", "The density of the atmosphere varies greatly due to space weather and other unknown processes. The International Space Station once dropped in height by tens of kilometers in a span of a few days and by understanding drag forces and composition of the atmosphere we can provide better data about this phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Science.\n", "Vehicles sent on lunar or planetary missions are generally not launched by direct injection to departure trajectory, but first put into a low Earth parking orbit; this allows the flexibility of a bigger launch window and more time for checking that the vehicle is in proper condition for the flight. A popular misconception is that escape velocity is required for flight to the Moon; it is not. Rather, the vehicle's apogee is raised high enough to take it to a point (before it reaches apogee) where it enters the Moon's gravitational sphere of influence (though the required velocity is close to that of escape.) This is defined as the distance from a satellite at which its gravitational pull on a spacecraft equals that of its central body, which is\n", "Section::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Given the thickness of the atmosphere as measured in Earth's reference frame, muons' extremely short lifespan shouldn't allow them to make the trip to the surface, even at the speed of light, but they do nonetheless. From the Earth reference frame, however, this is made possible only by the muon's time being slowed down by time dilation. However, in the muon's frame, the effect is explained by the atmosphere being contracted, shortening the trip.\n", "For Earth's atmosphere, formula_7cm s, and, the concentration of hydrogen bearing gases above the tropopause is 1.8 ppmv (parts per million by volume) CH, 3 ppmv HO, and 0.55 ppmv H. Plugging these numbers into the formulas above gives a predicted diffusion-limited hydrogen escape rate of formula_8H atoms cm s. This calculated hydrogen flux agrees with measurements of hydrogen escape.\n\nNote that hydrogen is the only gas in Earth's atmosphere that escapes at the diffusion-limit. Helium escape is not diffusion-limited and instead escapes by a suprathermal process known as the polar wind.\n\nSection::::Derivation.\n", "where \"G\" is the Gravitational constant and \"g\" is the Gravitational acceleration. The escape velocity from Earth's surface is about 11 200 m/s, and is irrespective of the direction of the object. This makes \"escape velocity\" somewhat of a misnomer, as the more correct term would be \"escape speed\": any object attaining a velocity of that magnitude, irrespective of atmosphere, will leave the vicinity of the base body as long as it doesn't intersect with something in its path.\n\nSection::::Relative velocity.\n", "Diffusion-limited escape\n\nDiffusion-limited escape occurs when the rate of atmospheric escape to space is limited by the upward diffusion of escaping gases through the upper atmosphere, and not by escape mechanisms at the top of the atmosphere (the exobase). The escape of any atmospheric gas can be diffusion-limited, but only diffusion-limited escape of hydrogen has been observed in our solar system on Earth, Mars, Venus and Titan. Diffusion-limited hydrogen escape was likely important for the rise of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere (the Great Oxidation Event) and can be used to estimate the oxygen and hydrogen content of Earth's prebiotic atmosphere.\n", "The escape velocity from the Earth's surface is about 11 km/s, but that is insufficient to send the body an infinite distance because of the gravitational pull of the Sun. To escape the Solar System from a location at a distance from the Sun equal to the distance Sun–Earth, but not close to the Earth, requires around 42 km/s velocity, but there will be \"partial credit\" for the Earth's orbital velocity for spacecraft launched from Earth, if their further acceleration (due to the propulsion system) carries them in the same direction as Earth travels in its orbit.\n", "For a hydrogen atom to escape from the exobase, it must first travel upward through the atmosphere from the troposphere. Near ground level, hydrogen in the form of HO, H, and CH travels upward in the homosphere through turbulent mixing, which dominates up to the homopause. At about 17 km altitude, the cold tropopause (known as the \"cold trap\") freezes out most of the HO vapor that travels through it, preventing the upward mixing of some hydrogen. In the upper homosphere, hydrogen bearing molecules are split by ultraviolet photons leaving only H and H behind. The H and H diffuse upward through the heterosphere to the exobase where they escape the atmosphere by Jeans thermal escape and/or a number of suprathermal mechanisms. On Earth, the rate-limiting step or \"bottleneck\" for hydrogen escape is diffusion through the heterosphere. Therefore, hydrogen escape on Earth is diffusion-limited.\n", "\"Emission\" is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their \"black body\" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately , its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately , so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.\n", "The maneuver is performed by a rocket engine. The spacecraft is usually in a parking orbit around the Moon at the time of TEI, in which case the burn is timed so that its midpoint is opposite the Earth's location upon arrival. Uncrewed space probes have also performed this maneuver from the Moon starting with Luna 16's direct ascent traverse from the lunar surface in 1970. In 2004, from outside the Earth-Moon system, the Stardust probe comet dust return mission performed TEI after visiting Comet Wild 2.\n", "Section::::Transport.\n\nThe most significant route of air entering the stratosphere is through the tropical tropopause layer (TTL) via convection. The air masses are shifted by convection are able to rise several kilometers within a few hours. This transport mechanism is fast enough for VSLS lifetimes.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "Even ignoring for the moment the impact on interstellar travel, future spacecraft driven by impulse engines based on Mach effects would represent an astounding breakthrough in terms of interplanetary spaceflight alone, enabling the rapid colonization of the entire solar system. Travel times being limited only by the specific power of the available power supplies and the acceleration human physiology can endure, they would allow crews to reach any moon or planet in our solar system in less than three weeks. For example, a typical one-way trip at an acceleration of 1 g from the Earth to the Moon would last only about 4 hours; to Mars, 2 to 5 days; to the asteroid belt, 5 to 6 days; and to Jupiter, 6 to 7 days.\n", "Section::::Reentry heating.:Shock layer gas physics.:Frozen gas model.\n", "Spacecraft with a perigee below about are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere, which decreases the orbital altitude. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. Below about , decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to , it has only hours before it vaporizes in the atmosphere. The escape velocity required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about .\n\nSection::::List of terms and concepts.\n", "Even in the case of an airless body, there is a limit to how close a spacecraft may approach. The magnitude of the achievable change in velocity depends on the spacecraft's approach velocity and the planet's escape velocity at the point of closest approach (limited by either the surface or the atmosphere.)\n", "(where \"g\" is the acceleration of gravity at the Earth's surface). The Δv increases with range, leveling off at 7.9 km/s as the range approaches 20 000 km (halfway around the world). The minimum-delta-v trajectory for going halfway around the world corresponds to a circular orbit just above the surface (of course in reality it would have to be above the atmosphere). See lower for the time of flight.\n", "The IBEX satellite, initially launched into a highly-elliptical transfer orbit with a low perigee, used a solid fuel rocket motor as its final boost stage at apogee, in order to raise its perigee greatly and to achieve its desired high-altitude elliptical orbit.\n\nIBEX is in a highly-eccentric elliptical terrestrial orbit, which ranges from a perigee of about to an apogee of about . Its original orbit was about —that is, about 80% of the distance to the Moon—which has changed primarily due to an intentional adjustment to prolong the spacecraft's useful life (see Orbit adjusted below).\n", "Compare this with orbital spaceflights: a low Earth orbit (LEO), with an altitude of about 300 km, needs a speed around 7.7 km/s, requiring a delta-v of about 9.2 km/s. (If there were no atmospheric drag the theoretical minimum delta-v would be 8.1 km/s to put a craft into a 300-km high orbit starting from a stationary point like the South Pole. The theoretical minimum can be up to 0.46 km/s less if launching eastward from near the equator.)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19969	Why do white plastics turn yellow due to being in sunlight while other colors of plastic bleach when exposed to sunlight?	If plastic turns yellow it’s usually due to the use of bromine which was used to strengthen the material. Used a lot in the 70’s and 80’s but not so much these days.	[ "Paints, inks and dyes that are organic are more susceptible to photodegradation than those that are not. Ceramics are almost universally colored with non-organic origin materials so as to allow the material to resist photodegradation even under the most relentless conditions, maintaining its color.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Pesticides and herbicides.\n", "Some polymers may also decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when heated. In 2011, it was reported that \"almost all plastic products\" sampled released chemicals with estrogenic activity, although the researchers identified plastics which did not leach chemicals with estrogenic activity.\n", "Understanding the different types of plastic chemical degradation as this helps determine what not to expose plastics to As the polymers that are composed of the plastics can deteriorate easily by changes in temperature, water or light it is important to understand how these affect the polymers. Listed below are the chemical reactions that occur with the deterioration of the polymer's structure.\n", "Yellowing is caused by both bromine and exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light. Many of the ABS plastics used in consumer electronics devices are typically \"brominated\"—combined with bromine as a fire retardant—to meet fire safety standards. The method was first discovered in 2007 in a German retrocomputing forum, before spreading to an English blog where it was further detailed.. The process has been continually refined since.\n", "BULLET::::- Photo-oxidative degradation refers to plastic object degrading by being exposed to UV and Visible Light although the type of wavelength that will damage the plastic depends on the composition of the polymer. In General however, plastic will be affected by light and it is best practice to keep plastic away from light sources as much as possible.\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal degradation affects the whole unit of the polymer that the object is composed of and is affected by the temperature and amount of light the object is exposed to.\n", "There is still some debate over the long-term effectiveness of this technique. Some have discovered the yellowing reappears, and there is discussion of factors that may result in this happening. There are also some concerns that the process weakens the plastic.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n\nRetr0bright consists of hydrogen peroxide, a small amount of the \"active oxygen\" laundry booster TAED as a catalyst, and a UV lamp.\n\nThe optimum mixture and conditions for reversing yellowing of plastics:\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrogen peroxide solution. 12% or 6% work the same, and even 3% has been used with success.\n", "Poly(Vinyl Chloride) will most likely cause a blooming effect, white spores, on the surface that if it comes into contact with other surrounding material it will contaminate it.\n\nSection::::Preventative care.\n\nSection::::Preventative care.:Handling.\n\nSafety gloves such as those made of Nitrile can help prevent toxins entering the skin when handling plastic objects. As plastics can ooze or off-gas material that may or may not be visible to the naked eye wearing gloves other than cotton is recommended.\n\nSection::::Preventative care.:Storage environment.\n", "All plastics vary by the type of polymer used to create it, these polymers are what conservators look to in order to divide plastics into groupings that could best help create a preservation or restoration plan. Groupings are important as some plastics can be dangerous or even flammable thus it is key to identify these plastics in order to best understand how to store and care for them.\n\nSection::::Identifying plastics.\n", "Many plastics are considerably sensitive to atomic oxygen and ionizing radiation. Coatings resistant to atomic oxygen are a common protection method, especially for plastics. Silicone-based paints and coatings are frequently employed, due to their excellent resistance to radiation and atomic oxygen. However, the silicone durability is somewhat limited, as the surface exposed to atomic oxygen is converted to silica which is brittle and tends to crack.\n\nSection::::Solving corrosion.\n", "Blended into most plastics are additional organic or inorganic compounds. The average content of additives is a few percent. Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to the additives: organotin compounds are particularly toxic.\n\nTypical additives include:\n\nSection::::Additives.:Stabilizers.\n\nPolymer stabilizers prolong the lifetime of the polymer by suppressing degradation that results from UV-light, oxidation, and other phenomena. Typical stabilizers thus absorb UV light or function as antioxidants.\n\nSection::::Additives.:Fillers.\n", "Section::::Aspects of plastic processing.\n\nSection::::Aspects of plastic processing.:Degradable plastics.\n\nOxo-degradable plastics: these are petroleum-based plastics with additives such as transition metals and metals salts that promote the process of fragmentation of the plastic when exposed to a particular environment, such as high temperature or oxygen rich one, for a prolonged period of time. Fragmentation exposes a larger surface area of the plastic to colonies of bacteria that eventually decompose the polymer into its lower energy state components: carbon dioxide and water.\n\nSome aspects to take into account regarding this method to dispose of end-of-life plastics are:\n", "Plastic items are produced by injection molding under around 400 degree. The plastics usually are acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyoxymethylene(POM) and polycarbonate (PC). POM is more popular among them. PC is used for transparent colour. Plastic items can be produced in a wide range of colour. They have no problem of corrosion, but they are less strength and less luster comparing with metal and alloy pieces. Two main steps are as follows.