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4188464

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945%20Balochistan%20earthquake

1945 Balochistan earthquake

The 1945 Balochistan earthquake () occurred in British India at 1:26 PKT on 28 November 1945 with a moment magnitude of 8.1 and a maximum perceived intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. Earthquake The earthquake's epicenter was 97.6 kilometers south-southwest of Pasni in Balochistan and a tsunami caused damage along the Makran coastal region. Deaths from the event were reported to be at least 300 and as many as 4,000 people. Another very large earthquake (7.3 ) occurred in nearly the same location on August 5, 1947, but not much is known about the event or its effects. See also List of earthquakes in 1945 List of earthquakes in Pakistan References Sources Further reading External links Earthquake and Tsunami of 28 November 1945 in Southern Pakistan – George Pararas-Carayannis Search for Eyewitness Accounts and Historical Documents on 1945 Makran Tsunami – UNESCO 1945 Balochistan 1945 Balochistan History of Balochistan Balochistan 1945 Balochistan November 1945 events in Asia 1945 in British India 1945 disasters in Asia

4194548

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1935%20Quetta%20earthquake

1935 Quetta earthquake

An earthquake occurred on 31 May 1935 between 2:30 am and 3:40 am at Quetta, Balochistan, British India (now part of Pakistan), close to the border with southern Afghanistan. The earthquake had a magnitude of 7.7 and anywhere between 30,000 and 60,000 people died from the impact. It was recorded as the deadliest earthquake to strike South Asia until 2005. The quake was centred 4 km south-west of Ali Jaan, Balochistan, British India. Quetta and its neighbouring towns lie in the most active seismic region of Pakistan atop the Chaman and Chiltan faults. Movement on the Chaman Fault resulted in an earthquake early in the morning on 31 May 1935 estimated anywhere between the hours of 2:33 am and 3:40 am which lasted for three minutes with continuous aftershocks. Although there were no instruments good enough to precisely measure the magnitude of the earthquake, modern estimates cite the magnitude as being a minimum of 7.7 and previous estimates of 8.1 are now regarded as an overestimate. The epicentre of the quake was established to be 4-kilometres south-west of the town of Ali Jaan in Balochistan, some 153-kilometres away from Quetta in British India. The earthquake caused destruction in almost all the towns close to Quetta, including the city itself, and tremors were felt as far as Agra, now in India. The largest aftershock was later measured at 5.8 occurring on 2 June 1935. The aftershock, however, did not cause any damage in Quetta, but the towns of Mastung, Maguchar and Kalat were seriously affected. Aftermath Casualties Most of the reported casualties occurred in the city of Quetta. Initial communiqué drafts issued by the government estimated a total of 25,000 people buried under the rubble, 10,000 survivors and 4,000 injured. The city was badly damaged and was immediately prepared to be sealed under military guard with medical advice. All the villages between Quetta and Kalat were destroyed, and the British feared casualties would be higher in surrounding towns; it was later estimated to be nowhere close to the damage caused in Quetta. Infrastructure was severely damaged. The railway area was destroyed and all the houses were razed to the ground with the exception of the Government House that stood in ruins. A quarter of the Cantonment area was destroyed, with military equipment and the Royal Air Force garrison suffering serious damage. It was reported that only 6 out of the 27 machines worked after the initial seismic activity. A Regimental Journal for the 1st Battalion of the Queen's Royal Regiment based in Quetta issued in November 1935 stated, It is not possible to describe the state of the city when the battalion first saw it. It was razed to the ground. Corpses were lying everywhere in the hot sun and every available vehicle in Quetta was being used for the transportation of injured … Companies were given areas in which to clear the dead and injured. Battalion Headquarters were established at the Residency. Hardly had we commenced our work than we were called upon to supply a party of fifty men, which were later increased to a hundred, to dig graves in the cemetery. Rescue efforts Tremendous losses were incurred on the city in the days following the event, with many people buried beneath the debris still alive. British Army regiments were among those assisting in rescue efforts, with Lance-Sergeant Alfred Lungley of the 24th Mountain Brigade earning the Empire Gallantry Medal for highest gallantry. In total, eight Albert Medals, nine Empire Gallantry Medals and five British Empire Medals for Meritorious Service were awarded for the rescue effort, most to British and Indian soldiers. The weather did not help, and the scorching summer heat made matters worse. Bodies of European and Anglo-Indians were recovered and buried in a British cemetery where soldiers had dug trenches. Padres performed the burial service in haste, with soldiers quickly covering the graves. Others were removed in the same way and taken to a nearby shamshāngāht for their remains to be cremated. While the soldiers excavated through the debris for a sign of life, the Government sent the Quetta administration instructions to build a tent city to house the homeless survivors and to provide shelter for their rescuers. A fresh supply of medicated pads was brought for the soldiers to wear over their mouths while they dug for bodies in fears of a spread of disease from the dead bodies buried underneath. Significance The natural disaster ranks as the 23rd most deadly earthquake worldwide to date. In the aftermath of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, the Director General for the Meteorological Department at Islamabad, Chaudhry Qamaruzaman, cited the earthquake as being amongst the four deadliest earthquakes the South Asian region has seen; the others being the Kashmir earthquake in 2005, 1945 Balochistan earthquake and Kangra earthquake in 1905. Notable survivors Indian space scientist and educationist Yash Pal, then eight-years-old, was trapped under the building remains, together with his siblings, and was rescued. See also List of earthquakes in 1935 List of earthquakes in India List of earthquakes in Pakistan List of earthquakes in South Asia References Further reading External links 1935 Quette Earthquake – Dawn 1st Queen's at Quetta – The Earthquake 1935 Balochistan History of Quetta District Balochistan 1935 Quetta earthquake Quetta earthquake 1935 disasters in Asia Strike-slip earthquakes

4194575

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%20Pattan%20earthquake

1974 Pattan earthquake

The 1974 Pattan earthquake occurred in the rugged and isolated Hunza, Hazara and Swat districts of northern Pakistan at 12:11 UTC on 28 December. The 6.2 surface wave magnitude quake had a shallow focal depth of 22 km and was followed by numerous aftershocks. An official estimate of the number killed was 5,300 with approximately 17,000 injured, and around 4,400 homes were destroyed. A total of 97,000 were reported affected by the tremor. Most of the destruction was centered on the village of Pattan. The village was almost completely destroyed. The epicentral region is characterized by steep-walled narrow canyons and valleys. Most of the population was concentrated along the rivers. Much of the destruction was caused by the numerous landslides and rockfalls which came tumbling down from high above. The main road leading into the area was blocked for about by landslides and rockfalls, hampering relief efforts. The government flew in emergency supplies by helicopter until the roads were reopened on 13 January. The earthquake, which reached MMI V in Kabul, Afghanistan, affected some of the Indus Valley region. Several nations contributed money and supplies to aid the inhabitants of the stricken area. See also List of earthquakes in 1974 List of earthquakes in Pakistan Sources Earthquake information Bulletin, March–April 1975, Volume 7, Number 2 Further reading External links Earthquakes in Pakistan Pattan earthquake Pattan earthquake Pattan earthquake Pattan earthquake

4335013

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20weather%20%28disambiguation%29

Earthquake weather (disambiguation)

Earthquake weather is a type of weather popularly believed to precede earthquakes. Earthquake Weather may also refer to: Earthquake Weather (album), a 1989 album by Joe Strummer "Earthquake Weather", a song by Beck from Guero Earthquake Weather (novel), a 1997 novel by Tim Powers Earthquake Weather, a novel by Catherine Ryan Hyde

4467896

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20Pakistan

List of earthquakes in Pakistan

Pakistan is one of the most seismically active countries in the world, being crossed by several major faults. As a result, earthquakes in Pakistan occur often and are destructive. Geology Pakistan geologically overlaps both the Eurasian and Indian tectonic plates. Balochistan, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan provinces lie on the southern edge of the Eurasian Plate on the Iranian Plateau. Sindh, Punjab and Azad Jammu & Kashmir provinces lie on the north-western edge of the Indian plate in South Asia. Hence this region is prone to violent earthquakes, as the two tectonic plates collide. Earthquakes See also List of faults in Pakistan National Disaster Management Authority Earthquake Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Authority References Sources Further reading External links Northern Pakistan 1974 December 28 12:11:43 UTC Magnitude 6.2 USGS accessed Jan 2009 Earthquakes Pakistan

4470184

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%20earthquake

1976 earthquake

1976 earthquake may refer to: Earthquake geological events 1976 Bali earthquake 1976 Çaldıran–Muradiye earthquake (Turkey) 1976 Friuli earthquake (Italy) 1976 Guatemala earthquake 1976 Moro Gulf earthquake (Philippines) (great, tsunami) 1976 Papua earthquake (Indonesia) 1976 Songpan–Pingwu earthquake (China) 1976 Tangshan earthquake (China) (great), also known as the "Great Tangshan earthquake" Sports 1976 San Jose Earthquakes season, a year involved for the professional soccer club San Jose Earthquakes (1974–88)

4513048

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994%20P%C3%A1ez%20River%20earthquake

1994 Páez River earthquake

The 1994 Páez River earthquake occurred on June 6 with a moment magnitude of 6.8 at a depth of . The event, which is also known as the Páez River disaster, included subsequent landslides and mudslides that destroyed the small town of Páez, located on the foothills of the Central Ranges of the Andes in Cauca in south-western Colombia. It was estimated that 1,100 people, mostly from the Páez, were killed in some 15 settlements on the Páez River basin, Cauca and Huila departments of which the eponymous town of Páez suffered 50% of the death toll. In response to the disaster, the government created the Nasa Kiwe Corporation to bring relief to the area, and begin the reconstruction of the affected areas. See also List of earthquakes in 1994 List of earthquakes in Colombia References and notes . Sismo del 6 de junio de 1994 El sismo de Paez de 1994. "(…)A causa del sismo se registraron 20 personas muertas y algunos heridos, cifra nada comparable con la cantidad de víctimas que dejaron las avalanchas, calculada en más de 300 muertos y 500 desaparecidos." . Detailed descriptions and photographs of the events, the outcomes, the handling of the emergency and later developments and social consequences can be seen in Nasa kive the government corporation for the reconstruction of the Páez River basin. . A detailed report with complementary information about this particular disaster and several others that took place around the same time in the Andean countries can be obtained in a special issue of the journal Desastres y Sociedad, published by La Red de Estudios Sociales en Prevención de Desastres en América Latina in 1995. Further reading Martinez, J.M., Avila, G., Agudelo, A., Schuster, R.L., Casadevall, T.J., and K.M. Scott, 1995. Landslides and debris flows triggered by the 6 June 1994 Paez earthquake, southwestern Colombia. Landslide News, no. 9:13–15. Kyoto: Japan Landslide Society. Schuster, R.L., 1995. Landslides and floods triggered by the June 6, 1994, Paez earthquake, southwestern Colombia. Association of Engineering Geologists, AEG News 38:1:32–33. External links Landslides and lahar at Nevado del Huila Volcano, Colombia from the United States Geological Survey 1994 Paez Paez, 1994 Paez June 1994 events in South America Landslides in 1994 1994 disasters in Colombia

4652475

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939%20Erzincan%20earthquake

1939 Erzincan earthquake

An earthquake struck Turkey's eastern Erzincan Province at with a moment magnitude of 7.8 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XII (Extreme). It is the joint second most-powerful earthquake recorded in Turkey, tied with the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake. Only the 1668 North Anatolia earthquake was more powerful. This was one of the largest in a sequence of violent shocks to affect Turkey along the North Anatolian Fault between 1939 and 1999. Surface rupturing, with a horizontal displacement of up to 3.7 meters, occurred in a 360 km long segment of the North Anatolian Fault Zone. The earthquake was the most severe natural loss of life in Turkey in the 20th century, with 32,968 dead, and some 100,000 injured. Preface The North Anatolian Fault in Asia Minor is a major transform fault boundary where the Eurasian Plate slides past the smaller Anatolian Microplate. Running for over 1,600 km, the fault stretches from Eastern Turkey to the Sea of Marmara. The North Anatolian fault has been, and remains very active. Erzincan has been destroyed by earthquakes at least 11 times since 1,000 AD. Between 1942 and 1967, there were six major earthquakes along the same fault, with three above 7 . Earthquake With an epicenter near the city of Erzincan, the earthquake rupture propagated westwards for a length of 400 km. Surface ruptures are still visible to this day. Up to 360 km of surface rupture was formed. An average surface displacement of between 2.3 meters and 8.8 meters was calculated. Vertical displacements measured 0.5–2.0 meters. The maximum horizontal slip was 10.5 meters. The shaking lasted for 52 seconds. It resulted in a tsunami with heights of that hit the Black sea coast. Coulomb stress transfer from the 1939 earthquake promoted westward-progressing ruptures along the North Anatolian Fault. Ten earthquakes greater than magnitude 6.7 have ruptured a 1,000 km portion of the fault since 1939. Damage The earthquake seriously damaged some 116,720 buildings. Occurring in winter, it was difficult for aid to reach the affected areas. Initially, the death toll was about 8,000 people. The next day on 27 December, it was reported that it had risen to 20,000. During the same day, the temperature fell to . An emergency rescue operation began. By January 5, almost 33,000 had died due to the earthquake and due to low temperatures, blizzard conditions and floods. Aftermath The total destruction of the earthquake prompted Turkey to adopt seismic building regulations. So extensive was the damage to the city of Erzincan that its old site was entirely abandoned and a new settlement was founded a little further to the north. See also List of earthquakes in 1939 List of earthquakes in Turkey Osman Nuri Tekeli References Further reading External links 33 bin kişinin can verdiği Erzincan Depremi'nin acısı 82 yıldır dinmiyor - Anadolu Agency 1939 Erzincan 1930s tsunamis 1939 in Turkey 1939 earthquakes History of Erzincan Province Tsunamis in Turkey December 1939 events Strike-slip earthquakes

4706614

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20Visions

Earthquake Visions

Earthquake Visions is the album that the glam-style metal band It's Alive recorded for Cheiron Studios in 1994. Earthquake Visions eventually sold a disappointing 30,000 copies, but furthermore established the contact between Cheiron and the band's vocalist Martin White – better known as the famous-to-be producer/songwriter Max Martin. Track listing "Give Us A Place" 3:51 "Someone In The House" 4:13 "I'm Your Man" 4:25 "Pretend I'm God" 3:23 "Sing This Blues" 4:29 "Wild" 4:08 "Metalapolis" 3:39 "Maybe You Are But I'm Not" 3:11 "Pain" 3:52 "There Is Something" 4:11 "Where I" 3:38 Note that the 1993 Music for Nations UK release adds two bonus songs; one, called "Play That Funky Music" (4:43) is slotted between "I'm Your Man" and "Pretend I'm God". The other track, called "Parasite" (3:10), is tacked on to the end of the disc, bringing it to a total of 13 songs. Personnel Max Martin - lead vocals Per Aldeheim - lead guitar Kim Björkegren - rhythm guitar Peter Kahm - bass guitar Gus - drums John Rosth - keyboard 1994 albums It's Alive (band) albums

4714080

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957%20Andreanof%20Islands%20earthquake

1957 Andreanof Islands earthquake

The 1957 Andreanof Islands earthquake occurred at 04:22 local time on March 9 with a moment magnitude estimated between 8.6 and 9.1 and a maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). It occurred south of the Andreanof Islands group, which is part of the Aleutian Islands arc. The event occurred along the Aleutian Trench, the convergent plate boundary that separates the Pacific Plate and the North American plates near Alaska. A basin-wide tsunami followed, with effects felt in Alaska and Hawaii, and strong waves recorded across the Pacific rim. Total losses were around $5 million. Tectonic setting The Aleutians Islands lie between Kamchatka and mainland Alaska. They were formed as the result of the long convergent boundary that accommodates the subduction of the oceanic Pacific Plate underneath the continental North American Plate. This oceanic trench runs from the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench in the west to the Yakutat Collision Zone in the east. Most of the trench ruptured in a sequence of earthquakes from east to west. Earthquakes in 1938, 1946, 1948, and 1965 generally progressed westward with smaller earthquakes filling in any gaps. At each terminus of the subduction zone, convergence ends in favor of right-lateral transform faults. In the west, convergence becomes increasingly oblique until the Commander Islands where faulting is nearly completely strike-slip—a 2017 earthquake was associated with this tectonic setting. The plate boundary ends at the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench. In the east, the Pacific Plate continues to subduct underneath the North American plate until the Yakutat microplate. There, a transition from subduction to strike-slip faulting exists. When this transition ends, faulting is completely right-lateral transform and is largely accommodated along the Queen Charlotte Fault. Earthquake The seismic intensity peaked at VIII (Severe) on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale at Adak and Umnak. As the shock occurred before the World Wide Standardised Seismological Network was in operation, few instruments recorded the event, and its mechanism is not understood well as a result. Some effort was made with the limited data to gain an understanding of the rupture area and the distribution of slip. One aspect of the event that was certain was that the aftershock zone was the largest that had ever been observed. The aftershock zone may slightly overlap other ruptures, however there is minimal overlap between the aftershocks of the 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake to the east and the 1965 Rat Islands earthquake to the west. Studies of the event differ on rupture characteristics. Some suggest a rupture zone greater than , stretching from Amchitka Pass in the east to Unimak Pass in the west. Other studies have the rupture area at a significantly longer . Yet other studies conclude that the entirety of the aftershock area ruptured in the earthquake, for a total rupture length of . The western portion of the rupture stopped at Bowers Ridge. Studies also disagree on whether the easternmost area near Unalaska ruptured. Some of the early scientific papers conclude that this area remained unruptured during the event and remains a seismic gap. Others, especially ones written decades after the fact, conclude that slip did occur here, but signals from it were blocked by the coda of the main slip. However, the amount of slip is not agreed upon. Some studies support a low amount of slip, while others conclude that there was large amounts of slip in this area, up to . A maximum slip of was estimated in the eastern portion of the rupture. If the eastern portion of the megathrust did rupture, then a magnitude of is more reflective of the event. The tsunami created by the earthquake suggests a () event. Tsunami Tsunami waves were reported in far way places such as in Chile. The tsunami's strength led to suspision that a landslide may have contributed to its severity, but there is no evidence of a landslide. A submarine landslide is considered inconsistent with the wave patterns recorded, and the high wave heights could be explained by large amounts of near trench slip. Alaska Wave heights were the highest in Alaska. On Unimak Island, waves reached as high as . Also on Unimak, near the Scotch Cap Lighthouse that was destroyed in the 1946 earthquake, run up heights of were observed. Trappers Cove recorded wave heights of . At Sand Bay, the tsunami reached . Dutch Harbor in Unalaska recorded waves of , Massacre Bay in Attu recorded waves up to high and Sitka had waves reaching . At Yakutat run-ups measured , while Women's Bay, Kodiak, Seward, and Juneau had recorded tsunami heights of . Hawaii On the island of Kauai, the wave height reached at Haena. In northern Oahu, wave heights reached . Various areas around Big Island recorded tsunami waves with heights ranging , including a reading of at Hilo. In Kahului, Maui, tide gauges recorded waves up to . Coconut Island was submerged by . California Crescent City recorded a tsunami wave of . Los Angeles recorded run-ups of , Santa Monica experienced a -high tsunami, while Anaheim Bay had waves. San Francisco's tide gauge recorded run-ups of . In San Diego, a wave caused minor damage, however the tide gauge only recorded a wave high. Other tide gauges across the state recorded run-up heights of . Elsewhere At Fagasā, American Samoa, tsunami run-up heights reached . Pago Pago recorded wave heights of , however the amplitude of the wave was . Midway recorded tsunami waves up to high. Wake Island recorded amplitudes of , Kwajalein and Enewetak recorded heights of . Johnston Atoll experienced waves of , while waves less than were recorded at Guam and Chuuk Lagoon. In Mexico, the tidal gauge in Ensenada, Baja California recorded the strongest waves at . Many countries in Central America also recorded tsunami run-ups including at Puntarenas, Costa Rica, at Puerto San José, Guatemala, and waves at La Unión, El Salvador. Peru and Chile were favorably oriented for large waves from the tsunami, and as a result strong waves were recorded. In Peru, the strongest wave heights of were recorded at Matarani, with other coastal areas recording wave heights of . Valparaiso, Chile recorded wave heights of , which were the highest across the country. Across the rest of the country, wave heights of , , , and were recorded at Arica, Antofagasta, Caldera, and Talcahuano, respectively. Damage Prompt warnings from the Seismic Sea Wave Warning System were credited with preventing major damage or loss of life. The earthquake caused severe damage to roads and buildings on Adak including a crack in size, however there were no deaths. Two bridges and some oil and fuel-related structures at a dock were also destroyed there. On Umnak, a concrete mixer and some docks were lost. At Chernofski, Trappers Cove, and Vsevidof, strong waves drowned sheep. Oil pipelines were damaged at Sand Bay. Many boats were damaged from strong waves. The tsunami caused twice the damage the tsunami of the 1946 earthquake did. In Hawaii, damage was much more extensive, including two indirect fatalities that occurred when a pilot and photographer were killed while attempting to document the tsunami's arrival from an airplane. About 50 homes were flooded on the north shore of Oahu and significant effects were seen in Waialua Bay. Buildings and bridges were also flooded in Haleiwa. In Hilo, the tsunami damaged buildings. The total damage cost was over $5 million ($46 million in 2017). See also List of earthquakes in 1957 List of earthquakes in Alaska List of earthquakes in the United States Mount Vsevidof Notes References Sources External links USGS Earthquake Hazards Program – Andreanof Islands, Alaska, Magnitude 8.6 Tsunami! – 1957 Aleutian tsunami The March 9, 1957 Aleutian Tsunami – George Pararas-Carayannis 1957 earthquakes 1957 in Alaska 1957 1957 Andreanof March 1957 events in the United States March 1957 events in Oceania

4789906

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%20Earthquake%20Authority

California Earthquake Authority

The California Earthquake Authority is a privately funded, publicly managed organization that sells California earthquake insurance policies through participating insurance companies. Established in September 1996 by the California Legislature, it is based in Sacramento, California. External links California Earthquake Authority website Financial services companies established in 1996 Insurance companies of the United States

4790615

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20Baku%20earthquake

2000 Baku earthquake

The 2000 Baku earthquake occurred on November 25 at 22:09 (18:09 UTC) local time with an epicenter just offshore Baku, Azerbaijan. It measured 6.8 on the moment magnitude scale and the maximum felt intensity was VI on the Mercalli intensity scale. It was followed three minutes later by a quake measuring 5.9. It was the strongest for almost 160 years, since 1842 in the Baku suburbs and in addition to the capital affected Sumgayit, Shamakhi and neighboring cities. According to the United States Geological Survey, the epicentre was in the Caspian Sea, 25 km to the south-southeast of Baku. The earthquake was felt as far away as e.g. Tbilisi, 600 km northwest of the epicentre, Makhachkala and the Karabudakh and Isberbas settlements in Dagestan. Tectonic setting Baku lies on the Absheron peninsula close to the northern edge of the broad and complex zone of deformation caused by the continuing collision between the Arabian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. There are two main active seismic zones on the Absheron peninsula. The northern zone is part of the North Caucasus thrust belt that continues to the east along the Apsheron Sill, which is interpreted to be a zone of active subduction. Earthquakes recorded in the northern zone are mainly deep reverse or shallow normal in type. The southern zone is interpreted to be a continuation of the Greater Caucasus thrust. Earthquakes in this area are mainly reverse or right lateral strike-slip in type. Earthquake The earthquake consisted of two closely spaced events 90 seconds apart. The first event had an oblique reverse fault mechanism on a steeply-dipping fault trending northwest–-southeast, while the second was pure reverse in type on a moderately-dipping reverse fault trending west-northwest–east-southeast. Within the uncertainties, the two events occurred at the same depth, at about 40 km. Damage According to the Azerbaijani government, 26 people died as a primary result, but only three people in collapsing buildings. A total of 412 people were either hospitalised or sought medical assistance. President Heydar Aliyev announced that more than 90 buildings and apartment blocks have been seriously damaged. Damage was identified at the German church, the 15th century Shirvanshahs' Palace, the Opera and Ballet Theatre, the Taza Pir Mosque, the Blue Mosque and the Palace of Marriage Registrations. Despite affecting northeastern coastline of Azerbaijan no damage to the offshore oil exploration infrastructure has been reported. Many phone lines were down and the electricity was out in much of the city. Due to anxiety caused by possible fires the natural gas supply was reduced to 80%. Baku and Sumgait residents spent the rest of the night on the street. After the disaster seismologists have banned the construction of buildings with over nine floors. On the same day the earthquake in Saratov, Russia caused by tectonic changes in the Volga region after the Baku earthquake took place. Aftermath Following the presidential decree of November 28, 2000, the State Emergency Commission was provided with an amount of ca. US$5,5 million in order to deal with the consequences of the earthquake. The SEC dispatched assessment teams to the affected areas. In Baku, as of November 27, 19 families have been evacuated from three severely damaged houses. Schools have been temporarily closed. The UN Disaster Management Team, composed of UNDP, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNFPA, and WHO, was established in order to consider opportunities to support the governmental efforts. The IFRC launched an emergency appeal for international assistance amounting to US$590,000. See also List of earthquakes in 2000 List of earthquakes in Azerbaijan References External links Massive earthquake rocks Caspian Sea port – CNN The only existing video footage of the earthquake Azerbaijan: Earthquake – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Baku earthquake Baku earthquake, 2000 Articles containing video clips History of Baku Baku Baku 2000 disasters in Azerbaijan 2000 disasters in Asia November 2000 events in Asia November 2000 events in Europe

4928941

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1897%20Assam%20earthquake

1897 Assam earthquake

The Assam earthquake of 1897 occurred on 12 June 1897, in Assam, British India at 11:06 UTC, and had an estimated moment magnitude of 8.2–8.3. It resulted in approximately 1,542 human casualties and caused catastrophic damage to infrastructures. Damage from the earthquake extended into Calcutta, where dozens of buildings were severely damaged, with some buildings partially collapsing. Trembles were felt across India, reaching as far as Ahmedabad and Peshawar. Seiches were also observed in Burma. Earthquake The earthquake occurred on the south–southwest-dipping reverse Oldham Fault that forms the northern edge of the Shillong Plateau. There was a minimum displacement on the main fault of 11 m, although some calculations have placed this figure at as high as 16 m; one of the greatest for any measured earthquake. The calculated area of slip extended 180 km along the strike and from 9–45 km beneath the surface, indicating that the entire thickness of the crust was involved. Damage Thought to have happened 32 km beneath the surface, the earthquake left masonry buildings in ruins over 400,000 km2 area and was felt over 650,000 km2 from Burma to Delhi. Numerous buildings in the neighboring country of Bhutan were heavily damaged. Dozens of aftershocks were felt in and around the region with the last event being felt on 9 October 1897 at 01:40 UT in Calcutta. The earthquake resulted in Shillong Plateau being thrust violently upwards by about 11 meters. The fault was about 110 km in length while the fault slip was about 18 m (accuracy more or less by 7 m). At the epicenter, vertical acceleration is thought to have been greater than 1g and the surface velocity estimated at 3 m/s. In Shillong, the earthquake damaged every stone house and half the houses built of wood. The shock leveled the ground and resulted in 13 deaths. The fissure was also reported in the area. In Sohra Cherrapunji, it resulted in a landslide, which led to 600 deaths. In Goalpara, it resulted in waves from the Brahmaputra River, on which bank the town is situated on, destroying the market. In Nalbari, there were reported sightings of earth-waves and water waves. In Guwahati, the earthquake lasted for 3 minutes. the Brahmaputra river rose by 7.6  ft. Damage was caused to Umananda Island temple and railway lines, where five people died. In Nagaon, every brick house was damaged, while traditional houses made of wood, with grass roofs, were bent. There were many small fissures/volcanos and the road was impassable for vehicles. In the Sylhet region, shocks took place at 16:30 local time, according to villagers living at the foot of the hills north of Sunamganj. There were 545 casualties; 55 in Sylhet town; 178 in North Sylhet; 287 in Sunamganj; seven in Habiganj; eight in South Sylhet and 10 in Karimganj. Many building collapses, fissures and drownings furthered the number of deaths. A woman in Sunamganj is said to have fallen through a fissure whilst on a river with her husband. The husband tried to hold onto her hair but lost hold of her. The woman's body was not recovered from the crevasse. The Assam Bengal Railway was severely damaged. Richard Dixon Oldham, the Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India, analysed seismic records of the earthquake, mainly from stations in Italy, and reported the first clear evidence of different type of seismic waves, travelling through the earth on different paths and at different speeds. See also 1905 Kangra earthquake List of earthquakes in India List of historical earthquakes References Further reading External links Tom LaTouche and the Great Assam Earthquake of 12 June 1897: Letters from the Epicenter (with photographs of damage at Shillong, Rowmari and Calcutta, detailed field report with diagrams, and mapping of the epicentre) 1897 Assam 1897 earthquakes 1897 in India 1897 June 1897 events Disasters in Assam 1897 disasters in India

4929027

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950%20Assam%E2%80%93Tibet%20earthquake

1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake

The 1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake, also known as the Assam earthquake, occurred on 15 August and had a moment magnitude of 8.7. The epicentre was located in the Mishmi Hills. It is the strongest earthquake ever recorded on land and is tied with the 2012 Indian Ocean Earthquakes as the strongest Strike-slip earthquake to date. Occurring on a Tuesday evening at 7:39 pm Indian Standard Time, the earthquake was destructive in both Assam (India) and Tibet (China), and approximately 4,800 people were killed. The earthquake is notable as being the largest recorded quake caused by continental collision rather than subduction, and is also notable for the loud noises produced by the quake and reported throughout the region. Geology In an attempt to further uncover the seismic history of Northeast India, field studies were conducted by scientists with the National Geophysical Research Institute and Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar. The study discovered signs of soil liquefaction including sills and sand volcanoes inside of at least twelve trenches in alluvial fans and on the Burhi Dihing River Valley that were formed by past seismic activity. Radiocarbon dating identified the deposits at roughly 500 years old, which would correspond with a recorded earthquake in 1548. Earthquake The earthquake occurred in the rugged mountainous areas between the Himalayas and the Hengduan Mountains. The earthquake was located just south of the McMahon Line between India and Tibet, and had devastating effects in both regions. This great earthquake has a calculated magnitude of 8.7 and is regarded as one of the most important since the introduction of seismological observing stations. It was the sixth largest earthquake of the 20th century. It is also the largest known earthquake to have not been caused by an oceanic subduction. Instead, this quake was caused by two continental plates colliding. Aftershocks were numerous; many of them were of magnitude 6 and over and well enough recorded at distant stations for reasonably good epicentre location. From such data the Indian Seismological Service established an enormous geographical spread of this activity, from about 90 deg to 97 deg east longitude, with the epicentre of the great earthquake near the eastern margin. Impact The 1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake had devastating effects on both Assam and Tibet. In Assam, 1,526 fatalities were recorded and another 3,300 were reported in Tibet for a total of approximately 4,800 deaths. Alterations of relief were brought about by many rock falls in the Mishmi Hills and surrounding forested regions. In the Abor Hills, 70 villages were destroyed with 156 casualties due to landslides. Landslides blocked the tributaries of the Brahmaputra. In the Dibang Valley, a landslide lake burst without causing damage, but another at Subansiri River opened after an interval of 8 days and the wave, high, submerged several villages and killed 532 people. The shock was more damaging in Assam, in terms of property loss, than the earthquake of 1897. In addition to the extreme shaking, there were floods when the rivers rose high after the earthquake bringing down sand, mud, trees, and all kinds of debris. Pilots flying over the meizoseismal area reported great changes in topography. This was largely due to enormous landslides, some of which were photographed. In Tibet, Heinrich Harrer reported strong shaking in Lhasa and loud cracking noises from the earth. Aftershocks were felt in Lhasa for days. In Rima, Tibet (modern-day Zayü Town), Frank Kingdon-Ward, noted violent shaking, extensive slides, and the rise of the streams. Helen Myers Morse, an American missionary living in Putao, northern Burma at the time, wrote letters home describing the main shake, the numerous aftershocks, and of the noise coming out of the earth. One of the more westerly aftershocks, a few days later, was felt more extensively in Assam than the main shock. This led certain journalists to the belief that the later shock was 'bigger' and must be the greatest earthquake of all time. This is a typical example of the confusion between the essential concepts of magnitude and intensity. The extraordinary sounds heard by Kingdon-Ward and many others at the times of the main earthquake have been specially investigated. Seiches were observed as far away as Norway and England. (p. 63–64.) Future threat An article in Science, published in response to the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, calculated that 70 percent of the Himalayas could experience an extremely powerful earthquake. The prediction came from research of the historical records from the area as well as the presumption that since the 1950 Medog earthquake enough slippage has taken place for a large earthquake to occur. In 2015, the Himalayas were hit by a 7.8-magnitude earthquake with an epicenter further west in Nepal. See also 1897 Assam earthquake 2009 Bhutan earthquake April 2015 Nepal earthquake List of earthquakes in 1950 List of earthquakes in India List of earthquakes in China References External links At Khowang – A photo by Dhaniram Bora 1950 in India 1950 in Tibet 1950 earthquakes 1950s in Assam August 1950 events in Asia Disasters in Assam 1950 Assam 1950 Assam 1950 Assam Earthquakes in Myanmar 1950 in Nepal 1950 disasters in China 1950 disasters in India

4947282

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Kamchatka%20earthquake

2006 Kamchatka earthquake

The 2006 Kamchatka earthquake occurred on . This shock had a moment magnitude of 7.6 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). The hypocenter was located near the coast of Koryak Autonomous Okrug at an estimated depth of 22 km, as reported by the International Seismological Centre. This event caused damage in three villages and was followed by a number of large aftershocks. Two M6.6 earthquakes struck on April 29 at 16:58 UTC and again on May 22 at 11:12 UTC. These earthquakes caused no deaths; however, 40 people were reported injured. Tectonic setting The northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula lies away from the convergent boundaries of the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench and the Aleutian Trench but across the boundary between two blocks within the North American Plate, the Kolyma-Chukotka and Bering Sea microplates. This boundary accommodates both active shortening and right lateral strike-slip across a series of large SW–NE trending faults. Earthquake The focal mechanism of the earthquake was consistent with reverse faulting on a northwest-dipping fault. Fieldwork carried out immediately after the earthquake and in the following summer identified a 140 km long zone of surface rupture. This rupture consisted of a series of en echelon surface breaks. The type of observed displacement varied from dominantly reverse faulting to oblique reverse-right lateral to dominantly strike-slip. The vertical component of displacement was locally in the range 4–5 m, the horizontal component was always less than 3 m. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Russia Kamchatka earthquakes Kamchatka Peninsula References External links The earthquakes on Kamchatka РИА "Новости" M7.6 - near the east coast of Koryakskiy Autonomnyy Okrug, Russia – United States Geological Survey Earthquake 2006 Kamchatka Earthquake, Kamchatka 2006 Earthquake 2006 2006 April 2006 events in Russia

4996310

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Tonga%20earthquake

2006 Tonga earthquake

The 2006 Tonga earthquake occurred on 4 May at with a moment magnitude of 8.0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII (very strong). One injury occurred and a non-destructive tsunami was observed. Earthquake The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Hawaii issued a warning 17 minutes after the earthquake for coastal areas around the Pacific. An hour later, the center downgraded the warning to only the region within 600 miles of the epicenter, and an hour after that, it canceled the alert. The earthquake was followed by a pair of large aftershocks the next day. Damage The event caused very limited damage. The previous large earthquake in Tonga, in 1977, was of a lower magnitude but resulted in more severe damage. A likely cause is that the 2006 quake generated other frequencies that only resulted in resonance in small items. In shops, cans and bottles fell from shelves. The century-old Catholic church in Lapaha had new cracks in the tower and several stones fell down, leaving the steeple in a somewhat unstable position. The tower of a 60-year-old church of the Free church of Tonga in Veitongo collapsed, the steeple came down and several walls cracked beyond repair. A Korean business man jumped in panic from his second floor hotel room and was hurt in the fall. He was brought to the hospital where he had to wait a long time for any help as power was off and most staff off duty (as that day was a public holiday). The American wharf in Nukualofa sustained cracks in addition to those caused by the 1977 earthquake. A ship, sunk in 1949 near Toula, Vavau apparently burst open and its load of copra came floating to the ocean surface. A landslide occurred at Hunga island in Vavau, when the ground at a steep cliff along the shore began sliding into the sea. In Haapai, the islands closest to the epicentre, the wharf was damaged and a number of water-pipes and telephone lines were broken. Niuui hospital was damaged. Tsunami Since the earthquake occurred underwater, tsunami warnings were issued, but then lifted. A small tsunami was observed. Later analysis showed the earthquake to be a slab-tearing event and so less conducive to tsunami generation. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Tonga References External links Poster of the Tonga Earthquake of 3 May 2006 - Magnitude 7.9 – United States Geological Survey 2006 Tonga Tonga Tonga Earthquake, 2006 May 2006 events in Oceania 2006 disasters in Oceania

5082433

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20Alabama%20earthquake

2003 Alabama earthquake

The 2003 Alabama earthquake took place on April 29 at 3:59 A.M. Central Daylight Time (local time when the event occurred) eight miles (13 km) east-northeast of Fort Payne, Alabama. The number of people who felt this quake was exceptionally high as the earthquake could be felt in 11 states across the East Coast and as far north as southern Indiana. The earthquake was strongly felt throughout metropolitan Atlanta. The Georgia Building Authority was called out to inspect the historic Georgia State Capitol in downtown Atlanta and other state-owned buildings but found no problems. However, this is not out of the ordinary as earthquakes east of the Rocky Mountains can be felt several times the area felt on West Coast earthquakes. The earthquake was given a magnitude 4.6 on the moment magnitude scale by the USGS (other sources reported as high a magnitude as 4.9) and reports of the duration of the shaking range from 10 seconds to as long as 45 seconds. It is tied with a 1973 earthquake near Knoxville, Tennessee as the strongest earthquake ever to occur in the Eastern Tennessee Seismic Zone, which is the second most active seismic zone east of the Rocky Mountains, with the New Madrid Seismic Zone the most active. The April 29 earthquake caused moderate damage in northern Alabama including a wide sinkhole northwest of Fort Payne. The quake disrupted the local water supply. There were numerous reports of chimney damage, broken windows, and cracked walls, particularly around the area near Hammondville, Mentone and Valley Head, Alabama. Many 9-1-1 call centers were overloaded with worrisome and panicked residents, who thought it was a train derailment, a bomb, or some other type of explosion that had awakened them. There were several aftershocks, all of magnitude 2.0 or lower, and were not widely felt. See also List of earthquakes in 2003 List of earthquakes in the United States References External links Geologic Survey of Alabama; Geologic Hazards Program; Earthquakes in Alabama Center for Earthquake Research and Information, University Of Memphis, TN Indiana University PEPP Program; April 29, 2003 Fort Payne, Alabama Earthquake - contains extensive collection of media reports about the event 2003 earthquakes 2003 natural disasters in the United States Earthquakes in the United States Natural disasters in Alabama 2003 in Alabama April 2003 events in the United States

5126056

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20zones%20of%20India

Earthquake zones of India

The Indian subcontinent has a history of devastating earthquakes. The major reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that the Indian plate is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year. Geographical statistics of India show that almost 58% of the land is vulnerable to earthquakes. A World Bank and United Nations report shows estimates that around 200 million city dwellers in India will be exposed to storms and earthquakes by 2050. The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in the earthquake resistant design code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns four levels of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors. In other words, the earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones (Zone 2, 3, 4 and 5) unlike its previous version, which consisted of five or six zones for the country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level of seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity. National Center for Seismology The National Center for Seismology Ministry of Earth Sciences is a nodal agency of the Government of India dealing with various activities in the fields of seismology and allied disciplines. The major activities currently being pursued by the National Center for Seismology include a) earthquake monitoring on a 24/7 basis, including real time seismic monitoring for early warning of tsunamis, b) operation and maintenance of national seismological network and local networks, c) seismological data centre and information services, d) seismic hazard and risk related studies, e) field studies for aftershock/swarm monitoring and site response studies and f) earthquake processes and modelling. The MSK (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik) intensity broadly associated with the various seismic zones is VI (or less), VII, VIII and IX (and above) for Zones 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively, corresponding to Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE). The IS code follows a dual design philosophy: (a) under low probability or extreme earthquake events (MCE) the structure damage should not result in total collapse, and (b) under more frequently occurring earthquake events, the structure should suffer only minor or moderate structural damage. The specifications given in the design code (IS 1893: 2002) are not based on detailed assessment of maximum ground acceleration in each zone using a deterministic or probabilistic approach. Instead, each zone factor represents the effective period peak ground accelerations that may be generated during the maximum considered earthquake ground motion in that zone. Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a particular place based on the observations of the affected areas and can also be described using a descriptive scale like the Modified Mercalli intensity scale or the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale. Zone 5 Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risk of suffering earthquakes of intensity MSK IX or more significantly. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5. Structural designers use this factor for the earthquake-resistant design of structures in Zone 5. The zone factor of 0.36 (the maximum horizontal acceleration that a structure can experience) is indicative of effective (zero period) level earthquakes in this zone. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The regions of Kashmir, the Western and Central Himalayas, North and Middle Bihar, the North-East Indian region, the Rann of Kutch and the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands fall in this zone.Generally, the areas having trap rock or basaltic rock are prone to earthquakes. Zone 4 This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK VIII. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4. Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains (North Punjab, Chandigarh, Western Uttar Pradesh, Terai, a major portion of Bihar, North Bengal, the Sundarbans) and the capital of the country Delhi fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra, the Patan area (Koynanagar) is also in Zone 4. Zone 3 This zone is classified as a Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK VII. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.16 for Zone 3. Several megacities like Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata and Bhubaneshwar, Jamshedpur, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Lucknow, Vadodara, Mangalore, Vijayawada and the entire state of Kerala lie in this zone. Zone 2 This region is liable to MSK VI or lower and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.10 for Zone 2. It is the zone with low chances of having earthquakes. Cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Nagapur, Raipur, Gwalior, Jaipur, Tiruchirappalli, Madhurai are in this zone. Zone 1 Since the current division of India into earthquake hazard zones does not use Zone 1 no area of India is classified as Zone 1. See also List of earthquakes in India Geology of India Notes Further reading Saikia, Arupjyoti. "Earthquakes and the Environmental Transformation of a Floodplain Landscape: The Brahmaputra Valley and the Earthquakes of 1897 and 1950." Environment and History 26.1 (2020): 51–77. External links India Meteorological Department Zoning Geology of India Emergency management in India Geographic areas of seismological interest Seismology Seismic zones by country

