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systems with the unix-based macos operating system, they now use line feed (lf) as well. the radio shack trs-80 also used a lone cr to terminate lines. computers attached to the arpanet included machines running operating systems such as tops-10 and tenex using cr-lf line endings; machines running operating systems such as multics using lf line endings; and machines running operating systems such as os/360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and which used ebcdic rather than ascii encoding. the telnet protocol defined an ascii "network virtual terminal" (nvt), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. telnet used ascii along with cr-lf line

endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the nvt. the file transfer protocol adopted the telnet protocol, including use of the network virtual terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ascii mode. this adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for e-mail and the world wide web, on systems not using the nvt's cr-lf line-ending convention. end of file/stream the pdp-6 monitor, and its pdp-10 successor tops-10, used control-z (sub) as an end-of-file indication for input from a terminal. some operating systems such as cp/m tracked file length only in units of disk blocks, and used control-z to mark the end of the actual text in the file. for these reasons,

eof, or end-of-file, was used colloquially and conventionally as a three-letter acronym for control-z instead of substitute. the end-of-text code (etx), also known as control-c, was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using z as the control code to end a file is analogous to its position at the end of the alphabet, and serves as a very convenient mnemonic aid. a historically common and still prevalent convention uses the etx code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard. in c library and unix conventions, the null character is used to terminate text strings; such null-terminated strings can be known in abbreviation as asciz or asciiz, where here z stands for "zero". control code chart other representations might be used by specialist equipment,

for example iso 2047 graphics or hexadecimal numbers. printable characters codes 20hex to 7ehex, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. there are 95 printable characters in total. code 20hex, the "space" character, denotes the space between words, as produced by the space bar of a keyboard. since the space character is considered an invisible graphic (rather than a control character) it is listed in the table below instead of in the previous section. code 7fhex corresponds to the non-printable "delete" (del) control character and is therefore omitted from this chart; it is covered in the previous section's chart. earlier versions of ascii used the up arrow instead of the caret (5ehex) and the left arrow instead of the underscore (5fhex). character

set usage ascii was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for american telephone & telegraph's twx (teletypewriter exchange) network. twx originally used the earlier five-bit ita2, which was also used by the competing telex teleprinter system. bob bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence. his british colleague hugh mcgregor ross helped to popularize this work according to bemer, "so much so that the code that was to become ascii was first called the bemerross code in europe". because of his extensive work on ascii, bemer has been called "the father of ascii". on march 11, 1968, us president lyndon b. johnson mandated that all computers purchased by the united states federal government support ascii, stating: i have also approved recommendations of the secretary of

commerce [luther h. hodges] regarding standards for recording the standard code for information interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations. all computers and related equipment configurations brought into the federal government inventory on and after july 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the standard code for information interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used. ascii was the most common character encoding on the world wide web until december 2007, when utf-8 encoding surpassed it; utf-8 is backward compatible with ascii. variants and derivations as computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ascii to facilitate

the expression of non-english languages that used roman-based alphabets. one could class some of these variations as "ascii extensions", although some misuse that term to represent all variants, including those that do not preserve ascii's character-map in the 7-bit range. furthermore, the ascii extensions have also been mislabelled as ascii. 7-bit codes from early in its development, ascii was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard. other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as iso 646 (1967) that are identical or nearly identical to ascii, with extensions for characters outside the english alphabet and symbols used outside the united states, such as the symbol for the united kingdom's pound sterling (); e.g. with code

page 1104. almost every country needed an adapted version of ascii, since ascii suited the needs of only the us and a few other countries. for example, canada had its own version that supported french characters. many other countries developed variants of ascii to include non-english letters (e.g. e, n, , ), currency symbols (e.g. , ), etc. see also yuscii (yugoslavia). it would share most characters in common, but assign other locally useful characters to several code points reserved for "national use". however, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ascii-1963 and iso's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967 caused ascii's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries

did begin to make their own assignments to these code points. iso/iec 646, like ascii, is a 7-bit character set. it does not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and, therefore, which character a code represented, and in general, text-processing systems could cope with only one variant anyway. because the bracket and brace characters of ascii were assigned to "national use" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of iso/iec 646, a german, french, or swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of iso/iec 646, rather

than ascii, had to write, and, thus, read, something such as a aaiu = 'on'; u instead of { a[i] = '\n'; } c trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ansi c, although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. many programmers kept their computers on us-ascii, so plain-text in swedish, german etc. (for example, in e-mail or usenet) contained "{, }" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. for example, a swedish programmer mailing another programmer asking if they should go for lunch, could get "n{ jag har sm|rg}sar" as the answer, which should be "na jag har smorgasar" meaning "no i've got sandwiches". in japan and korea, still a variation of ascii is used, in which the backslash (5c hex) is rendered as (a yen

sign, in japan) or (a won sign, in korea). this means that, for example, the file path c:\users\smith is shown as c:userssmith (in japan) or c:userssmith (in korea). 8-bit codes eventually, as 8-, 16-, and 32-bit (and later 64-bit) computers began to replace 12-, 18-, and 36-bit computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit relatives of ascii. in most cases these developed as true extensions of ascii, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters. encodings include iscii (india), viscii (vietnam). although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ascii, true ascii is defined strictly only by the ansi standard. most early

home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0 to 31 with more graphics. kaypro cp/m computers used the "upper" 128 characters for the greek alphabet. the petscii code commodore international used for their 8-bit systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ascii-1963, instead of the more common ascii-1967, such as found on the zx spectrum computer. atari 8-bit computers and galaksija computers also used ascii variants. the ibm pc defined code page 437, which replaced the control characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. operating systems such as dos supported these code pages, and manufacturers

of ibm pcs supported them in hardware. digital equipment corporation developed the multinational character set (dec-mcs) for use in the popular vt220 terminal as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. the macintosh defined mac os roman and postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets. the iso/iec 8859 standard (derived from the dec-mcs) finally provided a standard that most systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ascii, but with many substitutions). a popular further extension designed by microsoft, windows-1252 (often mislabeled as iso-8859-1), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing.