\n\nBULLET::::1. Preparing raw materials\n\nBULLET::::- Calculate lab-dip formula to meet colour specification\n\nBULLET::::- Mix polymers and colourants according to approved lab-dip\n\nBULLET::::- Dehydrate the mixtures for 12 hours\n", "BASF was the world's largest chemical producer for the ninth year in a row.\n\nTrade associations which represent the industry in the US include the American Chemistry Council.\n\nSection::::Plastics industry.:Industry standards.\n\nMany of the properties of plastics are determined by standards specified by ISO, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 306 – Thermoplastics\n\nMany of the properties of plastics are determined by the UL Standards, tests specified by Underwriters Laboratories (UL), such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Flammability – UL94\n\nBULLET::::- High voltage arc tracking rate – UL746A\n\nBULLET::::- Comparative Tracking Index\n\nSection::::Additives.\n", "Plasticizers are, by mass, often the most abundant additives. These oily but nonvolatile compounds are blended in to plastics to improve rheology, as many organic polymers are otherwise too rigid for particular applications.\n\nSection::::Additives.:Colorants.\n\nColorants are another common additive, though their weight contribution is small.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.\n", "Zinc compounds, like those of main group elements, are mostly colourless. Exceptions occur when the compound contains a coloured anion or ligand. However, zinc selenide and zinc telluride are both coloured due to charge-transfer processes. Zinc oxide turns yellow when heated due to the loss of some oxygen atoms and formation of a defect structure. Compounds containing zinc are typically diamagnetic, except in cases where the ligand is a radical.\n\nSection::::Reactivity of metallic zinc.\n", "Additives added to plastics during manufacturing may leach into the environment after the plastic item is discarded; additives in microplastics in the ocean leach into ocean water and in plastics in landfills may escape and leach into the soil and then into groundwater.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "PHCs are used in a vast array of manufactured products, from wood treatments, to cookware coatings, to non-stick, waterproof, and fire-resistant coatings, cosmetics, medicine, electronic fluids, food containers and wrappings, in everything from furniture and furnishings, automobiles, airplanes, plastics, clothing and cloth, surgery, insulation, adhesives, paints, sealants, lubricating oils, polyurethane foams, cancer therapy and medical imaging. They are also heavily used in pest control.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n\nPHCs include notoriously dangerous substances, including Agent Orange, DDT, and other pesticides. Many non-pesticide PHCs have the same safety issues as pesticides.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "BULLET::::- They are bad conductors of electricity.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages and limitations.\n\nBULLET::::- Plastics may be degraded under the action of direct sunlight which reduces their mechanical strength.\n\nBULLET::::- Many plastics are flammable unless treated.\n\nBULLET::::- High embodied energy content\n\nBULLET::::- Low modulus of elasticity: makes them unsuitable for load-bearing applications.\n\nBULLET::::- Thermoplastics are subject to creep and soften at moderate temperatures.\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal expansion for most plastics is high: adequate thermal movement has to be allowed in detailing.\n\nBULLET::::- Many types of plastics are not biodegradable thus cause pollution when they accumulate.\n\nSection::::Products.\n", "PBB (Polybrominated biphenyls) are chemicals added to plastics used in computer monitors, televisions, textiles and plastics foams to make them more difficult to burn. Manufacturing of PBBs in the United States stopped in 1976, however because they do not degrade easily PBBs continue to be found in soil, water and air.\n\nSection::::Common environmental estrogens.:PCBs.\n", "Proper storage of plastics can help slow down the degrading process of plastics. Plastics are currently stored with a RH Level of 50% with the storage temperature at 18 degrees Celsius with no light coming into contact with the objects. Although the composition of each plastic material can be different it is difficult to determine one unifying storage care plan ,thus understanding the composition of the plastic can help determine their preferred climate levels. Keeping plastics at a stable low temperature or considering placing these objects either in cold storage or in oxygen impermeable bags helps slow degradation.\n", "Evidence of tin impurities can be indicated by color, as in the case of pears, but lack of color change does not guarantee that a food is not tainted with tin.\n\nSection::::Health issues.:Bisphenol-A.\n", "Polyphenylene vinylene is capable of electroluminescence, leading to applications in polymer-based organic light emitting diodes. PPV was used as the emissive layer in the first polymer light-emitting diodes. Devices based on PPV emit yellow-green light, and derivatives of PPV obtained by substitution are often used when light of a different color is required. In presence of even a small amount of oxygen, singlet oxygen is formed during operation, by energy transfer from the excited polymer molecules to oxygen molecules. These oxygen radicals then attack the structure of the polymer, leading to its degradation. Special precautions therefore have to be kept during manufacturing of PPV in order to prevent oxygen contamination.\n", "Thermoplastics can be remelted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up and used as filler, although the purity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse cycle. There are methods by which plastics can be broken down to a feedstock state.\n", "BULLET::::2. Chemical - Depending on the objects' chemical composition, conservators can understand how it will react overtime. Other chemical reactions come from heat, oxygen, light, liquids, additives and biological attacks as these can cause a reaction in the polymer to speed up deterioration. Chemical reactions are also caused by objects coming into contact with water and oxygen.\n", "In the presence of UV light, oxidation of this polymer yields compounds such as ketones, phenols, o-phenoxybenzoic acid, benzyl alcohol and other unsaturated compounds. This has been suggested through kinetic and spectral studies. The yellow color formed after long exposure to sun can also be related to further oxidation of phenolic end group\n\nThis product can be further oxidized to form smaller unsaturated compounds. This can proceed by two different pathways, the products formed depends on which mechanism takes place.\n\nBULLET::::- Pathway A\n\nBULLET::::- Pathway B\n\nPhoto-oxidation reaction.\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.:Photo-aging reaction.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-23403	How did Florida become a national hotbed for the insane (see r/FloridaMan)?	Florida makes it's police records public. That's it. The other states have the same level of crazy, its just not part of the public record like it is in Florida. So news reports what they can get there hands on, and they can get there hands on floridas police records easy.	[ "In 1876, the prison was refurbished and established by the Reconstruction era legislature as the Florida State Hospital for the Insane, the state's first mental institution. It was an effort by the legislature to establish some public welfare institutions to assist residents in the state.\n\nOver time, the hospital was investigated for allegations of mistreatment of patients, especially as treatment standards changed.\n", "In 1868, Florida Governor Harrison Reed converted the arsenal property at Chattahoochee into Florida's first penitentiary. Florida's first recorded inmate was Calvin Williams, incarcerated in Chattahoochee in November 1868 for the crime of larceny and sentenced to one year. By 1869 there were 42 inmates and 14 guards.\n", "Under pressure from Medicare, which refused to fund segregated hospitals, Tallahassee Memorial Hospital in the late 1960s started accepting black patients, and the Florida A&M Hospital closed.\n", "Many Sunlands had various activities for the patients, who were mostly children, to engage in. There were swimming pools with rails and plastic wheelchairs, hopscotch, shuffleboard and frequent appearances by figures like Woodsy Owl and even the state governor himself. Many of the patients were also official Boy Scouts and often held meetings on the hospital grounds with Scoutmasters. Pictures still exist in the Florida archives of children in full uniform posing in their wheelchairs and hospital beds.\n", "The facility's property previously served as a military arsenal during the Seminole Wars and the American Civil War, and later became the site of Florida's first state prison. It was subsequently refurbished as a mental hospital, originally known as Florida State Hospital for the Insane, which opened in 1876. It gained notoriety over the course of its long history. It was sued in \"O'Connor v. Donaldson\", a case that went to the US Supreme Court, which ruled that the hospital had illegally confined one of its patients. The decision contributed to the deinstitutionalization movement, which resulted in changes to state laws and the closure of many public mental institutions in the country. The hospital today treats patients with severe mental disabilities who have been civilly or forensically committed to the institution.\n", "In 2019, a variation developed on social media in which people were encouraged to look up \"Florida Man\" and the date of their birthday, typically finding some bizarre occurrence involving a Florida Man on that date. A CNN article on this meme suggests that the breadth of reports of bizarre Florida Man activities is due to a confluence of factors including public records laws giving journalists fast and easy access to police reports, the relatively high and diverse population of the state, highly variable weather, and the lack of mental health funding.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The former arsenal and current Administration Building of Florida State Hospital is listed on the National Register of Historic Places (Building - #73000578).\n\nBuilt in 1839 as the United States Army Officers Quarters, it is a two-story masonry brick main building, with -story wings and front and rear porches framed with carved brackets.\n\nSection::::Notable inmates.\n\nBULLET::::- Victor Licata, axe murderer, whose slaying of his family in 1933 influenced the idea that marijuana causes criminal insanity\n", "From 1841 to 1845, psychiatrist Dr. Isaac Ray served as the hospital's superintendent. In that role Ray was one of the original thirteen founding members of the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane.\n", "Section::::Founding.:Leon Academy for Males and Females, Florida Institute, Florida Seminary (1846-1891).\n", "At this time, Hawthorne was known for its hunting and fishing and \"Northern sportsmen frequented the area to enjoy\" it. Sportsmen could stay at William Shepard Moore's hotel; he served breakfast early and had hunting dogs, guides, and horses available.\n", "The Sunland Center at Tallahassee received its first 10 residents from the Orlando Sunland in March 1967. The Sunland Center at Tallahassee was considered a hospital because it cared for both mentally and physically disabled patients while all other centers cared for mentally disabled patients only.\n", "But the state had white groups who resisted change, to the point of attacking and killing blacks. In December 1951 whites bombed the house of activists Harry Moore and his wife Harriette, who both died of injuries from the blast. Although their murders were not solved then, a state investigation in 2006 reported they had been killed by an independent unit of the Ku Klux Klan. Numerous bombings were directed against African Americans in 1951–1952 in Florida.\n", "\"George retired from his last church in Chicago in 1910 to devote himself to the Hall City project. His eldest son, Paul, was severely brain-damaged and epileptic; the middle son, Barton, went to Florida in 1910 after graduating from the University of Chicago High School to run the Hall City project, and Wendell, a constant behavioral challenge, eventually became a famous pioneer in radio during the Twenties.\"\n", "It was in New York when Kendal Hanna noticed his mental health was being afflicted, but it was not until his return to Nassau that the signs of mental degeneration became evident to himself and his family. He was ultimately was diagnosed with schizophrenia. As a result, he was institutionalized and prescribed a series of electric shock therapy treatments four times a week (a treatment that proved unsuccessful). Spending two years within the facility, he suffered physical and mental abuse. After his release, Hanna used art to recover his motor capabilities and mental acuity.\n", "Another influence on the attraction was Tallahassee’s legendary Sunland hospital [8]. Closed in the 1980s, it was originally built as the W.T. Edwards Tuberculosis Hospital, where many T.B. patients were quarantined until their death. It was closed and reopened in the 1968 as Sunland, a hospital housing children with mental disabilities. It became infamous for patient neglect and allegations of cruel and “sub-human” treatment. The dilapidated building was closed for good in 1983 and was widely believed to be haunted. The controversial hospital and its unfortunate inhabitants are recreated in a segment of the haunt. It features equipment salvaged from the hospital before it was demolished in 2006 and further boasts, “(that) the spirits came along for the ride at no extra charge!” [9].\n", "The University of the State of Florida served as the institution for white men; the State Normal School for Colored Students (the future Florida A&M University) served African Americans, and the Florida Female College (the future Florida State University) served white women. A fourth school provided specialized training and education for the deaf and blind (the Florida School for the Deaf and Blind).\n", "At the meeting they passed the first proposition of the new organization: \"It is the unanimous sense of this convention that the attempt to abandon entirely the use of all means of personal restraint is not sanctioned by the true interests of the insane.\"\n\nThe list of the \"original thirteen\" members and their organizations provide a good index to well-established psychiatric institutions in the U.S. as of 1844. They included:\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Samuel B. Woodward of Worcester State Hospital, Massachusetts\n", "In 1871, the prison was put under civilian jurisdiction. Malachi Martin was appointed as warden, gaining a reputation for cruelty and corruption. He used prison labor for his personal benefit to build houses and tend his personal vineyards, amassing a huge fortune. The book \"The American Siberia\", written in 1891, portrayed the Chattahoochee prison as a place of relentless barbarity. After the prisoners were relocated in 1876 to a prison at Raiford, Florida, the facility was adapted as a state hospital.