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what is the function of ras in the brain | Structure and Functions of the Reticular Activating System | The reticular activating system (RAS) is one of the most important parts of the brain. This article is a short introduction to the system’s functions and the way it influences human behavior.
The reticular activating system (RAS) acts like the ignition system of the brain, that awakens an individual from sleep to a state of heightened awareness.
Every conscious or unconscious function of the mind can be traced back or mapped to some part of the brain , which is one of the most complex organizations of matter in the universe. The mind is projected by the brain and its every process has an origin in some actual neuronal network.
This article talks about a brain region that significantly affects cognition and plays a large role in the sleep-wake transition.
Research in neuroscience has revealed, that the reticular activating system (RAS) is responsible for many cognitive functions related to awareness. This was revealed through study of mammalian brains. Evolutionarily, it is one of the oldest regions and it plays a big role in shaping the survival instinct in humans, besides acting as a bridge between the higher and lower parts of the brain.
Let us explore the location, structure, and functions of this system, which is also known as extrathalamic control modulatory system or bulboreticular facilitatory area .
The reticular activating system connects the brain stem, to the cerebral cortex, through various neural paths. The stem controls most of the involuntary functions, as well as reflexes of the body, while the cerebral cortex is the seat of consciousness and thinking abilities. The system forms a link between these two different regions, helping our consciousness put together an internal world, through assimilation of sensory information, gathered from all body parts.
The system projects out of the brain stem, through the thalamus, to connect with the cerebral cortex. The neurons from the stem radiate upwards and terminate at the thalamus, at diffuse thalamic nuclei, which in turn, project further into the cerebrum. The system also involves neurons projecting out of the sensory pathways, directly into the sensory cortex.
Studies have revealed that there are two most important parts of the RAS. One is the ascending system ( which has connections with the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, and thalamus ) and the other is the descending system ( which is connected to the cerebellum and many sensory nerves ).
A large part of the system consists of brain parts that are responsible for our survival instincts. Hence, it has a deep connection with awareness functions of the brain. The main parts which constitute the RAS are:
- Reticular Formation in the Midbrain
- Mesencephalon (Mesencephalic Nucleus)
- Dorsal Hypothalamus
- Thalamic Intralaminar Nucleus
- Tegmentum
RAS functions are controlled by certain cholinergic (related to acetylcholine) and adrenergic (related to Adrenaline) neurotransmitters. In terms of neuron grouping, this brain region constitutes the raphe nucleus , the pedunculopontine nucleus , and the locus caeruleus , all situated in the brain stem. For the sensory signals traveling towards and away from the cerebrum, this system acts as the gateway. In fact, the nerve fibers of this region are known to make the connection between body and mind . For the RAS to be triggered, signal activity needs to occur in the sensory pathways, that are connected with it.
In a state of wakefulness, all the sensory information that reaches the brain stem (including touch, smell, visual, and temperature signals), from the various afferent nerves, is transmitted via this system, to the cerebrum for processing, after undergoing filtering. Pain felt in any part of the body, is relayed through the reticular formation.
When we encounter a threat, that demands immediate defensive or offensive action, the electrical signals from sensory neurons are relayed to the cerebral cortex for processing, via the RAS.
One of the major functions of this specialized brain circuitry is the regulation of transition between sleep and wakefulness. The transition that we make from deep sleep to being fully awake and functional, as well as the reverse function, is controlled by this region. This functionality is mediated through the monoaminergic and cholinergic pathways.
All the mind’s functions manifest themselves physically, as electrical activity in the brain. The transition from sleep to wakefulness is therefore a change in the electrical activity associated with certain brain regions, measured in terms of frequency of the electrical signals. The state of wakefulness in humans, is associated with low-voltage fast burst brain waves. The same kind of waves are also associated with the REM ( Rapid Eye Movement ) phase during sleep. On the other hand, during non-REM sleep, the activity of high-voltage slow waves is predominant. The RAS orchestrates the transition from sleep to wakefulness, by promoting the creation of gamma band (20-40 Hz) waves and suppressing slow waves in the brain, like the spindle wave oscillations (11-14 Hz), delta waves (1-4 Hz), and slow waves in the cortex (0.3-1 Hz). This transition is reversible. Sleep is possible, only through the suppression of RAS activity, that is, through a reduction of afferent nerve activity, which transmits sensory signals to the cortex.
During non-REM sleep, which is mostly dreamless, RAS is shut down, thus cutting off connections with sensory inputs. This inhibition of the system is facilitated by the preoptic nucleus neurons.
The ability to filter out information from external sources and focus on one particular fact, detail, or thought is controlled by this brain region. If it weren’t for this circuitry, our consciousness would be overwhelmed and flooded with all sensory information, leading to an inability to make decisions. The system helps in prioritizing information and controls what appears in the mind’s eye, at any point of time.
Recent research has revealed that this region is also responsible for bringing your mind into periods of heightened attention, alertness, or higher focus. This function is primarily mediated by the reticular formation and the thalamic intralaminar nuclei, which experience an increased blood flow, during these times.
It is responsible for providing an integrated (cardiovascular, respiratory, and motor) response to external stimuli. It also controls coordination during walking, sexual functions, and eating.
Connections of the reticular formation with motor neurons facilitates maintenance of balance, posture, and tone, when executing various body movements. It enables the cerebellum to integrate vestibular, visual, and audio inputs, to process the data for motor coordination.
This system also plays a role in REM sleep, when we experience dreams. It is responsible for muscle atonia ( temporary paralysis or relaxation of muscles ) experienced during these phases.
Not only does RAS filter out information, but it also learns to identify patterns in the sensory signals transmitted through it. The reticular formation gets habituated to excluding meaningless and repetitive signals, that are deemed to be consistently unimportant. That explains why people can sleep through any kind of noise, once they have become habituated to it, while waking up in a startled state, to an auditory signal like a gunshot.
The raphe nuclei, a part of the reticular formation, work with the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) to maintain the circadian rhythm. It provides information about the level of alertness of the individual to the SCN, for it to act accordingly.
Damage to this system can lead to a transition into coma. Because of its positioning at the back of the brain, this area is very vulnerable to damage during accidents. Brain researchers have linked disorders in the RAS to attention deficit disorders, Alzheimer’s disease, narcolepsy, and sleep disorders.
Anesthetics and psychotropic drugs directly affect this system, causing a transition into unconsciousness or semi-consciousness. There is a relation between our action of setting goals and the RAS, as it controls the ability to focus and sift through incoming information. Overall, it manages the transition between levels of consciousness and controls what we prioritize as our current reality. | https://bodytomy.com/reticular-activating-system | 84 |
what is the function of ras in the brain | Reticular Activating System: Definition & Function - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com | Lesson Transcript
The reticular activating system is a small part of the brain with a large impact. Learn about the function and location of the reticular activating system, including its role in which types of information are perceived through senses and how we set goals. Updated: 11/22/2021
To understand what the reticular activating system does, we first have to know what it is! The reticular activating system , or RAS, is a piece of the brain that starts close to the top of the spinal column and extends upwards around two inches. It has a diameter slightly larger than a pencil. All of your senses (except smell, which goes to our brain's emotional center) are wired directly to this bundle of neurons that's about the size of your little finger.
Often, the RAS is compared to a filter or a nightclub bouncer that works for your brain. It makes sure your brain doesn't have to deal with more information than it can handle. Thus, the reticular activating system plays a big role in the sensory information you perceive daily.
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what is the function of ras in the brain | Functions of Reticular Activating System (RAS) | Brain | Neurology | Article Shared by
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After reading this article you will learn about the functions of Reticular Activating System (RAS).
The Reticular Activating System (RAS) of the brain stem is considered as one of the most important systems which facilitates the functioning of sensation and attention. This is made up of a net-like bundle of neurons that run through the hind-brain, mid-brain and a part of the fore-brain called the hypothalamus. Anatomically this system in man is about the size of the little finger and is located at the core of the brain stem just above the spinal cord and below the thalamus and hypothalamus.
However, selected cells of the RAS are aroused or alerted when signals are being transmitted through sensory input cables from the skin, ear, nose etc. The sensory input cables send their information to specific areas in the cerebral cortex. This is done through specific relay nuclei in the thalamus. On their way, however, these input cables send off collateral branches into the RAS. Within the RAS collaterals from the various sensory channels are intermingled and lack specificity.
The RAS sends its unspecific messages to broad, diffuse areas of the cerebral cortex. Research has indicated that the probable operation of this system is as follows: new sensory information stimulates the RAS, which relays the presence of some kind of stimulation to various sensory receiving areas of the cortex. This diffuse stimulation alerts the cortex, essentially telling it that some kind of news is arriving. The alerted cortex is then better able to deal with or process the specific information arriving over the specific sensory input channel to the cortex.
The alerting function of the RAS has been inferred from the fact that direct electrical stimulation of the RAS will awaken a sleeping cat and produce EEG brain waves characteristic of natural alertness and excitement. If the RAS is destroyed, a profound and enduring coma results and for all practical purposes, the animal is reduced to a sleeping vegetable. Anesthetic drugs that produce unconsciousness appear to act by depressing the RAS.
Thus, the primary function of RAS is to alert the higher brain centres when important messages are received and to filter incoming messages. The eye, for example, sends messages to the brain through the optic nerve. These messages carry the content of the sensory information’s like particular patterns of light waves received by the eye.
The messages from the eye go through the RAS and alert the brain that information is on the way and tell the brain how important the messages are going to be. The filtering process that goes on in the RAS is known as sensory gating. This means that strong sensations from one set of sense organs are allowed to pass, while information from the other sense organs is temporarily held back.
In addition, the system seems to provide some sort of feedback to the sense receptors. It appears to tell them not to send in any conflicting messages (at least for the moment) and to hold all calls until the brain can get around to handling them. The type of information passing through the sensory gates determines where our attention will be directed. For example, sensory messages about a sudden loud noise will pass through, temporarily diverting out attention from the visual sensation involved in reading a book.
The brain, it seems, is able to attend to only one set of messages at a time. It can tune into one and only one channel at any particular moment. This is shown very clearly by the study of (Hernandez Pion and his associates on cats). They implanted electrodes in the auditory nerve of a cat, to find out what happens in the brain when more than one set of sensory organs are stimulated at the same time and how sensory gating takes place. They sounded a click at regular intervals and measured the electrical activity of the cat’s auditory nerve.
Each time the click was sounded the activity of the nerve increased, producing a sharp increase in the recording as shown in Fig.5.5. Then they placed a mouse in front of the cat. As they had expected, the mouse immediately attracted the cat’s attention.
The visual message must have been judged more important and more interesting than the auditory ones, for as long as the mouse was present the sound of click caused a much smaller increase in the electrical activity of the auditory nerve. It was almost as if the cat’s ears were turned deaf. This could be due to the reticular activating system opening the gates to visual sensation and inhibiting the sensitivity of the auditory system.
In recent years the functions of the RAS have received considerable attention especially in connection with the function of arousal. The arousal function has been found to be very much involved in almost all types of human activities.
Perhaps, one may dwell at a greater length on the functioning of the nervous system. We have considered only the limbic system and the reticular system because these are probably more related to psychological processes. In recent years another system known as the vigilance system is being studied. In all probability we will come to know more and more about many other systems of nervous activity which will revolutionaries our approach not only to neural organisation and functioning but to psychology also. | https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/brain/functions-of-reticular-activating-system-ras-brain-neurology/2893 | 84 |
what is the function of ras in the brain | What Is the Reticular Activating System? | How Brain Disturbances Disrupt Sleep Patterns
Table of Contents
The reticular activating system (RAS) is a complex bundle of nerves in the brain that's responsible for regulating wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions . 1 It functions as a filter out unnecessary noise that can interfere with the processing of messages or slow the processing of messages during sleep.
The RAS does this by altering the brain's electrical activity, including the electrical voltage of brain waves and the speed by which neurons (nerve cells) fire. 2 Depending on how the RAS configures these signals, you may be more alert or less alert, more awake or less awake, or more cognizant or less cognizant.
If the system is damaged, it can result in sleep problems, lethargy, or coma. It also can play a role in narcolepsy and degenerative brain disorders such as Parkinson's disease and progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) . 3
The RAS is composed of interlinked pathways that start in the brainstem located at the back of the brain. 4 It then continues upward through the thalamus in the center of the brain and further on to the cerebral cortex (the thin layer of neural tissue on the surface of the brain).
Other components of the RAS situated deep within the brain include the midbrain reticular formation, mesencephalic nucleus, thalamic intralaminar nucleus, dorsal hypothalamus, and tegmentum.
The RAS releases chemicals that regulate motor function (movement) as well as emotions, wakefulness, and memories on the other.
Those involved in motor function is composed primarily of an organic chemical called acetylcholine, while those associated with consciousness and feelings are mainly composed of monoamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. 5
The RAS helps the brain gear up for a higher level of activity so that you can arise in the morning. 6 Think of it as the brain's attention center in which external stimulus is systematically organized into conscious thought. In order to get you up in the morning, the RAS responds to various triggers, such as the sun, sounds, and other external stimuli.
During wakefulness, the brain will produce low-voltage, fast-firing brain waves so that signals can be organized rapidly, contributing to alertness and attentiveness. 2 The same occurs during the REM cycle of sleep, characterized by rapid eye movements, intense dreaming, and increased pulse and breathing rates.
During the sleep-wake transition, the neurons will fire at a much slower rate, making organizing thoughts less coherent. This will give way to high-voltage, slow-firing brain waves that facilitate non-REM sleep.
If the RAS becomes damaged in any way, it can affect both wakefulness and sleep. 7 Such damage is often the result of a traumatic brain injury , such as an ischemic stroke or a severe blow to the head injury.
A coma is one such example, characterized by a deep state of unconsciousness in which are you unable to move or respond to external stimulus. 8
Another disorder associated with the RAS is narcolepsy, a chronic disorder characterized by poor control of sleep-wake cycles. 9 This disruption of the cycle can manifest with extreme and uncontrollable bouts of sleepiness, causing you to suddenly fall asleep without notice. Narcolepsy is a dangerous condition that can place you at risk of injury while walking, driving or operating machinery.
Parkinson's disease also can affect RAS function. As neurons break down as a result of the disease, they fire less frequently. Not only does this affect motor function, it can affect sleep quality by disrupting the REM cycle.
Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), 10 a degenerative brain disease often mistaken for Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease, is also believed linked to RAS dysfunction.
With PSP, neurons in the brainstem and cerebral cortex develop abnormal clumps of protein called tangles. These tangles interfere with RAS pathways and contribute to cognitive impairment and sleep-wake dysregulation in people with PSP. 11
RAS damage caused by a traumatic brain injury is generally not “fixable” but can be treated with rehabilitation strategies that focus on the sleep-wake cycle. Examples include:
- Improved sleep hygiene , with the aim of changing behaviors and environmental conditions that otherwise disrupt sleep
- Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) , which may include relaxation training, stimulus control, and sleep restriction 12
- Pharmaceutical drugs , used with caution as they can sometimes trigger seizures, reduce the plasticity of neurons, and cause a worsening of sleep symptoms 13
People with narcolepsy are often treated with stimulants such as modafinil or armodafinil. Newer stimulants include solriamfetol and pitolisant. Less often, older stimulants that are used in people with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may be prescribed. Sodium oxybate is highly effective for treatment of cataplexy , a feature of narcolepsy. Sometimes selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) antidepressants are used to suppress REM sleep to help alleviate symptoms of narcolepsy. 14
Sleep disturbances in people with degenerative brain disorders are more difficult to treat and require an individualized approach overseen by an experienced neurologist . 15
15 Sources
By Brandon Peters, MD
Brandon Peters, MD, is a board-certified neurologist and sleep medicine specialist. | https://www.verywellhealth.com/definition-of-reticular-activating-system-3015376 | 84 |
what is the function of ras in the brain | What Is the Reticular Activating System? | How Brain Disturbances Disrupt Sleep Patterns
Table of Contents
The reticular activating system (RAS) is a complex bundle of nerves in the brain that's responsible for regulating wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions . 1 It functions as a filter out unnecessary noise that can interfere with the processing of messages or slow the processing of messages during sleep.
The RAS does this by altering the brain's electrical activity, including the electrical voltage of brain waves and the speed by which neurons (nerve cells) fire. 2 Depending on how the RAS configures these signals, you may be more alert or less alert, more awake or less awake, or more cognizant or less cognizant.
If the system is damaged, it can result in sleep problems, lethargy, or coma. It also can play a role in narcolepsy and degenerative brain disorders such as Parkinson's disease and progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) . 3
The RAS is composed of interlinked pathways that start in the brainstem located at the back of the brain. 4 It then continues upward through the thalamus in the center of the brain and further on to the cerebral cortex (the thin layer of neural tissue on the surface of the brain).
Other components of the RAS situated deep within the brain include the midbrain reticular formation, mesencephalic nucleus, thalamic intralaminar nucleus, dorsal hypothalamus, and tegmentum.
The RAS releases chemicals that regulate motor function (movement) as well as emotions, wakefulness, and memories on the other.
Those involved in motor function is composed primarily of an organic chemical called acetylcholine, while those associated with consciousness and feelings are mainly composed of monoamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. 5
The RAS helps the brain gear up for a higher level of activity so that you can arise in the morning. 6 Think of it as the brain's attention center in which external stimulus is systematically organized into conscious thought. In order to get you up in the morning, the RAS responds to various triggers, such as the sun, sounds, and other external stimuli.
During wakefulness, the brain will produce low-voltage, fast-firing brain waves so that signals can be organized rapidly, contributing to alertness and attentiveness. 2 The same occurs during the REM cycle of sleep, characterized by rapid eye movements, intense dreaming, and increased pulse and breathing rates.
During the sleep-wake transition, the neurons will fire at a much slower rate, making organizing thoughts less coherent. This will give way to high-voltage, slow-firing brain waves that facilitate non-REM sleep.
If the RAS becomes damaged in any way, it can affect both wakefulness and sleep. 7 Such damage is often the result of a traumatic brain injury , such as an ischemic stroke or a severe blow to the head injury.
A coma is one such example, characterized by a deep state of unconsciousness in which are you unable to move or respond to external stimulus. 8
Another disorder associated with the RAS is narcolepsy, a chronic disorder characterized by poor control of sleep-wake cycles. 9 This disruption of the cycle can manifest with extreme and uncontrollable bouts of sleepiness, causing you to suddenly fall asleep without notice. Narcolepsy is a dangerous condition that can place you at risk of injury while walking, driving or operating machinery.
Parkinson's disease also can affect RAS function. As neurons break down as a result of the disease, they fire less frequently. Not only does this affect motor function, it can affect sleep quality by disrupting the REM cycle.
Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), 10 a degenerative brain disease often mistaken for Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease, is also believed linked to RAS dysfunction.
With PSP, neurons in the brainstem and cerebral cortex develop abnormal clumps of protein called tangles. These tangles interfere with RAS pathways and contribute to cognitive impairment and sleep-wake dysregulation in people with PSP. 11
RAS damage caused by a traumatic brain injury is generally not “fixable” but can be treated with rehabilitation strategies that focus on the sleep-wake cycle. Examples include:
- Improved sleep hygiene , with the aim of changing behaviors and environmental conditions that otherwise disrupt sleep
- Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) , which may include relaxation training, stimulus control, and sleep restriction 12
- Pharmaceutical drugs , used with caution as they can sometimes trigger seizures, reduce the plasticity of neurons, and cause a worsening of sleep symptoms 13
People with narcolepsy are often treated with stimulants such as modafinil or armodafinil. Newer stimulants include solriamfetol and pitolisant. Less often, older stimulants that are used in people with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may be prescribed. Sodium oxybate is highly effective for treatment of cataplexy , a feature of narcolepsy. Sometimes selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) antidepressants are used to suppress REM sleep to help alleviate symptoms of narcolepsy. 14
Sleep disturbances in people with degenerative brain disorders are more difficult to treat and require an individualized approach overseen by an experienced neurologist . 15
15 Sources
By Brandon Peters, MD
Brandon Peters, MD, is a board-certified neurologist and sleep medicine specialist. | https://www.verywellhealth.com/definition-of-reticular-activating-system-3015376 | 84 |
what is the function of ras in the brain | Structure and Functions of the Reticular Activating System | The reticular activating system (RAS) is one of the most important parts of the brain. This article is a short introduction to the system’s functions and the way it influences human behavior.
The reticular activating system (RAS) acts like the ignition system of the brain, that awakens an individual from sleep to a state of heightened awareness.
Every conscious or unconscious function of the mind can be traced back or mapped to some part of the brain , which is one of the most complex organizations of matter in the universe. The mind is projected by the brain and its every process has an origin in some actual neuronal network.
This article talks about a brain region that significantly affects cognition and plays a large role in the sleep-wake transition.
Research in neuroscience has revealed, that the reticular activating system (RAS) is responsible for many cognitive functions related to awareness. This was revealed through study of mammalian brains. Evolutionarily, it is one of the oldest regions and it plays a big role in shaping the survival instinct in humans, besides acting as a bridge between the higher and lower parts of the brain.
Let us explore the location, structure, and functions of this system, which is also known as extrathalamic control modulatory system or bulboreticular facilitatory area .
The reticular activating system connects the brain stem, to the cerebral cortex, through various neural paths. The stem controls most of the involuntary functions, as well as reflexes of the body, while the cerebral cortex is the seat of consciousness and thinking abilities. The system forms a link between these two different regions, helping our consciousness put together an internal world, through assimilation of sensory information, gathered from all body parts.
The system projects out of the brain stem, through the thalamus, to connect with the cerebral cortex. The neurons from the stem radiate upwards and terminate at the thalamus, at diffuse thalamic nuclei, which in turn, project further into the cerebrum. The system also involves neurons projecting out of the sensory pathways, directly into the sensory cortex.
Studies have revealed that there are two most important parts of the RAS. One is the ascending system ( which has connections with the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, and thalamus ) and the other is the descending system ( which is connected to the cerebellum and many sensory nerves ).
A large part of the system consists of brain parts that are responsible for our survival instincts. Hence, it has a deep connection with awareness functions of the brain. The main parts which constitute the RAS are:
- Reticular Formation in the Midbrain
- Mesencephalon (Mesencephalic Nucleus)
- Dorsal Hypothalamus
- Thalamic Intralaminar Nucleus
- Tegmentum
RAS functions are controlled by certain cholinergic (related to acetylcholine) and adrenergic (related to Adrenaline) neurotransmitters. In terms of neuron grouping, this brain region constitutes the raphe nucleus , the pedunculopontine nucleus , and the locus caeruleus , all situated in the brain stem. For the sensory signals traveling towards and away from the cerebrum, this system acts as the gateway. In fact, the nerve fibers of this region are known to make the connection between body and mind . For the RAS to be triggered, signal activity needs to occur in the sensory pathways, that are connected with it.
In a state of wakefulness, all the sensory information that reaches the brain stem (including touch, smell, visual, and temperature signals), from the various afferent nerves, is transmitted via this system, to the cerebrum for processing, after undergoing filtering. Pain felt in any part of the body, is relayed through the reticular formation.
When we encounter a threat, that demands immediate defensive or offensive action, the electrical signals from sensory neurons are relayed to the cerebral cortex for processing, via the RAS.
One of the major functions of this specialized brain circuitry is the regulation of transition between sleep and wakefulness. The transition that we make from deep sleep to being fully awake and functional, as well as the reverse function, is controlled by this region. This functionality is mediated through the monoaminergic and cholinergic pathways.
All the mind’s functions manifest themselves physically, as electrical activity in the brain. The transition from sleep to wakefulness is therefore a change in the electrical activity associated with certain brain regions, measured in terms of frequency of the electrical signals. The state of wakefulness in humans, is associated with low-voltage fast burst brain waves. The same kind of waves are also associated with the REM ( Rapid Eye Movement ) phase during sleep. On the other hand, during non-REM sleep, the activity of high-voltage slow waves is predominant. The RAS orchestrates the transition from sleep to wakefulness, by promoting the creation of gamma band (20-40 Hz) waves and suppressing slow waves in the brain, like the spindle wave oscillations (11-14 Hz), delta waves (1-4 Hz), and slow waves in the cortex (0.3-1 Hz). This transition is reversible. Sleep is possible, only through the suppression of RAS activity, that is, through a reduction of afferent nerve activity, which transmits sensory signals to the cortex.
During non-REM sleep, which is mostly dreamless, RAS is shut down, thus cutting off connections with sensory inputs. This inhibition of the system is facilitated by the preoptic nucleus neurons.
The ability to filter out information from external sources and focus on one particular fact, detail, or thought is controlled by this brain region. If it weren’t for this circuitry, our consciousness would be overwhelmed and flooded with all sensory information, leading to an inability to make decisions. The system helps in prioritizing information and controls what appears in the mind’s eye, at any point of time.
Recent research has revealed that this region is also responsible for bringing your mind into periods of heightened attention, alertness, or higher focus. This function is primarily mediated by the reticular formation and the thalamic intralaminar nuclei, which experience an increased blood flow, during these times.
It is responsible for providing an integrated (cardiovascular, respiratory, and motor) response to external stimuli. It also controls coordination during walking, sexual functions, and eating.
Connections of the reticular formation with motor neurons facilitates maintenance of balance, posture, and tone, when executing various body movements. It enables the cerebellum to integrate vestibular, visual, and audio inputs, to process the data for motor coordination.
This system also plays a role in REM sleep, when we experience dreams. It is responsible for muscle atonia ( temporary paralysis or relaxation of muscles ) experienced during these phases.
Not only does RAS filter out information, but it also learns to identify patterns in the sensory signals transmitted through it. The reticular formation gets habituated to excluding meaningless and repetitive signals, that are deemed to be consistently unimportant. That explains why people can sleep through any kind of noise, once they have become habituated to it, while waking up in a startled state, to an auditory signal like a gunshot.
The raphe nuclei, a part of the reticular formation, work with the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) to maintain the circadian rhythm. It provides information about the level of alertness of the individual to the SCN, for it to act accordingly.
Damage to this system can lead to a transition into coma. Because of its positioning at the back of the brain, this area is very vulnerable to damage during accidents. Brain researchers have linked disorders in the RAS to attention deficit disorders, Alzheimer’s disease, narcolepsy, and sleep disorders.
Anesthetics and psychotropic drugs directly affect this system, causing a transition into unconsciousness or semi-consciousness. There is a relation between our action of setting goals and the RAS, as it controls the ability to focus and sift through incoming information. Overall, it manages the transition between levels of consciousness and controls what we prioritize as our current reality. | https://bodytomy.com/reticular-activating-system#:~:text=The%20reticular%20activating%20system%20%28RAS%29%20acts%20like%20the,most%20complex%20organizations%20of%20matter%20in%20the%20universe. | 84 |
what is the function of ras in the brain | Reticular formation - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Reticular formation|
|Details|
|Location||Brainstem|
|Identifiers|
|Latin||formatio reticularis|
|MeSH||D012154|
|NeuroNames||1223|
|NeuroLex ID||nlx_143558|
|TA98|| A14.1.00.021 |
A14.1.05.403
A14.1.06.327
|TA2||5367|
|FMA||77719|
| Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy |
[ edit on Wikidata ]
The reticular formation is a set of interconnected nuclei that are located throughout the brainstem . It is not anatomically well defined, because it includes neurons located in different parts of the brain . The neurons of the reticular formation make up a complex set of networks in the core of the brainstem that extend from the upper part of the midbrain to the lower part of the medulla oblongata . [2] The reticular formation includes ascending pathways to the cortex in the ascending reticular activating system ( ARAS ) and descending pathways to the spinal cord via the reticulospinal tracts . [3] [4] [5] [6]
Neurons of the reticular formation, particularly those of the ascending reticular activating system, play a crucial role in maintaining behavioral arousal and consciousness . The overall functions of the reticular formation are modulatory and premotor, [A] involving somatic motor control, cardiovascular control, pain modulation, sleep and consciousness, and habituation. [7] The modulatory functions are primarily found in the rostral sector of the reticular formation and the premotor functions are localized in the neurons in more caudal regions.
The reticular formation is divided into three columns: raphe nuclei (median), gigantocellular reticular nuclei (medial zone), and parvocellular reticular nuclei (lateral zone). The raphe nuclei are the place of synthesis of the neurotransmitter serotonin , which plays an important role in mood regulation. The gigantocellular nuclei are involved in motor coordination. The parvocellular nuclei regulate exhalation . [8]
The reticular formation is essential for governing some of the basic functions of higher organisms and is one of the phylogenetically oldest portions of the brain. [ citation needed ]
The human reticular formation is composed of almost 100 brain nuclei and contains many projections into the forebrain , brainstem , and cerebellum , among other regions. [3] It includes the reticular nuclei , [B] reticulothalamic projection fibers, diffuse thalamocortical projections , ascending cholinergic projections , descending non-cholinergic projections, and descending reticulospinal projections. [4] The reticular formation also contains two major neural subsystems , the ascending reticular activating system and descending reticulospinal tracts, which mediate distinct cognitive and physiological processes. [3] [4] It has been functionally cleaved both sagittally and coronally .
Traditionally the reticular nuclei are divided into three columns:
- In the median column – the raphe nuclei
- In the medial column – gigantocellular nuclei (because of larger size of the cells)
- In the lateral column – parvocellular nuclei (because of smaller size of the cells)
The original functional differentiation was a division of caudal and rostral . This was based upon the observation that the lesioning of the rostral reticular formation induces a hypersomnia in the cat brain. In contrast, lesioning of the more caudal portion of the reticular formation produces insomnia in cats. This study has led to the idea that the caudal portion inhibits the rostral portion of the reticular formation.
Sagittal division reveals more morphological distinctions. The raphe nuclei form a ridge in the middle of the reticular formation, and, directly to its periphery, there is a division called the medial reticular formation. The medial RF is large and has long ascending and descending fibers, and is surrounded by the lateral reticular formation. The lateral RF is close to the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves, and mostly mediates their function.
The medial reticular formation and lateral reticular formation are two columns of nuclei with ill-defined boundaries that send projections through the medulla and into the midbrain . The nuclei can be differentiated by function, cell type, and projections of efferent or afferent nerves. Moving caudally from the rostral midbrain , at the site of the rostral pons and the midbrain, the medial RF becomes less prominent, and the lateral RF becomes more prominent. [ citation needed ]
Existing on the sides of the medial reticular formation is its lateral cousin, which is particularly pronounced in the rostral medulla and caudal pons. Out from this area spring the cranial nerves, including the very important vagus nerve . [ clarification needed ] The lateral RF is known for its ganglions and areas of interneurons around the cranial nerves , which serve to mediate their characteristic reflexes and functions.
The reticular formation consists of more than 100 small neural networks, with varied functions including the following:
- Somatic motor control – Some motor neurons send their axons to the reticular formation nuclei, giving rise to the reticulospinal tracts of the spinal cord. These tracts function in maintaining tone, balance, and posture – especially during body movements. The reticular formation also relays eye and ear signals to the cerebellum so that the cerebellum can integrate visual, auditory, and vestibular stimuli in motor coordination. Other motor nuclei include gaze centers, which enable the eyes to track and fixate objects, and central pattern generators , which produce rhythmic signals of breathing and swallowing.
- Cardiovascular control – The reticular formation includes the cardiac and vasomotor centers of the medulla oblongata .
- Pain modulation – The reticular formation is one means by which pain signals from the lower body reach the cerebral cortex . It is also the origin of the descending analgesic pathways . The nerve fibers in these pathways act in the spinal cord to block the transmission of some pain signals to the brain.
- Sleep and consciousness – The reticular formation has projections to the thalamus and cerebral cortex that allow it to exert some control over which sensory signals reach the cerebrum and come to our conscious attention . It plays a central role in states of consciousness like alertness and sleep . Injury to the reticular formation can result in irreversible coma .
- Habituation – This is a process in which the brain learns to ignore repetitive, meaningless stimuli while remaining sensitive to others. A good example of this is a person who can sleep through loud traffic in a large city, but is awakened promptly due to the sound of an alarm or crying baby. Reticular formation nuclei that modulate activity of the cerebral cortex are part of the ascending reticular activating system. [9] [7]
The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), also known as the extrathalamic control modulatory system or simply the reticular activating system (RAS), is a set of connected nuclei in the brains of vertebrates that is responsible for regulating wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions . The ARAS is a part of the reticular formation and is mostly composed of various nuclei in the thalamus and a number of dopaminergic , noradrenergic , serotonergic , histaminergic , cholinergic , and glutamatergic brain nuclei. [3] [10] [11] [12]
The ARAS is composed of several neural circuits connecting the dorsal part of the posterior midbrain and anterior pons to the cerebral cortex via distinct pathways that project through the thalamus and hypothalamus . [3] [11] [12] The ARAS is a collection of different nuclei – more than 20 on each side in the upper brainstem, the pons, medulla, and posterior hypothalamus. The neurotransmitters that these neurons release include dopamine , norepinephrine , serotonin , histamine , acetylcholine , and glutamate . [3] [10] [11] [12] They exert cortical influence through direct axonal projections and indirect projections through thalamic relays. [11] [12] [13]
The thalamic pathway consists primarily of cholinergic neurons in the pontine tegmentum , whereas the hypothalamic pathway is composed primarily of neurons that release monoamine neurotransmitters , namely dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and histamine. [3] [10] The glutamate-releasing neurons in the ARAS were identified much more recently relative to the monoaminergic and cholinergic nuclei; [14] the glutamatergic component of the ARAS includes one nucleus in the hypothalamus and various brainstem nuclei. [11] [14] [15] The orexin neurons of the lateral hypothalamus innervate every component of the ascending reticular activating system and coordinate activity within the entire system. [12] [16] [17]
|Nucleus type||Corresponding nuclei that mediate arousal||Sources|
|Dopaminergic nuclei||[3] [10] [11] [12]|
|Noradrenergic nuclei||[3] [10] [12]|
|Serotonergic nuclei||[3] [10] [12]|
|Histaminergic nuclei||[3] [10] [18]|
|Cholinergic nuclei||[3] [11] [12] [14]|
|Glutamatergic nuclei||[11] [12] [14] [15] [18] [19]|
|Thalamic nuclei||[3] [11] [20]|
The ARAS consists of evolutionarily ancient areas of the brain, which are crucial to the animal's survival and protected during adverse periods, such as during inhibitory periods of Totsellreflex, aka, "animal hypnosis". [C] [22] The ascending reticular activating system which sends neuromodulatory projections to the cortex - mainly connects to the prefrontal cortex . [23] There seems to be low connectivity to the motor areas of the cortex. [23]
The ascending reticular activating system is an important enabling factor for the state of consciousness . [13] The ascending system is seen to contribute to wakefulness as characterised by cortical and behavioural arousal. [6] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticular_formation | 84 |
what is the function of ras in the brain | RAS (Reticular Activating System) | Positive Psychology | Note: Two for You written transcripts are generated using a combination of speech recognition software and human transcribers, and may contain errors. Please check the corresponding audio before referencing content in print.
[Denise] Hello and welcome to this episode of Two for You, where we're going to be talking about the Reticular Activating System, or the RAS, and how you can put it to work for you as leaders in your work, your community, or your personal life.