5216241

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20San%20Simeon%20earthquake

2003 San Simeon earthquake

The 2003 San Simeon earthquake struck at 11:15 PST (19:15 UTC) on December 22 on the Central Coast of California, about northeast of San Simeon. Probably centered in the Oceanic fault zone within the Santa Lucia Mountains, it was caused by thrust faulting and the rupture propagated southeast from the hypocenter for 12 miles (19 km). The most violent ground movement was within 50 miles of the epicenter, though the earthquake was felt as far away as Los Angeles. With a moment magnitude of 6.6, it was the most destructive earthquake to hit the United States since the Northridge quake of 1994. Damage The area around the epicenter being sparsely populated, the most severe damage was in Paso Robles, 24 miles (39 km) east-southeast. Two women were killed when the Acorn Building, an unreinforced masonry structure built in 1892, collapsed. Other unreinforced masonry buildings, some more than a century old, were extensively damaged. No structure that had even partial retrofitting collapsed. Two sulfur hot springs in Paso Robles erupted after the earthquake. One was underneath the parking lot of the recently opened city hall/library building. There was formerly a bath house at the location, and the spring was capped after it closed down. Hot water and sediment were released at a rate of about 1,300 gallons per minute (4,900 liters per minute), forming a large sinkhole and endangering the building. Emergency efforts saved the building. However, it took until 2010 to fully repair the damage and fill in the hole. This was mainly caused by the requirement for a full Environmental Impact Study, and the inability to do any work on the project, other than the initial emergency work. Another hot spring flowed out of the embankment at the Paso Robles Street exit on U.S. Route 101. There was a wrongful death lawsuit filed by the relatives of the 2 women killed in the earthquake against Mary Mastagni, and several trusts which owned the Acorn Building. The jury found Mastagni negligent in the care and maintenance of the Acorn Building, due to not retrofitting the building, in violation of city ordinances. The jury awarded nearly $2 million to the plaintiffs. Outside of Paso Robles the damage was less severe, with unreinforced masonry buildings taking minor to moderate damage. Buildings even 40 miles from the epicenter in San Luis Obispo suffered minor damage such as ceiling tiles falling. Brick veneers were also disproportionately affected. In addition, water tanks in Paso Robles, Templeton and Los Osos were damaged. Residential buildings, predominantly one- to two-story wood-frame structures, weathered the quake with little or no damage. The building that housed Atascadero's City Hall was damaged and vacated shortly after the quake. After extensive repairs, it reopened in August 2013. Some wineries, especially those near the epicenter along State Route 46, reported damage such as barrels toppling and bursting. The Mission San Miguel Arcángel had $15 million worth of damage. The earthquake also caused extensive damage to George H. Flamson Middle School. The main building was damaged and had to be demolished in 2004. A new building reflecting the original 1924 building was opened for use in August 2010. In Templeton, Bethel Lutheran Church (ELCA), sustained major damage to its 110+ year old building and the apse had to be rebuilt. Aftermath Following the event, California enacted A.B. 2533, amending the California Business and Professions Code § 8875.8, requiring that certain unreinforced masonry buildings that have not been seismically retrofitted have posted notice of the potential earthquake hazard. The law was called Jenna's Bill, after Jennifer Myrick, who died in the quake. Faulting The area where the quake struck displays a complex faulting geometry, between the active Oceanic Fault and the older Nacimiento Fault, along with possible interaction from the Hosgri and San Simeon segments of the mainly offshore San Gregorio-San Simeon-Hosgri fault zone. See also List of earthquakes in 2003 List of earthquakes in California List of earthquakes in the United States Notes Sources 2003 San Simeon Earthquake: Preliminary Earthquake Analysis – California Integrated Seismic Network Preliminary Observations on the December 22, 2003, San Simeon Earthquake – Earthquake Engineering Research Institute M6.6 - Central California – United States Geological Survey External links San Simeon, California – Earthquake Engineering Research Institute 2003 2003 earthquakes History of San Luis Obispo County, California 2003 in California 2003 natural disasters in the United States Paso Robles, California Buried rupture earthquakes

5309730

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Yogyakarta%20earthquake

2006 Yogyakarta earthquake

The 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake (also known as the Bantul earthquake) occurred at with a moment magnitude of 6.4 and a maximum MSK intensity of VIII (Damaging). Several factors led to a disproportionate amount of damage and number of casualties for the size of the shock, with more than 5,700 dead, tens of thousands injured, and financial losses of Rp 29.1 trillion ($3.1 billion). With limited effects to public infrastructure and lifelines, housing and private businesses bore the majority of damage (the 9th-century Prambanan Hindu temple compound was also affected), and the United States' National Geophysical Data Center classified the total damage from the event as extreme. Although Indonesia experiences very large thrust earthquakes offshore at the Sunda Trench, this was a large strike-slip event that occurred on the southern coast of Java near the city of Yogyakarta. Mount Merapi lies nearby, and during its many previous historical eruptions, large volume lahars and volcanic debris flowed down its slopes where settlements were later built. This unconsolidated material from the stratovolcano amplified the intensity of the shaking and created the conditions for soil liquefaction to occur. Inadequate construction techniques and poor quality materials contributed to major failures with unreinforced masonry buildings (then the most prevalent type of home construction), though other styles fared better. Tectonic setting The islands of Indonesia constitute an island arc that is one of the world's most seismically active regions, with high velocity plate movement at the Sunda Trench (up to per year), and considerable threats from earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunami throughout. Java, one of the five largest in the Indonesian archipelago, lies on the Sunda Shelf to the north of the Sunda Trench, which is a convergent plate boundary where the Indo-Australian Plate is being subducted under the Eurasian Plate. The subduction zone offshore Java is characterized by a northward dipping Benioff zone, frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity that influence the regional geography, and direct or indirect stress transfer that has affected the various onshore faults. Sedimentation is closely related to tectonics, and while the volume of offshore sediment at the trench decreases with distance from the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta at the Bay of Bengal, the onshore accrual of sediments near the Special Region of Yogyakarta has been shaped by tectonic events. Earthquake According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the shock occurred south-southeast of Yogyakarta at a depth of , but other institutions provided source parameters (location and depth) that were not in agreement. No information was present on the extent of the faulting or the direction of propagation and there was no link to the eruption of Mount Merapi. The USGS suggested that the focal mechanism was most likely associated with left-lateral slip on a NE trending strike-slip fault, as that is the orientation of the Opak Fault, but this has not been validated. No surface breaks were documented, but the location of the greatest damage that was caused does align with the Opak Fault as a possible source. A group of Japanese and Indonesian scientists visited the area in March 2007 and confirmed the lack of surface ruptures, and pointed out that any visible expression of the fault would likely have been rapidly destroyed due to the tropical climate, and have acknowledged the widely varying locations (and the preference for the Opak Fault) that were reported by the various seismological institutions. Their investigation resulted in a different scenario, with an unknown or newly formed NE trending fault as the origin of the shock. Evidence for one of the proposed faults was found in the form of alignment of portions of the Oyo River near the USGS' epicenter, which is parallel (N°65E) to the Nglipar fault in the Gunungkidul region. If the shock occurred in this area it could indicate the reactivation of a major fault system. The second proposed fault further to the east is nearly parallel to the Ngalang and Kembang faults that lie to the north of the Oyo River. InSAR analysis While the densely populated area that saw significant destruction is adjacent to the Opak River Fault, both the USGS and Harvard University placed the epicenter to the east of that fault. Few seismometers were operating in the region, but a group of temporary units that were set up following the mainshock recorded a number of aftershocks that were east of the Opak River Fault and were aligned along a zone striking N°50E. Due to the ambiguous nature of the available information on the source of the Yogyakarta earthquake, a separate group of Japanese and Indonesian scientists applied one of the first uses of interferometric synthetic aperture radar to determine the source fault. Several data sets (one captured in April 2006 and another post-earthquake batch from June) were collected from an instrument on board the Advanced Land Observation Satellite and were compared to each other to show potential ground deformation patterns. A lack of any dislocation found on the images along the Opak River fault made evident the lack of movement along that fault, and though the aftershocks were occurring at a depth of , the deformation was distinct at the surface. The observed ground deformation that was detailed by the differential satellite images and Global Positioning System measurements was roughly east of (and parallel to) the Opak River Fault, along a zone that passed through the USGS' epicenter, and delineated a NE trending vertical fault (a dip of 89°). The displacements were not more than and indicated left-lateral strike-slip motion as well as a component of reverse slip, and to the west of the Opak River Fault (and closer to the areas of damage) strong ground motion triggered subsidence of volcanic deposits from Mount Merapi. Strong motion In 2006, Mount Merapi had not been active for more than four years, but on May 11 a pyroclastic flow triggered the evacuation of more than 20,000 people from the northern sector of Yogyakarta. While authorities expected a larger eruption to follow, the earthquake occurred instead. The volcano's previous eruptions deposited loosely bound sedimentary material in the valley during lahar flows and this material was found to have played a significant role in the effects of the shock. For example, German and Indonesian scientists set up instruments at several locations situated on different soil types to measure aftershocks. Of nine events that were analyzed, it was found that the station at Imogiri (a heavily affected village that was built on of sediment) showed signs of local amplification when compared to a location that was built on bedrock, and that the deposits amplified the impact of the shallow crustal rupture. Liquefaction A separate post-event study looked at the relationship with the layer of sediment and the occurrence of soil liquefaction during earthquakes near Bantul. Researchers stated that the Yogyakarta region is seismically active, with four known events in the 19th century and three in the 20th century, with peak ground acceleration values of 0.038–0.531g. The type and properties of sediment control the occurrence and distribution of liquefaction, and other environmental conditions (like the water table) also play a part, as well as the peak ground acceleration of the earthquake. The Bantul-Klaten plain consists of alluvium (sand, silt, clay, and gravel) and volcanic deposits from Merapi (sand, agglomerates, tuff, and ash), as well as limestone and sandstone. Borehole and magnetic data surveys show that the alluvium and lahar deposits at the Bantul graben are thick and at places over 200 meters, and the water table is below ground level. Most liquefaction events took place near the wide Opak Fault zone. Sand boils, lateral spreading, settling, and slides led to some tilting and collapse of buildings. Damage Altogether, eleven densely populated districts comprising 8.3 million people were affected, but the regencies of Bantul, Sleman, Gunung Kidul, Kulon Progo, Klaten, and the city of Yogyakarta were especially hard hit. More than 5,700 people were killed in the early morning shock, with tens of thousands injured, and hundreds of thousands made homeless. Total financial losses from the event are estimated to be Rp 29.1 Trillion ($3.1B), with 90% of the damage affecting the private sector (homes and private businesses) and only 10% affecting the public sector. The damage to housing accounted for about half of the total losses and a comparison was made to the damage to homes in Aceh following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Damage in central Java was more pronounced because of the substandard construction practices and the high population density, but on the other end of the scale, damage to infrastructure was very limited. Housing With 154,000 houses destroyed and 260,000 units experiencing damage, the event was one of the most costly natural disasters in the previous ten years. With 7% of housing units lost, more houses were damaged than during the 2004 Sumatra–Andaman and the 2005 Nias–Simuele events combined. With 66,000 homes destroyed, the Klaten District saw the heaviest damage, followed by Bantul, with 47,000 destroyed. In the most heavily damaged areas, 70–90% of units destroyed, contributing to a total of 4.1 million cubic meters of debris. Of the three home construction styles used in the area, the most common type fared badly. Low quality materials and improper construction styles led to unreinforced masonry buildings being responsible for the large loss of life and the high number of injuries. The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute stated that there was a "lack of wall integrity in the transverse direction for out-of-plane forces" and "no mechanical connection between the top of the wall and the roof or floor, and inadequate out-of-plane strength due to a lack of reinforcement". Prambanan The Prambanan Temple Compounds (also known as the Roro Jonggrang Temple) was constructed near the border of Yogyakarta and Central Java in , and was abandoned shortly thereafter. The site, which has experienced about 16 earthquakes since the 9th-century (including the 2006 event), consists of three yards of varying sizes with different stone block temples, and was rediscovered by a Dutch explorer in 1733. The smallest yard (110 m2) houses the main temple, and a slightly larger yard (220 m2) houses the Perwara temple. The main Prambanan Temple Complex is housed in the largest yard (390 m2). Many stones were dislodged and some parts broke off during the earthquake, and civil engineers were brought in to investigate the characteristics of the soil under the temple using ground penetrating radar, bore samples, and standard penetration tests. The goal was to visually examine the soil layers, to determine soil bearing capacity and depth of groundwater, as well as the depth of bedrock. Recommendations were then made regarding the renovations and repair process. International aid Many countries and organizations offered foreign aid to the devastated region, but the actual amounts delivered/received often varied from these figures, as in the case of other disasters. Japan promised US$10 million, sent two medical teams and also announced that it will send troops to help out The United Kingdom offered four million pounds (US$7,436,800) Saudi Arabia promised US$5 million, plus food, medical equipment and tents, while the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait each pledged US$4 million The European Union offered three million euros (US$3,800,000) The United States offered $5 million; US military joins relief effort Australia offered 7.5 million Australian dollars (US$5,675,000) in aid relief, including 27 member medical team among over 80 personnel China offered $2 million U.S dollars Canada offered two million Canadian dollars (US$1.8 million) India put forward an aid package worth $2 million. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) donated US$1.6 million worth of emergency supplies to devastated areas, teaming up with Islamic Relief Worldwide who provided the transportation. In addition, local Indonesian LDS members prepared thousands of meals, hygiene kits, cots, mattresses, and blankets for those requiring medical attention. The Netherlands promised 1 million euros in May plus an extra 10 million euros one month later, Belgium has pledged $832,000, while Norway, France and Italy have offered either medical teams or relief supplies The Red Cross, Red Crescent, OXFAM, Plan International, Jesuit Refugee Service alongside other NGOs and UN agencies, including WFP and UNICEF, provided plastic sheeting, tools and building materials, and cash assistance to the victims. Japan and Malaysia are to send medical teams to the affected region Singapore offered humanitarian relief assistance in the form of a 35-member Armed Forces Medical Team, a 43-member Civil Defense Force Disaster Assistance and Rescue Team, as well as US$50,000 worth of emergency supplies The United Nations World Health Organization sent medicines and communications equipment, enough emergency health kits to last 50,000 people three months, and surgical kits for as many as 600 operations Vietnam offered 1,000 tons of rice to Indonesia. The Isle of Man offered £30,000 (US$56,291) to Indonesia King Abdullah II of Jordan ordered to dispatch a plane laden with humanitarian relief to alleviate the suffering of Indonesian earthquake victims that hit Java. The aid included blankets, medicines and other medical equipment. MERCY Malaysia sent 6 missions to Yogyakarta the first being sent on 28 May 2006. Datuk Dr. Jemilah Mahmood, President of MERCY Malaysia (Mission Leader) and Saiful Nazri, Programme Officer from MERCY Aceh Office went there on the first mission travelling by a special United Nations Humanitarian Air Services (UNHAS) flight from Banda Aceh along with other international organisations based in Aceh and two tonnes of medical supplies contributed by the international agencies from Aceh. The first team had secured ground logistics for the subsequent teams coming in from Kuala Lumpur. Reconstruction Applying lessons learned from the Aceh recovery from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, the government of Indonesia promoted a community-driven approach in reconstruction from the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The government leveraged social capital to hasten the reconstruction process. In housing recovery for instance, both the government and NGOs introduced capacity building initiatives (e.g. socialization and on-the-spot training for the construction of earthquake-resistant housing such as penyuluhan and pelatihan teknis) and advocated for use of local materials (e.g., Merantasi). The Kecamatan Development Project (KDP) and the Urban Poverty Project (UPP) are examples NGOs supporting community-driven processes. The government was slow to implement assistance in reconstructing private houses, leading many homeowners to repair or rebuild their homes either by themselves or with community help. Reconstruction in some areas was aided by relief agencies, like the Red Cross Red Crescent. Villagers rebuilt their homes with extremely limited resources, using simple affordable materials. They turned to traditional materials, such as bamboo, because of the damage inflicted by collapsing brick walls. See also List of disasters in Indonesia List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Indonesia Sidoarjo mud flow References Sources External links M6.3 - Java, Indonesia – United States Geological Survey Indonesia earthquake – CNN Special Report An ancient wonder reduced to rubble – The Sydney Morning Herald UN health agency rushes aid to quake-struck parts of Indonesia – United Nations Rehabilitation of Prambanan World Heritage Site – UNESCO Java earthquake, 2006 2006 Java 2006 in Indonesia Earthquakes in Java Bantul Regency May 2006 events in Asia Yogyakarta Strike-slip earthquakes de:Java (Insel)#Geologie

5508143

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20the%20British%20Isles

List of earthquakes in the British Isles

The following is a list of notable earthquakes that have affected the British Isles. On average, several hundred earthquakes are detected by the British Geological Survey each year, but almost all are far too faint to be felt by humans. Those that are felt generally cause very little damage. Nonetheless, earthquakes have on occasion resulted in considerable damage, most notably in 1580 and 1884; Musson (2003) reports that there have been ten documented fatalities – six caused by falling masonry and four by building collapse. The causes of earthquakes in the UK are unclear, but may include "regional compression caused by motion of the Earth’s tectonic plates, and uplift resulting from the melting of the ice sheets that covered many parts of Britain thousands of years ago." Medieval reports of "earthquakes" that threw down newly built cathedrals may simply have been catastrophic failure of overloaded masonry, particularly towers, rather than actual tectonic events. Earthquakes See also Geology of England Geology of Great Britain List of volcanoes in the United Kingdom References Citations Bibliography BGS Historical earthquakes listing BGS Interactive UK earthquakes map Archives of the British Geological Survey R M W Musson, "Fatalities in British earthquakes". Astronomy & Geophysics. Vol. 44, p1 (2003) External links Historical UK earthquakes – BGS List of Earthquakes in the British Isles Q&A: UK's small-scale earthquakes Earthquakes in the United Kingdom United Kingdom Earthquakes Earthquakes earthquakes earthquakes

5517740

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1884%20Colchester%20earthquake

1884 Colchester earthquake

The Colchester earthquake, also known as the Great English earthquake, occurred on the morning of 22 April 1884 at 09:18. It caused considerable damage in Colchester and the surrounding villages in Essex. In terms of overall destruction caused it is certainly the most destructive earthquake to have hit the United Kingdom in at least the last 400 years, since the Dover Straits earthquake of 1580. Earthquake At 9:18 am the earthquake struck, centred mainly in the villages of Wivenhoe, Abberton, Langenhoe, and Peldon causing the surrounding area to rise and fall violently as the waves spread, lasting for around 20 seconds. Measuring 4.6 on the Richter magnitude scale, the effects were felt across England, as well as in northern France and Belgium. It is believed that the earthquake resulted from movement along a fault in the ancient Palaeozoic rocks that underpin most of Essex, causing waves to propagate through the overlying Cretaceous and Tertiary layers. The British Geological Survey estimates that the 1884 earthquake's magnitude was only around 4.6 on the Richter magnitude scale, compared with 6.1 for the 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake. Damage The earthquake damaged about 1,250 buildings, including almost every building in Wivenhoe and Abberton, and in settlements all the way to Ipswich. The medieval church in Langenhoe was significantly damaged, as were those in the villages of Layer-de-la-Haye, Layer Marney, Layer Breton, and Peldon. In Peldon, the local newspapers claimed that every building had been damaged in some way. The Guardian reported that the earthquake was greeted with terror by the people near Colchester. There are some reports that between three and five people were killed by the earthquake, but this has been disputed by other contemporary accounts and later analysis, which suggest that there were no fatalities directly caused by this event. The Times reported damage "in the many villages in the neighbourhood from Colchester to the sea coast", with many poor people made homeless, and estimated the cost of the disaster at £10,000. It did, however, mention the death of a child at Rowhedge, attributed to the earthquake. Mary Saunders, of Manningtree, drowned herself in the River Stour some days later. The large waves caused by the earthquake destroyed many small craft. Langenhoe Church was badly damaged. Masonry tumbled off the tower, crashing into the roof of the nave and chancel. The nearby rectory was also damaged. See also List of earthquakes in the British Isles List of historical earthquakes References Notes Bibliography Further reading External links The Great Colchester Earthquake The effects of the earthquake on the area of Eastern Essex south of the River Blackwater 1884 Colchester Colchester earthquake Colchester 1884 Colchester Colchester 1880s in Essex April 1884 events

5523844

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1931%20Dogger%20Bank%20earthquake

1931 Dogger Bank earthquake

The Dogger Bank earthquake of 1931 is the strongest earthquake ever recorded in the United Kingdom since measurements began. It had a magnitude of 6.1 on the Richter magnitude scale, and it caused a shaking intensity of VI (Strong) to VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The location of the earthquake in the North Sea meant that damage was significantly less than it would have been had the epicentre been on the British mainland. Earthquake The tremor began at around 1:30 am on 7 June 1931 with its epicentre located at the Dogger Bank, off the Yorkshire coast in the North Sea. The effects were felt throughout Great Britain as well as in Belgium and France. The earthquake resulted in damage at locations throughout eastern England. The coastal town of Filey in Yorkshire was worst hit, with the spire of a church being twisted by the tremor. Chimneys collapsed in Hull, Beverley and Bridlington, and Flamborough Head suffered crumbling of parts of its cliffs. It was also reported that a Hull woman died as a result of a heart attack caused by the quake. In London the head of the waxwork of Dr Crippen at Madame Tussauds fell off. Tsunami A small nondestructive tsunami wave was reported to have hit the east coast of England and other countries around the North Sea. See also List of earthquakes in 1931 List of earthquakes in the British Isles References Further reading External links Contemporary newspaper report (archived at the Wayback Machine) Dogger Bank Earthquake, British Geological Survey Earthquake records 1931 Dogger Bank Dogger Bank 1931 Dogger Bank 1931 disasters in the United Kingdom Dogger Bank June 1931 events

5569795

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1580%20Dover%20Straits%20earthquake

1580 Dover Straits earthquake

Though severe earthquakes in the north of France and Britain are rare, the 1580 Dover Straits earthquake appears to have been one of the largest in the recorded history of England, Flanders or northern France. Its effects started to be felt in London at around six o'clock in the evening of 6 April 1580, being Wednesday in the Easter week. Location and magnitude A study undertaken during the design of the Channel Tunnel estimated the magnitude of the 1580 quake at 5.3–5.9 and its focal depth at 20–30 km, in the lower crust. The Channel Tunnel was therefore designed to withstand those tremors. Being relatively deep, the quake was felt over a large area and it is not certain where the epicentre was located. The Channel Tunnel study proposed three possible locations, two south of Calais and one offshore. The barycentre of the isoseismals with intensities IV to VII lies in the Boulonnais, 10 km east of Desvres, the barycentre of the VII isoseismal lies about 1 km northeast of Ardres, and the barycentre of the only pleistoseismal zone lies in the English Channel. The British Geological Survey estimates the magnitude to be 5.7–5.8 . Records The earthquake is well recorded in contemporary documents, including the "earthquake letter" from Gabriel Harvey to Edmund Spenser mocking popular and academic methods of accounting for the tremors. It fell during Easter week, an omen-filled connection that was not lost on the servant-poet James Yates, who wrote ten stanzas on the topic: Oh sudden motion, and shaking of the earth, No blustering blastes, the weather calme and milde: Good Lord the sudden rarenesse of the thing A sudden feare did bring, to man and childe, They verely thought, as well in field as Towne, The earth should sinke, and the houses all fall downe. Well let vs print this present in our heartes, And call to God, for neuer neede we more: Crauing of him mercy for our misdeedes, Our sinfull from heart for to deplore, For let vs thinke this token doth portend, If scourge nere hand, if we do still offend. Yates' poem was printed in 1582 in The Castell of Courtesy. English writer Thomas Churchyard, then aged 60, was in London when the quake struck and he drafted an immediate account which was published two days later. In his 2007 biography of Richard Hakluyt, historian Peter C. Mancall provides extensive extracts from Churchyard's 8 April 1580 pamphlet, A Warning to the Wyse, a Feare to the Fond, a Bridle to the Lewde, and a Glasse to the Good; written of the late Earthquake chanced in London and other places, the 6th of April, 1580, for the Glory of God and benefit of men, that warely can walk, and wisely judge. Set forth in verse and prose, by Thomas Churchyard, gentleman. Mancall notes that Churchyard's pamphlet provides a sense of immediacy so often lacking in retrospective writing. According to Churchyard, the quake could be felt across the city and well into the suburbs, as "a wonderful motion and trembling of the earth" shook London, and "Churches, Pallaces, houses, and other buildings did so quiver and shake, that such as were then present in the same were toosed too and fro as they stoode, and others, as they sate on seates, driven off their places." The English public was so eager to read about the quake that a few months later, Abraham Fleming was able to publish a collection of reports of the Easter Earthquake, including those written by Thomas Churchyard, Richard Tarlton (described as the writing clown of Shakespeare's day), Francis Schackleton, Arthur Golding, Thomas Twine, John Philippes, Robert Gittins, and John Grafton, as well as Fleming's own account. Published by Henry Denham on 27 June 1580, Fleming's pamphlet was titled: A Bright Burning Beacon, forewarning all wise Virgins to trim their lampes against the coming of the Bridegroome. Conteining A generall doctrine of sundrie signes and wonders, specially Earthquakes both particular and generall: A discourse of the end of this world: A commemoration of our late Earthquake, the 6 of April, about 6 of the clocke in the evening 1580. And a praier for the appeasing of Gods wrath and indignation. Newly translated and collected by Abraham Fleming. Shirley Collins cites ballad-writer Thomas Deloney as having written the broadside ballad "Awake Awake" about the earthquake, which she subsequently recorded on her 2016 album Lodestar. In the sleeve notes she states "Awake Awake is a fascinating survival of the penitential song written in 1580 by ballad-writer Thomas Deloney, when the Great Earthquake in London toppled part of old St Paul's Cathedral, Deloney taking it as a sign of God's displeasure. Over three hundred years later, in 1909, Ralph Vaughan Williams noted down this version from the singing of Mrs Caroline Bridges of Pembridge and it's in Mary Ellen Leather's (1912). A remarkable journey down through those many years." An adaptation of the original tune was subsequently put to the carol "God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen" by Ralph Vaughan Williams. Impact Farther from the coast, furniture danced on the floors and wine casks rolled off their stands. The belfry of Notre Dame de Lorette and several buildings at Lille collapsed. Stones fell from buildings in Arras, Douai, Béthune and Rouen. Windows cracked in the cathedral of Notre Dame at Pontoise, and blocks of stone dropped ominously from the vaulting. At Beauvais, the bells rang as though sounding the tocsin. Many deaths were reported from Saint-Amand-les-Eaux. In Flanders, chimneys fell and cracks opened in the walls of Ghent and Oudenarde, killing several people. Peasants in the fields reported a low rumble and saw the ground roll in waves. On the English coast, sections of wall fell in Dover and a landslip opened a raw new piece of the White Cliffs. At Sandwich a loud noise emanated from the Channel, as church arches cracked and the gable end of a transept fell at St Peter's Church. Near Hythe, Kent, Saltwood Castle—made famous as the site where the plot was hatched in December 1170 to assassinate Thomas Becket—was rendered uninhabitable until it was repaired in the 19th century. In London, half a dozen chimney stacks and a pinnacle on Westminster Abbey came down; two children were killed by stones falling from the roof of Christ's Church Hospital. Indeed, many Puritans blamed the emerging theatre scene of the time in London, which was seen as the work of the Devil, as a cause of the quake. There was damage far inland, in Cambridgeshire, where stones fell from Ely Cathedral. Part of Stratford Castle in Essex collapsed. In Scotland, a local report of the quake disturbed the adolescent James VI, who was informed that it was the work of the Devil. There were aftershocks. Before dawn the next morning, between 4 and 5 o'clock, further houses collapsed near Dover due to aftershocks, and a spate of further aftershocks was noticed in east Kent on 1–2 May. Other earthquakes in the Dover Straits 198 years earlier there was a very similar event, the magnitude 5.8–6.0 1382 Dover Straits earthquake, with an estimated epicentre not far from that estimated for the 1580 event. Two later quakes in the Dover Strait, in 1776 and 1950, both thought to be around magnitude 4, were noted in the 1984 compilation by R.M.W. Musson, G. Neilson and P.W. Burton. None in this study occurred before 1727, but the same team devoted an article to the 1580 earthquake that year. The 2007 Kent earthquake was initially thought to have occurred in the Dover Straits, but later analysis showed it to have occurred directly under the town of Folkestone in Kent. See also Geology of the United Kingdom List of earthquakes in the United Kingdom List of earthquakes in France Notes and references External links Shaksper: The Global Shakespeare Discussion List, 2002 archives Friday, 26 April 2002, and following messages, which, taken together, compile references used to write this article. Geology shop: UK Earthquakes. Source for much detail in this article. European Historical Earthquakes Archive: the 1580 Dover Straits earthquake. Historical earthquakes studies on the earthquake with maps and macroseismic intensities. History of the English Channel Disasters in Kent History of Dover, Kent History of Calais 1580 1580 Earthquakes in Europe Natural disasters in Belgium 1580 in France 1580 in England 1580 in the Habsburg Netherlands 16th century in France 1580s earthquakes 1580 in science Strait of Dover

5618154

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20light

Earthquake light

An earthquake light also known as earthquake lightning or earthquake flash is a luminous optical phenomenon that appears in the sky at or near areas of tectonic stress, seismic activity, or volcanic eruptions. There is no broad consensus as to the causes of the phenomenon (or phenomena) involved. The phenomenon differs from disruptions to electrical grids – such as arcing power lines – which can produce bright flashes as a result of ground shaking or hazardous weather conditions. Appearance One of the first records of earthquake lights is from the 869 Sanriku earthquake, described as "strange lights in the sky" in Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku. The lights are reported to appear while an earthquake is occurring, although there are reports of lights before or after earthquakes, such as reports concerning the 1975 Kalapana earthquake. They are reported to have shapes similar to those of the auroras, with a white to bluish hue, but occasionally they have been reported having a wider color spectrum. The luminosity is reported to be visible for several seconds, but has also been reported to last for tens of minutes. Accounts of viewable distance from the epicenter varies: in the 1930 Idu earthquake, lights were reported up to from the epicenter. Earthquake lights were reportedly spotted in Tianshui, Gansu, approximately north-northeast of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake's epicenter. During the 2003 Colima earthquake in Mexico, colorful lights were seen in the skies for the duration of the earthquake. During the 2007 Peru earthquake lights were seen in the skies above the sea and filmed by many people. The phenomenon was also observed and caught on film during the 2009 L'Aquila and the 2010 Chile earthquakes. The phenomenon was also reported around the North Canterbury earthquake in New Zealand, that occurred 1 September 1888. The lights were visible in the morning of 1 September in Reefton, and again on 8 September. More recent appearances of the phenomenon, along with video footage of the incidents, happened in Sonoma County, California on August 24, 2014, and in Wellington, New Zealand on November 14, 2016, where blue flashes like lightning were seen in the night sky, and recorded on several videos. On September 8, 2017, many people reported such sightings in Mexico City after a 8.2 magnitude earthquake with epicenter away, near Pijijiapan in the state of Chiapas. Appearances of the earthquake light seem to occur when the quakes have a high magnitude, generally 5 or higher on the Richter scale. There have also been incidents of yellow, ball-shaped lights appearing before earthquakes. Instances of this phenomenon appear in videos taken seconds after a 7.1 magnitude earthquake in the city of Acapulco, Mexico, around 20:47 on 7 September 2021. The New York Times reported that "Videos from both Acapulco and Mexico City also showed the night sky lit up with electrical flashes as power lines swayed and buckled." A recent one was seen in Qinghai Province, China at 01:45 on 8 January 2022. Surveillance video of a local resident captured the moment. During the 2022 Fukushima earthquake the phenomena was captured on video from multiple angles. This phenomenon was observed around 1:18 on 22 September 2022 when a magnitude 6.8 aftershock of the 2022 Michoacán earthquake struck. Social media users including Webcams de México posted videos of blue lights which seemed to be radiating upward. This was reported in Mexico News Daily and included one of the videos. During the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake, multiple lights appeared continuously in Kahramanmaraş and Hatay provinces. Later that year, blue light flashes were also seen in Agadir during the Marrakesh-Safi earthquake. Types Earthquake lights may be classified into two different groups based on their time of appearance: (1) preseismic earthquake light, which generally occur a few seconds to up to a few weeks prior to an earthquake, and are generally observed closer to the epicenter and (2) coseismic earthquake light, which can occur either near the epicenter ("earthquake‐induced stress"), or at significant distances away from the epicenter during the passage of the seismic wavetrain, in particular during the passage of S waves ("wave‐induced stress"). Earthquake light during the lower magnitude aftershock series seem to be rare. Possible explanations Research into earthquake lights is ongoing; as such, several mechanisms have been proposed. Some models suggest the generation of earthquake lights involve the ionization of oxygen to oxygen anions by breaking of peroxy bonds in some types of rocks (dolomite, rhyolite, etc.) by the high stress before and during an earthquake. After the ionisation, the ions travel up through the cracks in the rocks. Once they reach the atmosphere these ions can ionise pockets of air, forming plasma that emits light. Lab experiments have validated that some rocks do ionise the oxygen in them when subjected to high stress levels. Research suggests that the angle of the fault is related to the likelihood of earthquake light generation, with subvertical (nearly vertical) faults in rifting environments having the most incidences of earthquake lights. One hypothesis involves intense electric fields created piezoelectrically by tectonic movements of quartz-containing rocks such as granite. Another possible explanation is local disruption of the Earth's magnetic field and/or ionosphere in the region of tectonic stress, resulting in the observed glow effects either from ionospheric radiative recombination at lower altitudes and greater atmospheric pressure or as aurora. However, the effect is clearly not pronounced or notably observed at all earthquake events and is yet to be directly experimentally verified. During the American Physical Society's 2014 March meeting, research was provided that gave a possible explanation for the reason why bright lights sometimes appear during an earthquake. The research stated that when two layers of the same material rub against each other, voltage is generated. The researcher, Troy Shinbrot of Rutgers University, conducted experiments with different types of grains to mimic the crust of the Earth and emulated the occurrence of earthquakes. He reported that "when the grains split open, they measured a positive voltage spike, and when the split closed, a negative spike." The crack allows the voltage to discharge into the air which then electrifies the air and creates a bright electrical light when it does so. According to Shinbrot, they have produced these voltage spikes every single time with every material tested. While the reason for such an occurrence was not provided, Shinbrot referenced the phenomenon of triboluminescence. Researchers hope that by getting to the bottom of this phenomenon, it will provide more information that will allow seismologists to better predict earthquakes. Skepticism In 2016, podcaster Brian Dunning said he was skeptical that the phenomenon even existed, citing a lack of direct evidence. There is also a "staggering volume of literature... hardly any of these papers agree on anything... I'm forced to wonder how many of these eager researchers are familiar with Hyman's Categorical Imperative 'Do not try to explain something until you are sure there is something to be explained'." In 2016, freelance writer Robert Sheaffer wrote that skeptics and science bloggers should be more skeptical of the phenomenon. Sheaffer on his Bad UFO blog shows examples of what people claim are earthquake lights, then he shows photos of iridescent clouds which appear to be the same. He states that "It's truly remarkable how mutable "earthquake lights" are. Sometimes they look like small globes, climbing up a mountain. Sometimes they look like flashes of lightning. Other times they look exactly like iridescent clouds. Earthquake lights can look like anything at all, when you are avidly seeking evidence for them." See also Ball lightning Earthquake cloud Earthquake prediction Earthquake weather References External links Atmospheric ghost lights Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation Light sources

5835302

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Borujerd%20earthquake

2006 Borujerd earthquake

The 2006 Borujerd earthquake occurred in the early morning of 31 March in the South of Borujerd with destruction in Borujerd, Silakhor and Dorood areas of the Loristan Province in western Iran. The centre of the earthquake was in Darb-e Astaneh village south of the Borujerd City. The earthquake measured 6.1 on the moment magnitude scale. Earthquake This powerful earthquake shook the entire land of Loristan Province and most areas of Hamedan Province, Markazi Province and destroyed many villages in Khorramabad, Alashtar and Arak County as well. More than 180 aftershocks followed the main earthquake in April, May and June and people had to stay outside for several weeks. A lighter foreshock happened the night before, and people stayed outside overnight and this reduced the number of casualties significantly. However, the mainshock at 4:47 am on 31 March shook Borujerd, Dorud and other towns and villages on Silakhor Plain for more than 55 seconds. Damage More than 40 major historical monuments of Borujerd were destroyed by the earthquake and 30% of the historical downtown of the city (2.7 kmª) was ruined or damaged thoroughly. Other monuments damaged by the earthquake include: Jame Mosque of Borujerd (900 AD) Soltani Mosque of Borujerd Imamzadeh Ja'far, Borujerd Chalenchoolan Bridge Ghaleh Hatam Bridge Birjandi Old House of Borujerd Mesri Old House of Borujerd Imamzadeh Khalogh Ali Tekyeh Movassaghi Pahlavei High School Response Apart from UN agencies e.g. UNESCO and UNICEF, there are other international agencies functioning in the field, including MSF, Caritas Italy, Operation Mercy, ACH Spain and ACT Netherlands. See also 1909 Borujerd earthquake List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Iran References External links Darb e Astaneh (Silakhor) Earthquake Report: March 31, 2006; ML=6.1 – IIEES IFRC- Iran Doroud Earthquake, Information Bulletin no.3 – IFRC M 6.1 - western Iran – USGS Borujerd earthquake Borujerd earthquake 2006 Borujerd History of Lorestan Province Borujerd County Borujerd March 2006 events in Asia

5998814

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Pangandaran%20earthquake%20and%20tsunami