iso-8859-1, windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ascii were the most common character encodings until 2008 when utf-8 became more common. iso/iec 4873 introduced 32 additional control codes defined in the 809f hexadecimal range, as part of extending the 7-bit ascii encoding to become an 8-bit system. unicode unicode and the iso/iec 10646 universal character set (ucs) have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant iso/iec 8859 and ascii rapidly in many environments. while ascii is limited to 128 characters, unicode and the ucs support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using natural numbers called code points) and encoding (to 8-, 16-, or 32-bit binary formats, called utf-8, utf-16, and utf-32, respectively). ascii was incorporated

into the unicode (1991) character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ascii characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. this allows utf-8 to be backward compatible with 7-bit ascii, as a utf-8 file containing only ascii characters is identical to an ascii file containing the same sequence of characters. even more importantly, forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ascii characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ascii extensions such as iso-8859-1) will preserve utf-8 data unchanged. see also 3568 ascii, an asteroid named after the character encoding alt codes ascii85 ascii art ascii ribbon campaign basic latin (unicode block) (ascii as a subset of unicode) extended ascii html decimal character

rendering jargon file, a glossary of computer programmer slang which includes a list of common slang names for ascii characters list of computer character sets list of unicode characters notes references further reading from: external links computer-related introductions in 1963 character sets character encoding latin-script representations presentation layer protocols

austin is the capital of texas in the united states. austin may also refer to: geographical locations australia austin, western australia canada austin, manitoba austin, ontario austin, quebec austin island, nunavut france saint-austin, hamlet at la neuville-chant-d'oisel, normandy hong kong austin station (mtr), kowloon united states austin, arkansas austin, colorado austin township, macon county, illinois austin, chicago, cook county, illinois austin, indiana austin, kentucky austin, minnesota austin, missouri austin, nevada austin, ohio austin, oregon austin, pennsylvania austin, texas austin county, texas (note that the city of austin, texas is located in travis county) schools austin college, sherman, texas university of texas at austin, flagship institution of the university

of texas system austin peay state university, clarksville, tennessee religion augustine of hippo an adjective for the augustinians business american austin car company, short-lived american automobile maker austin automobile company, short-lived american automobile company austin motor company, british car manufacturer austin cookies and crackers, keebler company brand entertainment "austin" (song), a single by blake shelton austin, a kangaroo beanie baby produced by ty, inc. austin the kangaroo from the children's television series the backyardigans other uses austin (building), a building designed by artist ellsworth kelly under construction in austin, texas austin (given name), a short form of augustin, or augustine, including fictional characters austin (surname) uss austin, three ships see

also all pages beginning with austin august (disambiguation) augustin (disambiguation) augustine (disambiguation) austin station (disambiguation) austins (disambiguation) austen (disambiguation) justice austin (disambiguation) austinburg (disambiguation)

animation is a method in which figures are manipulated to appear as moving images. in traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. today, most animations are made with computer-generated imagery (cgi). computer animation can be very detailed 3d animation, while 2d computer animation (which may have the look of traditional animation) can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth, or faster real-time renderings. other common animation methods apply a stop motion technique to two- and three-dimensional objects like paper cutouts, puppets, or clay figures. an animated cartoon is an animated film, usually a short film aimed at children and featuring an exaggerated visual style. the style takes inspiration from comic strips,

often featuring anthropomorphic animals, superheroes, or the adventures of child protagonists. especially with animals that form a natural predator/prey relationship (e.g. cats and mice, coyotes and birds) the action often centers around violent pratfalls such as falls, collisions and explosions that would be lethal in real life. commonly, animators achieved the effect by a rapid succession of images that minimally differ from each other. the illusionas in motion pictures in generalis thought to rely on the phi phenomenon and beta movement, but the exact causes are still uncertain. analog mechanical animation media that rely on the rapid display of sequential images include the phenakisticope, zoetrope, flip book, praxinoscope, and film. television and video are popular electronic animation media that originally

were analog and now operate digitally. for display on computers, technology such as the animated gif and flash animation were developed. in addition to short films, feature films, television series, animated gifs, and other media dedicated to the display of moving images, animation is also prevalent in video games, motion graphics, user interfaces, and visual effects. the physical movement of image parts through simple mechanicsfor instance moving images in magic lantern showscan also be considered animation. the mechanical manipulation of three-dimensional puppets and objects to emulate living beings has a very long history in automata. electronic automata were popularized by disney as animatronics. etymology the word "animation" stems from the latin "animation", stem of "animatio", meaning "a bestowing of

life". the primary meaning of the english word is "liveliness" and has been in use much longer than the meaning of "moving image medium". history before cinematography hundreds of years before the introduction of true animation, people all over the world enjoyed shows with moving figures that were created and manipulated manually in puppetry, automata, shadow play, and the magic lantern. the multi-media phantasmagoria shows that were very popular in european theatres from the late 18th century through the first half of the 19th century, featured lifelike projections of moving ghosts and other frightful imagery in motion. in 1833, the stroboscopic disc (better known as the phenakisticope) introduced the principle of modern animation with sequential images that were shown one by one in quick succession to form

an optical illusion of motion pictures. series of sequential images had occasionally been made over thousands of years, but the stroboscopic disc provided the first method to represent such images in fluent motion and for the first time had artists creating series with a proper systematic breakdown of movements. the stroboscopic animation principle was also applied in the zoetrope (1866), the flip book (1868) and the praxinoscope (1877). a typical 19th-century animation contained about 12 images that were displayed as a continuous loop by spinning a device manually. the flip book often contained more pictures and had a beginning and end, but its animation would not last longer than a few seconds. the first to create much longer sequences seems to have been charles-emile reynaud, who between 1892 and 1900 had

much success with his 10- to 15-minute-long pantomimes lumineuses. silent era when cinematography eventually broke through in 1895 after animated pictures had been known for decades, the wonder of the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest accomplishment. animation on film was not commercialized until a few years later by manufacturers of optical toys, with chromolithography film loops (often traced from live-action footage) for adapted toy magic lanterns intended for kids to use at home. it would take some more years before animation reached movie theaters. after earlier experiments by movie pioneers j. stuart blackton, arthur melbourne-cooper, segundo de chomon, and edwin s. porter (among others), blackton's the haunted hotel (1907) was the first huge stop motion success, baffling audiences

by showing objects that apparently moved by themselves in full photographic detail, without signs of any known stage trick. emile cohl's fantasmagorie (1908) is the oldest known example of what became known as traditional (hand-drawn) animation. other great artistic and very influential short films were created by ladislas starevich with his puppet animations since 1910 and by winsor mccay with detailed drawn animation in films such as little nemo (1911) and gertie the dinosaur (1914). during the 1910s, the production of animated "cartoons" became an industry in the us. successful producer john randolph bray and animator earl hurd, patented the cel animation process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the century. felix the cat, who debuted in 1919, became the first animated superstar. american