[Lori] So I love the RAS. The reticular activating system is - it starts above your spinal cord and it's about two inches long, it's about the width of a pencil, and it's where all your senses come in. Well, except for your smell, which goes into your emotional center of your brain, but the rest of them come in through the RAS and what the RAS does is really connect that subconscious part of our brain with the conscious part of our brain.
So, for example, how this works is, if you were to look around the room and look for the color blue. Do you have some examples? Like Denise's scarf, for example. But the use of scarf is always there, as well as the other blue things that you identified, but what the RAS does is then bring to light that we're looking for.
[Denise] Which is really a key component of getting to your goals. So as leaders, we can talk about the word "hope" for example. We "hope" this will get done. But when you use the word "hope" there's a lot of doubt floating around in there. You could change that to "want" - I "want" this to be done, I "want" to complete this, but again, the door is open for that doubt. You know, will you or will you not get there.
But when you use the term consciously - use the term "intend" - what it does is that it takes away the doubt and it kind of kicks that RAS into high gear. It helps you to start filtering out those pieces that can help you with that intention and so the conscious mind brings that into your subconscious mind and so you start to see and hear and understand the things that will help you get to what you're intending.
[Lori] I love that, so you know, be intentional about what you want identify and have that subconscious part of your brain work for you. So join us next time as we talk about how we can live and lead with intention.
Authors: Lori Rothstein and Denise Stromme, former Extension educators | https://extension.umn.edu/two-you-video-series/ras | 84 |
what is the function of ras in the brain | Did You Know This Part of the Brain Drives All Your Teams' Behaviour & Performance? | How do you sustainably motivate a large team? By understanding the fundamental physiological processes that govern motivation. Meet your Reticular Activating System (RAS)
A bundle of nerves. Your built-in “autopilot”. And the No 1 key to changing behaviour, reaching goals and unlocking your team’s potential. Would you believe that the most powerful tool for understanding and changing human behaviour – yours and that of all your colleagues, teams and friends – is a small part of your brain called the Reticular Activating System?
Now, you may already know that we are a specialist PhD-led change-management company , and we spend most of our time researching the neuroscience & psychology of business (see our neuromanagement ) so we can help HRs, owners and executives use science to run their companies better through organisational development .
“If you’ve ever asked why people behave the way they do, and how you can sustainably change that behaviour for the better, then this is for you.”
And that’s why – if you’ve been to any of our neuro workshops , you’ll know – we have this information and we share it so that you can benefit and really max the potential of your teams and reach your business goals faster and more efficiently.
So, if you’ve ever asked why people behave the way they do in your company (because it ultimately affects everyone’s performance), and how you can sustainably change that behaviour for the better, then this is for you: We look at the Reticular Activating System, it’s functions and how to unlock the things you want for your company.
The Reticular Activating System (RAS) is a bundle of nerves that sits in your brainstem. And its job is to regulate behavioural arousal, consciousness and motivation. What that means is, the RAS is able to control what incoming information (stimulus) you’re aware of, so that you’ll be motivated to behave in a certain way.
But what does that mean? It’s a “guard” that sits between your brain and your senses (sight, hearing, touch etc.) and filters what information gets through and what doesn’t. Bet you didn’t know that your brain is not processing everything that happens around you!
Why? It’s a survival mechanism. At any given time, only a certain amount of information is actually useful to your brain. For example: If there’s a tiger about to attack you, that’s the only information your brain needs to drive you to action – RUN for your life! It doesn’t need to know what colour the grass and flowers are, or how the air smells, or what song is playing in the background – those things are all irrelevant information.
Your RAS is the thing that analyses what incoming information is actually relevant to you (and your survival), and lets only the most important stuff through – it actively blocks the rest of the info (so you are not aware of it).
Your Reticular Activating System is there to keep you alive and sane. And it does that by trying to automate your behaviour as much as possible.
What? Yes! If you’ve seen our series on how your brain works , you’ll know your brain is made up of neurons and every thought, emotion, concept of any object or abstract – anything you can think of – is “saved” by your brain through neural pathways . And the most dominant and frequently used neural pathways (thoughts) get stored in your subconscious for automatic memory recall .
“The first few times you got into a car to learn to drive, it was nerve-racking. But now, after driving for years, it’s like the car knows the way home from your office and drives itself.”
Think about it: You don’t have to think about what an apple is anymore (like a newborn Baby does), you can just see it, sense if you’re hungry and eat it. It’s automatic.
But the thing is: Our behaviour works the same way. The first few times you got into a car to learn to drive, it was nerve-racking – sweaty palms, a rush of excitement. But now, after driving for years, it’s like the car knows the way home from your office and drives itself. You don’t have to think about it, it’s almost automatic. That’s your automation at work – and that’s what the RAS does: it decides what information to pass through to the brain so that it can best automate you.
Want to test it? Go drive your car in China. Completely different place, can’t read the road signs, chaos on the road – you’ll soon feel very similar to how you felt the first time you were driving. Why? Your Reticular Activating System does not have any information to know what to filter, so it has to let everything through, stressing you out like little before.
LifeXchange founder, Dr Cobus Oosthuizen, often references a study that was done on couples with newborn babies who live near airports. The study found that both parents would sleep right through a plane taking off nearby (extremely loud). Yet the mother would wake up if the baby stirred in the next room (comparatively, a much lower sound level).
And that’s the Reticular Activating System at work. See, the RAS learnt through the neural pathways that a plane is not important to the mom – what’s important to her is taking care of her child. So, in the ultimate act of automation-kindness, the RAS started blocking the sound of planes. But a baby stirring, now that’s important information – so the RAS lets it through and BOOM, mom’s up and ready.
Very interestingly, the dad often didn’t wake up for Baby. So, the researchers took mom away for a few days, and guess what: Dad suddenly started waking up when Baby cried. Why? Because before, the info wasn’t important to him; mom was there to tend to Baby. But now that mom’s gone, it’s dad’s job, so the info’s important and the RAS lets it through.
Well, the Reticular Activating System just reinforces what’s in your subconscious. So if your thought (belief) in a neural pathway is “I don’t like exercise”, guess what: You’ll battle to get into a fitness routine. Because your RAS will only filter out information that will make you avoid exercise at all costs. To the point where it will block information about any fitness successes, you might achieve.
And that’s one of the most NB things to know about your neural pathways and RAS: It’s an automatic process that cannot distinguish between good and bad behaviour. Your RAS does not care whether getting fit is good or bad for you. It only automates what’s in your neural pathways.
“Knowing how the brain works is the new frontier for better business. You can use it to drive real, sustainable change in your company.”
So, to create change and instil a new behaviour, you have to reprogramme the neural pathway , maybe to something like: “Wow, I LOVE exercise!”. And then your RAS will automate that behaviour.
It’s super powerful. Watch Dr Cobus Oosthuizen use it to do what millions of psychologists categorically deemed impossible in this video (get the full story at our backwards brain bike post ):
And it’s possible to not only reprogramme neural pathways and use your RAS to do great things yourself but you also make it so with other people, as a team. See the proof you can rewire your brain .
Knowing how the brain works is the new frontier for better business. You can use it to drive real, sustainable change in your company because human behaviour and performance are at the core of most of the hindrances and opportunities in companies.
The proof: Google and Netflix. Some of the highest-performing new companies are able to just out-class all their competitors. And analysts spend hours trying to figure out their “magic secret”. When all it is, is just better-applied human behavioural science.
So, if you actively seek out more information about the latest evidence-based science around how humans think and behave, you can unlock even more amazing potential in your company.
Like we said, LifeXchange Solutions is a change management company , and that simply means we exist to help take companies into the future – to apply the latest science in business today! Because it is possible. The next Google or Netflix can come from anywhere and be in any industry – it’s not about what field or market you operate in, it’s about how well you understand and invest in your people.
And you don’t need to take our word for it. See what these managers said they learnt at our last public HR workshop , and what this group of CEOs took from one of our Agile Excellence programmes .
We’re leaders in using various neuromanagement techniques, science and culture-based solutions and organisational development tools to help drive businesses to the next level.
And we’ll send a team to your company right now to help you figure out exactly what’s needed to get you where you want to be – no obligation from you! | https://lifexchangesolutions.com/reticular-activating-system/ | 84 |
what is the function of ras in the brain | Neuroanatomy, Reticular Activating System - StatPearls | The reticular activating system (RAS) is a component of the reticular formation in vertebrate brains located throughout the brainstem. Between the brainstem and the cortex, multiple neuronal circuits ultimately contribute to the RAS. [1] These circuits function to allow the brain to modulate between slow sleep rhythms and fast sleep rhythms, as seen on EEG. By doing this, the nuclei that form the RAS play a significant role in coordinating both the sleep-wake cycle and wakefulness. The groupings of neurons that together make up the RAS are ultimately responsible for attention, arousal, modulation of muscle tone, and the ability to focus. [2]
The RAS is a component of the reticular formation, found in the anterior-most segment of the brainstem. The reticular formation receives input from the spinal cord, sensory pathways, thalamus, and cortex and has efferent connections throughout the nervous system. The RAS itself is primarily composed of four main components that each contain groupings of nuclei. These are the locus coeruleus, raphe nuclei, posterior tuberomammillary hypothalamus, and pedunculopontine tegmentum. Each is unique in the neuropeptides they release. In large part, these centers are activated by the lateral hypothalamus (LH), which releases the neuropeptide orexin in response to the light hitting the eyes, which then stimulates arousal and the transition from sleep to waking. [3]
The locus coeruleus is located within the upper dorsolateral pons of the brainstem. It is activated directly by orexin from the lateral hypothalamus, and in response, releases norepinephrine. Its excitatory functions are widely distributed within the brain, acting on both the alpha and beta receptors of neurons and glial cells distributed throughout the cortex. It functions primarily upon waking and in arousal. [4] [5]
The raphe nuclei are located midline throughout the brainstem within the pons, midbrain, and medulla. The majority of neurons located in the raphe nuclei are serotonergic. The more rostral raphe nuclei appear to be important in various bodily functions, including pain sensation and mood regulation. In the context of the RAS, these nuclei communicate with the suprachiasmatic nucleus, playing a role in circadian rhythms, and contributing to arousal and attention. [6]
The tuberomammillary nucleus is located within the posterior aspect of the hypothalamus. The neurons that make up these nuclei are primarily histaminergic and serve as the primary source of histamine projections in the brain. They are important in both wakefulness and cognition, projecting in large part to the forebrain where they play an important role in arousal. [7] [8]
The lateral and dorsal pedunculopontine tegmentum contains primarily cholinergic neurons in neighboring groups within the midbrain and pons. Cholinergic neurons project to the thalamus and cortex, promoting desynchronization of the brain, allowing the body to switch from slow sleep rhythms to high frequency, low amplitude wake rhythms. [9]
The neural tube, a derivative of the ectoderm, forms during the third week of embryogenesis. It splits into mesencephalon, prosencephalon, and rhombencephalon. The prosencephalon then further divides into the telencephalon and diencephalon. The thalamus and hypothalamus arise from the diencephalon. The mesencephalon, the central most of these structures, goes on to form the midbrain, while the rhombencephalon, the most caudal of these structures, forms both the metencephalon and the myelencephalon. The metencephalon is the precursor of the pons and cerebellum, while the myelencephalon gives rise to the medulla. Together, the pons, midbrain, and medulla contain the majority of constituents functioning within the reticular activating system, all of which were initially derived from the neural tube during embryogenesis. [10]
The RAS and its associated structures exist primarily within the hypothalamus and brainstem. The hypothalamus receives vascular perfusion mainly by branches of the circle of Willis, which sits inferiorly to the hypothalamus.
The brainstem is supplied primarily by branches of the basilar artery, which arises from the vertebral arteries. The caudal medulla receives blood supply from the anterior spinal artery medially and the posterior spinal artery laterally. Its more rostral portions are perfused by the posterior inferior cerebellar artery laterally and branches of the basilar artery medially.
Moving superiorly, the pons receives the majority of its blood supply from penetrating branches of the basilar artery. More laterally, it also receives vascular supply from branches of the anterior inferior cerebellar artery.
The midbrain, located rostral to the pons, primarily receives blood supply from branches of the posterior cerebral artery. [11]
While the components of the reticular activating system are composed primarily of neural tissue, they do play an important role in the regulation of muscle tone in different states of sleep, as well as wakefulness. The thinking is that the RAS contributes to the suppression of muscle tone we experience during REM sleep, keeping us from moving our extremities during our dreams. The RAS may also play an important role in modulating muscle tone while awake, as it mediates arousal, and thus plays an important role in our "fight or flight" response to various threats. [12] [13]
Brainstem gliomas, as well as other tumors, may require neurosurgical removal. Research has found that the removal of tumors from regions around and/or inside of the brainstem can result in lesions affecting the function locus coeruleus, impairing REM sleep, and the functioning of the RAS. It is crucial to consider both the size and position of a tumor when contemplating the inherent risk of neurosurgery on areas proximal to the brainstem. [14]
The reticular activating system is thought to have a role in a variety of pathologies. Certain studies have suggested an affiliation between the RAS and the physiologic production of pain stimuli. In response to direct stimulation via electrodes, the reticular activating system has been shown to generate a pain response. [15]
The RAS has been further implicated in a variety of psychological disorders. Schizophrenic patients have been shown to have a statistically significant increase in the amount of pedunculopontine neurons, which are intricate in modifying the cholinergic component of the RAS. [16] Patients with both Parkinson disease and PTSD have been shown to have a decreased density of neurons in the locus coeruleus, which further affects the disinhibition of the pedunculopontine neurons.
Additionally, patients with Parkinson disease frequently have REM sleep disturbances. research suggests that the degeneration of the RAS contributes to the progression of Parkinson disease. Furthermore, narcolepsy, a disorder characterized by uncontrollable daytime sleepiness, is thought to be in part a result of major loss of orexin peptides, as well as the reduced output of pedunculopontine neurons. [16] [17] [18] | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549835/ | 84 |
what is the function of ras in the brain | RAS (Reticular Activating System) | Positive Psychology | Note: Two for You written transcripts are generated using a combination of speech recognition software and human transcribers, and may contain errors. Please check the corresponding audio before referencing content in print.
[Denise] Hello and welcome to this episode of Two for You, where we're going to be talking about the Reticular Activating System, or the RAS, and how you can put it to work for you as leaders in your work, your community, or your personal life.
[Lori] So I love the RAS. The reticular activating system is - it starts above your spinal cord and it's about two inches long, it's about the width of a pencil, and it's where all your senses come in. Well, except for your smell, which goes into your emotional center of your brain, but the rest of them come in through the RAS and what the RAS does is really connect that subconscious part of our brain with the conscious part of our brain.
So, for example, how this works is, if you were to look around the room and look for the color blue. Do you have some examples? Like Denise's scarf, for example. But the use of scarf is always there, as well as the other blue things that you identified, but what the RAS does is then bring to light that we're looking for.
[Denise] Which is really a key component of getting to your goals. So as leaders, we can talk about the word "hope" for example. We "hope" this will get done. But when you use the word "hope" there's a lot of doubt floating around in there. You could change that to "want" - I "want" this to be done, I "want" to complete this, but again, the door is open for that doubt. You know, will you or will you not get there.
But when you use the term consciously - use the term "intend" - what it does is that it takes away the doubt and it kind of kicks that RAS into high gear. It helps you to start filtering out those pieces that can help you with that intention and so the conscious mind brings that into your subconscious mind and so you start to see and hear and understand the things that will help you get to what you're intending.
[Lori] I love that, so you know, be intentional about what you want identify and have that subconscious part of your brain work for you. So join us next time as we talk about how we can live and lead with intention.
Authors: Lori Rothstein and Denise Stromme, former Extension educators | https://extension.umn.edu/two-you-video-series/ras | 84 |
what is the function of ras in the brain | Did You Know This Part of the Brain Drives All Your Teams' Behaviour & Performance? | How do you sustainably motivate a large team? By understanding the fundamental physiological processes that govern motivation. Meet your Reticular Activating System (RAS)
A bundle of nerves. Your built-in “autopilot”. And the No 1 key to changing behaviour, reaching goals and unlocking your team’s potential. Would you believe that the most powerful tool for understanding and changing human behaviour – yours and that of all your colleagues, teams and friends – is a small part of your brain called the Reticular Activating System?
Now, you may already know that we are a specialist PhD-led change-management company , and we spend most of our time researching the neuroscience & psychology of business (see our neuromanagement ) so we can help HRs, owners and executives use science to run their companies better through organisational development .
“If you’ve ever asked why people behave the way they do, and how you can sustainably change that behaviour for the better, then this is for you.”
And that’s why – if you’ve been to any of our neuro workshops , you’ll know – we have this information and we share it so that you can benefit and really max the potential of your teams and reach your business goals faster and more efficiently.
So, if you’ve ever asked why people behave the way they do in your company (because it ultimately affects everyone’s performance), and how you can sustainably change that behaviour for the better, then this is for you: We look at the Reticular Activating System, it’s functions and how to unlock the things you want for your company.
The Reticular Activating System (RAS) is a bundle of nerves that sits in your brainstem. And its job is to regulate behavioural arousal, consciousness and motivation. What that means is, the RAS is able to control what incoming information (stimulus) you’re aware of, so that you’ll be motivated to behave in a certain way.
But what does that mean? It’s a “guard” that sits between your brain and your senses (sight, hearing, touch etc.) and filters what information gets through and what doesn’t. Bet you didn’t know that your brain is not processing everything that happens around you!
Why? It’s a survival mechanism. At any given time, only a certain amount of information is actually useful to your brain. For example: If there’s a tiger about to attack you, that’s the only information your brain needs to drive you to action – RUN for your life! It doesn’t need to know what colour the grass and flowers are, or how the air smells, or what song is playing in the background – those things are all irrelevant information.
Your RAS is the thing that analyses what incoming information is actually relevant to you (and your survival), and lets only the most important stuff through – it actively blocks the rest of the info (so you are not aware of it).
Your Reticular Activating System is there to keep you alive and sane. And it does that by trying to automate your behaviour as much as possible.
What? Yes! If you’ve seen our series on how your brain works , you’ll know your brain is made up of neurons and every thought, emotion, concept of any object or abstract – anything you can think of – is “saved” by your brain through neural pathways . And the most dominant and frequently used neural pathways (thoughts) get stored in your subconscious for automatic memory recall .
“The first few times you got into a car to learn to drive, it was nerve-racking. But now, after driving for years, it’s like the car knows the way home from your office and drives itself.”
Think about it: You don’t have to think about what an apple is anymore (like a newborn Baby does), you can just see it, sense if you’re hungry and eat it. It’s automatic.
But the thing is: Our behaviour works the same way. The first few times you got into a car to learn to drive, it was nerve-racking – sweaty palms, a rush of excitement. But now, after driving for years, it’s like the car knows the way home from your office and drives itself. You don’t have to think about it, it’s almost automatic. That’s your automation at work – and that’s what the RAS does: it decides what information to pass through to the brain so that it can best automate you.
Want to test it? Go drive your car in China. Completely different place, can’t read the road signs, chaos on the road – you’ll soon feel very similar to how you felt the first time you were driving. Why? Your Reticular Activating System does not have any information to know what to filter, so it has to let everything through, stressing you out like little before.
LifeXchange founder, Dr Cobus Oosthuizen, often references a study that was done on couples with newborn babies who live near airports. The study found that both parents would sleep right through a plane taking off nearby (extremely loud). Yet the mother would wake up if the baby stirred in the next room (comparatively, a much lower sound level).
And that’s the Reticular Activating System at work. See, the RAS learnt through the neural pathways that a plane is not important to the mom – what’s important to her is taking care of her child. So, in the ultimate act of automation-kindness, the RAS started blocking the sound of planes. But a baby stirring, now that’s important information – so the RAS lets it through and BOOM, mom’s up and ready.
Very interestingly, the dad often didn’t wake up for Baby. So, the researchers took mom away for a few days, and guess what: Dad suddenly started waking up when Baby cried. Why? Because before, the info wasn’t important to him; mom was there to tend to Baby. But now that mom’s gone, it’s dad’s job, so the info’s important and the RAS lets it through.
Well, the Reticular Activating System just reinforces what’s in your subconscious. So if your thought (belief) in a neural pathway is “I don’t like exercise”, guess what: You’ll battle to get into a fitness routine. Because your RAS will only filter out information that will make you avoid exercise at all costs. To the point where it will block information about any fitness successes, you might achieve.
And that’s one of the most NB things to know about your neural pathways and RAS: It’s an automatic process that cannot distinguish between good and bad behaviour. Your RAS does not care whether getting fit is good or bad for you. It only automates what’s in your neural pathways.
“Knowing how the brain works is the new frontier for better business. You can use it to drive real, sustainable change in your company.”
So, to create change and instil a new behaviour, you have to reprogramme the neural pathway , maybe to something like: “Wow, I LOVE exercise!”. And then your RAS will automate that behaviour.
It’s super powerful. Watch Dr Cobus Oosthuizen use it to do what millions of psychologists categorically deemed impossible in this video (get the full story at our backwards brain bike post ):
And it’s possible to not only reprogramme neural pathways and use your RAS to do great things yourself but you also make it so with other people, as a team. See the proof you can rewire your brain .
Knowing how the brain works is the new frontier for better business. You can use it to drive real, sustainable change in your company because human behaviour and performance are at the core of most of the hindrances and opportunities in companies.
The proof: Google and Netflix. Some of the highest-performing new companies are able to just out-class all their competitors. And analysts spend hours trying to figure out their “magic secret”. When all it is, is just better-applied human behavioural science.
So, if you actively seek out more information about the latest evidence-based science around how humans think and behave, you can unlock even more amazing potential in your company.
Like we said, LifeXchange Solutions is a change management company , and that simply means we exist to help take companies into the future – to apply the latest science in business today! Because it is possible. The next Google or Netflix can come from anywhere and be in any industry – it’s not about what field or market you operate in, it’s about how well you understand and invest in your people.
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when did the kyoto protocol came into force | What is the Kyoto Protocol? | Related information
Credit: Karsten Würth/Unsplash
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex ratification process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
In short, the Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change by committing industrialized countries and economies in transition to limit and reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets. The Convention itself only asks those countries to adopt policies and measures on mitigation and to report periodically.
The Kyoto Protocol is based on the principles and provisions of the Convention and follows its annex-based structure. It only binds developed countries, and places a heavier burden on them under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities”, because it recognizes that they are largely responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere.
In its Annex B , the Kyoto Protocol sets binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and economies in transition and the European Union. Overall, these targets add up to an average 5 per cent emission reduction compared to 1990 levels over the five year period 2008–2012 (the first commitment period).
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was adopted for a second commitment period, starting in 2013 and lasting until 2020.
As of 28 October 2020, 147 Parties deposited their instrument of acceptance, therefore the threshold of 144 instruments of acceptance for entry into force of the Doha Amendment was achieved. The amendment entered into force on 31 December 2020.
The amendment includes:
- New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020;
- A revised list of GHG to be reported on by Parties in the second commitment period; and
- Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol which specifically referenced issues pertaining to the first commitment period and which needed to be updated for the second commitment period.
On 21 December 2012, the amendment was circulated by the Secretary-General of the United Nations, acting in his capacity as Depositary, to all Parties to the Kyoto Protocol in accordance with Articles 20 and 21 of the Protocol.
During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and economies in transition and the European Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990 levels. During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020; however, the composition of Parties in the second commitment period is different from the first.
One important element of the Kyoto Protocol was the establishment of flexible market mechanisms, which are based on the trade of emissions permits. Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures. However, the Protocol also offers them an additional means to meet their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms :
These mechanisms ideally encourage GHG abatement to start where it is most cost-effective, for example, in the developing world. It does not matter where emissions are reduced, as long as they are removed from the atmosphere. This has the parallel benefits of stimulating green investment in developing countries and including the private sector in this endeavour to cut and hold steady GHG emissions at a safe level. It also makes leap-frogging—that is, the possibility of skipping the use of older, dirtier technology for newer, cleaner infrastructure and systems, with obvious longer-term benefits—more economical.
The Kyoto Protocol also established a rigorous monitoring, review and verification system, as well as a compliance system to ensure transparency and hold Parties to account. Under the Protocol, countries' actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the trades carried out.
Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. The UN Climate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an international transaction log to verify that transactions are consistent with the rules of the Protocol.
Reporting is done by Parties by submitting annual emission inventories and national reports under the Protocol at regular intervals.
A compliance system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps them to meet their commitments if they have problems doing so.
Adaptation
The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting to the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of technologies that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In the first commitment period, the Fund was financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project activities. In Doha, in 2012, it was decided that for the second commitment period, international emissions trading and joint implementation would also provide the Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent share of proceeds.
Content | https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol | 85 |
when did the kyoto protocol came into force | Kyoto Protocol - Wikipedia | This article is about the international treaty. For the rock band, see Kyoto Protocol (band) .
|Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC|
|Signed||11 December 1997 [1]|
|Location||Kyoto, Japan|
|Effective||16 February 2005 [1]|
|Condition||Ratification by at least 55 states to the Convention|
|Expiration|| 31 December 2012 (first commitment period) [2] |
31 December 2020 (second commitment period) [3]
|Signatories||84 [1] (1998–1999 signing period)|
|Parties||192 [4] [5] (the European Union, Cook Islands, Niue, and all UN member states except Andorra, Canada, South Sudan, and the United States as of 2022)|
|Depositary||Secretary-General of the United Nations|
|Languages||Arabic, Mandarin, English, French, Russian, and Spanish|
|Full text|
|Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource|
|Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol|
|Type||Amendment to international agreement|
|Drafted||8 December 2012|
|Location||Doha , Qatar|
|Effective||31 December 2020 [6]|
|Condition||Ratification by 144 state parties required|
|Expiration||31 December 2020 [7]|
|Ratifiers||147 [6]|
|Full text|
|Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource|
The Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the scientific consensus that (part one) global warming is occurring and (part two) that human-made CO 2 emissions are driving it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There were 192 parties ( Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012) [5] to the Protocol in 2020.
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applied to the seven greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) , methane (CH 4 ) , nitrous oxide (N 2 O) , hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ) , nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3 ) . [8] Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha Round. [9]
The Protocol was based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledged that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate change, owing to economic development , and therefore placed the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36 countries that fully participated in the first commitment period complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding emission reductions in other countries because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. The financial crisis of 2007–08 helped reduce the emissions. The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former Eastern Bloc countries because the dissolution of the Soviet Union reduced their emissions in the early 1990s. [10] Even though the 36 developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010. [11]
A second commitment period was agreed to in 2012 to extend the agreement to 2020, known as the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, in which 37 countries had binding targets: Australia , the European Union (and its then 28 member states , now 27), Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine stated that they may withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets. [12] Japan, New Zealand , and Russia had participated in Kyoto's first-round but did not take on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets were Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which did not ratify). Canada's decision to withdraw was to the dismay of Environment minister, Peter Kent . If they were to remain as a part of the protocol, Canada would be hit with a $14 billion fine, which would be devastating to their economy, hence the reluctant decision to exit. [13] As of October 2020, 147 [6] [14] states had accepted the Doha Amendment. It entered into force on 31 December 2020, following its acceptance by the mandated minimum of at least 144 states, although the second commitment period ended on the same day. Of the 37 parties with binding commitments, 34 had ratified.
Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ended in 2020. This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto Protocol.
Main article: Global warming
Annex I Parties who have agreed to reduce their GHG emissions below their individual base year levels (see definition in this article)
Annex I Parties who have agreed to cap their GHG emissions at their base year levels
Non-Annex I Parties who are not obligated by caps or Annex I Parties with an emissions cap that allows their emissions to expand above their base year levels or countries that have not ratified the Kyoto Protocol
The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature ("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking. [17] [18] Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughout the 21st century and beyond. [18]
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) have produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be. [19] The IPCC's projections are "baseline" projections , meaning that they assume no future efforts are made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover the time period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st century. [19] [20] The "likely" range (as assessed to have a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on the IPCC's expert judgment) is a projected increase in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C. [19]
The range in temperature projections partly reflects different projections of future greenhouse gas emissions. [21] : 22–24 Different projections contain different assumptions of future social and economic development ( economic growth , population level , energy policies ), which in turn affects projections of future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. [21] : 22–24 The range also reflects uncertainty in the response of the climate system to past and future GHG emissions (measured by the climate sensitivity ). [21] : 22–24
1992 – The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in the Framework Convention on Climate Change ("FCCC" or "UNFCCC") among other agreements.
1995 – Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specific targets on emissions.
1997 – In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets.
2004 – Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.
2011 – Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol. [22]
2012 – On 31 December 2012, the first commitment period under the Protocol expired.
Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). [23] Article 2 of the Convention states its ultimate objective, which is to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human) interference with the climate system." [24]
The natural , technical and social sciences can provide information on decisions relating to this objective including the possible magnitude and rate of future climate changes. [24] However, the IPCC has also concluded that the decision of what constitutes "dangerous" interference requires value judgements, which will vary between different regions of the world. [24] Factors that might affect this decision include the local consequences of climate change impacts, the ability of a particular region to adapt to climate change (adaptive capacity), and the ability of a region to reduce its GHG emissions (mitigative capacity). [24]
The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol was to control emissions of the main anthropogenic (human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. [26] The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. [26] According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012). These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.
The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. [27] The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to establish emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period. [28] The first period emission reduction commitments expired on 31 December 2012.
The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." [29] Even if Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission reductions will be required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations. [28] [30]
For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change#Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations ). [31] Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. [32] Stabilizing the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO 2 emissions. [31]
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
- Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol [33] is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol. [34] [35] : 290
- Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
- Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
- Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
- Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.
Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union -15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions. [33] The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane ( CH 4 ), nitrous oxide ( N 2 O ), sulphur hexafluoride ( SF 6 ), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). [36] The six GHG are translated into CO 2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions. [37] These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer .
Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets (formally called "quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives" (QELRO) – Article 4.1). [38] Parties to the Kyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the convention (the non-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income developing countries, [39] : 4 and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism (explained below). [28]
The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties. [40] Some Parties have emissions limitations reduce below the base year level, some have limitations at the base year level (no permitted increase above the base year level), while others have limitations above the base year level.
Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping. [41] Although Belarus and Turkey are listed in the convention's Annex I, they do not have emissions targets as they were not Annex I Parties when the Protocol was adopted. [40] Kazakhstan does not have a target, but has declared that it wishes to become an Annex I Party to the convention. [42]
Annex I countries under the Kyoto Protocol, their 2008–2012 commitments as % of base year, and 1990 emission levels (% of all Annex I countries) [40] [43]
For most state parties, 1990 is the base year for the national GHG inventory and the calculation of the assigned amount. [44] However, five state parties have an alternative base year: [44]
- Bulgaria: 1988;
- Hungary: the average of the years 1985–1987;
- Poland: 1988;
- Romania: 1989;
- Slovenia: 1986.
Annex I Parties can use a range of sophisticated "flexibility" mechanisms (see below) to meet their targets. Annex I Parties can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission allowances from other operators which have excess emissions credits.
The Protocol defines three " flexibility mechanisms " that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. [45] : 402 The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). IET allows Annex I Parties to "trade" their emissions ( Assigned Amount Units , AAUs, or "allowances" for short). [46]
The economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of reducing (or abating) emissions differs among countries. [47] : 660 [48] "Marginal cost" is the cost of abating the last tonne of CO 2 -eq for an Annex I/non-Annex I Party. At the time of the original Kyoto targets, studies suggested that the flexibility mechanisms could reduce the overall ( aggregate ) cost of meeting the targets. [49] Studies also showed that national losses in Annex I gross domestic product (GDP) could be reduced by the use of the flexibility mechanisms. [49]
The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms", in that they generate emission reductions from projects. The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitative restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of "production" of emission reductions. [47] The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.
The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. [50] The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measured against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission reduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs); reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The reductions are called " credits " because they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions. [51] [52]
Only emission reduction projects that do not involve using nuclear energy are eligible for accreditation under the CDM, in order to prevent nuclear technology exports from becoming the default route for obtaining credits under the CDM.
Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory . Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage their Kyoto obligations, specifically the "CDM process". This determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board.
A number of emissions trading schemes (ETS) have been, or are planned to be, implemented. [53] : 19–26
- Japan: emissions trading in Tokyo started in 2010. This scheme is run by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . [53] : 24
- European Union : the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), which started in 2005. This is run by the European Commission . [53] : 20
- Norway : domestic emissions trading in Norway started in 2005. [53] : 21 This was run by the Norwegian Government, which is now a participant in the EU ETS.
- Switzerland : the Swiss ETS, which runs from 2008 to 2012, to coincide with the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period. [53] : 22
- United Kingdom:
- the UK Emissions Trading Scheme , which ran from 2002 to 2006. This was a scheme run by the UK Government, which is now a participant in the EU ETS. [53] : 19
- the UK CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme , which started in 2010, and is run by the UK Government. [53] : 25
- Canada: emissions trading in Alberta , Canada, which started in 2007. This is run by the Government of Alberta . [53] : 22
- United States:
- the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), which started in 2009. This scheme caps emissions from power generation in eleven north-eastern US states (Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Virginia). [53] : 24 [ failed verification ]
- emissions trading in California, which started in 2013. [53] : 26
- the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which began in 2012. This is a collective ETS agreed between 11 US states and Canadian provinces . [53] : 25
- Australia: the New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme (NSW), which was started in 2003. This scheme was run by the Australian State of New South Wales , and joined the Alfa Climate Stabilization (ACS) but has since been closed in 2012 to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth's carbon price. [53] : 19
- New Zealand : the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , which started in 2008. [53] : 23
The design of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade of national Kyoto obligations to occur between participating countries. [54] The Carbon Trust found that other than the trading that occurs as part of the EU ETS, no intergovernmental emissions trading had taken place. [55]
One of the environmental problems with IET is the large surplus of allowances that are available. Russia, Ukraine, and the new EU-12 member states (the Kyoto Parties Annex I Economies-in-Transition, abbreviated "EIT": Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine) [56] : 59 have a surplus of allowances, while many OECD countries have a deficit. [54] Some of the EITs with a surplus regard it as potential compensation for the trauma of their economic restructuring. [57] When the Kyoto treaty was negotiated, it was recognized that emissions targets for the EITs might lead to them having an excess number of allowances. [58] This excess of allowances were viewed by the EITs as "headroom" to grow their economies. [59] The surplus has, however, also been referred to by some as "hot air", a term which Russia (a country with an estimated surplus of 3.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent allowances) views as "quite offensive". [60]
OECD countries with a deficit could meet their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from transition countries with a surplus. Unless other commitments were made to reduce the total surplus in allowances, such trade would not actually result in emissions being reduced [57] (see also the section below on the Green Investment Scheme ).