2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami

An earthquake occurred on July 17, 2006 at along a subduction zone off the coast of west and central Java, a large and densely populated island in the Indonesian archipelago. The shock had a moment magnitude of 7.7 and a maximum perceived intensity of IV (Light) in Jakarta, the capital and largest city of Indonesia. There were no direct effects of the earthquake's shaking due to its low intensity, and the large loss of life from the event was due to the resulting tsunami, which inundated a portion of the Java coast that had been unaffected by the earlier 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that was off the coast of Sumatra. The July 2006 earthquake was also centered in the Indian Ocean, from the coast of Java, and had a duration of more than three minutes. An abnormally slow rupture at the Sunda Trench and a tsunami that was unusually strong relative to the size of the earthquake were both factors that led to it being categorized as a tsunami earthquake. Several thousand kilometers to the southeast, surges of several meters were observed in northwestern Australia, but in Java the tsunami runups (height above normal sea level) were typically and resulted in the deaths of more than 600 people. Other factors may have contributed to exceptionally high peak runups of on the small and mostly uninhabited island of Nusa Kambangan, just to the east of the resort town of Pangandaran, where damage was heavy and a large loss of life occurred. Since the shock was felt with only moderate intensity well inland, and even less so at the shore, the surge arrived with little or no warning. Other factors contributed to the tsunami being largely undetected until it was too late, and although a tsunami watch was posted by an American tsunami warning center and a Japanese meteorological center, no information was delivered to people at the coast. Tectonic setting The island of Java is the most densely populated island on Earth, and is vulnerable to both large earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, due to its location near the Sunda Trench, a convergent plate boundary where the Australian tectonic plate is subducting beneath Indonesia. Three great earthquakes occurred in the span of three years to the northwest on the Sumatra portion of the trench. The 2004 M9.15 Sumatra–Andaman, the 2005 M8.7 Nias–Simeulue, and the 2007 M8.4 Mentawai earthquakes produced the largest release of elastic strain energy since the 1957/1964 series of shocks on the Aleutian/Alaska Trench. The southeastern (Java) portion of the Sunda Trench extends from the Sunda Strait in the west to Bali Basin in the east. The convergence of relatively old oceanic crust is occurring at a rate of per year in the west portion and per year in the east, and the dip of the Benioff Zone (the angle of the zone of seismicity that defines the down-going slab at a convergent boundary) is around 50° and extends to a depth of approximately . Pre-instrumental events were the large to very large events of 1840, 1867, and 1875, but unlike the northwestern Sumatra segment, no megathrust earthquake has occurred on the Java segment of the Sunda Trench in the last 300 years. Earthquake The earthquake was the result of thrust faulting at the Sunda Trench. A rupture length of approximately (and an unusually low rupture velocity of per second) resulted in a duration of about 185 seconds (just over three minutes) for the event. The shock was centered from the trench, and about from the south coast of the island. A comparison was made with the earlier 2002 Sumatra earthquake, a M7.5 submarine earthquake of a similar size that also occurred along the Sunda Arc and at a shallow depth, but one that did not result in a tsunami. The large and damaging tsunami that was generated was out of proportion relative to the size of the event, based on its short-period body wave magnitude. The Indonesian Meteorological, Climatological, and Geophysical Agency assigned a magnitude of 6.8, and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) reported a similar value of 6.1 (both body wave magnitude) that were calculated from short-period seismic waves (1–2 seconds in the case of the USGS). The USGS then presented a moment magnitude of 7.2 that was calculated from 5–100-second surface waves, and Harvard University subsequently revealed that a moment magnitude of 7.7 had been resolved based on even longer 150-second surface waves. Intensity In tsunami prone regions, strong earthquakes serve as familiar warnings, and this is especially true for earthquakes in Indonesia. Previous estimates of the tsunami hazard for the Java coastline may have minimized the risk to the area, and to the northwest along the Sumatran coast, the risk is substantially higher for tsunami, especially near Padang. Previous events along the coast of Java in 1921 and again in 1994 illustrate the need for an accurate assessment of the threat. The July 2006 earthquake had an unusually slow rupture velocity which resulted in minor shaking on land for around three minutes, but the intensity was very light relative to the size of the tsunami that followed. The earthquake produced shaking at Pangandaran (where the M6.3 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake was felt more strongly) of intensity III–IV (Weak–Light), intensity III at Cianjur, and II (Weak) at Yogyakarta. Further inland and farther from the epicenter, intensity IV shaking made tall buildings sway in Jakarta, but at some coastal villages where many of the casualties occurred, the shaking was not felt as strong. An informal survey of 67 people that were present at the time revealed that in at least eight cases, individuals stated that they did not feel the earthquake at all (a typical M7.7 earthquake would have been distinctly noticed at those distances). The unusually low felt intensities, along with the short period body wave magnitudes, were components of the event that narrowed its classification into that of a tsunami earthquake. Type Tsunami earthquakes can be influenced by both the presence of (and lack of) sediment at the subduction zone, and can be categorized as either aftershocks of megathrust earthquakes, like the M7 June 22, 1932 Cuyutlán event in Mexico, or as standalone events that occur near the upper portion of a plate interface. Northwestern University professor Emile Okal imparts that in the aftershock scenario, they can occur as a result of stress transfer from a mainshock to an accretionary wedge or a similar environment with "deficient mechanical properties", and as standalone events they can occur in the presence of irregular contacts at the plate interface in a zone that lacks sediment. One of the initial characterizations of tsunami earthquakes came from seismologist Hiroo Kanamori in the early 1970s, and additional clarity materialized following the 1992 Nicaragua earthquake and tsunami, which was evaluated to have a surface wave magnitude of 7.0 when analyzing short period seismic signals. When longer period signals of around 250 seconds were investigated, the shock was reevaluated to have a moment magnitude of 7.6, with a hypothesis that the slow nature of the slip of the event may have concealed its substantial extent. Sediment was thought to have contributed to a slower rupture, due to a lubrication effect at the plate interface, with the result being an earthquake signature that had abundant long period seismic signals, which could be an important factor in the tsunami-generation process. Warning A tsunami warning system was not in operation at the time of the shock, but the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Hawaii) and the Japan Meteorological Agency posted a tsunami watch, based on the occurrence of a M7.2 earthquake. The bulletin came within 30 minutes of the shock, but there was no means to transmit the warning to the people on the coast that needed to know. Many of those who felt the earthquake responded by moving away from the shore, but not with any urgency. The withdrawal of the sea that exposed an additional of beach created an even more significant warning sign, but in some locations wind waves on the sea effectively concealed the withdrawal that signalled the approach of the tsunami. Tsunami The earthquake and tsunami came on a Monday afternoon, a day after many more people were present on the beach, due to a major national holiday. The waves came a few tens of minutes after the shock (and were a surprise, even to lifeguards) and occurred when the sea level was approaching low tide which, along with the wind waves, masked the initial withdrawal of the sea as the tsunami drew near. Most portions of the south Java coast saw runup heights of , but evidence on the island of Nusa Kambangan indicated that a peak surge measuring had occurred there, suggesting to researchers that the possibility of a submarine landslide had contributed to the magnitude of the tsunami in that area. Runup A portion of the southwest and south-central Java coast was affected by the tsunami, and resulted in around 600 fatalities, with a high concentration in Pangandaran. Two thousand kilometers (1,200 mi) to the southeast at the Steep Point area of western Australia, a runup of was measured, which was comparable to a similar runup in northern Oman from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, though in that case it was at a much greater distance of . Within three weeks of the event, scientists from five different countries were on the ground in Java performing a survey of the affected areas, including gathering runup (height above normal sea level) and inundation (distance the surge moved inland from the shore) measurements. The island of Nusa Kambangan () sits on the south coast of Java and is separated from the main island by a narrow strait. It is a large and mostly uninhabited nature reserve, and is referred to as the Alcatraz of Indonesia, due to the three high security prisons that are located at the town of Permisan. Of all the measurements taken during the post-tsunami survey, the highest runup heights () were seen on the island behind a beach, where hibiscus and pandanus plants, and large coconut trees were mangled and uprooted up to from the shore. The (sea floor) bathymetry in the area supported a proposition that a canyon slope failure or an underwater landslide may have contributed to or focused the tsunami energy at that location. Nineteen farmers and one prisoner were killed there, but the deep water port of Cilacap (just to the east) was protected by the island, although one large moored vessel made ground contact during the initial withdrawal. Damage Since the earthquake caused only minor ground movement, and was only lightly felt, all the damage that occurred on the island was due to the tsunami. Types of buildings that were affected were timber/bamboo, brick traditional, and brick traditional with reinforced concrete. Semi-permanent timber or bamboo structures that were based on a wooden frame were the most economical style of construction that were assessed following the disaster. A tsunami flow depth of usually resulted in complete destruction of these types of structures. A group of scientists that evaluated the damage considered the unreinforced brick construction as weak, because the performance of homes constructed in that style did not fare much better than the timber/bamboo variety. Hotels and some houses and shops that were of reinforced brick construction were far better off, because units that were exposed to a flood depth of were considered repairable. Many wooden cafes and shops within of the shore were completely removed by the tsunami at Pangandaran, and severe damage still occurred to unreinforced masonry that was within several hundred meters, but some hotels that were constructed well held up better. The villages of Batu Hiu and Batu Kara, both to the west of Pangandaran, experienced similar damage. Other severe damage was seen at Marsawah village, Bulakbenda, where all buildings had been removed down to their foundation within of the water line, and even further inland there were many buildings that were totally destroyed. Witnesses reported that waves were breaking several hundred meters inland at that location. Response Officials in Indonesia received information regarding the tsunami in the form of bulletins from the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center and the Japan Meteorological Agency, but wanted to avoid panic, and did not attempt to disseminate the advisories to the public. Virtually no time was available to make that sort of effort (had the intention been to communicate the danger with the public) because some community leaders were sent text messages with pertinent information only minutes prior to the arrival of the first waves. The tsunami affected the coast of Java comprising mostly fishing villages and beach resorts that were unscathed following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, and was also only several hundred kilometers distant from the region that saw heavy destruction just several months prior during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. Trained research teams were already on the ground on Java responding to the May earthquake and began a survey of more than one hundred Muslim farmers, plantation laborers, and fishermen (or those with fishing-related occupations) that were affected by the tsunami. Almost two thirds of the group reported that they lived in permanent structures made of wood, brick, or cement, while the remainder lived in semi-permanent facilities made from earth or stone. The government was cited as the first responder for water, relocation and medical assistance, and helping with the deceased. For rescue, shelter, clothing, and locating missing people, individuals were listed as the primary provider, but 100% of those surveyed replied that the government should be responsible for relief. Most of those requiring aid stated that they were given effective assistance within 48 hours and that they were satisfied with the help. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Indonesia References Sources Further reading External links M7.7 – south of Java, Indonesia – United States Geological Survey In pictures: Indonesian tsunami – BBC News 'Stealth' Tsunami That Killed 600 In Java Last Summer Had 65 Foot High Wave – ScienceDaily A comparison study of 2006 Java earthquake and other Tsunami earthquakes – University of California, Santa Barbara Tsunami Event – July 17, 2006 South Java – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Deadly Java Tsunami Caused by Slow-Moving Quake – National Geographic Society Officials failed to pass on tsunami warning – The Guardian Indonesia’s 2 tsunami alert buoys were busted – NBC News Java, July 2006 in Indonesia Pangandaran Earthquakes in Indonesia Tsunamis in Australia Tsunamis in Indonesia July 2006 events in Asia Tsunami earthquakes Earthquakes in Java

5999209

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Java%20earthquake

2006 Java earthquake

The 2006 Java earthquake may refer to: 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake 2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami See also List of earthquakes in Indonesia

6067613

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Yanjin%20earthquake

2006 Yanjin earthquake

The 2006 Yanjin earthquake occurred with a moment magnitude of 4.9 on July 22 at 01:10 UTC (09:10 local time). This destructive shock took place in Yanjin County, Yunnan, China. Twenty-two were killed and 106 were injured. Damage Eight people were killed as a result of houses (usually wooden) collapsing and fourteen were killed from other reasons. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in China References 2006 Yanjin Yanjin Yanjin earthquake July 2006 events in China Geography of Zhaotong

6076570

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%20Earthquake%20Prediction%20Evaluation%20Council

California Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council

The California Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council (CEPEC) is a committee of earthquake experts that reviews potentially credible earthquake predictions and forecasts. Its purpose is to advise the Governor of California via the California Office of Emergency Services (CalOES). As the acting state geologist of the California Geological Survey, Tim McCrink is currently chair of CEPEC. While it is little-known outside of the fields of earthquake science and emergency response, CEPEC has a big responsibility: The council convenes at the request of the California Emergency Management Agency (CalEMA) to decide whether an earthquake prediction or an incident, such as swarm of small earthquakes, is serious enough to merit a warning to emergency responders or even the public at large. CEPEC typically meets a couple of times a year, but is available 24-7. The members conduct a teleconference within several hours of a major temblor. From 1986 through 2016, CEPEC convened a total of 17 times to evaluate recent or ongoing seismic activity. For example, following the 2016 earthquake swarm at Bombay Beach, CEPEC released a statement to CalOES estimating that the probability of a magnitude 7 or larger earthquake on the San Andreas fault for the following week was between 0.03% and 1%. This advisory of the heightened risk led to the temporary closure of the city hall in San Bernardino. CEPEC also issued an advisory to CalOES following the 2019 M7.1 Ridgecrest earthquake, but this was not made public. CEPEC members include U.C. San Diego seismologist Duncan Agnew; James Brune of the University of Nevada Seismological Lab; Greg Beroza of Stanford University; Thomas Jordan of the University of Southern California; Morgan Page, a geophysicist with the U.S. Geological Survey in Pasadena; Tom Heaton, a professor of engineering seismology at Caltech in Pasadena; and California Geological Survey seismologist Rui Chen. In addition to evaluating earthquake hazard following notable changes in seismic activity, CEPEC is also tasked with evaluating earthquake predictions. For example, CEPEC evaluated the 2004 earthquake prediction by Keilis-Borok and a 2015 prediction following the La Habra earthquake and concluded that no action should be taken as a result of those predictions. Earthquakes did not occur in the space-time window of either prediction. As of 2019, CEPEC and the state of California have never advised any action be taken by the government or residents based on an earthquake prediction. References consrv.ca.gov signonsandiego.com External links CalOES FAQ about Earthquake Advisories Seismological observatories, organisations and projects Organizations based in California Earthquakes in California Earthquake engineering organizations

6135929

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1138%20Aleppo%20earthquake

1138 Aleppo earthquake

The 1138 Aleppo earthquake was among the deadliest earthquakes in history. Its name was taken from the city of Aleppo, in northern Syria, where the most casualties were sustained. The earthquake also caused damage and chaos to many other places in the area around Aleppo. The quake occurred on 11 October 1138 and was preceded by a smaller quake on the 10th. It is frequently listed as the third deadliest earthquake in history, following on from the Shensi and Tangshan earthquakes in China. However, the figure of 230,000 deaths reported by Ibn Taghribirdi in the fifteenth century is most likely based on a historical conflation of this earthquake with earthquakes in November 1137 on the Jazira plain and the large seismic event of 30 September 1139 in the Transcaucasian city of Ganja. Background Aleppo is located along the northern part of the Dead Sea Transform system of geologic faults, which is a plate boundary separating the Arabian plate from the African plate. The earthquake was the beginning of the first of two intense sequences of earthquakes in the region: October 1138 to June 1139 and a much more intense and a later series from September 1156 to May 1159. The first sequence affected areas around Aleppo and the western part of the region of Edessa (modern Şanlıurfa, Turkey). During the second an area encompassing north-western Syria, northern Lebanon and the region of Antioch (modern Antakya, in southern Turkey) was subject to devastating quakes. In the mid-twelfth century, northern Syria was a war-ravaged land. The Crusader states set up by Western Europeans, such as the Principality of Antioch, were in a state of constant armed conflict with the Muslim states of Northern Syria and the Jazeerah, principally Aleppo and Mosul. Geological setting The Near East region sits on a triple junction between the Arabian, African, and Eurasian plates. As such, this is one of the most tectonically active regions in the world. The Arabian Plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate causing the orogeny of the Caucasus Mountains and Anatolian Plateau. Complementing the subduction zone along the north are divergent boundaries near the Red and Arabian Seas, as well as transform boundaries to the west along roughly along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea from the Sinai Peninsula to the Syria-Turkey border. The Dead Sea Fault and the convergent boundary north of it have produced many notable seismic events both long before and after the Aleppo earthquake. Some of these were so traumatic that they found their way into myth and theology of ancient peoples such as the quake occurring during the Crucifixion of Christ, or the 1500 BCE event which destroyed the city of Jericho and subsequently saw it abandoned. In 1927, the Jericho earthquake caused approximately 500 deaths and extensive damage, in particular to holy sites throughout the Holy Land. Description A contemporary chronicler in Damascus, Ibn al-Qalanisi, recorded the main quake on Wednesday, 11 October 1138. He wrote that it was preceded by an initial quake on 10 October and there were aftershocks on the evening of 20 October, on 25 October, on the night of 30 October–1 November, and finishing with another in the early morning of 3 November. However, Kemal al-Din, an author writing later, recorded only one earthquake on 19–20 October, which disagrees with al Qalanisi's account. Given that al Qalanisi was writing as the earthquakes occurred and that accounts from other historians support a 10 or 11 October date, his date of 11 October is considered authoritative. Sources today believe that the initial quake had an intensity greater than 7, and that it was accompanied by a tsunami. These factors contributed to the 1138 Aleppo earthquake being named one of the deadliest of all time. The worst hit area was Harem, where Crusaders had built a large citadel. Sources indicate that the castle was destroyed and the church fell in on itself. The fort of Athareb, then occupied by Muslims, was destroyed. The citadel also collapsed, killing 600 of the castle guard, though the governor and some servants survived, and fled to Mosul. The town of Zardana, already sacked by the warring forces, was utterly obliterated, as was the small fort at Shih. The residents of Aleppo, a large city of several tens of thousands during this period, had been warned by the foreshocks and fled to the countryside before the main earthquake. However, many people did not take the warnings of the foreshocks seriously, and decided to stay. This mistake cost many people their lives because the next day (October 11) the main shock occurred which caused the collapse of many buildings, killing thousands of people. The walls of the citadel collapsed, as did the walls east and west of the citadel. Numerous houses were destroyed, with the stones used in their construction falling in streets. The cracks and holes in the foundations of the walls and buildings also caused further problems for the people of Aleppo. The holes allowed Crusaders and people from Muslim factions to invade the city, and another citadel in Aleppo was breached. Contemporary accounts of the damage simply state that Aleppo was destroyed, though comparison of reports indicate that it did not bear the worst of the earthquake. Other reports claim that Azrab, which is north of Aleppo, experienced the worst of the damage. Reports claim that the ground split in the middle, swallowing the village. This was most likely the result of a landslide from the earthquake. Reports also state that the main earthquake and its aftershocks were felt in Damascus, but not in Jerusalem. Accounts of men being swallowed by holes opening in the ground at Raqqa were erroneously attributed to the Aleppo earthquake, and based on the confused late twelfth-century account of Michael the Syrian. Economic and political effects The effects that the earthquake had were not limited to the direct destruction caused by the shocks. The shocks and the destruction resulted in a sort of domino effect on the economy and the government of Aleppo. First, most people's houses were completely destroyed, and their belongings along with it. The people who survived had to leave their homes, and many of them fled to the desert. Citadel was deserted and damaged, and about 60% of the urban fabric was destroyed. This mass destruction was expensive, and due to scarce revenue, there was not much reconstruction. The jobs and lives of people in the city were permanently altered. Also, new systems for the administration of buildings were implemented. This was their attempt to attract people back to the city and make more money, but it was never as successful as it had been in the past. Aleppo sat along the confluence on land trade routes from Africa and Asia coming into Europe, causing Aleppo to be the wealthy and coveted city it was. Following its destruction in the earthquake the trade from East to West stuttered till the city was rebuilt. This hiccup, along with the sack of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade, allowed for Italian merchant city-states like Venice, Pisa, and Genoa to enter onto the trade scene and start a shift toward maritime versus land-based supply. See also List of historical earthquakes List of earthquakes in Turkey List of earthquakes in the Levant References Aleppo earthquake 1138 Aleppo History of Aleppo 12th century in the Seljuk Empire Aleppo Earthquake, 1138 Earthquakes in Syria Tsunamis in Syria

6224059

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%20Luzon%20earthquake

1990 Luzon earthquake

The 1990 Luzon earthquake struck the island of Luzon in the Philippines at 4:26 p.m. on July 16 (PDT) or 3:26 p.m. (PST) with an estimated moment magnitude of 7.7 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent) and produced a 125 km-long ground rupture that stretched from Dingalan, Aurora to Kayapa, Nueva Vizcaya. The event was a result of strike-slip movements along the Philippine Fault and the Digdig Fault within the Philippine Fault System. The earthquake's epicenter was near the town of Rizal, Nueva Ecija, northeast of Cabanatuan. An estimated 1,621 people were killed, most of the fatalities located in Central Luzon and the Cordillera region. Geology The Philippine archipelago represents a complex plate boundary between the Philippine Sea and Eurasian plates. To the east, oceanic lithosphere subducts westwards beneath the islands along the Philippine Trench. Off the west coast of Luzon, the Manila Trench accommodates eastward subduction. To its east is the East Luzon Trench, a convergent boundary that separates the Philippine Trench by a transform fault. The left-lateral strike-slip Philippine Fault System runs through the islands. It is one of the longest strike-slip faults in the world. Understanding of its geology and earthquake history is limited. It extends north–south for from Mindanao to northern Luzon. On Luzon, the fault branches into multiple splay segments including the northernly trending Digdig Fault. The event was one of the largest continental strike-slip earthquakes of the century. It was associated with a long surface rupture on the Philippine Fault System. Rupture occurred bilaterally, extending from the hypocenter, but most of the rupture occurred northwest for . About north of the epicenter, the largest slip was estimated at . Slip gradually decreased away from the zone. The Digdig Fault displayed of left-lateral displacement. Aftershocks occurred along a length of the fault. They displayed a range of focal mechanism including strike-slip, normal and thrust faulting. Impact The earthquake caused damage within an area of about 20,000 square kilometers, stretching from the mountains of the Cordillera Administrative Region and through the Central Luzon region. The earthquake was strongly felt in Metropolitan Manila, destroying many buildings and leading to panic and stampedes and ultimately three deaths in the National Capital Region, one of the lowest fatalities recorded in the wake of the tremor. The ceiling of a movie theater in Pasay reportedly collapsed pinning a number of moviegoers. The Southern Tagalog (nowadays Regions 4A (Calabarzon) and 4B (Mimaropa), and Aurora of Central Luzon) and Bicol Regions also felt the quake, but with low casualty figures. Then-president Cory Aquino, who was having a meeting with Senate leaders at Malacañang Palace in Manila, recounted that she hid under a long conference table during the earthquake. She later ordered the suspension of classes and the mobilization of relief agencies. Baguio The popular destination of Baguio, situated over 5000 feet above sea level, was among the areas hardest hit by the Luzon earthquake. The earthquake caused 28 collapsed buildings, including hotels, factories, and government and university buildings, as well as many private homes and establishments. The quake destroyed electric, water and communication lines in the city. The main vehicular route to Baguio, Kennon Road, as well as other access routes to the mountain city, were shut down due to landslides and it took three days before enough landslide debris was cleared to allow access by road to the stricken city. Baguio was isolated from the rest of the Philippines for the first 48 hours after the quake. Damage at Loakan Airport rendered access to the city by air limited to helicopters. American and Philippine Air Force C-130s evacuated many residents from this airport. Many city residents, as well as patients confined in hospital buildings damaged by the quake, were forced to stay inside tents set up in public places, such as in Burnham Park and in the streets. Looting of department stores in the city was reported. Among the first rescuers to arrive at the devastated city were miners from Benguet Corporation, who focused on rescue efforts at the collapsed Hotel Nevada. Teams sent by the Philippine government and by foreign governments and agencies likewise participated in the rescue and retrieval operations in Baguio. One of the more prominent buildings destroyed was the Hyatt Terraces Baguio Hotel, where at least eighty hotel employees and guests were killed, including at least four employees of the state-owned Philippine Amusement and Gaming Corporation which ran the casino. Three hotel employees, however, were pulled out alive after having been buried under the rubble for nearly two weeks, and after international rescue teams had abandoned the site convinced there were no more survivors. Luisa Mallorca and Arnel Calabia were extricated from the rubble 11 days after the quake, while hotel cook Pedrito Dy was recovered alive 14 days following the earthquake. All three survived in part by drinking their own urine and in Dy's case, rainwater. At that time, Dy's 14-day ordeal was cited as a world record for entombment underneath rubble. The United States Agency for International Development was sponsoring a seminar at the Hotel Nevada when the tremor struck, causing the hotel to collapse. 27 of the seminar participants, including one American USAID official, were killed in the quake. Among those who were pulled out alive from the ruins of the hotel was future senatorial candidate Sonia Roco, wife of politician Raul Roco, who was pulled out from the rubble by miners after 36 hours. Cabanatuan In Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija, the tallest building in the city, a six-story concrete school building housing the Christian College of the Philippines, collapsed during the earthquake, which occurred during school hours. Around 154 people were killed at the CCP building. Unlike in Baguio, local and international journalists were able to arrive at Cabanatuan within hours after the tremor, and media coverage of the quake in its immediate aftermath centered on the collapsed school, where rescue efforts were hampered by the lack of heavy equipment to cut through the steel reinforcement of fallen concrete. Some of the victims who did not die in the collapse were found dead later from dehydration because they were not pulled out in time. A 20-year-old high school student, Robin Garcia, was later credited with rescuing at least eight students and teachers by twice returning under the rubble to retrieve survivors. Garcia was killed by an aftershock hours after the quake while trying to rescue more survivors, and he received several posthumous tributes, including medals of honor from the Boy Scouts of the Philippines and President Corazon Aquino's Grieving Heart Award for his heroic effort that brought the world's attention to the quake due to quick media coverage in the city, since most of the buildings were damaged save for the CCP building which was collapsed totally. In other areas of Nueva Ecija, a school in Guimba collapsed killing three students. In neighboring Nueva Vizcaya, at least 100 motorists and commuters were buried alive in landslides along the Nueva Vizcaya-Isabela Highway. Dagupan In Dagupan, about 90 buildings in the city were damaged, and about 20 collapsed. Some structures sustained damage because liquefaction caused buildings to sink as much as . The earthquake caused a decrease in the elevation of the city and several areas were flooded. The city suffered 64 casualties of which 47 survived and 17 died. Most injuries were sustained during stampedes at a university building and a theater. La Union Five municipalities in La Union were affected: Agoo, Aringay, Caba, Santo Tomas, and Tubao with a combined population of 132,208. Many buildings, including the Agoo Municipal hall, the Museo de Iloko, the parish church of Aringay, and the Basilica Minore of our Lady of Charity, collapsed or were severely damaged. 100,000 families were displaced when two coastal villages sank due to liquefaction. The province suffered many casualties leaving 32 people dead. Patterns of damage Based on preliminary analysis, cases and controls were similar in age and sex distribution. Similar proportions of cases and controls were inside buildings (74% and 80%, respectively) and outside buildings (26% and 20%, respectively) during the earthquake. For persons who were inside a building, risk factors included building height, type of building material, and the floor level the person was on. Persons inside buildings with seven or more floors were 35 times more likely to be injured. Persons inside buildings constructed of concrete or mixed materials were three times more likely to sustain injuries than were those inside wooden buildings. Persons at middle levels of multistory buildings were twice as likely to be injured as those at the top or bottom levels. The earthquake caused different patterns of damage in different parts of Luzon Island. The mountain resort of Baguio was most severely affected, it had a high population density and many tall concrete buildings, which were more susceptible to seismic damage. Relief efforts proved difficult as all routes of communication, roads, and airport access were severed for several days following the quake. These efforts were further hampered by daily rainfall. Baguio is home to a large mining company and a military academy; experienced miners and other disciplined volunteers played a crucial role in early rescue efforts. Rescue teams arriving from Manila and elsewhere in Luzon were able to decrease mortality from major injuries. Surgeons, anesthesiologists, and specialized equipment and supplies were brought to the area, and victims were promptly treated. Patients requiring specialized care (e.g., hemodialysis) not available in the disaster area were airlifted to tertiary hospitals. Damage was caused by landslides in the mountains and settling in coastal areas. Relief efforts in these areas were prompt and successful, partly because those areas remained accessible. On July 19, three days after the earthquake, the priority of relief efforts shifted from treatment of injuries to public health concerns. For example, numerous broken pipes completely disrupted water systems, limiting the availability of potable water, and refugees who camped in open areas had no adequate toilet facilities. Early efforts at providing potable water by giving refugees chlorine granules were unsuccessful. Most potable water was distributed from fire engines, and Department of Health (DOH) sanitarians chlorinated the water before it was distributed. Surveys of refugee areas showed few latrines; these had to be dug by the DOH. Aftermath The University of Baguio, which got struck by this earthquake, was rehabilitated, while the land where Hyatt Terraces stood remains abandoned, which gives an eerie reminder of the earthquake. In popular culture The earthquake is featured in the television documentary series by GRB Entertainment, aired on The Learning Channel and other television channels around the world, about natural disasters titled Earth's Fury (also known internationally as Anatomy of Disaster) in an episode entitled "Earthquake!",, the 50th anniversary special of GMA News and Public Affairs titled Limang Dekada in 2010, the 50th anniversary special of ABS-CBN titled Sa Mata ng Balita in 2003, and the 1996 documentary produced by Langley Productions titled The Amazing Video Collection: Natural Disasters. Scenes of the earthquake's destruction around Baguio, as well as reflections on Filipino people's capacity to endure and rebuild, also featured in a segment of 1994 collage film directed by National Artist Kidlat Tahimik titled Why is Yellow the Middle of the Rainbow?. See also List of earthquakes in 1990 List of earthquakes in the Philippines 1990 Bohol and 1990 Panay earthquakes - two other significant earthquakes in the Philippines the same year 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo 2022 Luzon earthquake Bibliography References External links EIRD overview The 1990 Baguio City Earthquake (Archived 2009-10-21) International notes Earthquake Disaster – Luzon, Philippines Rapid.Org.UK – Philippines earthquake Videos Earthquakes in the Philippines Luzon earthquake Luzon earthquake History of Nueva Ecija History of Baguio History of Pangasinan History of La Union Luzon earthquake Strike-slip earthquakes

6320375

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1944%20San%20Juan%20earthquake

1944 San Juan earthquake

The 1944 San Juan earthquake took place in the province of San Juan, in the center-west area of Argentina, a region highly prone to seismic events. This moderate to strong earthquake (estimated moment magnitudes range from 6.7 to 7.8) destroyed a large part of San Juan, the provincial capital, and killed 10,000 of its inhabitants, 10% of its population at the time. One third of the province population became homeless. It is acknowledged as the worst natural disaster in Argentine history. The earthquake occurred at 8:52 pm on 15 January 1944 and had its epicenter located 30 km north of the provincial capital, near La Laja in Albardón Department. Some 90% of the buildings in the city were destroyed and those left standing suffered such damage that in most cases they had to be demolished. It is considered that the reason for such widespread destruction was the low quality of construction, rather than just the power of the earthquake. In 1944 many of San Juan's houses were made of adobe and the reconstruction programme prompted the creation of a building code that took into account contemporary knowledge of earthquakes and their effect on buildings. Stronger bricks were used, concrete single-story houses were erected and sidewalks and streets were made wider. Aid and reconstruction There was some debate as to whether it would be advisable to rebuild the city in the same place, or to take advantage of the situation to move it to a less earthquake prone location. The former alternative was adopted. At the start of the reconstruction, emergency homes were built for the population with funds from the national state. This was the first large-scale state-directed construction plan in Argentina, the first stages of which occurred under Peronist rule. Colonel Juan Perón, later to become president, had met his future wife Eva Duarte (Evita), during fundraising activities to help the victims. After the 1955 coup d'état ousted Perón, the reconstruction was continued under the de facto President Pedro Eugenio Aramburu. The earthquake caused many families to scatter in the confusion, and left around 1,000 orphaned children. According to historian Mark Healey, the issues surrounding the orphans and the nearly 100,000 homeless had a profound influence on the shaping of social legislation enacted during Perón's first term as president, two years later. The modern city As of 2006, San Juan has a population of around 400,000, and 63% of its approximately 90,000 homes, and 100% of its public institutional buildings, were built under seismic safety regulations. This, however, leaves almost a third of houses as non-seismic-resistant. A study of the seismic vulnerability of the city, conducted by the National University of San Juan in 2005, showed that 28% of the outlying neighborhoods present medium risk, and 20% of the city itself can be classified as high or very high vulnerability. See also List of earthquakes in 1944 List of earthquakes in Argentina Notes References Historia del país. El terremoto de San Juan . Universia Argentina. San Juan: identifican la vulnerabilidad sísmica. EIRD. Prevención Sísmica y Desarrollo Urbano. Diario de Cuyo. 15 January 2004. Aniversario del Terremoto del 44. Página/12. 7 August 2006. "Hubo un borramiento del pasado" (interview with historian Mark Healey). Earthquakes in San Juan Province, Argentina 1944 San Juan, 1944 History of Argentina (1943–1955) San Juan January 1944 events

6321024

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Mendoza%20earthquake

2006 Mendoza earthquake

The 2006 Mendoza earthquake was a medium-intensity seismic movement in the province of Mendoza, Argentina. It took place at 11:03 AM (UTC-3) on 5 August 2006, and had a magnitude of 5.6 in the Richter scale. Its hypocenter was centered 23 km west southwest of San Martin, exactly at the town of Ugarteche, Luján de Cuyo, and at a depth of 25 km. The earthquake was felt in the provinces of Mendoza (V–VI in the Mercalli intensity scale), San Juan, San Luis (IV Mercalli), La Rioja, and Córdoba (III Mercalli). It damaged about 600 buildings in the Greater Mendoza metropolitan area (mostly either precarious or old), as well as causing brief interruptions in the supply of electric power and mobile phone communications. Only a few wounded people were reported; there were no fatalities. On the following day a new, a minor earthquake (magnitude 3.7) was recorded about 5 km from the previous location, at a depth of 90 km. It was felt as grade II–III in the Mercalli scale in the city of Mendoza. The area is the most seismically active in Argentina. This seismic event was the largest in 20 years; the 1985 Mendoza earthquake (magnitude 6.0) caused 6 casualties and damaged thousands of houses and was centered at Godoy Cruz, just 4 km south of Mendoza. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Argentina References La Nación. 5 August 2006. Un fuerte sismo sacudió a Mendoza. La Nación. 6 August 2006. Hubo unas 600 viviendas afectadas por el sismo. Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Seismic events: 2006-08-05 , 2006-08-06 . External links 2006 Mendoza, Argentina Mendoza earthquake Mendoza earthquake August 2006 events in South America

6330568

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985%20Mendoza%20earthquake

1985 Mendoza earthquake

The 1985 Mendoza earthquake occurred with medium intensity in the province of Mendoza, Argentina. It took place 7 minutes after midnight on 26 January 1985, and had a magnitude of 6.2 in the Richter scale. Its epicenter was located about 45 km southwest of Mendoza, the provincial capital, at the southern end of the region's pre-Andes range, and at a depth of 5 km. It was felt as grade VIII in the Mercalli intensity scale. The earthquake caused 6 deaths and about 100 injuries. In the affected Greater Mendoza area, where most of the provincial population is concentrated, one third of the buildings were built of adobe. Some 23,000 homes were destroyed or condemned, though the actual number might have been larger. Estimates vary between 50,000 and 100,000 people left homeless. A report released soon afterwards stated that the main reason why the event did not produce thousands of casualties was its short duration (less than 10 seconds). In addition, the fact that it was a summer Friday night might have led many people to be sitting outside their homes, chatting with their neighbors, rather than sleeping inside. References Stein, Enrique. May 1985. Informe sobre el terremoto de Mendoza del 26 de enero de 1985 (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. External links 1985 Mendoza, Argentina Mendoza, 1985 1985 in Argentina January 1985 events in South America Earthquakes in Argentina

6333521

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1861%20Mendoza%20earthquake

1861 Mendoza earthquake

The 1861 Mendoza earthquake occurred in the province of Mendoza, Argentina on 20 March at 11:30 PM. It had an estimated magnitude of 7.2 on the scale and an intensity of IX–X on the Mercalli scale. Its hypocenter was located at an estimated depth of . Tectonic setting The city of Mendoza lies just to the east of the Precordillera structural belt, at the eastern margin of the Andes mountain belt. The ongoing flat slab subduction of the Nazca Plate below the South American Plate is causing shortening in the over-riding plate that is concentrated in the Precordillera belt, with a rate of 4.5±1.7 mm per year, from GPS data. This shortening is expressed as active thrust faulting. The two active thrust faults near Mendoza are the Peñas Thrust and the Cal Thrust, with the latter reaching the surface inside the city. This zone is one of the most seismically active parts of the Andes. Earthquake The earthquake is thought to have been caused by rupture of the Cal Thrust. The estimated magnitude of 7.2 is consistent with the estimated slip rate and frequency of ruptures along this fault, which suggest vertical offsets in the range 0.8–1.0 m for the last three to four earthquakes. Damage The earthquake devastated the provincial capital, Mendoza, killing somewhere in the range of 6,000 to 12,000 people, although even higher numbers have been suggested, with thousands more being injured. Most of the buildings were destroyed, including the cabildo (colonial government house). Fires caused by rupturing of the gas supply for lighting in some stores lasted for four days. The obstruction of canals led to local flooding. The effects of liquefaction were widely reported and many large landslides were observed. The town was rebuilt in a nearby location, and the authorities moved to their new seat in 1863. The new constructions, which incorporated modern architectural styles, were markedly different from the old colonial buildings. Notable deaths Auguste Bravard See also List of earthquakes in Argentina List of historical earthquakes References Epicentro de los terremotos destructivos en Argentina (1692–2012) Listado de Terremotos Históricos. Further reading 1861 Mendoza, Argentina Mendoza, 1861 1861 in Argentina March 1861 events 1861 disasters in Argentina

6334924

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977%20San%20Juan%20earthquake

1977 San Juan earthquake

The 1977 San Juan earthquake, also known as Caucete earthquake, took place in the province of San Juan, Argentina, on 23 November at 06:26:26 AM. It measured 7.4 on the surface wave magnitude scale, and had a maximum perceived intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The earthquake caused fatalities and severe damage to buildings throughout the province, especially in the city of Caucete, where at least 65 people died. It also caused slight damage in the north of the Greater Mendoza metropolitan area. The effects of the earthquake were felt as far away as Buenos Aires, where people were awakened that Wednesday by the tremor. People left their houses at dawn in panic at the Argentinian capital, located at to the east southeast. Tectonic setting San Juan Province lies in an area where the South American Plate is affected by flat-slab subduction of the underlying Nazca Plate, the so-called Pampean flat-slab. The very shallow angle leads to a much greater degree of coupling between the subducting and overriding plates. The increased coupling leads to shortening of the crust of the South American Plate, causing active thrust tectonics and rapid uplift, forming the Sierras Pampeanas. The Pie de Palo range is one of the active structures, interpreted to be controlled by major thrust faults. The overall structure has been interpreted as both thin-skinned and thick-skinned. Earthquake The earthquake consisted of two sub-events, separated by about 20 seconds, treated by some seismologists as foreshock and mainshock. The observed focal mechanism was reverse faulting, on a north-south trending structure. From the mainshock alone, it was not possible to decide whether the fault responsible dipped to the west or east. Analysis of the aftershock sequence suggests that two separate faults moved during the earthquake, the earlier event on a segment to the north and the later one to the south. The fault segments have been interpreted as both alternating west and eastward-dipping faults or as an east-dipping fault in the hanging-wall of a larger west-dipping fault. There was no surface rupture associated with the earthquake and it is example of a blind thrust earthquake on thrust faults underlying the Pie de Palo range. Damage There was widespread damage in San Juan Province. The towns of Bermejo and Caucete were particularly badly affected. Many houses constructed of adobe or unreinforced masonry were either badly damaged or destroyed and very large areas were affected by liquefaction. More modern structures, built to earthquake resistant designs, in contrast showed little damage. At least 65 people were killed and a further 284 were injured. The extensive damage left many homeless, with estimates in the range 20,000 to 40,000. The area's wine industry was heavily impacted due to damage to both buildings and particularly wine storage tanks, reducing the wine storage capacity of the affected area by about 10 million litres. See also List of earthquakes in 1977 List of earthquakes in Argentina References External links Listado de Terremotos Históricos — Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica 1977 Earthquakes in San Juan Province, Argentina San Juan, 1977 San Juan Earthquake, 1977 Buried rupture earthquakes November 1977 events in South America

6335115

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948%20Salta%20earthquake

1948 Salta earthquake

The 1948 Salta earthquake took place in the Argentinian province of Salta on 25 August at The shock was 7.0 on the moment magnitude scale and had a maximum Mercalli Intensity of IX (Violent). Property damage and casualties occurred in several towns in the east and southeast of Salta, and also in northern Tucumán and Jujuy, affecting the capitals of both. It was the last major earthquake recorded in the Argentine Northwest until the 2010 Salta earthquake. See also List of earthquakes in 1948 List of earthquakes in Argentina References External links Terremotos Históricos De La República Argentina – Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica Salta earthquake Earthquakes in Argentina Geology of Salta Province Salta, 1948 Salta earthquake

6335672

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1894%20San%20Juan%20earthquake

1894 San Juan earthquake

The 1894 San Juan earthquake took place in the province of San Juan, Argentina, on 27 October 1894, at about 07:30 PM. It was the most powerful earthquake recorded in Argentina, with magnitude 7.5 on the surface wave magnitude scale. Its epicenter was located to the northwest of San Juan, approximately at , and at a depth of 30 km. The maximum perceived intensity for the earthquake was IX (Violent) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It caused severe damage and about 100 casualties in San Juan and the province of La Rioja, and also caused minor damage in Catamarca, Córdoba, San Luis and Mendoza, up to 500 km away from the epicenter. See also List of earthquakes in Argentina List of historical earthquakes References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos . Further reading 1894 1894 in Argentina Earthquakes in San Juan Province, Argentina San Juan, 1894 October 1894 events 1894 disasters in Argentina

6336667

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20Argentina

List of earthquakes in Argentina

This is a list of earthquakes in Argentina. Details are approximate for old events. Magnitude is measured in the Richter magnitude scale. Intensity is measured in the Mercalli intensity scale. Depth is given in miles. 1600-1899 20th century 21st century | 2023 Neuquen earthquake | 2023-07-17 | 03:05:10 UTC | 6.6 | ??? | | 166.1 (edit this into the infobox) See also List of earthquakes in Mendoza Province References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. Earthquakes Argentina Earthquakes

6336930

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949%20Tierra%20del%20Fuego%20earthquakes

1949 Tierra del Fuego earthquakes

The 1949 Tierra del Fuego earthquakes occurred slightly more than eight hours apart on 17 December. Their epicenters were located in the east of the Chilean Tierra del Fuego Province, close to the Argentine border on the island of Tierra del Fuego. The two shocks measured 7.7 and 7.6 on the moment magnitude scale and were the most powerful ever recorded in the south of Argentina and one of the most powerful in austral Chile. They were felt with intensities as high as VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale, and affected the settlements of Punta Arenas and Río Gallegos. See also List of earthquakes in 1949 List of earthquakes in Chile List of earthquakes in Argentina References External links Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1949 1949 Tierra History of Tierra del Fuego History of Magallanes Region Presidential Republic (1925–1973) Tierra Del Fuego Earthquake, 1949 Tierra Del Fuego Earthquake, 1949 Tierra del Fuego, 1949 December 1949 events in South America

6339280

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1817%20Santiago%20del%20Estero%20earthquake

1817 Santiago del Estero earthquake

The 1817 Santiago del Estero earthquake took place in the province of Santiago del Estero, Argentina, on 4 July at about 05:30 PM. It was estimated to be 7.0 on the Richter magnitude scale. Its epicenter was at , at a depth of 30 km. The earthquake was felt with grade VIII in the Mercalli intensity scale in the provincial capital Santiago del Estero, where it caused grave damage. References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1817 Geography of Santiago del Estero Province Santiago del Estero, 1817 1817 in Argentina July 1817 events 1817 disasters in Argentina

6339372

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1782%20Mendoza%20earthquake

1782 Mendoza earthquake

The 1782 Mendoza earthquake took place in the province of Mendoza, Argentina, on 22 May 1782, at about 4 PM (UTC-3). It had an estimated magnitude of 7.0 in the Richter scale. Its epicenter was at , at a depth of 30 km. This was the first documented earthquake of many which would affect the provincial capital of Mendoza since its foundation. It was felt with grade VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale, and damaged several buildings, but did not produce casualties. See also 1920 Mendoza earthquake References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1782 1780s earthquakes 1782 natural disasters 1782 in the Spanish Empire

6339492

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1863%20Jujuy%20earthquake

1863 Jujuy earthquake

The 1863 Jujuy earthquake took place in the province of Jujuy, Argentina on 15 January at about 11:00 (UTC-3). It had an estimated magnitude of 6.4 and its epicenter was at , at a depth of about . This earthquake had a felt intensity of VIII on the Mercalli intensity scale. Its magnitude and duration made it exceptionally destructive, causing damage to the cathedral, the Cabildo (colonial government house) and precarious homes in San Salvador de Jujuy, the provincial capital. See also List of earthquakes in Argentina List of historical earthquakes References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1863 Geology of Jujuy Province Jujuy, 1863 Jujuy Earthquake, 1863 January 1863 events 1863 disasters in Argentina

6421384

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952%20San%20Juan%20earthquake

1952 San Juan earthquake

The 1952 San Juan earthquake took place on 11 June at 00:31:43 UTC in the province of San Juan, Argentina. It measured 6.8 on the moment magnitude scale with a depth of . The earthquake was felt in San Juan with a maximum of VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It caused damage in some locations in the south and west of the province, and a small number of casualties. See also List of earthquakes in 1952 List of earthquakes in Argentina References External links Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1952 Earthquakes in San Juan Province, Argentina San Juan, 1952 San Juan Earthquake, 1952 June 1952 events in South America

6421505

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1920%20Mendoza%20earthquake

1920 Mendoza earthquake

The 1920 Mendoza earthquake took place in the province of Mendoza, Argentina, on 17 December at 6:59:49 p.m. It measured magnitude 6.0, and its epicenter was at , with a depth of 40 km. The earthquake was felt with grade VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It affected the provincial capital Mendoza, and caused material damage and numerous fatalities in several towns to the northeast. See also 1782 Mendoza earthquake List of earthquakes in 1920 List of earthquakes in Argentina List of historical earthquakes References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1920 Mendoza, 1920

6628596

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968%20Casiguran%20earthquake

1968 Casiguran earthquake

The 1968 Casiguran earthquake occurred on with a moment magnitude of 7.6 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). The thrust earthquake's epicenter was in Casiguran, Quezon (now part of Aurora province). A small non-destructive tsunami was generated and at least 207 people were killed. The majority of the deaths occurred in the collapse of a six-story building in Manila. Damage In Manila, many structures that suffered severe damage had been built near the mouth of the Pasig River on huge alluvial deposits. A number of buildings were damaged beyond repair while others only suffered cosmetic damage. 268 people were reported to have died during the collapse of the six-story Ruby Tower, located at the corner of Doroteo Jose and Teodora Alonzo Streets in the district of Santa Cruz. The entire building, save for a portion of the first and second floors at its northern end, was destroyed. Allegations of poor design and construction, as well as the use of poor-quality building materials arose. In the district of Santa Ana, one person was injured by debris from a damaged apartment building. Two more people from Aurora sub province and Pampanga died as a direct result of the quake. Around the town of Casiguran, there were several reports of landslides, the most destructive one at Casiguran Bay. Aftershocks The aftershock sequence throughout the month of August included many moderate shocks, including fifteen over 5.0 . The strongest of these occurred on August 3 with a 5.9 event that produced intensities of III–IV in Manila. Aftermath and legacy The former location of Ruby Tower in Santa Cruz district is now a memorial hall which stands today. See also 1990 Luzon earthquake 2022 Luzon earthquake List of earthquakes in 1968 List of earthquakes in the Philippines Notes References Sources External links Casiguran Earthquake - 02 August 1968 – Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology M7.6 - Luzon, Philippines – United States Geological Survey 1968 Casiguran Earthquake Casiguran earthquake Casiguran Earthquake History of Aurora (province) History of Manila August 1968 events in Asia

6872531

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Tajikistan%20earthquake

2006 Tajikistan earthquake

On July 29, the 2006 Tajikistan earthquake hit the Khatlon region of Tajikistan. The earthquake doublet killed three people and injured 19. Poor water and sanitation posed an ongoing risk to health, as did malaria, given its prevalence in the region and the fact that some people sleep outdoors without mosquito nets. Damaged roofs made from asbestos posed additional risks to health. Following an initial assessment mission of the earthquake affected areas on 29 July by the Minister for Emergency Situations, a second joint mission followed on 1 August, led by the Deputy Prime Minister and including the UN Country Team, WHO and humanitarian partners. WHO, in collaboration with the Ministry of Health, immediately activated other UN and international agencies and NGOs in response to the disaster. To date, more than ten health partners, including NGOs, UN and International agencies have worked together to provide 50,000 water purification tablets, 86 tents and essential household items, mosquito nets, soap, buckets and high energy biscuits and to ensure basic drugs and WHO has donated 1 NEHKit to support local health authorities in ensuring essential medications are available for affected communities and forwarded drug donation guidelines. Funding has been received from ECHO since January 2006, in support of WHO's work to 'strengthen and enhance the coordination of humanitarian health programmes' in Tajikistan. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Tajikistan References External links M5.6 - Hindu Kush region, Afghanistan – United States Geological Survey 2006 earthquakes 2006 in Tajikistan 2006 disasters in Tajikistan 2006 Tajikistan July 2006 events in Asia

6890764

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect%20of%20the%202004%20Indian%20Ocean%20earthquake%20on%20Finland

Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Finland

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, by far the worst disaster in the number of lives lost during peacetime Finland, killed 179 Finns in Thailand and Sri Lanka, and caused widespread public debate and investigations into the actions of Finnish officials who were claimed to have failed to help their citizens in the affected areas. Overview The undersea megathrust earthquake was 9.1 to 9.3 on the moment magnitude scale and struck the Indian Ocean off the western coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurred on 26 December 2004 at 00:58:50 UTC (07:58:50 local time in Jakarta and Bangkok). Finnish citizens in the affected regions There were approximately 2300 Finnish citizens on package tours in Thailand, and 600 in Sri Lanka, at the time of the earthquake. The number of independent travellers has not been confirmed. By 31 May 2005, a total number of 179 Finns have been proclaimed dead as caused by the tsunami; as of October 2006, one adult and three children were still officially missing in the affected areas. One person went missing in Sri Lanka and 178 in Thailand. Eight Finnish casualties had resided in Phuket island, and 170 in Khao Lak beach, which was the area in Thailand hardest hit by the catastrophe. 106 Finns went missing from the hotel Blue Village Pakarang in Khao Lak. Among the dead were a Finnish executive at Pfizer, Harriet Eckstein, and a popular rock and jazz musician, Aki Sirkesalo. Among those who escaped was the future President of Finland, Sauli Niinistö, who saved himself from the tsunami wave by climbing onto a lamppost with his son in Khao Lak. Finnish government officials' actions The Finnish government officials were heavily criticised for their slow response to help those citizens affected by the events. There were a high number of travellers in the affected areas in need of information on lost relatives, help to find travel documents to get back home, and generally in need to get evacuated in an organised manner. In Finland, thousands of relatives needed information regarding family members that may have been in the area. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs received the most criticism, mostly by not providing enough emergency telephone services during Boxing Day and the days following. One of the reasons for the government's slow response, as has been claimed, was the general lack of information about the situation, and the lack of readiness to organise evacuation efforts in politically stable foreign locations. In Sweden, the country in Europe with the highest number of casualties as a result of the tsunami, widespread criticism towards the government led to the resignations of top politicians, but these consequences didn't occur in Finland. Diver instructors in rescue efforts In response for the need to coordinate rescue and evacuation efforts for Finnish people in Thailand, a group of Finnish scuba divers started collecting namelists of the ones missing and the ones in safe locations, and sending them as text messages to the homeland to be published in lists in the Sukellus.fi website. This operation was led by entrepreneurs Janne Miikkulainen and Jani Mäkinen from Raya Divers, a scuba diving firm based in Phuket, and by internet entrepreneur Alex Nieminen and journalist Petri Ahoniemi in Helsinki. Miikkulainen, Mäkinen and a crew of tourist agents also circulated hospitals and evacuation centers around Khao Lak and Phuket in order to find Finnish people and give them information about the situation. Janne Miikkulainen was awarded a Cross of Merit of the Order of the Lion of Finland for his work during and after the catastrophe. The others hosting the Sukellus.fi-website received a State information award. References External links Investigation report from the Finnish Accident Investigation Board Finland 2004 in Finland

6913374

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20Game

Earthquake Game

The Earthquake Game was a college football game in which the crowd reaction after an important play registered on a seismograph. Played in front of a crowd of 79,431 at Louisiana State University's Tiger Stadium on October 8, 1988, the LSU Tigers upset No. 4 Auburn 7–6. Background The game pitted Southeastern Conference rivals Auburn and LSU and was one of the more notable games in the Auburn–LSU football rivalry. Along with national rankings, the game also proved to be of great significance to that season's eventual SEC title. The stadium was filled to capacity and the game was being broadcast on ESPN. The game The game was dominated by defense. LSU managed only one drive of over 10 yards in the first half. The only score of the first half was a field goal by Auburn's Win Lyle with 1:41 to go before halftime. LSU made it to the Auburn 23-yard line midway through the third quarter, but a clipping penalty moved the team out of field goal range. On Auburn's next possession, Lyle kicked another field goal with 10:18 left in the game to make the score 6–0. The play Auburn led 6–0 with less than two minutes left in the 4th quarter. LSU's quarterback Tommy Hodson drove the team down the field before throwing an 11-yard touchdown pass to Eddie Fuller on 4th down. The game's name resulted from the reaction of the crowd after the final pass, which registered as an earthquake by a seismograph located in LSU’s Howe-Russell Geoscience Complex around from the stadium. The seismograph reading was discovered the morning after the game by LSU seismologist Don Stevenson and student worker Riley Milner. Word of the seismograph reading reached The Daily Reveille and spread to the local media. Stevenson submitted the reading to the Louisiana Geological Survey to have it preserved. Stevenson displayed a copy of the reading on his office window on the LSU campus that was later observed by an ESPN news crew, which was on campus doing a story sometime prior to when Stevenson left LSU in the summer of 1991. The news crew decided to do a piece on what they dubbed "The Earthquake Game." This news story helped to add more attention to the event. Aftermath and legacy The win brought LSU's win–loss record to 3–2 on the season and a No. 19 ranking in the AP Poll. The team finished the regular season with an 8–3 record and lost to Syracuse in the Hall of Fame Bowl. Auburn dropped to 4–1 and to No. 12 in the poll. The game was the only one Auburn lost in the regular season. The team was defeated by Florida State in the Sugar Bowl. In games played by LSU at Tiger Stadium, the winning touchdown is included in a montage that is shown at the start of the 4th quarter. See also Similar seismic activity has been registered during other football games: 2011 NFL playoff game between the Seattle Seahawks and the New Orleans Saints 2013 Iron Bowl between Auburn and Alabama Seven times at Virginia Tech's Lane Stadium: first in 2011 against Miami, in 2015 against Ohio State, against Miami in 2016, against Clemson in 2017, against Notre Dame in 2018, against Miami in 2018, and against North Carolina in 2021. Three times at LSU since then. "Garthquake" happened on April 30th, 2022. Garth Brooks played Callin' Baton Rouge and the noise generated shook the Earth again. Then, on November 5th, 2022, LSU fans generated two earthquakes back to back. First when Jayden Daniels scored a touchdown on a 25 yard run in overtime. Then another earthquake three minutes later when Mason Taylor caught the game-winning two-point conversion. References 1988 Southeastern Conference football season Auburn Tigers football games LSU Tigers football games American football incidents October 1988 sports events in the United States 1988 in sports in Louisiana Nicknamed sporting events

6936562

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Gulf%20of%20Mexico%20earthquake

2006 Gulf of Mexico earthquake

The 2006 Gulf of Mexico earthquake occurred in the eastern Gulf of Mexico on September 10 at . The intraplate earthquake measured 5.9 on the moment magnitude scale and its epicenter was located about west-southwest of Anna Maria, Florida. The event was felt throughout much of the Gulf Coast of the United States and was the second earthquake of magnitude 5 or greater in the Gulf during 2006. Felt intensities, as measured on the Mercalli intensity scale, were as high as IV (Light) in Florida, with parts of Georgia at III (Weak). Characteristics The quake was reportedly felt along the gulf coast and as far north as Georgia. The earthquake was the strongest in the Gulf of Mexico in 33 years and was an intraplate earthquake, an event that takes place away from the borders of tectonic plates (where most tectonic activity takes place). Earthquakes in the Southeastern United States are not common, but several strong events have occurred in the region. In 1879 close to St. Augustine, Florida an earthquake damaged plaster and forced dishes off counters, and in South Carolina the 1886 Charleston earthquake caused severe damage and was responsible for the deaths of sixty people. The event occurred near the Cuba Fracture Zone and was well away from the edge of the North American Plate. Randy Cox, an associate professor of earth science at the University of Memphis in Tennessee stated that the source of strain was the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where seafloor spreading was causing compression of the North American Plate. A magnitude 5.2 event in February 2006 may have been associated with the same fault zone. The epicenter of the earthquake was too far offshore for it to be well covered by onshore seismographs and the event's characteristics are therefore poorly constrained. The focal mechanism indicated reverse faulting. The focal depth of between 14–31 km show that it occurred within the seismogenic zone, rather than on any of the many shallow growth faults in the area. The earthquake led to a reassessment of the geohazard for hydrocarbon exploration and production facilities in the Gulf. Several thousand people reported the event to the United States Geological Survey but none reported any damage from the 20 second earthquake. Items were knocked from shelves and seiches were observed in swimming pools in parts of Florida where felt intensities were reported as high as IV, including Brooksville on the west coast, Titusville on the east coast, and Panama City on the panhandle. In Atlanta, Georgia, the intensity was reported to be at level III. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in the United States References External links Gulf of Mexico 2006 earthquakes Natural disasters in Florida Natural disasters in Louisiana Earthquakes in the United States Natural disasters in Alabama 2006 natural disasters in the United States 2006 in Florida 2006 in Louisiana 2006 in Alabama September 2006 events in the United States

7062469

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20scenario

Earthquake scenario

Earthquake scenario is a planning tool to determine the appropriate emergency responses or building systems in areas exposed to earthquake hazards. It uses the basics of seismic hazard studies, but usually places a set earthquake on a specific fault, most likely near a high-population area. Most scenarios relate directly to urban seismic risk, and seismic risk in general. Some earthquake scenarios follow some of the latest methodologies from the nuclear industry, namely a Seismic Margin Assessment (SMA). In the process, a Review Level Earthquake (RLE) is chosen that challenges the system, has a reasonable probability, and is not totally overwhelming. Scenarios have been developed for Seattle, New York City, and many of the faults in California. In general, areas west of the Rockies use urban earthquakes of M7 (moment magnitude), and eastern cities use an M6. Some eastern cities do not have an earthquake scenario. As an example, the Greater Toronto area in Ontario, Canada has a local seismicity with about as much a chance for an M6 as most of the moderate earthquake zones of Eastern North America (ENA), including New York City. As seen on the map, the RLE would be an M6 located in the western end of Lake Ontario. It could be suspected that the damage would follow the New York City scenario, with extensive damage to lifelines, and brick buildings on soft ground. Notes External links Infrastructure Risk Research Project at The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation Disaster preparedness

7135316

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20bomb

Earthquake bomb

The earthquake bomb, or seismic bomb, was a concept that was invented by the British aeronautical engineer Barnes Wallis early in World War II and subsequently developed and used during the war against strategic targets in Europe. A seismic bomb differs somewhat in concept from a traditional bomb, which usually explodes at or near the surface and destroys its target directly by explosive force; in contrast, a seismic bomb is dropped from high altitude to attain very high speed as it falls and upon impact, penetrates and explodes deep underground, causing massive caverns or craters known as camouflets, as well as intense shockwaves. In this way, the seismic bomb can affect targets that are too massive to be affected by a conventional bomb, as well as damage or destroy difficult targets such as bridges and viaducts. Earthquake bombs were used towards the end of World War II on massively reinforced installations, such as submarine pens with concrete walls several meters thick, caverns, tunnels, and bridges. Theory and mechanism of damage During development Barnes Wallis theorised that a highly aerodynamic, very heavy bomb with a delayed detonation would cause damage to a target through shock waves travelling through the ground, hence the nickname earthquake bombs. The airmen who dropped the bombs reported that the target structures stood undamaged by the detonation; "But then the crater collapsed, the ground shifted and the target collapsed". Later computer simulations reached the same conclusions; the significant part of the damage was done by generating a cavity in the ground. That cavity collapsing caused the ground to shift, hence the target's foundation to shift or break causing catastrophic structural damage to the target. The shifting ground caused any larger structure to become severely damaged, even if the bomb missed the target but created a crater near it. They were not true seismic weapons, but effective cratering weapons. Development An explosion in air does not transfer much energy into a solid, as their differing acoustic impedances makes an impedance mismatch that reflects most of the energy. Due to the lack of accuracy of bombing in the face of anti-aircraft defences, air forces used area bombardment, dropping large numbers of bombs so that it would be likely that the target would be hit. Although a direct hit from a light bomb would destroy an unprotected target, it was comparatively easy to armour ground targets with many yards of concrete, and thus render critical installations such as bunkers essentially bombproof. If the bomb could be designed to explode in water, soil, or other less compressible materials, the explosive force would be transmitted more efficiently to the target. Barnes Wallis' idea was to drop a large, heavy bomb with a hard armoured tip at supersonic speed (as fast as an artillery shell) so that it penetrated the ground like a ten-ton bullet being fired straight down. It was then set to explode underground, ideally to the side of, or underneath, a hardened target. The resulting shock wave from the explosion would then produce force equivalent to that of a 3.6 magnitude earthquake, destroying any nearby structures such as dams, railways, viaducts, etc. Any concrete reinforcement of the target would probably serve to enclose the force better. Wallis also argued that, if the bomb penetrated deep enough, the explosion would not breach the surface of the ground and would thus produce a cavern (a camouflet) which would remove the structure's underground support, thus causing it to collapse. The process was graphically described as a "trapdoor effect" or "hangman's drop". Wallis foresaw that disrupting German industry would remove its ability to fight, and also understood that precision bombing was virtually impossible in the late 1930s. The technology for precision aiming was developed during World War II, and Barnes Wallis' ideas were then shown to be successful (see for example the Bielefeld raid on 14 March 1945), considering the standards at the time. Wallis' first concept was for a ten-ton bomb that would explode some underground. To achieve this, the bomb would have had to be dropped from . The RAF had no aircraft at the time capable of carrying a ten-ton bomb load aloft, let alone lifting it to such a height. Wallis designed a six-engine aeroplane for the task, called the "Victory Bomber", but there was no support for an aircraft with only a single purpose. Wallis then took a different line in developing a means to destroy Germany's industrial structure with attacks on its supply of hydroelectric power. After he had developed the bouncing bomb and shown its possibilities, RAF Bomber Command were prepared to listen to his other ideas, even though they often thought them strange. The officer classes of the RAF at that time were often trained not in science or engineering, but in the classics, Roman and Greek history and language. They provided enough support to let him continue his research. Later in the war, Barnes Wallis made bombs based on the "earthquake bomb concept", such as the 6-ton Tallboy and then the 10-ton Grand Slam, although these were never dropped from more than about . Even from this relatively low altitude, the earthquake bomb had the ability to disrupt German industry while causing minimum civilian casualties. It was used to disable the V2 launch sites at La Coupole and Blockhaus d'Éperlecques, put out of action the V-3 cannon sites at Fortress of Mimoyecques, sink the battleship Tirpitz and damage the U-boats' protective pens at St. Nazaire, as well as to attack many other targets which had been impossible to damage before. One of the most spectacular attacks was shortly after D-Day, when the Tallboy was used to prevent German tank reinforcements from moving by train. Rather than blow up the tracks – which would have been repaired in a day or so – the bombs were targeted on a tunnel near Saumur which carried the line under a mountain. Twenty-five Lancasters dropped the first Tallboys on the mountain, penetrating straight through the rock, and one of them exploded in the tunnel below. As a result, the entire rail line remained unusable until the end of the war. The Bielefeld viaduct was only closed for brief periods by 54 raids dropping 3,500 tons; but in its first use on 14 March 1945 the "Grand Slam" destroyed whole sections of the viaduct. After World War II, the United States developed the T12 demolition bomb, which was designed to create an earthquake effect. Given the availability of nuclear weapons with surface detonating laydown delivery, there was little or no development of conventional deep penetrating bombs until the 1991 Gulf War. During the Gulf War, the need for a conventional deep penetrator became clear. In three weeks, a cooperative effort directed by the Armament Systems Division at Eglin Air Force Base in Florida developed the GBU-28 that was used successfully by F-111Fs against a deep underground complex not far from Baghdad just before the end of the war. The United States has developed a Massive Ordnance Penetrator, designed to attack very deeply buried targets without the use of nuclear weapons with the inherent huge levels of radioactive pollution and their attendant risk of retaliation in kind. Effectiveness Anglo-American bomb tests (Project Ruby) on the comparative effectiveness of large bombs against reinforced concrete structures were carried out in 1946. See also Bunker buster Compact Kinetic Energy Missile Grand Slam bomb Kinetic energy penetrator T-12 Cloudmaker Tallboy bomb References Anti-fortification weapons Aerial bombs World War II weapons Explosive weapons Barnes Wallis English inventions

7292230

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20Terror

Earthquake Terror

Earthquake Terror is a 1996 novel by Peg Kehret. It tells the tale of how a boy named Jonathan has to help his partially paralyzed six-year-old sister Abby, during an earthquake while their parents are at a hospital. Reception In his review for Childhood Education in 1997, J. Robert Dornish described the story as "absolutely riveting", noting that it is likely to affect the readers reactions to news reports of earthquakes. In another review for the School Library Journal, MaryAnn Karre, reviewing the audiobook version released in 2012 noted that "youngsters may find it hard to comprehend how the family could be so out of touch, but Peg Kehret wrote this story [in 1998] before cell phones became a necessity." References 1996 novels American young adult novels Environmental fiction books Works about earthquakes

7389480

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Jose%20Earthquakes%20%281974%E2%80%931988%29

San Jose Earthquakes (1974–1988)

San Jose Earthquakes was a professional soccer club that played from 1974 to 1988. The team began as an expansion franchise in the North American Soccer League (NASL), and was originally set to play in San Francisco; but slow season ticket sales led to a late switch to San Jose's Spartan Stadium. The switch to sports-starved San Jose was an immediate hit, and the Earthquakes led the league with attendance over 15,000 per game in 1974, double the league average. The team's success led Spartan Stadium to be chosen as site of the first NASL Soccer Bowl in 1975. From 1983 to 1984, the team was known as the Golden Bay Earthquakes. During this time, it also played in the original Major Indoor Soccer League and in the NASL's indoor circuit, winning the first ever NASL indoor tournament in 1975. Their indoor games were first played at the Cow Palace and later at the Oakland Coliseum Arena. Following the collapse of the NASL in 1984, the team's name reverted to San Jose Earthquakes prior to joining the Western Soccer Alliance in 1985, where it played until the league's folding after the 1988 season. The name Earthquakes was created by general manager Dick Berg, but was criticized due to San Jose's proximity to the San Andreas Fault. Year-by-year Outdoor: Note: The team played as the Golden Bay Earthquakes in the 1983 and 1984 seasons. NASL and MISL Indoor Soccer In the winter of 1975, the NASL ran a two-tiered, 16-team indoor tournament with four regional winners meeting in a "final-four" style championship. Not only did San Jose host their region at the Cow Palace, but the final four as well. The Quakes swept through the tournament unscathed, defeating the Tampa Bay Rowdies 8–5 in the final to the delight of their fans. San Jose teammates Paul Child and Gabbo Garvic were named co-MVPs. In 1976, the Earthquakes again advanced to the final four before losing to the Rochester Lancers at the Bayfront Center in Florida. They would rebound the following day to win the 3rd Place match 5–2 over Dallas. The NASL would not begin playing full indoor seasons until 1979–80, but San Jose did not fare nearly as well in that format. The NASL canceled its 1982–83 indoor season. As a result, the Earthquakes along with Chicago and San Diego played in the MISL that winter. Note: The team played the 1982/83 and 1983/84 seasons as the Golden Bay Earthquakes. Head coaches Momčilo Gavrić (1974) Ivan Toplak (1974–1975) Momčilo Gavrić (1975–1978) Terry Fisher (1978–1979) Peter Stubbe (1979) Bill Foulkes (1980) Jimmy Gabriel (1981) Peter Short (1982) Joe Mallett (1982) Dragan Popović (1983–1984) Laurie Calloway (1985) Steve Litt (1986) Barney Boyce (1987–1988) Tomás Boy (1988) Tony Zanotto (1988) Honors Championships 1975 NASL indoor 1985 WACS 1987 WSA (runner-up) 1988 WSA (runner-up) NASL Division titles 1974 Southern Division, Pacific Conference 1975 Region 4 (indoor) 1976 West Regional (indoor) NASL Most Valuable Player 1975 Paul Child & Gabbo Garvic (indoor) 1983–84 Steve Zungul (indoor) 1984 Steve Zungul North American Player of the Year 1984 Branko Šegota Coach of the Year 1983 Don Popovic Leading Scorer 1974 Paul Child 36 points 1975 Paul Child (indoor) 31 points 1982–83 Steve Zungul (MISL) 122 points 1983–84 Steve Zungul (indoor) 119 points 1984 Steve Zungul 50 points 1987 Joe Mihaljevic 16 points Leading Goal Scorer 1974 Paul Child 15 goals 1975 Paul Child (indoor) 14 goals 1976 Juli Veee (indoor) 8 goals 1982–83 Steve Zungul (MISL) 75 goals 1983–84 Steve Zungul (indoor) 63 goals 1984 Steve Zungul 20 goals 1987 Joe Mihaljevic 7 goals Assists Leader 1983–84 Steve Zungul (indoor) 56 assists 1988 Dzung Tran 4 assists (tied with 2 others) All-Star First Team selections 1974 Paul Child 1976 António Simões 1983 Stan Terlecki, Steve Zungul 1984 Steve Zungul 1986 Chance Fry 1987 Barney Boyce, Tim Martin, Joe Mihaljevic, George Pastor, Robbie Zipp 1988 Tomás Boy, Abuelo Cruz All-Star Second Team selections 1981 George Best 1984 Branko Šegota 1986 Dzung Tran 1988 Chris Dangerfield, Dzung Tran All-Star Honorable Mentions 1974 Laurie Calloway, Dieter Zajdel 1976 Mark Liveric 1977 António Simões 1982 Vince Hilaire, Godfrey Ingram 1983 Mihalj Keri 1984 Fernando Clavijo Indoor All-Star/All-Tournament selections 1975 Paul Child, Gabbo Garvic 1976 Juli Veee 1980–81 George Best, Mike Hewitt 1983–84 Fernando Clavijo, Steve Zungul Indoor All-Star Game selections 1984 Fernando Clavijo, Steve Zungul (starters) U.S. Soccer Hall of Fame 1997 Johnny Moore 2003 Paul Child 2005 Fernando Clavijo Canadian Soccer Hall of Fame 2001 Gerry Gray 2002 Branko Šegota, Mike Sweeney 2009 Mike Stojanović 2011 Victor Kodelja Indoor Soccer Hall of Fame 2012 Don Popovic, Branko Šegota, Juli Veee, Steve Zungul 2014 Fernando Clavijo 2019 Stan Terlecki References External links NASL year-by-year standings MISL year-by-year standings Western Soccer League year-by-year standings North American Soccer League (1968–1984) teams Defunct soccer clubs in California Defunct indoor soccer clubs in the United States E San Jose Earthquakes Major Indoor Soccer League (1978–1992) teams Western Soccer Alliance teams Soccer clubs in California 1974 establishments in California 1988 disestablishments in California Association football clubs disestablished in 1988 Association football clubs established in 1974

7459027

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Kiholo%20Bay%20earthquake

2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake

The 2006 Kīholo Bay earthquake occurred on October 15 at with a magnitude of 6.7 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). The shock was centered southwest of Puakō and north of Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, just offshore of the Kona Airport, at a depth of . It produced several aftershocks, including one that measured a magnitude of 6.1 seven minutes after the main shock. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center measured a nondestructive tsunami of on the coast of the Big Island. Tectonic setting The island of Hawaii is affected by earthquakes related to three main causes. Some are associated with the movement of magma and tend to be shallow focus (less than depth). The largest earthquakes are those caused by overall gravitational spreading of the volcano, whether within the volcano's flanks or at the base of the volcanic pile. They tend to have focal depths in the range . The final group of earthquakes are those caused by flexure of the oceanic lithosphere underlying the island as a result of loading by the volcano. The type of stresses within the flexing lithosphere depends on depth relative to the neutral surface, with radial compression and associated tangential tension below about and radial tension and tangential compression above that level. Earthquakes of this type can have focal depths as deep as . Earthquake The earthquake had a hypocentral depth of and a focal mechanism of normal faulting. The depth shows that it was in the mantle lithosphere, beneath the neutral surface with a mechanism consistent with tangential tension. The largest aftershock was significantly shallower at and had a focal mechanism of reverse faulting. The depth and mechanism are consistent with tangential compression above the neutral surface. Modified Mercalli Intensities were VII–VIII (Very strong–Severe) on the western side of the island of Hawaii, and VI (Strong) on the eastern side of Maui. Intensity V (Moderate) shaking was felt all the way to Oahu, where patches of moderate damage were reported. The earthquake caused property damage, injuries, landslides, power outages, and airport delays and closures. Governor Linda Lingle issued a disaster declaration for the entire state. Damage The most severe damage caused by the earthquake was focused on the north and western sides of the island of Hawaii. Damage was also quite heavy on the eastern side of Maui, and minor damage spread all the way out to western Oahu, away from the earthquake's epicenter. On the Big Island, many houses had large cracks and broken windows, and at least 61 buildings were destroyed and red-tagged by officials. Almost all houses in west Hawaii reported extensive internal damage but most avoided significant structural damage, the reason being that most of the buildings in the area around the epicenter of the earthquake have been built in the last few decades and are well constructed. Even so, over $200 million in damage occurred. The largest and most luxurious hotels on the Island of Hawaii also happened to be clustered within of the earthquake's epicenter along the Kohala coast. The 1965 Mauna Kea Beach Hotel had its entire south end collapse, and the hotel's top floor was considered "destroyed." The hotel closed on December 1 after a month-long inspection revealed that the building was unsafe and in danger of collapse. After a $150 million renovation, the hotel had a soft reopening on December 20, 2008, and officially reopened in March 2009. The Hapuna Beach Prince Hotel was temporarily evacuated after the earthquake due to structural damage, broken glass and flooding caused by broken water pipes. The Surety Kohala Corporation assessed the structural integrity to their Kohala Ditch, which functioned as a tourist attraction for 10 years. Many roads and bridges collapsed or had deep cracks, and clean-up crews had to work for days to remove debris from the countless landslides. Many landmarks on the island were greatly affected. The Kalahikiola Congregational Church in Kohala was destroyed due to the collapse of the church's stone walls; the Hawi smoke stack, a relic of the old sugarcane trade, completely collapsed as well. The Hulihee Palace in Kailua Kona suffered extensive structural damage. Another popular tourist area, Kealakekua Bay, home of the white monument to Captain James Cook, was swept over by massive landslides that caused the entire bay and its surrounding areas to momentarily disappear in a thick cloud of brown dust. Mauna Kea Observatory During the earthquake and aftershocks, a number of the telescopes at the Mauna Kea Observatories sustained minor damage, primarily Kecks 1 and 2 at the W. M. Keck Observatory, and the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope (CFHT). The CFHT was operational and back online as of October 19, but the Kecks were not restored to full operation until February 28, 2007. Blackouts Power plants on Maui and the Big Island automatically shut off power to prevent damage, and generators tripped on Oahu, causing overloads in the electrical grid. The Oahu power outages lasted 14 hours in some locations; only half of Hawaiian Electric Company's (HECO) Oahu customers had power restored before 9 pm, while outages generally lasted to about 5 pm on Maui and Hawaii. Power was restored to all HECO circuits by 1:55 am; however, there were isolated blackouts due to local problems, such as blown fuses. Power in Laie and Kahuku was not restored until 3 am. In Honolulu and Kahe, HECO generators shut down, and other generators tried to compensate, resulting in uneven loads on Oahu's electrical network and causing the system to shut down to prevent damage. Images See also Kiholo Bay List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Hawaii List of earthquakes in the United States Lists of 21st-century earthquakes References Sources External links Report on the declaration of a state of emergency – NBC News Historic Palace Damaged, but Blessed – NBC News Lessons learned from the 2006 Kiholo Bay earthquakes – West Hawaii Today Continued Rumblings of the 2006 Kiholo Bay Earthquake – United States Geological Survey Hawaii earthquake Hawaii earthquake Earthquakes in Hawaii 2006 in Hawaii October 2006 events in the United States

7610823

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1875%20C%C3%BAcuta%20earthquake

1875 Cúcuta earthquake

The 1875 Cúcuta earthquake (also known as earthquake of the Andes) occurred on 18 May at 11:15 AM. It completely demolished Cúcuta, Villa del Rosario (Colombia), San Antonio del Tachira and Capacho (Venezuela). The earthquake killed many Venezuelans in San Cristóbal, La Mulata, Rubio, Michelena, La Grita, Colón, amongst others, and was felt in both Bogotá and Caracas. That day, the city of Cúcuta and the town of Villa del Rosario, in the Norte de Santander department (Colombia) and the municipalities of San Antonio del Táchira and Capacho, Táchira State (Venezuela) were destroyed totally by this catastrophic earthquake. Villa del Rosario was a historical and calm population. In 1821 had met in the main church (Historic church) to means to construct, the members of the First Congress of the Great Colombia, known as Congress of Cúcuta. Still it is observed the rest of the church that collapse during the great seismic movement, the houses of that time in the zone were of the purest Spanish colonial style. Geology The earthquake occurred in the Mérida Andes and scientists proposed it was associated with rupture on the Aguas Calientes Fault System or faults in the Cucuta graben. The Aguas Calientes Fault System is a northwestern extension of the Boconó Fault. Paleoseismic studies of the Aguas Calientes Fault System at the presumed earthquake epicenter revealed evidence of recent surface rupture. The central part of the Aguas Calientes Fault System was the likely source of the event. Its moment magnitude is estimated at 6.75. Death toll The exact number of victims is not known; Spokane Daily Chronicle reported that the figure was as many as 2,500, while other sources say that the death toll was about 1,000. Early newspaper reports put the number at 8 to 10,000. The Evening Post wrote that 5,000 died outright with a further 9,000 dying from the after effects such as fever and lockjaw. Affected areas The earthquake covered 5 degrees of Latitude and was 500 miles long. Populated areas affected were Villa of the Rosary, San Luis, Salazar, Woods of the Palms, Gramalote, Bochalema and San Faustino in Colombia. San Antonio, Capacho, San Cristóbal, the Mulata, Rubio, Michelena, La Grita, Colón in Venezuela. In addition it was also felt in Bogotá and Caracas. See also History of Colombia List of earthquakes in Colombia List of historical earthquakes References Further reading Cúcuta Earthquakes in Colombia Earthquakes in Venezuela Cucuta Cucuta Cucuta May 1875 events

7646928

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzon%20earthquake

Luzon earthquake

Luzon earthquake may refer to: 1645 Luzon earthquake, the earthquake on Luzon Island in the Philippines that occurred on November 30, 1645 1880 Luzon earthquakes, the series of earthquakes that affected Manila and most of Luzon in July 1880 1990 Luzon earthquake, the earthquake on Luzon Island in the Philippines that occurred on July 16, 1990 1999 Luzon earthquake, the earthquake on Luzon Island in the Philippines that occurred on December 12, 1999 2019 Luzon earthquake, the earthquake on Luzon Island in the Philippines that occurred on April 22, 2019 2022 Luzon earthquake, the earthquake on Luzon Island in the Philippines that occurred on July 27, 2022 See also 1968 Casiguran earthquake, the earthquake on Luzon Island in the Philippines that occurred on August 2, 1968 List of earthquakes in the Philippines