golden age in 1928, steamboat willie, featuring mickey mouse and minnie mouse, popularized film with synchronized sound and put walt disney's studio at the forefront of the animation industry. the enormous success of mickey mouse is seen as the start of the golden age of american animation that would last until the 1960s. the united states dominated the world market of animation with a plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts. several studios would introduce characters that would become very popular and would have long-lasting careers, including maria butinova studios' mapmo (1924), the leo king knott (1931), walt disney productions' goofy (1932) and donald duck (1934), warner bros. cartoons' looney tunes characters like porky pig (1935), daffy duck (1937), bugs bunny (19381940), tweety (19411942), sylvester

the cat (1945), wile e. coyote and road runner (1949), fleischer studios/paramount cartoon studios' betty boop (1930), popeye (1933), superman (1941) and casper (1945), mgm cartoon studio's tom and jerry (1940) and droopy, walter lantz productions/universal studio cartoons' woody woodpecker (1940), terrytoons/20th century fox's dinky duck (1939), mighty mouse (1942) and heckle and jeckle (1946) and united artists' pink panther (1963). features before cgi in 1917, italian-argentine director quirino cristiani made the first feature-length film el apostol (now lost), which became a critical and commercial success. it was followed by cristiani's sin dejar rastros in 1918, but one day after its premiere, the film was confiscated by the government. after working on it for three years, lotte reiniger released the

german feature-length silhouette animation die abenteuer des prinzen achmed in 1926, the oldest extant animated feature. in 1937, walt disney studios premiered their first animated feature, snow white and the seven dwarfs, still one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features . the fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 with gulliver's travels with some success. partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the second world war, disney's next features pinocchio, fantasia (both 1940) and fleischer studios' second animated feature mr. bug goes to town (19411942) failed at the box office. for decades afterward, disney would be the only american studio to regularly produce animated features, until ralph bakshi became the first to also release more than a handful features. sullivan-bluth studios

began to regularly produce animated features starting with an american tail in 1986. although relatively few titles became as successful as disney's features, other countries developed their own animation industries that produced both short and feature theatrical animations in a wide variety of styles, relatively often including stop motion and cutout animation techniques. russia's soyuzmultfilm animation studio, founded in 1936, produced 20 films (including shorts) per year on average and reached 1,582 titles in 2018. china, czechoslovakia / czech republic, italy, france, and belgium were other countries that more than occasionally released feature films, while japan became a true powerhouse of animation production, with its own recognizable and influential anime style of effective limited animation. television animation

became very popular on television since the 1950s, when television sets started to become common in most developed countries. cartoons were mainly programmed for children, on convenient time slots, and especially us youth spent many hours watching saturday-morning cartoons. many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen and by the end of the 1950s, the production of new animated cartoons started to shift from theatrical releases to tv series. hanna-barbera productions was especially prolific and had huge hit series, such as the flintstones (19601966) (the first prime time animated series), scooby-doo (since 1969) and belgian co-production the smurfs (19811989). the constraints of american television programming and the demand for an enormous quantity resulted in cheaper and quicker limited animation

methods and much more formulaic scripts. quality dwindled until more daring animation surfaced in the late 1980s and in the early 1990s with hit series such as the simpsons (since 1989) as part of a "renaissance" of american animation. while us animated series also spawned successes internationally, many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming, relatively often preferring stop motion and puppetry over cel animation. japanese anime tv series became very successful internationally since the 1960s, and european producers looking for affordable cel animators relatively often started co-productions with japanese studios, resulting in hit series such as barbapapa (the netherlands/japan/france 19731977), wickie und die starken manner/ (vicky the viking) (austria/germany/japan 1974), and the jungle

book (italy/japan 1989). switch from cels to computers computer animation was gradually developed since the 1940s. 3d wireframe animation started popping up in the mainstream in the 1970s, with an early (short) appearance in the sci-fi thriller futureworld (1976). the rescuers down under was the first feature film to be completely created digitally without a camera. it was produced in a style that's very similar to traditional cel animation on the computer animation production system (caps), developed by the walt disney company in collaboration with pixar in the late 1980s. the so-called 3d style, more often associated with computer animation, has become extremely popular since pixar's toy story (1995), the first computer-animated feature in this style. most of the cel animation studios switched to producing

mostly computer animated films around the 1990s, as it proved cheaper and more profitable. not only the very popular 3d animation style was generated with computers, but also most of the films and series with a more traditional hand-crafted appearance, in which the charming characteristics of cel animation could be emulated with software, while new digital tools helped developing new styles and effects. economic status in 2008, the animation market was worth us$68.4 billion. animated feature-length films returned the highest gross margins (around 52%) of all film genres between 2004 and 2013. animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the early 2020s. education, propaganda and commercials the clarity of animation makes it a powerful tool for instruction, while its total malleability also allows

exaggeration that can be employed to convey strong emotions and to thwart reality. it has therefore been widely used for other purposes than mere entertainment. during world war ii, animation was widely exploited for propaganda. many american studios, including warner bros. and disney, lent their talents and their cartoon characters to convey to the public certain war values. some countries, including china, japan and the united kingdom, produced their first feature-length animation for their war efforts. animation has been very popular in television commercials, both due to its graphic appeal, and the humour it can provide. some animated characters in commercials have survived for decades, such as snap, crackle and pop in advertisements for kellogg's cereals. the legendary animation director tex avery was

the producer of the first raid "kills bugs dead" commercials in 1966, which were very successful for the company. other media, merchandise and theme parks apart from their success in movie theaters and television series, many cartoon characters would also prove extremely lucrative when licensed for all kinds of merchandise and for other media. animation has traditionally been very closely related to comic books. while many comic book characters found their way to the screen (which is often the case in japan, where many manga are adapted into anime), original animated characters also commonly appear in comic books and magazines. somewhat similarly, characters and plots for video games (an interactive animation medium) have been derived from films and vice versa. some of the original content produced for the

screen can be used and marketed in other media. stories and images can easily be adapted into children's books and other printed media. songs and music have appeared on records and as streaming media. while very many animation companies commercially exploit their creations outside moving image media, the walt disney company is the best known and most extreme example. since first being licensed for a children's writing tablet in 1929, their mickey mouse mascot has been depicted on an enormous amount of products, as have many other disney characters. this may have influenced some pejorative use of mickey's name, but licensed disney products sell well, and the so-called disneyana has many avid collectors, and even a dedicated disneyana fanclub (since 1984). disneyland opened in 1955 and features many attractions

that were based on disney's cartoon characters. its enormous success spawned several other disney theme parks and resorts. disney's earnings from the theme parks have relatively often been higher than those from their movies. criticism criticism of animation has been common in media and cinema since its inception. with its popularity, a large amount of criticism has arisen, especially animated feature-length films. many concerns of cultural representation, psychological effects on children have been brought up around the animation industry, which has remained rather politically unchanged and stagnant since its inception into mainstream culture. awards as with any other form of media, animation has instituted awards for excellence in the field. the original awards for animation were presented by the academy

of motion picture arts and sciences for animated shorts from the year 1932, during the 5th academy awards function. the first winner of the academy award was the short flowers and trees, a production by walt disney productions. the academy award for a feature-length animated motion picture was only instituted for the year 2001, and awarded during the 74th academy awards in 2002. it was won by the film shrek, produced by dreamworks and pacific data images. disney animation and pixar has produced the most films either to win or be nominated for the award. beauty and the beast was the first animated film nominated for best picture. up and toy story 3 also received best picture nominations after the academy expanded the number of nominees from five to ten. academy award for best animated feature academy award for

best animated short film several other countries have instituted an award for the best-animated feature film as part of their national film awards: africa movie academy award for best animation (since 2008), bafta award for best animated film (since 2006), cesar award for best animated film (since 2011), golden rooster award for best animation (since 1981), goya award for best animated film (since 1989), japan academy prize for animation of the year (since 2007), national film award for best animated film (since 2006). also since 2007, the asia pacific screen award for best animated feature film has been awarded at the asia pacific screen awards. since 2009, the european film awards have awarded the european film award for best animated film. the annie award is another award presented for excellence in the

field of animation. unlike the academy awards, the annie awards are only received for achievements in the field of animation and not for any other field of technical and artistic endeavour. they were re-organized in 1992 to create a new field for best animated feature. the 1990s winners were dominated by walt disney; however, newer studios, led by pixar & dreamworks, have now begun to consistently vie for this award. the list of awardees is as follows: annie award for best animated feature annie award for best animated short subject annie award for best animated television production production the creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of filmmaking, with certain unique aspects. traits common to both live-action and animated feature-length films

are labor intensity and high production costs. the most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase, the marginal cost of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films. it is relatively easy for a director to ask for one more take during principal photography of a live-action film, but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators (although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation). it is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film. thus, animation studios starting with disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments

where storyboard artists develop every single scene through storyboards, then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense as a whole. while live-action films are now also storyboarded, they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation). another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film. since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated

films. it is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult. this problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before the animation begins. character designers on the visual development team draw model sheets to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles. on traditionally animated projects, maquettes were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles. unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would

then receive credit for writing the film. in the early 1960s, animation studios began hiring professional screenwriters to write screenplays (while also continuing to use story departments) and screenplays had become commonplace for animated films by the late 1980s. techniques traditional traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. the individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper. to create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. the animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels, which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings.

the completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a rostrum camera onto motion picture film. the traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. today, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system. various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects. the final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional 35mm film and newer media with digital video. the "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the character animators' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years. some animation producers have used the term "tradigital" (a play on the words "traditional" and

"digital") to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology. examples of traditionally animated feature films include pinocchio (united states, 1940), animal farm (united kingdom, 1954), lucky and zorba (italy, 1998), and the illusionist (british-french, 2010). traditionally animated films produced with the aid of computer technology include the lion king (us, 1994), the prince of egypt (us, 1998), akira (japan, 1988), spirited away (japan, 2001), the triplets of belleville (france, 2003), and the secret of kells (irish-french-belgian, 2009). full full animation refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement, having a smooth animation. fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more

realistically animated works like those produced by the walt disney studio (the little mermaid, beauty and the beast, aladdin, the lion king) to the more 'cartoon' styles of the warner bros. animation studio. many of the disney animated features are examples of full animation, as are non-disney works, the secret of nimh (us, 1982), the iron giant (us, 1999), and nocturna (spain, 2007). fully animated films are animated at 24 frames per second, with a combination of animation on ones and twos, meaning that drawings can be held for one frame out of 24 or two frames out of 24. limited limited animation involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation. limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity

of the animation. this is a more economic technique. pioneered by the artists at the american studio united productions of america, limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in gerald mcboing-boing (us, 1951), yellow submarine (uk, 1968), and certain anime produced in japan. its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of hanna-barbera, filmation, and other tv animation studios) and later the internet (web cartoons). rotoscoping rotoscoping is a technique patented by max fleischer in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame. the source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings, as in the lord of the rings (us, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive

manner, as in waking life (us, 2001) and a scanner darkly (us, 2006). some other examples are fire and ice (us, 1983), heavy metal (1981), and aku no hana (japan, 2013). live-action blending live-action/animation is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live-action actors into animated shots. one of the earlier uses was in koko the clown when koko was drawn over live-action footage. walt disney and ub iwerks created a series of alice comedies (19231927), in which a live-action girl enters an animated world. other examples include allegro non troppo (italy, 1976), who framed roger rabbit (us, 1988), volere volare (italy 1991), space jam (us, 1996) and osmosis jones (us, 2001). stop motion stop-motion animation is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating

real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement. there are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the medium used to create the animation. computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop-motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation. puppet animation typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation. the puppets generally have an armature inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints. examples include the tale of the fox (france, 1937), the nightmare before christmas (us, 1993), corpse

bride (us, 2005), coraline (us, 2009), the films of jiri trnka and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series robot chicken (us, 2005present). puppetoon created using techniques developed by george pal, are puppet-animated films that typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than simply manipulating one existing puppet. clay animation or plasticine animation (often called claymation, which, however, is a trademarked name). it uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation. the figures may have an armature or wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures. alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of bruce bickford, where clay creatures

morph into a variety of different shapes. examples of clay-animated works include the gumby show (us, 19571967), mio mao (italy, 19742005), morph shorts (uk, 19772000), wallace and gromit shorts (uk, as of 1989), jan svankmajer's dimensions of dialogue (czechoslovakia, 1982), the trap door (uk, 1984). films include wallace & gromit: the curse of the were-rabbit, chicken run and the adventures of mark twain. strata-cut animation most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like "loaf" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within. cutout animation a type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional

pieces of material paper or cloth. examples include terry gilliam's animated sequences from monty python's flying circus (uk, 19691974); fantastic planet (france/czechoslovakia, 1973); tale of tales (russia, 1979), the pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of south park (us, 1997) and the music video live for the moment, from verona riots band (produced by alberto serrano and nivola uya, spain 2014). silhouette animation a variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes. examples include the adventures of prince achmed (weimar republic, 1926) and princes et princesses (france, 2000). model animation refers to stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world. intercutting, matte

effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings. examples include the work of ray harryhausen, as seen in films, jason and the argonauts (1963), and the work of willis h. o'brien on films, king kong (1933). go motion a variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create motion blur between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop motion. the technique was invented by industrial light & magic and phil tippett to create special effect scenes for the film the empire strikes back (1980). another example is the dragon named "vermithrax" from the 1981 film dragonslayer. object animation refers to the use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items. graphic animation

uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame by frame to create movement. at other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action. brickfilm a subgenre of object animation involving using lego or other similar brick toys to make an animation. these have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, youtube and the availability of cheap cameras and animation software. pixilation involves the use of live humans as stop-motion characters. this allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects. examples of pixilation include the secret

adventures of tom thumb and angry kid shorts, and the academy award-winning neighbours by norman mclaren. computer computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer. 2d animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3d techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact. 3d animation can create images that seem real to the viewer. 2d 2d animation figures are created or edited on the computer using 2d bitmap graphics and 2d vector graphics. this includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques, interpolated morphing, onion skinning and interpolated rotoscoping. 2d animation has many applications, including analog computer animation, flash animation,

and powerpoint animation. cinemagraphs are still photographs in the form of an animated gif file of which part is animated. final line advection animation is a technique used in 2d animation, to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department. speaking about using this approach in paperman, john kahrs said that "our animators can change things, actually erase away the cg underlayer if they want, and change the profile of the arm." 3d 3d animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. the 3d model maker usually starts by creating a 3d polygon mesh for the animator to manipulate. a mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3d object or 3d

environment. sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an armature that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices. this process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with key frames to create movement. other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and water simulations. these techniques fall under the category of 3d dynamics. terms cel-shaded animation is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software. the shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. examples include skyland (2007, france), the iron giant (1999, united states), futurama (1999, united states) appleseed ex machina (2007, japan), the legend of zelda: the wind waker (2002, japan),

the legend of zelda: breath of the wild (2017, japan) machinima films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. the term originated from the software introduction in the 1980s demoscene, as well as the 1990s recordings of the first-person shooter video game quake. motion capture is used when live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy their movements into cg characters. examples include polar express (2004, us), beowulf (2007, us), a christmas carol (2009, us), the adventures of tintin (2011, us) kochadiiyan (2014, india) computer animation is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life, using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc. examples include up (2009, us), how to train your dragon (2010, us)

physically based animation is animation using computer simulations. mechanical animatronics is the use of mechatronics to create machines that seem animate rather than robotic. audio-animatronics and autonomatronics is a form of robotics animation, combined with 3-d animation, created by walt disney imagineering for shows and attractions at disney theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song). they are fixed to whatever supports them. they can sit and stand, and they cannot walk. an audio-animatron is different from an android-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. in 2009, disney created an interactive version of the technology called autonomatronics. linear animation generator is a form of animation by using static

picture frames installed in a tunnel or a shaft. the animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion, parallel to the installed picture frames. the concept and the technical solution were invented in 2007 by mihai girlovan in romania. chuckimation is a type of animation created by the makers of the television series action league now! in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands. the magic lantern used mechanical slides to project moving images, probably since christiaan huygens invented this early image projector in 1659. other hydrotechnics: a technique that includes lights, water, fire, fog, and lasers, with high-definition projections on mist screens. drawn on film animation: a technique where footage is

produced by creating the images directly on film stock; for example, by norman mclaren, len lye and stan brakhage. paint-on-glass animation: a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying oil paints on sheets of glass, for example by aleksandr petrov. erasure animation: a technique using traditional 2d media, photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image. for example, william kentridge is famous for his charcoal erasure films, and piotr dumaa for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster. pinscreen animation: makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen. the screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. the technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects

difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation. sand animation: sand is moved around on a back- or front-lighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film. this creates an interesting effect when animated because of the light contrast. flip book: a flip book (sometimes, especially in british english, called a flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change. flip books are often illustrated books for children, they also are geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. flip books are not always separate books, they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners.

software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books. character animation multi-sketching special effects animation see also twelve basic principles of animation animated war film animation department animated series architectural animation avar independent animation international animation day international animated film association international tournee of animation list of film-related topics motion graphic design society for animation studies wire-frame model references citations sources journal articles books online sources external links the making of an 8-minute cartoon short "animando", a 12-minute film demonstrating 10 different animation techniques (and teaching how to use them). bibliography on animation websiite

apollo is one of the olympian deities in classical greek and roman religion and greek and roman mythology. the national divinity of the greeks, apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, music and dance, truth and prophecy, healing and diseases, the sun and light, poetry, and more. one of the most important and complex of the greek gods, he is the son of zeus and leto, and the twin brother of artemis, goddess of the hunt. seen as the most beautiful god and the ideal of the kouros (ephebe, or a beardless, athletic youth), apollo is considered to be the most greek of all the gods. apollo is known in greek-influenced etruscan mythology as apulu. as the patron deity of delphi (apollo pythios), apollo is an oracular godthe prophetic deity of the delphic oracle. apollo is the god who affords help and wards off

evil; various epithets call him the "averter of evil". delphic apollo is the patron of seafarers, foreigners and the protector of fugitives and refugees. medicine and healing are associated with apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son asclepius. apollo delivered people from epidemics, yet he is also a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague with his arrows. the invention of archery itself is credited to apollo and his sister artemis. apollo is usually described as carrying a golden bow and a quiver of silver arrows. apollo's capacity to make youths grow is one of the best attested facets of his panhellenic cult persona. as the protector of young (kourotrophos), apollo is concerned with the health and education of children. he presided over their passage into adulthood. long

hair, which was the prerogative of boys, was cut at the coming of age (ephebeia) and dedicated to apollo. apollo is an important pastoral deity, and was the patron of herdsmen and shepherds. protection of herds, flocks and crops from diseases, pests and predators were his primary duties. on the other hand, apollo also encouraged founding new towns and establishment of civil constitution. he is associated with dominion over colonists. he was the giver of laws, and his oracles were consulted before setting laws in a city. as the god of mousike, apollo presides over all music, songs, dance and poetry. he is the inventor of string-music, and the frequent companion of the muses, functioning as their chorus leader in celebrations. the lyre is a common attribute of apollo. in hellenistic times, especially during the

5th century bce, as apollo helios he became identified among greeks with helios, the personification of the sun. in latin texts, however, there was no conflation of apollo with sol among the classical latin poets until 1st century ce. apollo and helios/sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 5th century ce. etymology apollo (attic, ionic, and homeric greek: , apollon ( ); doric: , apellon; arcadocypriot: , apeilon; aeolic: , aploun; ) the name apollounlike the related older name paeanis generally not found in the linear b (mycenean greek) texts, although there is a possible attestation in the lacunose form ]pe-rjo-[ (linear b: ]-[) on the kn e 842 tablet, though it has also been suggested that the name might actually read "hyperion" ([u]-pe-rjo-[ne]). the etymology of the

name is uncertain. the spelling ( in classical attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the doric form, apellon (), is more archaic, as it is derived from an earlier . it probably is a cognate to the doric month apellaios (), and the offerings apellaia () at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai (). according to some scholars, the words are derived from the doric word apella (), which originally meant "wall," "fence for animals" and later "assembly within the limits of the square." apella () is the name of the popular assembly in sparta, corresponding to the ecclesia (). r. s. p. beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun apellai and suggested a pre-greek proto-form *apalyun. several instances of popular etymology are attested

from ancient authors. thus, the greeks most often associated apollo's name with the greek verb (apollymi), "to destroy". plato in cratylus connects the name with (apolysis), "redemption", with (apolousis), "purification", and with ([h]aploun), "simple", in particular in reference to the thessalian form of the name, , and finally with (aeiballon), "ever-shooting". hesychius connects the name apollo with the doric (apella), which means "assembly", so that apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation (sekos), "fold", in which case apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. in the ancient macedonian language (pella) means "stone," and some toponyms may be derived from this word: (pella, the capital of ancient macedonia) and (pellene/pellene). a number of non-greek etymologies have

been suggested for the name, the hittite form apaliunas (d) is attested in the manapa-tarhunta letter. the hittite testimony reflects an early form , which may also be surmised from comparison of cypriot with doric . the name of the lydian god qdans /kans/ may reflect an earlier /kalyan-/ before palatalization, syncope, and the pre-lydian sound change *y > d. note the labiovelar in place of the labial /p/ found in pre-doric j and hittite apaliunas. a luwian etymology suggested for apaliunas makes apollo "the one of entrapment", perhaps in the sense of "hunter". greco-roman epithets apollo's chief epithet was phoebus ( ; , phoibos ), literally "bright". it was very commonly used by both the greeks and romans for apollo's role as the god of light. like other greek deities, he had a number of others applied to

him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. however, while apollo has a great number of appellations in greek myth, only a few occur in latin literature. sun aegletes ( ; , aigletes), from , "light of the sun" helius ( ; , helios), literally "sun" lyceus ( ; , lykeios, from proto-greek *), "light". the meaning of the epithet "lyceus" later became associated with apollo's mother leto, who was the patron goddess of lycia () and who was identified with the wolf (). phanaeus ( ; , phanaios), literally "giving or bringing light" phoebus ( ; , phoibos), literally "bright", his most commonly used epithet by both the greeks and romans sol (roman) (), "sun" in latin wolf lycegenes ( ; , lukegenes), literally "born of a wolf" or "born of lycia" lycoctonus ( ; , lykoktonos), from ,

"wolf", and , "to kill" origin and birth apollo's birthplace was mount cynthus on the island of delos. cynthius ( ; , kunthios), literally "cynthian" cynthogenes ( ; , kynthogenes), literally "born of cynthus" delius ( ; , delios), literally "delian" didymaeus ( ; , didymaios) from , "twin", as the twin of artemis place of worship delphi and actium were his primary places of worship. acraephius ( ; , akraiphios, literally "acraephian") or acraephiaeus ( ; , akraiphiaios), "acraephian", from the boeotian town of acraephia (), reputedly founded by his son acraepheus. actiacus ( ; , aktiakos), literally "actian", after actium () delphinius ( ; , delphinios), literally "delphic", after delphi (). an etiology in the homeric hymns associated this with dolphins. epactaeus, meaning "god worshipped on the coast",

in samos. pythius ( ; , puthios, from , pytho), from the region around delphi smintheus ( ; , smintheus), "sminthian"that is, "of the town of sminthos or sminthe" near the troad town of hamaxitus napaian apollo ( ), from the city of nape at the island of lesbos healing and disease acesius ( ; , akesios), from , "healing". acesius was the epithet of apollo worshipped in elis, where he had a temple in the agora. acestor ( ; , akestor), literally "healer" culicarius (roman) ( ), from latin culicarius, "of midges" iatrus ( ; , iatros), literally "physician" medicus (roman) ( ), "physician" in latin. a temple was dedicated to apollo medicus at rome, probably next to the temple of bellona. paean ( ; , paian), physician, healer parnopius ( ; , parnopios), from , "locust" founder and protector agyieus ( ; , aguieus),

from , "street", for his role in protecting roads and homes alexicacus ( ; , alexikakos), literally "warding off evil" apotropaeus ( ; , apotropaios), from , "to avert" archegetes ( ; , arkhegetes), literally "founder" averruncus (roman) ( ; from latin averruncare), "to avert" clarius ( ; , klarios), from doric , "allotted lot" epicurius ( ; , epikourios), from , "to aid" genetor ( ; , genetor), literally "ancestor" nomius ( ; , nomios), literally "pastoral" nymphegetes ( ; , numphegetes), from , "nymph", and , "leader", for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life patroos from , "related to one's father," for his role as father of ion and founder of the ionians, as worshipped at the temple of apollo patroos in athens sauroctunos, lizard killer, possibly a reference to his killing of python prophecy

and truth coelispex (roman) ( ), from latin coelum, "sky", and specere "to look at" iatromantis ( ; , iatromantis,) from , "physician", and , "prophet", referring to his role as a god both of healing and of prophecy leschenorius ( ; , leskhenorios), from , "converser" loxias ( ; , loxias), from , "to say", historically associated with , "ambiguous" manticus ( ; , mantikos), literally "prophetic" proopsios (), meaning "foreseer" or "first seen" music and arts musagetes ( ; doric , mousagetas), from , "muse", and "leader" musegetes ( ; , mousegetes), as the preceding archery aphetor ( ; , aphetor), from , "to let loose" aphetorus ( ; , aphetoros), as the preceding arcitenens (roman) ( ), literally "bow-carrying" argyrotoxus ( ; , argyrotoxos), literally "with silver bow" clytotoxus ( ; , klytotoxos), "he who

is famous for his bow", the renowned archer. hecaergus ( ; , hekaergos), literally "far-shooting" hecebolus ( ; , hekebolos), "far-shooting" ismenius ( ; , ismenios), literally "of ismenus", after ismenus, the son of amphion and niobe, whom he struck with an arrow amazons amazonius (), pausanias at the description of greece writes that near pyrrhichus there was a sanctuary of apollo, called amazonius () with image of the god said to have been dedicated by the amazons. celtic epithets and cult titles apollo was worshipped throughout the roman empire. in the traditionally celtic lands, he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. he was often equated with celtic gods of similar character. apollo atepomarus ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). apollo was worshipped at mauvieres (indre). horses

were, in the celtic world, closely linked to the sun. apollo belenus ("bright" or "brilliant"). this epithet was given to apollo in parts of gaul, northern italy and noricum (part of modern austria). apollo belenus was a healing and sun god. apollo cunomaglus ("hound lord"). a title given to apollo at a shrine at nettleton shrub, wiltshire. may have been a god of healing. cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. apollo grannus. grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with apollo. apollo maponus. a god known from inscriptions in britain. this may be a local fusion of apollo and maponus. apollo moritasgus ("masses of sea water"). an epithet for apollo at alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. apollo vindonnus ("clear light").

apollo vindonnus had a temple at essarois, near chatillon-sur-seine in present-day burgundy. he was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. apollo virotutis ("benefactor of mankind"). apollo virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at fins d'annecy (haute-savoie) and at jublains (maine-et-loire). origins the cult centers of apollo in greece, delphi and delos, date from the 8th century bce. the delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to artemis, apollo's twin sister. at delphi, apollo was venerated as the slayer of the monstrous serpent python. for the greeks, apollo was the most greek of all the gods, and through the centuries he acquired different functions. in archaic greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with "healing". in classical greece he was the god of

light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil. walter burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of apollo worship, which he termed "a dorian-northwest greek component, a cretan-minoan component, and a syro-hittite component." healer and god-protector from evil in classical times, his major function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and he was therefore called "apotropaios" (, "averting evil") and "alexikakos" ( "keeping off ill"; from v. + n. ). apollo also had many epithets relating to his function as a healer. some commonly-used examples are "paion" ( literally "healer" or "helper") "epikourios" (, "succouring"), "oulios" (, "healer, baleful") and "loimios" (, "of the plague"). in later writers, the word, "paion", usually spelled "paean", becomes

a mere epithet of apollo in his capacity as a god of healing. apollo in his aspect of "healer" has a connection to the primitive god paean (), who did not have a cult of his own. paean serves as the healer of the gods in the iliad, and seems to have originated in a pre-greek religion. it is suggested, though unconfirmed, that he is connected to the mycenaean figure pa-ja-wo-ne (linear b: ). paean was the personification of holy songs sung by "seer-doctors" (), which were supposed to cure disease. homer illustrated paeon the god and the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph. such songs were originally addressed to apollo and afterwards to other gods: to dionysus, to apollo helios, to apollo's son asclepius the healer. about the 4th century bce, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object

was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. it was in this way that apollo had become recognized as the god of music. apollo's role as the slayer of the python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won. in the iliad, apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the vedic god of disease rudra. he sends a plague () to the achaeans. knowing that apollo can prevent a recurrence of the plague he sent, they purify themselves in a ritual and offer him a large sacrifice

of cows, called a hecatomb. dorian origin the homeric hymn to apollo depicts apollo as an intruder from the north. the connection with the northern-dwelling dorians and their initiation festival apellai is reinforced by the month apellaios in northwest greek calendars. the family-festival was dedicated to apollo (doric: ). apellaios is the month of these rites, and apellon is the "megistos kouros" (the great kouros). however it can explain only the doric type of the name, which is connected with the ancient macedonian word "pella" (pella), stone. stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of delphi (omphalos). minoan origin george huxley regarded the identification of apollo with the minoan deity paiawon, worshipped in crete, to have originated at delphi. in the

homeric hymn, apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried cretan priests to delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. apollo delphinios or delphidios was a sea-god especially worshipped in crete and in the islands. apollo's sister artemis, who was the greek goddess of hunting, is identified with britomartis (diktynna), the minoan "mistress of the animals". in her earliest depictions she was accompanied by the "master of the animals", a bow-wielding god of hunting whose name has been lost; aspects of this figure may have been absorbed into the more popular apollo. anatolian origin a non-greek origin of apollo has long been assumed in scholarship. the name of apollo's mother leto has lydian origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of asia minor. the inspiration oracular cult was probably

introduced into greece from anatolia, which is the origin of sibyl, and where some of the oldest oracular shrines originated. omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old assyro-babylonian texts. these rituals were spread into the empire of the hittites, and from there into greece. homer pictures apollo on the side of the trojans, fighting against the achaeans, during the trojan war. he is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the greeks than other gods. the god seems to be related to appaliunas, a tutelary god of wilusa (troy) in asia minor, but the word is not complete. the stones found in front of the gates of homeric troy were the symbols of apollo. a western anatolian origin may also be bolstered by references to the parallel worship of artimus (artemis) and qdans, whose name may be

cognate with the hittite and doric forms, in surviving lydian texts. however, recent scholars have cast doubt on the identification of qdans with apollo. the greeks gave to him the name agyieus as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil and his symbol was a tapered stone or column. however, while usually greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (sibutu) indicates a babylonian origin. the late bronze age (from 1700 to 1200 bce) hittite and hurrian aplu was a god of plague, invoked during plague years. here we have an apotropaic situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. aplu, meaning the son of, was a title given to the god nergal, who

was linked to the babylonian god of the sun shamash. homer interprets apollo as a terrible god () who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other greek gods. in iliad, his priest prays to apollo smintheus, the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats. all these functions, including the function of the healer-god paean, who seems to have mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of apollo. proto-indo-european the vedic rudra has some similar functions with apollo. the terrible god is called "the archer" and the bow is also an attribute of shiva. rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them and his alternative shiva is a healer physician god. however the

indo-european component of apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult. oracular cult unusually among the olympic deities, apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: delos and delphi. in cult practice, delian apollo and pythian apollo (the apollo of delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. lycia was sacred to the god, for this apollo was also called lycian. apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 bce. apollo became extremely important to the greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as apollodorus or apollonios and cities named apollonia testify to his popularity. oracular sanctuaries to apollo were established

in other sites. in the 2nd and 3rd century ce, those at didyma and claros pronounced the so-called "theological oracles", in which apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. "in the 3rd century, apollo fell silent. julian the apostate (359361) tried to revive the delphic oracle, but failed." oracular shrines apollo had a famous oracle in delphi, and other notable ones in claros and didyma. his oracular shrine in abae in phocis, where he bore the toponymic epithet abaeus (, apollon abaios), was important enough to be consulted by croesus. his oracular shrines include: abae in phocis. bassae in the peloponnese. at clarus, on the west coast of asia minor; as at delphi a holy spring which gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank. in corinth, the oracle

of corinth came from the town of tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the trojan war. at khyrse, in troad, the temple was built for apollo smintheus. in delos, there was an oracle to the delian apollo, during summer. the hieron (sanctuary) of apollo adjacent to the sacred lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. in delphi, the pythia became filled with the pneuma of apollo, said to come from a spring inside the adyton. in didyma, an oracle on the coast of anatolia, south west of lydian (luwian) sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. was believed to have been founded by branchus, son or lover of apollo. in hierapolis bambyce, syria (modern manbij), according to the treatise de dea syria,

the sanctuary of the syrian goddess contained a robed and bearded image of apollo. divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image. at patara, in lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from delos. as at delphi the oracle at patara was a woman. in segesta in sicily. oracles were also given by sons of apollo. in oropus, north of athens, the oracle amphiaraus, was said to be the son of apollo; oropus also had a sacred spring. in labadea, east of delphi, trophonius, another son of apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle. temples of apollo many temples were dedicated to apollo in greece and the greek colonies. they show the spread of the cult of apollo and the evolution of the

greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form and on mathematical relations. some of the earliest temples, especially in crete, do not belong to any greek order. it seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangular wooden structures. the different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of doric order. the greeks used standard types because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. the temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve this esthetic perfection. from the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. the first buildings were built narrowly

in order to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed some mathematical relations became necessary in order to keep the original forms. this probably influenced the theory of numbers of pythagoras, who believed that behind the appearance of things there was the permanent principle of mathematics. the doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century bc but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn't be solved without changing the original forms. the order was almost abandoned for the ionic order, but the ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. both orders were abandoned for the corinthian order gradually during the hellenistic age and under rome. the most important temples are: greek temples thebes, greece: the oldest

temple probably dedicated to apollo ismenius was built in the 9th century b.c. it seems that it was a curvilinear building. the doric temple was built in the early 7th century b.c., but only some small parts have been found a festival called daphnephoria was celebrated every ninth year in honour of apollo ismenius (or galaxius). the people held laurel branches (daphnai), and at the head of the procession walked a youth (chosen priest of apollo), who was called "daphnephoros". eretria: according to the homeric hymn to apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. the first temple of apollo daphnephoros, "apollo, laurel-bearer", or "carrying off daphne", is dated to 800 b.c. the temple was curvilinear hecatombedon (a hundred feet). in a smaller building were kept the bases

of the laurel branches which were used for the first building. another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century b.c., with an inner row of wooden columns over its geometric predecessor. it was rebuilt peripteral around 510 b.c., with the stylobate measuring 21,00 x 43,00 m. the number of pteron column was 6 x 14. dreros (crete). the temple of apollo delphinios dates from the 7th century b.c., or probably from the middle of the 8th century b.c. according to the legend, apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried cretan priests to the port of delphi. the dimensions of the plan are 10,70 x 24,00 m and the building was not peripteral. it contains column-bases of the minoan type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the doric columns. gortyn (crete). a temple of pythian apollo, was built in

the 7th century b.c. the plan measured 19,00 x 16,70 m and it was not peripteral. the walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side. thermon (west greece): the doric temple of apollo thermios, was built in the middle of the 7th century b.c. it was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century b.c., on which a peristyle was added. the temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 x 15. there was a single row of inner columns. it measures 12.13 x 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones. corinth: a doric temple was built in the 6th century b.c. the temple's stylobate measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. there was a double row of inner columns. the style is similar with

the temple of alcmeonidae at delphi. the corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the doric order. napes (lesbos): an aeolic temple probably of apollo napaios was built in the 7th century b.c. some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called aeolic, and it seems that they were borrowed from the east. cyrene, libya: the oldest doric temple of apollo was built in c. 600 b.c. the number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 x 30.05 m at the stylobate. there was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. the capitals were made from stone. naukratis: an ionic temple was built in the early 6th century b.c. only some fragments have been found and the earlier, made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the ionic order. syracuse, sicily: a

doric temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century b.c. the temple's stylobate measures 21.47 x 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. it was the first temple in greek west built completely out of stone. a second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch. selinus (sicily):the doric temple c dates from 550 b.c., and it was probably dedicated to apollo. the temple's stylobate measures 10.48 x 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. there was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at syracuse. delphi: the first temple dedicated to apollo, was built in the 7th century b.c. according to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. the "temple of alcmeonidae" was built in c. 513 b.c. and it is the oldest doric temple

with significant marble elements. the temple's stylobate measures 21.65 x 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15. a fest similar with apollo's fest at thebes, greece was celebrated every nine years. a boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (dopnephoros). the maidens participated with joyful songs. chios: an ionic temple of apollo phanaios was built at the end of the 6th century b.c. only some small parts have been found and the capitals had floral ornament. abae (phocis). the temple was destroyed by the persians in the invasion of xerxes in 480 b.c., and later by the boeotians. it was rebuilt by hadrian. the oracle was in use from early mycenaean times to the roman period, and shows the continuity of mycenaean and classical greek religion.