The "Green Investment Scheme" (GIS) is a plan for achieving environmental benefits from trading surplus allowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto Protocol. [61] The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in the framework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is designed to achieve greater flexibility in reaching the targets of the Kyoto Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of IET. However, using the GIS is not required under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition of the term. [61]
Under the GIS a party to the protocol expecting that the development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyoto quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units (AAUs) to another party. The proceeds from the AAU sales should be "greened", i.e. channelled to the development and implementation of the projects either acquiring the greenhouse gases emission reductions (hard greening) or building up the necessary framework for this process (soft greening). [57]
Latvia was one of the front-runners of GISs. World Bank (2011) [62] : 53 reported that Latvia has stopped offering AAU sales because of low AAU prices. In 2010, Estonia was the preferred source for AAU buyers, followed by the Czech Republic and Poland. [62] : 53
Japan's national policy to meet their Kyoto target includes the purchase of AAUs sold under GISs. [63] In 2010, Japan and Japanese firms were the main buyers of AAUs. [62] : 53 In terms of the international carbon market, trade in AAUs are a small proportion of overall market value. [62] : 9 In 2010, 97% of trade in the international carbon market was driven by the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS). [62] : 9
Between 2001, which was the first year Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the first Kyoto commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 e) in emission reductions. [64] Most of these reductions are through renewable energy commercialisation , energy efficiency , and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China (52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).
The formal crediting period for Joint Implementation (JI) was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20). [65] In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officially approved and registered. The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM. Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughly equally between Ukraine and the EU's New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N 2 O emissions.
As noted earlier on , the first-round Kyoto emissions limitation commitments are not sufficient to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of GHGs. Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emissions reductions after the end of the first-round Kyoto commitment period in 2012. [28] [30]
Analysts have developed scenarios of future changes in GHG emissions that lead to a stabilization in the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs. [68] Climate models suggest that lower stabilization levels are associated with lower magnitudes of future global warming, while higher stabilization levels are associated with higher magnitudes of future global warming (see figure opposite). [66]
To achieve stabilization, global GHG emissions must peak, then decline. [69] The lower the desired stabilization level, the sooner this peak and decline must occur (see figure opposite). [69] For a given stabilization level, larger emissions reductions in the near term allow for less stringent emissions reductions later. [70] On the other hand, less stringent near term emissions reductions would, for a given stabilization level, require more stringent emissions reductions later on. [70]
The first period Kyoto emissions limitations can be viewed as a first-step towards achieving atmospheric stabilization of GHGs. [27] In this sense, the first period Kyoto commitments may affect what future atmospheric stabilization level can be achieved. [71]
At the 16th Conference of the Parties held in 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited below 2°C relative to the pre-industrial temperature level. [72] One of the stabilization levels discussed in relation to this temperature target is to hold atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at 450 parts per million (ppm) CO 2 - eq. [73] Stabilization at 450 ppm could be associated with a 26 to 78% risk of exceeding the 2 °C target. [74]
Scenarios assessed by Gupta et al. (2007) [75] suggest that Annex I emissions would need to be 25% to 40% below 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050. The only Annex I Parties to have made voluntary pledges in line with this are Japan (25% below 1990 levels by 2020) and Norway (30–40% below 1990 levels by 2020). [76]
Gupta et al. (2007) [75] also looked at what 450 ppm scenarios projected for non-Annex I Parties. Projections indicated that by 2020, non-Annex I emissions in several regions ( Latin America , the Middle East , East Asia , and centrally planned Asia ) would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual" . [75] "Business-as-usual" are projected non-Annex I emissions in the absence of any new policies to control emissions. Projections indicated that by 2050, emissions in all non-Annex I regions would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual". [75]
The agreement is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any legally binding limitations on emissions or enforcement mechanisms. Only Parties to the UNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.
National emission targets specified in the Kyoto Protocol exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use land use , land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets. [77] LULUCF activities are also called "sink" activities. Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate, [78] and indeed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report on Land use, land-use change, and forestry estimates that since 1750 a third of global warming has been caused by land use change. [79] Particular criteria apply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.
Forest management , cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol. [80] Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting their targets is capped. [80]
Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing emissions. [81] The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by 2000. [81] The failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto moved to binding commitments. [81]
At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 was able to push for a mandate (the "Berlin mandate") where it was recognized that: [82]
- developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere (see Greenhouse gas#Cumulative and historical emissions ).
- developing country emissions per-capita (i.e., average emissions per head of population) [83] were still relatively low.
- and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.
During negotiations, the G-77 represented 133 developing countries. China was not a member of the group but an associate. [84] It has since become a member. [85]
The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emission reduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period. [82] However, the large potential for growth in developing country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense. [86] In the final agreement, the Clean Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions. [86] The general assumption was that developing countries would face quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet their first round commitments. [86]
Views on the Kyoto Protocol#Commentaries on negotiations contains a list of the emissions cuts that were proposed by UNFCCC Parties during negotiations. The G77 and China were in favour of strong uniform emission cuts across the developed world. [87] The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to follow the negotiations of the first. [88] In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than 2005. [88] Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can "bank" their unused allowances for use in the subsequent period. [88]
The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included – CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O – with other gases such as HFCs regulated separately. [87] The EU also wanted to have a "bubble" commitment, whereby it could make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, while others cut theirs. [87]
The most vulnerable nations – the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts by developed nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent. [87] Countries that had supported differentiation of targets had different ideas as to how it should be calculated, and many different indicators were proposed. [89] Two examples include differentiation of targets based on gross domestic product (GDP), and differentiation based on energy intensity (energy use per unit of economic output). [89]
The final targets negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises. [87] The targets closely match those decided by Argentinian Raul Estrada, the diplomat who chaired the negotiations. [90] The numbers given to each Party by Chairman Estrada were based on targets already pledged by Parties, information received on latest negotiating positions, and the goal of achieving the strongest possible environmental outcome. [91] The final targets are weaker than those proposed by some Parties, e.g., the Alliance of Small Island States and the G-77 and China, but stronger than the targets proposed by others, e.g., Canada and the United States. [92]
The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed in UNFCCC . One such project is The Adaptation Fund , [93] which has been established by the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties COP6 of the UNFCCC, which attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but it was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union (who favoured a tougher implementation) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia (who wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6-bis) was held in Bonn , [94] where the required decisions were adopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union ) managed to secure the agreement of Japan and Russia by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks .
COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the protocol.
The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9 December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United Nations Climate Change Conference .
During COP13 in Bali, 36 developed Contact Group countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union ) agreed to a 10% emissions increase for Iceland ; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations, [95] much larger increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below § Increase in greenhouse gas emission since 1990 ). [96] Reduction limitations expired in 2013.
The protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties for non-compliance ." [97] According to Grubb (2003), [98] the explicit consequences of non-compliance of the treaty are weak compared to domestic law. [98] Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the Marrakesh Accords. [98]
Monitoring emissions in international agreements is tough as in international law, there is no police power, creating the incentive for states to find 'ways around' monitoring. The Kyoto Protocol regulated 6 sinks and sources of Gases. Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nirous oxide, Hydroflurocarbons, Sulfur hexafluouride and Perfluorocarbons. Monitoring these gases can become quite a challenge. Methane can be monitored and measured from irrigated rice fields and can be measured by the seedling growing up to harvest. Future implications state that this can be affected by more cost effective ways to control emissions as changes in types of fertilizer can reduce emissions by 50%. In addition to this, many countries are unable to monitor certain ways of carbon absorption through trees and soils to an accurate level. [99]
If the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required to make up the difference during the second commitment period plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under an emissions trading program. [100]
The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 of UNFCCC on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto , Japan . It was opened on 16 March 1998 for signature during one year by parties to UNFCCC , when it was signed Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, the Maldives, Samoa, St. Lucia and Switzerland. At the end of the signature period, 82 countries and the European Community had signed. Ratification (which is required to become a party to the Protocol) started on 17 September with ratification by Fiji. Countries that did not sign acceded to the convention, which has the same legal effect. [1]
Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession." [101]
The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002. [102] Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause was reached on 23 May 2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol. [1] The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of 90 days. [103]
As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC ) have ratified the agreement, representing over 61.6% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries. [104] One of the 191 ratifying states—Canada—has renounced the protocol.
Convention Parties
The US signed the Protocol on 12 November 1998, [105] during the Clinton presidency. To become binding in the US, however, the treaty had to be ratified by the Senate , which had already passed the 1997 non-binding Byrd-Hagel Resolution , expressing disapproval of any international agreement that did not require developing countries to make emission reductions and "would seriously harm the economy of the United States". The resolution passed 95–0. [106] Therefore, even though the Clinton administration signed the treaty, [107] it was never submitted to the Senate for ratification.
At the outset of the Bush administration , Senators Chuck Hagel , Jesse Helms , Larry Craig , and Pat Roberts wrote a letter to President George W. Bush seeking to identify his position on the Kyoto Protocol and climate change policy. [108] In a letter dated March 13, 2001, President Bush responded that his "Administration takes the issue of global climate change very seriously", but that "I oppose the Kyoto Protocol because it exempts 80 percent of the world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the U.S. economy. The Senate's vote, 95-0, shows that there is a clear consensus that the Kyoto Protocol is an unfair and ineffective means of addressing global climate change concerns." [109] The administration also questioned the scientific certainty around climate change and cited potential harms of emissions reduction to the US economy. [110]
The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research reported in 2001:
This policy reversal received a massive wave of criticism that was quickly picked up by the international media. Environmental groups blasted the White House, while Europeans and Japanese alike expressed deep concern and regret. ... Almost all world leaders (e.g. China, Japan, South Africa, Pacific Islands, etc.) expressed their disappointment at Bush's decision. [111]
In response to this criticism, Bush stated: "I was responding to reality, and reality is the nation has got a real problem when it comes to energy". The Tyndall Centre called this "an overstatement used to cover up the big benefactors of this policy reversal, i.e., the US oil and coal industry, which has a powerful lobby with the administration and conservative Republican congressmen." [111]
As of 2020, the US is the only signatory that has not ratified the Protocol. [112] The US accounted for 36.1% of emissions in 1990. [113] As such, for the treaty to go into legal effect without US ratification, it would require a coalition including the EU, Russia, Japan, and small parties. A deal, without the US Administration, was reached in the Bonn climate talks (COP-6.5), held in 2001. [114]
In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on further Kyoto targets. [115] The Canadian government announced its withdrawal—possible at any time three years after ratification—from the Kyoto Protocol on 12 December 2011, effective 15 December 2012. [116] Canada was committed to cutting its greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in 1990. The Harper government prioritized oil sands development in Alberta, and deprioritized the reduction of greenhouse emissions. Environment minister Peter Kent cited Canada's liability to "enormous financial penalties" under the treaty unless it withdrew. [115] [117] He also suggested that the recently signed Durban agreement may provide an alternative way forward. [118] The Harper government claimed it would find a "Made in Canada" solution. Canada's decision received a generally negative response from representatives of other ratifying countries. [118]
Andorra, Palestine , South Sudan , the United States and, following their withdrawal on 15 December 2012, Canada are the only UNFCCC Parties that are not party to the Protocol. Furthermore, the Protocol is not applied to UNFCCC observer the Holy See . Although the Kingdom of the Netherlands approved the protocol for the whole Kingdom, it did not deposit an instrument of ratification for Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten or the Caribbean Netherlands . [119]
China (party, no binding targets)
United States (non-party)
European Union (party, binding targets)
India (party, no binding targets)
Russia (party, binding targets 2008–2012)
Indonesia (party, no binding targets)
Brazil (party, no binding targets)
Japan (party, no binding targets)
Congo (DR) (party, no binding targets)
Canada (former party, binding targets 2008–2012)
Other countries
Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding emissions/removals from land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF, i.e., carbon storage in forests and soils) for all Annex I Parties (see list below) including the United States taken together decreased from 19.0 to 17.8 thousand teragrams (Tg, which is equal to 10 9 kg) CO 2 equivalent, a decline of 6.0% during the 1990–2008 period. [120] : 3 Several factors have contributed to this decline. [120] : 14 The first is due to the economic restructuring in the Annex I Economies in Transition [120] : 14 (the EITs – see Intergovernmental Emissions Trading for the list of EITs). Over the period 1990–1999, emissions fell by 40% in the EITs following the collapse of central planning in the former Soviet Union and east European countries. [121] : 25 This led to a massive contraction of their heavy industry-based economies, with associated reductions in their fossil fuel consumption and emissions. [54]
Emissions growth in Annex I Parties have also been limited due to policies and measures (PaMs). [120] : 14 In particular, PaMs were strengthened after 2000, helping to enhance energy efficiency and develop renewable energy sources. [120] : 14 Energy use also decreased during the economic crisis in 2007–2008. [120] : 14
|Country|| Kyoto |
target
2008–2012 [10]
| Kyoto |
target
2013–2020 [122]
| GHG |
emissions
2008–2012
including
LULUCF [10]
| GHG |
emissions
2008–2012
excluding
LULUCF [10]
|Australia||+8||−0.5||+3.2||+30.3|
|Austria||−13||−20||+3.2||+4.9|
|Belgium||−8||−20||−13.9||−14.0|
|Bulgaria||−8||−20||−53.4||−52.8|
|Canada (withdrew)||−6||N/A||+18.5||+18.5|
|Croatia||−5||−20||−10.8||−7.5|
|Czech Republic||−8||−20||−30.6||−30.0|
|Denmark||−21||−20||−17.3||−14.8|
|Estonia||−8||−20||−54.2||−55.3|
|Finland||0||−20||−5.5||−4.7|
|France||0||−20||−10.5||−10.0|
|Germany||−21||−20||−24.3||−23.6|
|Greece||+25||−20||+11.5||+11.9|
|Hungary||−6||−20||−43.7||−41.8|
|Iceland||+10||−20||+10.2||+19.4|
|Ireland||+13||−20||+11.0||+5.1|
|Italy||−6||−20||−7.0||−4.0|
|Japan||−6||N/A||−2.5||+1.4|
|Latvia||−8||−20||−61.2||−56.4|
|Liechtenstein||−8||−16||+4.1||+2.4|
|Lithuania||−8||−20||−57.9||−55.6|
|Luxembourg||−28||−20||−9.3||−8.7|
|Monaco||−8||−22||−12.5||−12.5|
|Netherlands||−6||−20||−6.2||−6.4|
|New Zealand||0||N/A||−2.7||+20.4|
|Norway||+1||−16||+4.6||+7.5|
|Poland||−6||−20||−29.7||−28.8|
|Portugal||+27||−20||+5.5||+22.4|
|Romania||−8||−20||−57.0||−55.7|
|Russia||0||N/A||−36.3||−32.7|
|Slovakia||−8||−20||−37.2||−36.8|
|Slovenia||−8||−20||−9.7||−3.2|
|Spain||+15||−20||+20.0||+23.7|
|Sweden||+4||−20||−18.2||−15.3|
|Switzerland||−8||−15.8||−3.9||−0.8|
|Ukraine||0||−24||−57.1||−56.6|
|United Kingdom||−13||−20||−23.0||−22.6|
|United States (did not ratify)||−7||N/A||+9.5||+9.5|
Collectively the group of industrialized countries committed to a Kyoto target, i.e., the Annex I countries excluding the US, had a target of reducing their GHG emissions by 4.2% on average for the period 2008–2012 relative to the base year, which in most cases is 1990. [121] : 24
As noted in the preceding section, between 1990 and 1999, there was a large reduction in the emissions of the EITs. [121] : 25 The reduction in the EITs is largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction (excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex I countries, excluding the US. [121] : 25 Emissions of the Annex II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries) have experienced a limited increase in emissions from 1990 to 2006, followed by stabilization and a more marked decrease from 2007 onwards. [121] : 25 The emissions reductions in the early nineties by the 12 EIT countries who have since joined the EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its collective Kyoto target. [121] : 25
In December 2011, Canada's environment minister, Peter Kent , formally announced that Canada would withdraw from the Kyoto accord a day after the end of the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference (see the section on the withdrawal of Canada ). [123]
Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties but did not have first-round Kyoto targets. [124] The US had a Kyoto target of a 7% reduction relative to the 1990 level, but has not ratified the treaty. [10] If the US had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the average percentage reduction in total GHG emissions for the Annex I group would have been a 5.2% reduction relative to the base year. [121] : 26
38 developed countries committed to limiting their greenhouse gas emissions. Because the United States did not ratify and Canada withdrew, the emission limits remained in force for 36 countries. All of them complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries (Austria, Denmark, Iceland, Japan, Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, Norway, Spain and Switzerland) had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. [10]
In total, the 36 countries that fully participated in the Protocol were committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 4% from the 1990 base year. Their average annual emissions in 2008–2012 were 24.2% below the 1990 level. Hence, they surpassed their aggregate commitment by a large margin. If the United States and Canada are included, the emissions decreased by 11.8%. The large reductions were mainly thanks to the dissolution of the Soviet Union , which reduced the emissions of the Eastern Bloc by tens of percents in the early 1990s. In addition, the financial crisis of 2007–08 significantly reduced emissions during the first Kyoto commitment period. [10]
The 36 countries that were committed to emission reductions only accounted for 24% of the global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010. [10] Even though these countries significantly reduced their emissions during the Kyoto commitment period, other countries increased their emissions so much that the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010. [11]
UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties. [39] Most non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income. [39] : 4 Most Parties included information on policies relating to sustainable development . Sustainable development priorities mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care. [39] : 6 Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include global concerns such as climate change. [39] : 7
A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran , stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions by Annex I Parties could adversely affect their economies. [39] : 7 The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing, and export of fossil fuels .
Emissions
GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year 1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO 2 -eq. CO 2 was the largest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) (11%).
The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sector was the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO 2 -eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122 non-Annex I Parties.
- The Africa region's aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.
- The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.6 tonnes.
- The Latin America and Caribbean region's aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 4.6 tonnes.
- The "other" region includes Albania , Armenia, Azerbaijan , Georgia, Malta, Moldova , and North Macedonia . Their aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 5.1 tonnes.
Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a small difference of 1.7% with and without LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, total aggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.
Trends
In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009). [125] For example, emissions in China have risen strongly over the 1990–2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.
Barker et al. (2007, p. 79) assessed the literature on cost estimates for the Kyoto Protocol. [126] Due to US non-participation in the Kyoto treaty, costs estimates were found to be much lower than those estimated in the previous IPCC Third Assessment Report . Without the US participation, and with full use of the Kyoto flexible mechanisms, costs were estimated at less than 0.05% of Annex B GDP. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.1–1.1%. Without use of the flexible mechanisms, costs without the US participation were estimated at less than 0.1%. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.2–2%. These cost estimates were viewed as being based on much evidence and high agreement in the literature.
This section needs to be updated . Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( June 2021 )
Gupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem. [27] In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.
Gupta et al. (2007) [127] described the Kyoto first-round commitments as "modest", stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty's effectiveness. It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made more effective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a larger share of global emissions. [127] In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion . [128]
World Bank (2010) [129] commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth. The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but in 2006, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by 24%. [130] World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change. [129]
Some of the criticism of the Protocol has been based on the idea of climate justice (Liverman, 2008, p. 14). [35]
This has particularly centered on the balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world to climate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world. Another criticism of the Kyoto Protocol and other international conventions, is the right of indigenous peoples right to participate. Quoted here from The Declaration of the First International Forum of Indigenous Peoples on Climate Change , it says "Despite the recognition of our role in preventing global warming, when it comes time to sign international conventions like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, once again, our right to participate in national and international discussions that directly affect our Peoples and territories is denied." [131] Additionally, later in the declaration, it reads: [131]
We denounce the fact that neither the [United Nations] nor the Kyoto Protocol recognizes the existence or the contributions of Indigenous Peoples. Furthermore, the debates under these instruments have not considered the suggestions and proposals of the Indigenous Peoples nor have the appropriate mechanisms to guarantee our participation in all the debates that directly concern the Indigenous Peoples has been established.
Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town", and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions (Aldy et al. ., 2003, p. 9). [132] In 2001, seventeen national science academies stated that ratification of the Protocol represented a "small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases." [133] Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000, p. 5). [134]
The United States (under former President George W. Bush ) and Australia (initially, under former Prime Minister John Howard ) did not ratify the Kyoto treaty. [135] According to Stern (2006), [135] their decision was based on the lack of quantitative emission commitments for emerging economies (see also the 2000 onwards section). Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd , has since ratified the treaty, [136] [137] which took effect in March 2008. [138]
Another area which has been commented on is the role of the Kyoto flexibility mechanisms – emissions trading , Joint Implementation , and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). [139] [140] The flexibility mechanisms have attracted both positive and negative comments. [141] [142] [143]
As mentioned earlier, a number of Annex I Parties have implemented emissions trading schemes (ETSs) as part of efforts to meet their Kyoto commitments. General commentaries on emissions trading are contained in emissions trading and carbon emission trading . Individual articles on the ETSs contain commentaries on these schemes (see § International Emissions Trading for a list of ETSs).
One of the arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that they can reduce the costs incurred by Annex I Parties in meeting their Kyoto commitments. [139] Criticisms of flexibility have, for example, included the ineffectiveness of emissions trading in promoting investment in non-fossil energy sources, [144] and adverse impacts of CDM projects on local communities in developing countries. [145]
As the Kyoto Protocol seeks to reduce environmental pollutants while at the same time altering the freedoms of some citizens.
As discussed by Milton Friedman , one can achieve both economic and political freedom through capitalism; nonetheless, it is never guaranteed that one is going to have equality of wealth of those on top of the "food chain" of this capitalistic world. All these alterations come to what the leaders of the citizens choose to impose in means of improving ones lifestyle. In the case of the Kyoto Protocol, it seeks to impose regulations that will reduce production of pollutants towards the environment. Furthermore, seeking to compromise the freedoms of both private and public citizens. In one side it imposes bigger regulations towards companies and reducing their profits as they need to fulfil such regulations with, which are oftentimes more expensive, alternatives for production. On the other hand, it seeks to reduce the emissions that cause the rapid environmental change called climate change .
The conditions of the Kyoto Protocol consist of mandatory targets on greenhouse gas emissions for the world's leading economies. As provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, "These targets range from −8 per cent to +10 per cent of the countries' individual 1990 emissions levels with a view to reducing their overall emissions of such gases by at least 5 per cent below existing 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012." [146]
China, India, Indonesia and Brazil were not required to reduce their CO 2 emissions. The remaining signatory countries were not obliged to implement a common framework nor specific measures, but to reach an emission reduction target for which they can benefit of a secondary market for carbon credits multilaterally exchanged from each other. [147] The Emissions-trading Scheme (ETS) allowed countries to host polluting industries and to buy from other countries the property of their environmental merits and virtuous patterns. [147]
The Kyoto Protocol's goals are challenged, however, by climate change deniers , who condemn strong scientific evidence of the human impact on climate change. One prominent scholar opines that these climate change deniers "arguably" breach Rousseau's notion of the social contract, which is an implicit agreement among the members of a society to coordinate efforts in the name of overall social benefit. The climate change denial movement hinders efforts at coming to agreements as a collective global society on climate change. [148]
A 2021 review considers both the institutional design and the political strategies that have affected the adoption of the Kyoto protocol. It concludes that the Kyoto protocol's relatively small impact on global carbon dioxide emissions reflects a number of factors, including "deliberate political strategy, unequal power, and the absence of leadership" among and within nations. [149] The efforts of fossil fuel interests and conservative think tanks to spread disinformation and climate change denial have influenced public opinion and political action both within the United States and beyond it. The direct lobbying of fossil fuel companies and their funding of political actors have slowed political action to address climate change at regional, national, and international levels. [149]
The official meeting of all states party to the Kyoto Protocol is the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It is held every year; it serves as the formal meeting of UNFCCC. Parties to the Convention may participate in Protocol-related meetings either as parties to the Protocol or as observers.
The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin. The first Meeting of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) was held in 2005 in conjunction with COP 11. The 2013 conference was held in Warsaw . Later COPs were held in Lima, Peru, in 2014 and in Paris, France, in 2015. The 2015 event, COP 21, aimed to hold the global average rise in temperature below 2 degrees Celsius. [150] COP 22 was planned for Marrakesh, Morocco and COP 23 for Bonn, Germany.
In the non-binding " Washington Declaration " agreed on 16 February 2007, heads of governments from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisaged a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries , and initially hoped that it would be in place by 2009. [151] [152]
The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 was one of the annual series of UN meetings that followed the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. In 1997 the talks led to the Kyoto Protocol, and the conference in Copenhagen was considered to be the opportunity to agree a successor to Kyoto that would bring about meaningful carbon cuts. [153] [154]
The 2010 Cancún agreements include voluntary pledges made by 76 developed and developing countries to control their emissions of greenhouse gases. [155] In 2010, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annual global emissions. [155] [156]
By May 2012, the US, Japan, Russia, and Canada had indicated they would not sign up to a second Kyoto commitment period. [157] In November 2012, Australia confirmed it would participate in a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand confirmed that it would not. [158]
New Zealand's climate minister Tim Groser said the 15-year-old Kyoto Protocol was outdated, and that New Zealand was "ahead of the curve" in looking for a replacement that would include developing nations. [159] Non-profit environmental organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund criticised New Zealand's decision to pull out. [160]
On 8 December 2012, at the end of the 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference , an agreement was reached to extend the Protocol to 2020 and to set a date of 2015 for the development of a successor document, to be implemented from 2020 (see lede for more information). [161] The outcome of the Doha talks has received a mixed response, with small island states critical of the overall package. The Kyoto second commitment period applies to about 11% of annual global emissions of greenhouse gases. Other results of the conference include a timetable for a global agreement to be adopted by 2015 which includes all countries. [162] At the Doha meeting of the parties to the UNFCCC on 8 December 2012, the European Union chief climate negotiator, Artur Runge-Metzger, pledged to extend the treaty, binding on the 27 European Member States, up to the year 2020 pending an internal ratification procedure.
Ban Ki Moon , Secretary General of the United Nations , called on world leaders to come to an agreement on halting global warming during the 69th Session of the UN General Assembly [163] on 23 September 2014 in New York. The next climate summit was held in Paris in 2015 , out of which emerged the Paris Agreement , the successor to the Kyoto Protocol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol | 85 |
when did the kyoto protocol came into force | Kyoto Protocol - Wikipedia | This article is about the international treaty. For the rock band, see Kyoto Protocol (band) .
|Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC|
|Signed||11 December 1997 [1]|
|Location||Kyoto, Japan|
|Effective||16 February 2005 [1]|
|Condition||Ratification by at least 55 states to the Convention|
|Expiration|| 31 December 2012 (first commitment period) [2] |
31 December 2020 (second commitment period) [3]
|Signatories||84 [1] (1998–1999 signing period)|
|Parties||192 [4] [5] (the European Union, Cook Islands, Niue, and all UN member states except Andorra, Canada, South Sudan, and the United States as of 2022)|
|Depositary||Secretary-General of the United Nations|
|Languages||Arabic, Mandarin, English, French, Russian, and Spanish|
|Full text|
|Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource|
|Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol|
|Type||Amendment to international agreement|
|Drafted||8 December 2012|
|Location||Doha , Qatar|
|Effective||31 December 2020 [6]|
|Condition||Ratification by 144 state parties required|
|Expiration||31 December 2020 [7]|
|Ratifiers||147 [6]|
|Full text|
|Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource|
The Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the scientific consensus that (part one) global warming is occurring and (part two) that human-made CO 2 emissions are driving it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There were 192 parties ( Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012) [5] to the Protocol in 2020.
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applied to the seven greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) , methane (CH 4 ) , nitrous oxide (N 2 O) , hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ) , nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3 ) . [8] Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha Round. [9]
The Protocol was based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledged that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate change, owing to economic development , and therefore placed the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36 countries that fully participated in the first commitment period complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding emission reductions in other countries because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. The financial crisis of 2007–08 helped reduce the emissions. The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former Eastern Bloc countries because the dissolution of the Soviet Union reduced their emissions in the early 1990s. [10] Even though the 36 developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010. [11]
A second commitment period was agreed to in 2012 to extend the agreement to 2020, known as the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, in which 37 countries had binding targets: Australia , the European Union (and its then 28 member states , now 27), Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine stated that they may withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets. [12] Japan, New Zealand , and Russia had participated in Kyoto's first-round but did not take on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets were Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which did not ratify). Canada's decision to withdraw was to the dismay of Environment minister, Peter Kent . If they were to remain as a part of the protocol, Canada would be hit with a $14 billion fine, which would be devastating to their economy, hence the reluctant decision to exit. [13] As of October 2020, 147 [6] [14] states had accepted the Doha Amendment. It entered into force on 31 December 2020, following its acceptance by the mandated minimum of at least 144 states, although the second commitment period ended on the same day. Of the 37 parties with binding commitments, 34 had ratified.
Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ended in 2020. This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto Protocol.
Main article: Global warming
Annex I Parties who have agreed to reduce their GHG emissions below their individual base year levels (see definition in this article)
Annex I Parties who have agreed to cap their GHG emissions at their base year levels
Non-Annex I Parties who are not obligated by caps or Annex I Parties with an emissions cap that allows their emissions to expand above their base year levels or countries that have not ratified the Kyoto Protocol
The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature ("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking. [17] [18] Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughout the 21st century and beyond. [18]
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) have produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be. [19] The IPCC's projections are "baseline" projections , meaning that they assume no future efforts are made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover the time period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st century. [19] [20] The "likely" range (as assessed to have a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on the IPCC's expert judgment) is a projected increase in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C. [19]
The range in temperature projections partly reflects different projections of future greenhouse gas emissions. [21] : 22–24 Different projections contain different assumptions of future social and economic development ( economic growth , population level , energy policies ), which in turn affects projections of future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. [21] : 22–24 The range also reflects uncertainty in the response of the climate system to past and future GHG emissions (measured by the climate sensitivity ). [21] : 22–24
1992 – The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in the Framework Convention on Climate Change ("FCCC" or "UNFCCC") among other agreements.
1995 – Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specific targets on emissions.
1997 – In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets.
2004 – Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.
2011 – Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol. [22]
2012 – On 31 December 2012, the first commitment period under the Protocol expired.
Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). [23] Article 2 of the Convention states its ultimate objective, which is to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human) interference with the climate system." [24]
The natural , technical and social sciences can provide information on decisions relating to this objective including the possible magnitude and rate of future climate changes. [24] However, the IPCC has also concluded that the decision of what constitutes "dangerous" interference requires value judgements, which will vary between different regions of the world. [24] Factors that might affect this decision include the local consequences of climate change impacts, the ability of a particular region to adapt to climate change (adaptive capacity), and the ability of a region to reduce its GHG emissions (mitigative capacity). [24]
The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol was to control emissions of the main anthropogenic (human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. [26] The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. [26] According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012). These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.
The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. [27] The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to establish emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period. [28] The first period emission reduction commitments expired on 31 December 2012.
The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." [29] Even if Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission reductions will be required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations. [28] [30]
For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change#Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations ). [31] Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. [32] Stabilizing the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO 2 emissions. [31]
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
- Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol [33] is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol. [34] [35] : 290
- Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
- Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
- Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
- Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.
Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union -15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions. [33] The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane ( CH 4 ), nitrous oxide ( N 2 O ), sulphur hexafluoride ( SF 6 ), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). [36] The six GHG are translated into CO 2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions. [37] These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer .
Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets (formally called "quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives" (QELRO) – Article 4.1). [38] Parties to the Kyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the convention (the non-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income developing countries, [39] : 4 and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism (explained below). [28]
The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties. [40] Some Parties have emissions limitations reduce below the base year level, some have limitations at the base year level (no permitted increase above the base year level), while others have limitations above the base year level.
Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping. [41] Although Belarus and Turkey are listed in the convention's Annex I, they do not have emissions targets as they were not Annex I Parties when the Protocol was adopted. [40] Kazakhstan does not have a target, but has declared that it wishes to become an Annex I Party to the convention. [42]
Annex I countries under the Kyoto Protocol, their 2008–2012 commitments as % of base year, and 1990 emission levels (% of all Annex I countries) [40] [43]
For most state parties, 1990 is the base year for the national GHG inventory and the calculation of the assigned amount. [44] However, five state parties have an alternative base year: [44]
- Bulgaria: 1988;
- Hungary: the average of the years 1985–1987;
- Poland: 1988;
- Romania: 1989;
- Slovenia: 1986.
Annex I Parties can use a range of sophisticated "flexibility" mechanisms (see below) to meet their targets. Annex I Parties can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission allowances from other operators which have excess emissions credits.
The Protocol defines three " flexibility mechanisms " that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. [45] : 402 The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). IET allows Annex I Parties to "trade" their emissions ( Assigned Amount Units , AAUs, or "allowances" for short). [46]
The economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of reducing (or abating) emissions differs among countries. [47] : 660 [48] "Marginal cost" is the cost of abating the last tonne of CO 2 -eq for an Annex I/non-Annex I Party. At the time of the original Kyoto targets, studies suggested that the flexibility mechanisms could reduce the overall ( aggregate ) cost of meeting the targets. [49] Studies also showed that national losses in Annex I gross domestic product (GDP) could be reduced by the use of the flexibility mechanisms. [49]
The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms", in that they generate emission reductions from projects. The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitative restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of "production" of emission reductions. [47] The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.
The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. [50] The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measured against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission reduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs); reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The reductions are called " credits " because they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions. [51] [52]
Only emission reduction projects that do not involve using nuclear energy are eligible for accreditation under the CDM, in order to prevent nuclear technology exports from becoming the default route for obtaining credits under the CDM.
Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory . Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage their Kyoto obligations, specifically the "CDM process". This determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board.
A number of emissions trading schemes (ETS) have been, or are planned to be, implemented. [53] : 19–26
- Japan: emissions trading in Tokyo started in 2010. This scheme is run by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . [53] : 24
- European Union : the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), which started in 2005. This is run by the European Commission . [53] : 20
- Norway : domestic emissions trading in Norway started in 2005. [53] : 21 This was run by the Norwegian Government, which is now a participant in the EU ETS.
- Switzerland : the Swiss ETS, which runs from 2008 to 2012, to coincide with the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period. [53] : 22
- United Kingdom:
- the UK Emissions Trading Scheme , which ran from 2002 to 2006. This was a scheme run by the UK Government, which is now a participant in the EU ETS. [53] : 19
- the UK CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme , which started in 2010, and is run by the UK Government. [53] : 25
- Canada: emissions trading in Alberta , Canada, which started in 2007. This is run by the Government of Alberta . [53] : 22
- United States:
- the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), which started in 2009. This scheme caps emissions from power generation in eleven north-eastern US states (Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Virginia). [53] : 24 [ failed verification ]
- emissions trading in California, which started in 2013. [53] : 26
- the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which began in 2012. This is a collective ETS agreed between 11 US states and Canadian provinces . [53] : 25
- Australia: the New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme (NSW), which was started in 2003. This scheme was run by the Australian State of New South Wales , and joined the Alfa Climate Stabilization (ACS) but has since been closed in 2012 to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth's carbon price. [53] : 19
- New Zealand : the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , which started in 2008. [53] : 23
The design of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade of national Kyoto obligations to occur between participating countries. [54] The Carbon Trust found that other than the trading that occurs as part of the EU ETS, no intergovernmental emissions trading had taken place. [55]
One of the environmental problems with IET is the large surplus of allowances that are available. Russia, Ukraine, and the new EU-12 member states (the Kyoto Parties Annex I Economies-in-Transition, abbreviated "EIT": Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine) [56] : 59 have a surplus of allowances, while many OECD countries have a deficit. [54] Some of the EITs with a surplus regard it as potential compensation for the trauma of their economic restructuring. [57] When the Kyoto treaty was negotiated, it was recognized that emissions targets for the EITs might lead to them having an excess number of allowances. [58] This excess of allowances were viewed by the EITs as "headroom" to grow their economies. [59] The surplus has, however, also been referred to by some as "hot air", a term which Russia (a country with an estimated surplus of 3.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent allowances) views as "quite offensive". [60]
OECD countries with a deficit could meet their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from transition countries with a surplus. Unless other commitments were made to reduce the total surplus in allowances, such trade would not actually result in emissions being reduced [57] (see also the section below on the Green Investment Scheme ).