\n\nSection::::Hospital.\n", "Florida State Hospital also maintains a forensic wing for the Florida Department of Corrections to care for inmates who have been adjudicated through the criminal justice system to be incompetent to proceed to trial, or not guilty by reason of insanity. The current maximum housing capacity is 491 residents in civil units and 646 residents in forensic units.\n", "Jacksonville remained Illinois' only such hospital until two additional facilities, the hospital at Elgin and the hospital at Anna, were authorized in 1869, and the legislature renamed Jacksonville as the Illinois Central Hospital for the Insane, assumed primary responsibility for patients from the counties of central Illinois. As a part of this reorganization, the legislature also reduced the size of Jacksonville's board of trustees to three members and the newly created a new statewide Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities to supervise all state institutions while each one retained its own separate board.\n", "As American cities developed, new institutions to accommodate and care for the insane, disabled and criminal were constructed. The Hartford, Connecticut American School for the Deaf opened in 1817, Ossining, New York state prison (now known as Sing Sing) in 1825, the Connecticut State Penitentiary at Wethersfield in 1827, Mount Auburn Cemetery in 1831, the Perkins School for the Blind in 1832, and the Worcester State Hospital in 1833.\n", "In 1827, Ralph Waldo Emerson, after a visit, called Tallahassee \"A grotesque place of land speculators and desperados.\" Emerson would become a great friend and confidant of the aforementioned Achille Murat for years.\n\nSection::::19th century.:1830s.\n\nSection::::19th century.:1830s.:First bank.\n", "Section::::Early history.\n\nThe hospital campus was originally the site of the Apalachicola Arsenal, built in the 1830s and named after the nearby Apalachicola River. The hospital's current Administration Building was adapted from the original Officers' Quarters of the Arsenal and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Arsenal facility served as a supply depot during the Seminole Wars. The first engagement of the American Civil War in Florida took place here on January 6, 1861 when a Confederate militia unit from Quincy overcame Union soldiers at the Arsenal.\n", "Florida is governed by an open town meeting form of government, which is led by a board of selectmen and a town secretary. The town has its own services, including fire and public works, as well as the Florida Free Library, a small library with association to the regional library services. The nearest hospital was North Adams Regional Hospital until its bankruptcy in March 2014. Since May 2014, Berkshire Medical Center has operated an emergency room and other health services at the old NARH location.\n" ]	[ "Florida became a national hotbed for the insane." ]	[ "In contrast to other states, Florida makes it's police records public, which can give the false impression that Florida experiences more behavior deemed to be \"crazy.\"" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Florida became a national hotbed for the insane." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "In contrast to other states, Florida makes it's police records public, which can give the false impression that Florida experiences more behavior deemed to be \"crazy.\"" ]
2018-12496	How is the cause of a fire discovered when everything gets burned?	What looks the most burnt is usually the source. Plus, there are some obvious signs. For example, the burnt oven's knob was turned to "high", or there is gasoline residue at the back alley, which may suggest arson.	[ "An extensive two-year research project, involving thirty historical cases of alleged SHC, was conducted in 1984 by science investigator Joe Nickell and forensic analyst John F. Fischer. Their lengthy, two-part report was published in the journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators, as well as part of a book. Nickell has written frequently on the subject, appeared on television documentaries, conducted additional research, and lectured at the New York State Academy of Fire Science at Montour Falls, New York, as a guest instructor.\n", "Meanwhile, Charlie and Dr. Larry Fleinhardt (Peter MacNicol), Charlie's friend and colleague, discuss creating a \"fireprint\", a profile of the fires and the possible motives for them. Using records from the LAFD, Charlie and Larry learn that 17 fires over the past two years match the fireprint for the current fires. They then consult Professor Bill Waldie (Bill Nye) and reconstruct the lethal fire using a scaled model of the car dealership booth and a cigarette. When no reaction occurs, Charlie, Larry, and Bill realize that the fire was intentionally set. Back at Charlie's house, Charlie and Don's father, Alan Eppes (Judd Hirsch), suggests to Charlie and Larry that the fires at the car dealership are two separate fires instead of one fire as Charlie and Larry were considering.\n", "In common with many forensic disciplines, one of the early tasks of fire investigation is often to determine whether or not a crime has been committed. The difficulty of determining whether arson has occurred arises because fire often destroys the key evidence of its origin. Many fires are caused by defective equipment, such as shorting of faulty electrical circuits. Car fires can be caused by faulty fuel lines, and spontaneous combustion is possible where organic wastes are stored.\n\nA fire investigator looks at the fire remains, and obtains information to reconstruct the sequence of events leading up to the fire.\n", "BULLET::::- Collects, tests, evaluates, and documents evidence\n\nBULLET::::- Applies the scientific method to analyze the information obtained\n\nSection::::Spoliation.\n\nSpoliation is the destruction or alteration of evidence through intention or ignorance. The mere act of extinguishing a fire can destroy potential evidence of arson\n", "Joe begins with Peyson, the store owner, and visits his apartment that was also raged by fire not long ago. He meets the baby-sitter, Jane, a pretty young teacher, and they get along so well that Joe drives her home and ask her out on a date the next evening.\n", "Reichert included a note saying: \"We request any information or theories that could explain how a human body could be so destroyed and the fire confined to such a small area and so little damage done to the structure of the building and the furniture in the room not even scorched or damaged by smoke.\"\n", "Fire investigation\n\nFire investigation, sometimes referred to as origin and cause investigation, is the analysis of fire-related incidents. After firefighters extinguish a fire, an investigation is launched to determine the origin and cause of the fire or explosion. Investigations of such incidents require a systematic approach and knowledge of basic fire science.\n\nSection::::Investigating fires.\n", "Forensic investigations have attempted to analyze reported instances of SHC and have resulted in hypotheses regarding potential causes and mechanisms, including victim behavior and habits, alcohol consumption and proximity to potential sources of ignition, as well as the behavior of fires that consume melted fats. Natural explanations, as well as unverified natural phenomena, have been proposed to explain reports of SHC. Current scientific consensus is that most, and perhaps all, cases of SHC involve overlooked external sources of ignition.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Indicators of an incendiary fire or arson can lead fire investigators to look for the presence of fuel traces in fire debris. Burning compounds and liquids can leave behind evidence of their presence and use. Fuels present in areas they aren't typically found in can indicate an incendiary fire or arson. Investigators often use special dogs known as \"accelerant detection canines\" trained to smell ignitable liquids. Well-trained dogs can pinpoint areas for the investigator to collect samples. Fire debris submitted to forensic laboratories employ sensitive analytical instruments with GC-MS capabilities for forensic chemical analysis.\n\nSection::::Fire.:Types.\n", "When arsonists attack, there is very rarely much evidence left at the scene. However, arsonists usually use accelerants to speed up a blaze. Forensic scientists use technologies to heat samples taken from the scene causing any residue to separate. This sample is then analyzed to determine the chemical structure. Scientists also use other tests such as using liquid nitrogen gas to trap residue which are then analyzed using gas chromatography.\n\nThe investigator:\n\nBULLET::::- Receives the assignment and responsibilities\n\nBULLET::::- Plans the investigation and assembles tools, equipment, and personnel\n\nBULLET::::- Examines the scene and collects data\n", "Once the origin is determined the investigators must decide if fire accelerants were used at this scene. Often the first and most common way of determining if accelerants were used is by completing a visual inspection of the scene and specifically the origin. A trained investigator would look for cues like intense localized burning or pour patterns to indicate the use of accelerants.\n", "Section::::Laboratory analysis.\n", "One of the challenging aspects of fire investigation is the multi-disciplinary basis of the investigator's job. As fires can be caused by or involve many ignition sources and fuels, fire investigators need to know not only the science of fire behavior, but also to have a working understanding of many different areas of study including construction, electricity, human behavior, and mechanical devices. For example, if there is a gas appliance at the origin of the fire, an investigator should know enough about appliances to either include or exclude it as a possible cause of the fire. Fire investigators sometimes work with forensic engineers, such as forensic electrical engineers when examining electrical appliances, household wiring, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- Linseed oil and Danish oil in a confined space (such as a pile of oil-soaked rags left out in an uncovered container, especially if rags afterward used with anti-moisture solvent to clean up the oil) can oxidize leading to a buildup of heat and thus ignition.\n\nBULLET::::- Coal can ignite spontaneously when exposed to oxygen, which causes it to react and heat up when there is insufficient ventilation for cooling.\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrite oxidation is often the cause of coal spontaneous ignition in old mine tailings.\n", "The reason why Joe Martin gets the assignment is because his predecessor in the Arson Detail was killed when inspecting the very same fire site. The predessor's file with his findings wasn't found on his body and hasn't been recovered. This is just one of many equally suspicious fires in the last few years, where the insurance claims following the fires has been filed by the same agent, Frederick P. Fender. There is suspicion that Fender is somehow involved in the disappearance of all the destroyed stores' goods as well.\n", "Section::::Sample packaging.:Containers.\n", "Determining the origin of a fire is often one of the first tasks that a fire investigator must complete while at the scene. This is completed because the origin will have the highest probability of containing any ILRs left from the use of fire accelerant. This is logical because accelerants would be the first materials ignited as they have a lower ignition temperature than any other materials. \n", "At another big fire, Jim comes across a statue of Vulcan (Roman god of fire) which the arsonist dropped, it being his inspiration. The arsonist gets it from Jim’s unlocked car where he put it. Mention of this statue later and the fact that Frank and Joan saw it in the antique shop window provide a strong lead so they get a search warrant. They do not find any bomb making equipment but Jim finds wood shavings which later analysis reveals to be the same wood as that used for the time bomb box.\n", "As in other investigations, part of the investigator's job is to collect evidence from the scene to further the investigation. The samples collected by a fire investigator will be analyzed in a laboratory for the presence of any ILRs which could have been used as accelerants. Samples that are selected from the fire must be those that will have the highest likelihood of containing ILRs so they can ensure the laboratory results are an accurate representation of the scene.\n", "An article in \"Texas Monthly\" described the impact of Hurst's work, saying, \"If there was a moment when fire investigation began to emerge out of the dark age of hunches, untested hand-me-down arson indicators, and wives’ tales, it occurred when Hurst turned his attention to Cacy’s case.\"\n", "Also, \"Kirk's Fire Investigation\" by David J. Icove and Gerald A. Haynes has long been regarded as the primary textbook in the field of fire investigation. It is currently in its 8th edition (published in 2017, ).\n\nSection::::Conducting investigations.\n\nFire investigators conduct their investigations using a systematic approach utilizing the scientific method, including the following:\n", "Section::::Arsons.\n", "When arsonists attack, there is very rarely much evidence left at the scene. However, arsonists usually use accelerants to speed up a blaze. Forensic scientists use technologies to heat samples taken from the scene causing any residue to separate. This sample is then analysed to determine the chemical structure. Scientists also use other tests such as using liquid nitrogen gas to trap residue which are then analysed using gas chromatography.\n\nSection::::Recommended practices.\n\nIn the United States, fire investigators often refer to \"\" (National Fire Protection Association).\n", "There are 3 main containers that are commonly used by investigators to package fire debris evidence; mason jars, paint containers, and nylon bags. Studies have been conducted to determine which container is the most suitable for use in the field. It was found that the glass mason jars had the fastest leak rate while the nylon bags when properly heat sealed had the slowest. The leaks in these containers allow volatile ILRs to escape which will lower the chances of obtaining a positive result from that evidence. Although this is the case all three containers are still used today by various investigators since the losses that do happen are not significant enough to affect the results if the samples are analyzed in a timely manner. In Ontario, Canada the common practice for investigators is to use mason jars to package their evidence and nylon bags for anything which is too large for a mason jar.\n", "According to Nickell and Fischer's investigation, nearby objects often remained undamaged because fire tends to burn upward, but burns laterally with some difficulty. The fires in question are relatively small, achieving considerable destruction by the wick effect, and relatively nearby objects may not be close enough to catch fire themselves (much as one can closely approach a modest campfire without burning). As with other mysteries, Nickell and Fischer cautioned against \"single, simplistic explanation for all unusual burning deaths\" but rather urged investigating \"on an individual basis\".\n" ]	[ "When everything is burned in a fire, the evidence for the cause of the fire may be destroyed." ]	[ "What looks the most burnt is usually the source." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "When everything is burned in a fire, the evidence for the cause of the fire may be destroyed." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "What looks the most burnt is usually the source." ]