7674011

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow%20earthquake

Slow earthquake

A slow earthquake is a discontinuous, earthquake-like event that releases energy over a period of hours to months, rather than the seconds to minutes characteristic of a typical earthquake. First detected using long term strain measurements, most slow earthquakes now appear to be accompanied by fluid flow and related tremor, which can be detected and approximately located using seismometer data filtered appropriately (typically in the 1–5 Hz band). That is, they are quiet compared to a regular earthquake, but not "silent" as described in the past. Slow earthquakes should not be confused with tsunami earthquakes, in which relatively slow rupture velocity produces tsunami out of proportion to the triggering earthquake. In a tsunami earthquake, the rupture propagates along the fault more slowly than usual, but the energy release occurs on a similar timescale to other earthquakes. Causes Earthquakes occur as a consequence of gradual stress increases in a region, and once it reaches the maximum stress that the rocks can withstand a rupture generates and the resulting earthquake motion is related to a drop in the shear stress of the system. Earthquakes generate seismic waves when the rupture in the system occurs, the seismic waves consist of different types of waves that are capable of moving through the Earth like ripples over water. The causes that lead to slow earthquakes have only been theoretically investigated, by the formation of longitudinal shear cracks that were analysed using mathematical models. The different distributions of initial stress, sliding frictional stress, and specific fracture energy are all taken into account. If the initial stress minus the sliding frictional stress (with respect to the initial crack) is low, and the specific fracture energy or the strength of the crustal material (relative to the amount of stress) is high then slow earthquakes will occur regularly. In other words, slow earthquakes are caused by a variety of stick-slip and creep processes intermediated between asperity-controlled brittle and ductile fracture. Asperities are tiny bumps and protrusions along the faces of fractures. They are best documented from intermediate crustal levels of certain subduction zones (especially those that dip shallowly — SW Japan, Cascadia, Chile), but appear to occur on other types of faults as well, notably strike-slip plate boundaries such as the San Andreas fault and "mega-landslide" normal faults on the flanks of volcanos. Locations Faulting takes place all over Earth; faults can include convergent, divergent, and transform faults, and normally occur on plate margins. some of the locations that have been recently studied for slow earthquakes include: Cascadia, California, Japan, New Zealand, Mexico, and Alaska. The locations of slow earthquakes can provide new insights into the behavior of normal or fast earthquakes. By observing the location of tremors associated with slow-slip and slow earthquakes, seismologists can determine the extension of the system and estimate future earthquakes in the area of study. Types Teruyuki Kato identifies various types of slow earthquake: low frequency earthquakes (LFE) very low frequency earthquakes (VLF) and deep-low-frequency earthquakes slow slip events (SSE) episodic tremor and slip (ETS) Low frequency earthquakes Low frequency earthquakes (LFEs) are seismic events defined by waveforms with periods far greater than those of ordinary earthquakes and abundantly occur during slow earthquakes. LFEs can be volcanic, semi-volcanic, or tectonic in origin, but only tectonic LFEs or LFEs generated during slow earthquakes are described here. Tectonic LFEs are characterized by generally low magnitudes (M<3) and have frequencies peaked between 1 and 3 Hz. They are the largest constituent of non-volcanic tremor at subduction zones, and in some cases are the only constituent. In contrast to ordinary earthquakes, tectonic LFEs occur largely during long-lived slip events at subduction interfaces (up to several weeks in some cases) called slow slip events (SSEs). The mechanism responsible for their generation at subduction zones is thrust-sense slip along transitional segments of the plate interface. LFEs are highly sensitive seismic events which can likely be triggered by tidal forces as well as propagating waves from distant earthquakes. LFEs have hypocenters located down-dip from the seismogenic zone, the source region of megathrust earthquakes. During SSEs, LFE foci migrate along strike at the subduction interface in concert with the primary shear slip front. The depth occurrence of low frequency earthquakes is in the range of approximately 20–45 kilometers depending on the subduction zone, and at shallower depths at strike-slip faults in California. At "warm" subduction zones like the west coast of North America, or sections in eastern Japan this depth corresponds to a transition or transient slip zone between the locked and stable slip intervals of the plate interface. The transition zone is located at depths approximately coincidental with the continental Mohorovicic discontinuity. At the Cascadia subduction zone, the distribution of LFEs form a surface roughly parallel to intercrustal seismic events, but displaced 5–10 kilometers down-dip, providing evidence that LFEs are generated at the plate interface. Low frequency earthquakes are an active area of research and may be important seismic indicators for higher magnitude earthquakes. Since slow slip events and their corresponding LFE signals have been recorded, none of them have been accompanied by a megathrust earthquake, however, SSEs act to increase the stress in the seismogenic zone by forcing the locked interval between the subducting and overriding plate to accommodate for down-dip movement. Some calculations find that the probability of a large earthquake occurring during a slow slip event are 30–100 times greater than background probabilities. Understanding the seismic hazard that LFEs might herald is among the primary reasons for their research. Additionally, LFEs are useful for the tomographic imaging of subduction zones because their distributions accurately map the deep plate contact near the Mohorovicic discontinuity. History Low frequency earthquakes were first classified in 1999 when the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) began differentiating LFE's seismic signature in their seismicity catalogue. The discovery and understanding of LFEs at subduction zones is due in part to the fact that the seismic signatures of these events were found away from volcanoes. Prior to their discovery, tremor events of this style were mainly associated with volcanism where the tremor is generated by partial coupling of flowing magmatic fluids. Japanese researchers first detected "low-frequency continuous tremor" near the top of the subducting Philippine Sea plate in 2002. After initially interpreting this seismic data as dehydration induced tremor, researchers in 2007 found that the data contained many LFE waveforms, or LFE swarms. Prior to 2007, tremor and LFEs were believed to be distinct events that often occurred together, but contemporarily LFEs are known to be the largest constituent forming tectonic tremor. LFEs and SSEs are frequently observed at subduction zones in western North America, Japan, Mexico, Costa Rica, New Zealand, as well as in shallow strike slip faults in California. Detection Low frequency earthquakes do not exhibit the same seismic character as regular earthquakes namely because they lack distinct, impulsive body waves. P-wave arrivals from LFEs have amplitudes so small that they are often difficult to detect, so when the JMA first distinguished the unique class of earthquake it was primarily by the detection of S-wave arrivals which were emergent. Because of this, detecting LFEs is nearly impossible using classical techniques. Despite their lack of important seismic identifiers, LFEs can be detected at low Signal-to-Noise-Ratio (SNR) thresholds using advanced seismic correlation methods. The most common method for identifying LFEs involves the correlation of the seismic record with a template constructed from confirmed LFE waveforms. Since LFEs are such subtle events and have amplitudes that are frequently drowned out by background noise, templates are built by stacking similar LFE waveforms to reduce the SNR. Noise is reduced to such an extent that a relatively clean waveform can be searched for in the seismic record, and when correlation coefficients are deemed high enough an LFE is detected. Determination of the slip orientation responsible for LFEs and earthquakes in general is done by the P-wave first-motion method. LFE P-waves, when successfully detected, have first motions indicative of compressional stress, indicating that thrust-sense slip is responsible for their generation. Extracting high quality P-wave data out of LFE waveforms can be quite difficult, however, and is furthermore important for accurate hypocentral depth determinations. The detection of high quality P-wave arrivals is a recent advent thanks to the deployment of highly sensitive seismic monitoring networks. The depth occurrence of LFEs are generally determined by P-wave arrivals but have also been determined by mapping LFE epicenters against subducting plate geometries. This method does not discriminate whether or not the observed LFE was triggered at the plate interface or within the down-going slab itself, so additional geophysical analysis is required to determine where exactly the focus is located. Both methods find that LFEs are indeed triggered at the plate contact. Low frequency earthquakes in Cascadia The Cascadia subduction zone spans from northern California to about halfway up Vancouver Island and is where the Juan de Fuca, Explorer, and Gorda plates are overridden by North America. In the Cascadia subduction zone, LFEs are predominantly observed at the plate interface down-dip of the seismogenic zone. In the southern section of the subduction zone from latitudes 40°N to 41.8°N low frequency earthquakes occur at depths between 28–47 kilometers, whereas farther north near Vancouver Island the range contracts to approximately 25–37 kilometers. This depth section of the subduction zone has been classified by some authors as the "transient slip" or "transition" zone due to its episodic slip behavior and is bounded up-dip and down-dip by the "locked zone" and "stable-slip zone", respectively. The transient slip section of the Cascadia is marked by high Vp/Vs ratios (P-wave velocity divided by S-wave velocity) and is designated as a Low Velocity Zone (LVZ). Furthermore, the LVZ has high Poisson's ratios as determined by teleseismic wave observations. These seismic properties defining the LVZ have been interpreted as an overpressured region of the down-going slab with high pore fluid pressures. The presence of water at the subduction interface and its relation to the generation of LFEs is not fully understood, but hydrolytic weakening of the rock contact is likely important. Where megathrust earthquakes (M>8) have been repeatedly observed in the shallow sections (<25 km depth) of the Cascadia subduction zone, low frequency earthquakes have recently been discovered to occur at greater depths, down-dip of the seismogenic zone. The first indicator of low frequency earthquakes in Cascadia was discovered in 1999 when an aseismic event took place at the subduction interface wherein the overriding North American Plate slipped 2 centimeters south-west over a several-week period as recorded by Global Positioning System (GPS) sites in British Columbia. This apparent slow slip event occurred over a 50-by-300-kilometer area and took approximately 35 days. Researchers estimated that the energy released in such an event would be equivalent to a magnitude 6–7 earthquake, yet no significant seismic signal was detected. The aseismic character of the event led observers to conclude that the slip was mediated by ductile deformation at depth. After further analysis of the GPS record, these reverse slip events were found to repeat at 13- to 16-month intervals, and last 2 to 4 weeks at any one GPS station. Soon after, geophysicists were able to extract the seismic signatures from these slow slip events and found that they were akin to tremor and classified the phenomenon as episodic tremor and slip (ETS). Upon the advent of improved processing techniques, and the discovery that LFEs form part of tremor, low frequency earthquakes were widely considered a commonplace occurrence at the plate interface down-dip of the seismogenic zone in Cascadia. Low frequency tremors in the Cascadia subduction zone are strongly associated with tidal loading. A number of studies in Cascadia find that the peak low frequency earthquake signals alternate from being in phase with peak tidal shear stress rate to being in phase with peak tidal shear stress, suggesting that LFEs are modulated by changes in sea level. The shear slip events responsible for LFEs are therefore quite sensitive to pressure changes in the range of several kilo-pascals. Low frequency earthquakes in Japan The discovery of LFEs originates in Japan at the Nankai trough and is in part due to the nationwide collaboration of seismological research following the Kobe earthquake of 1995. Low frequency earthquakes in Japan were first observed in a subduction setting where the Philippine Sea plate subducts at the Nankai trough near Shikoku. The low-frequency continuous tremor researchers observed was initially interpreted to be a result of dehydration reactions in the subducting plate. The source of these tremors occurred at an average depth of around 30 kilometers, and they were distributed along the strike of the subduction interface over a length of 600 kilometers. Similar to Cascadia, these low frequency tremors occurred with slow slip events that had a recurrence interval of approximately 6 months. The later discovery of LFEs forming tremor confirmed the widespread existence of LFEs at Japanese subduction zones, and LFEs are widely observed and believed to occur as a result of SSEs. The distribution of LFEs in Japan are centered around the subduction of the Philippine Sea plate and not the Pacific plate farther north. This is likely due to the difference in subduction geometries between the two plates. The Philippine Sea plate at the Nankai trough subducts at shallower overall angles than does the Pacific plate at the Japan Trench, thereby making the Japan trench less suitable for SSEs and LFEs. LFEs in Japan have hypocenters located near the deepest extent of the transition zone, down-dip from the seismogenic zone. Estimates for the depth occurrence of the seismogenic zone near Tokai, Japan are 8–22 kilometers as determined by thermal methods. Furthermore, LFEs occur at a temperature range of 450–500 °C in Tokai, indicating that temperature may play an important role in the generation of LFEs in Japan. Very low frequency earthquakes Very low frequency earthquakes (VLFs) can be considered a sub-category of low frequency earthquakes that differ in terms of duration and period. VLFs have magnitudes of approximately 3-3.5, durations around 20 seconds, and are further enriched in low frequency energy (0.03–0.02 Hz). VLFs predominantly occur with LFEs, but the reverse is not true. There are two major subduction zone settings where VLFs have been detected, 1) within the offshore accretionary prism and 2) at the plate interface down-dip of the seismogenic zone. Since these two environments have considerably different depths, they have been termed shallow VLFs and deep VLFs, respectively. Like LFEs, very low frequency earthquakes migrate along-strike during ETS events. VLFs have been found at both the Cascadia subduction zone in western North America, as well as in Japan at the Nankai trough and Ryukyu trench. VLFs are produced by reverse fault mechanisms, similar to LFEs. Slow slip events Slow slip events (SSEs) are long lived shear slip events at subduction interfaces and the physical processes responsible for the generation of slow earthquakes. They are slow thrust-sense displacement episodes that can have durations up to several weeks, and are thus termed "slow". In many cases, the recurrence interval for slow slip events is remarkably periodic and accompanied by tectonic tremor, prompting seismologists to term episodic tremor and slip (ETS). In the Cascadia, the return period for SSEs is approximately 14.5 months, but varies along the margin of the subduction zone. In the Shikoku region in southwest Japan, the interval is shorter at approximately 6 months, as determined by crustal tilt changes. Some SSEs have durations in excess of several years, like the Tokai SSE that lasted from mid-2000 to 2003. Slow slip event's locus of displacement propagate along the strike of subduction interfaces at velocities of 5–10 kilometers per day during slow earthquakes in the Cascadia, and this propagation is responsible for the similar migration of LFEs and tremor. Episodic tremor and slip Slow earthquakes can be episodic (relative of plate movement), and therefore somewhat predictable, a phenomenon termed "episodic tremor and slip" or "ETS" in the literature. ETS events can last for weeks as opposed to "normal earthquakes" occur in a matter of seconds. Several slow-earthquake events around the world appear to have triggered major, damaging seismic earthquakes in the shallower crust (e.g., 2001 Nisqually, 1995 Antofagasta). Conversely, major earthquakes trigger "post-seismic creep" in the deeper crust and mantle. Every five years a year-long quake of this type occurs beneath the New Zealand capital, Wellington. It was first measured in 2003, and has reappeared in 2008 and 2013. It lasts for around a year each time, releasing as much energy as a magnitude 7 quake. See also Aseismic creep References External links Seismic Wave Demonstrations and Animations – Purdue University A slow earthquake sequence on the San Andreas fault – Nature A new kind of movement takes the quake out of earthquake – Discover Slow earthquake families on the subducting Philippine Sea plate in southwest Japan – National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience Silent earthquake in Hawaii offers clues to early detection of catastrophic tsunamis – Stanford University Did you feel that earthquake? Probably not … – West Hawaii Today Slow Earthquakes, ETS, and Cascadia – Central Washington University B.C.'s slow earthquakes fuelled by fluid – CBC News An earthquake lasted 32 years, and scientists want to know how-National Geographic Society (immediately preceding the 1861 Sumatra earthquake) Types of earthquake

7737649

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library%20damage%20resulting%20from%20the%202004%20Indian%20Ocean%20earthquake

Library damage resulting from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

Library damage resulting from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake has been reported in six Asian countries. On December 26, the massive 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake struck off the northwest coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The resulting tsunamis killed more than 180,000 people. In addition to the loss of human lives, cultural institutions were destroyed in several Asian nations. Libraries on the Eastern coast of Sri Lanka and the northern province of Aceh on Sumatra were most severely affected by the disaster. India Damage to libraries in India has not been well documented. Water damage was reported at Madras University Library in Chennai. The Asian Development Bank reports extensive damage to schools in the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. A government assessment found that 252 schools in Tamil Nadu need complete reconstruction, 19 need major repairs and 49 need minor repairs. In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 78 teachers are listed as killed or missing. Further, 25 percent of primary schools, 33 percent of upper primary schools, and 31 percent of senior secondary schools were seriously damaged, indicating that school libraries in the region also suffered damage. Indonesia The Sumatran province of Aceh was severely damaged by the earthquake and resulting tsunami. An estimated 167,736 Indonesians were killed and 25% of Achenese lost their source of livelihood. Banda Aceh, Aceh's capital, was the closest major city to the earthquake's epicenter, and many of its major libraries suffered extensive damage. The Aceh Provincial Library (BPD) was inundated with three meters of water. Twenty three staff members were killed, including the library's director, Bachtiar Azis, who is listed as missing along with his family. In addition to loss of life, the BPD suffered physical damage and a near total loss of its collection. Concrete and steel fences surrounding the two-story building were mostly destroyed, however, the building itself remained standing. All library materials housed on the first floor were swept away by the waves and the floor was covered in 30 cm-thick mud. These lost materials comprise most of its children's, young adult and adult collections. The water did not reach the second floor, but looting resulted in the loss of most materials and equipment. A collection of books received under legal deposit and housed on the second floor was left undisturbed and survived the disaster and looting intact. Despite these losses, the BPD reopened to the public in May 2005. As of August 2005, repairs were still being made to the building, the library lacked computers for its warintek (information technology section), and most areas of the library needed furnishing and collection replacement. Of Aceh's eight public libraries, two were destroyed. These libraries were located in the hard-hit cities of Meulaboh and Sigli. Mobile library units, or perpustakaan keliling, are used to serve rural areas of Aceh. Days before the earthquake and tsunami, the BPD had received two newly built mobile library units from the National Library of Indonesia. Both of these were destroyed along with the rest of the mobile libraries parked on the BPD's carport. In July 2005, the National Library donated two replacement mobile units, however the new BPD director noted that further units were needed to adequately serve outlying regions of the province. The Aceh Documentation and Information Center, known for its collection of rare books and manuscripts chronicling the heritage of Aceh, was destroyed. Only half of the building remained standing, and the entire collection was swept away. A team from the National Library of Indonesia visiting in January 2005 was able to salvage only three books and one sheet of the genealogy of the Muslim kings of Aceh. These were taken to Jakarta for restoration. The Provincial Archives Agency lost 80 percent of the photographs in its collection. The Secretariat Office of the Aceh Province lost 160 boxes of records. The Aceh branch of the National Land Register Agency was inundated with water. Roughly 629 boxes of materials certifying individual land ownership in the province were damaged. Due to the efforts of a team of conservators from Japan and archivists from the National Archives in Jakarta, many of these land register documents were preserved. Damage to school libraries has not been well documented. The Indonesia National Library reports that SMA 1, a high school in Banda Aceh, was not damaged by flood waters as it is located on the second floor, however, did experience some earthquake damage. Overall, 2,364 teachers and staff members were killed and 2,240 schools were destroyed on Sumatra and its outlying islands. The Central Library at the Ar-Raniri Institute for Islamic Studies, a public Islamic University in Banda Aceh, lost its information servers due to theft and seawater damage. Baiturrahman Grand Mosque Library in Banda Aceh lost its entire collection. Due to the mosque's central location and importance to the community, a concerted effort was made to clear and repair this complex of buildings immediately after the tsunami. As of August 2005 the library had reopened with 1,200 books in its collection. The library of the Agricultural Information Institute of Banda Aceh was inundated with water from the tsunami but its physical structure remained intact. The Library and Museum of the Ali Hasymy Educational Foundation survived intact as the tsunami did not reach this area of Banda Aceh. Malaysia According to a Malaysian professor of library science, damage to libraries was minimal in Malaysia. Maldives All of the 199 inhabited islands comprising the Maldives atolls were affected by the tsunami. The Maldives Library Association was not able to survey all public libraries across the atoll, however, a representative indicated some libraries were destroyed. Forty-six percent of schools in the Maldives were damaged, and nine schools were destroyed. Thailand Damage to libraries in Thailand has not been well documented. The Ministry of Education has reported that five schools were destroyed and 51 schools were damaged. Sri Lanka More than 35,000 Sri Lankans were killed and 516,000 people were displaced as a result of the tsunami. Roughly 60 percent of the coastal area of Sri Lanka was severely affected by the tsunami. Libraries across the country were damaged, and it is estimated that 1.2 million volumes of books and other reading materials were destroyed in the disaster. Out of the 950 public libraries in Sri Lanka, 55 libraries were affected and 28 were destroyed. Several libraries were used as refuge centres or hospitals in the aftermath of the tsunami, and surviving furniture and collections suffered as a result. One estimate of damage to school libraries in Sri Lanka indicates that of the 9,790 schools in the country, 182 schools were directly affected by the tsunami and an additional 282 schools were damaged because of their use as refugee camps after the tsunami. While not all of these schools had a full-fledged library, most had a book closet or other collection of materials. At least 165 school libraries were damaged by the tsunami. Compounding the damage, many schools had large collection of textbooks on hand for distribution to students at the beginning of the school year in January. Damage reports range from furniture damage to lost collections to complete destruction of the physical building. Sri Lankan government departments lost public records to the tsunami. In the Southern province, all electoral registers were destroyed, along with 600,000 land deeds from the Department of the Surveyor General. Sixty-eight libraries affiliated with religious institutions and at least three museums were damaged by the tsunami. Many of these libraries were attached to Buddhist temples and contained valuable collections of palm leaf manuscripts and documents relating to Ayurveda, the Indian medical tradition adopted in ancient Sri Lanka. The National Maritime Museum in Galle lost 90 percent of its collection, mostly artifacts salvaged from underwater wrecks and archaeology sites. The museum also lost all of its computers and other technical equipment. The collection housed in the Martin Wickramasinghe Folk Museum of Koggala survived relatively unscathed, however the children's library attached to the museum was severely damaged along with most of the museum's furniture. The Maritime Archaeology Unit of the Central Cultural Fund was also severely damaged, resulting in the loss of artifacts from an 18th-century Dutch shipwreck that were eventually to be donated to a museum. In the weeks following the disaster, the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions cooperated with UNESCO, the Sri Lanka Library Association, the National Library and Documentation Center of Sri Lanka and other organizations to create the Sri Lanka Disaster Management Committee for Libraries, Information Services and Archives (SL DMC-LISA). The committee worked to secure funding for temporary libraries and computer equipment and began reviewing architectural plans for rebuilding libraries. Further initiatives were developed to encourage "twinning" or pairing of Sri Lankan libraries with donors. In addition to working with the disaster committee, the Sri Lanka Library Association targeted five libraries for rebuilding with the intent of creating model institutions. As of 2006, three of these libraries had re-opened, while progress on the other two was delayed due to political instability in the region. See also List of destroyed libraries References Preservation (library and archival science) 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami

7821929

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microearthquake

Microearthquake

A microearthquake (or microquake) is a very low-intensity earthquake that is 2.0 or less in magnitude. They are very rarely felt beyond from their epicenter. In addition to having natural tectonic causes, they may also be seen as a result of underground nuclear testing or even large detonations of conventional explosives for producing excavations. They normally cause no damage to life or property, and are very rarely felt by people. Microquakes occur often near volcanoes as they approach an eruption, and frequently in certain regions exploited for geothermal energy , such as near Geyserville in Northern California. These occur so continuously that the current USGS event map for that location usually shows a substantial number of small earthquakes at that location. References Seismology

7970909

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Kuril%20Islands%20earthquake

2006 Kuril Islands earthquake

The 2006 Kuril Islands earthquake occurred on November 15 at with a magnitude of 8.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IV (Light) and a maximum Shindo intensity of JMA 2. This megathrust earthquake was the largest event in the central Kuril Islands since 1915 and generated a small tsunami that affected the northern Japanese coast. The tsunami crossed the Pacific Ocean and damaged the harbor at Crescent City, California. Post-tsunami surveys indicate that the local tsunami in the central Kuril Islands reached runups of or higher. This earthquake is also considered a doublet of the 2007 Kuril Islands earthquake that hit the same area on January 13, 2007. Tsunami At about 11:45 UTC, tsunami warnings were issued in Japan for the north coasts of Hokkaidō and Honshū, and a number of towns in this area were very quickly evacuated. Tsunami warnings, advisories and watches were also issued for the coastal areas of Alaska, Hawaii, parts of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. JMA initially estimated tsunami waves to be as tall as 2 metres when it hit the Japanese northern and eastern coasts, but it turned out to be merely 40 centimetres when it reached Hanasaki Ko, Nemuro, Nemuro, Hokkaidō at 9:29 pm local time. The tsunami also hit the rest of Hokkaidō and Tōhoku Region. The tallest wave recorded in Japan was at Tsubota (坪田), Miyakejima (三宅島) in the Izu Shotō of the Tokyo To, at 84 centimetres. Tsunami also hit as far as Anami in Kagoshima Prefecture and Naha in Okinawa Prefecture, and reached the Hawaiian and California coasts. A 176-centimetre wave in the harbor at Crescent City, California caused an estimated $10 million in damage to the docks there. The United States authorities had issued warnings for the Russian Far East, Japan, Wake Island and Midway Atoll. The nearfield tsunami struck islands with no current inhabitants. However, geologists and archaeologists had visited these islands the previous summer, and returned in the summers of 2007 and 2008. Because there were two central Kurils tsunamis in the winter of 2006/2007 (see 2007 Kuril Islands earthquake), the specific effects of each tsunami are difficult to determine; but evidence shows that the 2006 tsunami was the larger on all islands in the Kurils except for parts of Rasshua. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Russia List of earthquakes in Japan 1952 Severo-Kurilsk earthquake 1963 Kuril Islands earthquake 1994 Kuril Islands earthquake 2007 Kuril Islands earthquake References Sources External links Japan's false alarm showcases tsunami alert system – The Christian Science Monitor Small tsunamis hit northern Japan – BBC News Central Kuril Island Tsunami in Crescent City, California (11/15/2006) – University of Southern California Small tsunami waves hit Japan after earthquake – Associated Press Global Surge of Great Earthquakes—What We Are Learning From Them – IRIS Consortium 2006 Kuril Islands earthquake Megathrust earthquakes in Japan Megathrust earthquakes in Russia Doublet earthquakes 2006 tsunamis Earthquakes in the Russian Far East Kuril Islands earthquake Kuril Islands earthquake Kuril Islands earthquake Tsunamis in Russia November 2006 events in Asia Kuril Islands November 2006 events in Russia November 2006 events in Japan 2006 disasters in Japan

7978633

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20valve

Earthquake valve

An earthquake valve (or seismic valve) is an automatic method to shut off the low pressure regulated gas supply to a structure during a major earthquake and/or if a pipe is broken. These are applicable both to utility-supplied natural gas and to gas from liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). These small devices are installed on the property gas meter (usually between the utility company's metered installation and the structure piping) and are designed to instantly stop the natural gas supply in order to protect the structure if a gas leak or line break occurs during an earthquake. Fires or explosions due to gas line breaks can be more damaging than the actual earthquake itself. Gas supply companies recommend that the gas supply be cut off immediately if there is a smell of gas after an earthquake; if nobody is in place to do this, an unattended earthquake valve will instantly cut off the gas. Types of valve Two types of valve are commonly employed: one is sensitive to motion and the other to excessive gas flow. One of each type can be connected sequentially for maximum reliability. Motion sensing caged ball A metal ball is retained away from an orifice by sitting upon a ring. Any shaking of the mechanism will cause the ball to roll off its ledge and fall down to block the orifice. It is reset using either an external magnetic device or an internal lift mechanism. If it is too sensitive, it may be triggered by normal vibrations such as passing vehicles. After a severe seismic event, gas piping may be damaged, requiring complete re-inspection for breaks or leaks. Seismic valves are available with pressure classes (7 psig and 60 psig max). An upstream pressure regulator can reduce the gas pressure below 60 psig before the seismic shut-off valves. Excessive flow sensor A valve is closed when the flow exceeds a certain limit that is appropriate to the application. This will only operate when a pipe is broken and there is significant leakage. It may not operate in case of a small, though still dangerous, leak. See also Compressed natural gas Pressure regulator Safety valve References Natural gas technology Safety valves

8037082

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%20Kashmir%20earthquake

2005 Kashmir earthquake

An earthquake occurred at on 8 October in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, a territory under Pakistan. It was centred near the city of Muzaffarabad, and also affected nearby Balakot in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and some areas of Jammu and Kashmir, India. It registered a moment magnitude of 7.6 and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). The earthquake was also felt in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, India and the Xinjiang region. The severity of the damage caused by the earthquake is attributed to severe upthrust. Over 86,000 people died, a similar number were injured, and millions were displaced. It is considered the deadliest earthquake in South Asia, surpassing the 1935 Quetta earthquake. Earthquake Kashmir lies in the area of collision of the Eurasian and Indian tectonic plates. The geological activity born out of this collision, also responsible for the birth of the Himalayan mountain range, is the cause of unstable seismicity in the region. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) measured its magnitude as a minimum of 7.6 on the moment magnitude scale, with its epicentre about northeast of Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, a region under the state of Pakistan and north-northeast of the national capital Islamabad. Intensity The earthquake had a maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme) evaluated in an area around the epicentre, between the towns of Muzaffarabad and Balakot. It was also assigned XI on the Environmental Seismic Intensity scale. Field surveys of heavy damage to buildings and other structures in Balakot determined that the Modified Mercalli intensity exceeded X. At Muzaffarabad, the intensity peaked at VIII–IX (Severe–Violent). Intensity VII–VIII (Very strong–Severe) was determined in the areas south of Muzaffarabad. The maximum intensity in Bharat was VIII (Destructive) on the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale (MSK), and was felt at Uri. MSK VII was felt in Kupwara and Baramulla. In Srinagar, the earthquake was felt with an MSK intensity of V. At areas where the seismic intensity was lower, collapses were documented. The earthquake was felt throughout central Asia, and as far away as Dushanbe, Tajikistan. Minor shaking was felt in Almaty, Kazakhstan. Aftershocks There were many secondary earthquakes in the region, mainly to the northwest of the original epicentre. A series of strong aftershocks occurred near Muzaffarabad. As of 27 October 2005 there had been more than 978 aftershocks with a magnitude of 4.0 and above that continued to occur daily. Since then, measurements from satellites have shown that mountain parts directly above the epicenter have risen by a few meters, giving ample proof that the Himalayas are still being formed and growing, and that this earthquake was a consequence of that. By the end of 2005, a total of 1,778 aftershocks were recorded. Damage and casualties Pakistan Most of the devastation hit Azad Jammu and Kashmir and other parts of Northern Pakistan. In AJK, the three main districts were badly affected and Muzaffarabad, the state capital of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, was hardest hit in terms of casualties and destruction. Hospitals, schools, and rescue services including police and armed forces were paralysed. There was virtually no infrastructure and communication was badly affected. More than 70% of all casualties were estimated to have occurred in Muzaffarabad. Bagh, the second-most-affected district, accounted for 15% of the total casualties. In Islamabad, the Margalla Towers, an apartment complex in sector F-10, collapsed resulting in the deaths of an estimated 70 inhabitants. One Egyptian and two Japanese were among the dead there. The Pakistani government's official death toll as of November 2005 stood at 87,350 although it is estimated that the death toll could have reached over 100,000. Approximately 138,000 were injured and over 3.5 million rendered homeless. According to government figures, 19,000 children died in the earthquake, most of them in widespread collapses of school buildings. The earthquake affected more than 500,000 families. In addition, approximately 250,000 farm animals died due to the collapse of stone barns, and more than 500,000 large animals required immediate shelter from the harsh winter. About 200 soldiers were also killed in the epicentral area. As Saturday is a normal school day in the region, most students were at schools when the earthquake struck. Many were buried under collapsed school buildings. In Mansehra District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, one collapsing school killed 350 students, while another school in the same district killed an additional fifty students. Many people were also trapped in their homes and because it was the month of Ramadan, most people were taking a nap after their pre-dawn meal and did not have time to escape. Reports indicate that entire towns and villages were completely wiped out in northern Pakistan, with other surrounding areas also suffering severe damage. "...a second, massive wave of death will happen if we do not step up our efforts now", Kofi Annan said on 20 October with reference to the thousand remote villages in which people "are in need of medical attention, food, clean water and shelter and the 120,000 survivors that have not yet been reached." According to Pakistan's Interior Minister Aftab Ahmad Sherpao, Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz "made the appeal to survivors" on 26 October to come down to valleys and cities for relief, because bad weather, mountainous terrain, landslides and blocked roads are making it difficult for relief workers to reach each house and the winter snows are imminent." India At least 1,350 people were killed and 6,266 injured in Jammu and Kashmir, India. In Uri there were over 150 deaths. The tremors were reportedly felt as far away as Delhi and Punjab. Afghanistan Four deaths were reported in Afghanistan, including a young girl who died in Jalalabad, after a wall collapsed on her. The quake was felt in Kabul, but the effects were minimal there. Response The national and international humanitarian response to the crisis was extensive. In the initial phases of response, the Pakistan Medical corps, Corps of Engineers, Army aviation and a large number of infantry units played important roles. Lt. Gen Afzal, Maj. Gen. Imtiaz, and Maj. Gen Javid were the leaders of their formations. Maj. Gen Farrukh Seir was in charge of foreign relief co-ordination. The relief work in the Indian territory of Jammu and Kashmir was led by IAS officers of the state administration, Bashir Runyal and Jaipal Singh Law. In early 2006, the Government of Pakistan organized a donors' conference to raise money for reconstruction and development of the area. A total of $6.2 billion was pledged and a large amount of the money was delivered in terms of services of international NGOs with high pay scales. The rest of the money pledged, which was given to the Government of Pakistan for reconstruction and development, was used by a reconstruction authority called Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority. Well over US$5.4 billion (400 billion Pakistani rupees) in aid arrived from all around the world. US Marine and Army helicopters stationed in neighbouring Afghanistan quickly flew aid into the devastated region along with five CH-47 Chinook helicopters from the Royal Air Force that were deployed from the United Kingdom. Five crossing points were opened on the Line of Control (LOC), between India and Pakistan, to facilitate the flow of humanitarian and medical aid to the affected region, and aid teams from different parts of Pakistan and around the world came to the region to assist in relief efforts. See also Meena - "Life Smiled Again" Disaster Management Act, 2005 October 2015 Hindu Kush earthquake 2019 Kashmir earthquake List of earthquakes in 2005 List of earthquakes in Pakistan List of earthquakes in India List of earthquakes in Afghanistan References Further reading External links Television series 'Earthquake Diaries' on the rescue efforts The Earthquake and the U.S. Response – Institute for Policy Studies When The Earth Moved Kashmir – NASA Earth Observatory The Kashmir Earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan – Earthquake Engineering Research Institute The Earthquake of 8 October 2005 in northern Pakistan – George Pararas-Carayannis Remembering Oct 8, 2005: The day the earth shook – DAWN 2005 disasters in Asia 2005 disasters in India 2005 disasters in Pakistan 2005 earthquakes 21st century in Azad Kashmir Earthquakes in Afghanistan Earthquakes in Pakistan Disasters in Azad Kashmir October 2005 events in Asia October 2005 events in Pakistan

8209121

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%E2%80%93Turkish%20earthquake%20diplomacy

Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy

The Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy (; ) was initiated after successive earthquakes hit both countries in the summer of 1999 and led to an improvement in Greek–Turkish relations. Prior to this, relations between the two countries had been generally volatile ever since the Istanbul pogrom. The so-called earthquake diplomacy generated an outpouring of sympathy and generous assistance provided by ordinary Greeks and Turks in both cases. Such acts were encouraged from the top and took many foreigners by surprise. They prepared the public for a breakthrough in bilateral relations, which had been marred by decades of mutual hostility. Greek aid Successive earthquakes On August 17, 1999, at 3:02 am, Turkey experienced a very large earthquake centered around the Gölcük and Arifiye areas in Adapazarı. The most severely affected area was the industrial city of İzmit. The İzmit earthquake registered 7.6 on the moment magnitude scale, lasted for 45 seconds, and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). The official number of casualties was about 17,000, although the numbers could be above 35,000. Three hundred thousand people were left homeless and the financial cost is estimated at about 3 billion dollars. Turkey's largest city, Istanbul, was also affected with many buildings damaged and deaths amounting to dozens of people. The rupture passed through major cities that are among the most industrialized and urban areas of the country, including oil refineries, several car companies, and the navy headquarters and arsenal in Gölcük, thus increasing the severity of the life and property loss. Greek reaction and aid management The main characteristic of this particular human crisis was the difficulty of the Turkish authorities to apply any rational planning because of the magnitude of the disaster, and the fact that the majority of the Greek initiatives were undertaken not only by the government, but mainly and most importantly by local authorities, NGOs and individuals. Greece was the first foreign country to pledge aid and support to Turkey. Within hours of the earthquake, the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs had contacted their counterparts in Turkey, and the minister sent his personal envoys to Turkey. On August 17, 1999, and on November 13, 1999, the Greek Ministry of Public Order sent a rescue team of 24 people and two trained rescue dogs. The Ministry also sent fire extinguishing planes to help with putting out the fire in the Tupras refinery. The Secretariat of Civil Protections (working under the auspices of the Greek Ministry of Interior Affairs) had previously sent a fully equipped medical team of 11 people, four of whom were doctors as well as thousands of tents, mobile hospital units, ambulances, medicine, water, clothes, foods and blankets. The Greek Ministry of Defence readied three C-130 planes for transportation of the Greek rescue team along with the equipment and the medicines. On August 18, 1999, the Ministry of Health set up three units for blood donations. The same day aid was sent by the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. On August 19, 1999, the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs set up three receiving stations in Athens, Thessaloniki and Komotini, whose purpose was the gathering of the citizens' spontaneous help. After August 19, the hospitals of Komotini and Xanthi set up their own units for blood donations, and the Church of Greece initiated a fund raiser. On August 24, 1999, the five biggest municipalities of Greece (Athens, Thessaloniki, Piraeus, Patras, Herakleion) sent a joint convoy with aid. The municipality of Thessaloniki had started sending its own aid since August 19, 1999. On August 25, 1999, the National Association of Local Authorities (ΚΕΔΚΕ) offered 50,000,000 drachmas for the victims of the earthquake, and the Association of Local Authorities of Attica offered 30,000,000 drachmas to the Turkish ambassador in Athens. The same day, the municipality of Athens created a settlement for 1,000 persons with a nursery. Aid and equipped groups were also sent by the Greek Red Cross, the Athens' Medicine Association, and the Greek departments of the Médecins Sans Frontières and of the Médecins du Monde. The Greek response to the earthquake received wide coverage in Turkey with newspaper headings such as "Friendship Time", "Friendly Hands in Black Days", "A Great Support Organization – Five Greek Municipalities say there is no flag or ideology in humanitarian aid", "Help Flows in from Neighbors – Russia first, Greece the most". Both the official response and dialog and the reactions of the ordinary Greek were given wide coverage almost every day in every newspaper and on every TV channel in Turkey. Incidents such as people bringing in food donations to municipalities in Greece and blood drives in Greece specifically to be sent to earthquake victims in Turkey were highlighted. The emotional language in reporting differed significantly from the usual rhetoric found in both countries—words such as "neighbor", "true friend" were given in the headlines. Officials in both countries used the emotional state of both populations to good effect, emphasizing at every opportunity that this was the time for a new understanding. When the Mayor of Athens came personally to visit the earthquake site, he was met on the tarmac by the Mayor of Istanbul. The Greek Chief Admiral Ioannides came to the retirement ceremony of the Turkish Chief Admiral Dervişoğlu where he was applauded for several minutes by the participants of the ceremony. Turkey reciprocates Less than a month after the Turkish disaster, on September 7, 1999, at 2:56 pm local time, a magnitude 5.9 earthquake struck the city of Athens. This was the most devastating and costly natural disaster to hit the country in 20 years. The tremor had a very shallow hypocenter and an epicenter close to the Athenian suburbs of Ano Liossia and Acharnes, just away from the downtown area. A total of 143 people lost their lives in the disaster while more than 12,000 were treated for injuries. Though the death toll was relatively low, the damage to buildings and infrastructure in some of the city's northern and western suburbs was severe. This time, the Turkish side reciprocated the aid. A special taskforce was convened, consisting of the Undersecretariat of the Prime Ministry, Turkish Armed Forces, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Greek Ambassador in Ankara was contacted to pledge aid. The Turkish aid was the first to arrive, with the first 20-person rescue team arriving at the site on a military plane within 13 hours after the earthquake. More followed within hours. The Greek consulates and embassy in Turkey had their phone lines jammed with Turks calling to find out whether they could donate blood and one volunteer contacted Ambassador Corantis, offering to donate his kidney for a "Greek in need". 2020 Izmir earthquake In 2020, a 6.7 magnitude earthquake and tsunami hit the western coast of Turkey, particularly the city of Izmir, and the Greek island of Samos. Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis called President Recep Tayyip Erdogan to offer condolences, and the Greek government sent rescue teams to aid in rescue efforts. 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes Following a deadly 7.8 magnitude earthquake in Kahramanmaraş on 6 February 2023, Greece was the first country to respond, showing strong solidarity to Turkey with the humanitarian aid being escorted to the affected areas personally by high-level government officials, including the Greek Civil Protection Minister. Immediately after the earthquake, the Greek government sent a rescue squad to Turkey, as well as "additional equipment, medical supplies, blankets, tents", with approval from the Turkish government. Specifically, a team of 21 firefighters, 2 rescue dogs and a special rescue vehicle were dispatched to Turkey from Elefsina on a Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Following the team was a fire brigade officer-engineer, 5 doctors and rescuers from the National Center for Emergency Care. Greek Prime minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis phoned the Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, pledging further quake-relief assistance. Foreign Minister Nikos Dendias and Defence Minister Panos Panagiotopoulos spoke with their Turkish counterparts, Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu and Hulusi Akar, to express their condolences and readiness for providing aid. Greece's swift response to the humanitarian crisis in Turkey contributed to the hashtags "Teşekkürler Yunanistan" and "Teşekkürler komşu", translating into "Thank you, Greece" and "Thank you, neighbor" respectively, becoming popular on Twitter. The German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung noted that the Greek aid comes despite severe diplomatic tensions in recent months and the Erdoğan's repeated threats to militarily invade Greece's islands. According to Deutsche Welle, these developments marked the revival of the earthquake diplomacy between the two countries, once again. On 8 February, more rescue teams departed from Greece for Turkey, including 15 firefighters and 3 lifesavers. Nation-wide campaigns to gather relief supplies such as blankets, clothes, milk powder, diapers, napkins, laundry detergents, serums, gauze, hand plasters, personal hygiene items, masks, gloves, antiseptics and medical equipment were initiated, and the items being gathered in Athens and Thessaloniki by humanitarian organizations and agencies, as well as in the smaller cities by the local municipalities and football federations. Additionally, the Greek PM ordered 5 airplanes full of health and medical equipment and basic necessities such as 7,500 blankets, 1,500 beds and 500 tents which can accommodate families and be used as mobile clinics, to be sent to Turkey. Reports and footage was released on that day, of Greek rescuers pulling people from the rubble in Hatay, including at least four children. On 9 February, and upon his arrival at the European Council meeting, the Greek PM Mitsotakis proposes a donor conference for Turkey to be held at Brussels, so that additional financial resources can be found to help rebuild the affected areas and announced that his country will also be at the forefront [of these efforts] for organizing it. By 10 February, reportedly "thousands" of Greeks had responded to calls for aid to quake-hit Turkey, with the Athens offices of the Hellenic Red Cross, pilling up with sleeping bags, blankets, milk cans and boxes of medicine. A convoy carrying 40 tonnes of aid left for Turkey early that day. On 12 February, Dendias traveled to Turkey, where was received by Çavuşoğlu. The two foreign ministers toured an operations centre in Antakya, observed the devastation to the city from the air, and visited a camp where international rescue teams are based. The humanitarian aid mission completed on midnight of February 13th, with a total 8 airplanes transferring and handing over the supplies to the Turkish authorities. The cost of transporting the humanitarian aid is covered by 75% by the European Civil Protection Mechanism, while the remaining 25% is sponsored by private Greek companies. On 15 February, the efforts continued with even more humanitarian aid being sent from Greece, with six trucks loaded with specific items requested by the Turkish side, such as blankets, tents, sleeping bags and chemical toilets. Additionally, 4 large containers with 50 tons of basic necessities are planned to be delivered through the Greek seaport of Patras two days later, on 17 February. Greek Olympic gold medalist Miltiadis Tentoglou decided to auction his sports shoes which he worn in his long jumping performance at the World Athletics Indoor Tour in France on 15 February, with the proceeds to be donated for the child victims of the quake. On 10 March, another humanitarian aid shipment loaded on three large trucks full of emergency supplies and a rescue vehicle, from the Hellenic Red Cross's warehouses, left for Turkey to be delivered directly to the Turkish Red Crescent warehouses. On 20 March, Turkish Foreign Minister Mevlut Cavusoglu and Greek FM Nikos Dendias, in a symbolic move, entered together the hall of the International Donors' Conference in support of the people hit by the earthquake in Turkey and Syria, where the international community pledged 7 billion euros for the reconstruction efforts in the quake-hit areas. See also Greece–Turkey relations References Greece–Turkey relations International responses to natural disasters 1999 in international relations 1999 in Greece 1999 in Turkey