The "Green Investment Scheme" (GIS) is a plan for achieving environmental benefits from trading surplus allowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto Protocol. [61] The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in the framework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is designed to achieve greater flexibility in reaching the targets of the Kyoto Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of IET. However, using the GIS is not required under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition of the term. [61]
Under the GIS a party to the protocol expecting that the development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyoto quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units (AAUs) to another party. The proceeds from the AAU sales should be "greened", i.e. channelled to the development and implementation of the projects either acquiring the greenhouse gases emission reductions (hard greening) or building up the necessary framework for this process (soft greening). [57]
Latvia was one of the front-runners of GISs. World Bank (2011) [62] : 53 reported that Latvia has stopped offering AAU sales because of low AAU prices. In 2010, Estonia was the preferred source for AAU buyers, followed by the Czech Republic and Poland. [62] : 53
Japan's national policy to meet their Kyoto target includes the purchase of AAUs sold under GISs. [63] In 2010, Japan and Japanese firms were the main buyers of AAUs. [62] : 53 In terms of the international carbon market, trade in AAUs are a small proportion of overall market value. [62] : 9 In 2010, 97% of trade in the international carbon market was driven by the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS). [62] : 9
Between 2001, which was the first year Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the first Kyoto commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 e) in emission reductions. [64] Most of these reductions are through renewable energy commercialisation , energy efficiency , and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China (52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).
The formal crediting period for Joint Implementation (JI) was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20). [65] In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officially approved and registered. The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM. Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughly equally between Ukraine and the EU's New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N 2 O emissions.
As noted earlier on , the first-round Kyoto emissions limitation commitments are not sufficient to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of GHGs. Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emissions reductions after the end of the first-round Kyoto commitment period in 2012. [28] [30]
Analysts have developed scenarios of future changes in GHG emissions that lead to a stabilization in the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs. [68] Climate models suggest that lower stabilization levels are associated with lower magnitudes of future global warming, while higher stabilization levels are associated with higher magnitudes of future global warming (see figure opposite). [66]
To achieve stabilization, global GHG emissions must peak, then decline. [69] The lower the desired stabilization level, the sooner this peak and decline must occur (see figure opposite). [69] For a given stabilization level, larger emissions reductions in the near term allow for less stringent emissions reductions later. [70] On the other hand, less stringent near term emissions reductions would, for a given stabilization level, require more stringent emissions reductions later on. [70]
The first period Kyoto emissions limitations can be viewed as a first-step towards achieving atmospheric stabilization of GHGs. [27] In this sense, the first period Kyoto commitments may affect what future atmospheric stabilization level can be achieved. [71]
At the 16th Conference of the Parties held in 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited below 2°C relative to the pre-industrial temperature level. [72] One of the stabilization levels discussed in relation to this temperature target is to hold atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at 450 parts per million (ppm) CO 2 - eq. [73] Stabilization at 450 ppm could be associated with a 26 to 78% risk of exceeding the 2 °C target. [74]
Scenarios assessed by Gupta et al. (2007) [75] suggest that Annex I emissions would need to be 25% to 40% below 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050. The only Annex I Parties to have made voluntary pledges in line with this are Japan (25% below 1990 levels by 2020) and Norway (30–40% below 1990 levels by 2020). [76]
Gupta et al. (2007) [75] also looked at what 450 ppm scenarios projected for non-Annex I Parties. Projections indicated that by 2020, non-Annex I emissions in several regions ( Latin America , the Middle East , East Asia , and centrally planned Asia ) would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual" . [75] "Business-as-usual" are projected non-Annex I emissions in the absence of any new policies to control emissions. Projections indicated that by 2050, emissions in all non-Annex I regions would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual". [75]
The agreement is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any legally binding limitations on emissions or enforcement mechanisms. Only Parties to the UNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.
National emission targets specified in the Kyoto Protocol exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use land use , land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets. [77] LULUCF activities are also called "sink" activities. Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate, [78] and indeed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report on Land use, land-use change, and forestry estimates that since 1750 a third of global warming has been caused by land use change. [79] Particular criteria apply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.
Forest management , cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol. [80] Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting their targets is capped. [80]
Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing emissions. [81] The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by 2000. [81] The failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto moved to binding commitments. [81]
At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 was able to push for a mandate (the "Berlin mandate") where it was recognized that: [82]
- developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere (see Greenhouse gas#Cumulative and historical emissions ).
- developing country emissions per-capita (i.e., average emissions per head of population) [83] were still relatively low.
- and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.
During negotiations, the G-77 represented 133 developing countries. China was not a member of the group but an associate. [84] It has since become a member. [85]
The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emission reduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period. [82] However, the large potential for growth in developing country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense. [86] In the final agreement, the Clean Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions. [86] The general assumption was that developing countries would face quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet their first round commitments. [86]
Views on the Kyoto Protocol#Commentaries on negotiations contains a list of the emissions cuts that were proposed by UNFCCC Parties during negotiations. The G77 and China were in favour of strong uniform emission cuts across the developed world. [87] The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to follow the negotiations of the first. [88] In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than 2005. [88] Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can "bank" their unused allowances for use in the subsequent period. [88]
The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included – CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O – with other gases such as HFCs regulated separately. [87] The EU also wanted to have a "bubble" commitment, whereby it could make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, while others cut theirs. [87]
The most vulnerable nations – the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts by developed nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent. [87] Countries that had supported differentiation of targets had different ideas as to how it should be calculated, and many different indicators were proposed. [89] Two examples include differentiation of targets based on gross domestic product (GDP), and differentiation based on energy intensity (energy use per unit of economic output). [89]
The final targets negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises. [87] The targets closely match those decided by Argentinian Raul Estrada, the diplomat who chaired the negotiations. [90] The numbers given to each Party by Chairman Estrada were based on targets already pledged by Parties, information received on latest negotiating positions, and the goal of achieving the strongest possible environmental outcome. [91] The final targets are weaker than those proposed by some Parties, e.g., the Alliance of Small Island States and the G-77 and China, but stronger than the targets proposed by others, e.g., Canada and the United States. [92]
The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed in UNFCCC . One such project is The Adaptation Fund , [93] which has been established by the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties COP6 of the UNFCCC, which attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but it was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union (who favoured a tougher implementation) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia (who wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6-bis) was held in Bonn , [94] where the required decisions were adopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union ) managed to secure the agreement of Japan and Russia by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks .
COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the protocol.
The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9 December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United Nations Climate Change Conference .
During COP13 in Bali, 36 developed Contact Group countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union ) agreed to a 10% emissions increase for Iceland ; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations, [95] much larger increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below § Increase in greenhouse gas emission since 1990 ). [96] Reduction limitations expired in 2013.
The protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties for non-compliance ." [97] According to Grubb (2003), [98] the explicit consequences of non-compliance of the treaty are weak compared to domestic law. [98] Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the Marrakesh Accords. [98]
Monitoring emissions in international agreements is tough as in international law, there is no police power, creating the incentive for states to find 'ways around' monitoring. The Kyoto Protocol regulated 6 sinks and sources of Gases. Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nirous oxide, Hydroflurocarbons, Sulfur hexafluouride and Perfluorocarbons. Monitoring these gases can become quite a challenge. Methane can be monitored and measured from irrigated rice fields and can be measured by the seedling growing up to harvest. Future implications state that this can be affected by more cost effective ways to control emissions as changes in types of fertilizer can reduce emissions by 50%. In addition to this, many countries are unable to monitor certain ways of carbon absorption through trees and soils to an accurate level. [99]
If the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required to make up the difference during the second commitment period plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under an emissions trading program. [100]
The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 of UNFCCC on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto , Japan . It was opened on 16 March 1998 for signature during one year by parties to UNFCCC , when it was signed Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, the Maldives, Samoa, St. Lucia and Switzerland. At the end of the signature period, 82 countries and the European Community had signed. Ratification (which is required to become a party to the Protocol) started on 17 September with ratification by Fiji. Countries that did not sign acceded to the convention, which has the same legal effect. [1]
Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession." [101]
The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002. [102] Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause was reached on 23 May 2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol. [1] The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of 90 days. [103]
As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC ) have ratified the agreement, representing over 61.6% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries. [104] One of the 191 ratifying states—Canada—has renounced the protocol.
Convention Parties
The US signed the Protocol on 12 November 1998, [105] during the Clinton presidency. To become binding in the US, however, the treaty had to be ratified by the Senate , which had already passed the 1997 non-binding Byrd-Hagel Resolution , expressing disapproval of any international agreement that did not require developing countries to make emission reductions and "would seriously harm the economy of the United States". The resolution passed 95–0. [106] Therefore, even though the Clinton administration signed the treaty, [107] it was never submitted to the Senate for ratification.
At the outset of the Bush administration , Senators Chuck Hagel , Jesse Helms , Larry Craig , and Pat Roberts wrote a letter to President George W. Bush seeking to identify his position on the Kyoto Protocol and climate change policy. [108] In a letter dated March 13, 2001, President Bush responded that his "Administration takes the issue of global climate change very seriously", but that "I oppose the Kyoto Protocol because it exempts 80 percent of the world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the U.S. economy. The Senate's vote, 95-0, shows that there is a clear consensus that the Kyoto Protocol is an unfair and ineffective means of addressing global climate change concerns." [109] The administration also questioned the scientific certainty around climate change and cited potential harms of emissions reduction to the US economy. [110]
The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research reported in 2001:
This policy reversal received a massive wave of criticism that was quickly picked up by the international media. Environmental groups blasted the White House, while Europeans and Japanese alike expressed deep concern and regret. ... Almost all world leaders (e.g. China, Japan, South Africa, Pacific Islands, etc.) expressed their disappointment at Bush's decision. [111]
In response to this criticism, Bush stated: "I was responding to reality, and reality is the nation has got a real problem when it comes to energy". The Tyndall Centre called this "an overstatement used to cover up the big benefactors of this policy reversal, i.e., the US oil and coal industry, which has a powerful lobby with the administration and conservative Republican congressmen." [111]
As of 2020, the US is the only signatory that has not ratified the Protocol. [112] The US accounted for 36.1% of emissions in 1990. [113] As such, for the treaty to go into legal effect without US ratification, it would require a coalition including the EU, Russia, Japan, and small parties. A deal, without the US Administration, was reached in the Bonn climate talks (COP-6.5), held in 2001. [114]
In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on further Kyoto targets. [115] The Canadian government announced its withdrawal—possible at any time three years after ratification—from the Kyoto Protocol on 12 December 2011, effective 15 December 2012. [116] Canada was committed to cutting its greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in 1990. The Harper government prioritized oil sands development in Alberta, and deprioritized the reduction of greenhouse emissions. Environment minister Peter Kent cited Canada's liability to "enormous financial penalties" under the treaty unless it withdrew. [115] [117] He also suggested that the recently signed Durban agreement may provide an alternative way forward. [118] The Harper government claimed it would find a "Made in Canada" solution. Canada's decision received a generally negative response from representatives of other ratifying countries. [118]
Andorra, Palestine , South Sudan , the United States and, following their withdrawal on 15 December 2012, Canada are the only UNFCCC Parties that are not party to the Protocol. Furthermore, the Protocol is not applied to UNFCCC observer the Holy See . Although the Kingdom of the Netherlands approved the protocol for the whole Kingdom, it did not deposit an instrument of ratification for Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten or the Caribbean Netherlands . [119]
China (party, no binding targets)
United States (non-party)
European Union (party, binding targets)
India (party, no binding targets)
Russia (party, binding targets 2008–2012)
Indonesia (party, no binding targets)
Brazil (party, no binding targets)
Japan (party, no binding targets)
Congo (DR) (party, no binding targets)
Canada (former party, binding targets 2008–2012)
Other countries
Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding emissions/removals from land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF, i.e., carbon storage in forests and soils) for all Annex I Parties (see list below) including the United States taken together decreased from 19.0 to 17.8 thousand teragrams (Tg, which is equal to 10 9 kg) CO 2 equivalent, a decline of 6.0% during the 1990–2008 period. [120] : 3 Several factors have contributed to this decline. [120] : 14 The first is due to the economic restructuring in the Annex I Economies in Transition [120] : 14 (the EITs – see Intergovernmental Emissions Trading for the list of EITs). Over the period 1990–1999, emissions fell by 40% in the EITs following the collapse of central planning in the former Soviet Union and east European countries. [121] : 25 This led to a massive contraction of their heavy industry-based economies, with associated reductions in their fossil fuel consumption and emissions. [54]
Emissions growth in Annex I Parties have also been limited due to policies and measures (PaMs). [120] : 14 In particular, PaMs were strengthened after 2000, helping to enhance energy efficiency and develop renewable energy sources. [120] : 14 Energy use also decreased during the economic crisis in 2007–2008. [120] : 14
|Country|| Kyoto |
target
2008–2012 [10]
| Kyoto |
target
2013–2020 [122]
| GHG |
emissions
2008–2012
including
LULUCF [10]
| GHG |
emissions
2008–2012
excluding
LULUCF [10]
|Australia||+8||−0.5||+3.2||+30.3|
|Austria||−13||−20||+3.2||+4.9|
|Belgium||−8||−20||−13.9||−14.0|
|Bulgaria||−8||−20||−53.4||−52.8|
|Canada (withdrew)||−6||N/A||+18.5||+18.5|
|Croatia||−5||−20||−10.8||−7.5|
|Czech Republic||−8||−20||−30.6||−30.0|
|Denmark||−21||−20||−17.3||−14.8|
|Estonia||−8||−20||−54.2||−55.3|
|Finland||0||−20||−5.5||−4.7|
|France||0||−20||−10.5||−10.0|
|Germany||−21||−20||−24.3||−23.6|
|Greece||+25||−20||+11.5||+11.9|
|Hungary||−6||−20||−43.7||−41.8|
|Iceland||+10||−20||+10.2||+19.4|
|Ireland||+13||−20||+11.0||+5.1|
|Italy||−6||−20||−7.0||−4.0|
|Japan||−6||N/A||−2.5||+1.4|
|Latvia||−8||−20||−61.2||−56.4|
|Liechtenstein||−8||−16||+4.1||+2.4|
|Lithuania||−8||−20||−57.9||−55.6|
|Luxembourg||−28||−20||−9.3||−8.7|
|Monaco||−8||−22||−12.5||−12.5|
|Netherlands||−6||−20||−6.2||−6.4|
|New Zealand||0||N/A||−2.7||+20.4|
|Norway||+1||−16||+4.6||+7.5|
|Poland||−6||−20||−29.7||−28.8|
|Portugal||+27||−20||+5.5||+22.4|
|Romania||−8||−20||−57.0||−55.7|
|Russia||0||N/A||−36.3||−32.7|
|Slovakia||−8||−20||−37.2||−36.8|
|Slovenia||−8||−20||−9.7||−3.2|
|Spain||+15||−20||+20.0||+23.7|
|Sweden||+4||−20||−18.2||−15.3|
|Switzerland||−8||−15.8||−3.9||−0.8|
|Ukraine||0||−24||−57.1||−56.6|
|United Kingdom||−13||−20||−23.0||−22.6|
|United States (did not ratify)||−7||N/A||+9.5||+9.5|
Collectively the group of industrialized countries committed to a Kyoto target, i.e., the Annex I countries excluding the US, had a target of reducing their GHG emissions by 4.2% on average for the period 2008–2012 relative to the base year, which in most cases is 1990. [121] : 24
As noted in the preceding section, between 1990 and 1999, there was a large reduction in the emissions of the EITs. [121] : 25 The reduction in the EITs is largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction (excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex I countries, excluding the US. [121] : 25 Emissions of the Annex II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries) have experienced a limited increase in emissions from 1990 to 2006, followed by stabilization and a more marked decrease from 2007 onwards. [121] : 25 The emissions reductions in the early nineties by the 12 EIT countries who have since joined the EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its collective Kyoto target. [121] : 25
In December 2011, Canada's environment minister, Peter Kent , formally announced that Canada would withdraw from the Kyoto accord a day after the end of the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference (see the section on the withdrawal of Canada ). [123]
Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties but did not have first-round Kyoto targets. [124] The US had a Kyoto target of a 7% reduction relative to the 1990 level, but has not ratified the treaty. [10] If the US had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the average percentage reduction in total GHG emissions for the Annex I group would have been a 5.2% reduction relative to the base year. [121] : 26
38 developed countries committed to limiting their greenhouse gas emissions. Because the United States did not ratify and Canada withdrew, the emission limits remained in force for 36 countries. All of them complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries (Austria, Denmark, Iceland, Japan, Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, Norway, Spain and Switzerland) had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. [10]
In total, the 36 countries that fully participated in the Protocol were committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 4% from the 1990 base year. Their average annual emissions in 2008–2012 were 24.2% below the 1990 level. Hence, they surpassed their aggregate commitment by a large margin. If the United States and Canada are included, the emissions decreased by 11.8%. The large reductions were mainly thanks to the dissolution of the Soviet Union , which reduced the emissions of the Eastern Bloc by tens of percents in the early 1990s. In addition, the financial crisis of 2007–08 significantly reduced emissions during the first Kyoto commitment period. [10]
The 36 countries that were committed to emission reductions only accounted for 24% of the global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010. [10] Even though these countries significantly reduced their emissions during the Kyoto commitment period, other countries increased their emissions so much that the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010. [11]
UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties. [39] Most non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income. [39] : 4 Most Parties included information on policies relating to sustainable development . Sustainable development priorities mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care. [39] : 6 Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include global concerns such as climate change. [39] : 7
A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran , stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions by Annex I Parties could adversely affect their economies. [39] : 7 The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing, and export of fossil fuels .
Emissions
GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year 1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO 2 -eq. CO 2 was the largest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) (11%).
The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sector was the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO 2 -eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122 non-Annex I Parties.
- The Africa region's aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.
- The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.6 tonnes.
- The Latin America and Caribbean region's aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 4.6 tonnes.
- The "other" region includes Albania , Armenia, Azerbaijan , Georgia, Malta, Moldova , and North Macedonia . Their aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 5.1 tonnes.
Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a small difference of 1.7% with and without LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, total aggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.
Trends
In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009). [125] For example, emissions in China have risen strongly over the 1990–2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.
Barker et al. (2007, p. 79) assessed the literature on cost estimates for the Kyoto Protocol. [126] Due to US non-participation in the Kyoto treaty, costs estimates were found to be much lower than those estimated in the previous IPCC Third Assessment Report . Without the US participation, and with full use of the Kyoto flexible mechanisms, costs were estimated at less than 0.05% of Annex B GDP. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.1–1.1%. Without use of the flexible mechanisms, costs without the US participation were estimated at less than 0.1%. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.2–2%. These cost estimates were viewed as being based on much evidence and high agreement in the literature.
This section needs to be updated . Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( June 2021 )
Gupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem. [27] In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.
Gupta et al. (2007) [127] described the Kyoto first-round commitments as "modest", stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty's effectiveness. It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made more effective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a larger share of global emissions. [127] In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion . [128]
World Bank (2010) [129] commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth. The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but in 2006, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by 24%. [130] World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change. [129]
Some of the criticism of the Protocol has been based on the idea of climate justice (Liverman, 2008, p. 14). [35]
This has particularly centered on the balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world to climate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world. Another criticism of the Kyoto Protocol and other international conventions, is the right of indigenous peoples right to participate. Quoted here from The Declaration of the First International Forum of Indigenous Peoples on Climate Change , it says "Despite the recognition of our role in preventing global warming, when it comes time to sign international conventions like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, once again, our right to participate in national and international discussions that directly affect our Peoples and territories is denied." [131] Additionally, later in the declaration, it reads: [131]
We denounce the fact that neither the [United Nations] nor the Kyoto Protocol recognizes the existence or the contributions of Indigenous Peoples. Furthermore, the debates under these instruments have not considered the suggestions and proposals of the Indigenous Peoples nor have the appropriate mechanisms to guarantee our participation in all the debates that directly concern the Indigenous Peoples has been established.
Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town", and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions (Aldy et al. ., 2003, p. 9). [132] In 2001, seventeen national science academies stated that ratification of the Protocol represented a "small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases." [133] Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000, p. 5). [134]
The United States (under former President George W. Bush ) and Australia (initially, under former Prime Minister John Howard ) did not ratify the Kyoto treaty. [135] According to Stern (2006), [135] their decision was based on the lack of quantitative emission commitments for emerging economies (see also the 2000 onwards section). Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd , has since ratified the treaty, [136] [137] which took effect in March 2008. [138]
Another area which has been commented on is the role of the Kyoto flexibility mechanisms – emissions trading , Joint Implementation , and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). [139] [140] The flexibility mechanisms have attracted both positive and negative comments. [141] [142] [143]
As mentioned earlier, a number of Annex I Parties have implemented emissions trading schemes (ETSs) as part of efforts to meet their Kyoto commitments. General commentaries on emissions trading are contained in emissions trading and carbon emission trading . Individual articles on the ETSs contain commentaries on these schemes (see § International Emissions Trading for a list of ETSs).
One of the arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that they can reduce the costs incurred by Annex I Parties in meeting their Kyoto commitments. [139] Criticisms of flexibility have, for example, included the ineffectiveness of emissions trading in promoting investment in non-fossil energy sources, [144] and adverse impacts of CDM projects on local communities in developing countries. [145]
As the Kyoto Protocol seeks to reduce environmental pollutants while at the same time altering the freedoms of some citizens.
As discussed by Milton Friedman , one can achieve both economic and political freedom through capitalism; nonetheless, it is never guaranteed that one is going to have equality of wealth of those on top of the "food chain" of this capitalistic world. All these alterations come to what the leaders of the citizens choose to impose in means of improving ones lifestyle. In the case of the Kyoto Protocol, it seeks to impose regulations that will reduce production of pollutants towards the environment. Furthermore, seeking to compromise the freedoms of both private and public citizens. In one side it imposes bigger regulations towards companies and reducing their profits as they need to fulfil such regulations with, which are oftentimes more expensive, alternatives for production. On the other hand, it seeks to reduce the emissions that cause the rapid environmental change called climate change .
The conditions of the Kyoto Protocol consist of mandatory targets on greenhouse gas emissions for the world's leading economies. As provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, "These targets range from −8 per cent to +10 per cent of the countries' individual 1990 emissions levels with a view to reducing their overall emissions of such gases by at least 5 per cent below existing 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012." [146]
China, India, Indonesia and Brazil were not required to reduce their CO 2 emissions. The remaining signatory countries were not obliged to implement a common framework nor specific measures, but to reach an emission reduction target for which they can benefit of a secondary market for carbon credits multilaterally exchanged from each other. [147] The Emissions-trading Scheme (ETS) allowed countries to host polluting industries and to buy from other countries the property of their environmental merits and virtuous patterns. [147]
The Kyoto Protocol's goals are challenged, however, by climate change deniers , who condemn strong scientific evidence of the human impact on climate change. One prominent scholar opines that these climate change deniers "arguably" breach Rousseau's notion of the social contract, which is an implicit agreement among the members of a society to coordinate efforts in the name of overall social benefit. The climate change denial movement hinders efforts at coming to agreements as a collective global society on climate change. [148]
A 2021 review considers both the institutional design and the political strategies that have affected the adoption of the Kyoto protocol. It concludes that the Kyoto protocol's relatively small impact on global carbon dioxide emissions reflects a number of factors, including "deliberate political strategy, unequal power, and the absence of leadership" among and within nations. [149] The efforts of fossil fuel interests and conservative think tanks to spread disinformation and climate change denial have influenced public opinion and political action both within the United States and beyond it. The direct lobbying of fossil fuel companies and their funding of political actors have slowed political action to address climate change at regional, national, and international levels. [149]
The official meeting of all states party to the Kyoto Protocol is the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It is held every year; it serves as the formal meeting of UNFCCC. Parties to the Convention may participate in Protocol-related meetings either as parties to the Protocol or as observers.
The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin. The first Meeting of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) was held in 2005 in conjunction with COP 11. The 2013 conference was held in Warsaw . Later COPs were held in Lima, Peru, in 2014 and in Paris, France, in 2015. The 2015 event, COP 21, aimed to hold the global average rise in temperature below 2 degrees Celsius. [150] COP 22 was planned for Marrakesh, Morocco and COP 23 for Bonn, Germany.
In the non-binding " Washington Declaration " agreed on 16 February 2007, heads of governments from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisaged a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries , and initially hoped that it would be in place by 2009. [151] [152]
The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 was one of the annual series of UN meetings that followed the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. In 1997 the talks led to the Kyoto Protocol, and the conference in Copenhagen was considered to be the opportunity to agree a successor to Kyoto that would bring about meaningful carbon cuts. [153] [154]
The 2010 Cancún agreements include voluntary pledges made by 76 developed and developing countries to control their emissions of greenhouse gases. [155] In 2010, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annual global emissions. [155] [156]
By May 2012, the US, Japan, Russia, and Canada had indicated they would not sign up to a second Kyoto commitment period. [157] In November 2012, Australia confirmed it would participate in a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand confirmed that it would not. [158]
New Zealand's climate minister Tim Groser said the 15-year-old Kyoto Protocol was outdated, and that New Zealand was "ahead of the curve" in looking for a replacement that would include developing nations. [159] Non-profit environmental organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund criticised New Zealand's decision to pull out. [160]
On 8 December 2012, at the end of the 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference , an agreement was reached to extend the Protocol to 2020 and to set a date of 2015 for the development of a successor document, to be implemented from 2020 (see lede for more information). [161] The outcome of the Doha talks has received a mixed response, with small island states critical of the overall package. The Kyoto second commitment period applies to about 11% of annual global emissions of greenhouse gases. Other results of the conference include a timetable for a global agreement to be adopted by 2015 which includes all countries. [162] At the Doha meeting of the parties to the UNFCCC on 8 December 2012, the European Union chief climate negotiator, Artur Runge-Metzger, pledged to extend the treaty, binding on the 27 European Member States, up to the year 2020 pending an internal ratification procedure.
Ban Ki Moon , Secretary General of the United Nations , called on world leaders to come to an agreement on halting global warming during the 69th Session of the UN General Assembly [163] on 23 September 2014 in New York. The next climate summit was held in Paris in 2015 , out of which emerged the Paris Agreement , the successor to the Kyoto Protocol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol | 85 |
when did the kyoto protocol came into force | What is the Kyoto Protocol? | Related information
Credit: Karsten Würth/Unsplash
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex ratification process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
In short, the Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change by committing industrialized countries and economies in transition to limit and reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets. The Convention itself only asks those countries to adopt policies and measures on mitigation and to report periodically.
The Kyoto Protocol is based on the principles and provisions of the Convention and follows its annex-based structure. It only binds developed countries, and places a heavier burden on them under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities”, because it recognizes that they are largely responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere.
In its Annex B , the Kyoto Protocol sets binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and economies in transition and the European Union. Overall, these targets add up to an average 5 per cent emission reduction compared to 1990 levels over the five year period 2008–2012 (the first commitment period).
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was adopted for a second commitment period, starting in 2013 and lasting until 2020.
As of 28 October 2020, 147 Parties deposited their instrument of acceptance, therefore the threshold of 144 instruments of acceptance for entry into force of the Doha Amendment was achieved. The amendment entered into force on 31 December 2020.
The amendment includes:
- New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020;
- A revised list of GHG to be reported on by Parties in the second commitment period; and
- Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol which specifically referenced issues pertaining to the first commitment period and which needed to be updated for the second commitment period.
On 21 December 2012, the amendment was circulated by the Secretary-General of the United Nations, acting in his capacity as Depositary, to all Parties to the Kyoto Protocol in accordance with Articles 20 and 21 of the Protocol.
During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and economies in transition and the European Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990 levels. During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020; however, the composition of Parties in the second commitment period is different from the first.
One important element of the Kyoto Protocol was the establishment of flexible market mechanisms, which are based on the trade of emissions permits. Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures. However, the Protocol also offers them an additional means to meet their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms :
These mechanisms ideally encourage GHG abatement to start where it is most cost-effective, for example, in the developing world. It does not matter where emissions are reduced, as long as they are removed from the atmosphere. This has the parallel benefits of stimulating green investment in developing countries and including the private sector in this endeavour to cut and hold steady GHG emissions at a safe level. It also makes leap-frogging—that is, the possibility of skipping the use of older, dirtier technology for newer, cleaner infrastructure and systems, with obvious longer-term benefits—more economical.
The Kyoto Protocol also established a rigorous monitoring, review and verification system, as well as a compliance system to ensure transparency and hold Parties to account. Under the Protocol, countries' actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the trades carried out.
Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. The UN Climate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an international transaction log to verify that transactions are consistent with the rules of the Protocol.
Reporting is done by Parties by submitting annual emission inventories and national reports under the Protocol at regular intervals.
A compliance system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps them to meet their commitments if they have problems doing so.
Adaptation
The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting to the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of technologies that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In the first commitment period, the Fund was financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project activities. In Doha, in 2012, it was decided that for the second commitment period, international emissions trading and joint implementation would also provide the Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent share of proceeds.
Content | https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol | 85 |
when did the kyoto protocol came into force | What is the Kyoto Protocol? | Related information
Credit: Karsten Würth/Unsplash
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex ratification process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
In short, the Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change by committing industrialized countries and economies in transition to limit and reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets. The Convention itself only asks those countries to adopt policies and measures on mitigation and to report periodically.
The Kyoto Protocol is based on the principles and provisions of the Convention and follows its annex-based structure. It only binds developed countries, and places a heavier burden on them under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities”, because it recognizes that they are largely responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere.
In its Annex B , the Kyoto Protocol sets binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and economies in transition and the European Union. Overall, these targets add up to an average 5 per cent emission reduction compared to 1990 levels over the five year period 2008–2012 (the first commitment period).
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was adopted for a second commitment period, starting in 2013 and lasting until 2020.
As of 28 October 2020, 147 Parties deposited their instrument of acceptance, therefore the threshold of 144 instruments of acceptance for entry into force of the Doha Amendment was achieved. The amendment entered into force on 31 December 2020.
The amendment includes:
- New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020;
- A revised list of GHG to be reported on by Parties in the second commitment period; and
- Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol which specifically referenced issues pertaining to the first commitment period and which needed to be updated for the second commitment period.
On 21 December 2012, the amendment was circulated by the Secretary-General of the United Nations, acting in his capacity as Depositary, to all Parties to the Kyoto Protocol in accordance with Articles 20 and 21 of the Protocol.
During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and economies in transition and the European Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990 levels. During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020; however, the composition of Parties in the second commitment period is different from the first.
One important element of the Kyoto Protocol was the establishment of flexible market mechanisms, which are based on the trade of emissions permits. Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures. However, the Protocol also offers them an additional means to meet their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms :
These mechanisms ideally encourage GHG abatement to start where it is most cost-effective, for example, in the developing world. It does not matter where emissions are reduced, as long as they are removed from the atmosphere. This has the parallel benefits of stimulating green investment in developing countries and including the private sector in this endeavour to cut and hold steady GHG emissions at a safe level. It also makes leap-frogging—that is, the possibility of skipping the use of older, dirtier technology for newer, cleaner infrastructure and systems, with obvious longer-term benefits—more economical.
The Kyoto Protocol also established a rigorous monitoring, review and verification system, as well as a compliance system to ensure transparency and hold Parties to account. Under the Protocol, countries' actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the trades carried out.
Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. The UN Climate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an international transaction log to verify that transactions are consistent with the rules of the Protocol.
Reporting is done by Parties by submitting annual emission inventories and national reports under the Protocol at regular intervals.
A compliance system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps them to meet their commitments if they have problems doing so.
Adaptation
The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting to the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of technologies that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In the first commitment period, the Fund was financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project activities. In Doha, in 2012, it was decided that for the second commitment period, international emissions trading and joint implementation would also provide the Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent share of proceeds.
Content | https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol | 85 |
when did the kyoto protocol came into force | What Is The Kyoto Protocol? Definition, History, Timeline, Status | By
Updated August 12, 2022
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The Kyoto Protocol was an international agreement that aimed to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and the presence of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. The essential tenet of the Kyoto Protocol was that industrialized nations needed to lessen the amount of their CO2 emissions.
The protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when greenhouse gases were rapidly threatening our climate, life on the earth, and the planet.
1
Today, the Kyoto Protocol lives on in other forms, and its issues are still being discussed.
- The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that called for industrialized nations to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions significantly.
- Other accords, like the Doha Amendment and the Paris Climate Agreement, have also tried to curb the global-warming crisis.
- Talks begun by the Kyoto Protocol continue in 2021 and are extremely complicated, involving politics, money, and lack of consensus.
- The U.S. withdrew from the agreement on the grounds that the mandate was unfair and would hurt the U.S. economy.
- The Paris Climate Agreement of 2015, which replaced the Kyoto Protocol, includes commitments from all major GHG-emitting countries to reduce their climate-altering pollution.
The Kyoto Protocol mandated that industrialized nations cut their greenhouse gas emissions at a time when the threat of global warming was growing rapidly. The Protocol was linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on Dec. 11, 1997, and became international law on Feb. 16, 2005.
1
Countries that ratified the Kyoto Protocol were assigned maximum carbon emission levels for specific periods and participated in carbon credit trading . If a country emitted more than its assigned limit, then it would be penalized by receiving a lower emissions limit in the following period.
Developed, industrialized countries made a promise under the Kyoto Protocol to reduce their annual hydrocarbon emissions by an average of 5.2% by the year 2012. This number would represent about 29% of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions.
Targets depended on the individual country. As a result, each nation had a different target to meet by that year.
Members of the European Union (EU) pledged to cut emissions by 8%, while the U.S. and Canada promised to reduce their emissions by 7% and 6%, respectively, by 2012.
2
The amount of the Kyoto Protocol fund that was meant to aid developing countries in selecting non-greenhouse-emitting industrialized processes and technologies.
3
The Kyoto Protocol recognized that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity. As such, the protocol placed a heavier burden on developed nations than less-developed nations.
The Kyoto Protocol mandated that 37 industrialized nations plus the EU cut their GHG emissions. Developing nations were asked to comply voluntarily, and more than 100 developing countries, including China and India, were exempted from the Kyoto agreement altogether.
The protocol separated countries into two groups: Annex I contained developed nations, and Non-Annex I referred to developing countries. The protocol placed emission limitations on Annex I countries only. Non-Annex I nations participated by investing in projects designed to lower emissions in their countries.
For these projects, developing countries earned carbon credits , which they could trade or sell to developed countries, allowing the developed nations a higher level of maximum carbon emissions for that period. In effect, this function helped the developed countries to continue emitting GHG vigorously.
The United States, which had ratified the original Kyoto agreement, dropped out of the protocol in 2001. The U.S. believed that the agreement was unfair because it called only for industrialized nations to limit emissions reductions, and it felt that doing so would hurt the U.S. economy.