2018-03096	If air is only 21% Oxygen and 78% Nitrogen, then how different would our bodies be if we only breathed pure Oxygen from birth?	ELI5: You dead from birth after 3 minutes at best. TLDR: You will die at birth if not 3 minutes after. As pure oxygen would overwhelm the lungs and basically poison the body with too much oxygen. Simply doubling the oxygen balance often resulted in death or permanent lung damage. Someone else is probably going to give the long answer.	[ "A fetus, receiving oxygen via the placenta, is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 21% of the level found in an adult's lungs), so fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen (hemoglobin F) to function under these conditions.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Carbon dioxide transport.\n", "BULLET::::- \"normoxic\" mixes have the same proportion of oxygen as air, 21%. The maximum operating depth of a normoxic mix could be as shallow as 47 metres (155 feet). Trimix with between 17% and 21% oxygen is often described as normoxic because it contains a high enough proportion of oxygen to be safe to breathe at the surface.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n\nInhaled air is by volume 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen and small amounts include argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, and hydrogen.\n\nThe gas exhaled is 4% to 5% by volume of carbon dioxide, about a 100 fold increase over the inhaled amount. The volume of oxygen is reduced by a small amount, 4% to 5%, compared to the oxygen inhaled. The typical composition is:\n\nBULLET::::- 5.0–6.3% water vapor\n\nBULLET::::- 74.4% nitrogen\n\nBULLET::::- 13.6–16.0% oxygen\n\nBULLET::::- 4.0–5.3% carbon dioxide\n", "The majority of infants who have survived following an incidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia will eventually recover near-normal lung function, since lungs continue to grow during the first 5–7 years and the damage caused by bronchopulmonary dysplasia is to some extent reversible (even in adults). However, they are likely to be more susceptible to respiratory infections for the rest of their lives and the severity of later infections is often greater than that in their peers.\n", "There has long been a scientific debate over whether newborn infants with asphyxia should be resuscitated with 100% oxygen or normal air. It has been demonstrated that high concentrations of oxygen lead to generation of oxygen free radicals, which have a role in reperfusion injury after asphyxia. Research by Ola Didrik Saugstad and others led to new international guidelines on newborn resuscitation in 2010, recommending the use of normal air instead of 100% oxygen.\n", "There has long been a debate over whether newborn infants with cerebral hypoxia should be resuscitated with 100% oxygen or normal air. It has been demonstrated that high concentrations of oxygen lead to generation of oxygen free radicals, which have a role in reperfusion injury after asphyxia. Research by Ola Didrik Saugstad and others led to new international guidelines on newborn resuscitation in 2010, recommending the use of normal air instead of 100% oxygen.\n", "There has long been a debate over whether newborn infants with birth asphyxia should be resuscitated with 100% oxygen or normal air. It has been demonstrated that high concentrations of oxygen lead to generation of oxygen free radicals, which have a role in reperfusion injury after asphyxia. Research by Ola Didrik Saugstad and others led to new international guidelines on newborn resuscitation in 2010, recommending the use of normal air instead of 100% oxygen.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nIn the United States, intrauterine hypoxia and birth asphyxia were listed together as the tenth leading cause of neonatal death.\n\nSection::::Society.\n", "Hypoxia a condition of inadequate oxygen supply can be a serious consequence of a preterm or premature birth.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aorta-gonad-mesonephros\n\nBULLET::::- CDX2\n\nBULLET::::- Development of the reproductive system\n\nBULLET::::- Development of the urinary system\n\nBULLET::::- Developmental biology\n\nBULLET::::- Drosophila embryogenesis\n\nBULLET::::- Embryomics\n\nBULLET::::- Gonadogenesis\n\nBULLET::::- Human tooth development\n\nBULLET::::- List of human cell types derived from the germ layers\n\nBULLET::::- Potential person\n\nBULLET::::- Recapitulation theory\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Photo of blastocyst in utero\n\nBULLET::::- Slideshow: In the Womb\n\nBULLET::::- Online course in embryology for medicine students developed by the universities of Fribourg, Lausanne and Bern\n", "Section::::Reducing equivalents in the mitochondrial respiratory chain.\n", "Some animal species are better equipped than humans to detect hypoxia, and these species are more uncomfortable in low-oxygen environments that result from inert gas exposure; however, the experience is still less aversive than CO exposure.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n", "A typical human breathes between 12 and 20 times per minute at a rate primarily influenced by carbon dioxide concentration, and thus pH, in the blood. With each breath, a volume of about 0.6 litres is exchanged from an active lung volume (tidal volume + functional residual capacity) of about 3 litres. Normal Earth atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon, carbon dioxide, and other gases. After just two or three breaths of nitrogen, the oxygen concentration in the lungs would be low enough for some oxygen already in the bloodstream to exchange back to the lungs and be eliminated by exhalation.\n", "For fetuses at high risk for developing coarctation, a novel experimental treatment approach is being investigated, wherein the mother inhales 45% oxygen three times a day (3 x 3–4 hours) beyond 34 weeks of gestation. The oxygen is transferred via the placenta to the fetus and results in dilatation of the fetal lung vessels. As a consequence, the flow of blood through the fetal circulatory system increases, including that through the underdeveloped arch. In suitable fetuses, marked increases in aortic arch dimensions have been observed over treatment periods of about two to three weeks.\n", "Section::::Medical breathing gases.\n\nMedical use of breathing gases other than air include oxygen therapy and anesthesia applications. \n\nSection::::Medical breathing gases.:Oxygen therapy.\n\nOxygen is required by people for normal cell metabolism. Air is typically 21% oxygen by volume. This is normally sufficient, but in some circumstances the oxygen supply to tissues is compromised. \n", "At one time, premature babies were placed in incubators containing -rich air, but this practice was discontinued after some babies were blinded by the oxygen content being too high.\n\nBreathing pure in space applications, such as in some modern space suits, or in early spacecraft such as Apollo, causes no damage due to the low total pressures used. In the case of spacesuits, the partial pressure in the breathing gas is, in general, about 30 kPa (1.4 times normal), and the resulting partial pressure in the astronaut's arterial blood is only marginally more than normal sea-level partial pressure.\n", "Oxygen (O) must be present in every breathing gas. This is because it is essential to the human body's metabolic process, which sustains life. The human body cannot store oxygen for later use as it does with food. If the body is deprived of oxygen for more than a few minutes, unconsciousness and death result. The tissues and organs within the body (notably the heart and brain) are damaged if deprived of oxygen for much longer than four minutes.\n", "In 1997 a summary of studies of neonatal intensive care units in industrialised countries showed that up to 60% of low birth weight babies developed retinopathy of prematurity, which rose to 72% in extremely low birth weight babies, defined as less than at birth. However, severe outcomes are much less frequent: for very low birth weight babies—those less than at birth—the incidence of blindness was found to be no more than 8%.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "At point 3, Mi-Fa, occurs a \"shock\". Air can provide this shock because it also is of density 192, and furthermore this air enters as a new Do\n\nAt point 4 the original food octave is at \"Fa\" but the new air octave is at Re. They are both in the bloodstream at \"density\" 96, the \"density\" of hormones and vitamins and rarefied gases and animal magnetism \"and so on\". At this point we reach the end of \"what is regarded as matter by our physics and chemistry\" It should be remembered that Gurdjieff is here speaking in 1916.\n", "The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) has published \"Consensus on science and treatment recommendations for neonatal resuscitation\" in 2000, 2005 and 2010. Traditionally, newborn children have been resuscitated using mechanical ventilation with 100% oxygen, but there has since the 1980s increasingly been debated whether newborn infants with asphyxia should be resuscitated with 100% oxygen or normal air, and notably Ola Didrik Saugstad has been a major advocate of using normal air. It has been demonstrated that high concentrations of oxygen lead to generation of oxygen free radicals, which have a role in reperfusion injury after asphyxia. The 2010 ILCOR guidelines recommend the use of normal air rather than 100% oxygen.\n", "An adult human at rest inhales 1.8 to 2.4 grams of oxygen per minute. This amounts to more than 6 billion tonnes of oxygen inhaled by humanity per year.\n\nSection::::Biological role of O.:Living organisms.\n\nThe free oxygen partial pressure in the body of a living vertebrate organism is highest in the respiratory system, and decreases along any arterial system, peripheral tissues, and venous system, respectively. Partial pressure is the pressure that oxygen would have if it alone occupied the volume.\n\nSection::::Biological role of O.:Build-up in the atmosphere.\n", "The aim of preoxygenation is to replace the nitrogen that forms the majority of the functional residual capacity with oxygen. This provides an oxygen reservoir in the lungs that will delay the depletion of oxygen in the absence of ventilation (after paralysis). For a healthy adult, this can lead to maintaining a blood oxygen saturation of at least 90% for up to 8 minutes. This time will be significantly reduced in obese patients, ill patients and children. Preoxygenation is usually performed by giving 100% oxygen via a tightly fitting face mask. Preoxygenation or a maximum of eight deep breaths over 60 seconds results in blood oxygenation is not different from that of quiet breathing volume for 3 minutes.\n", "The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. Since oxygen is exchanged at the alveoli-capillary membrane, nitrogen is a major component for the alveoli's state of inflation. If a large volume of nitrogen in the lungs is replaced with oxygen, the oxygen may subsequently be absorbed into the blood, reducing the volume of the alveoli, resulting in a form of alveolar collapse known as absorption atelectasis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Absorption (resorption) atelectasis.:Compression (relaxation) atelectasis.\n", "Under ideal conditions (i.e., if pure oxygen is breathed before onset of apnea to remove all nitrogen from the lungs, and pure oxygen is insufflated), apneic oxygenation could theoretically be sufficient to provide enough oxygen for survival of more than one hour's duration in a healthy adult. However, accumulation of carbon dioxide (described above) would remain the limiting factor.\n", "In addition to differences in circulation, the developing fetus also employs a different type of oxygen transport molecule in its hemoglobin from that when it is born and breathing its own oxygen. Fetal hemoglobin enhances the fetus' ability to draw oxygen from the placenta. Its oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve is shifted to the left, meaning that it is able to absorb oxygen at lower concentrations than adult hemoglobin. This enables fetal hemoglobin to absorb oxygen from adult hemoglobin in the placenta, where the oxygen pressure is lower than at the lungs. Until around six months' old, the human infant's hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha and two gamma chains (2α2γ). The gamma chains are gradually replaced by beta chains until the molecule becomes hemoglobin A with its two alpha and two beta chains (2α2β).\n", "The volume of air that moves in \"or\" out (at the nose or mouth) during a single breathing cycle is called the tidal volume. In a resting adult human it is about 500 ml per breath. At the end of exhalation the airways contain about 150 ml of alveolar air which is the first air that is breathed back into the alveoli during inhalation. This volume air that is breathed out of the alveoli and back in again is known as dead space ventilation, which has the consequence that of the 500 ml breathed into the alveoli with each breath only 350 ml (500 ml - 150 ml = 350 ml) is fresh warm and moistened air. Since this 350 ml of fresh air is thoroughly mixed and diluted by the air that remains in the alveoli after normal exhalation (i.e. the functional residual capacity of about 2.5–3.0 liters), it is clear that the composition of the alveolar air changes very little during the breathing cycle (see Fig. 9). The oxygen tension (or partial pressure) remains close to 13-14 kPa (about 100 mm Hg), and that of carbon dioxide very close to 5.3 kPa (or 40 mm Hg). This contrasts with composition of the dry outside air at sea level, where the partial pressure of oxygen is 21 kPa (or 160 mm Hg) and that of carbon dioxide 0.04 kPa (or 0.3 mmHg).\n", "Section::::For diving and other hyperbaric use.:Classification by oxygen fraction.\n\nBreathing gases for diving are classified by oxygen fraction. The boundaries set by authorities may differ slightly, as the effects vary gradually with concentration and between people, and are not accurately predictable.\n\nBULLET::::- Normoxic: where the oxygen content does not differ greatly from that of air and allows continuous safe use at atmospheric pressure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01157	Why is Listerine not corrosive for the teeth but the chemicals in Coke is?	Listerine contains no acids. Mainly ethanol, which may feel like it "burns" but isn't doing any damage to your teeth. It's the highly acidic content of coke (and orange juice) that's harmful to teeth, along with high sugar content that promotes bacterial growth.	[ "Glycol ethers,\n\n2-Bromopropane,\n\nEthylene oxide,\n\nAnesthetic gases, and\n\nAntineoplastic drugs.\n\nIn 1932, the \"Journal of State Medicine\" reported on a natural variation, with the occurrence of \"a considerable number of cases of toxic abortion\" being caused by untreated dental caries.\n", "Most soft drinks contain high concentrations of simple carbohydrates: glucose, fructose, sucrose and other simple sugars. If oral bacteria ferment carbohydrates and produce acids that may dissolve tooth enamel and induce dental decay, then sweetened drinks may increase the risk of dental caries. The risk would be greater if the frequency of consumption is high.\n", "In January 2009, Andrew Penman, chief executive of The Cancer Council New South Wales, called for further research on the matter. In a March 2009 brief, the American Dental Association said \"the available evidence does not support a connection between oral cancer and alcohol-containing mouthrinse\". In 2009, Johnson and Johnson launched a new alcohol-free version of the product called Listerine Zero.\n", "BULLET::::- Non irritant – many cements are acidic and therefore an irritant to the pulp. However, on setting there is a rapid increase in pH and polycarboxylate cements are considered to be the most biocompatible of the cements due to its most rapid rise in pH.\n\nBULLET::::- Provide a good marginal seal to prevent marginal leakage.\n\nBULLET::::- Resistant to dissolution in saliva, or in any oral fluid – a primary cause of failure of cements is due to dissolution of the cement at the margins of a restoration.\n", "Section::::Food and drink.:Harmful foods.\n\nSugars are commonly associated with dental cavities. Other carbohydrates, especially cooked starches, e.g. crisps/potato chips, may also damage teeth, although to a lesser degree (and indirectly) since starch has to be converted to glucose by salivary amylase (an enzyme in the saliva) first. Sugars that are higher in the stickiness index, such as toffee, are likely to cause more damage to teeth than those that are lower in the stickiness index, such as certain forms of chocolate or most fruits.\n", "Nitrous oxide is commonly used in dentistry as a method of conscious inhalation sedation, particularly for children. This has been shown in both medical and dental settings to be a very safe method of sedation for patients. However, historical evidence suggests a potential increase in risk of spontaneous abortion amongst pregnant female dental professionals, with the risk increasing with greater contact time with nitrous oxide sedation treatment and the absence of scavenging equipment to remove any leaking gas.\n", "The Listerine brand name is also used in toothpaste, Listerine Whitening rinse, Listerine Fluoride rinse (Listerine Tooth Defense), Listerine SmartRinse (children's fluoride rinse), PocketPaks, and PocketMist. In September 2007, Listerine began selling its own brand of self-dissolving teeth-whitening strips.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A link has been shown between long-term regular cola intake and osteoporosis in older women (but not men). This was thought to be due to the presence of phosphoric acid, and the risk for women was found to be greater for sugared and caffeinated colas than diet and decaffeinated variants, with a higher intake of cola correlating with lower bone density.\n\nAt moderate concentrations phosphoric acid solutions are irritating to the skin. Contact with concentrated solutions can cause severe skin burns and permanent eye damage.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Phosphate fertilizers, such as ammonium phosphate fertilizers\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Extrinsic acid erosion is when the source of acid originates from outside of the body. Acidic food and drink lowers the pH level of the mouth resulting in demineralisation of the teeth. A variety of drinks contribute to dental erosion due to their low pH level. Examples include fruit juices, such as apple and orange juices, sports drinks, wine and beer. Carbonated drinks, such as colas and lemonades, are also very acidic and hence have significant erosive potential. Foods such as fresh fruits, ketchup and pickled food in vinegar have been implicated in causing acid erosion. Frequency rather than total intake of acidic juices is seen as the greater factor in dental erosion; infants using feeding bottles containing fruit juices (especially when used as a comforter) are therefore at greater risk of acid erosion.\n", "A large number of soda pops are acidic as are many fruits, sauces and other foods. Drinking acidic drinks over a long period and continuous sipping may erode the tooth enamel. A 2007 study determined that some flavored sparkling waters are as erosive or more so than orange juice.\n", "Consumption of sports and energy drinks have been linked to irreversible tooth damage. This is especially common in adolescents who consume about 30-50% of the beverages that are on the market. Studies have shown that energy drinks have caused twice as much damage on teeth than sports drinks. Citric acid, the preservative found in many sugar sweetened beverages causes stripping of the enamel.\n", "Acid erosion is defined as the loss of tooth enamel caused by acid attack. When consuming carbonated sugar sweetened beverages, acid deposits on the teeth, attacking the enamel. Over a gradual period, the enamel is worn down, which can lead to dental caries. Erosion of tooth enamel begins at a pH of 5.5, and ingredients found in sugar sweetened beverages such as phosphoric acid and citric acid significantly contribute to the demineralization of the enamel. Citric acid in various sugar sweetened beverages can cause chelation.\n", "Fruit juices generally contain lower amounts of sugar than carbonated sugar sweetened beverages. The acidity levels found in fruit juices vary, with citrus based juices having the lowest pH levels. The low acidity found in fruit juices cause higher risk of cavities with enamel exposure.\n", "Carbamates like EA-3990 are well absorbed by the lungs, gastrointestinal tracts, and the skin. Signs and symptoms from exposure to such carbamates are similar to other nerve agents. In general their penetration through the blood-brain barrier is difficult due to quaternary nitrogens in these molecules. Despite of this, EA-3990 is claimed to be about three times more toxic than VX (another nerve agent). For VX, the median lethal dose (LD) for 70 kg men via exposure to the skin is estimated to be 10 mg, and the lethal concentration time (LCt), measuring the concentration of the vapor per length of time exposed, is estimated to be 30–50 mg·min/m. These values for EA-3990 can be estimated to be 3.3 mg and 10–16.7 mg·min/m by division.\n", "On April 11, 2007, McNeil-PPC disclosed that there were potentially contaminants in all Listerine Agent Cool Blue products sold since its launch in 2006, and that all bottles were being recalled. The recall affected some 4,000,000 bottles sold since that time. According to the company, Listerine Agent Cool Blue is the only product affected by the contamination and no other products in the Listerine family were under recall.\n", "Section::::Health implications of sugar sweetened beverages.:Impact on oral health.\n\nOral health has shown to be affected with regard to sugar sweetened beverage consumption. Acid erosion and dental caries have been the main health concerns to sugar sweetened beverages.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n\nThe active ingredients listed on Listerine packaging are essential oils which are menthol (mint) 0.042%, thymol (thyme) 0.064%, methyl salicylate (wintergreen) 0.06%, and eucalyptol (eucalyptus) 0.092%. In combination all have an antiseptic effect and there is some thought that methyl salicylate may have an anti inflammatory effect as well. Ethanol, which is toxic to bacteria at concentrations of 40%, is present in concentrations of 21.6% in the flavored product and 26.9% in the original gold Listerine Antiseptic. At this concentration, the ethanol serves to dissolve the active ingredients.\n", "BULLET::::- Lack of corrosion: Although corrosion is no longer a major problem with amalgam fillings, resin composites do not corrode at all. (Low-copper amalgams, prevalent before 1963, were more subject to corrosion than modern high-copper amalgams. )\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n", "The addition of the active ingredients means the ethanol is considered to be undrinkable, known as denatured alcohol, and it is therefore not regulated as an alcoholic beverage in the United States. (Specially Denatured Alcohol Formula 38-B, specified in Title 27, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 21, Subpart D) However, consumption of mouthwash to obtain intoxication does occur, especially among alcoholics and underage drinkers.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "Allergic reactions from local anaesthesia have been reported in some patients. However, this occurrence is rare even in patients who had a past history of adverse reactions to LA.\n\nThere are mainly 2 classes of local anaesthetic agents: Amide or Ester linkages, based on their chemical structure.\n\nBULLET::::- E.g. of amide LA: lidocaine, prilocaine, articaine, mepivacaine\n\nBULLET::::- E.g. of ester LA: benzocaine, procaine\n", "Frequency of sugar sweetened beverages results in dental caries, which are caused by Streptococcus bacteria. Dental caries is an infectious oral disease and is the breakdown of the teeth due to the bacteria in the mouth. It occurs when bacteria within the plaque metabolize the sugar, releasing various acids as waste compounds. As the acids are released, they form holes in the teeth which dissolve the enamel. The sugars, therefore provide a passageway for the activities of the oral bacteria, lowering salivary pH. The bacteria alone are not the sole cause of tooth decay, as it is the presence of these sugars that inhibit the production of acid.\n", "Section::::Common sources of error.:Interfering compounds.\n\nSome natural and volatile interfering compounds do exist, however. For example, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has found that dieters and diabetics may have acetone levels hundreds or even thousands of times higher than those in others. Acetone is one of the many substances that can be falsely identified as ethyl alcohol by some breath machines. However, fuel cell based systems are non-responsive to substances like acetone.\n", "There has been concern that the use of alcohol-containing mouthwash such as Listerine may increase the risk of developing oral cancer. As of 2010, 7 meta-analyses have found no connection between alcohol-containing mouthwashes and oral cancer, and 3 have found increased risk.\n", "Section::::Synthesis.:Laboratory methods.\n\nPreparative methods for small scale reactions for research or for production of fine chemicals often employ expensive consumable reagents.\n\nBULLET::::- oxidation of primary alcohols or aldehydes with strong oxidants such as potassium dichromate, Jones reagent, potassium permanganate, or sodium chlorite. The method is amenable to laboratory conditions compared to the industrial use of air, which is \"greener\", since it yields less inorganic side products such as chromium or manganese oxides.\n\nBULLET::::- Oxidative cleavage of olefins by ozonolysis, potassium permanganate, or potassium dichromate.\n", "BULLET::::- Zinc oxide eugenol—bactericidal, cheap and easy to remove. Eugenol is derived from oil of Cloves, and has an obtundant effect on the tooth and decreases toothache. It is suitable temporary material providing there are no biting forces on it. It is also contraindicated if the final restorative material is composite because eugenol adversely effects the bond/polymerization process, also, when applied directly on the pulp tissue, it can produce chronic inflammation and result in pulp necrosis. Examples brands: Kalzinol, Sedanol.\n\nSection::::Cements.\n" ]	[ "If Coke is corrosive to the teeth, Coke should be as well. " ]	[ "Listerine doesn't really have any acids unlike Coke, therefore it does not corrode teeth. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If Coke is corrosive to the teeth, Coke should be as well. ", "If Coke is corrosive to the teeth, Coke should be as well. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Listerine doesn't really have any acids unlike Coke, therefore it does not corrode teeth. ", "Listerine doesn't really have any acids unlike Coke, therefore it does not corrode teeth. " ]
2018-02176	why (most of the time) girls have a better calligraphy than boys	A few comments are mentioning that it's more valued among young girls. That's true, but there's another factor. Young girls have more developed fine motor skills than boys of the same age.	[ "In the \"Quran of the Fadhel\", one of the sentences of a colophon confirms that the book was written by women \"‘’she wrote it with her hands”\".\n", "Section::::World traditions.:Southeast Asia.\n\nSection::::World traditions.:Southeast Asia.:Philippines.\n", "All female visitors on the last day of the Exhibition were presented with white roses.\n\nVisitors of the event included a just-married couple and a group of cadets.\n\nBULLET::::- Mystery of the world calligraphy (special exposition)\n", "Islamic calligraphy developed from two major styles: Kufic and Naskh. There are several variations of each, as well as regionally specific styles. Islamic calligraphy has also been incorporated into modern art beginning with the post-colonial period in the Middle East, as well as the more recent style of calligraffiti.\n\nSection::::Architecture.\n", "Massoudy has become an important influence on a generation of calligraffiti artists. The Tunisian street artist, el Seed, who uses calligraphy in his art, points to the work of Iraqi painter, Hassan Massoudy as a major source of inspiration, noting that \"The work of Hassan Massoudy was totally out of anything I’ve seen from the way he shapes the letters to the colors he uses. He completely revolutionized the art of calligraphy.\" \n\nSection::::Work.\n", "Section::::History.:Middle Ages (6th century-16th century).\n", "Section::::History.:Edo period.\n", "Accordingly, they are not hired for high skill work but they provide an abundant labor source for physical work such as agriculture. However, many majority Muslim nations, including Egypt, Syria, Turkey, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, all of which have varying levels of female participation within their economies, have more than 80% of their female citizens enrolled in secondary education. Nearly all of them are literate as well.\n", "Section::::Study.\n", "The spread and evolution of calligraphy can be traced very specifically throughout Islamic history as it is inherently tied to the spread of Islam itself. Calligraphy was how scribes transcribed and created Qur'ans—allowing Mohammad's message to extend beyond the Arabian Peninsula. Calligraphy has always had a central role in Middle Eastern art because of Islamic restrictions concerning the portrayal of human beings. As a result, calligraphy became not only a mechanism for the expansion of Islam, but a way to create religious art.\n\nSection::::Calligraffiti in the Middle East and North Africa.:Calligraffiti: calligraphy of the 21st century.\n", "Section::::Calligraphy.\n", "After returning to Baghdad, in 1946 he published a textbook on the al-riqā‛ style of calligraphy, which was originally intended for use in primary schools, but is still used as a standard text in universities and colleges.\n", "Section::::Calligraphy.\n", "Throughout the history the art of pottery in Kalpuregan has belonged to women since men had the burden of hunting or farming. According to historical evidence, indigenous women are creators of pottery art. In this land, delicate tasks are done by women and men only have the responsibility of preparing and firing the clay.\n", "This ornamentation may appear on top of the roofs, in paintings, or in woodcarvings. Traditionally, the ornaments can only be created by special craftsmen who adhere to very strict rules regulating their craft. In the beginning of the 20th-century, this work was done mainly by Chinese woodcarvers, although it seems that, at least during the time of the sultans, mainly Palembang women did the carving. As early as 1832, it was reported that none of these women remained, and that there were only 20 male woodcarvers. By 1922, there was only one Palembang family employed in the craft.\n\nSection::::Interior.\n", "In recent study, Chinese calligraphy writing have been used as cognitive intervention strategy among older adults or people with mild cognitive impairment. For example, in a recent randomized control trial experiment, calligraphy writing enhanced both working memory and attention control compared to controlled groups \n\nSection::::Rules of Modern Calligraphy.\n", "It is generally accepted that Islamic calligraphy excelled during the Ottoman era. Istanbul is an open exhibition hall for all kinds and varieties of calligraphy, from inscriptions in mosques to fountains, schools, houses, etc. \n\nSection::::World traditions.:Ethiopia/Abyssinia.\n", "The Nasta'liq style is the most popular contemporary style among classical Persian calligraphy scripts; Persian calligraphers call it the \"bride of calligraphy scripts\". This calligraphy style has been based on such a strong structure that it has changed very little since. Mir Ali Tabrizi had found the optimum composition of the letters and graphical rules so it has just been fine-tuned during the past seven centuries. It has very strict rules for graphical shape of the letters and for combination of the letters, words, and composition of the whole calligraphy piece.\n\nSection::::World traditions.:Mayan civilization.\n", "As Islamic calligraphy is highly venerated, most works follow examples set by well-established calligraphers, with the exception of secular or contemporary works. In the Islamic tradition, calligraphers underwent extensive training in three stages, including the study of their teacher's models, in order to be granted certification.\n\nSection::::Styles.\n\nSection::::Styles.:Kufic.\n", "Section::::Calligraphy.\n", "Section::::Calligraphy.\n", "Arabic calligraphy is incredibly rich; it is an art form that has been perfected for well over a millennium. Islamic tradition greatly encouraged the development of calligraphy as an art form in order to assist religion began to spread. Arabic writing represents the word of God revealed to Mohammed, which gives Arabic letters a special meaning.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Riko Narumi as , a third-year student and the president of Tsumishima High School's calligraphy club. Although she is the daughter of a calligraphy teacher and is good at it, she has no interest in calligraphy until she discovers performance calligraphy.\n\nBULLET::::- Rio Yamashita as , Satoko's main calligraphy rival. She quit the calligraphy club because she needed to work part-time to support her sick mother. Her dream is to become a calligraphy master.\n", "Islamic calligraphy developed from two major styles: Kufic and Naskh. There are several variations of each, as well as regionally specific styles. Islamic calligraphy has also been incorporated into modern art beginning with the post-colonial period in the Middle East, as well as the more recent style of calligraffiti.\n\nSection::::Instruments and media.\n", "The art historian, Christiane Treichl, explains how calligraphy is used in contemporary art: \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-24259	why is it that you can look at a bright light when closing 1 eye, but not with 2?	You’re tricking your brain into thinking the light isn’t as intense. With both eyes open, photoreceptors in each eye are getting overwhelmed and the pain is a safety measure to stop you from looking at the bright light and possibly damaging your eyes. If you close one eye, half your photoreceptors shut up.	[ "The sex of the stimuli presented also influences the AB. In a study, it was shown that emotions that are more often than not prescribed to different sexes, were more quickly identified. Not only that, but when the attentional blink would occur, whether it be at lag 1 or lag 2, and how deep of a blink it was, could be manipulated by the sex of and the emotion expressed by T1.\n", "When each eye has its own image of objects, it becomes impossible to align images outside of Panum's fusional area with an image inside the area. This happens when one has to point to a distant object with one's finger. When one looks at one's fingertip, it is single but there are two images of the distant object. When one looks at the distant object it is single but there are two images of one's fingertip. To point successfully, one of the double images has to take precedence and one be ignored or suppressed (termed \"eye dominance\"). The eye that can both move faster to the object and stay fixated on it is more likely to be termed as the dominant eye.\n", "Section::::Development.:Plasticity.\n\nSection::::Development.:Plasticity.:Sensitive periods.\n\nAlthough the ocular dominance columns are formed before birth, there is a period after birth—formerly called a \"critical period\" and now called a \"sensitive period\"—when the ocular dominance columns may be modified by activity dependent plasticity. This plasticity is so strong that if the signals from both eyes are blocked the ocular dominance columns will completely . Similarly, if one eye is closed (\"monocular deprivation\"), removed(\"enucleation\"), or silenced during the sensitive period, the size of the columns corresponding to the removed eye shrink dramatically.\n\nSection::::Development.:Models.\n", "Heterophoria is an eye condition in which the directions that the eyes are pointing at rest position, when \"not\" performing binocular fusion, are not the same as each other, or, \"not straight\". This condition can be esophoria, where the eyes tend to cross inward in the absence of fusion; exophoria, in which they diverge; or hyperphoria, in which one eye points up or down relative to the other. Phorias are known as 'latent squint' because the tendency of the eyes to deviate is kept latent by fusion. A person with two normal eyes has single vision (usually) because of the combined use of the sensory and motor systems. The motor system acts to point both eyes at the target of interest; any offset is detected visually (and the motor system corrects it). Heterophoria only occurs during dissociation of the left eye and right eye, when fusion of the eyes is absent. If you cover one eye (e.g. with your hand) you remove the sensory information about the eye's position in the orbit. Without this, there is no stimulus to binocular fusion, and the eye will move to a position of \"rest\". The difference between this position, and where it would be were the eye uncovered, is the heterophoria. The opposite of heterophoria, where the eyes are straight when relaxed and not fusing, is called orthophoria.\n", "Because the red filter blocks the green light and the green filter blocks the red light, it is possible to determine if the patient is using both eyes simultaneously and in a coordinated manner. With both eyes open, a patient with normal binocular vision will appreciate four lights. If the patient either closes or suppresses an eye they will see either two or three lights. If the patient does not fuse the images of the two eyes, they will see five lights (diplopia).\n\nSection::::Indications for use.\n", "BULLET::::5. A single lesion anywhere along segment 1, the left afferent limb, which includes the left retina, left optic nerve, and left pretectal nucleus, can produce the light reflex abnormalities observed. Examples of segment 1 pathologies include left optic neuritis (inflammation or infection of the left optic nerve), detachment of left retina, and an isolated small stroke involving only the left pretectal nucleus. Therefore, options (a), (d), (e), (f), and (g) are possible.\n", "Vergence control is important in being able to see 3D images. Thus it may help to concentrate on converging/diverging the two eyes to shift images that reach the two eyes, instead of trying to see a clear, focused image. Although the lens adjusts reflexively in order to produce clear, focused images, voluntary control over this process is possible. The viewer alternates instead between converging and diverging the two eyes, in the process seeing \"double images\" typically seen when one is drunk or otherwise intoxicated. Eventually the brain will successfully match a pair of patterns reported by the two eyes and lock onto this particular degree of convergence. The brain will also adjust eye lenses to get a clear image of the matched pair. Once this is done, the images around the matched patterns quickly become clear as the brain matches additional patterns using roughly the same degree of convergence.\n", "In 1861, Fechner reported that if he looked at a light with a darkened piece of glass over one eye then closed that eye, the light appeared to become brighter, even though less light was coming into his eyes. This phenomenon has come to be called Fechner's paradox. It has been the subject of numerous research papers, including in the 2000s. It occurs because the perceived brightness of the light with both eyes open is similar to the average brightness of each light viewed with one eye.\n\nSection::::Influence.\n", "In contrast, fixation disparity is a very small deviation of the pointing directions of the eyes that is present while performing binocular fusion.\n\nHeterophoria is usually asymptomatic. This is when it is said to be \"compensated\". When fusional reserve is used to compensate for heterophoria, it is known as compensating vergence. In severe cases, when the heterophoria is not overcome by fusional vergence, sign and symptoms appear. This is called decompensated heterophoria.\n\nHeterophoria may lead to squint, also known as strabismus.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "The sensory pathway (rod or cone, bipolar, ganglion) is linked with its counterpart in the other eye by a partial crossover of each eye's fibers. This causes the effect in one eye to carry over to the other.\n\nSection::::Function.:Effect of light.\n", "In sufficiently bright light, convergence is low, but during dark adaptation, convergence of rod signals boost. This is not due to structural changes, but by a possible shutdown of inhibition that stops convergence of messages in bright light. If only one eye is open, the closed eye must adapt separately upon reopening to match the already adapted eye.\n\nSection::::Dark adaptation.:Measuring Dark Adaptation.\n", "The optical reflex, on the other hand, is slower and is mediated by the visual cortex, which resides in the occipital lobe of the brain. The reflex is absent in infants under nine months.\n\nThe examination of the corneal reflex is a part of some neurological exams, particularly when evaluating coma. Damage to the ophthalmic branch (V) of the 5th cranial nerve results in absent corneal reflex when the affected eye is stimulated. Stimulation of one cornea normally has a consensual response, with both eyelids normally closing.\n\nSection::::Rates.\n", "A man once always had one eye weeping and the other smiling. He had three sons, of whom the youngest was rather foolish. One day, out of curiosity, the sons each asked why one eye was weeping and the other smiling. The father went into a rage, which frightened off the older two but not the youngest. So the father told the youngest that his right eye smiled because he was glad to have a son like him, but his left eye wept because he once had a marvelous vine in his garden, and it had been stolen.\n", "Section::::No Colavita effect in people with one eye.\n", "Shining a light into one eye should result in equal constriction of the other eye. The neurons in the optic nerve decussate in the optic chiasm with some crossing to the contralateral optic nerve tract. This is the basis of the \"swinging-flashlight test\".\n\nLoss of accommodation and continued pupillary dilation can indicate the presence of a lesion on the oculumotor nerve.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Anisocoria\n\nBULLET::::- Cranial nerve\n\nBULLET::::- Oculomotor nucleus\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- - \"Oculomotor nerve palsy\"\n\nBULLET::::- Animations of extraocular cranial nerve and muscle function and damage (University of Liverpool)\n", "In the swinging flashlight test, a light is alternately shone into the left and right eyes. A normal response would be equal constriction of both pupils, regardless of which eye the light is directed at. This indicates an intact direct and consensual pupillary light reflex. When the test is performed in an eye with an afferent pupillary defect, light directed in the affected eye will cause only mild constriction of both pupils (due to decreased response to light from the afferent defect), while light in the unaffected eye will cause a normal constriction of both pupils (due to an intact efferent path, and an intact consensual pupillary reflex). Thus, light shone in the affected eye will produce less pupillary constriction than light shone in the unaffected eye.\n", "Since both the short and long ciliary nerves carry the afferent limb of the corneal blink reflex, one can test the integrity of the nasociliary nerve (and, ultimately, the trigeminal nerve) by examining this reflex in the patient. Normally both eyes should blink when either cornea (not the conjunctiva, which is supplied by the adjacent cutaneous nerves) is irritated. If neither eye blinks, then either the ipsilateral nasociliary nerve is damaged, or the facial nerve (CN VII, which carries the efferent limb of this reflex) is bilaterally damaged. If only the contralateral eye blinks, then the ipsilateral facial nerve is damaged. If only the ipsilateral eye blinks, then the contralateral facial nerve is damaged.\n", "This phenomenon of activity-dependent competition is especially seen in the formation of ocular dominance columns within the visual system. Early in development, most of the visual cortex is binocular, meaning it receives roughly equal input from both eyes. Normally, as development progresses, the visual cortex will segregate into monocular columns that receive input from only one eye. However, if one eye is patched, or otherwise prevented from receiving sensory input, the visual cortex will shift to favor representation of the uncovered eye. This demonstrates activity-dependent competition and Hebbian theory because inputs from the uncovered eye make and retain more connections than the patched eye.