8247768

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967%20Caracas%20earthquake

1967 Caracas earthquake

The 1967 Caracas earthquake occurred in Caracas, Venezuela, and La Guaira, Vargas on 29 July at 8:00 p.m (UTC−04:00 at that time). Its epicenter took place in the litoral central (20 km from Caracas) and lasted 35 seconds. It heavily affected areas such as Altamira, Los Palos Grandes, and Litoral Central. In the aftermath of the earthquake, there were several aftershocks of lower intensity. The earthquake left a toll of 1,536 injured, 225–300 dead, and cost $50–140 million United States Dollars in property damage. Events At 8:05 p.m., Venezuelan time, Caracas was shaken by an earthquake that was recorded at 6.6 on the moment magnitude scale. The staff of the Cagigal Observatory could not precisely determine neither the epicenter nor the magnitude of the earthquake, because the pendulum seismometer’s needle straps broke and the photoelectric cells equipment also had imperfections. After the earthquake, the director of the observatory, ship Captain Ramiro Pérez Luciani, estimated that the epicenter was found in the Humocaro fault, Lara state, about 350 kilometers from Caracas; but the next day, examining the damage reports, he corrected his evaluation, placing it in the Caribbean Sea 70 km from the coast, in front of the Central Coast. The director of the Naval Observatory reported that he would have to resort to foreign specialized institutions in order to determine the data of the earthquake, due to damage to the seismological equipment. In the Caracas Cathedral, located in the center of the city, a mass was being held when the earthquake occurred, as the stained glass windows of the temple suddenly exploded and the parishioners that were near, quickly escaped to Plaza Bolívar, Bogotá. In a few seconds the hundred year old Pontifical Cross, that crowned the facade, collapsed in free fall until it hit the ground, fragmenting into pieces and leaving a mark of their silhouette on the ground. One of those present would remember the event with the following words: "I saw when the cross came off and was engraved on the floor like a red-hot iron burn; in that precise moment the earthquake ceased," which made many people attribute this to a divine miracle and for several days the silhouette was venerated by the faithful until, on August 2, the authorities decided to remove the piece of concrete without giving much explanation. Now, after several decades of rumors and speculation around his whereabouts, the same piece is preserved in the Chapel of the Holy Christ of Mercy, located in the Valley sector. At the same time, in Sonomatrix studios – located in the Antímano sector – sound technician Alejandro López, organist Tulio Enrique León and composer Germán Narvaez, were working on the recording of an instrumental track for a piece recorded by a children's choir a few days before. Three men fled from the studio during the seismic movement, the microphones, consoles and tape recording equipment remained in operation, thus preserving the only recorded sound of the tremor. Of this recording, the company FAVEDICA would much later publish a single disc with a brief narration that explained what happened and, in addition, included the single aforementioned musical composition alluding to the incident that occurred in the Cathedral of Caracas described above entitled: "The Miracle of the Cross", that was written by Oswaldo Oropeza and performed by Manuelita Sandoval together with the Ensemble of the Oropeza Brothers. On the other hand, in one of the Cadena Venezolana TV studios, located in the Ruices sector, at the same time as a program special (that would be transmitted the 1st of August, when this television network’s third anniversary would be celebrated) was being recorded and, at the beginning of the Venezuelan folk singer Purita Reina’s concert, who was accompanied by the musical ensemble of Mario Suárez and the television station’s ballet, the cloud decoration began to move, jumping from top to bottom in sharp vertical movements. The lighting technician attracted the attention of the operators to this failure, meanwhile, the artists continued with their work until the movement of the decorations went from vertical to wavy and, when everyone present realized that an earthquake was happening, they fled in terror from the studio. Meanwhile the camera fell over and, according to reports by the press at the time of this incident, the recorded images clearly showed that the floor was moving in a wave direction until the camera eventually turned off. Also, in another studio for the channel, they found that there were more than 600 people waiting to see a wrestling tournament that was going to be broadcast live but, with the sole exception of the scare caused by the seismic movement. Fortunately, there were no victims to feel sadness for and the television station building was not damaged either. The violent expansion covered the outer seismic zone of the Northern Caracas for a duration of about 55 seconds, which extends for more than 20 kilometers between the towns of Arrecifes and Naiguatá. These zones off the Central Coast, together with those of Altamira and Palos Grandes in Caracas, were the ones that had the most damage. In Caraballeda, in the current Vargas state, five of the eleven floors of the “Charaima Mansion" were destroyed; a few months after they attempted to demolish the building with explosives and, where their goal was not achieved, a demolition ball had to be employed. Also, the Macuto Sheraton Hotel had heavy damage to their structures. Damage Damage was extensive in the Altamira and Los Palos Grandes sections of Caracas where four major apartment buildings, 10 to 12 stories high, collapsed. Many additional structures were severely damaged and several had to be razed and reconstructed. Huge sections of walls fell from buildings, flattening cars below and leaving large portions of structures exposed. Rescue workers used cranes and bulldozers to search through the rubble for survivors or victims of the earthquake. A week after the shock, in Caraballeda, rescue operations continued for persons believed trapped beneath the floors of Mansion Charaima, an apartment building across the street from the Macuto Sheraton (which was also damaged). Maracay, about 50 miles west of Caracas, reported five deaths and 100 injuries. Several additional towns reported structural damage. See also 1641 Caracas earthquake 1812 Caracas earthquake List of earthquakes in 1967 List of earthquakes in Venezuela References Sources External links Sismologia Historica de Venezuela The Influence of the 1967 Caracas Earthquake on Aseismic Design in the Commonwealth Caribbean – Venezuelan Foundation of Seismological Research Earthquakes in Venezuela Caracas Earthquake, 1967 Caracas History of Caracas July 1967 events in South America 1967 disasters in Venezuela

8269166

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918%20San%20Ferm%C3%ADn%20earthquake

1918 San Fermín earthquake

The 1918 San Fermín earthquake, also known as the Puerto Rico earthquake of 1918, struck the island of Puerto Rico at on October 11. The earthquake measured 7.1 on the moment magnitude scale and IX (Violent) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The mainshock epicenter occurred off the northwestern coast of the island, somewhere along the Puerto Rico Trench. The earthquake triggered a tsunami that swept the west coast of the island. The combined effects of the earthquake and tsunami made it one of the worst natural disasters that have struck the island. The losses resulting from the disaster were approximately 76–118 casualties and $4–29 million in property damage. Earthquake The epicenter of the 1918 San Fermín earthquake was located in the Mona Passage off the northwestern coast of the island. The strongest ground shaking has been estimated at intensity IX on the Mercalli intensity scale. The resulting tsunami affected primarily the west coast towns of the island (primarily Mayaguez). Damage Numerous structures in the west coast suffered irreparable damage. Factories and production facilities were virtually destroyed, while bridges and roads were severely damaged. The earthquake caused several mudslides in areas where the intensity exceeded Level VII, but none caused numerous deaths. Also, the river currents were affected, which, in many cases affected the foundations of many bridges, resulting in their collapse. Telegraph cables under the ocean were damaged, cutting off the island from outside communication for a time. The reported casualties of the earthquake have been estimated somewhere between 76 and 116 deaths. Approximately 40 of these deaths were caused by the tsunami which swept shore communities. Damage to property was estimated to be between $4 and 29 million. In Aguadilla, the closest town to the earthquake epicenter, the parish church and most of the stone and concrete buildings were either destroyed or partially damaged. The nearby Spanish-built Punta Higuero lighthouse of Rincón also was severely damaged. In Mayagüez, the largest city to be directly affected, 700 masonry buildings were damaged and 1,000 wooden houses, so many people were homeless. Major buildings like the church, post office, municipal theater and city hall were severely damaged. With fear because of the aftershocks, many people camped out in the hills for weeks. Some of the buildings of the recently founded University of Puerto Rico campus were also damaged or destroyed. The Edificio José de Diego suffered structural damages and the Degetau Hall was destroyed with its main entrance portico being the only standing structure left intact. These ruins were later preserved, and its portico would later on become a local landmark and the official emblem of the institution today. The historic center of San Germán was also badly affected, with reported damages to notable structures such as the main town church. Cities throughout the southern coast were also affected. The United States Customs House was destroyed while the Ponce city hall for example was damaged, prompting the mayoral office to temporarily relocated to the Parque de Bombas until 1920. Other damaged buildings in Ponce were the Tricoche Hospital and the Armstrong-Poventud House. There were damages reported further afield throughout Puerto Rico, for example the original bell towers of the cathedral of Humacao and the main town church of Vega Baja also collapsed. The Corregimiento Plaza Theater, the cathedral and the city hall in Arecibo also sustained damages. Tsunami As a result of the earthquake, a tsunami lashed the west coast of the island, probably 4–7 minutes after the main shock. The highest waves were estimated at in Point Agujereada, at Punta Borinquen (where it destroyed the lighthouse), and at Point Jiguero. Several coastal villages were destroyed, and it has been estimated that 40 people drowned (32 in Aguadilla alone) as a direct result of the tsunami. The earthquake and consequent tsunami destroyed most historic vernacular residences in downtown Aguadilla with only a few, such as the Amparo Roldán residence, surviving. Many of the historic tombs and mausolea of the historic cemetery were also badly damaged by the waves. Aftershocks Several aftershocks were reported immediately after the main earthquake. On October 24 and November 12, two strong aftershocks were reported on the island. However, no damage was reported as a result. United States response The response from the United States was to exempt the municipalities most affected from paying taxes for a short period immediately following the quake: those municipalities were Mayagüez, Aguada, Aguadilla, Añasco and Isabela. The U.S. appropriated funds for the repair of municipal buildings of the most affected municipalities. Gallery See also 1787 Boricua earthquake 1867 Virgin Islands earthquake and tsunami 2019–20 Puerto Rico earthquakes Geology of Puerto Rico List of disasters in the United States by death toll List of earthquakes in 1918 List of earthquakes in Puerto Rico List of earthquakes in the Caribbean References Sources Further reading External links "Puerto Rico Seismic Network" – University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Significant earthquake – Puerto Rico: Mona Passage – National Geophysical Data Center M 7.1 - Puerto Rico region – United States Geological Survey The Tectonic Setting and Geology of Puerto Rico and Its Surrounding Seafloor – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Map of Tsunami wave heights in Puerto Rico by USC Tsunami Research Group Wave transformation in Coastal Wiki Earthquakes and Tsunamis in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands by USGS.gov Mayagüez, Puerto Rico San Fermin Earthquake, 1918 San Fermin Earthquake, 1918 1910s tsunamis Earthquakes in Puerto Rico

8327348

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20warning%20system

Earthquake warning system

An earthquake warning system or earthquake alarm system is a system of accelerometers, seismometers, communication, computers, and alarms that is devised for notifying adjoining regions of a substantial earthquake while it is in progress. This is not the same as earthquake prediction, which is currently incapable of producing decisive event warnings. Time lag and wave projection An earthquake is caused by the release of stored elastic strain energy during rapid sliding along a fault. The sliding starts at some location and progresses away from the hypocenter in each direction along the fault surface. The speed of the progression of this fault tear is slower than, and distinct from the speed of the resultant pressure and shear waves, with the pressure wave traveling faster than the shear wave. The pressure waves generate an abrupt shock. The shear waves generate periodic motion (at about 1 Hz) that is the most destructive to structures, particularly buildings that have a similar resonant period. Typically, these buildings are around eight floors in height. These waves will be strongest at the ends of the slippage, and may project destructive waves well beyond the fault failure. The intensity of such remote effects are highly dependent upon local soils conditions within the region and these effects are considered in constructing a model of the region that determines appropriate responses to specific events. Transit safety Such systems are currently implemented to determine appropriate real-time response to an event by the train operator in urban rail systems such as BART (Bay Area Rapid Transit) and LA Metro. The appropriate response is dependent on the warning time, the local right-of-way conditions and the current speed of the train. Deployment As of 2016, Japan and Taiwan have comprehensive, nationwide earthquake early warning systems. Other countries and regions have limited deployment of earthquake warning systems, including Mexico (the Mexican Seismic Alert System covers areas of central and southern Mexico including Mexico City and Oaxaca), limited regions of Romania (the Basarab bridge in Bucharest), and parts of the United States. The earliest automated earthquake pre-detection systems were installed in the 1990s; for instance, in California, the Calistoga fire station's system which automatically triggers a citywide siren to alert the entire area's residents of an earthquake. Some California fire departments use their warning systems to automatically open overhead doors of fire stations before the earthquake can disable them. While many of these efforts are governmental, several private companies also manufacture earthquake early warning systems to protect infrastructure such as elevators, gas lines and fire stations. Canada In 2009, an early warning system called ShakeAlarm was installed and commissioned in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. It was placed to protect a piece of critical transportation infrastructure called the George Massey Tunnel, which connects the north and south banks of the Fraser River. In this application the system automatically closes the gates at the tunnel entrances if there is a dangerous seismic event inbound. The success and the reliability of the system was such that as of 2015 there have been several additional installations on the west coast of Canada and the United States, and there are more being planned. Japan Japan's Earthquake Early Warning system was put to practical use in 2006. The system that warns the general public was installed on October 1, 2007. It was modeled partly on the Urgent Earthquake Detection and Alarm System () of Japan Railways, which was designed to enable automatic braking of bullet trains. Gravimetric data from the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake has been used to create a model for increased warning time compared to seismic models, as gravity fields travel at the speed of light, much faster than seismic waves. Mexico The Mexican Seismic Alert System, otherwise known as SASMEX, began operations in 1991 and began publicly issuing alerts in 1993. It is funded by the Mexico City government, with financial contributions from several states that receive the alert. Initially serving Mexico City with twelve sensors, the system now has 97 sensors and is designed to protect life and property in several central and southern Mexican states. United States The United States Geological Survey (USGS) began research and development of an early warning system for the West Coast of the United States in August 2006, and the system became demonstrable in August 2009. Following various developmental phases, version 2.0 went live during the fall of 2018, allowing the "sufficiently functional and tested" system to begin Phase 1 of alerting California, Oregon and Washington. Even though ShakeAlert could alert the public beginning September 28, 2018, the messages themselves could not be distributed until the various private and public distribution partners had completed mobile apps and made changes to various emergency alerting systems. The first publicly available alerting system was the ShakeAlertLA app, released on New Year's Eve 2018 (although it only alerted for shaking in the Los Angeles area). On October 17, 2019, Cal OES announced a statewide rollout of the alert distribution system in California, using mobile apps and the Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) system. California refers to their system as the California Earthquake Early Warning System. A statewide alert distribution system was rolled out in Oregon on March 11, 2021 and in Washington on May 4, 2021, completing the alert system for the West Coast. Global systems Earthquake Network In January 2013, Francesco Finazzi of the University of Bergamo started the Earthquake Network research project which aims at developing and maintaining a crowdsourced earthquake warning system based on smartphone networks. Smartphones are used to detect the ground shaking induced by an earthquake and a warning is issued as soon as an earthquake is detected. People living at a further distance from the epicenter and the detection point may be alerted before they are reached by the damaging waves of the earthquake. People can take part in the project by installing the Android application "Earthquake Network" on their smart phones. The app requires the phone to receive the alerts. MyShake In February 2016, the Berkeley Seismological Laboratory at University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley) released the MyShake mobile app. The app uses accelerometers in phones that are stationary and connected to a power supply to record shaking and relay that information back to the laboratory. The system issues automated warnings of earthquakes of magnitude 4.5 or greater. UC Berkeley released a Japanese-language version of the app in May 2016. By December 2016, the app had captured nearly 400 earthquakes worldwide. Android Earthquake Alerts System On August 11, 2020, Google announced that its Android operating system would begin using accelerometers in devices to detect earthquakes (and send the data to the company's "earthquake detection server"). As millions of phones operate on Android, this may result in the world's largest earthquake detection network. Initially, the system only collected earthquake data and did not issue alerts (except for on the West Coast of the United States, where it provided alerts issued by the USGS's ShakeAlert system and not from Google's own detection system). Data collected by Android devices was only used to provide fast information on the earthquake via Google Search, although it was always planned to issue alerts for many other areas based on Google's detection capabilities in the future. On April 28, 2021, Google announced the rollout of the alert system to Greece and New Zealand, the first countries to receive alerts based on Google's own detection capabilities. Google's alerts were extended to Turkey, the Philippines, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan in June 2021. OpenEEW On August 11, 2020, Linux Foundation, IBM and Grillo announced the first fully open-source earthquake early-warning system, featuring instructions for a low-cost seismometer, cloud-hosted detection system, dashboard and mobile app. This project is supported by USAID, the Clinton Foundation and Arrow Electronics. Smartphone-based earthquake early-warning systems are dependent on a dense network of users near the earthquake rupture zone, whereas OpenEEW has focused instead on providing affordable devices that can be deployed in remote regions close to where earthquakes can begin. All components of this system are open source and available on the project's GitHub repositories. Social media Social networking sites such as Twitter and Facebook play a significant role during natural disasters. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has investigated collaboration with the social networking site Twitter to allow for more rapid construction of ShakeMaps. See also Earthquake engineering Earthquake preparedness P-wave Seismic retrofit Earthquake Early Warning (Japan) Mexican Seismic Alert System References External links Earthquake Early Warning – California Institute of Technology Bayesian Networks for Earthquake Magnitude Classification in a Early Warning System Earthquake Network - The Earthquake Network project website Earthquake Early Warning for Developing Countries - Grillo website An Open Source Earthquake Early Warning System - OpenEEW website Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation

8565862

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1356%20Basel%20earthquake

1356 Basel earthquake

The 1356 Basel earthquake is the most significant seismological event to have occurred in Central Europe in recorded history and had a moment magnitude in the range of 6.0–7.1. This earthquake, which occurred on 18 October 1356, is also known as the Sankt-Lukas-Tag Erdbeben (English: Earthquake of Saint Luke), as 18 October is the feast day of Saint Luke the Evangelist. Earthquake After a foreshock between 19:00 and 20:00 local time, the main earthquake struck in the evening at around 22:00, and numerous aftershocks followed through that night. Basel experienced a second, very violent shock in the middle of the night. The town within the ramparts was destroyed by a fire when torches and candles falling to the floor set the wooden houses ablaze. The number of deaths within the town of Basel is estimated at 300. All major churches and castles within a radius of Basel were destroyed. The seismic crisis lasted a year. The modeling of the macroseismic data suggests that the earthquake's source had an east–west orientation, a direction corresponding with the overlapping faults on the Jura Front. On the other hand, recent paleoseismic studies attribute the cause of this earthquake to a normal fault, oriented NNE-SSW and south of the town. The significant magnitude of the event suggests a possible extension of this fault under the town. Location Due to the limited records of the event, a variety of epicenters have been proposed for the earthquake. Some of the proposed locations include faults beneath the Jura Mountains or along the Basel-Reinach escarpment. Another study placed the epicenter south of Basel. Intensity The earthquake was felt as far away as Zürich, Konstanz, and even in Île-de-France. The maximum intensity registered on the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale was IX–X (Destructive–Devastating). The macroseismic map was established on the basis of damage reported by the region's 30 to 40 castles. From this macroseismic data, various studies have been conducted to estimate the moment magnitude of the earthquake, which have resulted in various values of 6.2 (BRGM 1998); 6.0 (GEO-TER 2002); 6.9 (SED 2004) with a follow-up report suggesting a range of between 6.7 and 7.1; 6.6 (GFZ 2006); and a major Swiss study by 21 European experts, with American involvement, in which four sub-groups estimated values of 6.9, 6.9, 6.5 to 6.9, and 6.5 ± 0.5 (PEGASOS 2002–2004). There are also different opinions about which faults were involved. Damage The earthquake destroyed the city of Basel, Switzerland, near the southern end of the Upper Rhine Graben, and caused much destruction in a vast region extending from Paris to Prague. Though major earthquakes are common at the seismically active edges of tectonic plates in Turkey, Greece, and Italy, intraplate earthquakes are rare events in Central Europe. According to the Swiss Seismological Service, of more than 10,000 earthquakes in Switzerland over the past 800 years, only half a dozen of them have registered more than 6.0 on the Richter scale. See also List of earthquakes in Switzerland Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant Induced seismicity in Basel List of historical earthquakes References Further reading External links Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Diocese of Basel makes mentions the earthquake Das Grosse Beben von Basel im Jahr 1356 Critical description of the earthquake and its consequences Preparing a seismic hazard model for Switzerland: The view from PEGASOS Expert Group 3 Basel earthquake, 1356 Reinach, Basel-Landschaft 1356 Basel Basel Earthquake, 1356 14th century in Switzerland Earthquakes in Europe Natural disasters in Germany History of Basel

8593021

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Another%20Earthquake%21

Another Earthquake!

Another Earthquake! is the fourth studio album by American teen pop singer Aaron Carter, released on September 3, 2002. The album made its chart debut at number 18 on the US Billboard 200 (with 41,000 units sold), but fell to number 41 (21,000 units) in its second week. This album was much less successful than Oh Aaron, and would be Carter's third and final studio album with Jive Records. Carter promoted the album on the Rock, Rap and Retro Tour, with Jump 5, No Secrets, and Triple Image as opening acts. Track listing Singles "Another Earthquake!" "Summertime" (featuring Baha Men) "To All the Girls" "Do You Remember" Charts References 2002 albums Aaron Carter albums Jive Records albums

8613919

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Hengchun%20earthquakes

2006 Hengchun earthquakes

The 2006 Hengchun earthquakes occurred on December 26 at 20:26 and 20:34 local time off the southwest coast of Taiwan in the Luzon Strait, which connects the South China Sea with the Philippine Sea. The International Seismological Centre measured the shocks at 7.0 and 6.9 on the moment magnitude scale. The earthquakes not only caused casualties and building damage, but several submarine communications cables were cut, disrupting telecommunication services in various parts of Asia. Tectonic setting Taiwan lies in a zone of complex interaction between the Philippine Sea Plate (PSP) and the Eurasian Plate (EP). To the north, the PSP is subducting beneath the EP along the line of the Ryukyu Trench, forming the Ryukyu Volcanic Arc. To the south, in contrast, the EP is subducting beneath the PSP along the line of the Manila Trench, forming the Luzon Volcanic Arc. At its northern end the Luzon Arc is colliding with the continental margin of the Eurasian Plate as the thicker and more buoyant crust enters the subduction zone. This zone of collision is propagating southwards and the marks the early stages of this process. Earthquake sequence The sequence began with the first major earthquake at 12:26:21 (UTC), followed slightly less than eight minutes later by the second main shock at 12:34:15. The first event had a focal mechanism indicating rupture along a normal fault, probably within the descending oceanic crust of the Eurasian Plate as it bends within the subduction zone. Relocated aftershocks are consistent with a moderately west-dipping normal fault, with an estimated rupture area of 50 km x 35 km. The second event has a strike-slip focal mechanism, probably on a steep NNW–SSE trending, WSW-dipping fault, with an estimated rupture area of 65 km x 30 km. The two rupture areas show little overlap and the second event is likely to have been triggered by stress transfer from the first event. The largest aftershock had a similar mechanism to the second main shock. Damage Taiwan News agencies aired reports in southern Taiwan of collapsed houses, building fires, hotel guests being trapped in elevators, and telephone outages due to severed lines. Two people were reported killed and 42 injured. The earthquake was felt all over Taiwan, including the capital city of Taipei, north of Hengchun. Power was knocked out to a reported 3,000 homes, but service was restored within a few hours. As of the following morning, cleanup was already underway. Fifteen historical buildings, including a Grade 2 elephant site, were damaged in the historic center of Hengchun. The 3rd nuclear power plant, Maanshan Nuclear Power Plant, of Taiwan Power Company nearby was affected by the earthquake. Because of the vigorous vibration, the alarm at Reactor #2 was activated, forcing the operators to carry out SCRAM immediately. However, Reactor #1 was not affected and remained operational. After the emergency shutdown of Reactor #2, engineers checked the plant facilities and no problems were found. Hong Kong and Macau Residents in different districts of Hong Kong felt the earthquake. Fearing the collapse of their buildings, people in Sham Shui Po, Wong Tai Sin and Yuen Long ran into the streets. The Hong Kong Observatory estimated the tremor as having a Mercalli intensity of III (Weak) to IV (Light). In Macau, residents called the Office for Meteorological and Geophysical Services to ask whether an earthquake had occurred in their city. China There were no reports of major damage in China, although the quake could be felt there. In Xiamen, Fujian, people evacuated their homes and offices to open spaces. The earthquake could also be felt in various cities in Guangdong province and Fujian province (e.g. Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Shantou, and Fuzhou.) Tsunami While this earthquake marked the first time a tsunami was detected in Taiwan, the change in water level was only and no damage was caused. Early reports issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency indicated that the earthquake triggered a 1-meter tsunami, which was detected heading for the east coast of the Philippines, with Basco in its likely path. The Hong Kong Observatory also issued tsunami information bulletin, while indicating Hong Kong would likely be unaffected. Disruption in communications The earthquake catastrophically disrupted Internet services in Asia, affecting many Asian countries. Financial transactions, particularly in the foreign exchange market were seriously affected as well. The aforementioned disruption was caused by damage to several submarine communications cables. Taiwan Chunghwa Telecom stated that an undersea cable off the southern coast had been damaged, interrupting communications (including IDD, telephone services and internet services) of Taiwan with China, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the United States. The international calling capacity was reduced to 40%. China China Telecom reported that several international submarine communications cables had been broken, including: CUCN and SMW3, which was damaged on 26 December 2006 20:25 UTC+8 approximately 9.7 km away from landing point in Fangshan, Pingtung County, Taiwan; APCN 2 S3, which was damaged on 27 December 2006 02:00 UTC+8 approximately 2100 km away from landing point in Chongming, Shanghai, China; APCN 2 S7, which was damaged on 27 December 2006 00:06 UTC+8 approximately 904 km away from landing point in Tanshui, Taipei County (now New Taipei City), Taiwan; FLAG Europe Asia, the segment between Hong Kong and Shanghai was severed on 27 December 2006 04:56 UTC+8; FLAG North Asia Loop, the segment between Hong Kong and Pusan was severed on 26 December 2006 20:43 UTC+8, severely damaging the communications within the Asia-Pacific region and with the United States and Europe. IDD, telephone services, and internet services of China with North America were seriously affected by the earthquake. However, China Telecom announced on December 31 that IDD services had resumed to normal levels. Internet services had resumed to 70% of normal levels. As the undersea cables to North America were seriously damaged by the earthquake, the quality of internet services depended on the progress of repair work. Hong Kong Starting from dawn on 27 December, connections between foreign websites/servers and Hong Kong internet users kept failing. Wikipedia, search engines, online messengers like ICQ and MSN Messenger, and portals like Google, Yahoo! and MSN were largely unavailable. Access to Chinese Wikipedia was also cut by the earthquake, as the servers are located in South Korea. Websites located in mainland China, such as xinhuanet.com, the website of Xinhua News Agency, were also inaccessible. On 29 December, the Office of the Telecommunications Authority (OFTA) of the Hong Kong Government announced that IDD and roaming calls to Taiwan had resumed to 50% of the normal level. IDD and roaming calls to other Asian countries (e.g. South Korea) were slower than normal. Calls from Hong Kong to overseas using calling cards experienced the same situation as the IDD and roaming calls. However, calling from overseas to Hong Kong using calling cards still faced serious congestion. For internet services, as of December 29, connections to websites in the U.S., South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan were still very slow. However, the situation was improving; sites which could not be accessed before (e.g. Wikipedia, Google, YouTube) were available at extremely slow speeds. Among the internet service providers in Hong Kong, PCCW's Netvigator was the slowest to resume enough bandwidth for their users. Therefore, as a temporary remedy, many internet users in Hong Kong used proxy servers in Australia, Thailand, Spain, and even the UAE and Kuwait to access foreign websites. As of 31 December, the situation of internet connection had improved. Although sites that were previously unavailable became accessible, connection speeds were still slower than normal. Philippines The earthquake cut PLDT's phone service capacity and connectivity by around 40 percent. The two largest Philippine mobile communications companies (Smart Communications and Globe Telecom) also reported some international connectivity problems. Some carriers were able to re-route their service. Call centers and other outsourced business processes that have become a major industry in the Philippines feared that the cable damage might hamper their operations dramatically; only two centers were totally shut down due to the problems. United States In the United States, several networks and bloggers experienced a noticeable reduction in the volume of spam received after the earthquake. A blogger noted that "one large network in North America saw their mail from Korea drop by 90% and from China by 99%." Other areas Korea Telecom, Malaysia's Telekom Malaysia and Jaring, as well as the Communications Authority of Thailand, Singapore's StarHub and SingTel and Brunei's Telbru also reported disruption to most Internet services. In Singapore, search engines and portals like Google, Yahoo!, MSN and most websites were virtually unreachable. In Indonesia, Google was not accessible, but Yahoo! and Wikipedia could still be used, though the network connection speed was very slow. Sri Lankan internet services were likewise affected. In Malaysia, there were problems with popular Internet services such as Gmail and Yahoo! News; however, the situation was reported to be improving on 29 December. Repair work According to the Office of the Telecommunications Authority (OFTA) of Hong Kong Government, among the five cable ships deployed, two arrived at the scene. However, one of the two ships experienced a major fault on December 30 afternoon and was under urgent repair in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. The repair for the ship was estimated to take about a week. Therefore, the repair for the cables had to be postponed. It was estimated that the first part of the repair of one of the submarine cables would be completed around 16 January 2007. For the other damaged cables, survey and assessment were being arranged and repair of most of the cables is expected to be completed progressively by the end of January 2007. IDD services and disrupted internet service in Southeast Asia were mostly restored pending the repairs and rerouted traffic. Before the completion of the cable repair works, however, some countries had already found alternative methods to restore internet access. For example, by 3 January 2007, Singapore's SingTel had already fully restored the Internet access provided by them. SingNet, SingTel's subsidiary, which handles ISP services, released an announcement on its homepage, mentioning that "internet access to services such as gaming and video downloading may experience some delays". Whether or not this is related to the earthquake is unknown, albeit likely. According to China Daily on 16 January, the repair work might be completed by the end of January, yet heavy winds in the Bashi Channel stirred up 10–12-meter waves, which made it impossible to resume work. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Taiwan Manila Trench References External links M7.1 – Taiwan region – United States Geological Survey M6.9 – Taiwan region – United States Geological Survey Strong quake strikes off Taiwan – BBC News 2006 earthquakes 2006 Hengchun 2006 in Taiwan Hengchun December 2006 events in Asia Tsunamis in Taiwan 2006 disasters in Taiwan

8625397

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hengchun%20earthquake

Hengchun earthquake

Hengchun earthquake may refer to: 1959 Hengchun earthquake 2006 Hengchun earthquakes

8633363

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20Mendoza%20Province

List of earthquakes in Mendoza Province

This is a list of earthquakes in Mendoza Province. References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. Mendoza Province

8722250

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999%20%C4%B0zmit%20earthquake

1999 İzmit earthquake

On 17 August 1999, a catastrophic magnitude 7.6 earthquake struck the Kocaeli Province of Turkey, causing monumental damage and between 17,127 and 18,373 deaths. Named for the quake's proximity to the northwestern city of İzmit, the earthquake is also commonly referred to as the 17 August Earthquake or the 1999 Gölcük Earthquake. The earthquake occurred at 03:01 local time (00:01 UTC) at a shallow depth of 15 km. A maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme) was observed. The earthquake lasted for 37 seconds, causing seismic damage and is widely remembered as one of the deadliest natural disasters in modern Turkish history. The 1999 earthquake was part of a seismic sequence along the North Anatolian Fault that started in 1939, causing large earthquakes that moved progressively from east to west over a period of 60 years. The earthquake encouraged the establishment of a so-called earthquake tax aimed at providing assistance to the ones affected by the earthquake. Tectonic setting The North Anatolian Fault Zone, where the earthquake occurred, is a right-lateral strike-slip fault zone. It extends from the Gulf of Saros to Karlıova. It formed around 13—11 million years ago in the eastern part of Anatolia and developed westwards. The fault eventually developed at the Marmara Sea around 200,000 years ago despite the shear-related movement in a rather broad zone which had already started in late Miocene. The fault zone has a diverse geomorphological structure and is seismically active. It produced a series of earthquakes as large as 8.0 on the moment magnitude scale. Since the 17th century, it has shown cyclical behavior, with century-long large earthquake cycles beginning in the east and continuing westward. Although the record is less clear for earlier times, active seismicity could still inferred in that timespan. The 20th century earthquake record has been interpreted as where every earthquake concentrates the stress at the western tips of the ruptured areas leading to westward migration of larger earthquakes. The İzmit and November 12, 1999 events increased stress on the Marmara segment of the fault. An earthquake of up to magnitude 7.6 event was expected between 2005 and 2055 with a probability of 50 percent on this segment. Presently, the deformation of rocks by stress in the Marmara Sea region is asymmetric. This is conditioned by the regional geology and is believed to be such the case for most of the NAFZ. Earthquake The 17 August 1999 earthquake was the 7th in a sequence of westward-migrating seismic sequence along the NAFZ. This earthquake sequence began in 1939 and ruptured along a 1000-km part of the fault zone, with horizontal displacements of up to 7.5 m. The maximum observed ground motion was 0.45 g. The earthquake lasted 35–45 seconds according to various sources. The closest cities affected were İzmit, Gölcük, Yalova, and Adapazarı; all located near the eastern end of the Marmara Sea, within the Gulf of İzmit. The earthquake also caused serious damage in Istanbul, especially in the district of Avcılar which is located in the western part of the city, around 70 km away from the epicenter. Despite the distance, it killed about 1,000 people in the district. The earthquake caused a surface rupture comprising four segments; the Hersek/Karamürsel–Gölcük, İzmit–Lake Sapanca, Lake Sapanca–Akyazı, Akyazı–Gölyaka and Gölyaka–Düzce segments. These segments altogether measured over 125 km. All the segments are separated by pull-apart stepovers of 1 to 4 km in width. The maximum offset throughout the rupture was measured on the Sapanca–Akyazı segment where the surface break displaced a road and a tree line by 5.2 m. It also showed pure strike-slip, and the fault plane is almost vertical in most of the places where a surface break was observed. Most of the major aftershocks (M>4) were located near Düzce, south of Adapazarı, in Sapanca, in İzmit, and the Çınarcık area. At Değirmendere, a small coastal town west of Gölcük, the rupture cut the edge of a fan delta where the center of the town was located, which caused a slump measuring 300 m long and 100 m wide, as a result a part of the town center slid under the water, including a hotel and several shops and restaurants. At another fan delta east of Gölcük, which is within the step-over area of the ruptures, the fault produced a 2 m-high normal fault scarp. Data was used from seven broadband stations as well as some other short-period stations across the area to calculate the regional moment tensor of the mainshocks and larger aftershocks and as a result most of the earthquakes were found to be split in segments with the moment tensor's focal mechanism reading either a strike-slip on the fault which is west-east striking or normal faulting which is between rupture segments which also proves that the main characteristic of the quake is dextral strike-slip. From the timing of P-wave and S-wave arrivals at seismometers, there is strong evidence that the rupture propagated eastwards from the epicenter at speeds in excess of the S-wave velocity, making this a supershear earthquake. Impact Earthquake damage Ten of Turkey's 81 provinces were affected with deaths and collapsed buildings. An official Turkish estimate dated 19 October 1999 placed the toll at 17,127 killed and 43,953 injured, but many sources suggest the actual figure may have been closer to 45,000 dead and a similar number injured. Reports from September 1999 stated 127,251 buildings were damaged to varying extents and at least 60,434 others collapsed. More than 250,000 people became homeless. About 60 km of the Istanbul-Ankara highway, almost 500 km electricity cables and over 3,000 electricity distribution towers were damaged. Over 800 people were killed in İzmit. In Gölcük, at least 4,556 people died, 5,064 were injured, thousands were left missing and at least 500 buildings collapsed, trapping about 20,000 families. About 200 sailors went missing after a naval base collapsed. There was also destruction in Yalova; 2,501 people died, 4,472 were injured and 10,134 buildings collapsed. The cause of most damage in Yalova was suspected to be liquefaction-induced. Since the area mostly comprised Quaternary alluvial soil, it was prone to liquefaction. The approximately 200 drilling sites and boreholes, and many streams or rivers, factored in the severe liquefaction. In Istanbul, at least 978 people were killed and 3,547 others sustained injuries. Severe damage in the city was concentrated in Avcılar district. Avcılar was built on relatively weak ground, mainly composed of poorly consolidated Cenozoic sedimentary rocks, which made the district vulnerable to earthquakes. In Eskişehir, there were 86 deaths and 70 buildings collapsed. At least 263 people died and 333 others were injured in Bursa. Three deaths and 26 injuries were reported in Zonguldak. At least 2,627 people were also killed and 5,084 others were hurt in Sakarya Province. Private contractors faced backlash for using cheap materials in their construction of residential buildings. Many of these contractors were prosecuted but few were found guilty. Government officials also faced backlash for not properly enforcing earthquake resistant building codes. Direct cost of damage is estimated at US $6.5 billion, but secondary costs could exceed US $20 billion. In 2010, the research branch of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey stated the number of casualties as 18,373. In the same report, it stated there were 48,901 injured, 505 permanently injured, 96,796 homes heavily damaged or destroyed, 15,939 businesses heavily damaged or destroyed, 107,315 homes moderately damaged, 16,316 businesses moderately damaged, 113,382 homes slightly damaged, 14,657 businesses slightly damaged, 40,786 prefabricated homes distributed and 147,120 people rehoused into these homes. There was extensive damage to several bridges and other structures on the Trans-European Motorway, including 20 viaducts, 5 tunnels, and several overpasses. Damage ranged from spalling concrete to total deck collapse. Oil refinery fire The earthquake triggered a fire at the Tüpraş petroleum refinery. The fire began at a state-owned tank farm and was initiated by naphtha that had spilled from a holding tank. Breakage in water pipelines and earthquake damage made firefighting attempts ineffective. Aircraft were called in to douse the flames with foam. The fire spread for several days. An evacuation was warranted for an area within 5 km of the refinery. The fire was declared under control five days later after claiming at least 17 tanks and an unknown quantity of complex piping. People within 2-3 mi of the refinery had to evacuate dspite some areas still in the process of search and rescue. Tsunami At least 155 deaths were associated with the tsunami. Many field studies were made about the tsunami in the Gulf of İzmit. Along the northern coast of the gulf, in the basin between Hereke and Tüpraş Petroleum Refinery, the tsunami was leading depression wave. The run-up wave heights in this area ranged from . The first series of waves arrived at the north coast a few minutes after the earthquake, and had a period of around a minute. The hardest hit areas were Şirinyalı, Kirazlıyalı, Yarımca, Körfez, and the refinery. The tsunami carried mussels into buildings, damaged doors and windows. At Körfez, inundation was up to . There were clear watermarks on the walls of buildings including the police station in Hereke, and at a restaurant near Körfez. Locals reported the first waves arrived at Kirazlıyalı from a southeastern direction and at Körfez from a southern direction. Along the southern coast of the gulf between Değirmendere and Güzelyalı, run-up measured . The tsunami was recorded as a leading depression wave to the west of Kavaklı up to Güzelyalı. There, the wave was noticed by locals immediately after the earthquake. There was severe coastal subsidence and slumping of a park near Değirmendere. The subsided area was along the shore and perpendicular to shore. The same area included two piers, a hotel, a restaurant, a cafe and several trees. Locals at the coast near Değirmendere observed the sea receding by about in less than two minutes. When the sea came back, it inundated up to inland, as shown by the mussels and dead fish left in the flooded areas. The tsunami also caused damage to the naval base nearby. Aftershocks A 5.2 aftershock hit near İzmit on August 31, causing one additional fatality and 166 injuries, with tremors being felt in Istanbul. Another 5.9 aftershock hit on September 13, causing seven deaths and 422 injuries. Another aftershock measuring 5.2 occurred on September 29, killing one person in Istanbul. A 5.0 aftershock on November 7 killed one person in Sakarya Province, while another 5.7 event on November 11 in the same province caused two deaths and 171 injuries. On 23 August 2000, a 5.3 earthquake caused 22 injuries in Sakarya. Another 5.0 event hit on 26 August 2001, causing two injuries in Bolu. Response A massive international response was mounted to assist in digging for survivors and to assist the wounded and homeless. Rescue teams were dispatched within 24–48 hours of the disaster, and the assistance to the survivors was channeled through NGOs, Turkish Red Crescent and local search and rescue organizations. The following table shows the breakdown of rescue teams by country in the affected locations: Search and Rescue Effort as of 19 August 1999. Source: USAID In total, rescue teams from 12 countries assisted in the rescue effort. Greece was the first nation to pledge aid and support. Within hours of the earthquake, the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs contacted their counterparts in Turkey, and the minister sent his personal envoys to Turkey. The Ministry of Public Orders sent in a rescue team of 24 people and two trained rescue dogs, as well as fire-extinguishing planes to help with putting out the fire in the Tüpraş Oil refinery. Oil Spill Response Limited was activated by BP to deploy from the United Kingdom to the Tüpraş Refinery where their responders successfully contained the previously uncontrolled discharge of oil from the site into the sea. The UK announced an immediate grant of £50,000 to help the Turkish Red Crescent, while the International Red Cross and Red Crescent pledged £4.5 million to help victims. Blankets, medical supplies and food were flown from Stansted airport. Engineers from Thames Water went to help restore water supplies. US President Bill Clinton later visited Istanbul and İzmit to examine the level of destruction and meet with the survivors. Future risk There has been an increased seismic activity in the Eastern Sea of Marmara since 2002 and a quiescence of earthquakes on the Princes' Islands Segment of the North Anatolian Fault off the southern coast of Istanbul. This suggests that the 150-km long submarine seismic gap below the Sea of Marmara could point out to a future, large earthquake. These possibilities are quite important, with respect to the segmentation of major fault ruptures along the North Anatolian Fault Zone in north-western Turkey. With the possible activation of segments towards the metropolitan areas of Istanbul, the Princes' Islands gap should be considered to have an impact on the large seismic hazard potential for Istanbul. Despite a long-term earthquake catalogue existing for the North Anatolian Fault Zone and for the Istanbul area in particular, the basic understanding of the seismicity there is still a long way off. The observation of a seismic gap in vicinity to the Istanbul metropolitan area was made possible through deploying a dense network of seismic stations and small arrays near the fault trace south of the Princes' Islands. This improved monitoring along the Princes' Islands segment, which is west of the İzmit 1999 rupture and southeast of Istanbul's city center is highlighting the location of likely rupture points for the pending Marmara earthquake. It also limits the maximum size of future events along the whole Marmara seismic gap in case of cascade behavior. Knowing this, the need of a regional earthquake early warning system for Istanbul and surroundings could be justified. The aseismic part of the Princes' Islands segment could represent a potential and likely high-slip area in a future, large earthquake. Fault characterization is likewise very relevant to determine the directivity of earthquake waves approaching Istanbul. Recently made modelling of potential impacts to Istanbul from different scenarios have shown to improve the estimation of hazards the seismic gaps pose. In a similar way, more improved and dense seismic monitoring is expected from on-going efforts to install an underground (borehole-based) seismograph network in the eastern Sea of Marmara region. Istanbul, being the most populated city in Turkey, lies right near the segments of the North Anatolian Fault Zone, making it at very high risk to an earthquake disaster which could possibly cause thousands of casualties and severe damage. Following the large earthquake in 1999, there was a great urgency for the government to mitigate these risks. With the help of organizations like the World Bank, hundreds of buildings have been retrofitted and reconstructed, and thousands of citizens have been trained in disaster preparedness. Gallery See also 1999 Düzce earthquake List of earthquakes in 1999 List of earthquakes in Turkey Yalova Earthquake Monument 2022 Düzce earthquake 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake References External links M7.6 - western Turkey – United States Geological Survey 17 August 1999 Kocaeli Earthquake – The European Association for Earthquake Engineering Initial Geotechnical Observations of the August 17, 1999, Izmit Earthquake – National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering 1999 earthquakes 1990s tsunamis August 1999 events in Turkey 1999 Izmit History of Düzce Province History of Istanbul Province 1999 earthquake History of Kocaeli Province History of Sakarya Province History of Yalova Province Supershear earthquakes Tsunamis in Turkey Strike-slip earthquakes 1999 disasters in Turkey

8752163

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1938%20Banda%20Sea%20earthquake

1938 Banda Sea earthquake

The 1938 Banda Sea earthquake occurred on February 2 with an estimated magnitude of 8.5–8.6 on the moment magnitude scale and a Rossi–Forel intensity of VII (Very strong tremor). This oblique-slip event generated destructive tsunamis of up to 1.5 metres in the Banda Sea region, but there were no deaths. Tectonic setting The Banda Sea is located within a very complex tectonic regime that accommodates the convergence between the Australian Plate and the Sunda Plate. The Molucca Sea Plate, Bird's Head Plate, Timor Plate, and Banda Sea Plate all help accommodate the elaborate plate boundary system in the region. This collection of microplates leads to large amounts of seismicity in the area, including the 1852 Banda Sea earthquake which was potentially a 8.8 event, as well as the 1629 Banda Sea earthquake which was also estimated at up to 8.8. Earthquake At around 04:00 local time, a large earthquake started to shake the Banda islands. With a moment magnitude () of 8.5–8.6, the earthquake caused a destructive tsunami of 1 meter at the Kai islands. The tsunami expected for an earthquake of this size is much greater, such as of those in 1629 and 1852, however this earthquake occurred at a depth of 60km which impeded much of the ocean floor displacement which leads to a tsunami. This earthquake is of significant scientific interest as it remains a mystery as to precisely which fault produced this earthquake. Some studies consider this earthquake the largest intraslab earthquake we know of. Tsunami Despite being a large thrust faulting event, the tsunami was rather small. This is assumed to be caused by the 60 kilometer depth. At the Kai islands, runups of 1 meter were recorded. Beachfront damage was reported across the Tayandu Islands and the entire Banda region. See also List of earthquakes in 1938 List of earthquakes in Indonesia 1852 Banda Sea earthquake Weber Deep References External links Megathrust earthquakes in Indonesia 1938 in the Dutch East Indies Banda Sea Earthquake, 1938 Banda Sea February 1938 events 1938 disasters in Asia 1938 disasters in Oceania 20th-century disasters in Indonesia

8899053

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20Kuril%20Islands%20earthquake

2007 Kuril Islands earthquake

The 2007 Kuril Islands earthquake occurred east of the Kuril Islands on 13 January at . The shock had a moment magnitude of 8.1 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI (Strong). A non-destructive tsunami was generated, with maximum wave amplitudes of . The earthquake is considered a doublet of the 8.3 magnitude 2006 Kuril Islands earthquake which occurred two months prior on 15 November 2006 approximately 95 km to the southeast. See also 1963 Kuril Islands earthquake 1994 Kuril Islands earthquake List of earthquakes in 2007 List of earthquakes in Japan Kamchatka earthquakes Okhotsk Plate References Bibliography . . . External links Doublet earthquakes Kuril Islands earthquake Kuril Islands earthquake 2007 Kuril Islands earthquake Earthquakes in the Russian Far East 2007 tsunamis Tsunamis in Russia 2007 disasters in Russia January 2007 events in Japan Kuril Islands January 2007 events in Russia 2007 disasters in Japan

8925406

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1269%20Cilicia%20earthquake

1269 Cilicia earthquake

An earthquake occurred northeast of the city of Adana on 14 May 1269 at "the first hour of the night". Most sources give a death toll of 8,000 in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia in southern Asia Minor, but a figure of 60,000 dead was reported by Robert Mallet in 1853 and repeated in many later catalogues. References 1268 13th century in the Middle East 13th-century earthquakes Late Medieval Anatolia 1268 1268 in Asia

9069401

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%20Landers%20earthquake

1992 Landers earthquake

The 1992 Landers earthquake occurred on Sunday, June 28 with an epicenter near the town of Landers, California, in San Bernardino County. The shock had a moment magnitude of 7.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). Earthquake At 4:57 a.m. local time (11:57 UTC) on June 28, 1992, a magnitude 7.3 earthquake awoke much of Southern California. Though it turned out it was not the so-called "Big One" as many people would think, it was still a very strong earthquake. The shaking lasted for two to three minutes. Although this earthquake was much more powerful than the 1994 Northridge earthquake, the damage and loss of life were minimized by its location in the sparsely-populated Mojave Desert. The earthquake was a right-lateral strike-slip event, and involved the rupture of several different faults over a length of . The names of those that were involved are the Johnson Valley, Kickapoo (also known as Landers), Homestead Valley, Homestead/Emerson, Emerson Valley and Camp Rock faults. The surface rupture extended for , with a maximum horizontal displacement of and a maximum vertical displacement of . Damage Damage to the area directly surrounding the epicenter was severe. Roads were buckled. Buildings and chimneys collapsed. There were also large surface fissures. To the west in the Los Angeles Basin damage was much less severe. The majority of the damage in the Los Angeles area involved items that had fallen off shelves. Unlike the 1994 Northridge earthquake nineteen and a half months later, no freeway bridges collapsed because of the epicenter's remote location. Electricity was cut to thousands of residents but was generally restored within two to three hours. There was also some damage to homes from water displaced from swimming pools. Loss of life in this earthquake was minimal. Two people died as a result of heart attacks, and a 3-year-old boy from Massachusetts, who was visiting Yucca Valley with his parents, died when bricks from a chimney collapsed into a living room where he was sleeping. More than 400 people sustained injuries as a result of the earthquake. Related events The quake was preceded by the 6.1 magnitude Joshua Tree earthquake at 4:51 on April 23, 1992 (UTC), which was south of the future Landers epicenter. The 6.5 magnitude Big Bear earthquake, which hit about three hours after the Landers mainshock, was originally considered an aftershock. However, the United States Geological Survey determined that this was a separate, but related, earthquake. These two earthquakes are considered a regional earthquake sequence, rather than a main shock and aftershock. The magnitude 5.7 Little Skull Mountain (LSM) earthquake the following day, June 29, 1992, at 10:14 UTC near Yucca Mountain, Nevada, is also considered part of the regional sequence and may have been triggered by surface wave energy produced by the Landers earthquake. Foreshock activity, in the form of a significant increase in micro-earthquakes, was observed at Little Skull Mountain following the Landers earthquake, and the activity continued until the main LSM earthquake. Theories The Landers earthquake and the other large quakes associated with it in the Mojave region have been attributed to two possible long-term trends. One of these is that the San Andreas Fault may be in the process of being replaced as the plate boundary (between the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate) by a new trend across the Mojave and east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The other is that these quakes were a manifestation of the propagation of rifting coming up from the Gulf of California. In popular culture The earthquake is featured in the television documentary series produced by GRB Entertainment, aired on The Learning Channel and other television channels around the world, about natural disasters titled Earth's Fury (also known internationally as Anatomy of Disaster) in an episode entitled "Earthquake!" See also List of earthquakes in California List of earthquakes in the United States 1999 Hector Mine earthquake 2010 Baja California earthquake 2019 Ridgecrest earthquakes References Further reading External links Landers Earthquake at the Southern California Earthquake Data Center Big Bear Earthquake at the Southern California Earthquake Data Center Studying the M7.3 1992 Landers, California earthquake: original forms and initial modifications – Ramon Arrowsmith 1992 1992 earthquakes Strike-slip earthquakes 1992 in California History of the Mojave Desert region Geology of San Bernardino County, California History of San Bernardino County, California

9074501

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Piano%20Tuner%20of%20Earthquakes

The Piano Tuner of Earthquakes

The Piano Tuner of Earthquakes is a 2005 animated drama film by the Brothers Quay, featuring Amira Casar, Gottfried John, Assumpta Serna and Cesar Sarachu. It was the second feature-length film by the Brothers Quay and their first film in over ten years. Plot A 19th-century opera singer is murdered on-stage shortly before her forthcoming wedding. Soon after being slain by the nefarious Dr. Emmanuel Droz during a live performance, Malvina van Stille is spirited away to the inventor's remote villa to be reanimated and forced to play the lead in a grim production staged to recreate her abduction. As the time for the performance draws near, piano tuner of earthquakes Felisberto sets out to activate the seven essential automata who dot the dreaded doctor's landscape and make sure all the essential elements are in place. Once again instilled with life after her brief stay in the afterworld, amnesiac Malvina is soon drawn to the mysterious Felisberto as a result of his uncanny resemblance to her one-time fiancé Adolfo. See also List of stop-motion films External links The Piano Tuner of Earthquakes at Metacritic The Piano Tuner of Earthquakes at Rotten Tomatoes ''The Piano Tuner of Earthquakes' at MovieScore Media 2005 films Films directed by the Brothers Quay British animated feature films British children's fantasy films Films about child abuse Films about nightmares German animated feature films 2005 horror films Films about dreams 2000s French animated films 2000s Portuguese-language films 2000s stop-motion animated films 2000s English-language films 2005 multilingual films British multilingual films German multilingual films 2000s British films 2000s German films British animated drama films

9077431

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1913%20Asmara%20earthquake

1913 Asmara earthquake

The 1913 Asmara earthquake took place outside Asmara, Eritrea on 27 February. The data as to the magnitude of the earthquake is imprecise due to the frequency and magnitude of aftershocks, but a maximum felt intensity of VI (Strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale was recorded at Asmara. The "felt" area of the earthquake extended into Northern Ethiopia as well as Kassala in Sudan. The earthquake caused significant damage in Asmara (VI), Keren (IV), Massawa (V) and Adi Ugri (V). See also List of earthquakes in 1913 List of earthquakes in Eritrea References 1913 Asmara 1913 earthquakes 1913 disasters in Africa

9077436

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921%20Massawa%20earthquake

1921 Massawa earthquake

The 1921 Massawa earthquake took place off the coast of Massawa, Eritrea, on August 14 with a moment magnitude of 6.1 and a Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). The first aftershock after the initial earthquake was of similar magnitude. Significant damage was caused to the harbour at Massawa with a number of deaths reported. Aftershocks were felt as far away as Asmara and Dekemhare. See also List of earthquakes in Eritrea References Massawa 1921 Massawa Earthquakes in the 20th century History of the Red Sea 1921 disasters in Africa

9077437

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1915%20Asmara%20earthquake

1915 Asmara earthquake

The 1915 Asmara earthquake took place outside Asmara, Eritrea on September 23 with an of 6.2 and a maximum perceived intensity of VI (Strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale. Effects The event caused panic among the inhabitants and minor damage. The earthquake is described by experts as being of relatively large magnitude. See also List of earthquakes in 1915 List of earthquakes in Eritrea References External links 1915 Asmara 1915 earthquakes 1915 disasters in Africa

9083935

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine%20earthquake

Submarine earthquake

A submarine, undersea, or underwater earthquake is an earthquake that occurs underwater at the bottom of a body of water, especially an ocean. They are the leading cause of tsunamis. The magnitude can be measured scientifically by the use of the moment magnitude scale and the intensity can be assigned using the Mercalli intensity scale. Understanding plate tectonics helps to explain the cause of submarine earthquakes. The Earth's surface or lithosphere comprises tectonic plates which average approximately 50 miles in thickness, and are continuously moving very slowly upon a bed of magma in the asthenosphere and inner mantle. The plates converge upon one another, and one subducts below the other, or, where there is only shear stress, move horizontally past each other (see transform plate boundary below). Little movements called fault creep are minor and not measurable. The plates meet with each other, and if rough spots cause the movement to stop at the edges, the motion of the plates continue. When the rough spots can no longer hold, the sudden release of the built-up motion releases, and the sudden movement under the sea floor causes a submarine earthquake. This area of slippage both horizontally and vertically is called the epicenter, and has the highest magnitude, and causes the greatest damage. As with a continental earthquake the severity of the damage is not often caused by the earthquake at the rift zone, but rather by events which are triggered by the earthquake. Where a continental earthquake will cause damage and loss of life on land from fires, damaged structures, and flying objects; a submarine earthquake alters the seabed, resulting in a series of waves, and depending on the length and magnitude of the earthquake, tsunami, which bear down on coastal cities causing property damage and loss of life. Submarine earthquakes can also damage submarine communications cables, leading to widespread disruption of the Internet and international telephone network in those areas. This is particularly common in Asia, where many submarine links cross submarine earthquake zones along Pacific Ring of Fire. Tectonic plate boundaries The different ways in which tectonic plates rub against each other under the ocean or sea floor to create submarine earthquakes. The type of friction created may be due to the characteristic of the geologic fault or the plate boundary as follows. Some of the main areas of large tsunami producing submarine earthquakes are the Pacific Ring of Fire and the Great Sumatran fault. Convergent plate boundary The older, and denser plate moves below the lighter plate. The further down it moves, the hotter it becomes, until finally melting altogether at the asthenosphere and inner mantle and the crust is actually destroyed. The location where the two oceanic plates actually meet become deeper and deeper creating trenches with each successive action. There is an interplay of various densities of lithosphere rock, asthenosphere magma, cooling ocean water and plate movement for example the Pacific Ring of Fire. Therefore, the site of the sub oceanic trench will be a site of submarine earthquakes; for example the Mariana Trench, Puerto Rico Trench, and the volcanic arc along the Great Sumatran fault. Transform plate boundary A transform-fault boundary, or simply a transform boundary is where two plates will slide past each other, and the irregular pattern of their edges may catch on each other. The lithosphere is neither added to from the asthenosphere nor is it destroyed as in convergent plate action. For example, along the San Andreas fault strike-slip fault zone, the Pacific Tectonic Plate has been moving along at about 5 cm/yr in a northwesterly direction, whereas the North American Plate is moving south-easterly. Divergent plate boundary Rising convection currents occur where two plates are moving away from each other. In the gap, thus produced hot magma rises up, meets the cooler sea water, cools, and solidifies, attaching to either or both tectonic plate edges creating an oceanic spreading ridge. When the fissure again appears, again magma will rise up, and form new lithosphere crust. If the weakness between the two plates allows the heat and pressure of the asthenosphere to build over a large amount of time, a large quantity of magma will be released pushing up on the plate edges and the magma will solidify under the newly raised plate edges, see formation of a submarine volcano. If the fissure is able to come apart because of the two plates moving apart, in a sudden movement, an earthquake tremor may be felt for example at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between North America and Africa. List of major submarine earthquakes The following is a list of some major submarine earthquakes since the 17th century. Storm-caused earthquakes A 2019 study based on new higher-resolution data from the Transportable Array network of USArray found that large ocean storms could create undersea earthquakes when they passed over certain areas of the ocean floor, including Georges Bank near Cape Cod and the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. They have also been observed in the Pacific Northwest. See also Cascadia subduction zone Fracture zone Geology List of plate tectonics topics List of tectonic plate interactions List of tectonic plates Metamorphism Plate tectonics Sedimentary basin Triple junction Tsunami References Plate tectonics Tsunami Physical oceanography Types of earthquake

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20Iran

List of earthquakes in Iran

Iran is one of the most seismically active countries in the world, being crossed by several major faults that cover at least 90% of the country. As a result, earthquakes in Iran occur often and are destructive. Geology and history The Iranian plateau is subject to most types of tectonic activity, including active folding, faulting and volcanic eruptions. It is well known for its long history of disastrous earthquake activity. Not only have these earthquakes killed thousands, but they have also led to waste of valuable natural resources. Since 1900, at least 126,000 fatalities have resulted from earthquakes in Iran. In addition, the Iranian Plate is bordered by the Indian Plate (to the southeast), the Eurasian Plate (to the north), and the Arabian Plate (to the south and west), which is where the Zagros fold and thrust belt (an ancient subduction zone) lies. Earthquakes See also Environmental issues in Iran Geology of Iran Iranian Earthquake Engineering Association (IEEA) References Sources External links Latest earthquakes in Iran and adjacent areas – Iranian Seismological Center Iran Earthquakes Earthquakes

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20Research%20Institute%2C%20University%20of%20Tokyo

Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo

Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo (ERI; 東京大学地震研究所 Tokyo Daigaku Jishin Kenkyu-jo) is an institute in affiliation with University of Tokyo. It was founded in 1925. Many fellows research on various topics about Seismology and volcanology. The Institute is represented on the national Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction. Organizational structure Research Division Division of Earth Mechanics Division of Geodynamics Division of Monitoring and Computational Geoscience Division of Disaster Mitigation Science Affiliated Center Earthquake Prediction Research Center Earthquake Observation Center Earthquake Information Center Volcano Research Center Ocean Hemisphere Research Center Others Outreach Program Office of International Earthquake and Volcano Research Promotion Former directors Kiyoo Mogi References External links ERI Official Website Research institutes in Japan University of Tokyo Earth science research institutes

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%20Guatemala%20earthquake

1976 Guatemala earthquake

The 1976 Guatemala earthquake struck on February 4 at with a moment magnitude of 7.5. The shock was centered on the Motagua Fault, about 160 km northeast of Guatemala City at a depth of near the town of Los Amates in the department of Izabal. The earthquake ruptured a continuous length of 240 km along the Motagua fault and may have extended further to the east and west but was blocked by vegetation and swamps. Cities throughout the country suffered damage, and most adobe type houses in the outlying areas of Guatemala City were destroyed. The earthquake struck during the early morning (at 3:01 am, local time) when most people were asleep. This contributed to the high death toll of 23,000. Approximately 76,000 were injured, and many thousands left homeless. Some of the areas affected went without electricity and communications for days. The main shock was followed by thousands of aftershocks, some of the larger ones causing additional damage and loss of life. Seismic data The quake's epicentre was located near the town of Los Amates, in the eastern part of the Motagua Fault, a left-lateral strike-slip fault that forms part of the tectonic boundary between the North American plate and the Caribbean plate. Ground shaking was felt during approximately 39 seconds, and caused visible rupturing over along the Motagua fault, while the inferred length of faulting—based on aftershock registration—was estimated at 100 cm. Average horizontal displacement along the Motagua fault was with a maximum displacement of 300 cm. Maximum seismic intensity (MMI IX) was located in the Mixco area, some sections of Guatemala City and in Gualán. A seismic intensity of MM VI covered an area of 33,000 km2. Soil liquefaction and sand boils were observed in several locations with high seismic intensity. The main quake activated secondary fault zones, including the Mixco fault, located in a densely populated area just north-west of Guatemala City. Victims and damage The most heavily affected area covered some 30,000 km2, with a population of 2.5 million. Some 23,000 people were reported dead and 77,000 wounded. Approximately 258,000 houses were destroyed, leaving about 1.2 million people homeless. 40% of the national hospital infrastructure was destroyed, while other health facilities also suffered substantial damage. International reaction Immediately after the earthquake, the then president Kjell Eugenio Laugerud García invited most of the foreign ambassadors to tour the affected regions by helicopter, which prompted them to quickly ask for help in their home countries. For example, the United States of America rebuilt most of the roads, and Canada and Belgium each rebuilt a village. Within days of the initial rupture the USGS sent a team of geologist to document the fault rupture and its effects. This team headed by George Plafker traveled the entire length of the fault by helicopter and was able to clearly trace its location. During this expedition several thousand photographs were collected including 1:10,000 aerial photographs collected by plane. In 2021 this analog data was digitized and georeferenced in order to build a database to assist in relocating the initial rupture location. During the summer of 2021 a team of geologist successfully relocated the fault rupture at 10 different locations. At the locations no evidence of post 1976 fault creep was observed. Aftershocks Several aftershocks, ranging from 5.2 to 5.8 caused additional casualties and hampered relief efforts. Source: Wayerly Person, William Spence, and James W. Dewey. Main event and principal aftershocks from teleseismic data. In: Guatemalan Earthquake of February 4, 1976, A Preliminary Report. In popular culture Scenes of the earthquake's aftermath, filmed on February 6, 1976, were featured in the Italian Mondo film Savana violenta, directed by Antonio Climati and Mario Morra. Image gallery See also List of earthquakes in 1976 List of earthquakes in Guatemala Notes References External links USGS Map Guatemala Earthquake 1976 – photos and personal accounts Guatemala Earthquake, 1976 Earth 1976 Guatemala History of Guatemala February 1976 events in North America Strike-slip earthquakes

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902%20Guatemala%20earthquake

1902 Guatemala earthquake

The 1902 Guatemala earthquake occurred on April 18 at 8:23 pm with a moment magnitude of 7.5 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). The rupture was initiated at a depth of and the duration was 1 to 2 minutes. The foreshock and aftershock sequence of this incident were major. Before the main shock, there was an earthquake swarm which persisted for three months, and the tremors afterward lasted for more than two weeks. With hindsight, it is clear that this swarm and the mainshock were clear indicators of the awakening of the long-dormant Vulcan Santa María located to the northwest, which led to the historic explosive eruption of 1902 which occurred 6 months later in October. A majority of churches in western Guatemala and eastern Chiapas were either severely devastated or abolished. The number of people killed was between 800 and 2,000. A strange occurrence of heavy rains, lightning, and thunder took place shortly before the earthquake. A few weeks before the earthquake there was rain every afternoon for several days straight. Guatemala City was instantly flooded when massive gaps opened in the streets, water pipes ruptured, and huts along with cathedrals disintegrated and collapsed, which also buried hundreds. In just one hour, approximately 80,000 people were made homeless. As soon as the earthquake took place the sky cleared up and there was no rain for approximately three weeks. It has been said that the earthquake had something to do with an atmospheric disturbance connected with an electrical nature. The reason for this is that the early storms were electrical storms. See also List of earthquakes in Guatemala References Sources External links Historic World Earthquakes – United States Geological Survey Principales Eventos Sísmicos Del Siglo XX En Guatemala – Instituto Nacional de Sismología, Vulcanología, Meteorología e Hidrolagía 1902 Earthquake 1902 earthquakes April 1902 events

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20Ays%C3%A9n%20Fjord%20earthquakes

2007 Aysén Fjord earthquakes

The 2007 Aysén Fjord earthquakes occurred in Aisén Fjord, Chile from January 22 – April 22. The biggest occurred at 1:53 p.m. (local time) on April 21 and reached a felt intensity of VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale. On the moment magnitude scale, the earthquake reached a magnitude of 6.2. Ten people disappeared due to a tsunami caused by a landslide, according to ONEMI (Chile's National emergency office), but three bodies were found on April 22 by the Chilean Navy. Earthquakes Starting January 22, Aysén Fjord suffered a series of minor earthquakes. The greatest before April 21 reached VI (Strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale and occurred at 3:44 p.m. on April 14. Local fishermen reported seeing steam rising from the fjord. The earthquake expanded to several zones of the country. At 6:22 a.m. (local time) on April 22, an intense earthquake was felt in Santiago, reaching II (Weak) on the Mercalli intensity scale. Intensity According to ONEMI, the following cities and town in Aysén del General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo Region were affected. The Roman numerals show the intensity on the Mercalli intensity scale. Puerto Chacabuco VII Puerto Aisén VII Coihaique VI Balmaceda V Cochrane IV Ground effects On the mountains around the fjord, the earthquake caused landslides that in turn created waves as high as fifty meters, which severely damaged some salmon aquaculture installations. The potable water systems of the cities of Puerto Chacabuco and Puerto Aisén were broken, forcing firefighters and the army to supply water. The electricity network of Puerto Chacabuco was also cut off. Aftermath Despite protests against the government organized by Aysen's mayor, Chile's president, Michelle Bachelet, visited the affected zone. She was met with black flags, and, during the protest, Aysen's mayor Óscar Catalán was arrested. Catalán had been heavily critical that the region had not received the necessary help to prevent damage and casualties, as the swarm had been active since January. See also Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault List of earthquakes in 2007 List of earthquakes in Chile Riñihuazo References External links Se desconoce paradero de diez personas tras fuerte sismo en Aisén – El Mercurio Landslides in Chile 4: The Punta Cola rock avalanche in Aysén Fjord – American Geophysical Union 21 April 2007, Mw 6.2, Aisen, Chile – Pacific Tsunami Warning Center 2007 Aysen Fjord 2007 earthquakes 2007 in Chile 2007 Aysen Fjord earthquake April 2007 events in South America Earthquake clusters, swarms, and sequences

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1908%20Messina%20earthquake

1908 Messina earthquake

The 1908 Messina earthquake (also known as the 1908 Messina and Reggio earthquake) occurred on 28 December in Sicily and Calabria, southern Italy with a moment magnitude of 7.1 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). The epicentre was in the Strait of Messina which separates Sicily from the Italian mainland. The cities of Messina and Reggio Calabria were almost completely destroyed and between 75,000 and 82,000 people died. It was the most destructive earthquake ever to strike Europe. Cause of the earthquake According to Italy's National Institute of Geophysics and Vulcanology, the earthquake was caused by a large, low-angle SE-dipping, blind normal fault, lying mainly offshore in the Strait of Messina, between plates. Its upper projection intersects the Earth's surface on the western, Sicilian side of the Strait. In 2019 researchers at Birkbeck, University of London discovered the active fault responsible for the earthquake. The study, led by Marco Meschis, identified the fault as the previously mapped but little studied Messina-Taormina Fault which lies off the Sicilian coast and runs the length of the Strait of Messina. The team used data from 1907–1908 to examine the pattern of uplifts and subsidence observed in the Messina and Calabria area which bore a strong resemblance to those resulting from other powerful earthquakes triggered by normal faults. After comparing the direction and size of movements on well-known faults with the surface movements seen in Messina and Calabria, the researchers identified the probable active fault which caused the catastrophic earthquake as well as the direction and size of the movements. Italy sits along the boundary zone of the African Continental plate, and this plate is pushing against the sea floor underneath Europe at a rate of 25 millimeters (1 inch) per year. This causes vertical displacement, which can cause earthquakes. The earthquake was recorded by 110 seismographic stations around the world. and was one of the first to be recorded by instruments. The Strait of Messina is part of the regional tectonic feature known as the Calabrian Arc, an area of differential uplift deriving from the dynamics of the Ionian and South Tyrrhenian tectonic units, two of the lithosphere blocks of microplates recognized in the highly fragmented Italian portion of the Africa-Eurasia contact. Some of the strongest earthquakes of the last centuries occurred in the Calabrian Arc such as the 1783 and 1905 Calabrian earthquakes as well as the more catastrophic 1908 Messina earthquake. Records indicate that considerable seismic activity occurred in the areas around the Strait of Messina several months prior to 28 December; it increased in intensity beginning 1 November. On 10 December, a magnitude 4 earthquake caused damage to a few buildings in Novara di Sicilia and Montalbano Elicona, both in the Province of Messina. A total of 293 aftershocks took place between 28 December 1908 and 11 March 1909. In 2008 it was proposed that the concurrent tsunami was not generated by the earthquake, but rather by a large undersea landslide it triggered. The probable source of the tsunami was off Giardini Naxos (40 km south of Messina) on the Sicilian coast where a large submarine landslide body with a headwall scarp was visible on a bathymetric map of the Ionian seafloor. Earthquake On Monday 28 December 1908, at 5:20:27 an earthquake of 7.1 on the moment magnitude scale occurred. Its epicentre was in the Strait of Messina which separates the busy port city of Messina in Sicily and Reggio Calabria on the Italian mainland. Its precise epicentre has been pinpointed to the northern Ionian Sea area close to the narrowest section of the Strait, the location of Messina. It had a depth of around 9 km (5.5 miles). The earthquake almost levelled Messina. At least 91% of structures in Messina were destroyed or irreparably damaged and 75,000 people were killed in the city and suburbs. Reggio Calabria and other locations in Calabria also suffered heavy damage, with some 25,000 people killed. Reggio's historic centre was almost completely eradicated. The number of casualties is based on the 1901 and 1911 census data. It was the most destructive earthquake ever to strike Europe. The ground shook for 37 seconds, and the damage was widespread, with destruction felt over a area. In Calabria, the ground shook violently from Scilla to south of Reggio, provoking landslides inland in the Reggio area and along the sea-cliff from Scilla to Bagnara. In the Calabrian commune of Palmi on the Tyrrhenian coast, there was almost total devastation that left 600 dead. Damage was also inflicted along the eastern Sicilian coast, but outside of Messina, it was not as badly hit as Calabria. The mesoseismal area was confined near the coast along a 1–4 km wide belt that shook and destroyed Messina and surrounding villages. Catania, the largest city in eastern Sicily, did not incur notable damage. A young doctor who escaped with his life later recounted that "the profound silence was broken by an extraordinary noise like the bursting of a thousand bombs, followed by a rushing and torrential rain." Then he heard a "sinister whistling sound" which he likened to "a thousand red hot irons hissing in the water." Other survivors reported that there were three separate and different movements during the 37 second mainshock: the first shaking backwards and forwards, the second thrusting violently upwards, with the third moving in a circular motion. Most accounts concur that it was the second upwards motion that caused the widespread destruction in Messina; the accompanying noise described as having been "exactly like that made by a fast train in a tunnel". The elevated death toll was due to the fact that most people were asleep, and killed outright or buried alive in their beds, as their houses collapsed on top of them. Thousands were trapped under debris, suffering horrific injuries of which many would die. One week before the earthquake, 160,000 inhabitants were counted in the entire Messina commune. On 28 December, Messina was even more crowded than usual, due to the number of overnight visitors from outlying areas who had come to the city to see a performance of Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida, which had been staged the previous evening at the Vittorio Emanuele II theatre. Tsunami About ten minutes after the earthquake, the sea on both sides of the Strait suddenly withdrew as a 12-meter (39-foot) tsunami swept in, and three waves struck nearby coasts. It impacted hardest along the Calabrian coast and inundated Reggio Calabria after the sea had receded 70 metres from the shore. The entire Reggio seafront was destroyed and people who had gathered there perished. Nearby Villa San Giovanni was also badly hit. Along the coast between Lazzaro and Pellaro, houses and a railway bridge were washed away. In Messina, the tsunami also caused more devastation and deaths; many of the survivors of the earthquake had fled to the relative safety of the seafront to escape their collapsing houses. The second and third tsunami waves, coming in rapid succession and higher than the first, raced over the harbour, smashed boats docked at the pier, and broke parts of the sea wall. After engulfing the port and three city streets inland beyond the harbour, the waves swept away people, ships that had been anchored in the harbour, fishing boats and ferries, and inflicted further damage on the edifices within the zone which had remained standing after the shock. The ships that were still attached to their moorings collided with one another but did not incur major damage. Afterwards Messina harbour was filled with floating wreckage and the corpses of drowned people and animals. Towns and villages along the eastern coast of Sicily were assaulted by high waves causing deaths and damage to boats and property. Two hours later the tsunami struck Malta, rushing into Marsamxett Harbour and damaging property in Msida. About 2,000 people were killed by the tsunami in Messina on the eastern coast of Sicily, and in Reggio Calabria and its coastal environs. Scale of destruction Messina lost almost half its population and the entire historical city centre was devastated including its Norman cathedral, which had withstood previous earthquakes such as the severe one in 1783; just the perimeter walls and apses remained standing. The Messina shoreline was irrevocably altered as large sections of the coast had sunk several feet into the sea. Houses, churches, palaces and monuments, military barracks: commercial, municipal and public buildings had all collapsed entirely or were severely damaged. Many structures were cracked shells, roofless, windowless and standing upright precariously. The Maurolico boarding school in Corso Cavour was pulverised, burying the students. A total of 348 railway workers were killed when the two railway stations crumbled. The American consulate fronting the harbour was reduced to a pile of rubble: the British consulate sustained little outward damage with its flag still flying, but the interior was completely wrecked. American consul Arthur S. Cheney and his wife Laura were killed. The French consul and his children also lost their lives, although his wife escaped. Ethel Ogston, wife of the British vice-consul, died instantly after being struck by a falling balcony as she attempted to escape through the streets with her husband, Alfred, and daughter, both of whom survived. Former US vice-consul and Messina correspondent for the Associated Press Joseph Pierce and his family were crushed to death when their damaged home in Via Porta Real Basso, close to the harbour, was brought down by the force of the waves created by the tsunami. Italians who died included sculptor Gregorio Zappalà, the Chief Prosecutor (Procuratore Generale) of Messina Crescenzo Grillo, Giacomo Macrì, former rector of the University of Messina, politicians Nicola Petrina, Nicolò Fulci and Giovanni Noè; as well as local patriots of the Italian unification, members of the nobility, academia and literati. Socialist historian Gaetano Salvemini survived but lost his wife, five children and sister. The Questore (Head of Police) Paolo Caruso died in his office, killed by a fallen beam. Anglican priest and football pioneer Charles Bousfield Huleatt along with his family and other players of the Messina Football Club died. Composer Riccardo Casalaina and his wife perished alongside one another in their bed. Tenor Angelo Gamba who had performed on stage in Aida the evening before the earthquake also lost his life together with his wife and two sons when the Hotel Europa collapsed. The Hungarian soprano Paola Koraleck (who sang the role of Aida) was lying awake when the earthquake struck. She leapt from a window of the damaged Hotel Trinacria, breaking both arms in the fall. The earthquake wrecked the commercial section along Messina's Corso Vittorio Emanuele that skirted the seafront which included the elegant "Palazzata". This was a long sequence of grand buildings that fronted the sickle-shaped harbour. The "Palazzata" had originally been built in baroque style in the XVII century and was mainly the work of Simone Gullí. Most of the baroque buildings had been destroyed in the earthquake of 1783, and were rebuilt in neo-classical style in the early XIX century. It was the imposing neo-classical "Palazzata", with some of the surviving baroque buildings, that was almost entirely destroyed in 1908. The shaking was especially intense in the port area resulting in the permanent displacement of the stone pavings in a "wave-like pattern". Damage was heaviest in the old historic centre and the low, level central and northern sections of the city due to the soft sandy soil; it was less severe in the mountainous western part as the structures were built on firmer terrain such as Gonzaga Fort which was unscathed and remains to date. The area between Cathedral Square and the 16th century Civic Hospital which fronted Torrente Portalegni was obliterated; the adjacent Via Porta Imperiale was struck particularly hard on both sides. The Torrente Bocetta zone also received severe damage. The 17th-century Real Cittadella, which guarded the harbour, was partially destroyed. Huge crevasses and fissures opened in the streets and these as well as the mounds of rubble, and falling masonry, hampered survivors who had fled from their razed homes to seek safety. Two of the main thoroughfares Via Garibaldi and Corso Cavour were rendered impassable by the hillocks of rubble and debris 5 metres (16 ft) in height. Families had become separated and a torrential downpour of rain that had begun only minutes before the earthquake added to the confusion, impeding visibility along with the darkness and thick clouds of dust. The great gas tanks at the northern end of the city blew up, entombing living survivors and the already dead. Fires broke out, caused by broken gas pipes, which added to the chaos and destruction. The ground continued to shake with repeated aftershocks causing remaining structures to topple down onto the ruins of demolished edifices killing and injuring rescuers and those who had survived the mainshock. Survivors described having seen horribly disfigured bodies and injured people badly maimed and screaming for help. Cobbler Francesco Missiani and his family came upon two dying girls, both of whom had suffered appalling head and chest injuries. Processions of naked survivors carrying pictures of saints appeared in the streets. People searched with bare hands through the debris for trapped loved ones. Rescuers at the scene managed to save some people clinging precariously to gaping upper storeys, windows and teetering balconies by using ropes to pull them to safety. Similar scenes of destruction were replicated in Reggio Calabria. Its historical centre was eradicated and the monumental Aragonese Castle, one of the few edifices to have survived the 1783 earthquake, was badly damaged. With the exception of one mansion, all the structures in its principal thoroughfare Corso Garibaldi were destroyed including the Cathedral, municipal buildings and palazzi. Only about 50 houses remained standing in Reggio. The civilian and military hospitals in Messina, and the civic hospital in Reggio Calabria all lay in ruins with nearly all the doctors and nurses dead. The injured in the two cities had no medical support or medicine until outside relief arrived and hospital tents were set up. Telegraph lines were cut and railway lines mangled, making communication impossible. Most of Messina's officials were killed or gravely injured, along with almost the entire police force and soldiers of the garrison who perished when their respective barracks collapsed. Many officers in the garrison survived, their accommodation being more substantial. Prisoners who had escaped death when the prison fell began looting property and even robbing corpses of their jewellery. In Reggio an estimated 1,800 convicts died when the prison was destroyed. Peasants from nearby rural villages joined the looters. Troops were soon sent to Messina and martial law was declared by General Feira Di Cossatto. Rescuers searched through the ruins for weeks, and whole families were still being pulled out alive days following the earthquake, but thousands remained buried beneath the rubble, their bodies never recovered. Buildings in Messina had not been constructed for earthquake resistance, having been built out of small stones and carelessly-applied mortar with heavy tiled roofs, ornamental cornices, unsupported cross beams and vulnerable foundations on soft soil. Many had four or five storeys. The most populous areas in the city were concentrated in and around Via dei Monasteri (today Via XXIV Maggio), Via Casa Pia and Via Porta Imperiale; all of which were located in the historic city centre. In addition to the poorly constructed buildings, the widespread destruction in Messina and Reggio Calabria was due to the telluric movement having been so close to the surface. Relief efforts News of the disaster was carried to Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti by Italian torpedo boats which set out from Messina to Nicotera, where the telegraph lines were still working, but that was not accomplished until midnight at the end of the day. Rail lines in the area had been destroyed, often along with the railway stations. Pope Pius X filled the Apostolic Palace with refugees. The Italian navy and army responded and began searching, treating the injured, providing food and water, and evacuating refugees (as did every ship). Giolitti imposed martial law under the direction of General Francesco Mazza with all looters to be shot, which extended to survivors foraging for food and searching through the rubble for trapped family members. King Victor Emmanuel III and Queen Elena arrived two days after the earthquake to assist the victims and survivors. International response The disaster made headlines worldwide and international relief efforts were launched. With the help of the Red Cross and sailors of the Russian and British fleets, search and cleanup were expedited. The Russian battleships Tsesarevich, and Slava and the cruisers Admiral Makarov, and Bogatyr, British battleship Exmouth and the cruisers Euryalus, Minerva, and Sutlej were ordered to provide assistance; the SS Afonwen was in Messina harbour during the quake (anchored in 45 fathoms (80 m) of water, but there were only 30 fathoms (55 m) when she sailed full of refugees). The French battleships Justice and Vérité, and three torpedo boat destroyers were ordered to Messina. Two battleships of the U.S. Navy's Great White Fleet, USS Connecticut and USS Illinois, along with supply ships and also delivered succor. The American supply vessels including the tender USS Yankton, buttressed with extra medical personnel and supplies from the battleship fleet, delivered supplies to help the refugees and remained on station giving medical aid. Other nations' ships also responded. Commemoration The King of Italy later awarded a commemorative medal for 1908 earthquake assistance, struck in gold, silver and bronze. Several streets in Messina have been named after the Russian sailors, including Largo dei Marinai Russi. In 2012, a monument to the Russian sailors, designed by Pietro Kufferle in 1911, was installed in the city, and a bust of Emperor Nicholas II was opened in Taormina; a bust of Admiral Fyodor Ushakov was set up in 2013. Aftermath Reconstruction When the reconstruction of Messina began from 1909, authorities mandated architecture able to withstand earthquakes of variable magnitude. Initially, a plan was adopted to demolish the remaining structures of Messina and to transfer the city and its port elsewhere in Sicily, but strong protests from the Messinesi led to the discarding of this suggestion. A few structures survived the earthquake – they included the domed medieval Church of the Santissima Annunziata dei Catalani, the Gothic Santa Maria Alemanna church, the Byzantine San Tommaso Apostolo il Vecchio church, San Ranieri lighthouse, Forte del Santissimo Salvatore, the 18th century Palazzo Calapaj-d'Alcontres, Giovanni Montorsoli's Fountain of Neptune and the Barbera spinning mill (later converted to a museum to house the art treasures salvaged from the ruins). The Real Cittadella, Mategriffon Castle, Vittorio Emanuele theatre and Monti di Pieta remained standing but sustained considerable damage. The 16th-century in the fishermen's quarter of the same name along the northern Messina riviera withstood the shock and survives to date. The "Scalinata Santa Barbara", large sections of the Muro Carlo V and a number of 18th and 19th century houses in the ancient quarter of Tirone survived; additionally several houses in Via Fata Morgana and Via Giordano Bruno remained standing and are in use today. Although some of the dwellings (known as le mignuni in local dialect) located in the slum of Avignone also remained standing relatively intact, they have since been demolished. In Reggio Calabria the Palazzo Nesci was one of the few 19th-century structures to withstand the earthquake. The new city of Messina was constructed on the rubble of the old city using the plan of a modern layout of a "city regularly cut up like a checker board" with buildings of uniform size and height as presented in 1911 by architect (1853–1919). This necessitated the demolition of buildings that were salvageable but did not conform to the new urban plan. These included the Palazzata, Baroque San Gregorio church situated above Via Monasteri and the 18th century Chiesa delle Anime del Purgatorio located in Via Cardines and Largo Purgatorio. The latter church was badly damaged but principally in the apsidal section and was reparable. It was demolished to extend Via Garibaldi in a southerly direction. Relocation In the wake of the earthquake many of the homeless residents of Messina and Calabria were relocated to various parts of Sicily and other regions of mainland Italy. Others, including the majority of the survivors from the poverty-stricken Avignone quarter of Messina, resorted to emigration to the US. In 1909, the cargo ship Florida carrying 850 emigrants from Naples collided in a fog with RMS Republic. Three people aboard the Florida died in the collision. The passengers descended into panic and the captain had to shoot in the air to calm them down. The ship was eventually rescued and arrived in New York. Effects on society The disaster affected the local economy and Messina faced a temporary depopulation after so many homeless survivors had sought refuge elsewhere, in particular Catania and Palermo where a large number found work as artisans. It has been estimated that only 19,000 remained with just 2000 in the old city center. However, there was soon a huge influx of migrants, mostly from nearby Sicilian and Calabrian localities who were needed as necessary labourers for the reconstruction. According to the 1911 census the population of Messina had increased to 127,000. Among these were many Messinesi who had returned to their native city. Men notably outnumbered the women which resulted in a decrease in marriages. As late as 2021 families were still living in the wooden barracks in zones known as Baraccopoli which were erected in 1909 to provide temporary housing for the homeless survivors. Because of its dearth of historical buildings due to the catastrophic 1908 earthquake, as well as the 1943 Allied bombardment during World War II, Messina has been called "the city without memory". Gallery See also List of earthquakes in 1908 List of earthquakes in Italy References Citations Sources Further reading External links The page for this event in Catalogo dei Forti Terremoti in Italia (461 a.C.-1997) e nell’area Mediterranea (760 a.C.-1500) (Catalogue of Strong Earthquakes in Italy (461 BC-1997) and the Mediterranean Area (760 BC–1500)), Guidoboni E., Ferrari G., Mariotti D., Comastri A., Tarabusi G., Sgattoni G., Valensise G. (2018), Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV) 1908 Messina 1908 Messina 1908 in Italy Disasters in Sicily Events in Messina History of Calabria 1908 earthquakes 1900s tsunamis December 1908 events Straits of Messina 1908 disasters in Italy