4
The Kyoto Protocol established three different mechanisms to enable countries additional ways to meet their emission-limitation target. The three mechanisms are:
- The International Emissions Trading mechanism : Countries that have excess emission units permitted to them but not used can engage in carbon trading and sell these units to countries over their target.
- The Clean Development mechanism: Countries with emission reducing or limiting commitments may implement emission-reducing projects in developing countries to earn certified emission reduction credits.
- The Joint Implementation mechanism: Countries with emission reducing or limiting commitments to earn emission reducing units from a project in another party.
Global emissions were still on the rise by 2005, the year the Kyoto Protocol became international law—even though it was adopted in 1997. Things seemed to go well for many countries, including those in the EU. They planned to meet or exceed their targets under the agreement by 2011. But others continued to fall short.
The United States and China—two of the world's biggest emitters—produced enough greenhouse gases to mitigate any of the progress made by nations who met their targets. In fact, there was an increase of about 40% in emissions globally between 1990 and 2009.
In December 2012, after the first commitment period of the Protocol ended, parties to the Kyoto Protocol met in Doha, Qatar, to adopt an amendment to the original Kyoto agreement. This so-called Doha Amendment added new emission-reduction targets for the second commitment period, 2012–2020, for participating countries.
5
The Doha Amendment had a short life. In 2015, at the sustainable development summit held in Paris, all UNFCCC participants signed yet another pact, the Paris Climate Agreement , which effectively replaced the Kyoto Protocol.
The Paris Climate Agreement is a landmark environmental pact that was adopted by nearly every nation in 2015 to address climate change and its negative effects. The agreement includes commitments from all major GHG-emitting countries to cut their climate-altering pollution and to strengthen those commitments over time.
6
Every five years, countries engage in the Global Stocktake, which is an assessment of their progress under the Paris Climate Agreement.
A major directive of the deal calls for reducing global GHG emissions to limit the earth's temperature increase in this century to 2 degrees (preferring a 1.5-degree increase) Celsius above preindustrial levels. The Paris Agreement also provides a way for developed nations to assist developing nations in their efforts to adapt climate control, and it creates a framework for monitoring and reporting countries’ climate goals transparently .
7
In 2016, when the Paris Climate Agreement went into force, the United States was one of the principal drivers of the agreement, and President Obama hailed it as “a tribute to American leadership.”
8
As a candidate for president at that time, Donald Trump criticized the agreement as a bad deal for the American people and pledged to withdraw the United States if elected. In 2017, then-President Trump announced that the U.S. would withdraw from the Paris Climate Agreement, saying that it would undermine the U.S. economy.
The former president did not begin the formal withdrawal process until Nov. 4, 2019.
9
The U.S. formally withdrew from the Paris Climate Agreement on Nov. 4, 2020, the day after the 2020 presidential election, in which Donald Trump lost his reelection bid to Joseph Biden.
10
On January 20, 2021, his first day in office, President Biden began the process of rejoining the Paris Climate Agreement, which officially took effect on Feb. 19, 2021.
11
Although the Kyoto Protocol no longer exists, many steps are currently being taken in the long-term preservation. Recent legislative action in support of climate change initiatives put forth under both the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement include:
- A $2.3 billion fund for its Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities (BRIC) program to support communities increase resilience to extreme weather. 12
- Proposals to expand offshore wind energy opportunities with the potential of 700,000 acres of alternative energy to power over three million homes. 12
- Reinvigorated reforestation efforts that will address a backlog of four million acres and plan more than one billion trees over the next decade. 13
Below are some relevant dates relating to the development, implementation, and revisions to the Kyoto Protocol:
Dec. 11, 1997: The Kyoto Protocol is adopted at the Conference of the Parties (COP 3) in Kyoto, Japan.
14
Nov. 14, 1998: As a result of a two week meeting that concluded on the 14th, 170 governments adopt a two-year plan titled the Buenos Aires Plan of Action to reduce the risk of global climate change.
15
March 16, 1998: The Kyoto Protocol becomes open for signatures.
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March 15, 1999: One year after being open for signatures, the Kyoto Protocol had received 84 signatures.
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Feb. 16, 2005: The Kyoto Protocol is entered into force.
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Dec. 8, 2012: The Doha Amendment is adopted for a second commitment period.
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March 25, 2013: Afghanistan becomes the 192nd signatory of the Kyoto Protocol.
17
As of August 2022, there remains 192 signatories.
Dec. 12, 2015: The Paris Agreement is adopted by 196 parties at COP21 in Paris, largely superseding the Kyoto Protocol.
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Nov. 4, 2016: The Paris Agreement is entered into force.
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Dec. 31, 2020: After obtaining acceptance by 147 parties and meeting the minimum threshold of acceptance requirement, the Doha Amendment is entered into force.
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The Kyoto Protocol was an agreement among developed nations to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and greenhouse gases (GHG) in an effort to minimize the impacts of climate change.
The United States backed out of the Kyoto Protocol agreement in 2001 on the basis that it unfairly burdened developed nations. The treaty called only for developed nations to reduce emissions, which the U.S. believed would unfairly stifle its economy.
19
After becoming a signatory in 2013, Afghanistan became the 192nd and last signatory of the Kyoto Protocol.
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The Kyoto Protocol was created in response to concerns surrounding climate change. The treat was an agreement between developed nations to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and greenhouse gases. The framework implemented the United Nation's target of reducing global warming consequences including a general rise in seal levels, disappearance of some island states, melting of glaciers, and increase in extreme climate-related events.
The Kyoto Protocol is largely considered a landmark legislative achievement as one of the more prominent international treaties in regards to climate change. Though the treaty has been superseded by the Paris Agreement, the Kyoto Protocol remains an important part of environmental and conservation history.
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when did the kyoto protocol came into force | What is the Kyoto Protocol? | Related information
Credit: Karsten Würth/Unsplash
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex ratification process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
In short, the Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change by committing industrialized countries and economies in transition to limit and reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets. The Convention itself only asks those countries to adopt policies and measures on mitigation and to report periodically.
The Kyoto Protocol is based on the principles and provisions of the Convention and follows its annex-based structure. It only binds developed countries, and places a heavier burden on them under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities”, because it recognizes that they are largely responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere.
In its Annex B , the Kyoto Protocol sets binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and economies in transition and the European Union. Overall, these targets add up to an average 5 per cent emission reduction compared to 1990 levels over the five year period 2008–2012 (the first commitment period).
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was adopted for a second commitment period, starting in 2013 and lasting until 2020.
As of 28 October 2020, 147 Parties deposited their instrument of acceptance, therefore the threshold of 144 instruments of acceptance for entry into force of the Doha Amendment was achieved. The amendment entered into force on 31 December 2020.
The amendment includes:
- New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020;
- A revised list of GHG to be reported on by Parties in the second commitment period; and
- Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol which specifically referenced issues pertaining to the first commitment period and which needed to be updated for the second commitment period.
On 21 December 2012, the amendment was circulated by the Secretary-General of the United Nations, acting in his capacity as Depositary, to all Parties to the Kyoto Protocol in accordance with Articles 20 and 21 of the Protocol.
During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and economies in transition and the European Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990 levels. During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020; however, the composition of Parties in the second commitment period is different from the first.
One important element of the Kyoto Protocol was the establishment of flexible market mechanisms, which are based on the trade of emissions permits. Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures. However, the Protocol also offers them an additional means to meet their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms :
These mechanisms ideally encourage GHG abatement to start where it is most cost-effective, for example, in the developing world. It does not matter where emissions are reduced, as long as they are removed from the atmosphere. This has the parallel benefits of stimulating green investment in developing countries and including the private sector in this endeavour to cut and hold steady GHG emissions at a safe level. It also makes leap-frogging—that is, the possibility of skipping the use of older, dirtier technology for newer, cleaner infrastructure and systems, with obvious longer-term benefits—more economical.
The Kyoto Protocol also established a rigorous monitoring, review and verification system, as well as a compliance system to ensure transparency and hold Parties to account. Under the Protocol, countries' actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the trades carried out.
Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. The UN Climate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an international transaction log to verify that transactions are consistent with the rules of the Protocol.
Reporting is done by Parties by submitting annual emission inventories and national reports under the Protocol at regular intervals.
A compliance system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps them to meet their commitments if they have problems doing so.
Adaptation
The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting to the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of technologies that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In the first commitment period, the Fund was financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project activities. In Doha, in 2012, it was decided that for the second commitment period, international emissions trading and joint implementation would also provide the Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent share of proceeds.
Content | https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol | 85 |
when did the kyoto protocol came into force | Kyoto Protocol - Wikipedia | This article is about the international treaty. For the rock band, see Kyoto Protocol (band) .
|Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC|
|Signed||11 December 1997 [1]|
|Location||Kyoto, Japan|
|Effective||16 February 2005 [1]|
|Condition||Ratification by at least 55 states to the Convention|
|Expiration|| 31 December 2012 (first commitment period) [2] |
31 December 2020 (second commitment period) [3]
|Signatories||84 [1] (1998–1999 signing period)|
|Parties||192 [4] [5] (the European Union, Cook Islands, Niue, and all UN member states except Andorra, Canada, South Sudan, and the United States as of 2022)|
|Depositary||Secretary-General of the United Nations|
|Languages||Arabic, Mandarin, English, French, Russian, and Spanish|
|Full text|
|Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource|
|Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol|
|Type||Amendment to international agreement|
|Drafted||8 December 2012|
|Location||Doha , Qatar|
|Effective||31 December 2020 [6]|
|Condition||Ratification by 144 state parties required|
|Expiration||31 December 2020 [7]|
|Ratifiers||147 [6]|
|Full text|
|Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource|
The Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the scientific consensus that (part one) global warming is occurring and (part two) that human-made CO 2 emissions are driving it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There were 192 parties ( Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012) [5] to the Protocol in 2020.
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applied to the seven greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) , methane (CH 4 ) , nitrous oxide (N 2 O) , hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ) , nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3 ) . [8] Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha Round. [9]
The Protocol was based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledged that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate change, owing to economic development , and therefore placed the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36 countries that fully participated in the first commitment period complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding emission reductions in other countries because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. The financial crisis of 2007–08 helped reduce the emissions. The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former Eastern Bloc countries because the dissolution of the Soviet Union reduced their emissions in the early 1990s. [10] Even though the 36 developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010. [11]
A second commitment period was agreed to in 2012 to extend the agreement to 2020, known as the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, in which 37 countries had binding targets: Australia , the European Union (and its then 28 member states , now 27), Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine stated that they may withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets. [12] Japan, New Zealand , and Russia had participated in Kyoto's first-round but did not take on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets were Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which did not ratify). Canada's decision to withdraw was to the dismay of Environment minister, Peter Kent . If they were to remain as a part of the protocol, Canada would be hit with a $14 billion fine, which would be devastating to their economy, hence the reluctant decision to exit. [13] As of October 2020, 147 [6] [14] states had accepted the Doha Amendment. It entered into force on 31 December 2020, following its acceptance by the mandated minimum of at least 144 states, although the second commitment period ended on the same day. Of the 37 parties with binding commitments, 34 had ratified.
Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ended in 2020. This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto Protocol.
Main article: Global warming
Annex I Parties who have agreed to reduce their GHG emissions below their individual base year levels (see definition in this article)
Annex I Parties who have agreed to cap their GHG emissions at their base year levels
Non-Annex I Parties who are not obligated by caps or Annex I Parties with an emissions cap that allows their emissions to expand above their base year levels or countries that have not ratified the Kyoto Protocol
The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature ("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking. [17] [18] Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughout the 21st century and beyond. [18]
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) have produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be. [19] The IPCC's projections are "baseline" projections , meaning that they assume no future efforts are made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover the time period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st century. [19] [20] The "likely" range (as assessed to have a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on the IPCC's expert judgment) is a projected increase in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C. [19]
The range in temperature projections partly reflects different projections of future greenhouse gas emissions. [21] : 22–24 Different projections contain different assumptions of future social and economic development ( economic growth , population level , energy policies ), which in turn affects projections of future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. [21] : 22–24 The range also reflects uncertainty in the response of the climate system to past and future GHG emissions (measured by the climate sensitivity ). [21] : 22–24
1992 – The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in the Framework Convention on Climate Change ("FCCC" or "UNFCCC") among other agreements.
1995 – Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specific targets on emissions.
1997 – In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets.
2004 – Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.
2011 – Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol. [22]
2012 – On 31 December 2012, the first commitment period under the Protocol expired.
Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). [23] Article 2 of the Convention states its ultimate objective, which is to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human) interference with the climate system." [24]
The natural , technical and social sciences can provide information on decisions relating to this objective including the possible magnitude and rate of future climate changes. [24] However, the IPCC has also concluded that the decision of what constitutes "dangerous" interference requires value judgements, which will vary between different regions of the world. [24] Factors that might affect this decision include the local consequences of climate change impacts, the ability of a particular region to adapt to climate change (adaptive capacity), and the ability of a region to reduce its GHG emissions (mitigative capacity). [24]
The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol was to control emissions of the main anthropogenic (human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. [26] The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. [26] According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012). These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.
The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. [27] The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to establish emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period. [28] The first period emission reduction commitments expired on 31 December 2012.
The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." [29] Even if Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission reductions will be required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations. [28] [30]
For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change#Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations ). [31] Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. [32] Stabilizing the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO 2 emissions. [31]
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
- Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol [33] is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol. [34] [35] : 290
- Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
- Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
- Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
- Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.
Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union -15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions. [33] The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane ( CH 4 ), nitrous oxide ( N 2 O ), sulphur hexafluoride ( SF 6 ), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). [36] The six GHG are translated into CO 2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions. [37] These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer .
Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets (formally called "quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives" (QELRO) – Article 4.1). [38] Parties to the Kyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the convention (the non-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income developing countries, [39] : 4 and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism (explained below). [28]
The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties. [40] Some Parties have emissions limitations reduce below the base year level, some have limitations at the base year level (no permitted increase above the base year level), while others have limitations above the base year level.
Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping. [41] Although Belarus and Turkey are listed in the convention's Annex I, they do not have emissions targets as they were not Annex I Parties when the Protocol was adopted. [40] Kazakhstan does not have a target, but has declared that it wishes to become an Annex I Party to the convention. [42]
Annex I countries under the Kyoto Protocol, their 2008–2012 commitments as % of base year, and 1990 emission levels (% of all Annex I countries) [40] [43]
For most state parties, 1990 is the base year for the national GHG inventory and the calculation of the assigned amount. [44] However, five state parties have an alternative base year: [44]
- Bulgaria: 1988;
- Hungary: the average of the years 1985–1987;
- Poland: 1988;
- Romania: 1989;
- Slovenia: 1986.
Annex I Parties can use a range of sophisticated "flexibility" mechanisms (see below) to meet their targets. Annex I Parties can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission allowances from other operators which have excess emissions credits.
The Protocol defines three " flexibility mechanisms " that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. [45] : 402 The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). IET allows Annex I Parties to "trade" their emissions ( Assigned Amount Units , AAUs, or "allowances" for short). [46]
The economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of reducing (or abating) emissions differs among countries. [47] : 660 [48] "Marginal cost" is the cost of abating the last tonne of CO 2 -eq for an Annex I/non-Annex I Party. At the time of the original Kyoto targets, studies suggested that the flexibility mechanisms could reduce the overall ( aggregate ) cost of meeting the targets. [49] Studies also showed that national losses in Annex I gross domestic product (GDP) could be reduced by the use of the flexibility mechanisms. [49]
The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms", in that they generate emission reductions from projects. The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitative restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of "production" of emission reductions. [47] The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.
The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. [50] The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measured against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission reduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs); reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The reductions are called " credits " because they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions. [51] [52]
Only emission reduction projects that do not involve using nuclear energy are eligible for accreditation under the CDM, in order to prevent nuclear technology exports from becoming the default route for obtaining credits under the CDM.
Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory . Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage their Kyoto obligations, specifically the "CDM process". This determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board.
A number of emissions trading schemes (ETS) have been, or are planned to be, implemented. [53] : 19–26
- Japan: emissions trading in Tokyo started in 2010. This scheme is run by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . [53] : 24
- European Union : the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), which started in 2005. This is run by the European Commission . [53] : 20
- Norway : domestic emissions trading in Norway started in 2005. [53] : 21 This was run by the Norwegian Government, which is now a participant in the EU ETS.
- Switzerland : the Swiss ETS, which runs from 2008 to 2012, to coincide with the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period. [53] : 22
- United Kingdom:
- the UK Emissions Trading Scheme , which ran from 2002 to 2006. This was a scheme run by the UK Government, which is now a participant in the EU ETS. [53] : 19
- the UK CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme , which started in 2010, and is run by the UK Government. [53] : 25
- Canada: emissions trading in Alberta , Canada, which started in 2007. This is run by the Government of Alberta . [53] : 22
- United States:
- the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), which started in 2009. This scheme caps emissions from power generation in eleven north-eastern US states (Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Virginia). [53] : 24 [ failed verification ]
- emissions trading in California, which started in 2013. [53] : 26
- the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which began in 2012. This is a collective ETS agreed between 11 US states and Canadian provinces . [53] : 25
- Australia: the New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme (NSW), which was started in 2003. This scheme was run by the Australian State of New South Wales , and joined the Alfa Climate Stabilization (ACS) but has since been closed in 2012 to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth's carbon price. [53] : 19
- New Zealand : the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , which started in 2008. [53] : 23
The design of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade of national Kyoto obligations to occur between participating countries. [54] The Carbon Trust found that other than the trading that occurs as part of the EU ETS, no intergovernmental emissions trading had taken place. [55]
One of the environmental problems with IET is the large surplus of allowances that are available. Russia, Ukraine, and the new EU-12 member states (the Kyoto Parties Annex I Economies-in-Transition, abbreviated "EIT": Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine) [56] : 59 have a surplus of allowances, while many OECD countries have a deficit. [54] Some of the EITs with a surplus regard it as potential compensation for the trauma of their economic restructuring. [57] When the Kyoto treaty was negotiated, it was recognized that emissions targets for the EITs might lead to them having an excess number of allowances. [58] This excess of allowances were viewed by the EITs as "headroom" to grow their economies. [59] The surplus has, however, also been referred to by some as "hot air", a term which Russia (a country with an estimated surplus of 3.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent allowances) views as "quite offensive". [60]
OECD countries with a deficit could meet their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from transition countries with a surplus. Unless other commitments were made to reduce the total surplus in allowances, such trade would not actually result in emissions being reduced [57] (see also the section below on the Green Investment Scheme ).
The "Green Investment Scheme" (GIS) is a plan for achieving environmental benefits from trading surplus allowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto Protocol. [61] The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in the framework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is designed to achieve greater flexibility in reaching the targets of the Kyoto Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of IET. However, using the GIS is not required under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition of the term. [61]
Under the GIS a party to the protocol expecting that the development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyoto quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units (AAUs) to another party. The proceeds from the AAU sales should be "greened", i.e. channelled to the development and implementation of the projects either acquiring the greenhouse gases emission reductions (hard greening) or building up the necessary framework for this process (soft greening). [57]
Latvia was one of the front-runners of GISs. World Bank (2011) [62] : 53 reported that Latvia has stopped offering AAU sales because of low AAU prices. In 2010, Estonia was the preferred source for AAU buyers, followed by the Czech Republic and Poland. [62] : 53
Japan's national policy to meet their Kyoto target includes the purchase of AAUs sold under GISs. [63] In 2010, Japan and Japanese firms were the main buyers of AAUs. [62] : 53 In terms of the international carbon market, trade in AAUs are a small proportion of overall market value. [62] : 9 In 2010, 97% of trade in the international carbon market was driven by the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS). [62] : 9
Between 2001, which was the first year Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the first Kyoto commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 e) in emission reductions. [64] Most of these reductions are through renewable energy commercialisation , energy efficiency , and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China (52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).
The formal crediting period for Joint Implementation (JI) was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20). [65] In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officially approved and registered. The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM. Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughly equally between Ukraine and the EU's New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N 2 O emissions.
As noted earlier on , the first-round Kyoto emissions limitation commitments are not sufficient to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of GHGs. Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emissions reductions after the end of the first-round Kyoto commitment period in 2012. [28] [30]
Analysts have developed scenarios of future changes in GHG emissions that lead to a stabilization in the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs. [68] Climate models suggest that lower stabilization levels are associated with lower magnitudes of future global warming, while higher stabilization levels are associated with higher magnitudes of future global warming (see figure opposite). [66]
To achieve stabilization, global GHG emissions must peak, then decline. [69] The lower the desired stabilization level, the sooner this peak and decline must occur (see figure opposite). [69] For a given stabilization level, larger emissions reductions in the near term allow for less stringent emissions reductions later. [70] On the other hand, less stringent near term emissions reductions would, for a given stabilization level, require more stringent emissions reductions later on. [70]
The first period Kyoto emissions limitations can be viewed as a first-step towards achieving atmospheric stabilization of GHGs. [27] In this sense, the first period Kyoto commitments may affect what future atmospheric stabilization level can be achieved. [71]
At the 16th Conference of the Parties held in 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited below 2°C relative to the pre-industrial temperature level. [72] One of the stabilization levels discussed in relation to this temperature target is to hold atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at 450 parts per million (ppm) CO 2 - eq. [73] Stabilization at 450 ppm could be associated with a 26 to 78% risk of exceeding the 2 °C target. [74]
Scenarios assessed by Gupta et al. (2007) [75] suggest that Annex I emissions would need to be 25% to 40% below 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050. The only Annex I Parties to have made voluntary pledges in line with this are Japan (25% below 1990 levels by 2020) and Norway (30–40% below 1990 levels by 2020). [76]
Gupta et al. (2007) [75] also looked at what 450 ppm scenarios projected for non-Annex I Parties. Projections indicated that by 2020, non-Annex I emissions in several regions ( Latin America , the Middle East , East Asia , and centrally planned Asia ) would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual" . [75] "Business-as-usual" are projected non-Annex I emissions in the absence of any new policies to control emissions. Projections indicated that by 2050, emissions in all non-Annex I regions would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual". [75]
The agreement is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any legally binding limitations on emissions or enforcement mechanisms. Only Parties to the UNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.
National emission targets specified in the Kyoto Protocol exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use land use , land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets. [77] LULUCF activities are also called "sink" activities. Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate, [78] and indeed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report on Land use, land-use change, and forestry estimates that since 1750 a third of global warming has been caused by land use change. [79] Particular criteria apply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.
Forest management , cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol. [80] Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting their targets is capped. [80]
Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing emissions. [81] The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by 2000. [81] The failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto moved to binding commitments. [81]
At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 was able to push for a mandate (the "Berlin mandate") where it was recognized that: [82]
- developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere (see Greenhouse gas#Cumulative and historical emissions ).
- developing country emissions per-capita (i.e., average emissions per head of population) [83] were still relatively low.
- and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.
During negotiations, the G-77 represented 133 developing countries. China was not a member of the group but an associate. [84] It has since become a member. [85]
The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emission reduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period. [82] However, the large potential for growth in developing country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense. [86] In the final agreement, the Clean Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions. [86] The general assumption was that developing countries would face quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet their first round commitments. [86]
Views on the Kyoto Protocol#Commentaries on negotiations contains a list of the emissions cuts that were proposed by UNFCCC Parties during negotiations. The G77 and China were in favour of strong uniform emission cuts across the developed world. [87] The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to follow the negotiations of the first. [88] In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than 2005. [88] Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can "bank" their unused allowances for use in the subsequent period. [88]
The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included – CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O – with other gases such as HFCs regulated separately. [87] The EU also wanted to have a "bubble" commitment, whereby it could make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, while others cut theirs. [87]
The most vulnerable nations – the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts by developed nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent. [87] Countries that had supported differentiation of targets had different ideas as to how it should be calculated, and many different indicators were proposed. [89] Two examples include differentiation of targets based on gross domestic product (GDP), and differentiation based on energy intensity (energy use per unit of economic output). [89]
The final targets negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises. [87] The targets closely match those decided by Argentinian Raul Estrada, the diplomat who chaired the negotiations. [90] The numbers given to each Party by Chairman Estrada were based on targets already pledged by Parties, information received on latest negotiating positions, and the goal of achieving the strongest possible environmental outcome. [91] The final targets are weaker than those proposed by some Parties, e.g., the Alliance of Small Island States and the G-77 and China, but stronger than the targets proposed by others, e.g., Canada and the United States. [92]
The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed in UNFCCC . One such project is The Adaptation Fund , [93] which has been established by the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties COP6 of the UNFCCC, which attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but it was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union (who favoured a tougher implementation) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia (who wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6-bis) was held in Bonn , [94] where the required decisions were adopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union ) managed to secure the agreement of Japan and Russia by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks .
COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the protocol.
The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9 December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United Nations Climate Change Conference .
During COP13 in Bali, 36 developed Contact Group countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union ) agreed to a 10% emissions increase for Iceland ; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations, [95] much larger increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below § Increase in greenhouse gas emission since 1990 ). [96] Reduction limitations expired in 2013.
The protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties for non-compliance ." [97] According to Grubb (2003), [98] the explicit consequences of non-compliance of the treaty are weak compared to domestic law. [98] Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the Marrakesh Accords. [98]
Monitoring emissions in international agreements is tough as in international law, there is no police power, creating the incentive for states to find 'ways around' monitoring. The Kyoto Protocol regulated 6 sinks and sources of Gases. Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nirous oxide, Hydroflurocarbons, Sulfur hexafluouride and Perfluorocarbons. Monitoring these gases can become quite a challenge. Methane can be monitored and measured from irrigated rice fields and can be measured by the seedling growing up to harvest. Future implications state that this can be affected by more cost effective ways to control emissions as changes in types of fertilizer can reduce emissions by 50%. In addition to this, many countries are unable to monitor certain ways of carbon absorption through trees and soils to an accurate level. [99]
If the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required to make up the difference during the second commitment period plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under an emissions trading program. [100]
The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 of UNFCCC on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto , Japan . It was opened on 16 March 1998 for signature during one year by parties to UNFCCC , when it was signed Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, the Maldives, Samoa, St. Lucia and Switzerland. At the end of the signature period, 82 countries and the European Community had signed. Ratification (which is required to become a party to the Protocol) started on 17 September with ratification by Fiji. Countries that did not sign acceded to the convention, which has the same legal effect. [1]
Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession." [101]
The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002. [102] Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause was reached on 23 May 2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol. [1] The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of 90 days. [103]
As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC ) have ratified the agreement, representing over 61.6% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries. [104] One of the 191 ratifying states—Canada—has renounced the protocol.
Convention Parties
The US signed the Protocol on 12 November 1998, [105] during the Clinton presidency. To become binding in the US, however, the treaty had to be ratified by the Senate , which had already passed the 1997 non-binding Byrd-Hagel Resolution , expressing disapproval of any international agreement that did not require developing countries to make emission reductions and "would seriously harm the economy of the United States". The resolution passed 95–0. [106] Therefore, even though the Clinton administration signed the treaty, [107] it was never submitted to the Senate for ratification.
At the outset of the Bush administration , Senators Chuck Hagel , Jesse Helms , Larry Craig , and Pat Roberts wrote a letter to President George W. Bush seeking to identify his position on the Kyoto Protocol and climate change policy. [108] In a letter dated March 13, 2001, President Bush responded that his "Administration takes the issue of global climate change very seriously", but that "I oppose the Kyoto Protocol because it exempts 80 percent of the world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the U.S. economy. The Senate's vote, 95-0, shows that there is a clear consensus that the Kyoto Protocol is an unfair and ineffective means of addressing global climate change concerns." [109] The administration also questioned the scientific certainty around climate change and cited potential harms of emissions reduction to the US economy. [110]
The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research reported in 2001:
This policy reversal received a massive wave of criticism that was quickly picked up by the international media. Environmental groups blasted the White House, while Europeans and Japanese alike expressed deep concern and regret. ... Almost all world leaders (e.g. China, Japan, South Africa, Pacific Islands, etc.) expressed their disappointment at Bush's decision. [111]
In response to this criticism, Bush stated: "I was responding to reality, and reality is the nation has got a real problem when it comes to energy". The Tyndall Centre called this "an overstatement used to cover up the big benefactors of this policy reversal, i.e., the US oil and coal industry, which has a powerful lobby with the administration and conservative Republican congressmen." [111]
As of 2020, the US is the only signatory that has not ratified the Protocol. [112] The US accounted for 36.1% of emissions in 1990. [113] As such, for the treaty to go into legal effect without US ratification, it would require a coalition including the EU, Russia, Japan, and small parties. A deal, without the US Administration, was reached in the Bonn climate talks (COP-6.5), held in 2001. [114]
In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on further Kyoto targets. [115] The Canadian government announced its withdrawal—possible at any time three years after ratification—from the Kyoto Protocol on 12 December 2011, effective 15 December 2012. [116] Canada was committed to cutting its greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in 1990. The Harper government prioritized oil sands development in Alberta, and deprioritized the reduction of greenhouse emissions. Environment minister Peter Kent cited Canada's liability to "enormous financial penalties" under the treaty unless it withdrew. [115] [117] He also suggested that the recently signed Durban agreement may provide an alternative way forward. [118] The Harper government claimed it would find a "Made in Canada" solution. Canada's decision received a generally negative response from representatives of other ratifying countries. [118]
Andorra, Palestine , South Sudan , the United States and, following their withdrawal on 15 December 2012, Canada are the only UNFCCC Parties that are not party to the Protocol. Furthermore, the Protocol is not applied to UNFCCC observer the Holy See . Although the Kingdom of the Netherlands approved the protocol for the whole Kingdom, it did not deposit an instrument of ratification for Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten or the Caribbean Netherlands . [119]
China (party, no binding targets)
United States (non-party)
European Union (party, binding targets)
India (party, no binding targets)
Russia (party, binding targets 2008–2012)
Indonesia (party, no binding targets)
Brazil (party, no binding targets)
Japan (party, no binding targets)
Congo (DR) (party, no binding targets)
Canada (former party, binding targets 2008–2012)
Other countries
Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding emissions/removals from land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF, i.e., carbon storage in forests and soils) for all Annex I Parties (see list below) including the United States taken together decreased from 19.0 to 17.8 thousand teragrams (Tg, which is equal to 10 9 kg) CO 2 equivalent, a decline of 6.0% during the 1990–2008 period. [120] : 3 Several factors have contributed to this decline. [120] : 14 The first is due to the economic restructuring in the Annex I Economies in Transition [120] : 14 (the EITs – see Intergovernmental Emissions Trading for the list of EITs). Over the period 1990–1999, emissions fell by 40% in the EITs following the collapse of central planning in the former Soviet Union and east European countries. [121] : 25 This led to a massive contraction of their heavy industry-based economies, with associated reductions in their fossil fuel consumption and emissions. [54]
Emissions growth in Annex I Parties have also been limited due to policies and measures (PaMs). [120] : 14 In particular, PaMs were strengthened after 2000, helping to enhance energy efficiency and develop renewable energy sources. [120] : 14 Energy use also decreased during the economic crisis in 2007–2008. [120] : 14
|Country|| Kyoto |
target
2008–2012 [10]
| Kyoto |
target
2013–2020 [122]
| GHG |
emissions
2008–2012
including
LULUCF [10]
| GHG |
emissions
2008–2012
excluding
LULUCF [10]
|Australia||+8||−0.5||+3.2||+30.3|
|Austria||−13||−20||+3.2||+4.9|
|Belgium||−8||−20||−13.9||−14.0|
|Bulgaria||−8||−20||−53.4||−52.8|
|Canada (withdrew)||−6||N/A||+18.5||+18.5|
|Croatia||−5||−20||−10.8||−7.5|
|Czech Republic||−8||−20||−30.6||−30.0|
|Denmark||−21||−20||−17.3||−14.8|
|Estonia||−8||−20||−54.2||−55.3|
|Finland||0||−20||−5.5||−4.7|
|France||0||−20||−10.5||−10.0|
|Germany||−21||−20||−24.3||−23.6|
|Greece||+25||−20||+11.5||+11.9|
|Hungary||−6||−20||−43.7||−41.8|
|Iceland||+10||−20||+10.2||+19.4|
|Ireland||+13||−20||+11.0||+5.1|
|Italy||−6||−20||−7.0||−4.0|
|Japan||−6||N/A||−2.5||+1.4|
|Latvia||−8||−20||−61.2||−56.4|
|Liechtenstein||−8||−16||+4.1||+2.4|
|Lithuania||−8||−20||−57.9||−55.6|
|Luxembourg||−28||−20||−9.3||−8.7|
|Monaco||−8||−22||−12.5||−12.5|
|Netherlands||−6||−20||−6.2||−6.4|
|New Zealand||0||N/A||−2.7||+20.4|
|Norway||+1||−16||+4.6||+7.5|
|Poland||−6||−20||−29.7||−28.8|
|Portugal||+27||−20||+5.5||+22.4|
|Romania||−8||−20||−57.0||−55.7|
|Russia||0||N/A||−36.3||−32.7|
|Slovakia||−8||−20||−37.2||−36.8|
|Slovenia||−8||−20||−9.7||−3.2|
|Spain||+15||−20||+20.0||+23.7|
|Sweden||+4||−20||−18.2||−15.3|
|Switzerland||−8||−15.8||−3.9||−0.8|
|Ukraine||0||−24||−57.1||−56.6|
|United Kingdom||−13||−20||−23.0||−22.6|
|United States (did not ratify)||−7||N/A||+9.5||+9.5|
Collectively the group of industrialized countries committed to a Kyoto target, i.e., the Annex I countries excluding the US, had a target of reducing their GHG emissions by 4.2% on average for the period 2008–2012 relative to the base year, which in most cases is 1990. [121] : 24
As noted in the preceding section, between 1990 and 1999, there was a large reduction in the emissions of the EITs. [121] : 25 The reduction in the EITs is largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction (excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex I countries, excluding the US. [121] : 25 Emissions of the Annex II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries) have experienced a limited increase in emissions from 1990 to 2006, followed by stabilization and a more marked decrease from 2007 onwards. [121] : 25 The emissions reductions in the early nineties by the 12 EIT countries who have since joined the EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its collective Kyoto target. [121] : 25
In December 2011, Canada's environment minister, Peter Kent , formally announced that Canada would withdraw from the Kyoto accord a day after the end of the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference (see the section on the withdrawal of Canada ). [123]
Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties but did not have first-round Kyoto targets. [124] The US had a Kyoto target of a 7% reduction relative to the 1990 level, but has not ratified the treaty. [10] If the US had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the average percentage reduction in total GHG emissions for the Annex I group would have been a 5.2% reduction relative to the base year. [121] : 26
38 developed countries committed to limiting their greenhouse gas emissions. Because the United States did not ratify and Canada withdrew, the emission limits remained in force for 36 countries. All of them complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries (Austria, Denmark, Iceland, Japan, Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, Norway, Spain and Switzerland) had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. [10]
In total, the 36 countries that fully participated in the Protocol were committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 4% from the 1990 base year. Their average annual emissions in 2008–2012 were 24.2% below the 1990 level. Hence, they surpassed their aggregate commitment by a large margin. If the United States and Canada are included, the emissions decreased by 11.8%. The large reductions were mainly thanks to the dissolution of the Soviet Union , which reduced the emissions of the Eastern Bloc by tens of percents in the early 1990s. In addition, the financial crisis of 2007–08 significantly reduced emissions during the first Kyoto commitment period. [10]
The 36 countries that were committed to emission reductions only accounted for 24% of the global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010. [10] Even though these countries significantly reduced their emissions during the Kyoto commitment period, other countries increased their emissions so much that the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010. [11]
UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties. [39] Most non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income. [39] : 4 Most Parties included information on policies relating to sustainable development . Sustainable development priorities mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care. [39] : 6 Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include global concerns such as climate change. [39] : 7
A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran , stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions by Annex I Parties could adversely affect their economies. [39] : 7 The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing, and export of fossil fuels .
Emissions
GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year 1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO 2 -eq. CO 2 was the largest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) (11%).
The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sector was the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO 2 -eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122 non-Annex I Parties.
- The Africa region's aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.
- The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.6 tonnes.
- The Latin America and Caribbean region's aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 4.6 tonnes.
- The "other" region includes Albania , Armenia, Azerbaijan , Georgia, Malta, Moldova , and North Macedonia . Their aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 5.1 tonnes.
Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a small difference of 1.7% with and without LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, total aggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.
Trends
In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009). [125] For example, emissions in China have risen strongly over the 1990–2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.
Barker et al. (2007, p. 79) assessed the literature on cost estimates for the Kyoto Protocol. [126] Due to US non-participation in the Kyoto treaty, costs estimates were found to be much lower than those estimated in the previous IPCC Third Assessment Report . Without the US participation, and with full use of the Kyoto flexible mechanisms, costs were estimated at less than 0.05% of Annex B GDP. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.1–1.1%. Without use of the flexible mechanisms, costs without the US participation were estimated at less than 0.1%. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.2–2%. These cost estimates were viewed as being based on much evidence and high agreement in the literature.
This section needs to be updated . Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( June 2021 )
Gupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem. [27] In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.
Gupta et al. (2007) [127] described the Kyoto first-round commitments as "modest", stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty's effectiveness. It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made more effective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a larger share of global emissions. [127] In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion . [128]
World Bank (2010) [129] commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth. The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but in 2006, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by 24%. [130] World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change. [129]
Some of the criticism of the Protocol has been based on the idea of climate justice (Liverman, 2008, p. 14). [35]
This has particularly centered on the balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world to climate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world. Another criticism of the Kyoto Protocol and other international conventions, is the right of indigenous peoples right to participate. Quoted here from The Declaration of the First International Forum of Indigenous Peoples on Climate Change , it says "Despite the recognition of our role in preventing global warming, when it comes time to sign international conventions like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, once again, our right to participate in national and international discussions that directly affect our Peoples and territories is denied." [131] Additionally, later in the declaration, it reads: [131]
We denounce the fact that neither the [United Nations] nor the Kyoto Protocol recognizes the existence or the contributions of Indigenous Peoples. Furthermore, the debates under these instruments have not considered the suggestions and proposals of the Indigenous Peoples nor have the appropriate mechanisms to guarantee our participation in all the debates that directly concern the Indigenous Peoples has been established.
Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town", and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions (Aldy et al. ., 2003, p. 9). [132] In 2001, seventeen national science academies stated that ratification of the Protocol represented a "small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases." [133] Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000, p. 5). [134]
The United States (under former President George W. Bush ) and Australia (initially, under former Prime Minister John Howard ) did not ratify the Kyoto treaty. [135] According to Stern (2006), [135] their decision was based on the lack of quantitative emission commitments for emerging economies (see also the 2000 onwards section). Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd , has since ratified the treaty, [136] [137] which took effect in March 2008. [138]
Another area which has been commented on is the role of the Kyoto flexibility mechanisms – emissions trading , Joint Implementation , and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). [139] [140] The flexibility mechanisms have attracted both positive and negative comments. [141] [142] [143]
As mentioned earlier, a number of Annex I Parties have implemented emissions trading schemes (ETSs) as part of efforts to meet their Kyoto commitments. General commentaries on emissions trading are contained in emissions trading and carbon emission trading . Individual articles on the ETSs contain commentaries on these schemes (see § International Emissions Trading for a list of ETSs).
One of the arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that they can reduce the costs incurred by Annex I Parties in meeting their Kyoto commitments. [139] Criticisms of flexibility have, for example, included the ineffectiveness of emissions trading in promoting investment in non-fossil energy sources, [144] and adverse impacts of CDM projects on local communities in developing countries. [145]
As the Kyoto Protocol seeks to reduce environmental pollutants while at the same time altering the freedoms of some citizens.
As discussed by Milton Friedman , one can achieve both economic and political freedom through capitalism; nonetheless, it is never guaranteed that one is going to have equality of wealth of those on top of the "food chain" of this capitalistic world. All these alterations come to what the leaders of the citizens choose to impose in means of improving ones lifestyle. In the case of the Kyoto Protocol, it seeks to impose regulations that will reduce production of pollutants towards the environment. Furthermore, seeking to compromise the freedoms of both private and public citizens. In one side it imposes bigger regulations towards companies and reducing their profits as they need to fulfil such regulations with, which are oftentimes more expensive, alternatives for production. On the other hand, it seeks to reduce the emissions that cause the rapid environmental change called climate change .
The conditions of the Kyoto Protocol consist of mandatory targets on greenhouse gas emissions for the world's leading economies. As provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, "These targets range from −8 per cent to +10 per cent of the countries' individual 1990 emissions levels with a view to reducing their overall emissions of such gases by at least 5 per cent below existing 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012." [146]
China, India, Indonesia and Brazil were not required to reduce their CO 2 emissions. The remaining signatory countries were not obliged to implement a common framework nor specific measures, but to reach an emission reduction target for which they can benefit of a secondary market for carbon credits multilaterally exchanged from each other. [147] The Emissions-trading Scheme (ETS) allowed countries to host polluting industries and to buy from other countries the property of their environmental merits and virtuous patterns. [147]
The Kyoto Protocol's goals are challenged, however, by climate change deniers , who condemn strong scientific evidence of the human impact on climate change. One prominent scholar opines that these climate change deniers "arguably" breach Rousseau's notion of the social contract, which is an implicit agreement among the members of a society to coordinate efforts in the name of overall social benefit. The climate change denial movement hinders efforts at coming to agreements as a collective global society on climate change. [148]
A 2021 review considers both the institutional design and the political strategies that have affected the adoption of the Kyoto protocol. It concludes that the Kyoto protocol's relatively small impact on global carbon dioxide emissions reflects a number of factors, including "deliberate political strategy, unequal power, and the absence of leadership" among and within nations. [149] The efforts of fossil fuel interests and conservative think tanks to spread disinformation and climate change denial have influenced public opinion and political action both within the United States and beyond it. The direct lobbying of fossil fuel companies and their funding of political actors have slowed political action to address climate change at regional, national, and international levels. [149]
The official meeting of all states party to the Kyoto Protocol is the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It is held every year; it serves as the formal meeting of UNFCCC. Parties to the Convention may participate in Protocol-related meetings either as parties to the Protocol or as observers.
The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin. The first Meeting of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) was held in 2005 in conjunction with COP 11. The 2013 conference was held in Warsaw . Later COPs were held in Lima, Peru, in 2014 and in Paris, France, in 2015. The 2015 event, COP 21, aimed to hold the global average rise in temperature below 2 degrees Celsius. [150] COP 22 was planned for Marrakesh, Morocco and COP 23 for Bonn, Germany.
In the non-binding " Washington Declaration " agreed on 16 February 2007, heads of governments from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisaged a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries , and initially hoped that it would be in place by 2009. [151] [152]
The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 was one of the annual series of UN meetings that followed the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. In 1997 the talks led to the Kyoto Protocol, and the conference in Copenhagen was considered to be the opportunity to agree a successor to Kyoto that would bring about meaningful carbon cuts. [153] [154]
The 2010 Cancún agreements include voluntary pledges made by 76 developed and developing countries to control their emissions of greenhouse gases. [155] In 2010, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annual global emissions. [155] [156]
By May 2012, the US, Japan, Russia, and Canada had indicated they would not sign up to a second Kyoto commitment period. [157] In November 2012, Australia confirmed it would participate in a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand confirmed that it would not. [158]
New Zealand's climate minister Tim Groser said the 15-year-old Kyoto Protocol was outdated, and that New Zealand was "ahead of the curve" in looking for a replacement that would include developing nations. [159] Non-profit environmental organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund criticised New Zealand's decision to pull out. [160]
On 8 December 2012, at the end of the 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference , an agreement was reached to extend the Protocol to 2020 and to set a date of 2015 for the development of a successor document, to be implemented from 2020 (see lede for more information). [161] The outcome of the Doha talks has received a mixed response, with small island states critical of the overall package. The Kyoto second commitment period applies to about 11% of annual global emissions of greenhouse gases. Other results of the conference include a timetable for a global agreement to be adopted by 2015 which includes all countries. [162] At the Doha meeting of the parties to the UNFCCC on 8 December 2012, the European Union chief climate negotiator, Artur Runge-Metzger, pledged to extend the treaty, binding on the 27 European Member States, up to the year 2020 pending an internal ratification procedure.
Ban Ki Moon , Secretary General of the United Nations , called on world leaders to come to an agreement on halting global warming during the 69th Session of the UN General Assembly [163] on 23 September 2014 in New York. The next climate summit was held in Paris in 2015 , out of which emerged the Paris Agreement , the successor to the Kyoto Protocol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol | 85 |
when did the kyoto protocol came into force | Kyoto Protocol | History, Provisions, & Facts | What is the Kyoto Protocol?
What did the Kyoto Protocol do?
When was the Kyoto Protocol signed?
Kyoto Protocol , in full Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , international treaty , named for the Japanese city in which it was adopted in December 1997, that aimed to reduce the emission of gases that contribute to global warming . In force since 2005, the protocol called for reducing the emission of six greenhouse gases in 41 countries plus the European Union to 5.2 percent below 1990 levels during the “commitment period” 2008–12. It was widely hailed as the most significant environmental treaty ever negotiated, though some critics questioned its effectiveness.
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted as the first addition to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an international treaty that committed its signatories to develop national programs to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), nitrous oxide (N 2 O), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ), affect the energy balance of the global atmosphere in ways expected to lead to an overall increase in global average temperature, known as global warming ( see also greenhouse effect ). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , established by the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization in 1988, the long-term effects of global warming would include a general rise in sea level around the world, resulting in the inundation of low-lying coastal areas and the possible disappearance of some island states; the melting of glaciers , sea ice , and Arctic permafrost ; an increase in the number of extreme climate -related events, such as floods and droughts , and changes in their distribution; and an increased risk of extinction for 20 to 30 percent of all plant and animal species. The Kyoto Protocol committed most of the Annex I signatories to the UNFCCC (consisting of members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and several countries with “economies in transition”) to mandatory emission-reduction targets, which varied depending on the unique circumstances of each country. Other signatories to the UNFCCC and the protocol, consisting mostly of developing countries, were not required to restrict their emissions. The protocol entered into force in February 2005, 90 days after being ratified by at least 55 Annex I signatories that together accounted for at least 55 percent of total carbon dioxide emissions in 1990.
The protocol provided several means for countries to reach their targets. One approach was to make use of natural processes, called “sinks,” that remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. The planting of trees, which take up carbon dioxide from the air, would be an example. Another approach was the international program called the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which encouraged developed countries to invest in technology and infrastructure in less-developed countries, where there were often significant opportunities to reduce emissions. Under the CDM, the investing country could claim the effective reduction in emissions as a credit toward meeting its obligations under the protocol. An example would be an investment in a clean-burning natural gas power plant to replace a proposed coal-fired plant. A third approach was emissions trading , which allowed participating countries to buy and sell emissions rights and thereby placed an economic value on greenhouse gas emissions. European countries initiated an emissions-trading market as a mechanism to work toward meeting their commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. Countries that failed to meet their emissions targets would be required to make up the difference between their targeted and actual emissions, plus a penalty amount of 30 percent, in the subsequent commitment period, beginning in 2012; they would also be prevented from engaging in emissions trading until they were judged to be in compliance with the protocol. The emission targets for commitment periods after 2012 were to be established in future protocols .
Although the Kyoto Protocol represented a landmark diplomatic accomplishment, its success was far from assured. Indeed, reports issued in the first two years after the treaty took effect indicated that most participants would fail to meet their emission targets. Even if the targets were met, however, the ultimate benefit to the environment would not be significant, according to some critics, since China , the world’s leading emitter of greenhouse gases, and the United States , the world’s second largest emitter, were not bound by the protocol (China because of its status as a developing country and the United States because it had not ratified the protocol). Other critics claimed that the emission reductions called for in the protocol were too modest to make a detectable difference in global temperatures in the subsequent several decades, even if fully achieved with U.S. participation. Meanwhile, some developing countries argued that improving adaptation to climate variability and change was just as important as reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
At the 18th Conference of the Parties (COP18), held in Doha , Qatar , in 2012, delegates agreed to extend the Kyoto Protocol until 2020. They also reaffirmed their pledge from COP17, which had been held in Durban , South Africa , in 2011, to create a new, comprehensive , legally binding climate treaty by 2015 that would require greenhouse-gas-producing countries—including major carbon emitters not abiding by the Kyoto Protocol (such as China, India , and the United States)—to limit and reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The new treaty, planned for implementation in 2020, would fully replace the Kyoto Protocol.
After a series of conferences mired in disagreements, delegates at the COP21 , held in Paris, France , in 2015, signed a global but nonbinding agreement to limit the increase of the world’s average temperature to no more than 2 °C (3.6 °F) above preindustrial levels while at the same time striving to keep this increase to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) above preindustrial levels. The landmark accord, signed by all 196 signatories of the UNFCCC, effectively replaced the Kyoto Protocol. It also mandated a progress review every five years and the development of a fund containing $100 billion by 2020—which would be replenished annually—to help developing countries adopt non-greenhouse-gas-producing technologies. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Kyoto-Protocol | 85 |
when did the kyoto protocol came into force | The Kyoto Protocol entered into force 16 February 2005 | Published 16 Feb 2005
Last modified 28 Jun 2016
2 min read
The entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol is an important milestone in international actions to combat climate change. It was welcomed by governments and many other interested parties around the world. The EU believes climate change is a serious challenge to mankind and likely to have significant negative global environmental, economic and social implications. According to the UNFCCC, to avoid dangerous climate change, greenhouse gas concentration levels should be stabilised in future.
The entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol ( See http://unfccc.int/2860.php )is an important milestone in international actions to combat climate change. It was welcomed by governments and many other interested parties around the world (See for example the European Commission: http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/05/187 )The EU believes climate change is a serious challenge to mankind and likely to have significant negative global environmental, economic and social implications. According to the UNFCCC, to avoid dangerous climate change, greenhouse gas concentration levels should be stabilised in future. To achieve stabilisation substantial reductions in global emissions of greenhouse gases are needed, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The emission reductions to be delivered by the implementaton of the Kyoto Protocol are an important first step. The recent EEA report on greenhouse gas emission trends and projections in Europe shows that the pre-2004 EU Member States (EU-15) could cut their total emissions to 7.7% below 1990 levels by 2010. Plans by six EU-15 Member States to use credits from emissions-saving projects in third countries through the Kyoto Protocol's "flexible mechanisms" would contribute a further reduction of around 1.1%, taking the total to 8.8%, sufficient to achieve the EU-15 target.
See full report http://reports.eea.eu.int/eea_report_2004_5/en
The European Commission adopted on 9 February 2005 a communication setting out future EU policies on climate change, reaffirming the EU's overall goal to keep human-induced global temperature rise to within two degrees Celsius. It includes a set of proposals designed to structure the future negotiations of the EU with its global partners over climate change policies after 2012 when the first commitment period under the Kyoto protocol ends. ( European Commission press release )
The recent climate change conference under UNFCCC, held in December 2004 in Buenos Aires, addressed the need to prepare for and adapt to the consequences of some inevitable climate change, complementary to mitigation policies aimed at reducing emissions. Such consequences are expected even with significant emission reductions over the coming decades, in both developing and developed countries. A recent EEA report shows current and projected climate change and its impacts in Europe. Examples are more frequent and more economically costly floods, droughts and other extreme weather; wetter conditions in northern Europe but drier weather in the south that could threaten agriculture in some areas; more frequent and more intense heatwaves, posing a potentially lethal threat to the elderly and frail; and, rising sea levels for centuries to come. The report concludes that also Europe needs adaptation strategies to limit impacts of climate change.
See full report http://reports.eea.eu.int/climate_report_2_2004/en
EEA has produced a video on climate change, see: mms://mms.eea.eu.int/climatechange/climatechange.wmv | https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/Ann1108541351 | 85 |
when did the kyoto protocol came into force | Kyoto Protocol - Wikipedia | This article is about the international treaty. For the rock band, see Kyoto Protocol (band) .
|Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC|
|Signed||11 December 1997 [1]|
|Location||Kyoto, Japan|
|Effective||16 February 2005 [1]|
|Condition||Ratification by at least 55 states to the Convention|
|Expiration|| 31 December 2012 (first commitment period) [2] |
31 December 2020 (second commitment period) [3]
|Signatories||84 [1] (1998–1999 signing period)|
|Parties||192 [4] [5] (the European Union, Cook Islands, Niue, and all UN member states except Andorra, Canada, South Sudan, and the United States as of 2022)|
|Depositary||Secretary-General of the United Nations|
|Languages||Arabic, Mandarin, English, French, Russian, and Spanish|
|Full text|
|Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource|
|Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol|
|Type||Amendment to international agreement|
|Drafted||8 December 2012|
|Location||Doha , Qatar|
|Effective||31 December 2020 [6]|
|Condition||Ratification by 144 state parties required|
|Expiration||31 December 2020 [7]|
|Ratifiers||147 [6]|
|Full text|
|Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource|
The Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the scientific consensus that (part one) global warming is occurring and (part two) that human-made CO 2 emissions are driving it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There were 192 parties ( Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012) [5] to the Protocol in 2020.
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applied to the seven greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) , methane (CH 4 ) , nitrous oxide (N 2 O) , hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ) , nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3 ) . [8] Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha Round. [9]
The Protocol was based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledged that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate change, owing to economic development , and therefore placed the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36 countries that fully participated in the first commitment period complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding emission reductions in other countries because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. The financial crisis of 2007–08 helped reduce the emissions. The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former Eastern Bloc countries because the dissolution of the Soviet Union reduced their emissions in the early 1990s. [10] Even though the 36 developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010. [11]
A second commitment period was agreed to in 2012 to extend the agreement to 2020, known as the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, in which 37 countries had binding targets: Australia , the European Union (and its then 28 member states , now 27), Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine stated that they may withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets. [12] Japan, New Zealand , and Russia had participated in Kyoto's first-round but did not take on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets were Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which did not ratify). Canada's decision to withdraw was to the dismay of Environment minister, Peter Kent . If they were to remain as a part of the protocol, Canada would be hit with a $14 billion fine, which would be devastating to their economy, hence the reluctant decision to exit. [13] As of October 2020, 147 [6] [14] states had accepted the Doha Amendment. It entered into force on 31 December 2020, following its acceptance by the mandated minimum of at least 144 states, although the second commitment period ended on the same day. Of the 37 parties with binding commitments, 34 had ratified.
Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ended in 2020. This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto Protocol.
Main article: Global warming
Annex I Parties who have agreed to reduce their GHG emissions below their individual base year levels (see definition in this article)
Annex I Parties who have agreed to cap their GHG emissions at their base year levels
Non-Annex I Parties who are not obligated by caps or Annex I Parties with an emissions cap that allows their emissions to expand above their base year levels or countries that have not ratified the Kyoto Protocol
The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature ("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking. [17] [18] Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughout the 21st century and beyond. [18]
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) have produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be. [19] The IPCC's projections are "baseline" projections , meaning that they assume no future efforts are made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover the time period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st century. [19] [20] The "likely" range (as assessed to have a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on the IPCC's expert judgment) is a projected increase in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C. [19]
The range in temperature projections partly reflects different projections of future greenhouse gas emissions. [21] : 22–24 Different projections contain different assumptions of future social and economic development ( economic growth , population level , energy policies ), which in turn affects projections of future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. [21] : 22–24 The range also reflects uncertainty in the response of the climate system to past and future GHG emissions (measured by the climate sensitivity ). [21] : 22–24
1992 – The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in the Framework Convention on Climate Change ("FCCC" or "UNFCCC") among other agreements.
1995 – Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specific targets on emissions.
1997 – In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets.
2004 – Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.
2011 – Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol. [22]
2012 – On 31 December 2012, the first commitment period under the Protocol expired.
Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). [23] Article 2 of the Convention states its ultimate objective, which is to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human) interference with the climate system." [24]
The natural , technical and social sciences can provide information on decisions relating to this objective including the possible magnitude and rate of future climate changes. [24] However, the IPCC has also concluded that the decision of what constitutes "dangerous" interference requires value judgements, which will vary between different regions of the world. [24] Factors that might affect this decision include the local consequences of climate change impacts, the ability of a particular region to adapt to climate change (adaptive capacity), and the ability of a region to reduce its GHG emissions (mitigative capacity). [24]
The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol was to control emissions of the main anthropogenic (human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. [26] The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. [26] According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012). These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.
The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. [27] The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to establish emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period. [28] The first period emission reduction commitments expired on 31 December 2012.
The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." [29] Even if Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission reductions will be required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations. [28] [30]
For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change#Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations ). [31] Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. [32] Stabilizing the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO 2 emissions. [31]
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
- Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol [33] is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol. [34] [35] : 290
- Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
- Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
- Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
- Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.
Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union -15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions. [33] The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane ( CH 4 ), nitrous oxide ( N 2 O ), sulphur hexafluoride ( SF 6 ), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). [36] The six GHG are translated into CO 2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions. [37] These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer .
Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets (formally called "quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives" (QELRO) – Article 4.1). [38] Parties to the Kyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the convention (the non-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income developing countries, [39] : 4 and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism (explained below). [28]
The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties. [40] Some Parties have emissions limitations reduce below the base year level, some have limitations at the base year level (no permitted increase above the base year level), while others have limitations above the base year level.
Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping. [41] Although Belarus and Turkey are listed in the convention's Annex I, they do not have emissions targets as they were not Annex I Parties when the Protocol was adopted. [40] Kazakhstan does not have a target, but has declared that it wishes to become an Annex I Party to the convention. [42]
Annex I countries under the Kyoto Protocol, their 2008–2012 commitments as % of base year, and 1990 emission levels (% of all Annex I countries) [40] [43]
For most state parties, 1990 is the base year for the national GHG inventory and the calculation of the assigned amount. [44] However, five state parties have an alternative base year: [44]
- Bulgaria: 1988;
- Hungary: the average of the years 1985–1987;
- Poland: 1988;
- Romania: 1989;
- Slovenia: 1986.
Annex I Parties can use a range of sophisticated "flexibility" mechanisms (see below) to meet their targets. Annex I Parties can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission allowances from other operators which have excess emissions credits.
The Protocol defines three " flexibility mechanisms " that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. [45] : 402 The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). IET allows Annex I Parties to "trade" their emissions ( Assigned Amount Units , AAUs, or "allowances" for short). [46]
The economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of reducing (or abating) emissions differs among countries. [47] : 660 [48] "Marginal cost" is the cost of abating the last tonne of CO 2 -eq for an Annex I/non-Annex I Party. At the time of the original Kyoto targets, studies suggested that the flexibility mechanisms could reduce the overall ( aggregate ) cost of meeting the targets. [49] Studies also showed that national losses in Annex I gross domestic product (GDP) could be reduced by the use of the flexibility mechanisms. [49]
The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms", in that they generate emission reductions from projects. The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitative restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of "production" of emission reductions. [47] The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.
The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. [50] The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measured against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission reduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs); reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The reductions are called " credits " because they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions. [51] [52]
Only emission reduction projects that do not involve using nuclear energy are eligible for accreditation under the CDM, in order to prevent nuclear technology exports from becoming the default route for obtaining credits under the CDM.
Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory . Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage their Kyoto obligations, specifically the "CDM process". This determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board.
A number of emissions trading schemes (ETS) have been, or are planned to be, implemented. [53] : 19–26
- Japan: emissions trading in Tokyo started in 2010. This scheme is run by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . [53] : 24
- European Union : the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), which started in 2005. This is run by the European Commission . [53] : 20
- Norway : domestic emissions trading in Norway started in 2005. [53] : 21 This was run by the Norwegian Government, which is now a participant in the EU ETS.
- Switzerland : the Swiss ETS, which runs from 2008 to 2012, to coincide with the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period. [53] : 22
- United Kingdom:
- the UK Emissions Trading Scheme , which ran from 2002 to 2006. This was a scheme run by the UK Government, which is now a participant in the EU ETS. [53] : 19
- the UK CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme , which started in 2010, and is run by the UK Government. [53] : 25
- Canada: emissions trading in Alberta , Canada, which started in 2007. This is run by the Government of Alberta . [53] : 22
- United States:
- the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), which started in 2009. This scheme caps emissions from power generation in eleven north-eastern US states (Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Virginia). [53] : 24 [ failed verification ]
- emissions trading in California, which started in 2013. [53] : 26
- the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which began in 2012. This is a collective ETS agreed between 11 US states and Canadian provinces . [53] : 25
- Australia: the New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme (NSW), which was started in 2003. This scheme was run by the Australian State of New South Wales , and joined the Alfa Climate Stabilization (ACS) but has since been closed in 2012 to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth's carbon price. [53] : 19
- New Zealand : the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , which started in 2008. [53] : 23
The design of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade of national Kyoto obligations to occur between participating countries. [54] The Carbon Trust found that other than the trading that occurs as part of the EU ETS, no intergovernmental emissions trading had taken place. [55]
One of the environmental problems with IET is the large surplus of allowances that are available. Russia, Ukraine, and the new EU-12 member states (the Kyoto Parties Annex I Economies-in-Transition, abbreviated "EIT": Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine) [56] : 59 have a surplus of allowances, while many OECD countries have a deficit. [54] Some of the EITs with a surplus regard it as potential compensation for the trauma of their economic restructuring. [57] When the Kyoto treaty was negotiated, it was recognized that emissions targets for the EITs might lead to them having an excess number of allowances. [58] This excess of allowances were viewed by the EITs as "headroom" to grow their economies. [59] The surplus has, however, also been referred to by some as "hot air", a term which Russia (a country with an estimated surplus of 3.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent allowances) views as "quite offensive". [60]
OECD countries with a deficit could meet their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from transition countries with a surplus. Unless other commitments were made to reduce the total surplus in allowances, such trade would not actually result in emissions being reduced [57] (see also the section below on the Green Investment Scheme ).
The "Green Investment Scheme" (GIS) is a plan for achieving environmental benefits from trading surplus allowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto Protocol. [61] The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in the framework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is designed to achieve greater flexibility in reaching the targets of the Kyoto Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of IET. However, using the GIS is not required under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition of the term. [61]
Under the GIS a party to the protocol expecting that the development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyoto quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units (AAUs) to another party. The proceeds from the AAU sales should be "greened", i.e. channelled to the development and implementation of the projects either acquiring the greenhouse gases emission reductions (hard greening) or building up the necessary framework for this process (soft greening). [57]
Latvia was one of the front-runners of GISs. World Bank (2011) [62] : 53 reported that Latvia has stopped offering AAU sales because of low AAU prices. In 2010, Estonia was the preferred source for AAU buyers, followed by the Czech Republic and Poland. [62] : 53
Japan's national policy to meet their Kyoto target includes the purchase of AAUs sold under GISs. [63] In 2010, Japan and Japanese firms were the main buyers of AAUs. [62] : 53 In terms of the international carbon market, trade in AAUs are a small proportion of overall market value. [62] : 9 In 2010, 97% of trade in the international carbon market was driven by the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS). [62] : 9
Between 2001, which was the first year Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the first Kyoto commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 e) in emission reductions. [64] Most of these reductions are through renewable energy commercialisation , energy efficiency , and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China (52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).
The formal crediting period for Joint Implementation (JI) was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20). [65] In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officially approved and registered. The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM. Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughly equally between Ukraine and the EU's New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N 2 O emissions.
As noted earlier on , the first-round Kyoto emissions limitation commitments are not sufficient to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of GHGs. Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emissions reductions after the end of the first-round Kyoto commitment period in 2012. [28] [30]
Analysts have developed scenarios of future changes in GHG emissions that lead to a stabilization in the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs. [68] Climate models suggest that lower stabilization levels are associated with lower magnitudes of future global warming, while higher stabilization levels are associated with higher magnitudes of future global warming (see figure opposite). [66]
To achieve stabilization, global GHG emissions must peak, then decline. [69] The lower the desired stabilization level, the sooner this peak and decline must occur (see figure opposite). [69] For a given stabilization level, larger emissions reductions in the near term allow for less stringent emissions reductions later. [70] On the other hand, less stringent near term emissions reductions would, for a given stabilization level, require more stringent emissions reductions later on. [70]
The first period Kyoto emissions limitations can be viewed as a first-step towards achieving atmospheric stabilization of GHGs. [27] In this sense, the first period Kyoto commitments may affect what future atmospheric stabilization level can be achieved. [71]
At the 16th Conference of the Parties held in 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited below 2°C relative to the pre-industrial temperature level. [72] One of the stabilization levels discussed in relation to this temperature target is to hold atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at 450 parts per million (ppm) CO 2 - eq. [73] Stabilization at 450 ppm could be associated with a 26 to 78% risk of exceeding the 2 °C target. [74]
Scenarios assessed by Gupta et al. (2007) [75] suggest that Annex I emissions would need to be 25% to 40% below 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050. The only Annex I Parties to have made voluntary pledges in line with this are Japan (25% below 1990 levels by 2020) and Norway (30–40% below 1990 levels by 2020). [76]
Gupta et al. (2007) [75] also looked at what 450 ppm scenarios projected for non-Annex I Parties. Projections indicated that by 2020, non-Annex I emissions in several regions ( Latin America , the Middle East , East Asia , and centrally planned Asia ) would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual" . [75] "Business-as-usual" are projected non-Annex I emissions in the absence of any new policies to control emissions. Projections indicated that by 2050, emissions in all non-Annex I regions would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual". [75]
The agreement is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any legally binding limitations on emissions or enforcement mechanisms. Only Parties to the UNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.
National emission targets specified in the Kyoto Protocol exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use land use , land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets. [77] LULUCF activities are also called "sink" activities. Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate, [78] and indeed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report on Land use, land-use change, and forestry estimates that since 1750 a third of global warming has been caused by land use change. [79] Particular criteria apply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.
Forest management , cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol. [80] Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting their targets is capped. [80]
Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing emissions. [81] The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by 2000. [81] The failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto moved to binding commitments. [81]
At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 was able to push for a mandate (the "Berlin mandate") where it was recognized that: [82]
- developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere (see Greenhouse gas#Cumulative and historical emissions ).
- developing country emissions per-capita (i.e., average emissions per head of population) [83] were still relatively low.
- and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.
During negotiations, the G-77 represented 133 developing countries. China was not a member of the group but an associate. [84] It has since become a member. [85]
The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emission reduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period. [82] However, the large potential for growth in developing country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense. [86] In the final agreement, the Clean Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions. [86] The general assumption was that developing countries would face quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet their first round commitments. [86]
Views on the Kyoto Protocol#Commentaries on negotiations contains a list of the emissions cuts that were proposed by UNFCCC Parties during negotiations. The G77 and China were in favour of strong uniform emission cuts across the developed world. [87] The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to follow the negotiations of the first. [88] In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than 2005. [88] Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can "bank" their unused allowances for use in the subsequent period. [88]
The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included – CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O – with other gases such as HFCs regulated separately. [87] The EU also wanted to have a "bubble" commitment, whereby it could make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, while others cut theirs. [87]
The most vulnerable nations – the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts by developed nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent. [87] Countries that had supported differentiation of targets had different ideas as to how it should be calculated, and many different indicators were proposed. [89] Two examples include differentiation of targets based on gross domestic product (GDP), and differentiation based on energy intensity (energy use per unit of economic output). [89]
The final targets negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises. [87] The targets closely match those decided by Argentinian Raul Estrada, the diplomat who chaired the negotiations. [90] The numbers given to each Party by Chairman Estrada were based on targets already pledged by Parties, information received on latest negotiating positions, and the goal of achieving the strongest possible environmental outcome. [91] The final targets are weaker than those proposed by some Parties, e.g., the Alliance of Small Island States and the G-77 and China, but stronger than the targets proposed by others, e.g., Canada and the United States. [92]
The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed in UNFCCC . One such project is The Adaptation Fund , [93] which has been established by the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties COP6 of the UNFCCC, which attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but it was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union (who favoured a tougher implementation) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia (who wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6-bis) was held in Bonn , [94] where the required decisions were adopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union ) managed to secure the agreement of Japan and Russia by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks .
COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the protocol.
The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9 December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United Nations Climate Change Conference .
During COP13 in Bali, 36 developed Contact Group countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union ) agreed to a 10% emissions increase for Iceland ; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations, [95] much larger increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below § Increase in greenhouse gas emission since 1990 ). [96] Reduction limitations expired in 2013.
The protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties for non-compliance ." [97] According to Grubb (2003), [98] the explicit consequences of non-compliance of the treaty are weak compared to domestic law. [98] Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the Marrakesh Accords. [98]
Monitoring emissions in international agreements is tough as in international law, there is no police power, creating the incentive for states to find 'ways around' monitoring. The Kyoto Protocol regulated 6 sinks and sources of Gases. Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nirous oxide, Hydroflurocarbons, Sulfur hexafluouride and Perfluorocarbons. Monitoring these gases can become quite a challenge. Methane can be monitored and measured from irrigated rice fields and can be measured by the seedling growing up to harvest. Future implications state that this can be affected by more cost effective ways to control emissions as changes in types of fertilizer can reduce emissions by 50%. In addition to this, many countries are unable to monitor certain ways of carbon absorption through trees and soils to an accurate level. [99]
If the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required to make up the difference during the second commitment period plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under an emissions trading program. [100]
The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 of UNFCCC on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto , Japan . It was opened on 16 March 1998 for signature during one year by parties to UNFCCC , when it was signed Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, the Maldives, Samoa, St. Lucia and Switzerland. At the end of the signature period, 82 countries and the European Community had signed. Ratification (which is required to become a party to the Protocol) started on 17 September with ratification by Fiji. Countries that did not sign acceded to the convention, which has the same legal effect. [1]
Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession." [101]
The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002. [102] Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause was reached on 23 May 2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol. [1] The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of 90 days. [103]
As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC ) have ratified the agreement, representing over 61.6% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries. [104] One of the 191 ratifying states—Canada—has renounced the protocol.
Convention Parties
The US signed the Protocol on 12 November 1998, [105] during the Clinton presidency. To become binding in the US, however, the treaty had to be ratified by the Senate , which had already passed the 1997 non-binding Byrd-Hagel Resolution , expressing disapproval of any international agreement that did not require developing countries to make emission reductions and "would seriously harm the economy of the United States". The resolution passed 95–0. [106] Therefore, even though the Clinton administration signed the treaty, [107] it was never submitted to the Senate for ratification.
At the outset of the Bush administration , Senators Chuck Hagel , Jesse Helms , Larry Craig , and Pat Roberts wrote a letter to President George W. Bush seeking to identify his position on the Kyoto Protocol and climate change policy. [108] In a letter dated March 13, 2001, President Bush responded that his "Administration takes the issue of global climate change very seriously", but that "I oppose the Kyoto Protocol because it exempts 80 percent of the world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the U.S. economy. The Senate's vote, 95-0, shows that there is a clear consensus that the Kyoto Protocol is an unfair and ineffective means of addressing global climate change concerns." [109] The administration also questioned the scientific certainty around climate change and cited potential harms of emissions reduction to the US economy. [110]
The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research reported in 2001:
This policy reversal received a massive wave of criticism that was quickly picked up by the international media. Environmental groups blasted the White House, while Europeans and Japanese alike expressed deep concern and regret. ... Almost all world leaders (e.g. China, Japan, South Africa, Pacific Islands, etc.) expressed their disappointment at Bush's decision. [111]
In response to this criticism, Bush stated: "I was responding to reality, and reality is the nation has got a real problem when it comes to energy". The Tyndall Centre called this "an overstatement used to cover up the big benefactors of this policy reversal, i.e., the US oil and coal industry, which has a powerful lobby with the administration and conservative Republican congressmen." [111]
As of 2020, the US is the only signatory that has not ratified the Protocol. [112] The US accounted for 36.1% of emissions in 1990. [113] As such, for the treaty to go into legal effect without US ratification, it would require a coalition including the EU, Russia, Japan, and small parties. A deal, without the US Administration, was reached in the Bonn climate talks (COP-6.5), held in 2001. [114]
In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on further Kyoto targets. [115] The Canadian government announced its withdrawal—possible at any time three years after ratification—from the Kyoto Protocol on 12 December 2011, effective 15 December 2012. [116] Canada was committed to cutting its greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in 1990. The Harper government prioritized oil sands development in Alberta, and deprioritized the reduction of greenhouse emissions. Environment minister Peter Kent cited Canada's liability to "enormous financial penalties" under the treaty unless it withdrew. [115] [117] He also suggested that the recently signed Durban agreement may provide an alternative way forward. [118] The Harper government claimed it would find a "Made in Canada" solution. Canada's decision received a generally negative response from representatives of other ratifying countries. [118]
Andorra, Palestine , South Sudan , the United States and, following their withdrawal on 15 December 2012, Canada are the only UNFCCC Parties that are not party to the Protocol. Furthermore, the Protocol is not applied to UNFCCC observer the Holy See . Although the Kingdom of the Netherlands approved the protocol for the whole Kingdom, it did not deposit an instrument of ratification for Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten or the Caribbean Netherlands . [119]
China (party, no binding targets)
United States (non-party)
European Union (party, binding targets)
India (party, no binding targets)
Russia (party, binding targets 2008–2012)
Indonesia (party, no binding targets)
Brazil (party, no binding targets)
Japan (party, no binding targets)
Congo (DR) (party, no binding targets)
Canada (former party, binding targets 2008–2012)
Other countries
Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding emissions/removals from land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF, i.e., carbon storage in forests and soils) for all Annex I Parties (see list below) including the United States taken together decreased from 19.0 to 17.8 thousand teragrams (Tg, which is equal to 10 9 kg) CO 2 equivalent, a decline of 6.0% during the 1990–2008 period. [120] : 3 Several factors have contributed to this decline. [120] : 14 The first is due to the economic restructuring in the Annex I Economies in Transition [120] : 14 (the EITs – see Intergovernmental Emissions Trading for the list of EITs). Over the period 1990–1999, emissions fell by 40% in the EITs following the collapse of central planning in the former Soviet Union and east European countries. [121] : 25 This led to a massive contraction of their heavy industry-based economies, with associated reductions in their fossil fuel consumption and emissions. [54]
Emissions growth in Annex I Parties have also been limited due to policies and measures (PaMs). [120] : 14 In particular, PaMs were strengthened after 2000, helping to enhance energy efficiency and develop renewable energy sources. [120] : 14 Energy use also decreased during the economic crisis in 2007–2008. [120] : 14
|Country|| Kyoto |
target
2008–2012 [10]
| Kyoto |
target
2013–2020 [122]
| GHG |
emissions
2008–2012
including
LULUCF [10]
| GHG |
emissions
2008–2012
excluding
LULUCF [10]
|Australia||+8||−0.5||+3.2||+30.3|
|Austria||−13||−20||+3.2||+4.9|
|Belgium||−8||−20||−13.9||−14.0|
|Bulgaria||−8||−20||−53.4||−52.8|
|Canada (withdrew)||−6||N/A||+18.5||+18.5|
|Croatia||−5||−20||−10.8||−7.5|
|Czech Republic||−8||−20||−30.6||−30.0|
|Denmark||−21||−20||−17.3||−14.8|
|Estonia||−8||−20||−54.2||−55.3|
|Finland||0||−20||−5.5||−4.7|
|France||0||−20||−10.5||−10.0|
|Germany||−21||−20||−24.3||−23.6|
|Greece||+25||−20||+11.5||+11.9|
|Hungary||−6||−20||−43.7||−41.8|
|Iceland||+10||−20||+10.2||+19.4|
|Ireland||+13||−20||+11.0||+5.1|
|Italy||−6||−20||−7.0||−4.0|
|Japan||−6||N/A||−2.5||+1.4|
|Latvia||−8||−20||−61.2||−56.4|
|Liechtenstein||−8||−16||+4.1||+2.4|
|Lithuania||−8||−20||−57.9||−55.6|
|Luxembourg||−28||−20||−9.3||−8.7|
|Monaco||−8||−22||−12.5||−12.5|
|Netherlands||−6||−20||−6.2||−6.4|
|New Zealand||0||N/A||−2.7||+20.4|
|Norway||+1||−16||+4.6||+7.5|
|Poland||−6||−20||−29.7||−28.8|
|Portugal||+27||−20||+5.5||+22.4|
|Romania||−8||−20||−57.0||−55.7|
|Russia||0||N/A||−36.3||−32.7|
|Slovakia||−8||−20||−37.2||−36.8|
|Slovenia||−8||−20||−9.7||−3.2|
|Spain||+15||−20||+20.0||+23.7|
|Sweden||+4||−20||−18.2||−15.3|
|Switzerland||−8||−15.8||−3.9||−0.8|
|Ukraine||0||−24||−57.1||−56.6|
|United Kingdom||−13||−20||−23.0||−22.6|
|United States (did not ratify)||−7||N/A||+9.5||+9.5|
Collectively the group of industrialized countries committed to a Kyoto target, i.e., the Annex I countries excluding the US, had a target of reducing their GHG emissions by 4.2% on average for the period 2008–2012 relative to the base year, which in most cases is 1990. [121] : 24
As noted in the preceding section, between 1990 and 1999, there was a large reduction in the emissions of the EITs. [121] : 25 The reduction in the EITs is largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction (excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex I countries, excluding the US. [121] : 25 Emissions of the Annex II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries) have experienced a limited increase in emissions from 1990 to 2006, followed by stabilization and a more marked decrease from 2007 onwards. [121] : 25 The emissions reductions in the early nineties by the 12 EIT countries who have since joined the EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its collective Kyoto target. [121] : 25
In December 2011, Canada's environment minister, Peter Kent , formally announced that Canada would withdraw from the Kyoto accord a day after the end of the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference (see the section on the withdrawal of Canada ). [123]
Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties but did not have first-round Kyoto targets. [124] The US had a Kyoto target of a 7% reduction relative to the 1990 level, but has not ratified the treaty. [10] If the US had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the average percentage reduction in total GHG emissions for the Annex I group would have been a 5.2% reduction relative to the base year. [121] : 26
38 developed countries committed to limiting their greenhouse gas emissions. Because the United States did not ratify and Canada withdrew, the emission limits remained in force for 36 countries. All of them complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries (Austria, Denmark, Iceland, Japan, Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, Norway, Spain and Switzerland) had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. [10]
In total, the 36 countries that fully participated in the Protocol were committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 4% from the 1990 base year. Their average annual emissions in 2008–2012 were 24.2% below the 1990 level. Hence, they surpassed their aggregate commitment by a large margin. If the United States and Canada are included, the emissions decreased by 11.8%. The large reductions were mainly thanks to the dissolution of the Soviet Union , which reduced the emissions of the Eastern Bloc by tens of percents in the early 1990s. In addition, the financial crisis of 2007–08 significantly reduced emissions during the first Kyoto commitment period. [10]
The 36 countries that were committed to emission reductions only accounted for 24% of the global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010. [10] Even though these countries significantly reduced their emissions during the Kyoto commitment period, other countries increased their emissions so much that the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010. [11]
UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties. [39] Most non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income. [39] : 4 Most Parties included information on policies relating to sustainable development . Sustainable development priorities mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care. [39] : 6 Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include global concerns such as climate change. [39] : 7
A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran , stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions by Annex I Parties could adversely affect their economies. [39] : 7 The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing, and export of fossil fuels .
Emissions
GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year 1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO 2 -eq. CO 2 was the largest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) (11%).
The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sector was the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO 2 -eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122 non-Annex I Parties.
- The Africa region's aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.
- The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.6 tonnes.
- The Latin America and Caribbean region's aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 4.6 tonnes.
- The "other" region includes Albania , Armenia, Azerbaijan , Georgia, Malta, Moldova , and North Macedonia . Their aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 5.1 tonnes.
Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a small difference of 1.7% with and without LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, total aggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.
Trends
In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009). [125] For example, emissions in China have risen strongly over the 1990–2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.
Barker et al. (2007, p. 79) assessed the literature on cost estimates for the Kyoto Protocol. [126] Due to US non-participation in the Kyoto treaty, costs estimates were found to be much lower than those estimated in the previous IPCC Third Assessment Report . Without the US participation, and with full use of the Kyoto flexible mechanisms, costs were estimated at less than 0.05% of Annex B GDP. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.1–1.1%. Without use of the flexible mechanisms, costs without the US participation were estimated at less than 0.1%. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.2–2%. These cost estimates were viewed as being based on much evidence and high agreement in the literature.
This section needs to be updated . Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( June 2021 )
Gupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem. [27] In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.
Gupta et al. (2007) [127] described the Kyoto first-round commitments as "modest", stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty's effectiveness. It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made more effective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a larger share of global emissions. [127] In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion . [128]
World Bank (2010) [129] commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth. The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but in 2006, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by 24%. [130] World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change. [129]
Some of the criticism of the Protocol has been based on the idea of climate justice (Liverman, 2008, p. 14). [35]
This has particularly centered on the balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world to climate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world. Another criticism of the Kyoto Protocol and other international conventions, is the right of indigenous peoples right to participate. Quoted here from The Declaration of the First International Forum of Indigenous Peoples on Climate Change , it says "Despite the recognition of our role in preventing global warming, when it comes time to sign international conventions like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, once again, our right to participate in national and international discussions that directly affect our Peoples and territories is denied." [131] Additionally, later in the declaration, it reads: [131]
We denounce the fact that neither the [United Nations] nor the Kyoto Protocol recognizes the existence or the contributions of Indigenous Peoples. Furthermore, the debates under these instruments have not considered the suggestions and proposals of the Indigenous Peoples nor have the appropriate mechanisms to guarantee our participation in all the debates that directly concern the Indigenous Peoples has been established.
Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town", and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions (Aldy et al. ., 2003, p. 9). [132] In 2001, seventeen national science academies stated that ratification of the Protocol represented a "small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases." [133] Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000, p. 5). [134]
The United States (under former President George W. Bush ) and Australia (initially, under former Prime Minister John Howard ) did not ratify the Kyoto treaty. [135] According to Stern (2006), [135] their decision was based on the lack of quantitative emission commitments for emerging economies (see also the 2000 onwards section). Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd , has since ratified the treaty, [136] [137] which took effect in March 2008. [138]
Another area which has been commented on is the role of the Kyoto flexibility mechanisms – emissions trading , Joint Implementation , and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). [139] [140] The flexibility mechanisms have attracted both positive and negative comments. [141] [142] [143]
As mentioned earlier, a number of Annex I Parties have implemented emissions trading schemes (ETSs) as part of efforts to meet their Kyoto commitments. General commentaries on emissions trading are contained in emissions trading and carbon emission trading . Individual articles on the ETSs contain commentaries on these schemes (see § International Emissions Trading for a list of ETSs).
One of the arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that they can reduce the costs incurred by Annex I Parties in meeting their Kyoto commitments. [139] Criticisms of flexibility have, for example, included the ineffectiveness of emissions trading in promoting investment in non-fossil energy sources, [144] and adverse impacts of CDM projects on local communities in developing countries. [145]
As the Kyoto Protocol seeks to reduce environmental pollutants while at the same time altering the freedoms of some citizens.
As discussed by Milton Friedman , one can achieve both economic and political freedom through capitalism; nonetheless, it is never guaranteed that one is going to have equality of wealth of those on top of the "food chain" of this capitalistic world. All these alterations come to what the leaders of the citizens choose to impose in means of improving ones lifestyle. In the case of the Kyoto Protocol, it seeks to impose regulations that will reduce production of pollutants towards the environment. Furthermore, seeking to compromise the freedoms of both private and public citizens. In one side it imposes bigger regulations towards companies and reducing their profits as they need to fulfil such regulations with, which are oftentimes more expensive, alternatives for production. On the other hand, it seeks to reduce the emissions that cause the rapid environmental change called climate change .
The conditions of the Kyoto Protocol consist of mandatory targets on greenhouse gas emissions for the world's leading economies. As provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, "These targets range from −8 per cent to +10 per cent of the countries' individual 1990 emissions levels with a view to reducing their overall emissions of such gases by at least 5 per cent below existing 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012." [146]
China, India, Indonesia and Brazil were not required to reduce their CO 2 emissions. The remaining signatory countries were not obliged to implement a common framework nor specific measures, but to reach an emission reduction target for which they can benefit of a secondary market for carbon credits multilaterally exchanged from each other. [147] The Emissions-trading Scheme (ETS) allowed countries to host polluting industries and to buy from other countries the property of their environmental merits and virtuous patterns. [147]
The Kyoto Protocol's goals are challenged, however, by climate change deniers , who condemn strong scientific evidence of the human impact on climate change. One prominent scholar opines that these climate change deniers "arguably" breach Rousseau's notion of the social contract, which is an implicit agreement among the members of a society to coordinate efforts in the name of overall social benefit. The climate change denial movement hinders efforts at coming to agreements as a collective global society on climate change. [148]
A 2021 review considers both the institutional design and the political strategies that have affected the adoption of the Kyoto protocol. It concludes that the Kyoto protocol's relatively small impact on global carbon dioxide emissions reflects a number of factors, including "deliberate political strategy, unequal power, and the absence of leadership" among and within nations. [149] The efforts of fossil fuel interests and conservative think tanks to spread disinformation and climate change denial have influenced public opinion and political action both within the United States and beyond it. The direct lobbying of fossil fuel companies and their funding of political actors have slowed political action to address climate change at regional, national, and international levels. [149]
The official meeting of all states party to the Kyoto Protocol is the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It is held every year; it serves as the formal meeting of UNFCCC. Parties to the Convention may participate in Protocol-related meetings either as parties to the Protocol or as observers.
The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin. The first Meeting of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) was held in 2005 in conjunction with COP 11. The 2013 conference was held in Warsaw . Later COPs were held in Lima, Peru, in 2014 and in Paris, France, in 2015. The 2015 event, COP 21, aimed to hold the global average rise in temperature below 2 degrees Celsius. [150] COP 22 was planned for Marrakesh, Morocco and COP 23 for Bonn, Germany.
In the non-binding " Washington Declaration " agreed on 16 February 2007, heads of governments from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisaged a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries , and initially hoped that it would be in place by 2009. [151] [152]
The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 was one of the annual series of UN meetings that followed the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. In 1997 the talks led to the Kyoto Protocol, and the conference in Copenhagen was considered to be the opportunity to agree a successor to Kyoto that would bring about meaningful carbon cuts. [153] [154]
The 2010 Cancún agreements include voluntary pledges made by 76 developed and developing countries to control their emissions of greenhouse gases. [155] In 2010, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annual global emissions. [155] [156]
By May 2012, the US, Japan, Russia, and Canada had indicated they would not sign up to a second Kyoto commitment period. [157] In November 2012, Australia confirmed it would participate in a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand confirmed that it would not. [158]
New Zealand's climate minister Tim Groser said the 15-year-old Kyoto Protocol was outdated, and that New Zealand was "ahead of the curve" in looking for a replacement that would include developing nations. [159] Non-profit environmental organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund criticised New Zealand's decision to pull out. [160]
On 8 December 2012, at the end of the 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference , an agreement was reached to extend the Protocol to 2020 and to set a date of 2015 for the development of a successor document, to be implemented from 2020 (see lede for more information). [161] The outcome of the Doha talks has received a mixed response, with small island states critical of the overall package. The Kyoto second commitment period applies to about 11% of annual global emissions of greenhouse gases. Other results of the conference include a timetable for a global agreement to be adopted by 2015 which includes all countries. [162] At the Doha meeting of the parties to the UNFCCC on 8 December 2012, the European Union chief climate negotiator, Artur Runge-Metzger, pledged to extend the treaty, binding on the 27 European Member States, up to the year 2020 pending an internal ratification procedure.
Ban Ki Moon , Secretary General of the United Nations , called on world leaders to come to an agreement on halting global warming during the 69th Session of the UN General Assembly [163] on 23 September 2014 in New York. The next climate summit was held in Paris in 2015 , out of which emerged the Paris Agreement , the successor to the Kyoto Protocol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol | 85 |
when did the kyoto protocol came into force | The Kyoto Protocol - Status of Ratification | Text of the Kyoto Protocol
The Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (the 'Kyoto Protocol') was adopted at the third session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 3) in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997. In accordance with Article 24, it was open for signature from 16 March 1998 to 15 March 1999 at United Nations Headquarters, New York. By that date, the Kyoto Protocol had received 84 signatures.
Pursuant to its Article 22, the Kyoto Protocol is subject to ratification, acceptance, approval or accession by Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or ‘Convention’). Parties to the Convention that have not signed the Kyoto Protocol may accede to it at any time.
The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005 in accordance with Article 23, that is on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I of the Convention which accounted in total for at least 55 % of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Parties included in Annex I, had deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.
Currently, there are 192 Parties (191 States and 1 regional economic integration organization) to the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC.
The authoritative information on the status of approval, acceptance, accession and ratification of the Convention is provided by its Depositary, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, on the respective internet page of the United Nations Treaty Collection . | https://unfccc.int/process/the-kyoto-protocol/status-of-ratification | 85 |
when did the kyoto protocol came into force | Kyoto Protocol - Wikipedia | This article is about the international treaty. For the rock band, see Kyoto Protocol (band) .
|Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC|
|Signed||11 December 1997 [1]|
|Location||Kyoto, Japan|
|Effective||16 February 2005 [1]|
|Condition||Ratification by at least 55 states to the Convention|
|Expiration|| 31 December 2012 (first commitment period) [2] |
31 December 2020 (second commitment period) [3]
|Signatories||84 [1] (1998–1999 signing period)|
|Parties||192 [4] [5] (the European Union, Cook Islands, Niue, and all UN member states except Andorra, Canada, South Sudan, and the United States as of 2022)|
|Depositary||Secretary-General of the United Nations|
|Languages||Arabic, Mandarin, English, French, Russian, and Spanish|
|Full text|
|Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource|
|Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol|
|Type||Amendment to international agreement|
|Drafted||8 December 2012|
|Location||Doha , Qatar|
|Effective||31 December 2020 [6]|
|Condition||Ratification by 144 state parties required|
|Expiration||31 December 2020 [7]|
|Ratifiers||147 [6]|
|Full text|
|Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource|
The Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the scientific consensus that (part one) global warming is occurring and (part two) that human-made CO 2 emissions are driving it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There were 192 parties ( Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012) [5] to the Protocol in 2020.
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applied to the seven greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) , methane (CH 4 ) , nitrous oxide (N 2 O) , hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ) , nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3 ) . [8] Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha Round. [9]
The Protocol was based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledged that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate change, owing to economic development , and therefore placed the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36 countries that fully participated in the first commitment period complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding emission reductions in other countries because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. The financial crisis of 2007–08 helped reduce the emissions. The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former Eastern Bloc countries because the dissolution of the Soviet Union reduced their emissions in the early 1990s. [10] Even though the 36 developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010. [11]
A second commitment period was agreed to in 2012 to extend the agreement to 2020, known as the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, in which 37 countries had binding targets: Australia , the European Union (and its then 28 member states , now 27), Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine stated that they may withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets. [12] Japan, New Zealand , and Russia had participated in Kyoto's first-round but did not take on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets were Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which did not ratify). Canada's decision to withdraw was to the dismay of Environment minister, Peter Kent . If they were to remain as a part of the protocol, Canada would be hit with a $14 billion fine, which would be devastating to their economy, hence the reluctant decision to exit. [13] As of October 2020, 147 [6] [14] states had accepted the Doha Amendment. It entered into force on 31 December 2020, following its acceptance by the mandated minimum of at least 144 states, although the second commitment period ended on the same day. Of the 37 parties with binding commitments, 34 had ratified.
Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ended in 2020. This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto Protocol.
Main article: Global warming
Annex I Parties who have agreed to reduce their GHG emissions below their individual base year levels (see definition in this article)
Annex I Parties who have agreed to cap their GHG emissions at their base year levels
Non-Annex I Parties who are not obligated by caps or Annex I Parties with an emissions cap that allows their emissions to expand above their base year levels or countries that have not ratified the Kyoto Protocol
The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature ("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking. [17] [18] Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughout the 21st century and beyond. [18]
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) have produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be. [19] The IPCC's projections are "baseline" projections , meaning that they assume no future efforts are made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover the time period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st century. [19] [20] The "likely" range (as assessed to have a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on the IPCC's expert judgment) is a projected increase in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C. [19]
The range in temperature projections partly reflects different projections of future greenhouse gas emissions. [21] : 22–24 Different projections contain different assumptions of future social and economic development ( economic growth , population level , energy policies ), which in turn affects projections of future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. [21] : 22–24 The range also reflects uncertainty in the response of the climate system to past and future GHG emissions (measured by the climate sensitivity ). [21] : 22–24
1992 – The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in the Framework Convention on Climate Change ("FCCC" or "UNFCCC") among other agreements.
1995 – Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specific targets on emissions.
1997 – In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets.
2004 – Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.
2011 – Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol. [22]
2012 – On 31 December 2012, the first commitment period under the Protocol expired.
Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). [23] Article 2 of the Convention states its ultimate objective, which is to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human) interference with the climate system." [24]
The natural , technical and social sciences can provide information on decisions relating to this objective including the possible magnitude and rate of future climate changes. [24] However, the IPCC has also concluded that the decision of what constitutes "dangerous" interference requires value judgements, which will vary between different regions of the world. [24] Factors that might affect this decision include the local consequences of climate change impacts, the ability of a particular region to adapt to climate change (adaptive capacity), and the ability of a region to reduce its GHG emissions (mitigative capacity). [24]
The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol was to control emissions of the main anthropogenic (human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. [26] The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. [26] According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012). These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.
The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. [27] The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to establish emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period. [28] The first period emission reduction commitments expired on 31 December 2012.
The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." [29] Even if Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission reductions will be required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations. [28] [30]
For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change#Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations ). [31] Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. [32] Stabilizing the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO 2 emissions. [31]
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
- Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol [33] is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol. [34] [35] : 290
- Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
- Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
- Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
- Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.
Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union -15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions. [33] The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane ( CH 4 ), nitrous oxide ( N 2 O ), sulphur hexafluoride ( SF 6 ), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). [36] The six GHG are translated into CO 2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions. [37] These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer .
Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets (formally called "quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives" (QELRO) – Article 4.1). [38] Parties to the Kyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the convention (the non-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income developing countries, [39] : 4 and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism (explained below). [28]
The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties. [40] Some Parties have emissions limitations reduce below the base year level, some have limitations at the base year level (no permitted increase above the base year level), while others have limitations above the base year level.
Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping. [41] Although Belarus and Turkey are listed in the convention's Annex I, they do not have emissions targets as they were not Annex I Parties when the Protocol was adopted. [40] Kazakhstan does not have a target, but has declared that it wishes to become an Annex I Party to the convention. [42]
Annex I countries under the Kyoto Protocol, their 2008–2012 commitments as % of base year, and 1990 emission levels (% of all Annex I countries) [40] [43]
For most state parties, 1990 is the base year for the national GHG inventory and the calculation of the assigned amount. [44] However, five state parties have an alternative base year: [44]
- Bulgaria: 1988;
- Hungary: the average of the years 1985–1987;
- Poland: 1988;
- Romania: 1989;
- Slovenia: 1986.
Annex I Parties can use a range of sophisticated "flexibility" mechanisms (see below) to meet their targets. Annex I Parties can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission allowances from other operators which have excess emissions credits.
The Protocol defines three " flexibility mechanisms " that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. [45] : 402 The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). IET allows Annex I Parties to "trade" their emissions ( Assigned Amount Units , AAUs, or "allowances" for short). [46]
The economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of reducing (or abating) emissions differs among countries. [47] : 660 [48] "Marginal cost" is the cost of abating the last tonne of CO 2 -eq for an Annex I/non-Annex I Party. At the time of the original Kyoto targets, studies suggested that the flexibility mechanisms could reduce the overall ( aggregate ) cost of meeting the targets. [49] Studies also showed that national losses in Annex I gross domestic product (GDP) could be reduced by the use of the flexibility mechanisms. [49]
The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms", in that they generate emission reductions from projects. The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitative restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of "production" of emission reductions. [47] The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.
The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. [50] The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measured against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission reduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs); reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The reductions are called " credits " because they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions. [51] [52]
Only emission reduction projects that do not involve using nuclear energy are eligible for accreditation under the CDM, in order to prevent nuclear technology exports from becoming the default route for obtaining credits under the CDM.
Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory . Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage their Kyoto obligations, specifically the "CDM process". This determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board.
A number of emissions trading schemes (ETS) have been, or are planned to be, implemented. [53] : 19–26
- Japan: emissions trading in Tokyo started in 2010. This scheme is run by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . [53] : 24
- European Union : the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), which started in 2005. This is run by the European Commission . [53] : 20
- Norway : domestic emissions trading in Norway started in 2005. [53] : 21 This was run by the Norwegian Government, which is now a participant in the EU ETS.
- Switzerland : the Swiss ETS, which runs from 2008 to 2012, to coincide with the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period. [53] : 22
- United Kingdom:
- the UK Emissions Trading Scheme , which ran from 2002 to 2006. This was a scheme run by the UK Government, which is now a participant in the EU ETS. [53] : 19
- the UK CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme , which started in 2010, and is run by the UK Government. [53] : 25
- Canada: emissions trading in Alberta , Canada, which started in 2007. This is run by the Government of Alberta . [53] : 22
- United States:
- the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), which started in 2009. This scheme caps emissions from power generation in eleven north-eastern US states (Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Virginia). [53] : 24 [ failed verification ]
- emissions trading in California, which started in 2013. [53] : 26
- the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which began in 2012. This is a collective ETS agreed between 11 US states and Canadian provinces . [53] : 25
- Australia: the New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme (NSW), which was started in 2003. This scheme was run by the Australian State of New South Wales , and joined the Alfa Climate Stabilization (ACS) but has since been closed in 2012 to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth's carbon price. [53] : 19
- New Zealand : the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , which started in 2008. [53] : 23
The design of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade of national Kyoto obligations to occur between participating countries. [54] The Carbon Trust found that other than the trading that occurs as part of the EU ETS, no intergovernmental emissions trading had taken place. [55]
One of the environmental problems with IET is the large surplus of allowances that are available. Russia, Ukraine, and the new EU-12 member states (the Kyoto Parties Annex I Economies-in-Transition, abbreviated "EIT": Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine) [56] : 59 have a surplus of allowances, while many OECD countries have a deficit. [54] Some of the EITs with a surplus regard it as potential compensation for the trauma of their economic restructuring. [57] When the Kyoto treaty was negotiated, it was recognized that emissions targets for the EITs might lead to them having an excess number of allowances. [58] This excess of allowances were viewed by the EITs as "headroom" to grow their economies. [59] The surplus has, however, also been referred to by some as "hot air", a term which Russia (a country with an estimated surplus of 3.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent allowances) views as "quite offensive". [60]
OECD countries with a deficit could meet their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from transition countries with a surplus. Unless other commitments were made to reduce the total surplus in allowances, such trade would not actually result in emissions being reduced [57] (see also the section below on the Green Investment Scheme ).
The "Green Investment Scheme" (GIS) is a plan for achieving environmental benefits from trading surplus allowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto Protocol. [61] The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in the framework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is designed to achieve greater flexibility in reaching the targets of the Kyoto Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of IET. However, using the GIS is not required under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition of the term. [61]
Under the GIS a party to the protocol expecting that the development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyoto quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units (AAUs) to another party. The proceeds from the AAU sales should be "greened", i.e. channelled to the development and implementation of the projects either acquiring the greenhouse gases emission reductions (hard greening) or building up the necessary framework for this process (soft greening). [57]
Latvia was one of the front-runners of GISs. World Bank (2011) [62] : 53 reported that Latvia has stopped offering AAU sales because of low AAU prices. In 2010, Estonia was the preferred source for AAU buyers, followed by the Czech Republic and Poland. [62] : 53
Japan's national policy to meet their Kyoto target includes the purchase of AAUs sold under GISs. [63] In 2010, Japan and Japanese firms were the main buyers of AAUs. [62] : 53 In terms of the international carbon market, trade in AAUs are a small proportion of overall market value. [62] : 9 In 2010, 97% of trade in the international carbon market was driven by the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS). [62] : 9
Between 2001, which was the first year Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the first Kyoto commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 e) in emission reductions. [64] Most of these reductions are through renewable energy commercialisation , energy efficiency , and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China (52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).
The formal crediting period for Joint Implementation (JI) was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20). [65] In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officially approved and registered. The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM. Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughly equally between Ukraine and the EU's New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N 2 O emissions.
As noted earlier on , the first-round Kyoto emissions limitation commitments are not sufficient to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of GHGs. Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emissions reductions after the end of the first-round Kyoto commitment period in 2012. [28] [30]
Analysts have developed scenarios of future changes in GHG emissions that lead to a stabilization in the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs. [68] Climate models suggest that lower stabilization levels are associated with lower magnitudes of future global warming, while higher stabilization levels are associated with higher magnitudes of future global warming (see figure opposite). [66]
To achieve stabilization, global GHG emissions must peak, then decline. [69] The lower the desired stabilization level, the sooner this peak and decline must occur (see figure opposite). [69] For a given stabilization level, larger emissions reductions in the near term allow for less stringent emissions reductions later. [70] On the other hand, less stringent near term emissions reductions would, for a given stabilization level, require more stringent emissions reductions later on. [70]
The first period Kyoto emissions limitations can be viewed as a first-step towards achieving atmospheric stabilization of GHGs. [27] In this sense, the first period Kyoto commitments may affect what future atmospheric stabilization level can be achieved. [71]
At the 16th Conference of the Parties held in 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited below 2°C relative to the pre-industrial temperature level. [72] One of the stabilization levels discussed in relation to this temperature target is to hold atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at 450 parts per million (ppm) CO 2 - eq. [73] Stabilization at 450 ppm could be associated with a 26 to 78% risk of exceeding the 2 °C target. [74]
Scenarios assessed by Gupta et al. (2007) [75] suggest that Annex I emissions would need to be 25% to 40% below 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050. The only Annex I Parties to have made voluntary pledges in line with this are Japan (25% below 1990 levels by 2020) and Norway (30–40% below 1990 levels by 2020). [76]
Gupta et al. (2007) [75] also looked at what 450 ppm scenarios projected for non-Annex I Parties. Projections indicated that by 2020, non-Annex I emissions in several regions ( Latin America , the Middle East , East Asia , and centrally planned Asia ) would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual" . [75] "Business-as-usual" are projected non-Annex I emissions in the absence of any new policies to control emissions. Projections indicated that by 2050, emissions in all non-Annex I regions would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual". [75]
The agreement is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any legally binding limitations on emissions or enforcement mechanisms. Only Parties to the UNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.
National emission targets specified in the Kyoto Protocol exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use land use , land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets. [77] LULUCF activities are also called "sink" activities. Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate, [78] and indeed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report on Land use, land-use change, and forestry estimates that since 1750 a third of global warming has been caused by land use change. [79] Particular criteria apply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.
Forest management , cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol. [80] Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting their targets is capped. [80]
Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing emissions. [81] The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by 2000. [81] The failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto moved to binding commitments. [81]
At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 was able to push for a mandate (the "Berlin mandate") where it was recognized that: [82]
- developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere (see Greenhouse gas#Cumulative and historical emissions ).
- developing country emissions per-capita (i.e., average emissions per head of population) [83] were still relatively low.
- and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.
During negotiations, the G-77 represented 133 developing countries. China was not a member of the group but an associate. [84] It has since become a member. [85]
The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emission reduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period. [82] However, the large potential for growth in developing country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense. [86] In the final agreement, the Clean Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions. [86] The general assumption was that developing countries would face quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet their first round commitments. [86]
Views on the Kyoto Protocol#Commentaries on negotiations contains a list of the emissions cuts that were proposed by UNFCCC Parties during negotiations. The G77 and China were in favour of strong uniform emission cuts across the developed world. [87] The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to follow the negotiations of the first. [88] In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than 2005. [88] Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can "bank" their unused allowances for use in the subsequent period. [88]
The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included – CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O – with other gases such as HFCs regulated separately. [87] The EU also wanted to have a "bubble" commitment, whereby it could make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, while others cut theirs. [87]
The most vulnerable nations – the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts by developed nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent. [87] Countries that had supported differentiation of targets had different ideas as to how it should be calculated, and many different indicators were proposed. [89] Two examples include differentiation of targets based on gross domestic product (GDP), and differentiation based on energy intensity (energy use per unit of economic output). [89]
The final targets negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises. [87] The targets closely match those decided by Argentinian Raul Estrada, the diplomat who chaired the negotiations. [90] The numbers given to each Party by Chairman Estrada were based on targets already pledged by Parties, information received on latest negotiating positions, and the goal of achieving the strongest possible environmental outcome. [91] The final targets are weaker than those proposed by some Parties, e.g., the Alliance of Small Island States and the G-77 and China, but stronger than the targets proposed by others, e.g., Canada and the United States. [92]
The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed in UNFCCC . One such project is The Adaptation Fund , [93] which has been established by the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties COP6 of the UNFCCC, which attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but it was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union (who favoured a tougher implementation) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia (who wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6-bis) was held in Bonn , [94] where the required decisions were adopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union ) managed to secure the agreement of Japan and Russia by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks .
COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the protocol.
The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9 December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United Nations Climate Change Conference .
During COP13 in Bali, 36 developed Contact Group countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union ) agreed to a 10% emissions increase for Iceland ; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations, [95] much larger increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below § Increase in greenhouse gas emission since 1990 ). [96] Reduction limitations expired in 2013.
The protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties for non-compliance ." [97] According to Grubb (2003), [98] the explicit consequences of non-compliance of the treaty are weak compared to domestic law. [98] Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the Marrakesh Accords. [98]
Monitoring emissions in international agreements is tough as in international law, there is no police power, creating the incentive for states to find 'ways around' monitoring. The Kyoto Protocol regulated 6 sinks and sources of Gases. Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nirous oxide, Hydroflurocarbons, Sulfur hexafluouride and Perfluorocarbons. Monitoring these gases can become quite a challenge. Methane can be monitored and measured from irrigated rice fields and can be measured by the seedling growing up to harvest. Future implications state that this can be affected by more cost effective ways to control emissions as changes in types of fertilizer can reduce emissions by 50%. In addition to this, many countries are unable to monitor certain ways of carbon absorption through trees and soils to an accurate level. [99]
If the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required to make up the difference during the second commitment period plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under an emissions trading program. [100]
The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 of UNFCCC on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto , Japan . It was opened on 16 March 1998 for signature during one year by parties to UNFCCC , when it was signed Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, the Maldives, Samoa, St. Lucia and Switzerland. At the end of the signature period, 82 countries and the European Community had signed. Ratification (which is required to become a party to the Protocol) started on 17 September with ratification by Fiji. Countries that did not sign acceded to the convention, which has the same legal effect. [1]
Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession." [101]
The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002. [102] Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause was reached on 23 May 2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol. [1] The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of 90 days. [103]
As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC ) have ratified the agreement, representing over 61.6% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries. [104] One of the 191 ratifying states—Canada—has renounced the protocol.
Convention Parties
The US signed the Protocol on 12 November 1998, [105] during the Clinton presidency. To become binding in the US, however, the treaty had to be ratified by the Senate , which had already passed the 1997 non-binding Byrd-Hagel Resolution , expressing disapproval of any international agreement that did not require developing countries to make emission reductions and "would seriously harm the economy of the United States". The resolution passed 95–0. [106] Therefore, even though the Clinton administration signed the treaty, [107] it was never submitted to the Senate for ratification.
At the outset of the Bush administration , Senators Chuck Hagel , Jesse Helms , Larry Craig , and Pat Roberts wrote a letter to President George W. Bush seeking to identify his position on the Kyoto Protocol and climate change policy. [108] In a letter dated March 13, 2001, President Bush responded that his "Administration takes the issue of global climate change very seriously", but that "I oppose the Kyoto Protocol because it exempts 80 percent of the world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the U.S. economy. The Senate's vote, 95-0, shows that there is a clear consensus that the Kyoto Protocol is an unfair and ineffective means of addressing global climate change concerns." [109] The administration also questioned the scientific certainty around climate change and cited potential harms of emissions reduction to the US economy. [110]
The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research reported in 2001:
This policy reversal received a massive wave of criticism that was quickly picked up by the international media. Environmental groups blasted the White House, while Europeans and Japanese alike expressed deep concern and regret. ... Almost all world leaders (e.g. China, Japan, South Africa, Pacific Islands, etc.) expressed their disappointment at Bush's decision. [111]
In response to this criticism, Bush stated: "I was responding to reality, and reality is the nation has got a real problem when it comes to energy". The Tyndall Centre called this "an overstatement used to cover up the big benefactors of this policy reversal, i.e., the US oil and coal industry, which has a powerful lobby with the administration and conservative Republican congressmen." [111]
As of 2020, the US is the only signatory that has not ratified the Protocol. [112] The US accounted for 36.1% of emissions in 1990. [113] As such, for the treaty to go into legal effect without US ratification, it would require a coalition including the EU, Russia, Japan, and small parties. A deal, without the US Administration, was reached in the Bonn climate talks (COP-6.5), held in 2001. [114]
In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on further Kyoto targets. [115] The Canadian government announced its withdrawal—possible at any time three years after ratification—from the Kyoto Protocol on 12 December 2011, effective 15 December 2012. [116] Canada was committed to cutting its greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in 1990. The Harper government prioritized oil sands development in Alberta, and deprioritized the reduction of greenhouse emissions. Environment minister Peter Kent cited Canada's liability to "enormous financial penalties" under the treaty unless it withdrew. [115] [117] He also suggested that the recently signed Durban agreement may provide an alternative way forward. [118] The Harper government claimed it would find a "Made in Canada" solution. Canada's decision received a generally negative response from representatives of other ratifying countries. [118]
Andorra, Palestine , South Sudan , the United States and, following their withdrawal on 15 December 2012, Canada are the only UNFCCC Parties that are not party to the Protocol. Furthermore, the Protocol is not applied to UNFCCC observer the Holy See . Although the Kingdom of the Netherlands approved the protocol for the whole Kingdom, it did not deposit an instrument of ratification for Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten or the Caribbean Netherlands . [119]
China (party, no binding targets)
United States (non-party)
European Union (party, binding targets)
India (party, no binding targets)
Russia (party, binding targets 2008–2012)
Indonesia (party, no binding targets)
Brazil (party, no binding targets)
Japan (party, no binding targets)
Congo (DR) (party, no binding targets)
Canada (former party, binding targets 2008–2012)
Other countries
Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding emissions/removals from land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF, i.e., carbon storage in forests and soils) for all Annex I Parties (see list below) including the United States taken together decreased from 19.0 to 17.8 thousand teragrams (Tg, which is equal to 10 9 kg) CO 2 equivalent, a decline of 6.0% during the 1990–2008 period. [120] : 3 Several factors have contributed to this decline. [120] : 14 The first is due to the economic restructuring in the Annex I Economies in Transition [120] : 14 (the EITs – see Intergovernmental Emissions Trading for the list of EITs). Over the period 1990–1999, emissions fell by 40% in the EITs following the collapse of central planning in the former Soviet Union and east European countries. [121] : 25 This led to a massive contraction of their heavy industry-based economies, with associated reductions in their fossil fuel consumption and emissions. [54]
Emissions growth in Annex I Parties have also been limited due to policies and measures (PaMs). [120] : 14 In particular, PaMs were strengthened after 2000, helping to enhance energy efficiency and develop renewable energy sources. [120] : 14 Energy use also decreased during the economic crisis in 2007–2008. [120] : 14
|Country|| Kyoto |
target
2008–2012 [10]
| Kyoto |
target
2013–2020 [122]
| GHG |
emissions
2008–2012
including
LULUCF [10]
| GHG |
emissions
2008–2012
excluding
LULUCF [10]
|Australia||+8||−0.5||+3.2||+30.3|
|Austria||−13||−20||+3.2||+4.9|
|Belgium||−8||−20||−13.9||−14.0|
|Bulgaria||−8||−20||−53.4||−52.8|
|Canada (withdrew)||−6||N/A||+18.5||+18.5|
|Croatia||−5||−20||−10.8||−7.5|
|Czech Republic||−8||−20||−30.6||−30.0|
|Denmark||−21||−20||−17.3||−14.8|
|Estonia||−8||−20||−54.2||−55.3|
|Finland||0||−20||−5.5||−4.7|
|France||0||−20||−10.5||−10.0|
|Germany||−21||−20||−24.3||−23.6|
|Greece||+25||−20||+11.5||+11.9|
|Hungary||−6||−20||−43.7||−41.8|
|Iceland||+10||−20||+10.2||+19.4|
|Ireland||+13||−20||+11.0||+5.1|
|Italy||−6||−20||−7.0||−4.0|
|Japan||−6||N/A||−2.5||+1.4|
|Latvia||−8||−20||−61.2||−56.4|
|Liechtenstein||−8||−16||+4.1||+2.4|
|Lithuania||−8||−20||−57.9||−55.6|
|Luxembourg||−28||−20||−9.3||−8.7|
|Monaco||−8||−22||−12.5||−12.5|
|Netherlands||−6||−20||−6.2||−6.4|
|New Zealand||0||N/A||−2.7||+20.4|
|Norway||+1||−16||+4.6||+7.5|
|Poland||−6||−20||−29.7||−28.8|
|Portugal||+27||−20||+5.5||+22.4|
|Romania||−8||−20||−57.0||−55.7|
|Russia||0||N/A||−36.3||−32.7|
|Slovakia||−8||−20||−37.2||−36.8|
|Slovenia||−8||−20||−9.7||−3.2|
|Spain||+15||−20||+20.0||+23.7|
|Sweden||+4||−20||−18.2||−15.3|
|Switzerland||−8||−15.8||−3.9||−0.8|
|Ukraine||0||−24||−57.1||−56.6|
|United Kingdom||−13||−20||−23.0||−22.6|
|United States (did not ratify)||−7||N/A||+9.5||+9.5|
Collectively the group of industrialized countries committed to a Kyoto target, i.e., the Annex I countries excluding the US, had a target of reducing their GHG emissions by 4.2% on average for the period 2008–2012 relative to the base year, which in most cases is 1990. [121] : 24
As noted in the preceding section, between 1990 and 1999, there was a large reduction in the emissions of the EITs. [121] : 25 The reduction in the EITs is largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction (excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex I countries, excluding the US. [121] : 25 Emissions of the Annex II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries) have experienced a limited increase in emissions from 1990 to 2006, followed by stabilization and a more marked decrease from 2007 onwards. [121] : 25 The emissions reductions in the early nineties by the 12 EIT countries who have since joined the EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its collective Kyoto target. [121] : 25
In December 2011, Canada's environment minister, Peter Kent , formally announced that Canada would withdraw from the Kyoto accord a day after the end of the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference (see the section on the withdrawal of Canada ). [123]
Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties but did not have first-round Kyoto targets. [124] The US had a Kyoto target of a 7% reduction relative to the 1990 level, but has not ratified the treaty. [10] If the US had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the average percentage reduction in total GHG emissions for the Annex I group would have been a 5.2% reduction relative to the base year. [121] : 26
38 developed countries committed to limiting their greenhouse gas emissions. Because the United States did not ratify and Canada withdrew, the emission limits remained in force for 36 countries. All of them complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries (Austria, Denmark, Iceland, Japan, Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, Norway, Spain and Switzerland) had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. [10]
In total, the 36 countries that fully participated in the Protocol were committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 4% from the 1990 base year. Their average annual emissions in 2008–2012 were 24.2% below the 1990 level. Hence, they surpassed their aggregate commitment by a large margin. If the United States and Canada are included, the emissions decreased by 11.8%. The large reductions were mainly thanks to the dissolution of the Soviet Union , which reduced the emissions of the Eastern Bloc by tens of percents in the early 1990s. In addition, the financial crisis of 2007–08 significantly reduced emissions during the first Kyoto commitment period. [10]
The 36 countries that were committed to emission reductions only accounted for 24% of the global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010. [10] Even though these countries significantly reduced their emissions during the Kyoto commitment period, other countries increased their emissions so much that the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010. [11]
UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties. [39] Most non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income. [39] : 4 Most Parties included information on policies relating to sustainable development . Sustainable development priorities mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care. [39] : 6 Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include global concerns such as climate change. [39] : 7
A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran , stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions by Annex I Parties could adversely affect their economies. [39] : 7 The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing, and export of fossil fuels .
Emissions
GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year 1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO 2 -eq. CO 2 was the largest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) (11%).
The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sector was the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO 2 -eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122 non-Annex I Parties.
- The Africa region's aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.
- The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.6 tonnes.
- The Latin America and Caribbean region's aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 4.6 tonnes.
- The "other" region includes Albania , Armenia, Azerbaijan , Georgia, Malta, Moldova , and North Macedonia . Their aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 5.1 tonnes.
Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a small difference of 1.7% with and without LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, total aggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.
Trends
In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009). [125] For example, emissions in China have risen strongly over the 1990–2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.
Barker et al. (2007, p. 79) assessed the literature on cost estimates for the Kyoto Protocol. [126] Due to US non-participation in the Kyoto treaty, costs estimates were found to be much lower than those estimated in the previous IPCC Third Assessment Report . Without the US participation, and with full use of the Kyoto flexible mechanisms, costs were estimated at less than 0.05% of Annex B GDP. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.1–1.1%. Without use of the flexible mechanisms, costs without the US participation were estimated at less than 0.1%. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.2–2%. These cost estimates were viewed as being based on much evidence and high agreement in the literature.
This section needs to be updated . Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( June 2021 )
Gupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem. [27] In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.
Gupta et al. (2007) [127] described the Kyoto first-round commitments as "modest", stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty's effectiveness. It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made more effective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a larger share of global emissions. [127] In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion . [128]
World Bank (2010) [129] commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth. The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but in 2006, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by 24%. [130] World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change. [129]
Some of the criticism of the Protocol has been based on the idea of climate justice (Liverman, 2008, p. 14). [35]
This has particularly centered on the balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world to climate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world. Another criticism of the Kyoto Protocol and other international conventions, is the right of indigenous peoples right to participate. Quoted here from The Declaration of the First International Forum of Indigenous Peoples on Climate Change , it says "Despite the recognition of our role in preventing global warming, when it comes time to sign international conventions like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, once again, our right to participate in national and international discussions that directly affect our Peoples and territories is denied." [131] Additionally, later in the declaration, it reads: [131]
We denounce the fact that neither the [United Nations] nor the Kyoto Protocol recognizes the existence or the contributions of Indigenous Peoples. Furthermore, the debates under these instruments have not considered the suggestions and proposals of the Indigenous Peoples nor have the appropriate mechanisms to guarantee our participation in all the debates that directly concern the Indigenous Peoples has been established.
Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town", and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions (Aldy et al. ., 2003, p. 9). [132] In 2001, seventeen national science academies stated that ratification of the Protocol represented a "small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases." [133] Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000, p. 5). [134]
The United States (under former President George W. Bush ) and Australia (initially, under former Prime Minister John Howard ) did not ratify the Kyoto treaty. [135] According to Stern (2006), [135] their decision was based on the lack of quantitative emission commitments for emerging economies (see also the 2000 onwards section). Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd , has since ratified the treaty, [136] [137] which took effect in March 2008. [138]
Another area which has been commented on is the role of the Kyoto flexibility mechanisms – emissions trading , Joint Implementation , and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). [139] [140] The flexibility mechanisms have attracted both positive and negative comments. [141] [142] [143]
As mentioned earlier, a number of Annex I Parties have implemented emissions trading schemes (ETSs) as part of efforts to meet their Kyoto commitments. General commentaries on emissions trading are contained in emissions trading and carbon emission trading . Individual articles on the ETSs contain commentaries on these schemes (see § International Emissions Trading for a list of ETSs).
One of the arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that they can reduce the costs incurred by Annex I Parties in meeting their Kyoto commitments. [139] Criticisms of flexibility have, for example, included the ineffectiveness of emissions trading in promoting investment in non-fossil energy sources, [144] and adverse impacts of CDM projects on local communities in developing countries. [145]
As the Kyoto Protocol seeks to reduce environmental pollutants while at the same time altering the freedoms of some citizens.
As discussed by Milton Friedman , one can achieve both economic and political freedom through capitalism; nonetheless, it is never guaranteed that one is going to have equality of wealth of those on top of the "food chain" of this capitalistic world. All these alterations come to what the leaders of the citizens choose to impose in means of improving ones lifestyle. In the case of the Kyoto Protocol, it seeks to impose regulations that will reduce production of pollutants towards the environment. Furthermore, seeking to compromise the freedoms of both private and public citizens. In one side it imposes bigger regulations towards companies and reducing their profits as they need to fulfil such regulations with, which are oftentimes more expensive, alternatives for production. On the other hand, it seeks to reduce the emissions that cause the rapid environmental change called climate change .
The conditions of the Kyoto Protocol consist of mandatory targets on greenhouse gas emissions for the world's leading economies. As provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, "These targets range from −8 per cent to +10 per cent of the countries' individual 1990 emissions levels with a view to reducing their overall emissions of such gases by at least 5 per cent below existing 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012." [146]
China, India, Indonesia and Brazil were not required to reduce their CO 2 emissions. The remaining signatory countries were not obliged to implement a common framework nor specific measures, but to reach an emission reduction target for which they can benefit of a secondary market for carbon credits multilaterally exchanged from each other. [147] The Emissions-trading Scheme (ETS) allowed countries to host polluting industries and to buy from other countries the property of their environmental merits and virtuous patterns. [147]
The Kyoto Protocol's goals are challenged, however, by climate change deniers , who condemn strong scientific evidence of the human impact on climate change. One prominent scholar opines that these climate change deniers "arguably" breach Rousseau's notion of the social contract, which is an implicit agreement among the members of a society to coordinate efforts in the name of overall social benefit. The climate change denial movement hinders efforts at coming to agreements as a collective global society on climate change. [148]
A 2021 review considers both the institutional design and the political strategies that have affected the adoption of the Kyoto protocol. It concludes that the Kyoto protocol's relatively small impact on global carbon dioxide emissions reflects a number of factors, including "deliberate political strategy, unequal power, and the absence of leadership" among and within nations. [149] The efforts of fossil fuel interests and conservative think tanks to spread disinformation and climate change denial have influenced public opinion and political action both within the United States and beyond it. The direct lobbying of fossil fuel companies and their funding of political actors have slowed political action to address climate change at regional, national, and international levels. [149]
The official meeting of all states party to the Kyoto Protocol is the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It is held every year; it serves as the formal meeting of UNFCCC. Parties to the Convention may participate in Protocol-related meetings either as parties to the Protocol or as observers.
The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin. The first Meeting of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) was held in 2005 in conjunction with COP 11. The 2013 conference was held in Warsaw . Later COPs were held in Lima, Peru, in 2014 and in Paris, France, in 2015. The 2015 event, COP 21, aimed to hold the global average rise in temperature below 2 degrees Celsius. [150] COP 22 was planned for Marrakesh, Morocco and COP 23 for Bonn, Germany.
In the non-binding " Washington Declaration " agreed on 16 February 2007, heads of governments from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisaged a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries , and initially hoped that it would be in place by 2009. [151] [152]
The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 was one of the annual series of UN meetings that followed the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. In 1997 the talks led to the Kyoto Protocol, and the conference in Copenhagen was considered to be the opportunity to agree a successor to Kyoto that would bring about meaningful carbon cuts. [153] [154]
The 2010 Cancún agreements include voluntary pledges made by 76 developed and developing countries to control their emissions of greenhouse gases. [155] In 2010, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annual global emissions. [155] [156]
By May 2012, the US, Japan, Russia, and Canada had indicated they would not sign up to a second Kyoto commitment period. [157] In November 2012, Australia confirmed it would participate in a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand confirmed that it would not. [158]
New Zealand's climate minister Tim Groser said the 15-year-old Kyoto Protocol was outdated, and that New Zealand was "ahead of the curve" in looking for a replacement that would include developing nations. [159] Non-profit environmental organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund criticised New Zealand's decision to pull out. [160]
On 8 December 2012, at the end of the 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference , an agreement was reached to extend the Protocol to 2020 and to set a date of 2015 for the development of a successor document, to be implemented from 2020 (see lede for more information). [161] The outcome of the Doha talks has received a mixed response, with small island states critical of the overall package. The Kyoto second commitment period applies to about 11% of annual global emissions of greenhouse gases. Other results of the conference include a timetable for a global agreement to be adopted by 2015 which includes all countries. [162] At the Doha meeting of the parties to the UNFCCC on 8 December 2012, the European Union chief climate negotiator, Artur Runge-Metzger, pledged to extend the treaty, binding on the 27 European Member States, up to the year 2020 pending an internal ratification procedure.
Ban Ki Moon , Secretary General of the United Nations , called on world leaders to come to an agreement on halting global warming during the 69th Session of the UN General Assembly [163] on 23 September 2014 in New York. The next climate summit was held in Paris in 2015 , out of which emerged the Paris Agreement , the successor to the Kyoto Protocol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol | 85 |
who's the lead singer of third eye blind | Who is Vocalist & guitarist Stephan Jenkins? His Age, Height, Bio | Stephan Jenkins is a famous American songwriter, record producer, the actor. He is well-known as a lead vocalist by his profession in the alternative rock band Third Eye Blind located in the United States. American vocalist singer-songwriter began his musical origin in 1992 as a short-lived rap duo Puck and Natty member, including Detriot-based rapper Herman Anthony Chunn.
Stephan has done credible works in many albums like Blue, Out of the Vein, Dopamine, Ursa Major, and Screamer. He released a debuted studio album in 1997 after he formed Third Eye Blind with guitarist Kevin Cadogan, which went multi-platinum in the United States. As a founding band member, Stephan has been awarded one Billboard Music Award and eight California Music Awards. Born in Indio, California, he was interested in music from age five. He claimed he created his original musical pieces with pots and pans on the kitchen floor of his home in northern California. Later, he started his journey as a drummer in his high school performance with Fast Forward and formed the trio band Splash.
|About||Info|
|Full Name||Stephan Douglas Jenkins|
|Profession||Singer, Songwriter, Record Producer, Actor|
|Popular For||Vocalist, guitarist|
Birthday and Zodiac
|Age (As of 2022)||58 years old|
|Date of Birth||September 27, 1964|
|Zodiac Sign||Libra|
|Birth Place||Indio, California, United States of America|
|Nationality||American|
|Ethnicity||White|
Education
Stephan Jenkins is an American musician, singer, and songwriter best known as the lead vocalist and guitarist for the rock band Third Eye Blind. Here is a detailed biography timeline of Stephan Jenkins.
- 1964: Stephan Jenkins was born in Oakland, California, United States.
- 1987-1993: Jenkins attends the University of California, Berkeley, where he studies English and literature.
- 1993-1995: Jenkins works as a professional writer, contributing articles to Spin and Rolling Stone publications.
- 1995: Jenkins forms the band Third Eye Blind, which includes guitarist Kevin Cadogan, bassist Arion Salazar, and drummer Brad Hargreaves.
- 1997: Third Eye Blind releases their debut self-titled album, which includes the hit singles “Semi-Charmed Life,” “How’s It Going to Be,” and “Jumper.”
- 1999: Third Eye Blind releases their second album, “Blue,” which includes the hit singles “Never Let You Go” and “Deep Inside of You.”
- 2002: Third Eye Blind releases their third album, “Out of the Vein.”
- 2004-2006: Jenkins takes a hiatus from music to pursue other interests, including producing and acting.
- 2008: Third Eye Blind releases their fourth album, “Ursa Major,” which includes the hit single “Don’t Believe a Word.”
- 2011: Third Eye Blind releases their fifth album, “Ursa Minor.”
- 2015-2017: Third Eye Blind releases their sixth album, “We Are Drugs,” and embarks on a tour to celebrate the 20th anniversary of their debut album.
- 2020: Third Eye Blind releases their seventh album, “Screamer.”
Stephan Jenkins has been celebrated throughout his career for his distinctive vocals, songwriting skills, and ability to create infectious pop-rock anthems. With Third Eye Blind, he has sold millions of albums and cemented his place as one of the most successful and enduring figures in alternative rock.
Stephan Jenkins is one of the singers who have refused to say anything about his personal life. Stephan Jenkins is very secretive regarding his personal life and marital affairs. He hasn’t said anything about his relationship until now. As a result, it’s impossible to tell if Jenkins is married and has a wife.
About his relationship status, Stephan Jenkins, an American singer, has been with three girlfriends with high profile since he got recognition as a famous person too. In October 2001, he ended his three-year relationship with Charlize Theron. She is among the highest-paid South African-American actresses with various awards and honours, including an Academy Award. Their relationship became the inspiration for Stephan to write some songs from Third Eye Blind’s third album named Out of the Vein, which touches on the emotions he experienced after the breakup.
Reports of his other relationship started to surface when Vanessa Carlton was named his girlfriend in 2002. Even though Stephan initially denied it, he finally admitted to being in the relationship and dated her till 2007. While they were together, both Jenkins and Carlton were working together professionally. Jenkins was also associated with Winona Ryder.
Her height is 6 feet 2 inches or 1.88 m in height.
In 2021, Stephan Jenkins of Third Eye Blind spoke with Kyle Meredith in an interview about the band’s latest album, Our Bande Apart, and the accompanying documentary, which takes a behind-the-scenes look at the recording process. The Cure and Bon Iver influenced him, who talks about offending some fans with their progressive style, ditching an earlier album once the pandemic hit. Jenkins also discusses covering Funeral Singers after hearing Sylvan Esso’s rendition, inspired by the emerging LA singer-songwriter Phoebe Bridgers, and selecting Adrian Lenker of Big Thief as his current favourite musician. The full interview can be found on YouTube when searched.
Jenkins makes a decent fortune as an American singer-songwriter, record producer, and actor. Stephan’s net worth is projected to be around $16 million per celebrity as of 2021, and Jenkins’s estimated net worth as of 2022 is yet to be calculated.
- Stephan was a valedictorian of his class at the University of California in 1987.
- Jenkins holds a bachelor’s degree in English Literature.
- Stephan has chronic fatigue syndrome.
- The vocalist is a supporter of the Black Lives Matter Movement.
- Stephan is also a supporter of gay rights and inspires queer culture.
Who has Stephan Jenkins dated?
Stephan Jenkins had been in a relationship with Charlize Theron and Vanessa Carlton.
Who dated the lead singer of Third Eye Blind?
The lead singer of Third Eye Blind, Stephan Jenkins, was dated by Charlize for three years, and they separated in October 2001.
What happened to the band 3rd Eye Blind?
The coronavirus pandemic cancelled the string of tour dates of the Third Eye Blind Band.
How old is Stephen Jenkins?
Born on September 27, 1964, Stephen Jenkins is 58 years old as of 2022.
How tall is Jenkins?
Stephen Jenkins has an estimated height of 6 feet 2 inches.
- TAGS | https://www.webofbio.com/stephan-jenkins/ | 86 |
who's the lead singer of third eye blind | Stephan Jenkins - Wikipedia | This article is about the vocalist. For other similarly named people, see Stephen Jenkins .
Stephan Jenkins
|Background information|
|Birth name||Stephan Douglas Jenkins|
|Born|| September 27, 1964 |
Indio, California , U.S.
|Genres|
|Occupation(s)|
|Instruments|
|Years active||1983–present|
|Member of||Third Eye Blind|
|Formerly of||Puck and Natty|
|Website|| 3eb |
Stephan Douglas Jenkins ( / ˈ s t iː v ən / STEEV -ən ; born September 27, 1964) is an American singer, guitarist, and the frontman of the alternative rock band Third Eye Blind . He began his musical career in 1992 as part of the short-lived rap duo Puck and Natty, alongside Detroit rapper Herman Anthony Chunn. Following the breakup of the duo, Jenkins and guitarist Kevin Cadogan formed Third Eye Blind in 1993. The band released their eponymous debut studio album in 1997, which went multi-platinum in the United States. Since then, they have released nine more albums: Blue (1999), Out of the Vein (2003), Ursa Major (2009), Dopamine (2015), We Are Drugs (2016), Thanks for Everything (cover album) (2018), Screamer (2019), Our Bande Apart (2021), and Unplugged (2022). As part of Third Eye Blind, Jenkins has received one Billboard Music Award and eight California Music Awards.
Jenkins released a live album, Live at Amoeba , as a Record Store Day exclusive vinyl in 2016. Jenkins made his debut as a solo artist as a feature on Run-DMC 's 2001 single "Rock Show". In the same year, Jenkins made his acting debut with a cameo in the film Rock Star . Jenkins also appeared in the television series All That (2003) and Punk'd (2005), in addition to pursuing his first lead role in the 2003 thriller Art of Revenge . As a producer, Jenkins helmed the production on albums by The Braids, Vanessa Carlton , and Spencer Barnett.
Jenkins was born in Indio, California . Shortly after his birth, his family moved to Wisconsin where his father was a professor of political science at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee , after graduating from Northwestern University . [1] They later moved to Palo Alto, California , when Stephan was six. [2] When he was seven years old, his parents divorced. His mother became an alcoholic. [3] [4] During elementary school, he suffered from dyslexia , causing him to repeat first grade. His father, who later got positions at Stanford and then the University of California, Berkeley, would help him with his dyslexia. He attended Henry M. Gunn Senior High School and graduated in 1983. [2] Jenkins got interested in music early in life. He recalls creating original musical works at the age of five using pots and pans on the floor of his kitchen at home in northern California. In 1987, he graduated from University of California, Berkeley , with a B.A. in English Literature. [5] [6]
Jenkins began musical work as a drummer. During high school, he performed with Fast Forward , consisting of Jenkins on drums, Nick Dement (guitar), Ben Austin (bass), and Greg Magel (guitar). Though the precocious Jenkins was still in high school, the other three were students at neighboring Stanford University. With the breakup of Fast Forward, Austin and Magel departed; Jenkins and Dement added new bassist Scott Lockhart and formed the trio Splash. Stanford University student Lawrence Schoeffler made a music video for their song "Suzaie" as part of his graduate portfolio in film production, which was broadcast on MTV Basement Tapes (1983) and won a Bronze Medal at the International Film & TV Festival of New York. [7]
Jenkins then formed Puck and Natty (the name originating with the Shakespeare characters, but also serving as a playful poke at a well-known Bay Area jazz duo, Tuck & Patti ), a 'funky rap masta' group, with Detroit rapper Herman Anthony Chunn in 1992. Puck and Natty was short lived; however, their track, "Just Wanna Be Your Friend" landed on a soundtrack album of the hit TV show Beverly Hills, 90210 in 1992. In a 1999 interview with the San Francisco Chronicle , Jenkins provided a synopsis of the way things went down. "'You want me to do a song for your TV show that I've never seen? No problem,' recalled Jenkins. 'It was $7,800. I bought groceries.'" The duo later changed their name to Puck & Zen because of a complaint from the jazz duo, Tuck & Patti. [8]
Jenkins formed Third Eye Blind in 1993 with Kevin Cadogan . They played small gigs around the San Francisco Bay Area for years and were, for the most part, unknown until they were signed in 1996 by Elektra Records. The band's deal with Elektra was later reported as the largest publishing deal ever for a previously unsigned artist. Jenkins has written or co-written every song on the band's five studio albums and one EP . Jenkins won two California Music Awards for Best Songwriter along with bandmate Cadogan; in addition, he was nominated three years in a row as Best Vocalist and won Artist of the Year.
Jenkins has produced for Third Eye Blind and several music artists. In 1997, he co-produced Third Eye Blind's self-titled debut studio album with Eric Valentine . The duo also helmed production on The Braids' debut studio album, Here We Come (1999). He co-produced follow-up Blue (1999) and Out of the Vein (2003) with Arion Salazar and Third Eye Blind, while acting as the sole producer on Ursa Major (2009), Dopamine (2015), and We Are Drugs (2016). In 2004, Jenkins co-wrote four songs for and produced Vanessa Carlton 's second studio album, Harmonium . He co-wrote five songs for Carlton's follow-up, Heroes & Thieves (2007), in addition to co-producing the effort with Irv Gotti and Linda Perry . In 2015, Jenkins produced Spencer Barnett's extended play, 13 Summers In . In 2020, Jenkins co-wrote Blackbear 's "I Feel Bad".
Jenkins made his acting debut with a cameo in the film Rock Star (2001) playing Bradley, the lead singer of the fictional band Black Babylon. He has also appeared in the former Nickelodeon series All That , and he appeared on the MTV candid camera show Punk'd when Vanessa Carlton was the subject of one of Ashton Kutcher 's practical jokes. He also starred as the lead role in the 2003 independent thriller, Art of Revenge .
In 1987, Jenkins graduated from the University of California, Berkeley with a B.A. in English literature . [9] [10] Jenkins was diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome preceding the release of Third Eye Blind (1997). [9]
Jenkins was in a three-year relationship with actress Charlize Theron until October 2001. Some of Third Eye Blind 's third album, Out of the Vein , explores the emotions Jenkins experienced as a result of their breakup. [11] [12] From 2002 to 2007, Jenkins dated Vanessa Carlton . [12]
When asked about living as a high-profile musician, he stated "Am I a rock star? Yeah, I guess. I also get to live in North Beach and go to a pub and drink my pint and go to a café and drink my coffee. I carry groceries home on the tank of my motorcycle. I find pleasure in things that are simple. Is that a rock star's life? It is for me." [6]
Jenkins is a supporter of the Black Lives Matter movement. [13] He is an advocate for gay rights , stating that he was influenced by queer culture in San Francisco. [13] In 2016, Jenkins voiced support for Hillary Rodham Clinton in the 2016 U.S. presidential election . [14]
In a 2022 interview on the podcast Guys We Fucked , [15] Jenkins stated that "touring is bad for you," noting he hated how he looked [on tour] in the 2020 short film Motorcycle Drive By . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephan_Jenkins | 86 |
who's the lead singer of third eye blind | Stephan Jenkins - Wikipedia | This article is about the vocalist. For other similarly named people, see Stephen Jenkins .
Stephan Jenkins
|Background information|
|Birth name||Stephan Douglas Jenkins|
|Born|| September 27, 1964 |
Indio, California , U.S.
|Genres|
|Occupation(s)|
|Instruments|
|Years active||1983–present|
|Member of||Third Eye Blind|
|Formerly of||Puck and Natty|
|Website|| 3eb |
Stephan Douglas Jenkins ( / ˈ s t iː v ən / STEEV -ən ; born September 27, 1964) is an American singer, guitarist, and the frontman of the alternative rock band Third Eye Blind . He began his musical career in 1992 as part of the short-lived rap duo Puck and Natty, alongside Detroit rapper Herman Anthony Chunn. Following the breakup of the duo, Jenkins and guitarist Kevin Cadogan formed Third Eye Blind in 1993. The band released their eponymous debut studio album in 1997, which went multi-platinum in the United States. Since then, they have released nine more albums: Blue (1999), Out of the Vein (2003), Ursa Major (2009), Dopamine (2015), We Are Drugs (2016), Thanks for Everything (cover album) (2018), Screamer (2019), Our Bande Apart (2021), and Unplugged (2022). As part of Third Eye Blind, Jenkins has received one Billboard Music Award and eight California Music Awards.
Jenkins released a live album, Live at Amoeba , as a Record Store Day exclusive vinyl in 2016. Jenkins made his debut as a solo artist as a feature on Run-DMC 's 2001 single "Rock Show". In the same year, Jenkins made his acting debut with a cameo in the film Rock Star . Jenkins also appeared in the television series All That (2003) and Punk'd (2005), in addition to pursuing his first lead role in the 2003 thriller Art of Revenge . As a producer, Jenkins helmed the production on albums by The Braids, Vanessa Carlton , and Spencer Barnett.
Jenkins was born in Indio, California . Shortly after his birth, his family moved to Wisconsin where his father was a professor of political science at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee , after graduating from Northwestern University . [1] They later moved to Palo Alto, California , when Stephan was six. [2] When he was seven years old, his parents divorced. His mother became an alcoholic. [3] [4] During elementary school, he suffered from dyslexia , causing him to repeat first grade. His father, who later got positions at Stanford and then the University of California, Berkeley, would help him with his dyslexia. He attended Henry M. