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[
"Research"
] | Research in the field of [[Microbiota (microbiology)|microbiota]] shows that only a limited set of microbes cause tooth decay, with most of the bacteria in the human mouth being harmless. Focused attention on cavity-causing bacteria such as ''[[Streptococcus mutans]]'' has led research into new mouthwash treatments that prevent these bacteria from initially growing. While current mouthwash treatments must be used with a degree of frequency to prevent this bacteria from regrowing, future treatments could provide a viable long-term solution. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Alcohol"
] | Alcohol is added to mouthwash not to destroy bacteria but to act as a carrier agent for essential active ingredients such as menthol, eucalyptol and thymol which help to penetrate plaque. Sometimes a significant amount of [[ethanol|alcohol]] (up to 27% vol) is added, as a carrier for the [[flavor]], to provide "bite". Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a [[breathalyzer]] test after rinsing although breath alcohol levels return to normal after 10 minutes. In addition, alcohol is a [[astringent|drying agent]], which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth, releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds. Therefore, alcohol-containing mouthwash may temporarily worsen [[halitosis]] in those who already have it, or indeed be the sole cause of halitosis in other individuals. It is hypothesized that alcohol mouthwashes acts as a [[carcinogen]] (cancer-inducing). Generally, there is no scientific consensus about this. One review stated: The same researchers also state that the risk of acquiring oral cancer rises almost five times for users of alcohol-containing mouthwash who neither smoke nor drink (with a higher rate of increase for those who do). In addition, the authors highlight side effects from several mainstream mouthwashes that included [[dental erosion]] and accidental poisoning of children. The review garnered media attention and conflicting opinions from other researchers. Yinka Ebo of [[Cancer Research UK]] disputed the findings, concluding that "there is still not enough evidence to suggest that using mouthwash that contains alcohol will increase the risk of mouth cancer". Studies conducted in 1985, 1995, 2003, and 2012 did not support an association between alcohol-containing mouth rinses and oral cancer. Andrew Penman, chief executive of [[The Cancer Council New South Wales]], called for further research on the matter. In a March 2009 brief, the American Dental Association said "the available evidence does not support a connection between oral cancer and alcohol-containing mouthrinse". Many newer brands of mouthwash are alcohol free, not just in response to consumer concerns about oral cancer, but also to cater for religious groups who abstain from alcohol consumption. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Benzydamine/Difflam (analgesics)"
] | In painful oral conditions such as [[aphthous stomatitis]], analgesic mouthrinses (e.g. [[benzydamine]] mouthwash, or "Difflam") are sometimes used to ease pain, commonly used before meals to reduce discomfort while eating. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Betamethasone"
] | [[Betamethasone]] is sometimes used as an anti-inflammatory, corticosteroid mouthwash. It may be used for severe inflammatory conditions of the oral mucosa such as the severe forms of aphthous stomatitis. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Cetylpyridinium chloride (antiseptic, antimalodor)"
] | [[Cetylpyridinium chloride]] containing mouthwash (e.g. 0.05%) is used in some specialized mouthwashes for halitosis. Cetylpyridinium chloride mouthwash has less anti-plaque effect than chlorhexidine and may cause staining of teeth, or sometimes an oral burning sensation or [[mouth ulcer|ulceration]]. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Chlorhexidine digluconate and Hexetidine (antiseptic)"
] | [[Chlorhexidine#Dental use|Chlorhexidine digluconate]] is a chemical antiseptic and is used in a 0.12–0.2% solution as a mouthwash. However, there is no evidence to support that higher concentrations are more effective in controlling dental plaque and gingivitis. It has anti-plaque action, but also some anti-fungal action. It is especially effective against [[Gram-negative bacteria|Gram-negative]] [[Bacterial cellular morphologies#Bacillus|rod]]. The proportion of Gram-negative rods increase as [[gingivitis]] develops so it is also used to reduce gingivitis. It is sometimes used as an adjunct to prevent dental caries and to treat gingivitis [[Periodontitis|periodontal disease]], although it does not penetrate into periodontal pockets well. Chlorhexidine mouthwash alone is unable to prevent plaque, so it is not a substitute for regular toothbrushing and flossing. Instead, chlorhexidine is more effective used as an adjunctive treatment with tooth brushing and flossing. In the short term, if toothbrushing is impossible due to pain, as may occur in [[primary herpetic gingivostomatitis]], chlorhexidine is used as temporary substitute for other oral hygiene measures. It is not suited for use in [[acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis]], however. Rinsing with [[chlorhexidine]] mouthwash before a tooth extraction reduces the risk of [[dry socket]], a painful condition where the blood clot is lost from an extraction socket and bone is exposed to the oral cavity. Other uses of chlorhexidine mouthwash include prevention of oral candidiasis in [[Immunocompetence|immunocompromise]] persons, treatment of [[denture-related stomatitis]], mucosal ulceration/erosions and [[oral mucosa]] lesions, general burning sensation and many other uses. Chlorhexidine has good ''substantivity'' (the ability of a mouthwash to bind to hard and soft tissues in the mouth). However, chlorhexidine binds to [[tannin]], meaning that prolonged use in persons who consume coffee, tea or red wine is associated with extrinsic staining (i.e. removable staining) of teeth. Chlorhexidine mouthwash can also cause taste disturbance or alteration. Chlorhexidine is rarely associated with other issues like overgrowth of enterobacteria in persons with [[leukemia]], desquamation and irritation of oral mucosa, salivary gland pain and swelling, and hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis. A randomized clinical trial conducted in Rabat university in [[Morocco]] found better results in [[Dental plaque|plaque]] inhibition when chlorohexidine with alcohol base 0.12% was used, when compared to an alcohol free 0.1% chlorhexidine mouthrinse. Chlorhexidine mouthrinses increase staining score of teeth over a period of time. However, many publications and, in recent times, also a systematic review (van Swaaij 2020) revealed that an AntiDiscoloration System (ADS) based on L-ascorbic acid and sodium metabisulphite is able to reduce tooth staining without affecting the antibacterial effect of chlorhexidine [[Hexetidine]] also has anti-plaque, analgesic, astringent and anti-malodor properties but is considered as an inferior alternative to [[Chlorhexidine]]. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Edible oils"
] | In traditional [[Ayurvedic medicine]], the use of oil mouthwashes is called "Kavala" ("oil swishing") or "Gandusha", and this practice has more recently been re-marketed by the [[complementary and alternative medicine]] industry as "[[oil pulling]]". Its promoters claim it works by "pulling out" "toxins", which are known as [[ama (ayurveda)|ama]] in Ayurvedic medicine, and thereby reducing [[inflammation]]. Ayurvedic literature suggests oil pulling is capable of improving oral and systemic health, including a benefit in conditions such as [[headache]], [[migraine]], [[diabetes mellitus]], [[asthma]], and [[acne vulgaris|acne]], as well as [[Tooth whitening|whitening teeth]]. Oil pulling has received little study and there is little evidence to support claims made by the technique's advocates. When compared with chlorhexidine in one small study, it was found to be less effective at reducing oral bacterial load, otherwise the health claims of oil pulling have failed scientific verification or have not been investigated. There is a report of [[lipid pneumonia]] caused by accidental inhalation of the oil during oil pulling. The mouth is rinsed with approximately one tablespoon of oil for 10–20 minutes then spat out. [[Sesame oil]], [[coconut oil]] and [[ghee]] are traditionally used, but newer oils such as [[sunflower oil]] are also used. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Essential oils"
] | [[Phenols|Phenolic compounds]] and [[monoterpene]] include [[essential oil]] constituents that have some antibacterial properties, such as [[eucalyptol]], [[eugenol]], [[hinokitiol]], [[menthol]], [[phenol]], or [[thymol]]. [[Essential oil]] are oils which have been extracted from plants. Mouthwashes based on [[essential oil]] could be more effective than traditional mouthcare - for [[Gingivitis#Treatment|anti-gingival]] treatments. They have been found effective in [[Halitosis#Mouthwashes|reducing halitosis]], and are being used in several commercial mouthwashes. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Fluoride (anticavity)"
] | Anti-cavity mouth rinses use [[sodium fluoride]] to protect against [[tooth decay]]. Fluoride-containing mouth rinses are used as prevention for dental caries for individuals who are considered at higher risk for decay, due to xerostomia related to salivary dysfunction, or side effects of medication, those who do not drink fluoridated water, those who are physically unable to care for their oral needs (brushing and flossing), and treatment for those with dentinal hypersensitivity, gingival recession/ root exposure. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Flavoring agents and Xylitol"
] | [[Flavoring agent]] include sweeteners such as [[sorbitol]], [[sucralose]], [[Saccharin|sodium saccharin]], and [[xylitol]], which stimulate salivary function due to their sweetness and taste and helps restore the mouth to a neutral level of acidity. Xylitol rinses double as a bacterial inhibitor and have been used as substitute for Alcohol to avoid dryness of mouth associated with Alcohol. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Hydrogen peroxide"
] | [[Hydrogen peroxide]] can be used as an oxidizing mouthwash (e.g. Peroxyl, 1.5%). It kills anaerobic bacteria, and also has a mechanical cleansing action when it froths as it comes into contact with debris in mouth. It is often used in the short term to treat [[acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis]]. Side effects with prolonged use might occur, including [[hypertrophy]] of the [[lingual papilla]]. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Lactoperoxidase (saliva substitute)"
] | [[Enzyme]] and proteins such as [[Lactoperoxidase#Oral care|Lactoperoxidase]], [[Lysozyme]], [[Lactoferrin]] have been used in mouthrinses (e.g. [[Biotene#Ingredients|Biotene]]) to reduce oral bacteria and hence the acid produced by bacteria. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"[[Lidocaine]]/[[xylocaine]]"
] | Oral lidocaine is useful for the treatment of [[mucositis]] symptoms ([[inflammation]] of [[mucous membrane]]) that is induced by radiation or chemotherapy. There is evidence that lidocaine anesthetic mouthwash has the potential to be systemically absorbed when it was tested in patients with oral mucositis who underwent a bone marrow transplant. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Methyl salicylate"
] | [[Methyl salicylate]] functions as an anti-septic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, flavoring, and fragrance. Methyl salicylate has some anti-plaque action, but less than chlorhexidine. Methyl salicylate does not stain teeth. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Nystatin"
] | [[Nystatin]] suspension is an [[Antifungal medication|antifungal]] ingredient used for the treatment of [[oral candidiasis]]. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Potassium oxalate"
] | A randomized clinical trial found promising results in controlling and reducing [[Dentin hypersensitivity|dentine hypersensitivity]] when potassium oxalate mouthrinse was used in conjugation with [[Tooth brushing|toothbrushing]]. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Povidone/iodine"
] | A 2005 study found that gargling three times a day with simple water or with a [[Povidone-iodine]] solution was effective in preventing [[upper respiratory infection]] and decreasing the severity of symptoms if contracted. Other sources attribute the benefit to a simple placebo effect. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Sanguinarine"
] | [[Sanguinarine]]-containing mouthwashes are marketed as anti-plaque and anti-malodor. It is a toxic alkaloid herbal extract, obtained from plants such as ''[[Sanguinaria canadensis]]'' (Bloodroot), ''[[Argemone mexicana]]'' (Mexican Prickly Poppy) and others. However, its use is strongly associated with development of [[leukoplakia]] (a white patch in the mouth), usually in the buccal sulcus. This type of leukoplakia has been termed "sanguinaria-associated keratosis" and more than 80% of people with leukoplakia in the [[vestibule of the mouth]] have used this substance. Upon stopping contact with the causative substance, the lesions may persist for years. Although this type of leukoplakia may show [[dysplasia]], the potential for [[malignancy|malignant]] transformation is unknown. Ironically, elements within the complementary and alternative medicine industry promote the use of sanguinaria as a therapy for cancer. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)"
] | [[Sodium bicarbonate]] is sometimes combined with salt to make a simple homemade mouthwash, indicated for any of the reasons that a salt water mouthwash might be used. Pre-mixed mouthwashes of 1% sodium bicarbonate and 1.5% sodium chloride in [[aqueous solution]] are marketed, although pharmacists will easily be able to produce such a formulation from the base ingredients when required. Sodium bicarbonate mouthwash is sometimes used to remove viscous saliva and to aid visualization of the oral tissues during examination of the mouth. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Sodium chloride (salt)"
] | Salt water mouth wash is made by dissolving 0.5–1 teaspoon of table salt into a cup of water, which is as hot as possible without causing discomfort in the mouth. Saline has a mechanical cleansing action and an antiseptic action as it is a [[hypertonic]] solution in relation to bacteria, which undergo [[lysis]]. The heat of the solution produces a therapeutic increase in blood flow ([[hyperemia]]) to the surgical site, promoting healing. Hot salt water mouthwashes also encourage the draining of [[pus]] from [[dental abscess]]. Conversely, if heat is applied on the side of the face (e.g., hot water bottle) rather than inside the mouth, it may cause a dental abscess to drain extra-orally, which is later associated with an area of [[fibrosis]] on the face (see [[cutaneous sinus of dental origin]]). Gargling with salt water is said to reduce the symptoms of a sore throat. Hot salt water mouth baths (or hot salt water mouth washes, sometimes abbreviated to "HSWMW") are also routinely used after oral surgery, to keep food debris out of healing wounds and to prevent infection. Some oral surgeons consider salt water mouthwashes the mainstay of wound cleanliness after surgery. In dental extractions, hot salt water mouthbaths should start about 24 hours after a dental extraction. The term ''mouth bath'' implies that the liquid is passively held in the mouth rather than vigorously swilled around, which could dislodge a blood clot. Once the blood clot has stabilized, the mouth wash can be used more vigorously. These mouthwashes tend to be advised about 6 times per day, especially after meals to remove food from the socket. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Sodium lauryl sulfate (foaming agent)"
] | [[Sodium lauryl sulfate]] (SLS) is used as a foaming agent in many oral hygiene products including many mouthwashes. Some may suggest that it is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains SLS, since the anionic compounds in the SLS [[toothpaste]] can deactivate cationic agents present in the mouthrinse. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Sucralfate"