10945152

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20Kent%20earthquake

2007 Kent earthquake

The 2007 Kent earthquake registered 4.3 on the Richter scale and struck south east Kent, South East England on 28 April 2007 at 07:18:12 UTC (08:18:12 local time), at a shallow depth of 5.3 km. The worst affected area was the town of Folkestone, although the towns of Deal, Dover and Ashford were also affected. The tremors could be felt across much of Kent and south east England, including as far as East Sussex, Essex and Suffolk, as well as on the other side of the English Channel at Calais and Brussels. Location The British Geological Survey stated that the epicentre of the earthquake was less than 1 km north of Folkestone at 51.10°N, 1.17°E. The United States Geological Survey indicated that the location of the earthquake was at 51.085°N, 1.009°E suggesting a position approximately 5 km north west of Hythe. Impact The earthquake's shallow depth and proximity to Folkestone resulted in structural damage in the town, and one woman suffered a minor head and neck injury. Following the earthquake, a total of 474 properties were reported as damaged, with 73 properties too badly damaged for people to return to, 94 seriously damaged, and 307 suffering from minor structural damage. Harvey Grammar School situated in Cheriton Road, Folkestone was closed on 30 April due to "significant structural damage". Several thousand homes were left without power for several hours and there were reports of a "smell of gas" in Folkestone. The Port of Dover, the Channel Tunnel and travel links were unaffected, although authorities asked people heading towards Dover to use the A2. EDF Energy had restored electricity supplies that had been cut by the earthquake by the same afternoon. The Salvation Army Church in Folkestone provided refuge on 28 April for approximately 100 people whose homes had been damaged by the earthquake. On the same morning, a 300-metre (948 ft) long crack appeared in a cliff at Barton-on-Sea in Hampshire, creating fears of a landslide, although there were mixed views from authorities on whether it could be related to the earthquake. Magnitude The British Geological Survey gave the earthquake a reading of 4.3 on the Richter scale, while the USGS and the European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre estimated that the earthquake had a body wave magnitude of 4.6 and 4.7 respectively. It was the largest British earthquake since the 2002 Dudley earthquake and the strongest in the Dover Straits since a magnitude 4.4 earthquake in 1950. The strongest recorded British earthquake is the 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake, which measured 6.1 on the Richter scale. Ten months later, the earthquake's strength was surpassed by that of the 2008 Lincolnshire earthquake, which was 5.2 in magnitude. Less than two years later, on 3 March 2009 at 14.35 UTC, Folkestone was shaken by a smaller magnitude 3.0 quake, located in the same area. See also List of earthquakes in 2007 List of earthquakes in the British Isles Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 Geology of the United Kingdom References External links Earthquake shakes parts of Kent - BBC News BGS report of the earthquake Kent Kent earthquake 2007 Kent Disasters in Kent Kent earthquake Folkestone 2000s in Kent April 2007 events in the United Kingdom

10948303

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991%20Racha%20earthquake

1991 Racha earthquake

The 1991 Racha earthquake occurred in the province of Racha, Georgia, at 9:12 UTC on 29 April. Centered on the districts of Oni and Ambrolauri on the southern foothills of the Greater Caucasus mountains, it killed 270, left approximately 100,000 homeless and caused severe damage, including to several medieval monuments. It had a magnitude of 7.0 and was the most powerful earthquake recorded in the Caucasus. Tectonic setting Georgia lies between the two mountain chains of the Greater Caucasus in the north and the Lesser Caucasus in the south. These two sets of mountains have both resulted from the continuing effects of the collision between the Arabian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The Greater Caucasus consists of a southward-directed fold and thrust belt that has been active since the Oligocene. Racha lies close to the southern margin of this thrust belt and the earthquake is interpreted to be caused by rupture of the active thrust front. Damage The earthquake affected 700 villages and settlements, destroying 46,000 houses and making 100,000 people homeless. The number of casualties was reduced because most of the inhabitants were working in the fields at the time of the earthquake, 13:13 local time. Many important historical monuments were badly damaged, particularly the Archangel Church near Zemo Krikhi and the Mravaldzali church, which were completely destroyed. Much of the damage associated with the earthquake was caused by landslides triggered by the shaking, rather than the shaking itself. The most common type were rock falls, followed by debris slides, slumps, earth slides, rock-block slides and rock avalanches. The most destructive was a large debris avalanche, which destroyed the village of Khokheti, killing 50 of the inhabitants. A large mass of Jurassic volcanic rock fell onto water-saturated alluvium, combining to form the debris avalanche. The debris avalanche, which had an estimated volume of over 3 million m3, swept down a valley through Khokheti, blocking the Gebura River, forming a 100-m-high dam, that breached soon afterwards, causing more destruction. Two of the earth slides showed a delayed movement, with most displacement occurring a few days after the main shock. The Chordi landslide was active before the earthquake and showed only minor movement at the time of the main shock. Two to three days later, the slide started to move at about 8 m per day, destroying the village of Chordi. On 18 May, the slide was still moving at 2 m per day. This slide moved on claystone of the Maikop Formation and had a total volume of about 20 million m3. The large aftershock on 15 June caused extensive damage in the Java to Tskhinvali area. At least 8 people were killed and 200 injured. However, due to a protest rally by the local people, dozens, but not hundreds, were killed. The village of Khakhet was destroyed. Characteristics The earthquake had a magnitude of 7.0. A maximum intensity of IX on the MSK scale was observed. The calculated focal mechanism showed that the earthquake was a result of low-angle reverse faulting on a fault plane dipping at about 35° to the north-northeast. This was confirmed from the distribution of aftershocks, which defined a clear plane of this orientation. Analysis of the detailed velocity structure around the rupture zone suggested that it coincided with a marked change in seismic velocity, consistent with it representing the interface between Mesozoic sediments and the underlying crystalline basement. The 1,500-m-high Racha Ridge is thought to have been uplifted by repeated earthquakes of this type. The mainshock was followed by a complex series of aftershocks extending over several months, which caused further damage and casualties The largest of the aftershocks, which consisted of two events about two seconds apart, had a magnitude of 6.5 and occurred on 15 June with an epicenter near Java. On 23 October 1992, a magnitude 6.7 earthquake occurred about 100 km east of the aftershock zone. It was also due to reverse faulting on a north-northeast-dipping plane, although with a significant dextral (right lateral) strike-slip component. Aftermath The ongoing Georgian–Ossetian conflict complicated the rescue effort. See also List of earthquakes in 1991 List of earthquakes in Georgia (country) References External links Buried rupture earthquakes Earthquakes in Georgia (country) Racha earthquake Racha Racha earthquake Earthquakes in the Soviet Union Geology of Georgia (country) Racha April 1991 events in Asia 1991 disasters in the Soviet Union 1991 disasters in Georgia (country)

10950102

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1920%20Gori%20earthquake

1920 Gori earthquake

The 1920 Gori earthquake hit the Democratic Republic of Georgia on 20 February at . The shock had a surface wave magnitude of 6.2 and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of IX (Violent). Heavy damage (and between 114 and 130 deaths) affected the town of Gori and its medieval fortress. See also List of earthquakes in 1920 List of earthquakes in Georgia (country) References Earthquakes in Georgia (country) Gori Earthquake, 1920 Gori Gori, Georgia

11244490

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1509%20Constantinople%20earthquake

1509 Constantinople earthquake

The 1509 Constantinople earthquake or historically ('Minor Judgment Day') occurred in the Sea of Marmara on 10 September 1509 at about 22:00. The earthquake had an estimated magnitude of on the surface-wave magnitude scale. A tsunami and 45 days of aftershocks followed the earthquake. The death toll of this earthquake is poorly known; estimates range between 1,000 and 13,000. Background The Sea of Marmara is a pull-apart basin formed at a releasing bend in the North Anatolian Fault, a right-lateral strike-slip fault. This local zone of extension occurs where this transform boundary between the Anatolian Plate and the Eurasian Plate steps northwards to the west of Izmit from the Izmit Fault to the Ganos Fault. The pattern of faults within the Sea of Marmara basin is complex but near Istanbul there is a single main fault segment with a sharp bend. To the west, the fault trends west–east and is pure strike-slip in type. To the east, the fault is NW-SE trending and shows evidence of both normal and strike-slip motion. Movement on this fault, which bounds the Çınarcık Basin, was the most likely cause of the 1509 event. Earthquake and tsunami The earthquake occurred on September 10, 1509, in the northeast of the Sea of Marmara within the borders of the Ottoman Empire, and in the south of Prince's Islands, 29 km away from the capital Constantinople. It is thought that a fault ruptures between and from the Çınarcık Basin of the North Anatolian Fault Line to the Gulf of Izmit in the east of the Sea of Marmara. Major shocks occurred at half-hour intervals and were violent and protracted in nature, forcing residents to seek refuge in open parks and squares. Aftershocks were said to have continued for 18 days without causing any further damage but delayed reconstruction in some areas. A tsunami is mentioned in some sources with a run-up of greater than , but discounted in others. The waves that surpassed the walls of the city and the Genoese Walls penetrated into the settlements. Especially in the Galata region, many houses were flooded. Seismologists and geologists believe that the tsunami observed in the Sea of Marmara was not only related to the earthquake, but also caused by seafloor landslides triggered by the earthquake. A turbidite bed whose deposition matches the date of the earthquake has been recognised in the Çınarcık Basin. Reports were sent to the capital that the earthquake caused damage even in Edirne, Çorlu, Gallipoli and Dimetoka, which were part of the Rumelia Province of the Empire. Damage The area of significant damage (greater than VII (Very strong)) extended from Çorlu in the west to Izmit in the east. Galata and Büyükçekmece also suffered severe damage. In Constantinople 109 mosques were utterly destroyed, while most of those left standing suffered damage to their minarets. While 1070 homes collapsed, 49 towers along the Walls of Constantinople also collapsed or were damaged. The newly built Bayezid II Mosque was badly damaged; the main dome was destroyed and a minaret collapsed. The Fatih Mosque suffered damage to its four great columns and the dome was split. The quake also damaged the Rumeli Fortress, Anadolu Fortress, the Yoros Castle in Anadolu Kavağı, and the Maiden's Tower. Aqueduct of Valens, located near Şehzadebaşı and supplying water to the city, was affected, the part of the aqueduct near the Şehzade Mosque was damaged. The Grand Mosque of Hagia Sophia survived almost unscathed, although a minaret collapsed. Inside the mosque, the plaster that had been used to cover up the Byzantine mosaics inside the dome fell off, revealing the Christian images. Damage occurred to the Hadım Ali Pasha Mosque, and six columns and the Obelisk of Theodosius in the Hippodrome were fallen. The number of dead and injured is hard to estimate, with different sources giving accounts varying from 1,000 to 13,000. It is believed that some members of the Ottoman dynasty died in this earthquake. Aftershocks continued for 45 days after the earthquake, and people were unable to return to their homes for two months. Aftermath The sultan's residence Topkapı Palace was not damaged but Bayezid II's bedroom collapsed at the tremor, with the sultan only saved by the fact he had left his chambers a few hours earlier to get up to prayer. After staying for ten days in a tent set up in the palace garden, Bayezid II went to stay in the former capital of Edirne. The Ottoman Imperial Council (Divan-ı Hümayun) convened after the quake and made decisions to deal with the effects of the disaster. Constantinople had to be reconstructed and an additional tax of 22 akçe would be taken from each household for the task, it was decided. With the decree issued by the Sultan after the earthquake, a ban was placed on construction on filled ground and it was ordered that all buildings to be built in the capital be made of wood-frame material. Afterward, an empire-wide initiative was launched to reconstruct the city. Tens of thousands of workers, stonemasons and carpenters were brought to Istanbul from both Anatolia and Rumelia. Beginning on March 29, 1510, construction works in the city were undergone hastily and completed on June 1, 1510. Interpretations and prophecies Due to the endless aftershocks and the destruction and loss caused by the earthquake, Ottoman historians and the people described the disaster as Minor Judgment Day (Kıyamet-i Suğra). This phrase comes from an Islamic eschatological tradition that associates earthquakes with the apocalypse, referencing the Surah Al-Zalzala, the 99th chapter of the Quran, which the arrival of the Last Judgment with a terrible earthquake. The earthquake was allegedly predicted by an unnamed Greek monk from Saint Catherine's Monastery in Sinai while present in the Sultan's court. European interpretations at the time viewed the earthquake as a sort of punishment, a punishment from God set upon the Turks for taking up arms against European Christians. Similarly, Sultan Bayezid II saw it as a punishment from God, however he attributed the punishment to the wrongdoings of his ministers. It has been suggested that the French astrologer and seer Nostradamus, who was alive at the time of the earthquake, may have referred to the 1509 earthquake in the stanza number II.52 of his book containing his prophecies. See also List of earthquakes in Turkey List of historical earthquakes References Constantinople Earthquakes in Turkey 16th century in Istanbul 1509 in science 1509 in Europe 1509 in Asia 1509 in the Ottoman Empire Constantinople Sea of Marmara Hagia Sophia

11249385

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986%20San%20Salvador%20earthquake

1986 San Salvador earthquake

The 1986 San Salvador earthquake occurred at on 10 October 1986 with a moment magnitude of 5.7 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). The shock caused considerable damage to El Salvador's capital city of San Salvador and surrounding areas, including neighboring Honduras and Guatemala. Earthquake The 1986 San Salvador earthquake occurred within the upper crust of the Caribbean Plate along the Central American volcanic chain. It was a result of left-lateral strike slip faulting perpendicular to the Central American volcanic chain. The earthquake also caused landslides located in the San Salvador area. Damage and response The earthquake caused between 1,000 and 1,500 deaths, 10,000 injuries, and left 200,000 homeless. Shallow shocks directly under San Salvador caused the destruction of multiple structures. San Salvador's children's hospital, a marketplace, many restaurants and buildings, and shanty towns were significantly damaged or destroyed. In response, President José Napoleón Duarte established the Earthquake Reconstruction Committee tasked not only with rebuilding but also with modernizing El Salvador's capital. To lead the committee, Duarte tapped noted international urban planner and architect Jesús Permuy, who Duarte also asked to remain for another year to train Salvadoran officials on modern urban planning methods and principles following the conclusion of the Reconstruction Committee. See also List of earthquakes in El Salvador 1965 San Salvador earthquake References Further reading External links October 1986 San Salvador, El Salvador Images – National Geophysical Data Center 1986 earthquakes Earthquakes in El Salvador 1986 in El Salvador October 1986 events in North America

11260405

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric%20Earthquake

Electric Earthquake

Electric Earthquake (1942) is the seventh of seventeen animated Technicolor short films based upon the DC Comics character of Superman, originally created by Jerry Siegel & Joe Shuster. This animated short was created by the Fleischer Studios. The story runs for about eight minutes and covers Superman's adventures in stopping a madman from destroying Manhattan with electronically induced earthquakes. It was originally released on May 15, 1942. This is the first of the films to make it clear that the action is taking place in Manhattan. Plot The story begins with a view of the city, lowering to a view of the ground underneath. Deep under the docks, several large wires are connected to the bedrock. Following the wires away from the coast along the ocean floor, it is shown that they all converge in a strange underwater capsule. An elevator-like object emerges from the top and rises to an abandoned fishing house infested with rats. A man exits the elevator and heads toward the city in a motorboat. Later, at the Daily Planet, a Native American man warns Lois Lane, Clark Kent, and Perry White that they must run a report that Manhattan belongs to his people and should be given back to them. The Planet crew judges him to be crazy, and his threats to be empty...at least, everyone but Lois, who follows him to his motorboat. Hiding in the back, Lois is taken to the deserted fishing house on the water and sees his elevator. The man catches her watching him in the elevator's reflection, and calmly invites her to follow him, promising an amazing story. The elevator lowers into the underwater capsule, and the man offers her a seat, then pushes a button that pins her arms and legs to the chair as a precautionary measure. Stepping up to the controls, he starts up his earthquake machine, sending a powerful surge of electricity through one of the wires and into the bedrock under the city. The large explosion causes the entire city to shake and runs a large crack through the Daily Planet building. Clark takes advantage of the commotion to change into his Superman costume. In one leap, Superman dives into the ocean and notices the several wires embedded in the rock. He pulls one of them out only to have it explode in his face, flinging him to the ground and piling him with bedrock. He pushes the rock away and pulls at a few more, only to have the wires writhe with electric current and wind around him. At one point, Superman comes up for air only to have one of the wires wind around his neck and pull him down. Finally, Superman follows the wires to the underwater capsule and pulls them out from its base, causing explosions that destroy the machine. As water fills the capsule, the villain takes the elevator to the surface, leaving Lois trapped as the water in the capsule slowly rises. Superman spots the elevator and catches the villain at the top, but is told that Lois is trapped, and darts back down to save her. The villain, meanwhile, loads the elevator with dynamite and sends it down after him. Superman, however, saves Lois in time and captures the villain as he is making a getaway in his motorboat. Later, as the Daily Planet reports Superman's latest heroic deed while the villain is implied to be arrested and sent to jail for his rampage, Clark and Lois are seen watching the now-rebuilt Manhattan from a cruise ship. Clark remarks, "You know, Lois, the old island looks just as good as ever". Lois replies, "That's right, Clark. Thanks to Superman". Cast Bud Collyer as Clark Kent/Superman Joan Alexander as Lois Lane Julian Noa as Perry White Jackson Beck as the Narrator, Indian Scientist References External links Electric Earthquake at the Internet Archive Electric Earthquake at the Internet Movie Database 1942 films 1942 animated films 1940s American animated films 1940s animated short films 1940s animated superhero films Superman animated shorts Fleischer Studios short films Short films directed by Dave Fleischer Paramount Pictures short films Films about earthquakes

11353408

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20forecasting

Earthquake forecasting

Earthquake forecasting is a branch of the science of seismology concerned with the probabilistic assessment of general earthquake seismic hazard, including the frequency and magnitude of damaging earthquakes in a given area over years or decades. While forecasting is usually considered to be a type of prediction, earthquake forecasting is often differentiated from earthquake prediction, whose goal is the specification of the time, location, and magnitude of future earthquakes with sufficient precision that a warning can be issued. Both forecasting and prediction of earthquakes are distinguished from earthquake warning systems, which, upon detection of an earthquake, provide a real-time warning to regions that might be affected. In the 1970s, scientists were optimistic that a practical method for predicting earthquakes would soon be found, but by the 1990s continuing failure led many to question whether it was even possible. Demonstrably successful predictions of large earthquakes have not occurred, and the few claims of success are controversial. Consequently, many scientific and government resources have been used for probabilistic seismic hazard estimates rather than prediction of individual earthquakes. Such estimates are used to establish building codes, insurance rate structures, awareness and preparedness programs, and public policy related to seismic events. In addition to regional earthquake forecasts, such seismic hazard calculations can take factors such as local geological conditions into account. Anticipated ground motion can then be used to guide building design criteria. Methods for earthquake forecasting Methods for earthquake forecasting generally look for trends or patterns that lead to an earthquake. As these trends may be complex and involve many variables, advanced statistical techniques are often needed to understand them, therefore these are sometimes called statistical methods. These approaches tend to have relatively long time periods, making them useful for earthquake forecasting. Elastic rebound Even the stiffest of rock is not perfectly rigid. Given a large force (such as between two immense tectonic plates moving past each other) the earth's crust will bend or deform. According to the elastic rebound theory of , eventually the deformation (strain) becomes great enough that something breaks, usually at an existing fault. Slippage along the break (an earthquake) allows the rock on each side to rebound to a less deformed state. In the process, energy is released in various forms, including seismic waves. The cycle of tectonic force being accumulated in elastic deformation and released in a sudden rebound is then repeated. As the displacement from a single earthquake ranges from less than a meter to around 10 meters (for an M 8 quake), the demonstrated existence of large strike-slip displacements of hundreds of miles shows the existence of a long-running earthquake cycle. Characteristic earthquakes The most studied earthquake faults (such as the Nankai megathrust, the Wasatch fault, and the San Andreas Fault) appear to have distinct segments. The characteristic earthquake model postulates that earthquakes are generally constrained within these segments. As the lengths and other properties of the segments are fixed, earthquakes that rupture the entire fault should have similar characteristics. These include the maximum magnitude (which is limited by the length of the rupture), and the amount of accumulated strain needed to rupture the fault segment. Since continuous plate motions cause the strain to accumulate steadily, seismic activity on a given segment should be dominated by earthquakes of similar characteristics that recur at somewhat regular intervals. For a given fault segment, identifying these characteristic earthquakes and timing their recurrence rate (or conversely return period) should therefore inform us about the next rupture; this is the approach generally used in forecasting seismic hazard. Return periods are also used for forecasting other rare events, such as cyclones and floods, and assume that future frequency will be similar to observed frequency to date. Extrapolation from the Parkfield earthquakes of 1857, 1881, 1901, 1922, 1934, and 1966 led to a forecast of an earthquake around 1988, or before 1993 at the latest (at the 95% confidence interval), based on the characteristic earthquake model. Instrumentation was put in place in hopes of detecting precursors of the anticipated earthquake. However, the forecasted earthquake did not occur until 2004. The failure of the Parkfield prediction experiment has raised doubt as to the validity of the characteristic earthquake model itself. Seismic gaps At the contact where two tectonic plates slip past each other, every section must eventually slip, as (in the long-term) none get left behind. But they do not all slip at the same time; different sections will be at different stages in the cycle of strain (deformation) accumulation and sudden rebound. In the seismic gap model, the "next big quake" should be expected not in the segments where recent seismicity has relieved the strain, but in the intervening gaps where the unrelieved strain is the greatest. This model has an intuitive appeal; it is used in long-term forecasting, and was the basis of a series of circum-Pacific (Pacific Rim) forecasts in 1979 and 1989–1991. However, some underlying assumptions about seismic gaps are now known to be incorrect. A close examination suggests that "there may be no information in seismic gaps about the time of occurrence or the magnitude of the next large event in the region"; statistical tests of the circum-Pacific forecasts shows that the seismic gap model "did not forecast large earthquakes well". Another study concluded that a long quiet period did not increase earthquake potential. Notable forecasts UCERF3 The 2015 Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast, Version 3, or UCERF3, is the latest official earthquake rupture forecast (ERF) for the state of California, superseding UCERF2. It provides authoritative estimates of the likelihood and severity of potentially damaging earthquake ruptures in the long- and near-term. Combining this with ground motion models produces estimates of the severity of ground shaking that can be expected during a given period (seismic hazard), and of the threat to the built environment (seismic risk). This information is used to inform engineering design and building codes, planning for disaster, and evaluating whether earthquake insurance premiums are sufficient for the prospective losses. A variety of hazard metrics can be calculated with UCERF3; a typical metric is the likelihood of a magnitude M 6.7 earthquake (the size of the 1994 Northridge earthquake) in the 30 years (typical life of a mortgage) since 2014. UCERF3 was prepared by the Working Group on California Earthquake Probabilities (WGCEP), a collaboration between the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the California Geological Survey (CGS), and the Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC), with significant funding from the California Earthquake Authority (CEA). Notes Sources . . . . . . Also California Geological Survey Special Report 228, and Southern California Earthquake Center Publication 1792. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earthquakes Forecasting

11531796

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980%20Irpinia%20earthquake

1980 Irpinia earthquake

The 1980 Irpinia earthquake () took place in Italy on 23 November 1980, with a moment magnitude of 6.9 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). It left at least 2,483 people dead, at least 7,700 injured, and 250,000 homeless. Event The quake struck at 18:34 UTC (19:34 local), centered on the village of Castelnuovo di Conza, Campania, Southern Italy. The first jolt was followed by 90 aftershocks. There were three main shocks, each with epicenters in a different place, within 80 seconds. The largest shock registered a peak acceleration of 0.38g, with 10 seconds of motion greater than 0.1g. The three main shocks combined produced 70 seconds of shaking greater than 0.01g. Thus the shaking was severe and lasted a long time. Towns in the province of Avellino were hit the hardest. In Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi, 300 were killed, including 27 children in an orphanage, and eighty percent of the town was destroyed and many historical buildings were left in ruins as the town never fully recovered as of 2021. One hundred were killed in Balvano when a medieval church collapsed during Sunday services. The towns of Lioni, Conza della Campania (near the epicenter), and Teora were destroyed, and dozens of structures in Naples were levelled, including a 10-story apartment building. Damage was spread over more than 26,000 km2, including Naples and Salerno. Rebuilding The Italian government spent 59 trillion lire on reconstruction, while other nations sent contributions. West Germany contributed 32 million United States dollars (USD) and the United States US$70 million. However, in the early 1990s a major corruption scandal emerged. Of the billions of lire that were earmarked for aid to the victims and rebuilding, the largest part disappeared from the earthquake reconstruction funds in the 1980s. Of the $40 billion spent on earthquake reconstruction, an estimated $20 billion went to create an entirely new social class of millionaires in the region, $6.4 billion went to the criminal Camorra, whereas another $4 billion went to politicians in bribes. Only the remaining $9.6 billion, a quarter of the total amount, was actually spent on people's needs. The Camorra entered the construction industry after the quake. See also List of earthquakes in 1980 List of earthquakes in Italy 1930 Irpinia earthquake List of earthquakes in Irpinia Footnotes Further reading External links INGV - sismica Map Memory and Images Earthquake 1980 Earthquake 1980 Gesualdo INGV page on the earthquake 1980 disasters in Italy 1980 earthquakes 20th century in Campania Disasters in Campania 1980 Irpinia earthquake Guardia Lombardi November 1980 events in Europe Province of Avellino

9209266

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1855%20Bursa%20earthquake

1855 Bursa earthquake

The 1855 Bursa earthquake occurred on 28 February, with an estimated magnitude of 7.02±0.64 A devastating precursor quake that took place in Mustafakemalpaşa, a town of Bursa Province, in Turkey caused severe destruction all over Bursa and other neighboring cities. 300 people died and thousands of homes and workplaces were wrecked, and some of the historical monuments and buildings including mosques collapsed. Subsequently, fire spread out in the city, which increased the death toll. On 11 April 1855, an aftershock of the 28 February earthquake was recorded as 6.65±0.33. This aftershock affected the region from Gemlik to Mudanya. 1,300 people died. Gökmen-zâde Seyyid el-Hâcî Hüseyin Rıfat Efendî Bursavî wrote about these earthquakes in his book İşaret-numa, written in the Ottoman Turkish language. See also List of earthquakes in Turkey List of historical earthquakes References 1855 Bursa 1855 earthquakes 1855 1855 in the Ottoman Empire February 1855 events 1855 disasters in Asia 19th-century disasters in the Ottoman Empire

9235660

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993%20Scotts%20Mills%20earthquake

1993 Scotts Mills earthquake

The 1993 Scotts Mills earthquake, also known as the "Spring break quake", occurred in the U.S. state of Oregon on March 25 at 5:34 AM Pacific Standard Time. With a moment magnitude of 5.6 and a maximum perceived intensity of VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale, it was the largest earthquake in the Pacific Northwest since the Elk Lake and Goat Rocks earthquakes of 1981. Ground motion was widely felt in Oregon's Willamette Valley, the Portland metropolitan area, and as far north as the Puget Sound area near Seattle, Washington. Earthquake The Scotts Mills mainshock epicenter was located about east of the town of Scotts Mills in Marion County, and about south of Portland. The United States Geological Survey reported that strong motion instruments recorded peak ground accelerations of 0.06 g at Detroit Dam, to the southeast, and also give an extensive review of damage reports and ground motion intensities. Reports of the earthquake came from as far as Roseburg in southern Oregon, south of the epicenter, to the coastal town of Lincoln City, east to Bend, and north to Seattle. The seismology lab from the University of Washington in Seattle reported the Richter magnitude to be 5.4, but stated that the initial figure could change. An aftershock measuring 3.2 happened within the first hour of the main shock. Damage Most structural damage consisted of toppled chimneys and failure of walls of unreinforced masonry. Buildings with damage include Molalla High School, the State Capitol in Salem, and the St. Paul Church in Saint Paul. The damage at the capitol occurred in the old wing and that section of the facility was closed after the morning earthquake, and two walls at the high school were partially collapsed. Additional damage to some homes occurred in Molalla in the form of broken windows and brick planters at some homes there. No damage was reported in Portland, but residents did see books knocked off shelves and some car alarms were set off. Several people were treated at the Salem Hospital for injuries related to falling glass. Previous events A similar sized earthquake occurred in 1877 and Portland was struck by a magnitude 5.5 quake in 1962, but geophysicists say the area is vulnerable to even larger earthquakes, such as the 1872 North Cascades earthquake. See also List of earthquakes in 1993 List of earthquakes in the United States 1993 Klamath Falls earthquakes References External links Increased seismic activity in Oregon highlighted by tremor and a M=4.0 quake – Temblor, Inc. 1993 in Oregon 1993 in Washington (state) 1993 earthquakes Clackamas County, Oregon Earthquakes in the United States Natural disasters in Oregon Marion County, Oregon 1993 natural disasters in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%20Manjil%E2%80%93Rudbar%20earthquake

1990 Manjil–Rudbar earthquake

The 1990 Manjil–Rudbar earthquake occurred on Thursday, June 21, 1990 at in the Caspian Sea region of northern Iran. The shock had a moment magnitude of 7.4 and a Mercalli Intensity of X (Extreme). Geology Iran is one of the most seismically active regions in the world. In northwestern Iran, the Arabian and Eurasian plates are converging in a northeasterly direction, resulting in infrequent strike-slip earthquakes. The dominant style of faulting in the Albortz Mountains are reverse. The focal mechanism of the earthquake indicate that the event corresponded with right-lateral strike-slip faulting with an epicenter in Gilan province. On 22 July 1983, a 5.5 earthquake struck Mazandaran province, killing 30 people. That earthquake although situated just southwest of the 1990 earthquake's epicenter, is unlikely a foreshock to the 1990 event. The coulomb stress transfer from the 1983 source fault to the 1990 earthquake source fault was insufficient. Stress modelling showed the 1983 earthquake had decreased crustal stress in the epicenter area of the 1990 earthquake rather than increasing it. Damage and casualties Widespread damage occurred to the northwest of the capital city of Tehran, including the cities of Rudbar and Manjil. The total area of devastation was measured to be 20,000 square kilometers. The National Geophysical Data Center estimated that $8 billion in damage occurred in the affected area. Other earthquake catalogs presented estimates of the loss of life in the range of 35,000–50,000, with a further 60,000–105,000 that were injured and 400,000 homeless. The earthquake struck 30 minutes after midnight when most people were sleeping in their uncomplicated mud homes, a major factor contributing to the large death toll. The morning after the mainshock, a 6.5 magnitude aftershock hit the city of Rasht, causing a dam to break and creating a large flood and landslide, flooding and wiping out huge swaths of farmland. Other landslides also made many roads unusable, with one landslide next to Rudbar moving up to 20 million cubic meters of land. There were at least 223 landslides recorded within a area with a total volume of 380 million cubic meters. The earthquake was one of the strongest recorded in the densely populated region of the Alborz mountains. Damage was extreme in the cities of Manjil, and Rudbar; Khalkhal and Nowshahr also recorded significant damage. In Tehran, the damage was slight. Soil liquefaction also caused extensive damage in an area of about 80 kilometers to the northeast of the earthquake's epicenter, ruining irrigation canals, pipelines, and splitting pavements apart. Water wells were also filled with boiled sand.In some of the smaller, hard-to-reach towns in the Alborz mountains, there were no survivors and no house was left standing. Most all of the buildings destroyed were unreinforced masonry buildings, or UMBs, buildings made out of unsupported brick, cinderblock or other masonry elements which will collapse during strong earthquakes like the Iran earthquake. Tsunami The earthquake was accompanied by a small, localized tsunami in the Caspian Sea. The waves were reported to reach 2 meters (6.5 ft) and inundated up to 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) inland. Presumably, an underwater landslide contributed to the notable tsunami, taking place on the steep shores of the continental shelf in the area. Although there were no reported casualties or severe damage in the wake of the tsunami, it reaffirmed the existence of a tsunami in the Caspian Sea and suggested that an underwater landslide that could be caused by an earthquake near the area could cause a life-threatening and potent tsunami. Aftermath and relief efforts The earthquake took place as Iran was recovering from the Iran-Iraq war that ended just two years prior. Due to anti-American sentiment in Iran at the time, with the earthquake taking place just 10 years after the Iranian Revolution, Iranians initially did not want to accept help from the United States and other western countries, but they were not in a position to launch an extensive relief effort on their own. The Iranian government and the governments that responded to the earthquake issued over 2,900 tents for the unhoused and camps for hundreds of thousands of people affected by the disaster. 170,000 blankets were also sent in to protect Iranians from the cold. An unusual outbreak of acute renal failure (ARF) occurred in the aftermath of the earthquake, with the number of victims demanding dialysis support rising to 156, with a mortality rate of 14 percent. Patients with ARF were more severely injured and usually had nerve damage, elevated muscle enzymes, and abnormal urinalysis. Use in media Acclaimed Iranian director Abbas Kiarostami has fictionally incorporated the earthquake and its effects on northern Iran into multiple films of his. In And Life Goes On (1992), a director and his son search for child actors from a previous Kiarostami film; Where Is the Friend's Home? (1986), which was shot in a city that, by the time of the second film's production, is recovering from the earthquake. Kiarostami's next film Through the Olive Trees (1994) follows a film crew as they shoot scenes from Life, and Nothing More...; in one of these scenes a man discusses his marriage having taken place a day after the earthquake. Critics and scholars often refer to these three films as the Koker trilogy, and rank them among the director's finest works. See also List of earthquakes in 1990 List of earthquakes in Iran References Sources Further reading External links 7.4 - northern Iran – United States Geological Survey Man Earthquakes in Iran Earthquake June 1990 events in Asia History of Gilan 1990 disasters in Iran