\n", "As explained above, the validity of the 2PD task has been called into question because it allows the participant to rely on non-spatial cues. By contrast, the GOT and 2POD tasks are considered to yield valid measures of tactile spatial acuity, because in order to perform these tasks, the participant must discern the spatial modulation of the neural discharge of underlying skin receptors and cannot rely on non-spatial cues. The following figure, from a study that evaluated both 2PD and 2POD on the fingertip, finger base, palm and forearm, demonstrates that 2PD is contaminated by non-spatial cues, whereas 2POD provides an uncontaminated measure of tactile spatial acuity.\n", "BULLET::::7. Based on the above reasoning, the lesion must involve segment 1. Damage to segment 5 may accompany a segment 1 lesion, but is unnecessary for producing the abnormal light reflex results in this case. Option (e) involves a combined lesion of segments 1 and 5. Multiple sclerosis, which often affects multiple neurologic sites simultaneously, could potentially cause this combination lesion. In all probability, option (a) is the answer. Neuro-imaging, such as MRI scan, would be useful for confirmation of clinical findings.\n\nSection::::Cognitive influences.\n", "Giesbrecht and Di Lollo (1998) suggest that the attentional blink over target 2 results when the person is busy processing target 1. It is suggested that anything increasing the difficulty of processing of the first target will result in a greater attentional blink.\n\nSection::::Theories.:The Attentional Capacity Theory.\n", "A study conducted by Heleen Slagter, Richard Davidson and colleagues, suggests that meditation, particularly vipassana, may reduce the duration of attentional blink. In an experiment, 17 people received three months of intensive training in meditation. Those 17 along with 23 meditation novices performed an attention task in which they successively picked out two numbers embedded in a series of letters. The novices exhibited attentional blink and missed the second number. In contrast, all the trained meditators consistently picked out both numbers. This indicated meditation practice can improve focus.\n\nSection::::Theories.\n\nSection::::Theories.:The Inhibition Theory.\n", "The Gemara deduced from the words \"the man whose eye is open\" in which refer to only a single open eye, that Balaam was blind in one eye.\n", "BULLET::::- Optic nerve damage on the left (e.g. transection of left optic nerve, CN II, somewhere between retina and optic chiasma, therefore damaging the left afferent limb, leaving the rest of the pupillary light reflex neural pathway on both sides intact) will have the following clinical findings:\n\nBULLET::::- The left direct reflex is lost. When the left eye is stimulated by light, neither pupils constrict. Afferent signals from the left eye cannot pass through the transected left optic nerve to reach the intact efferent limb on the left.\n", "Generally speaking, if the double vision is intractable by optical and other means and the patient needs relief from the disturbing double images, it may be indicated to use a more modest approach that simply ensures that the image of the weaker eye no longer interferes with the image of the dominant eye. This relieves the most disturbing symptoms, albeit at the cost of offering only subnormal binocular vision.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00469	why do auctioneers talk the way they do?	It's a traditional style that not all auctions use, but it helps to keep up the energy in the room and encourages potential buyers to make quick decisions. It also gets through lots quickly, which is important when you may be auctioning dozens or hundreds of lots in a day.	[ "Once an auctioneer becomes experienced in the auction profession, they usually develop their own style with regards to unique filler words, unique rhythm, and variable speed of delivering the chant. Many chants are accompanied by the unique yelling of a \"ringman\" who is an assistant to the auctioneer in the \"auction ring.\" Ringmen are professionals who are often auctioneers themselves. They assist in spotting bids and communicating essential information back to the auctioneer. Typically, automobile auctioneers at dealer-only auctions and livestock auctioneers are known for their high-speed chants.\n\nSection::::Competition.\n", "Filler words serve as a thinking point for both the auctioneer and the bidders. Filler words can serve to make a statement, ask questions, or can simply serve as a means of adding rhythm to the chant. Some typical filler words, which are taught at schools of auctioneering, are \"dollar bid\", \"now\", and \"will ya' give me?\". The typically taught chant for beginning auctioneers follows the pattern: \"One dollar bid, now two, now two, will ya' give me two? Two dollar bid, now three, now three, will ya' give me three?\", and continues in this fashion until the crowd stops bidding and the item is sold to the high bidder (auto auctions have \"reserves\" or \"minimum price\" placed on all autos, so if the high bidder doesn't meet the reserve, they may be asked to raise their own bid in order to successfully purchase the vehicle in question). \n", "Often prior to \"closing the bidding\" & selling an item, auctioneers will announce: \"Going once, going twice, sold!\" or \"Going, going, gone!\", followed by announcing the winning bid. Often auctioneers will stand at a lectern with a gavel, which they use to bang the lectern to end bidding on an item prior to announcing the winning bid. Slurring filler words to make multi-part filler word phrases is a key element, giving the illusion that the auctioneer is talking fast, meant to create more excitement and bidding anxiety among the bidding crowd.\n\nSection::::Style.\n", "\"I would walk up and down fences and sell the fence posts. I would sell mailboxes and trees as we rode by. Sometimes my daddy would threaten me with a beating to get me to stop 'that bunch of noise' I was making. But I wouldn’t stop. I’d just get out of earshot and keep going. Sometimes when I’d get into bed at night, I’d put my head under the cover and hum a chant. Nothing in my life, before or since, captivated me any more than an auctioneer’s chant. I knew one day somebody was going to hire me to sell produce for them.\" \n", "Czech singer and songwriter Michal Tučný adapted the lyrics and translated it into the Czech language under the name \"Prodavač\" (\"Shop assistant\") sometimes between 1974 and 1980. He describes his childhood admiration of a shop assistant in a local store, followed by his own entry into this profession, from which he ultimately turned to music. Finally he concludes, that in the year 2000 there may be no LP records or gramophones, but trade will flourish anyway, and he (half-jokingly) dreams about becoming a store manager.\n", "The auction chant is a repetition of two numbers at a time which indicate the monetary amount involved with the sale of an item. \n\nThe first number is the amount of money which is currently being offered by a bidder for a given item. The second number is what the next bid needs to be in order to become the \"high bidder\", otherwise known as \"the current man on\". In between the numbers are \"filler words\" which are what the auctioneer says to tie the chant together making it smooth and rhythmic. \n", "Auction chants have even found their way into the music and the entertainment arena, such as the 1956 hit song \"The Auctioneer\" by Leroy Van Dyke, which was about a relative of Van Dyke who was an auctioneer, and the 1995 hit single \"Sold (The Grundy County Auction Incident)\" by John Michael Montgomery. Commercials for Lucky Strike cigarettes featured tobacco auctioneers, and their phrase \"\"Sold\" American!\" made its way into the 1940 film \"His Girl Friday\".\n\nThe auction chant was explored in the 1976 documentary \"How Much Wood Would a Woodchuck Chuck\", by Werner Herzog.\n", "During the American Civil War, goods seized by armies were sold at auction by the Colonel of the division. Thus, some of today's auctioneers in the U.S. carry the unofficial title of \"colonel\".\n\nTobacco auctioneers in the southern United States in the late 19th century had a style that mixed traditions of 17th century England with chants of slaves from Africa.\n", "While Riggs certainly mastered the tricks of the trade, what truly separated him from the rest was his speed, hence the nickname “Speed” Riggs. In his prime, Riggs was able to rhythmically chant his auctioneer's call at 469 words per minute: “31 dollar, 31, 1, ah 1, 32, 2, 2, toodle, toodle, toodle 2,” and so on. Rumors quickly spread throughout the South of the “tall, lanky auctioneer, with big ears and a protruding Adam’s apple, selling in Durham, North Carolina.”\n\nSection::::Biography.:Your Lucky Strike Hit Parade.\n", "BULLET::::- Three Merchants: These three men, one tall and skinny, one medium and skinny, and the last short and round, walk around the marketplace taking money from people, \"for the bank\". They are the ones who point the boy to the auctioneer.\n", "Big Tex welcomes fairgoers with his friendly drawl of \"Hoooowdeeee, fooolllllks!\" and makes regular announcements throughout the duration of the State Fair of Texas. His booming voice has been played by only a few men over six decades, who perform every day of the fair from a booth known as the \"doghouse\".\n", "Auctioneers also can participate in \"competitions\" which crown regional and world champion auctioneers based on their chants, which is common in the auto and livestock auction industry, but not limited to them. Ringmen can also compete in competitions. The National Auctioneers Association as well as state specific Auctioneer Associations hold annual Auctioneer \"bid calling competitions\". These organizations also hold Ringmen competitions.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "Auction chant\n\nAuction chant (also known as \"bid calling\", \"the auction cry\", \"the cattle rattle\", or simply \"auctioneering\") is a rhythmic repetition of numbers and \"filler words\" spoken by auctioneers in the process of conducting an auction. It is universal in North America, but much less common elsewhere. The chant consists of at least the current price and the asking price to outbid. Auctioneers typically develop their own style, and competitions are held to judge them. Outside of auctions, the chant has been the subject of music and used in commercials and film.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "As anyone who has worked in retail can attest, sometimes customers need to be taken to task for their lack of forethought or reasonableness on issues. \"Uncle Dave's Story Hour\" is a regular feature of the show which is a rant about something that happened that raised the ire of Dave Enright in his shop. It's always good for a chuckle.\n", "BULLET::::- Did you know auctioneers make bad grocery store clerks?: A cashier in a grocery store tells a customer what the total of her purchase is, then starts rapidly \"auctioning\" it, taking bids from the woman and the man in line behind her.\n", "There is a usual way for Mini lops to show they are angry, that's \"stamping their hind foot\". This may happens when your do not give food or snacks \"in time\", or when they feel some strangers \"invade\" into their region and stamp hind foot to show their power or status.\n\nSection::::Showing Mini Lops.\n\nThe ideal Mini Lop is described as being a \"basketball with a head\". Judges like to see a nice rounded body with thick depth, long thick ears, a wide head and thick bone.\n\nARBA Accepted Colors\n", "Dan Dotson and Laura Dotson, also known as \"American Auctioneers\" (Season 1—): Dan and Laura are a husband and wife auctioneer team, who run their own business, \"American Auctioneers\", and are the primary auctioneers on the show. Dan has been a professional auctioneer since 1974. He is the primary auctioneer, occasionally giving the reins to Laura, and she ends the auctions by reminding the winning bidders, \"\"Don't forget to pay the lady!\"\" Dan's grandfather was apprenticed as an auctioneer by Detmen Mitchell in 1945.\n\nSection::::Participants.:Auctioneers.:Main.:Emily Wears.\n", "Nevertheless, the Bloodhound bay is among the most impressive of hound voices. When hunting in a pack they are expected to be in full cry. They are more likely to 'give tongue,' 'throw their tongue,' or 'speak' when hunting in a pack than when hunting singly, and more when hunting free than when on the leash. The quality of 'speaking to the line', that is giving tongue when on the correct scent while remaining silent when off it, is valued in British Bloodhound circles, on aesthetic grounds and because it makes it very easy to 'read' the hound's tracking behaviour. As a result, special trophies for speaking to the correct line are on offer at British working trials (where hounds hunt singly), although rarely awarded.\n", "BULLET::::- Cindy Shook – Manager. Cindy and Paul first worked together at his father's auction house in the early 1990s. She functions as both office manager and inventory manager, tagging and cataloging items for each sale.\n\nBULLET::::- Jon Hammond – Assistant Manager/Picker. As a \"picker\" Jon not only helps process items at the Gallery but will often go in search of items to sell on consignment. A college English major, he bested nearly one hundred other applicants for the position of assistant manager.\n", "During his time as a color commentator for NBC and TNT of the NBA, Mike Fratello has been referred to as the \"Czar of the Telestrator\" by Marv Albert for his masterful way of diagramming basketball plays on screen.\n\nHowie Meeker, NHL hockey color commentator and studio analyst, used the telestrator for many years on CBC's \"Hockey Night in Canada\" to analyze plays during intermissions. He was famous for shouting instructions to the \"boys in the truck\" - such as \"Back it up! Back it up!\" and \"Stop it right there!\" - in his trademark squeaky voice.\n", "Arkwright speaks with a stammer, which he acknowledges sometimes makes it difficult to express himself. He often makes his impediment into a joke, for example asking: \"Granville, how do you spell P-p-p-pepper? Is it 6 Ps or 7?\" Granville occasionally mocks his uncle's speech pattern (such as calling the \"weather fore-fore-forecast\" the \"weather twelvecast\", and referring to the \"B-B-B-B-B-B-B-B-B-B-BC\" as morse code), although never in a malicious or hurtful manner. Arkwright was shocked on one occasion to find that he also appears to stutter even when thinking to himself.\n", "When interviewing high-profile real estate auctioneer Dick Gladding 'live' on air on 15 June 1989, Tim asked Gladding if his agency used \"ring-ins\" to boost the bidding. Gladding replied \"Tim, I feel sick\". To which Tim replied \"I thought you would say that\".\n\nThere was a long silent pause and Tim looked at Gladding. He had suffered a heart attack and was dead in the studio chair. (This was believed to be the first time in the history of world radio that this had ever happened) \n", "BULLET::::- Dan and Laura Dotson: The husband and wife auctioneer team run \"American Auctioneers\" and administer the storage auctions in \"Storage Wars\". Dan is the primary auctioneer, occasionally giving the reins to Laura. At the end of every auction Laura always says \"\"...Don't forget to pay the Lady!\"\" A trademark of Dan's is that he is known for his fast talking voice which makes it difficult to understand what he says.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Let's Truck Together\"—This sketch reflected the CB radio craze during the mid-to-late 1970s. Kenny Price and Gailard Sartain, as truck drivers, would swap funny stories and one-liners with each other over the CB airwaves.\n", "Examples of speakers include TV presenter Adrian Chiles, comedian Jasper Carrott, Goodies actor and TV presenter Bill Oddie, hip-hop and garage musician Mike Skinner, rock musicians Ozzy Osbourne (and all other members of the original Black Sabbath), Roy Wood, Jeff Lynne (ELO founders), Rob Halford (Judas Priest), Barney Greenway (Napalm Death), Dave Pegg (of Fairport Convention and Jethro Tull), broadcaster Les Ross, politician Clare Short, SAS soldier and author John \"Brummie\" Stokes, and many actresses and actors including Martha Howe-Douglas, Donnaleigh Bailey, Nicolas Woodman, Sarah Smart, John Oliver and Ryan Cartwright.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Black Country dialect\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15118	How does the court system in the United States determine unbiased jurors for high profile cases like Jeffrey Dahmer?	A short but very incomplete answer is that there is an interview process called voir dire in which lawyers for either side in a trial can sniff out specific known, relevant biases and reject potential jurors on the basis of such a bias. It may be more thorough for more high-profile cases, but the skeleton of the process is the same.	[ "A jury consultant helped pick the jury in the O. J. Simpson murder trial. Criminologist Jo-Ellan Dimitrius used surveys to determine the ideal defense juror demographic (black women) and analyzed and judged the prospective jurors' answers to a questionnaire and response and body language during voir dire (the stage of jury selection where lawyers are permitted to directly question the jury). Prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi gives more credit to the traditional change of venue. He argues that transferring the case to a section of Los Angeles with more blacks in the jury pool was most detrimental to the selection of a prosecution-friendly jury. The prosecutor dismissed her court-appointed jury consultant early in the process.\n", "It's been dozens and dozens of comments where [Rahm Emanuel] essentially indicted my client. He's characterized my client's actions as being heinous without even seeing the videotape. So when the mayor of the city in which the pool of jurors is drawn from has taken such an adamant stance, it makes it extremely difficult for us to get a juror in here who is not predisposed to a finding of guilt.\n", "The actual efficacy of jury consultants may not be very important because the demographic composition of the jury has little effect on the verdict it renders, usually causing only a 5%–15% variance in verdicts. The evidence presented at trial has far more impact on what the verdict will be. As Kressel and Kressel indicate, \"when the evidence is strong, nothing else matters much\" and even when the evidence is ambiguous, demographic characteristics of jurors are a relatively minor influence. Some researchers argue that a significant improvement in jury selection, however small, may be worthwhile when the stakes are high, as with a defendant accused of a capital crime or a corporation that stands to lose millions of dollars in a civil suit.\n", "In a fifth-season episode of the CBS television series \"Numb3rs\", entitled \"Guilt Trip\", an illegal arms dealer (James Marsters) is tried for racketeering and the murder of the key witness against him. After he is unexpectedly acquitted, the investigation reveals that he had hired a sleazy jury consultant to not only identify those jurors who would most likely sway the rest of the jury's deliberations, so as to bribe and extort them into pushing for acquittal, but also train one of his henchmen to pose as the perfect \"prosecutor's juror\" and get placed on the jury. In season one, episode eleven, of the television series \"Leverage\", a pharmaceutical company is under fire for a wrongful death case involving a stimulative all-natural herbal supplement. In an attempt to prevent major losses for the pharmaceutical company in question, and to protect the investment of a soon-to-be-parent company's subsidiary, scientific jury selection is used. However, the \"Leverage\" team thwarts their efforts every step of the way, similar to a giant chess match.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Limited constitutional rights.\n\nThe prosecutor is not obliged to present evidence in favor of those being investigated.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Four jurors showed up, all of them woman, all black. I learned a lot that day. They all told me that they were sure that Karaduman had been involved with drugs. They had believed Arras, but a number of them already had come to that view of Karaduman as they observed his own testimony. 'We could tell,' one of them told me, 'that you were worried that we would believe Karaduman. But we know drug dealers in Harlem, and we knew he was one.'\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Floyd Abrams and The Heroin Trail case\n", "Another simplified experiment indicated that lawyers trained in a systematic selection method made better predictions of juror verdicts in two of four cases – the sale of illegal drugs and a military court-martial (the other two cases were murder and drunk driving). The systematic method was more effective in those two cases where the predictive relationships between demographic variables and attitudes/verdicts were strongest, and least effective where such predictive relationships were weak or nonexistent.\n", "Further, research has suggested that public misperceptions about criminal forensics can create, in the mind of a juror, unrealistic expectations of forensic evidence—which they expect to see before convicting—implicitly biasing the juror towards the defendant. Citing the \"CSI Effect,\" at least one researcher has suggested screening jurors for their level of influence from such TV programs\n\nSection::::Controversies.\n", "Section::::Methods.\n\nThe theory behind SJS is that juror attitudes predict voting preferences most effectively. By discovering what relationships exist between certain attitudes, attorneys can exclude those from the jury whose attitudes would predispose them to an unfavorable verdict.\n\nResearcher Shari Diamond indicates that jury consultants primarily rely on two methods: telephone surveys and mock trials (trial simulations). Telephone surveys are the practitioners' \"primary research method\". During a survey of the community where the trial is taking place, jury consultants ask about:\n", "Section::::Legal career.:Notable cases.:\"United States v. Hagop Vartanian\".\n\nThis jury trial was related to a point-shaving investigation regarding the Fresno State Basketball team coached by Jerry Tarkanian. Mr. Vartanian was convicted of all counts after a two-week jury trial. The sentencing involved numerous evidentiary hearings on complicated legal issues. Mr. Vartanian was sentenced to 15 months in the custody of the Bureau of Prisons.\n\nSection::::Legal career.:Notable cases.:\"United States v. Luke Anthony Scarmazzo\".\n", "Detailed interviews with jurors after they rendered verdicts in trials involving complex expert testimony have demonstrated careful and critical analysis. The interviewed jurors clearly recognized that the experts were selected within an adversary process. They employed sensible techniques to evaluate the experts’ testimony, such as assessing the completeness and consistency of the testimony, comparing it with other evidence at the trial, and evaluating it against their own knowledge and life experience. Moreover, the research shows that in deliberations jurors combine their individual perspectives on the evidence and debate its relative merits before arriving at a verdict.\n", "Spitz was ordered to appear before two separate grand juries. The grand juries were held in Alexandria, Virginia and in Philadelphia during separate investigations into Paul Hill and Clayton Waagner, the man who sent hundreds of anthrax scare letters to abortion providers in 2001.\n", "Diamond writes that jury consultants then compare the three data sets to determine which background characteristics correlate to favorable attitudes and verdicts, and which attitudes correlate to favorable verdicts. Attorneys can then use that information to select favorable jurors, based either on prospective jurors' characteristics or whatever an attorney can learn about jurors' attitudes. This has prompted the most frequent criticism of SJS: that consultants stack juries with favorably biased or credulous jurors; in turn, practitioners insist this is impossible and that bias can only be removed from a jury pool.\n", "Section::::\"Stratified\" sampling.\n", "Former President Jimmy Carter said the jury made the \"right decision\" based on the evidence presented by the prosecution. Carter said, \"It's not a moral question, it's a legal question and the American law requires that the jury listens to the evidence presented.\"\n", "Although advocates and practitioners of scientific jury selection claim the practice is overwhelmingly effective at choosing juries that will render the desired verdict, its true effect is often more difficult to discern. Part of this difficulty is in duplicating the conditions of a real trial. In one experiment, two kinds of shadow juries watched a trial and rendered a verdict. The results indicated that the juries were substantially different, but that this difference was likely due to the two experimental juries’ knowledge that they were not deciding an actual verdict, prompting a lower burden of proof.\n", "One important variation is \"group dynamics analysis\". Some jury selection is concerned with the attitudes and bias of individuals. Some trial consultants also try to predict how individuals will form themselves into groups in the jury and which jurors will become leaders and followers in those groups. Consultants also use this tool after jury selection is over.\n\nSection::::Efficacy.\n", "The above factors are but a few of the many and varied variables that can impose on the juror when in the Courtroom and/or the Juryroom. Such a complex and unique experience is the jury deliberation process the outcome of which is profound and potentially lethal. Quite rightfully therefore, the focus on jury research by legal professionals and social scientists has become, in the last 50 years or so a burgeoning area of investigation.\n\nSection::::Research methods.\n", "During jury selection in the United States, attorneys have two options for excluding potential jurors. The first option is a \"challenge for cause\", in which attorneys must state the reason for a challenge (such as clear bias or a conflict of interest), the opposing party is allowed to respond, and the judge decides whether to exclude the juror. The second option is a peremptory challenge, where an attorney can exclude a juror without stating any reason. While challenges for cause are unlimited, attorneys have a limited number of peremptory challenges, sometimes as few as four, although 10 is more common in non-capital felony cases.\n", "BULLET::::- Operation Family Secrets: A trial of organized-crime-affiliated defendants in Chicago.\n\nBULLET::::- John Gotti\n\nBULLET::::- George Zimmerman's defense team, in Zimmerman's trial for the shooting of Trayvon Martin (\"State of Florida v. George Zimmerman\"), had requested an anonymous jury, arguing that the jurors may be subject to intimidation due to the intense media and public scrutiny in the case.\n\nBULLET::::- US District Judge Brian Cogan ruled in February 2018 that the trial of accused drug kingpin Joaquín \"El Chapo\" Guzmán (\"United States of America v. Joaquín Guzmán Loera\"), used an innominate and partially sequestered jury.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Federalevidence.com\n", "BULLET::::3. in relation to conviction, whether the prosecutor improperly attempted to reduce jurors' sense of responsibility by telling them that a guilty verdict would be subsequently vetted and subject to appeal; and\n\nBULLET::::4. in relation to post-conviction review hearings in 1995–6, whether the presiding judge, who had also presided at the trial, demonstrated unacceptable bias in his conduct.\n", "Due to the criticism against the federal grand jury system there are some reform proposals which include the following proposals:\n\nBULLET::::- Better instructions from judges to jurors about the grand jury's powers and its independence from prosecutors\n\nBULLET::::- Increased access to grand jury transcripts for suspects who are eventually indicted\n\nBULLET::::- Expanded safeguards against abuse of witnesses, including education about their rights and the presence of their attorneys\n\nBULLET::::- Notification of targets of investigations that they are targets\n\nBULLET::::- Optional rather than mandatory appearances by targets of investigations\n", "The Dean's office denied the claims and made the following statement: \"The list of 8 people approved by Jury has not been changed in any way. This bet has been included in the information of the jury where the two candidates were not added to the list, and the quota is 10 people. The members of the jury were informed that the quota was 10 persons in the examination process. The members of the jury who gave lectures on the part-time basis in our department started a scandal campaign against our institution, not respecting the quota decision we made at the beginning of the examination period as faculty administration.\" \n", "Researchers Erin Crites, Jon Gould and Colleen Shepard of the Center for Justice, Law & Society at George Mason University studied the experiences of prosecutors, defense lawyers, and retired judges in New York and Colorado. Four key reform recommendations emerged from their \"Evaluating Grand Jury Reform in Two States: The Case for Reform\" research study are:\n\nBULLET::::1. Defense representation in the grand jury room,\n\nBULLET::::2. production of witness transcripts for the defense,\n\nBULLET::::3. advance notice for witnesses to appear, and\n\nBULLET::::4. the presentation of exculpatory evidence to the grand jury.\n", "Jurors, like most individuals, are not free from holding social and cognitive biases. People may negatively judge individuals who do not adhere to established social norms (e.g., an individual's dress sense) or do not meet societal standards of success. Although these biases tend to influence jurors’ individual decisions during a trial, while working as part of a group (i.e., jury), these biases are typically controlled. Groups tend to exert buffering effects that allow jurors to disregard their initial personal biases when forming a credible group decision.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Jury of matrons\n\nBULLET::::- Blank pad rule\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]

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