] | [[Sucralfate]] is a mucosal coating agent, composed of an aluminum salt of sulfated [[sucrose]]. It is not recommended for use in the prevention of [[oral mucositis]] in head and neck cancer patients receiving [[radiotherapy]] or [[chemoradiation]] due to a lack of efficacy found in a well-designed, [[randomized controlled trial]]. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Tetracycline (antibiotic)"
] | [[Tetracycline]] is an antibiotic which may sometimes be used as a mouthwash in adults (it causes red staining of teeth in children). It is sometimes use for herpetiforme ulceration (an uncommon type of aphthous stomatitis), but prolonged use may lead to oral candidiasis as the fungal population of the mouth overgrows in the absence of enough competing bacteria. Similarly, Minocycline mouthwashes of 0.5% concentrations can relieve symptoms of [[recurrent aphthous stomatitis]]. [[Erythromycin]] is similar. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Tranexamic acid"
] | 4.8% [[tranexamic acid]] solution is sometimes used as an [[antifibrinolytic]] mouthwash to prevent bleeding during and after oral surgery in persons with [[coagulopathy|coagulopathies]] (clotting disorders) or who are taking [[anticoagulant]] (blood thinners such as [[warfarin]]). | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Triclosan"
] | [[Triclosan]] is a non-ionic chlorinate bisphenol antiseptic found in some mouthwashes. When used in mouthwash (e.g. 0.03%), there is moderate substantivity, broad spectrum anti-bacterial action, some anti-fungal action and significant anti-plaque effect, especially when combined with [[copolymer]] or [[zinc citrate]]. Triclosan does not cause staining of the teeth. The safety of triclosan has been questioned. | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[
"Ingredients",
"Zinc"
] | [[Astringents]] like zinc chloride provide a pleasant-tasting sensation and shrink tissues. [[Zinc#Topical use|Zinc]] when used in combination with other anti-septic agents can limit the build-up of [[Calculus (dental)#Prevention|tartar]] | 782 | Mouthwash | [
"Dentifrices",
"Oral hygiene",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Dosage forms"
] | [] |
[] | '''Alexander III of Macedon''' (, ; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as '''Alexander the Great''', was a king of the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] kingdom of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]]. A member of the [[Argead dynasty]], he was born in [[Pella]]—a city in [[Ancient Greece]]—in 356 BC. He succeeded his father [[Philip II of Macedon|King Philip II]] to the throne at the age of 20, and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy [[military campaign]] throughout [[Western Asia]] and [[Northeastern Africa]]. By the age of thirty, he had created one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires]] in history, stretching from [[Greece]] to northwestern [[Historical India|India]]. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history's most successful military commanders. During his youth, Alexander was tutored by [[Aristotle]] until the age of 16. His father [[Philip II of Macedon#Assassination|Philip was assassinated]] in 336 BC at his sister's wedding, and Alexander assumed the throne to the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Kingdom of Macedon]]. After sacking the city of [[Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)|Thebes]], Alexander was awarded the [[League of Corinth|generalship of Greece]]. He used his authority to launch his father's pan-Hellenic project, which involved him assuming the leadership position to all the Greeks in their conquest of [[Persia]]. In 334 BC he invaded the [[Achaemenid Empire]] (Persian Empire) and began a [[Wars of Alexander the Great|series of campaigns]] that lasted 10 years. Following his conquest of [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] (modern-day Turkey), Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those at [[Battle of Issus|Issus]] and [[Battle of Gaugamela|Gaugamela]]. He subsequently overthrew [[Darius III|King Darius III]] and conquered the [[Achaemenid Empire]] in its entirety. At that point, his empire stretched from the [[Adriatic Sea]] to the [[Beas River]]. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|invaded India]] in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over [[Porus|King Porus]] at the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]]. He eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops, dying in [[Babylon]] in 323 BC; the city he planned to establish as his capital. He did not manage to execute a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]]. In the years following [[Death of Alexander the Great|his death]], a [[Wars of the Diadochi|series of civil wars]] tore his empire apart. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[] | Alexander's legacy includes the [[cultural diffusion]] and [[syncretism]] which his conquests engendered, such as [[Greco-Buddhism]]. He founded some [[List of cities founded by Alexander the Great|twenty cities that bore his name]], most notably [[Alexandria]] in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of [[Culture of Greece|Greek culture]] resulted in a new [[Hellenistic civilization]], aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in the mid-15th century AD and the presence of [[Cappadocian Greeks|Greek speakers in central]] and [[Pontic Greeks|far eastern Anatolia]] until the [[Greek genocide]] and [[Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations|the population exchange]] in the 1920s. Alexander became legendary as a [[Hero|classical hero]] in the mould of [[Achilles]], featuring prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military achievements and enduring, unprecedented success in battle make him the measure with which many modern military leaders compare themselves. [[Military academy|Military academies]] throughout the world still teach his tactics. He is often ranked among the most influential people in human history. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Early life",
"Lineage and childhood"
] | Alexander was born in [[Pella]], the capital of the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Kingdom of Macedon]], on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of [[Hekatombaion]], which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC, although the exact date is uncertain. He was the son of the king of Macedon, [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]], and his fourth wife, [[Olympias]], the daughter of [[Neoptolemus I of Epirus|Neoptolemus I]], king of [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]]. Although Philip had seven or eight wives, [[Olympias]] was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander. Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood. According to the ancient Greek biographer [[Plutarch]], on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a [[Seal (emblem)|seal]] engraved with a lion's image. Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was [[Zeus]]. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious. On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a [[siege]] on the city of [[Potidea]] on the peninsula of [[Chalcidice]]. That same day, Philip received news that his general [[Parmenion]] had defeated the combined [[Illyria]] and [[Paeonian]] armies and that his horses had won at the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]]. It was also said that on this day, the [[Temple of Artemis]] in [[Ephesus]], one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World|Seven Wonders of the World]], burnt down. This led [[Hegesias of Magnesia]] to say that it had burnt down because [[Artemis]] was away, attending the birth of Alexander. Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception. In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, [[Lanike]], sister of Alexander's future general [[Cleitus the Black]]. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict [[Leonidas of Epirus|Leonidas]], a relative of his mother, and by [[Lysimachus of Acarnania]]. Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the [[lyre]], ride, fight, and hunt. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Early life",
"Lineage and childhood"
] | When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from [[Thessaly]] brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen [[Attic talent|talents]]. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him. Alexander named it [[Bucephalas]], meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as [[India]]. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, [[Alexandria Bucephalous|Bucephala]]. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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] |
[
"Early life",
"Education"
] | When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a [[tutor]], and considered such academics as [[Isocrates]] and [[Speusippus]], the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the [[Platonic Academy|Academy]] to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose [[Aristotle]] and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]] as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of [[Stageira]], which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile. Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], [[Hephaistion]], and [[Cassander]]. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of [[Homer]], and in particular the ''[[Iliad]]''; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns. Alexander was able to quote [[Euripides]] from memory. During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed [[Artaxerxes III]]. Among them were [[Artabazos II]] and his daughter [[Barsine]], future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as [[Amminapes]], future [[satrap]] of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named [[Sisines]]. This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state. [[Suda]] writes that, also, [[Anaximenes of Lampsacus]] was one of his teachers. Anaximenes, also accompanied him on his campaigns. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Philip's heir",
"Regency and ascent of Macedon"
] | At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war against [[Byzantium|Byzantion]], leaving Alexander in charge as [[regent]] and [[heir apparent]]. During Philip's absence, the [[Thracians|Thracian]] [[Maedi]] revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with Greeks, and founded a city named [[Alexandropolis Maedica|Alexandropolis]]. Upon Philip's return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue revolts in southern [[Thrace]]. Campaigning against the Greek city of [[Perinthus]], Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of [[Amphissa (city)|Amphissa]] began to work lands that were sacred to [[Apollo]] near [[Delphi]], a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander. Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through [[Thermopylae]], taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of [[Elatea]], only a few days' march from both [[Athens]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]]. The Athenians, led by [[Demosthenes]], voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest. Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the [[Amphictyonic League]]), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it. As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near [[Chaeronea]], [[Boeotia]]. During the ensuing [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]], Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian [[hoplites]] to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated. After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached [[Sparta]], they were refused, but did not resort to war. At [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old [[Second Persian invasion of Greece#Hellenic alliance|anti-Persian alliance]] of the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named ''[[Hegemon]]'' (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the [[League of Corinth]]), and announced his plans to attack the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]]. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Philip's heir",
"Exile and return"
] | When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon|Cleopatra Eurydice]] in 338 BC, the niece of his general [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]]. The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian. During the [[Banquet|wedding banquet]], a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir. In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King [[Alexander I of Epirus]] in [[Dodona]], capital of the [[Molossians]]. He continued to Illyria, where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with [[Glaucias of Taulantii|Glaukias]], and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, [[Demaratus (hetairos)|Demaratus]], who mediated between the two parties. In the following year, the Persian [[satrap]] (governor) of [[Caria]], [[Pixodarus of Caria|Pixodarus]], offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, [[Philip Arrhidaeus]]. Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. Alexander reacted by sending an actor, [[Thessalus (actor)|Thessalus]] of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him. Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, [[Harpalus]], [[Nearchus]], [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Erigyius]], and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"King of Macedon",
"Accession"
] | In summer 336 BC, while at [[Vergina|Aegae]] attending the wedding of his daughter [[Cleopatra of Macedon|Cleopatra]] to Olympias's brother, [[Alexander I of Epirus]], Philip was assassinated by the captain of his [[Somatophylax|bodyguards]], [[Pausanias of Orestis|Pausanias]]. As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, [[Perdiccas]] and [[Leonnatus]]. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and [[Ancient Macedonian military|army]] at the age of 20. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"King of Macedon",
"Consolidation of power"
] | Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former [[Amyntas IV of Macedon|Amyntas IV]], executed. He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of [[Lyncestis]] killed, but spared a third, [[Alexander Lyncestes]]. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle. Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive. Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias. News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between [[Mount Olympus]] and [[Mount Ossa (Greece)|Mount Ossa]], and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the [[Peloponnese]]. Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to [[Corinth]]. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous [[Diogenes and Alexander|encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic]] occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes." At Corinth, Alexander took the title of ''Hegemon'' ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"King of Macedon",
"Balkan campaign"
] | Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from [[Amphipolis]], he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at [[Haemus Mons|Mount Haemus]], the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights. The Macedonians marched into the country of the [[Triballi]], and defeated their army near the Lyginus river (a [[List of tributaries of the Danube|tributary of the Danube]]). Alexander then marched for three days to the [[Danube]], encountering the [[Getae]] tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry [[skirmish]]. News then reached Alexander that [[Cleitus (Dardania)|Cleitus]], King of Illyria, and [[King Glaukias]] of the [[Taulantii]] were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier. While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south. While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace. Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving [[Antipater]] as regent. According to ancient writers [[Demosthenes]] called Alexander "Margites" () and a boy. Greeks used the word Margites to describe fool and useless people, on account of the [[Margites]]. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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] |
[
"Conquest of the Persian Empire",
"Asia Minor"
] | After his victory at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)]], [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] began the work of establishing himself as ''hēgemṓn'' () of a league which according to [[Diodorus]] was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in [[Second Persian invasion of Greece|480]] and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sent [[Parmenion]], with [[Amyntas (son of Andromenes)|Amyntas]], Andromenes and [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], and an army of 10,000 men into [[Anatolia]] to make preparations for an invasion. At first, all went well. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near [[Magnesia on the Meander|Magnesia]] by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary [[Memnon of Rhodes]]. Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the [[Hellespont]] in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000, drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from [[Thrace]], [[Paionia]], and [[Illyria]]. He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy. After an initial victory against Persian forces at the [[Battle of the Granicus]], Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of [[Sardis]]; he then proceeded along the [[Ionia]] coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. [[Miletus]], held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at [[Halicarnassus]], in [[Caria]], Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale [[siege]], eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain [[Memnon of Rhodes]] and the Persian [[satrap]] of Caria, [[Orontobates]], to withdraw by sea. Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], who adopted Alexander. From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous [[Lycia]] and the [[Pamphylia]] plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At [[Termessos]], Alexander humbled but did not storm the [[Pisidia]] city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of [[Gordium]], Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable [[Gordian Knot]], a feat said to await the future "king of [[Asia Minor|Asia]]". According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Conquest of the Persian Empire",
"The Levant and Syria"
] | In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the [[Taurus Mountains|Taurus]] into [[Cilicia]]. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at [[Issus (Cilicia)|Issus]]. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother [[Sisygambis]], and a fabulous treasure. He offered a [[peace treaty]] that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 [[Attic talent|talents]] for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions. Alexander proceeded to take possession of [[Ancient Syria|Syria]], and most of the coast of the [[Levant]]. In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], which he captured after a long and difficult [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)|siege]]. The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into [[slavery]]. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Conquest of the Persian Empire",
"Egypt"
] | When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to [[Egypt]] quickly capitulated. However, Alexander met with resistance at [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt". After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery. Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator. He was pronounced son of the deity [[Amun]] at the [[Oracle]] of [[Siwa Oasis]] in the [[Ancient Libya|Libyan]] desert. Henceforth, Alexander often referred to [[Zeus-Ammon]] as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with the [[Horns of Ammon]] as a symbol of his divinity. During his stay in Egypt, he founded [[Alexandria|Alexandria-by-Egypt]], which would become the prosperous capital of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] after his death. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Conquest of the Persian Empire",
"Assyria and Babylonia"
] | Leaving Egypt in 331 BCE, Alexander marched eastward into [[Achaemenid Assyria]] in [[Upper Mesopotamia]] (now northern [[Iraq]]) and defeated Darius again at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as [[Erbil|Arbela]]. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to [[Ecbatana]] (modern [[Hamadan]]) while Alexander captured [[Babylon]]. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Conquest of the Persian Empire",
"Persia"
] | From Babylon, Alexander went to [[Susa]], one of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] capitals, and captured its treasury. He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of [[Persepolis]] via the Persian [[Royal Road]]. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the [[Persian Gates]] (in the modern [[Zagros Mountains]]) which had been blocked by a Persian army under [[Ariobarzanes (satrap of Persis)|Ariobarzanes]] and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury. On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of [[Xerxes I]] and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the [[Acropolis of Athens]] during the [[Greco-Persian Wars|Second Persian War]] by Xerxes; [[Plutarch]] and [[Diodorus]] allege that Alexander's companion, the [[hetaera]] [[Thaïs]], instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision. [[Plutarch]] claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires, but that the flames had already spread to most of the city. [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius]] claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning. Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person: | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Conquest of the Persian Empire",
"Fall of the Empire and the East"
] | Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by [[Bessus]], his [[Bactria]] satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign against Alexander. Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral. He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius. Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern [[Kandahar]] in Afghanistan, and [[Alexandria Eschate]] ("The Furthest") in modern [[Tajikistan]]. The campaign took Alexander through [[Media (region)|Media]], [[Parthia]], [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]] (West Afghanistan), [[Drangiana]], [[Arachosia]] (South and Central Afghanistan), [[Bactria]] (North and Central Afghanistan), and [[Scythia]]. In 329 BC, [[Spitamenes]], who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the [[Syr Darya|Jaxartes]] dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the [[Battle of Jaxartes]] and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Conquest of the Persian Empire",
"Problems and plots"
] | During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of ''[[proskynesis]]'', either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of [[deities]] and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it. A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, [[Philotas]], was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus [[Parmenion]], who had been charged with guarding the treasury at [[Ecbatana]], was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, [[Cleitus the Black]], during a violent drunken altercation at [[Maracanda]] (modern day [[Samarkand]] in [[Uzbekistan]]), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle. Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal [[page (servant)|pages]]. His official historian, [[Callisthenes]] of [[Olynthus]], was implicated in the plot, and in the ''[[Anabasis of Alexander]]'', [[Arrian]] states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the [[rack (torture)|rack]] as punishment, and likely died soon after. It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
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] | When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general [[Antipater]], an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon. Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence. The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king [[Agis III]] in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the [[battle of Megalopolis]]. Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other. In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia. Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire. However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171–168 BC). | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Indian campaign",
"Forays into the Indian subcontinent"
] | '' After the death of [[Spitamenes]] and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in [[Old Iranian]]) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the [[Indian subcontinent]]. He invited the [[tribal chief|chieftains]] of the former satrapy of [[Gandhara]] (a region presently straddling eastern [[Afghanistan]] and northern [[Pakistan]]), to come to him and submit to his authority. [[Omphis]] (Indian name [[Ambhi]]), the ruler of [[Taxila]], whose kingdom extended from the [[Indus]] to the [[Jhelum River|Hydaspes (Jhelum)]], complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the [[Aspasioi]] and [[Assakenoi]] sections of the [[Kambojas]] (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit. [[Ambhi]] hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted [[Hephaestion]] and [[Perdiccas]] in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at [[Hund, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Hund]], supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality. On the subsequent advance of the [[Macedon]] king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the [[battle of the Hydaspes River]]. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of [[Porus]], to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of [[Philip (son of Machatas)|Philip]], son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at [[Treaty of Triparadisus|Triparadisus]], 321 BC. In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of [[Kunar Valley|Kunar]] [[valley]], the Guraeans of the [[Panjkora|Guraeus]] valley, and the Assakenoi of the [[Swat (Pakistan)|Swat]] and [[Buner Valley|Buner]] valleys. A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and [[Aornos]]. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Indian campaign",
"Forays into the Indian subcontinent"
] | The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius]], "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble." A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of [[Aornos]]. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days. After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against [[Porus|King Porus]], who ruled a region lying between the [[Hydaspes]] and the Acesines ([[Chenab]]), in what is now the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], in the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] in 326 BC. Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis ([[Beas]]). Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece. Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the [[Jhelum River|Hydaspes]] river, naming one [[Alexandria Bucephalous|Bucephala]], in honour of his horse, who died around this time. The other was [[Nicaea (Punjab)|Nicaea]] (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day [[Mong, Punjab]]. [[Philostratus the Elder]] in the [[Life of Apollonius of Tyana]] writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the [[Helios]] (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ). | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Indian campaign",
"Revolt of the army"
] | East of Porus's kingdom, near the [[Ganges River]], was the [[Nanda dynasty|Nanda Empire]] of [[Magadha]], and further east, the [[Gangaridai|Gangaridai Empire]] of [[Bengal]] region of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the [[Beas River|Hyphasis River (Beas)]], refusing to march farther east. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests. Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general [[Coenus (general)|Coenus]] pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the [[Indus River|Indus]]. Along the way his army conquered the [[Malhi]] (in modern-day [[Multan]]) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege. Alexander sent much of his army to [[Kerman province|Carmania]] (modern southern [[Iran]]) with general [[Craterus]], and commissioned a fleet to explore the [[Persian Gulf]] shore under his admiral [[Nearchus]], while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the [[Gedrosia|Gedrosian Desert]] and [[Makran]]. Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Last years in Persia"
] | Discovering that many of his [[satrap]] and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to [[Susa]]. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of [[Opis]]. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men. In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander [[Susa weddings|held a mass marriage]] of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year. Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the [[tomb of Cyrus the Great]] in [[Pasargadae]] had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them. Alexander admired [[Cyrus the Great]], from an early age reading Xenophon's ''[[Cyropaedia]]'', which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. During his visit to Pasargadae Alexander ordered his architect [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia|Aristobulus]] to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb. Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend and possible lover, [[Hephaestion]], died of illness or poisoning. Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive [[funeral pyre]] in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning. Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly after Hephaestion. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Death and succession"
] | On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], in [[Babylon]], at age 32. There are two different versions of Alexander's death and details of the death differ slightly in each. [[Plutarch]]'s account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral [[Nearchus]], and spent the night and next day drinking with [[Medius of Larissa]]. He developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them. In the second account, [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]] recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of [[Heracles]], followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever and died after some agony. [[Arrian]] also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim. Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination, foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]] all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication, while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness. The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating [[Antipater]], recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence, and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas, Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer. There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated. The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available. However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (''[[Veratrum album]]''), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander. In a 2014 manuscript in the journal ''[[Clinical Toxicology]]'', Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with ''Veratrum album'', and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the ''[[Alexander Romance]]''. ''Veratrum album'' poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, ''Veratrum album'' offers the most plausible cause. Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day [[Mavroneri]] in Arcadia, Greece) that contained [[calicheamicin]], a dangerous compound produced by bacteria. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Death and succession"
] | Several [[natural causes]] (diseases) have been suggested, including [[malaria]] and [[typhoid fever]]. A 1998 article in the ''[[New England Journal of Medicine]]'' attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by [[bowel perforation]] and ascending [[paralysis]]. Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) [[spondylitis]] or [[meningitis]]. Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including [[acute pancreatitis]] and [[West Nile virus]]. Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after [[Hephaestion]]'s death may also have contributed to his declining health. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Death and succession",
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] | Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid [[sarcophagus]] that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket. According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever". Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a [[royal prerogative]]. While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis. His successor, [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]], transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least [[late Antiquity]]. [[Ptolemy IX Lathyros]], one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage. The recent discovery of an [[Kasta Tomb|enormous tomb]] in northern Greece, at [[Amphipolis]], dating from the time of Alexander the Great has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, [[Hephaestion]]. [[Pompey]], [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Augustus]] all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. [[Caligula]] was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, [[Caracalla]], a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy. The so-called "[[Alexander Sarcophagus]]", discovered near [[Sidon]] and now in the [[Istanbul Archaeology Museum]], is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of [[Abdalonymus]] (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the [[battle of Issus]] in 331. However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus's death. [[Demades]] likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded [[Cyclops]], due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made. In addition, Leosthenes, also, likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them". | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Death and succession",
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] | Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death. According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest". Another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia. Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story. Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his [[Seal (device)|signet ring]] to [[Perdiccas]], a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him. Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, [[Craterus]], Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of [[Meleager (general)|Meleager]], rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only. Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the [[Partition of Babylon]] became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" (''Diadochi'') ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocs: [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic Egypt]] , [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia]], [[Attalid dynasty|Attalid Anatolia]], and [[Antigonid dynasty|Antigonid Macedon]]. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Death and succession",
"Last plans"
] | [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]] stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to [[Craterus]] some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's "last plans". [[Craterus]] started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant. Furthermore, [[Perdiccas]] had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out. According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included: (-) Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to the [[Pillars of Hercules]], to be used for an invasion of Carthage and the western Mediterranean; (-) Erection of great temples in [[Delos]], [[Delphi]], [[Dodona]], [[Dium]], [[Amphipolis]], all costing 1,500 [[Attic talent|talents]], and a monumental temple to [[Athena]] at [[Troy]] (-) Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities ("[[synoecism]]") and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties" (-) Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids of Egypt]]" (-) Conquest of Arabia (-) Circumnavigation of Africa The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. [[Ernst Badian]] argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out. Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the [[Alexander Romance]]. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Character",
"Generalship"
] | Alexander earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. This was due to use of terrain, [[phalanx]] and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. The [[Macedonian phalanx]], armed with the [[sarissa]], a spear long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces. Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle, in the manner of a Macedonian king. In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000. Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about . By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' [[scimitars]] and [[javelins]]. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians. At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through. Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army. At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again. When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in [[Bactria]] and [[Sogdiana]], Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center. In India, confronted by Porus's elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Character",
"Physical appearance"
] | Greek biographer [[Plutarch]] () describes Alexander's appearance as: The semi-legendary ''[[Alexander romance|Alexander Romance]]'' also suggests that Alexander exhibited [[heterochromia iridum]]: that one eye was dark and the other light. British historian [[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]] provided a description of Alexander's appearance, based on his review of statues and some ancient documents: Historian and [[Egyptologist]] [[Joann Fletcher]] has said that Alexander had blond hair. Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by [[Lysippos]] that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image. Lysippos had often used the [[contrapposto]] sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as [[Apoxyomenos]], [[Hermes]] and [[Eros]]. Lysippos's sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Character",
"Personality"
] | Some of Alexander's strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents. His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. Olympias's influence instilled a sense of destiny in him, and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years". However, his father Philip was Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds. Alexander's relationship with his father forged the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behaviour in battle. While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world", he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions. According to Plutarch, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature, which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions. Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate. He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader. This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general. He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack of [[self-control]] with alcohol. Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. However, he had little interest in sports or the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic games]] (unlike his father), seeking only the [[Homeric]] ideals of honour (''timê'') and glory (''kudos''). He had great [[charisma]] and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader. His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so. During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of [[megalomania]] and [[paranoia]]. His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect. His [[delusions of grandeur]] are readily visible in his [[#Will|will]] and in his desire to conquer the world, in as much as he is by various sources described as having ''boundless ambition'', an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into an historical cliché. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Character",
"Personality"
] | He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself. Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus, a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]]. He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon. Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably ''[[proskynesis]]'', a practice of which Macedonians disapproved, and were loath to perform. This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen. However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine. Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Character",
"Personal relationships"
] | Alexander married three times: [[Roxana]], daughter of the [[Sogdia]] nobleman [[Oxyartes]] of [[Bactria]], out of love; and the Persian princesses [[Stateira II]] and [[Parysatis II]], the former a daughter of [[Darius III]] and latter a daughter of [[Artaxerxes III]], for political reasons. He apparently had two sons, [[Alexander IV of Macedon]] by Roxana and, possibly, [[Heracles of Macedon]] from his mistress [[Barsine]]. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon. Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard [[Hephaestion]], the son of a Macedonian noble. Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander. This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached [[mental health|mental state]] during his final months. Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times. The Roman era writer [[Athenaeus]] says, based on the scholar [[Dicaearchus]], who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander kissed the eunuch Bagoas in public. This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to [[Achilles and Patroclus]], whom classical Greek culture painted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to [[Troy]] where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of [[Patroclus]], the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles." Some modern historians (e.g., [[Robin Lane Fox]]) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens, though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults. Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life. However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years, had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age. Two of these pregnancies — Stateira's and Barsine's — are of dubious legitimacy. According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians", showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body". Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her. Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including [[Ada of Caria]], who adopted him, and even Darius's mother [[Sisygambis]], who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy"
] | Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
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] | Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some , and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The [[Hellenistic period#The successors|successor states]] that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the [[Hellenistic period]]. The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the [[Maurya Empire]]. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], and with that power base proceeded to conquer the [[Nanda Empire]]. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
"Founding of cities"
] | Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some [[Alexandria (disambiguation)#West and Central Asia|twenty cities that bore his name]], most of them east of the [[Tigris]]. The first, and greatest, was [[Alexandria]] in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities. The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons. Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece. However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
"Funding of temples"
] | In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of [[Athena Polias]] in [[Priene]], in modern-day western Turkey. An [[Priene Inscription|inscription from the temple]], now housed in the [[British Museum]], declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias." This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life. The temple was designed by [[Pythius of Priene|Pytheos]], one of the architects of the [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]]. [[Libanius]] wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios (), in the place where later the city of [[Antioch]] was built. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
"Hellenization"
] | ''Hellenization'' was coined by the German historian [[Johann Gustav Droysen]] to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest. That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]] and [[Seleucia]] (south of modern [[Baghdad]]). Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into [[Culture of Iran|Persian culture]] and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states. The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially [[Athenian]]. The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely [[Attic Greek|Attic]]-based "[[koine]]", or "common" Greek dialect. Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the [[lingua franca]] of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of [[modern Greek]]. Furthermore, [[Urban planning|town planning]], education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Also, the [[New Testament]] was written in the [[Koine Greek]] language. Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
"Hellenization",
"Hellenization in South and Central Asia"
] | Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] (250–125 BC) (in modern [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Tajikistan]]) and the [[Indo-Greeks|Indo-Greek Kingdom]] (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India. On the [[Silk Road]] trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and [[Buddhist]] cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of [[Gandhara]] (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world. The resulting [[syncretism]] known as [[Greco-Buddhism]] influenced the development of Buddhism and created a culture of [[Greco-Buddhist art]]. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to [[China]], [[Sri Lanka]] and Hellenistic Asia and Europe ([[Greco-Buddhist monasticism]]). Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of [[Apollo]] in the Greco-Buddhist style. Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the [[ancient Greek religion]]: the concept of [[Boddhisatvas]] is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes, and some [[Mahayana]] [[Offering (Buddhism)|ceremonial practices]] (burning [[incense]], gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, [[Menander I]], probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in [[Buddhist texts|Buddhist literature]] as 'Milinda'. The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west. For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the [[Greco-Bactrian]] city of [[Ai Khanoum]] in modern-day [[Afghanistan]], while the Greek concept of a [[spherical earth]] surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower. The [[Yavanajataka]] (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and [[Paulisa Siddhanta]] texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, [[Hellenistic influence on Indian art]] was far-ranging. In the area of [[architecture]], a few examples of the [[Ionic order]] can be found as far as [[Pakistan]] with the [[Jandial|Jandial temple]] near [[Taxila]]. Several examples of [[capital (architecture)|capitals]] displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as [[Patna]], especially with the [[Pataliputra capital]], dated to the 3rd century BC. The [[Corinthian order]] is also heavily represented in the [[Greco-Buddhist art|art of Gandhara]], especially through [[Indo-Corinthian capital]]. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
"Influence on Rome"
] | Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. [[Polybius]] began his ''[[The Histories (Polybius)|Histories]]'' by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. [[Pompey the Great]] adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. [[Julius Caesar]] dedicated a [[Lysippus|Lysippean]] [[equestrian statue|equestrian]] [[bronze]] statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while [[Octavian]] visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a [[sphinx]] to Alexander's profile. The emperor [[Trajan]] also admired Alexander, as did [[Nero]] and [[Caracalla]]. The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of [[Macrinus]] briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery, or embroidered into their clothes. On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how [[autocratic]] tendencies can be kept in check by [[Roman republic|republican]] values. Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as (friendship) and (clemency), but also (anger) and (over-desire for glory). [[Julian (emperor)|Emperor Julian]] in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods. The [[Itinerarium Alexandri]] is a 4th-century Latin [[Itinerarium]] which describes Alexander the Great's campaigns. [[Julius Caesar]] went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. [[Pompey]] posed as the "new Alexander" since he was his boyhood hero. After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great. He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style [[phalanx]], despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation. The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term ''Phalangarii'' has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with [[Pike (weapon)|pikes]], and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late [[Roman Republic]] who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD. As a consequence, the ''Phalangarii'' of [[Legio II Parthica]] may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly ''[[Triarii]]''. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
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] | Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] school based on a legend that [[Aristotle]] had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria. In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary [[Pontoon bridge|floating bridge]] to be built using ships as [[Pontoon (boat)|pontoons]], stretching for over two miles from the resort of [[Baiae]] to the neighbouring port of [[Puteoli]]. It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king [[Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges|Xerxes' pontoon bridge]] crossing of the Hellespont. Caligula, who could not swim, then proceeded to ride his favourite horse [[Incitatus]] across, wearing the breastplate of [[Alexander the Great#After death|Alexander the Great]]. This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer [[Thrasyllus of Mendes]] that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae". The diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the [[Mithridatic Wars|later Roman expansion]] into these territories and [[Byzantine Greeks|entire basis]] for the [[Byzantine Empire]], according to [[Robert Malcolm Errington|Errington]]. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
"Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the isthmus"
] | [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] writes that Alexander wanted to dig through the Mimas mountain (today at the [[Karaburun]] area), but he didn't succeed. He also mentions that this was the only unsuccessful project of Alexander. In addition, [[Pliny the Elder]] writes about this unsuccessful plan adding that the distance was , and the purpose was to cut a canal through the isthmus, so as to connect the Caystrian and Hermaean bays. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
"Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf"
] | [[Arrian]] wrote that [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia|Aristobulus]] said that the [[Ikaros (Failaka Island)|Icarus island]] (modern [[Failaka Island]]) in the [[Persian Gulf]] had this name because Alexander ordered the island to be named like this, after the [[Icaria|Icarus island]] in the [[Aegean Sea]]. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
"Legend"
] | Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in [[Cilicia]] as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, [[Onesicritus]], invented a [[Courtship|tryst]] between Alexander and [[Thalestris]], queen of the mythical [[Amazons]]. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King [[Lysimachus]] reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time." In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the ''[[Alexander Romance]]'', later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as ''Pseudo-Callisthenes''. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the [[Middle Ages]], containing many dubious stories, and was translated into numerous languages. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
"In ancient and modern culture"
] | Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The ''Alexander Romance'', in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek. Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure. The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the [[Karagiozis]] shadow play. One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary [[mermaid]] who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging [[Gorgon]] who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard. In pre-Islamic [[Middle Persian language|Middle Persian]] ([[Zoroastrian]]) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet ''gujastak'', meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. In [[Sunni Islam]] Persia, under the influence of the ''[[Alexander Romance]]'' (in ''[[Iskandarnamah]]''), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges. [[Firdausi]]'s ''[[Shahnameh]]'' ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian [[shah]], a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the [[Fountain of Youth]]. In the ''Shahnameh'', Alexander's first journey is to [[Mecca]] to pray at the [[Kaaba]]. Alexander was depicted as performing a [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature. Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as [[Socrates]], [[Plato]] and Aristotle, in search of immortality. The figure of [[Dhul-Qarnayn]] (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the [[Quran]] is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander. In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of [[Gog and Magog]]. He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet. The [[Syriac language|Syriac]] version of the ''Alexander Romance'' portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God". In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of [[Nectanebo II]], the last [[pharaoh]] before the Persian conquest. His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian. According to [[Josephus]], Alexander was shown the [[Book of Daniel]] when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Legacy",
"In ancient and modern culture"
] | In [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]], the name "Sikandar", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the Delhi Sultanate ruler [[Alauddin Khalji|Aladdin Khajli]] stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great). In [[medieval India]], Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of ''Sikandernameh'' ([[Alexander romance|Alexander Romances]]) written by Indo-Persian poets such as [[Amir Khusrow]] and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures. In [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]], Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the [[Nine Worthies]], a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of [[chivalry]]. During the first [[Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars|Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars]], in a question from Bourrienne, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar, Napoleon said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia. In [[Greek Anthology]] there are poems referring to Alexander. Throughout time, art objects related to Alexander were being created. In addition to speech works, sculptures and paintings, in modern times Alexander is still the subject of musical and cinematic works. The song 'Alexander the Great' by the British heavy metal band [[Iron Maiden]] is indicative. Some films that have been shot with the theme of Alexander are: (-) ''[[Sikandar (1941 film)|Sikandar]]'' (1941), an Indian production directed by [[Sohrab Modi]] about the conquest of India by Alexander (-) ''[[Alexander the Great (1956 film)|Alexander the Great]]'' (1956), produced by MGM and starring [[Richard Burton]] (-) ''Sikandar-e-Azam'' (1965), an Indian production directed by Kedar Kapoor (-) ''[[Alexander (2004 film)|Alexander]]'' (2004), directed by [[Oliver Stone]], starring [[Colin Farrell]] There are also many references to other movies and TV series. Newer novels about Alexander are: The trilogy "Alexander the Great" by [[Valerio Massimo Manfredi]] consisting of "The son of the dream", "The sand of Amon", and "The ends of the world". The trilogy of [[Mary Renault]] consisting of "[[Fire from Heaven]]", "[[The Persian Boy]]" and "[[Funeral Games (novel)|Funeral Games]]". (-) ''[[The Virtues of War]]'', about Alexander the Great (2004), and "* ''[[The Afghan Campaign]]'', about Alexander the Great's conquests in Afghanistan (2006), " by [[Steven Pressfield]]. Irish playwright [[Aubrey Thomas de Vere]] wrote ''[[Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem]]''. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[
"Historiography"
] | Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost. Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and [[Nearchus]]; [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia|Aristobulus]], a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these [[primary source|original sources]] have survived. The earliest of these is [[Diodorus Siculus]] (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally [[Justin (historian)|Justin]], whose work dated as late as the 4th century. Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus. | 783 | Alexander the Great | [
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[] | '''Alfred Habdank Skarbek Korzybski''' (, ; July 3, 1879 – March 1, 1950) was a Polish-American independent scholar who developed a field called [[general semantics]], which he viewed as both distinct from, and more encompassing than, the field of [[semantics]]. He argued that human knowledge of the world is limited both by the human nervous system and the languages humans have developed, and thus no one can have direct access to reality, given that the most we can know is that which is filtered through the brain's responses to reality. His best known dictum is "[[Map–territory relation|The map is not the territory]]". | 784 | Alfred Korzybski | [
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[
"Early life and career"
] | Born in [[Warsaw]], [[Congress Poland|Poland]], then part of the [[Russian Empire]], Korzybski belonged to an aristocratic Polish family whose members had worked as mathematicians, scientists, and engineers for generations. He learned the [[Polish language]] at home and the [[Russian language]] in schools; and having a French and German [[governess]], he became fluent in four languages as a child. Korzybski studied engineering at the [[Warsaw University of Technology]]. During the [[First World War]] (1914–1918) Korzybski served as an [[Military intelligence|intelligence officer]] in the [[Russia]] Army. After being wounded in a leg and suffering other injuries, he moved to North America in 1916 (first to Canada, then to the United States) to coordinate the shipment of [[artillery]] to Russia. He also lectured to Polish-American audiences about the conflict, promoting the sale of [[war bonds]]. After the war he decided to remain in the United States, becoming a [[Naturalization|naturalized citizen]] in 1940. He met [[Mira Edgerly-Korzybska|Mira Edgerly]], a painter of portraits on ivory, shortly after the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918|1918 Armistice]]; They married in January 1919; the marriage lasted until his death. [[E. P. Dutton]] published Korzybski's first book, ''Manhood of Humanity'', in 1921. In this work he proposed and explained in detail a new theory of humankind: mankind as a "[[General semantics#The major premises|time-binding]]" class of life (humans perform time binding by the transmission of knowledge and [[abstraction]] through time which become accreted in cultures). | 784 | Alfred Korzybski | [
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[
"General semantics"
] | Korzybski's work culminated in the initiation of a discipline that he named [[general semantics]] (GS). This should not be confused with [[semantics]]. The basic principles of general semantics, which include time-binding, are described in the publication ''Science and Sanity'', published in 1933. In 1938 Korzybski founded the [[Institute of General Semantics]] in Chicago. The post-World War II housing shortage in Chicago cost him the institute's building lease, so in 1946 he moved the institute to [[Lakeville (Salisbury, Connecticut)|Lakeville, Connecticut]], U.S., where he directed it until his death in 1950. Korzybski maintained that humans are limited in what they know by (1) the structure of their nervous systems, and (2) the [[structure]] of their languages. Humans cannot experience the world directly, but only through their "abstractions" (nonverbal impressions or "gleanings" derived from the nervous system, and verbal indicators expressed and derived from language). These sometimes mislead us about what is the truth. Our understanding sometimes lacks ''similarity of structure'' with what is actually happening. He sought to train our awareness of abstracting, using techniques he had derived from his study of mathematics and science. He called this awareness, this goal of his system, "consciousness of abstracting". His system included the promotion of attitudes such as "I don't know; let's see," in order that we may better discover or reflect on its realities as revealed by modern science. Another technique involved becoming inwardly and outwardly quiet, an experience he termed, "silence on the objective levels". | 784 | Alfred Korzybski | [
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[
"\"To be\""
] | Many devotees and critics of Korzybski reduced his rather complex system to a simple matter of what he said about the verb form "is" of the general verb "to be." His system, however, is based primarily on such terminology as the different "orders of abstraction," and formulations such as "consciousness of abstracting." The contention that Korzybski ''opposed'' the use of the verb "to be" would be a profound exaggeration. He thought that ''certain uses'' of the verb "to be", called the "is of identity" and the "is of [[E-Prime#Different functions of "to be"|predication]]", were faulty in structure, e.g., a statement such as, "Elizabeth is a fool" (said of a person named "Elizabeth" who has done something that we regard as foolish). In Korzybski's system, one's assessment of Elizabeth belongs to a higher order of abstraction than Elizabeth herself. Korzybski's remedy was to ''deny'' identity; in this example, to be aware continually that "Elizabeth" is ''not'' what we ''call'' her. We find Elizabeth not in the verbal domain, the world of words, but the nonverbal domain (the two, he said, amount to different orders of abstraction). This was expressed by Korzybski's most famous premise, "[[Map–territory relation|the map is not the territory]]". Note that this premise uses the phrase "is not", a form of "to be"; this and many other examples show that he did not intend to abandon "to be" as such. In fact, he said explicitly that there were no structural problems with the verb "to be" when used as an [[E-prime#The different functions of 'to be'|auxiliary verb]] or when used to state existence or location. It was even acceptable at times to use the faulty forms of the verb "to be," as long as one was aware of their structural limitations. | 784 | Alfred Korzybski | [
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[
"Anecdotes"
] | One day, Korzybski was giving a lecture to a group of students, and he interrupted the lesson suddenly in order to retrieve a packet of biscuits, wrapped in white paper, from his briefcase. He muttered that he just had to eat something, and he asked the students on the seats in the front row if they would also like a biscuit. A few students took a biscuit. "Nice biscuit, don't you think," said Korzybski, while he took a second one. The students were chewing vigorously. Then he tore the white paper from the biscuits, in order to reveal the original packaging. On it was a big picture of a dog's head and the words "Dog Cookies." The students looked at the package, and were shocked. Two of them wanted to vomit, put their hands in front of their mouths, and ran out of the lecture hall to the toilet. "You see," Korzybski remarked, "I have just demonstrated that people don't just eat food, but also words, and that the taste of the former is often outdone by the taste of the latter." [[William Burroughs]] went to a Korzybski workshop in the Autumn of 1939. He was 25 years old, and paid $40. His fellow students—there were 38 in all—included young [[Samuel I. Hayakawa]] (later to become a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] member of the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]]), Ralph Moriarty deBit (later to become the spiritual teacher [[Vitvan]]) and [[Wendell Johnson]] (founder of the [[Monster Study]]). | 784 | Alfred Korzybski | [
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[
"Influence"
] | Korzybski was well received in numerous disciplines, as evidenced by the positive reactions from leading figures in the sciences and humanities in the 1940s and 1950s. These include author [[Robert A. Heinlein]] naming a character after him in his 1940 short story "[[Blowups Happen]]", and science fiction writer [[A. E. van Vogt]] in his novel "[[The World of Null-A]]", published in 1948. Korzybski's ideas influenced philosopher [[Alan Watts]] who used his phrase "the map is not the territory" in lectures. As reported in the third edition of ''Science and Sanity'', in World War II the [[US Army]] used Korzybski's system to treat [[Combat stress reaction|battle fatigue]] in Europe, under the supervision of Dr. [[Douglas Kelley|Douglas M. Kelley]], who went on to become the psychiatrist in charge of the Nazi war criminals at [[Nuremberg trials|Nuremberg]]. Some of the General Semantics tradition was continued by [[Samuel I. Hayakawa]]. | 784 | Alfred Korzybski | [
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[] | '''''Asteroids''''' is a space-themed [[multidirectional shooter]] [[arcade game]] designed by [[Lyle Rains]] and [[Ed Logg]] released in [[1979 in video games|November 1979]] by [[Atari, Inc.]] The player controls a single spaceship in an [[Asteroid belt|asteroid field]] which is periodically traversed by [[flying saucer]]. The object of the game is to shoot and destroy the asteroids and saucers, while not colliding with either, or being hit by the saucers' counter-fire. The game becomes harder as the number of asteroids increases. ''Asteroids'' was one of the first major hits of the [[Golden age of arcade video games|golden age of arcade games]]; the game sold over 70,000 [[Video game arcade cabinet|arcade cabinets]] and proved both popular with players and influential with developers. In the 1980s it was ported to Atari's home systems, and the Atari VCS version sold over three million copies. The game was widely imitated, and it directly influenced ''[[Defender (1981 video game)|Defender]]'', ''[[Gravitar]]'', and many other video games. ''Asteroids'' was conceived during a meeting between Logg and Rains, who decided to use hardware developed by Howard Delman previously used for ''[[Lunar Lander (1979 video game)|Lunar Lander]]''. Asteroids was based on an unfinished game titled ''Cosmos''; its physics model, control scheme, and gameplay elements were derived from ''[[Spacewar!]]'', ''[[Computer Space]]'', and ''[[Space Invaders]]'' and refined through trial and error. The game is rendered on a [[vector display]] in a two-dimensional view that wraps around both screen axes. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
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] | [] |
[
"Gameplay"
] | [[Image:Asteroi1.png|thumb|left|A ship is surrounded by asteroids and a saucer.]] The objective of ''Asteroids'' is to destroy asteroids and saucers. The player controls a triangular [[spacecraft|ship]] that can rotate left and right, fire shots straight forward, and thrust forward. Once the ship begins moving in a direction, it will continue in that direction for a time without player intervention unless the player applies thrust in a different direction. The ship eventually comes to a stop when not thrusting. The player can also send the ship into hyperspace, causing it to disappear and reappear in a random location on the screen, at the risk of self-destructing or appearing on top of an asteroid. Each level starts with a few large asteroids drifting in various directions on the screen. Objects [[Wraparound (video games)|wrap around screen edges]] – for instance, an asteroid that drifts off the top edge of the screen reappears at the bottom and continues moving in the same direction. As the player shoots asteroids, they break into smaller asteroids that move faster and are more difficult to hit. Smaller asteroids are also worth more points. Two flying saucers appear periodically on the screen; the "big saucer" shoots randomly and poorly, while the "small saucer" fires frequently at the ship. After reaching a score of 40,000, only the small saucer appears. As the player's score increases, the angle range of the shots from the small saucer diminishes until the saucer fires extremely accurately. Once the screen has been cleared of all asteroids and flying saucers, a new set of large asteroids appears, thus starting the next level. The game gets harder as the number of asteroids increases until after the score reaches a range between 40,000 and 60,000. The player starts with 3–5 lives upon game start and gains an extra life per 10,000 points. Play continues to the last ship lost, which ends the game. Machine "turns over" at 99,990 points, which is the maximum high score that can be achieved. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
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] | [] |
[
"Gameplay",
"Lurking exploit"
] | In the original game design, saucers were supposed to begin shooting as soon as they appeared, but this was changed. Additionally, saucers can only aim at the player's ship on-screen; they are not capable of aiming across a screen boundary. These behaviors allow a "lurking" strategy, in which the player stays near the edge of the screen opposite the saucer. By keeping just one or two rocks in play, a player can shoot across the boundary and destroy saucers to accumulate points indefinitely with little risk of being destroyed. Arcade operators began to complain about losing revenue due to this exploit. In response, Atari issued a patched [[EPROM]] and, due to the impact of this exploit, Atari (and other companies) changed their development and testing policies to try to prevent future games from having such exploits. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
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"Arcade video games",
"Atari 2600 games",
"Atari 7800 games",
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"Cancelled Atari Jaguar games",
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"Game Boy games",
"Game Boy Color games",
"Multidirectional shooters",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"Science fiction video games",
"Sega arcade games",
"Taito arcade games",
"Xbox 360 games",
"Xbox 360 Live Arcade games",
"Vector arcade video games",
"Video games developed in the United States"
] | [] |
[
"Development",
"Concept"
] | ''Asteroids'' was conceived by Lyle Rains and programmed by Ed Logg with collaborations from other Atari staff. Logg was impressed with the Atari Video Computer System (later called the [[Atari 2600]]), and he joined Atari's coin-op division to work on ''Dirt Bike'', which was never released due to an unsuccessful field test. Paul Mancuso joined the development team as ''Asteroids'' technician and engineer Howard Delman contributed to the hardware. During a meeting in April 1979, Rains discussed ''Planet Grab'', a multiplayer arcade game later renamed to ''Cosmos''. Logg did not know the name of the game, thinking ''[[Computer Space]]'' as "the inspiration for the two-dimensional approach". Rains conceived of ''Asteroids'' as a mixture of ''[[Computer Space]]'' and ''[[Space Invaders]]'', combining the two-dimensional approach of ''Computer Space'' with ''Space Invaders'' addictive gameplay of "completion" and "eliminate all threats". The unfinished game featured a giant, indestructible asteroid, so Rains asked Logg: "Well, why don’t we have a game where you shoot the rocks and blow them up?" In response, Logg described a similar concept where the player selectively shoots at rocks that break into smaller pieces. Both agreed on the concept. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
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"Xbox 360 games",
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] | [] |
[
"Development",
"Hardware"
] | ''Asteroids'' was implemented on hardware developed by Delman and is a [[vector monitor|vector game]], in which the graphics are composed of lines drawn on a vector monitor. Rains initially wanted the game done in [[raster graphics]], but Logg, experienced in [[vector monitor|vector graphics]], suggested an XY monitor because the high image quality would permit precise aiming. The hardware is chiefly a [[MOS Technology 6502|MOS 6502]] executing the game program, and QuadraScan, a high-resolution vector graphics processor developed by Atari and referred to as an "XY display system" and the "Digital Vector Generator (DVG)". The original design concepts for QuadraScan came out of Cyan Engineering, Atari's off-campus research lab in [[Grass Valley, California]], in 1978. Cyan gave it to Delman, who finished the design and first used it for ''Lunar Lander''. Logg received Delman's modified board with five buttons, 13 sound effects, and additional RAM, and he used it to develop ''Asteroids''. The size of the board was 4 by 4 inches, and it was "linked up" to a monitor. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
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"Cancelled Atari Jaguar games",
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"Xbox 360 Live Arcade games",
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] | [] |
[
"Development",
"Implementation"
] | Logg modeled the player's ship, the five-button control scheme, and the game physics after ''Spacewar!'', which he had played as a student at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], but made several changes to improve playability. The ship was programmed into the hardware and rendered by the monitor, and it was configured to move with thrust and inertia. The hyperspace button was not placed near Logg's right thumb, which he was dissatisfied with, as he had a problem "tak[ing] his hand off the thrust button". Drawings of asteroids in various shapes were incorporated into the game. Logg copied the idea of a high score table with initials from Exidy's ''[[Star Fire]]''. The two saucers were formulated to be different from each other. A steadily decreasing timer shortens intervals between saucer attacks to keep the player from not shooting asteroids and saucers. A "heartbeat" soundtrack quickens as the game progresses. The game does not have a sound chip. Delman created a hardware circuit for 13 sound effects by hand which was wired onto the board. A prototype of ''Asteroids'' was well received by several Atari staff and engineers, who "wander[ed] between labs, passing comment and stopping to play as they went". Logg was often asked when he would be leaving by employees eager to play the prototype, so he created a second prototype for staff to play. Atari tested the game in arcades in [[Sacramento, California]], and also observed players during focus group sessions at Atari. Players used to ''Spacewar!'' struggled to maintain grip on the thrust button and requested a joystick; players accustomed to ''[[Space Invaders]]'' noted they get no break in the game. Logg and other engineers observed proceedings and documented comments in four pages. ''Asteroids'' slows down as the player gains 50–100 lives, because there is no limit to the number of lives displayed. The player can "lose" the game after more than 250 lives are collected. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
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] | [] |
[
"Ports"
] | ''Asteroids'' was released for the Atari VCS (later renamed the [[Atari 2600]]) and [[Atari 8-bit family]] in 1981, then the [[Atari 7800]] in 1986. A port for the [[Atari 5200]], identical to the Atari 8-bit computer version, was in development in 1982, but was not published. The Atari 7800 version was a launch title and includes cooperative play; the asteroids have colorful textures and the "heartbeat" sound effect remains intact. Programmers Brad Stewart and Bob Smith were unable to fit the Atari VCS port into a 4 KB cartridge. It became the first game for the console to use [[bank switching]], a technique that increases ROM size from 4 KB to 8 KB. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
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"Xbox 360 games",
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] | [] |
[
"Reception"
] | ''Asteroids'' was immediately successful upon release. It displaced ''[[Space Invaders]]'' by popularity in the United States and became Atari's best selling arcade game of all time, with over 70,000 units sold. Atari earned an estimated $150 million in sales from the game, and arcade operators earned a further $500 million from coin drops. Atari had been in the process of manufacturing another vector game, ''Lunar Lander'', but demand for ''Asteroids'' was so high "that several hundred ''Asteroids'' games were shipped in ''Lunar Lander'' cabinets". ''Asteroids'' was so popular that some [[video arcade]] operators had to install large boxes to hold the number of coins spent by players. After replacing ''Space Invaders'' at the top of the US ''RePlay'' arcade charts in April 1980, it went on to become the highest-grossing [[1980 in video games|arcade video game of 1980]] in the United States. It shipped 70,000 arcade units worldwide in 1980, including over 60,000 sold in the United States that year, and grossed about worldwide ( adjusted for inflation) by 1980. The game remained at the top of the US ''RePlay'' charts through [[1981 in video games|March 1981]]. However, the game did not perform as well overseas in Europe and Asia. It sold 30,000 arcade units overseas, for a total of 100,000 arcade units sold worldwide. Atari manufactured 76,312 units from its US and Ireland plants, including 21,394 ''Asteroids Deluxe'' units. It was a commercial failure in Japan when it released there in 1980, partly due to its complex controls and partly due to the Japanese market beginning to lose interest in space shoot 'em ups at the time. ''Asteroids'' received positive reviews from video game critics and has been regarded as Logg's magnum opus. Richard A. Edwards reviewed the 1981 ''Asteroids'' home cartridge in ''[[The Space Gamer]]'' No. 46. Edwards commented that "this home cartridge is a virtual duplicate of the ever-popular Atari arcade game. [...] If blasting asteroids is the thing you want to do then this is the game, but at this price I can't wholeheartedly recommend it". ''Video Games Player'' magazine reviewed the Atari VCS version, rating the graphics and sound a B, while giving the game an overall B+ rating. ''[[Electronic Fun with Computers & Games]]'' magazine gave the Atari VCS version an A rating. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
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"Xbox 360 games",
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"Video games developed in the United States"
] | [] |
[
"Reception"
] | William Cassidy, writing for [[GameSpy]]'s "Classic Gaming", noticed its innovations, including being one of the first video games to track initials and allow players to enter their initials for appearing in the top 10 high scores, and commented, "the vector graphics fit the futuristic outer space theme very well". In 1996, ''[[Next Generation (magazine)|Next Generation]]'' listed it as number 39 on their "Top 100 Games of All Time", particularly lauding the control dynamics which require "the constant juggling of speed, positioning, and direction". In 1999, ''[[Next Generation (magazine)|Next Generation]]'' listed ''Asteroids'' as number 29 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that "''Asteroid'' was a classic the day it was released, and it has never lost any of its appeal". ''Asteroids'' was ranked fourth on ''[[Retro Gamer]]''s list of "Top 25 Arcade Games"; the ''Retro Gamer'' staff cited its simplicity and the lack of a proper ending as allowances of revisiting the game. In 2012, ''Asteroids'' was listed on [[Time (magazine)|Time]]'s All-TIME 100 greatest video games list. ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' named ''Asteroids'' one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013. It was added to the [[Museum of Modern Art]]'s collection of video games. By contrast, in March 1983 the Atari 8-bit port won sixth place in ''[[Softline (magazine)|Softline]]''s Dog of the Year awards "for badness in computer games", Atari division, based on reader submissions. Usage of the names of ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' characters "Mr. Bill" and "Sluggo" to refer to the saucers in an ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' article about the game led to Logg receiving a [[cease and desist]] letter from a lawyer with the "Mr. Bill Trademark". | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
"1979 video games",
"Arcade video games",
"Atari 2600 games",
"Atari 7800 games",
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"Cancelled Atari Jaguar games",
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"Game Boy Color games",
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"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
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"Sega arcade games",
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"Xbox 360 games",
"Xbox 360 Live Arcade games",
"Vector arcade video games",
"Video games developed in the United States"
] | [] |
[
"Legacy",
"Arcade sequels"
] | Released in 1981, ''[[Asteroids Deluxe]]'' was the first sequel to ''Asteroids''. Dave Shepperd edited the code and made enhancements to the game without Logg's involvement. The onscreen objects are tinted blue, and hyperspace is replaced by a shield that depletes when used. The asteroids rotate, and new "killer satellite" enemies break into smaller ships that home in on the player's position. The arcade machine's monitor displays vector graphics overlaying a holographic backdrop. The game is more difficult than the original and enables saucers to shoot across the screen boundary, eliminating the lurking strategy for high scores in the original. It was followed by Owen Rubin's ''[[Space Duel]]'' in 1982, featuring colorful geometric shapes and co-op multiplayer gameplay. In 1987's ''[[Blasteroids]]'', Ed Rotberg added "power-ups, ship morphing, branching levels, bosses, and the ability to dock your ships in multiplayer for added firepower". ''Blasteroids'' uses raster graphics instead of vectors. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
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"Game Boy Color games",
"Multidirectional shooters",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"Science fiction video games",
"Sega arcade games",
"Taito arcade games",
"Xbox 360 games",
"Xbox 360 Live Arcade games",
"Vector arcade video games",
"Video games developed in the United States"
] | [] |
[
"Legacy",
"Re-releases"
] | The game is half of the Atari Lynx pairing ''[[Super Asteroids & Missile Command]]'', and included in the 1993 ''[[Microsoft Arcade]]'' compilation. [[Activision]] published an enhanced version of ''Asteroids'' for the [[PlayStation (console)|PlayStation]] (1998), [[Nintendo 64]] (1999), [[Microsoft Windows]] (1998), [[Game Boy Color]] (1999), and [[Macintosh]] (2000). The [[Atari Flashback]] series of dedicated video game consoles have included both the 2600 and the arcade versions of ''Asteroids''. Published by [[Crave Entertainment]] on December 14, 1999, ''Asteroids Hyper 64'' made the ship and asteroids 3D and added new weapons and a multiplayer mode. A technical demo of ''Asteroids'' was developed by iThink for the [[Atari Jaguar]] but was never released. Unofficially referred to as ''Asteroids 2000'', it was demonstrated at E-JagFest 2000. In 2001, Infogrames released ''[[Atari Anniversary Edition]]'' for the Dreamcast, PlayStation, and Microsoft Windows. Developed by [[Digital Eclipse]], it includes emulated versions of ''Asteroids'' and other games. The arcade and Atari 2600 versions of ''Asteroids'' were included in ''[[Atari Anthology]]'' for both [[Xbox (console)|Xbox]] and [[PlayStation 2]]. Released on November 28, 2007, the Xbox Live Arcade port of ''Asteroids'' has revamped HD graphics along with an added intense "throttle monkey" mode. The arcade and 2600 versions were made available through [[Microsoft]] ''[[Game Room]]'' service in 2010. [[Glu Mobile]] released an enhanced mobile phone port. ''Asteroids'' is included on ''[[Atari Greatest Hits]] Volume 1'' for the [[Nintendo DS]]. An updated version of the game was announced in 2018 for the [[Intellivision Amico]]. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
"1979 video games",
"Arcade video games",
"Atari 2600 games",
"Atari 7800 games",
"Atari 8-bit family games",
"Atari arcade games",
"Atari Lynx games",
"Cancelled Atari 5200 games",
"Cancelled Atari Jaguar games",
"Ed Logg games",
"Game Boy games",
"Game Boy Color games",
"Multidirectional shooters",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"Science fiction video games",
"Sega arcade games",
"Taito arcade games",
"Xbox 360 games",
"Xbox 360 Live Arcade games",
"Vector arcade video games",
"Video games developed in the United States"
] | [] |
[
"Legacy",
"Clones"
] | [[Quality Software]]'s ''Asteroids in Space'' (1980) was one of the best selling games for the [[Apple II]] and voted one of the most popular software titles of 1978-80 by ''[[Softalk]]'' magazine. In December 1981, ''[[BYTE]]'' reviewed eight ''Asteroids'' clones for home computers. Three other Apple II ''Asteroids'' clones were reviewed together in the 1982 ''Creative Computing Software Buyers Guide'': ''The Asteroid Field'', ''Asteron'', and ''[[Apple-Oids]]''. In the last of these, the asteroids are in the shape of apples. Two independent clones, ''Asteroid'' for the Apple II and ''Fasteroids'' for TRS-80, were renamed to ''[[Planetoids (video game)|Planetoids]]'' and sold by Adventure International. Others clones include [[Acornsoft]]'s ''Meteors'', ''Moons of Jupiter'' for the [[VIC-20]], and ''[[MineStorm]]'' for the [[Vectrex]]. The [[Mattel]] [[Intellivision]] game ''Meteor!'' , an ''Asteroids'' clone, was cancelled to avoid a lawsuit, and was reworked as ''[[Astrosmash]]''. The game borrows elements from ''Asteroids'' and ''Space Invaders''. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
"1979 video games",
"Arcade video games",
"Atari 2600 games",
"Atari 7800 games",
"Atari 8-bit family games",
"Atari arcade games",
"Atari Lynx games",
"Cancelled Atari 5200 games",
"Cancelled Atari Jaguar games",
"Ed Logg games",
"Game Boy games",
"Game Boy Color games",
"Multidirectional shooters",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"Science fiction video games",
"Sega arcade games",
"Taito arcade games",
"Xbox 360 games",
"Xbox 360 Live Arcade games",
"Vector arcade video games",
"Video games developed in the United States"
] | [] |
[
"World records"
] | On February 6, 1982, Leo Daniels of Carolina Beach, North Carolina, set a [[world record]] score of 40,101,910 points. On November 13 of the same year, 15-year-old [[Scott Safran]] of Cherry Hill, New Jersey, set a new record at 41,336,440 points. In 1998, to congratulate Safran on his accomplishment, the [[Twin Galaxies]] Intergalactic Scoreboard searched for him for four years until 2002, when it was discovered that he had died in an accident in 1989. In a ceremony in Philadelphia on April 27, 2002, Walter Day of Twin Galaxies presented an award to the surviving members of Safran's family, commemorating his achievement. On April 5, 2010, John McAllister broke Safran's record with a high score of 41,838,740 in a 58-hour Internet livestream. Some claim that the true world record for ''Asteroids'' was set in a laundromat in Hyde Park, New York, from June 30 to July 3, 1982, and that details of the score of over 48 million were published in the July 4th edition of the ''[[Poughkeepsie Journal]]''. | 785 | Asteroids (video game) | [
"1979 video games",
"Arcade video games",
"Atari 2600 games",
"Atari 7800 games",
"Atari 8-bit family games",
"Atari arcade games",
"Atari Lynx games",
"Cancelled Atari 5200 games",
"Cancelled Atari Jaguar games",
"Ed Logg games",
"Game Boy games",
"Game Boy Color games",
"Multidirectional shooters",
"Multiplayer and single-player video games",
"Science fiction video games",
"Sega arcade games",
"Taito arcade games",
"Xbox 360 games",
"Xbox 360 Live Arcade games",
"Vector arcade video games",
"Video games developed in the United States"
] | [] |
[] | '''Asparagales''' ('''asparagoid lilies''') is an [[order (biology)|order]] of plants in modern classification systems such as the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] (APG) and the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Web]]. The order takes its name from the [[type (biology)|type]] [[family (biology)|family]] [[Asparagaceae]] and is placed in the [[monocots]] amongst the [[lilioid monocots]]. The order has only recently been recognized in classification systems. It was first put forward by [[herbert Huber (botanist)|Huber]] in 1977 and later taken up in the [[Dahlgren system]] of 1985 and then the APG in 1998, 2003 and 2009. Before this, many of its families were assigned to the old order [[Liliales]], a very large order containing almost all monocots with colorful [[tepal]] and lacking [[starch]] in their [[endosperm]]. [[DNA sequencing|DNA sequence analysis]] indicated that many of the taxa previously included in Liliales should actually be redistributed over three orders, [[Liliales]], Asparagales, and [[Dioscoreales]]. The boundaries of the Asparagales and of its families have undergone a series of changes in recent years; future research may lead to further changes and ultimately greater stability. In the APG [[circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscription]], Asparagales is the largest order of monocots with 14 families, 1,122 [[Genus|genera]], and about 36,000 [[species]]. The order is clearly [[circumscribed]] on the basis of [[molecular phylogenetics]], but it is difficult to define [[plant morphology|morphologically]] since its members are structurally diverse. Most species of Asparagales are [[herbaceous]] [[perennial]], although some are [[vines|climbers]] and some are tree-like. The order also contains many [[geophyte]] (bulbs, corms, and various kinds of tuber). According to [[Telomere|telomere sequence]], at least two evolutionary switch-points happened within the order. The basal sequence is formed by TTTAGGG like in the majority of higher plants. Basal motif was changed to vertebrate-like TTAGGG and finally, the most divergent motif CTCGGTTATGGG appears in ''Allium''. One of the defining characteristics ([[Synapomorphy|synapomorphies]]) of the order is the presence of [[phytomelanin]], a black pigment present in the seed coat, creating a dark crust. Phytomelanin is found in most families of the Asparagales (although not in [[Orchidaceae]], thought to be the sister-group of the rest of the order). The [[Leaf|leaves]] of almost all species form a tight [[rosette (botany)|rosette]], either at the base of the plant or at the end of the [[plant stem|stem]], but occasionally along the stem. The [[flower]] are not particularly distinctive, being 'lily type', with six [[tepal]] and up to six [[stamen|stamina]]. The order is thought to have first [[genetic divergence|diverged]] from other related monocots some 120–130 million years ago (early in the [[Cretaceous period]]), although given the difficulty in classifying the families involved, estimates are likely to be uncertain. From an economic point of view, the order Asparagales is second in importance within the monocots to the order [[Poales]] (which includes [[grass]] and [[cereal]]). Species are used as food and flavourings (e.g. [[onion]], [[garlic]], [[leek]], [[asparagus]], [[vanilla]], [[saffron]]), in medicinal or cosmetic applications (''[[Aloe]]''), as [[cut flowers]] (e.g. [[freesia]], [[gladiolus]], [[iris (plant)|iris]], [[orchid]]), and as garden [[Ornamental plant|ornamentals]] (e.g. [[Hemerocallis|day lilies]], [[Convallaria|lily of the valley]], ''[[Agapanthus]]''). | 786 | Asparagales | [
"Asparagales",
"Angiosperm orders",
"Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"
] | [
"Taxonomy of Liliaceae"
] |
[
"Description"
] | Although most species in the order are [[herbaceous plant|herbaceous]], some no more than 15 cm high, there are a number of [[vines|climbers]] (''e.g.'', some species of ''[[Asparagus (genus)|Asparagus]]''), as well as several genera forming [[tree]] (e.g. ''[[Agave]]'', ''[[Cordyline]]'', ''[[Yucca]]'', ''[[Dracaena (plant)|Dracaena]]'', ''[[Aloe]]'' ), which can exceed 10 m in height. [[Succulent]] genera occur in several families (e.g. ''Aloe''). Almost all species have a tight cluster of [[Leaf|leaves]] (a [[rosette (botany)|rosette]]), either at the base of the plant or at the end of a more-or-less woody [[plant stem|stem]] as with ''[[Yucca]]''. In some cases, the leaves are produced along the stem. The [[flower]] are in the main not particularly distinctive, being of a general 'lily type', with six [[tepal]], either free or fused from the base and up to six [[stamen|stamina]]. They are frequently clustered at the end of the plant stem. The Asparagales are generally distinguished from the [[Liliales]] by the lack of markings on the tepals, the presence of [[septal nectaries]] in the [[ovary (botany)|ovaries]], rather than the bases of the tepals or stamen filaments, and the presence of [[secondary growth]]. They are generally [[geophytes]], but with linear leaves, and a lack of fine [[reticular venation]]. The [[seed]] characteristically have the external epidermis either obliterated (in most species bearing fleshy fruit), or if present, have a layer of black carbonaceous [[phytomelanin]] in species with dry fruits (nuts). The inner part of the seed coat is generally collapsed, in contrast to Liliales whose seeds have a well developed outer epidermis, lack phytomelanin, and usually display a cellular inner layer. The orders which have been separated from the old Liliales are difficult to characterize. No single morphological character appears to be diagnostic of the order Asparagales. (-) The flowers of Asparagales are of a general type among the [[lilioid monocot]]. Compared to Liliales, they usually have plain [[tepal]] without markings in the form of dots. If [[nectary|nectaries]] are present, they are in the [[septum|septa]] of the [[ovary (plant)|ovaries]] rather than at the base of the tepals or [[stamen]]. (-) Those species which have relatively large dry seeds have a dark, crust-like (crustose) outer layer containing the pigment phytomelan. However, some species with hairy seeds (e.g. ''[[Eriospermum]]'', family Asparagaceae ''s.l.''), berries (e.g. ''[[Maianthemum]]'', family Asparagaceae ''s.l.''), or highly reduced seeds (e.g. orchids) lack this dark pigment in their seed coats. Phytomelan is not unique to Asparagales (i.e. it is not a [[synapomorphy]]) but it is common within the order and rare outside it. The inner portion of the seed coat is usually completely collapsed. In contrast, the morphologically similar seeds of Liliales have no phytomelan, and usually retain a cellular structure in the inner portion of the seed coat. | 786 | Asparagales | [
"Asparagales",
"Angiosperm orders",
"Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"
] | [
"Taxonomy of Liliaceae"
] |
[
"Description"
] | (-) Most monocots are unable to thicken their stems once they have formed, since they lack the cylindrical [[meristem]] present in other angiosperm groups. Asparagales have a method of secondary thickening which is otherwise only found in''[[Dioscorea]]'' (in the order Disoscoreales). In a process called 'anomalous secondary growth', they are able to create new vascular bundles around which thickening growth occurs. ''[[Agave]]'', ''[[Yucca]]'', ''[[Aloe]]'', ''[[Dracaena (plant)|Dracaena]]'', ''[[Nolina]]'' and ''[[Cordyline]]'' can become massive trees, albeit not of the height of the tallest dicots, and with less branching. Other genera in the order, such as ''[[Lomandra]]'' and ''[[Aphyllanthes]]'', have the same type of secondary growth but confined to their underground stems. (-) [[Microsporogenesis]] (part of [[pollen]] formation) distinguishes some members of Asparagales from Liliales. Microsporogenesis involves a cell dividing twice ([[meiosis|meiotically]]) to form four daughter cells. There are two kinds of microsporogenesis: successive and simultaneous (although intermediates exist). In successive microsporogenesis, walls are laid down separating the daughter cells after each division. In simultaneous microsporogenesis, there is no wall formation until all four cell [[nucleus (cell)|nuclei]] are present. Liliales all have successive microsporogenesis, which is thought to be the primitive condition in monocots. It seems that when the Asparagales first diverged they developed simultaneous microsporogenesis, which the 'lower' Asparagale families retain. However, the 'core' Asparagales (see [[#Phylogeny]] section) have reverted to successive microsporogenesis. (-) The Asparagales appear to be unified by a mutation affecting their [[telomere]] (a region of repetitive [[DNA]] at the end of a [[chromosome]]). The typical '''Arabidopsis''-type' sequence of bases has been fully or partially replaced by other sequences, with the 'human-type' predominating. (-) Other apomorphic characters of the order according to Stevens are: the presence of chelidonic acid, anthers longer than wide, tapetal cells bi- to tetra-nuclear, tegmen not persistent, endosperm helobial, and loss of mitochondrial gene ''sdh3''. | 786 | Asparagales | [
"Asparagales",
"Angiosperm orders",
"Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"
] | [
"Taxonomy of Liliaceae"
] |
[
"Taxonomy"
] | As [[circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscribed]] within the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] system Asparagales is the largest [[Order (biology)|order]] within the [[monocotyledons]], with 14 families, 1,122 [[Genus|genera]] and about 25,000–42,000 [[species]], thus accounting for about 50% of all monocots and 10–15% of the [[flowering plant]] (angiosperms). The attribution of botanical authority for the name Asparagales belongs to [[Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link]] (1767–1851) who coined the word 'Asparaginae' in 1829 for a higher order taxon that included ''[[Asparagus]]'' although Adanson and Jussieau had also done so earlier (see History). Earlier circumscriptions of Asparagales attributed the name to [[Edward Bromhead|Bromhead]] (1838), who had been the first to use the term 'Asparagales'. | 786 | Asparagales | [
"Asparagales",
"Angiosperm orders",
"Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"
] | [
"Taxonomy of Liliaceae"
] |
[
"Taxonomy",
"History",
"Pre-Darwinian"
] | The [[type genus]], ''[[Asparagus]]'', from which the name of the order is derived, was described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1753, with ten species. He placed ''Asparagus'' within the ''Hexandria Monogynia'' (six [[stamen]], one [[carpel]]) in his [[Linnaean taxonomy|sexual classification]] in the ''[[Species Plantarum]]''. The majority of [[taxa]] now considered to constitute Asparagales have historically been placed within the very large and diverse family, [[Liliaceae]]. The family Liliaceae was first described by [[Michel Adanson]] in 1763, and in [[Adanson system|his taxonomic scheme]] he created eight sections within it, including the Asparagi with ''Asparagus'' and three other genera. The system of organising genera into families is generally credited to [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu]] who formally described both the Liliaceae and the type family of Asparagales, the [[Asparagaceae]], as Lilia and Asparagi, respectively, in 1789. Jussieu established the [[hierarchical]] system of [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] ([[phylogeny]]), placing ''Asparagus'' and related genera within a [[division (botany)|division]] of [[Monocotyledons]], a [[Class (biology)|class]] (III) of ''Stamina Perigynia'' and 'order' Asparagi, divided into three subfamilies. The use of the term ''Ordo'' (order) at that time was closer to what we now understand as Family, rather than Order. In creating [[De Jussieu system|his scheme]] he used a modified form of Linnaeus' sexual classification but using the respective topography of stamens to carpels rather than just their numbers. While De Jussieu's ''Stamina Perigynia'' also included a number of 'orders' that would eventually form families within the Asparagales such as the Asphodeli ([[Asphodelaceae]]), Narcissi ([[Amaryllidaceae]]) and Irides ([[Iridaceae]]), the remainder are now allocated to other orders. Jussieu's Asparagi soon came to be referred to as ''Asparagacées'' in the French literature (Latin: Asparagaceae). Meanwhile, the 'Narcissi' had been renamed as the 'Amaryllidées' (Amaryllideae) in 1805, by [[Jean Henri Jaume Saint-Hilaire]], using ''[[Amaryllis]]'' as the type species rather than ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]'', and thus has the authority attribution for [[Amaryllidaceae]]. In 1810 [[Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)|Brown]] proposed that a subgroup of Liliaceae be distinguished on the basis of the position of the [[Ovary (botany)|ovaries]] and be referred to as Amaryllideae and in 1813 [[de Candolle]] described Liliacées Juss. and Amaryllidées Brown as two quite separate families. The literature on the organisation of genera into families and higher ranks became available in the English language with [[Samuel Frederick Gray]]'s ''A natural arrangement of British plants'' (1821). Gray used a combination of Linnaeus' sexual classification and Jussieu's natural classification to group together a number of families having in common six equal stamens, a single style and a perianth that was simple and petaloid, but did not use formal names for these higher ranks. Within the grouping he separated families by the characteristics of their fruit and seed. He treated groups of genera with these characteristics as separate families, such as Amaryllideae, Liliaceae, Asphodeleae and Asparageae. | 786 | Asparagales | [
"Asparagales",
"Angiosperm orders",
"Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"
] | [
"Taxonomy of Liliaceae"
] |
[
"Taxonomy",
"History",
"Pre-Darwinian"
] | The [[Circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscription]] of Asparagales has been a source of difficulty for many botanists from the time of [[John Lindley]] (1846), the other important British taxonomist of the early nineteenth century. In his [[Lindley system|first taxonomic work]], ''An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany'' (1830) he partly followed Jussieu by describing a subclass he called Endogenae, or Monocotyledonous Plants (preserving de Candolle's ''Endogenæ phanerogamæ'') divided into two tribes, the [[Petaloidea]] and [[Glumaceae]]. He divided the former, often referred to as petaloid monocots, into 32 orders, including the Liliaceae (defined narrowly), but also most of the families considered to make up the Asparagales today, including the [[Amaryllideae]]. By 1846, in his final scheme Lindley had greatly expanded and refined the treatment of the monocots, introducing both an intermediate ranking (Alliances) and tribes within orders (''i.e.'' families). Lindley placed the Liliaceae within the [[Liliales]], but saw it as a [[Paraphyly|paraphyletic]] ("catch-all") family, being all Liliales not included in the other orders, but hoped that the future would reveal some characteristic that would group them better. The order Liliales was very large and had become a used to include almost all monocotyledons with colourful tepals and without starch in their endosperm (the [[lilioid monocot]]). The Liliales was difficult to divide into families because morphological characters were not present in patterns that clearly demarcated groups. This kept the Liliaceae separate from the Amaryllidaceae (Narcissales). Of these Liliaceae was divided into eleven tribes (with 133 genera) and Amaryllidaceae into four tribes (with 68 genera), yet both contained many genera that would eventually segregate to each other's contemporary orders (Liliales and Asparagales respectively). The Liliaceae would be reduced to a small 'core' represented by the tribe Tulipae, while large groups such [[Scilleae]] and [[Asparagaceae|Asparagae]] would become part of Asparagales either as part of the Amaryllidaceae or as separate families. While of the Amaryllidaceae, the [[Agavaceae|Agaveae]] would be part of Asparagaceae but the [[Alstroemeriaceae|Alstroemeriae]] would become a family within the [[Liliales]]. The number of known genera (and species) continued to grow and by the time of the next major British classification, that of the [[Bentham & Hooker system]] in 1883 (published in Latin) several of Lindley's other families had been absorbed into the Liliaceae. They used the term 'series' to indicate suprafamilial rank, with seven series of monocotyledons (including Glumaceae), but did not use Lindley's terms for these. However they did place the Liliaceous and Amaryllidaceous genera into separate series. The Liliaceae were placed in series Coronariae, while the Amaryllideae were placed in series Epigynae. The Liliaceae now consisted of twenty tribes (including Tulipeae, Scilleae and Asparageae), and the Amaryllideae of five (including Agaveae and Alstroemerieae). An important addition to the treatment of the Liliaceae was the recognition of the [[Allieae]] as a distinct tribe that would eventually find its way to the Asparagales as the subfamily [[Allioideae]] of the Amaryllidaceae. | 786 | Asparagales | [
"Asparagales",
"Angiosperm orders",
"Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"
] | [
"Taxonomy of Liliaceae"
] |
[
"Taxonomy",
"History",
"Post-Darwinian"
] | The appearance of [[Charles Darwin]]'s [[Origin of Species]] in 1859 changed the way that taxonomists considered plant classification, incorporating evolutionary information into their schemata. The [[Darwinian]] approach led to the concept of [[phylogeny]] (tree-like structure) in assembling classification systems, starting with [[Eichler system|Eichler]]. [[August Eichler|Eichler]], having established a [[hierarchical]] system in which the flowering plants ([[angiosperm]]) were divided into [[monocotyledons]] and [[dicotyledons]], further divided into former into seven orders. Within the [[Liliiflorae]] were seven families, including Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae. Liliaceae included ''[[Allium]]'' and ''[[Ornithogalum]]'' (modern [[Allioideae]]) and ''[[Asparagus]]''. [[Adolf Engler|Engler]], in his [[Engler system|system]] developed Eichler's ideas into a much more elaborate scheme which he treated in a number of works including ''[[Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien]]'' (Engler and [[Karl Anton Prantl|Prantl]] 1888) and ''[[Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien]]'' (1892–1924). In his treatment of Liliiflorae the Liliineae were a suborder which included both families Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae. The Liliaceae had eight subfamilies and the Amaryllidaceae four. In this rearrangement of Liliaceae, with fewer subdivisions, the core Liliales were represented as subfamily [[Lilioideae]] (with Tulipae and Scilleae as tribes), the Asparagae were represented as Asparagoideae and the [[Allioideae]] was preserved, representing the alliaceous genera. [[Allieae]], [[Agapantheae]] and [[Gilliesieae]] were the three tribes within this subfamily. In the Amaryllidacea, there was little change from the Bentham & Hooker. A similar approach was adopted by [[Richard Wettstein|Wettstein]]. | 786 | Asparagales | [
"Asparagales",
"Angiosperm orders",
"Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"
] | [
"Taxonomy of Liliaceae"
] |
[
"Taxonomy",
"History",
"Twentieth century"
] | In the twentieth century the [[Wettstein system]] (1901–1935) placed many of the taxa in an order called 'Liliiflorae'. Next [[Johannes Paulus Lotsy]] (1911) proposed dividing the [[Liliiflorae]] into a number of smaller families including [[Asparagaceae]]. Then [[Herbert Huber (botanist)|Herbert Huber]] (1969, 1977), following Lotsy's example, proposed that the Liliiflorae be split into four groups including the 'Asparagoid' [[Liliiflorae]]. The widely used [[Cronquist system]] (1968–1988) used the very broadly defined order Liliales. These various proposals to separate small groups of genera into more homogeneous families made little impact till that of [[Dahlgren system|Dahlgren]] (1985) incorporating new information including [[synapomorphy]]. Dahlgren developed Huber's ideas further and popularised them, with a major deconstruction of existing families into smaller units. They created a new [[order (biology)|order]], calling it Asparagales. This was one of five orders within the superorder Liliiflorae. Where Cronquist saw one family, Dahlgren saw forty distributed over three orders (predominantly [[Liliales]] and Asparagales). Over the 1980s, in the context of a more general review of the classification of [[angiosperms]], the Liliaceae were subjected to more intense scrutiny. By the end of that decade, the [[Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew]], the [[British Museum of Natural History]] and the [[Edinburgh Botanical Gardens]] formed a committee to examine the possibility of separating the family at least for the organization of their [[herbaria]]. That committee finally recommended that 24 new families be created in the place of the original broad Liliaceae, largely by elevating subfamilies to the rank of separate families. | 786 | Asparagales | [
"Asparagales",
"Angiosperm orders",
"Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"
] | [
"Taxonomy of Liliaceae"
] |
[
"Taxonomy",
"Phylogenetics"
] | The order Asparagales as currently [[circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscribed]] has only recently been recognized in classification systems, through the advent of [[phylogenetics]]. The 1990s saw considerable progress in plant phylogeny and phylogenetic theory, enabling a phylogenetic tree to be constructed for all of the flowering plants. The establishment of major new clades necessitated a departure from the older but widely used classifications such as Cronquist and Thorne based largely on morphology rather than genetic data. This complicated discussion about plant evolution and necessitated a major restructuring. ''rbc''L gene sequencing and cladistic analysis of monocots had redefined the [[Liliales]] in 1995. from four morphological orders ''sensu'' [[Rolf Dahlgren|Dahlgren]]. The largest clade representing the Liliaceae, all previously included in Liliales, but including both the Calochortaceae and Liliaceae ''sensu'' Tamura. This redefined family, that became referred to as core Liliales, but corresponded to the emerging circumscription of the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] (1998). | 786 | Asparagales | [
"Asparagales",
"Angiosperm orders",
"Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances"
] | [
"Taxonomy of Liliaceae"
] |
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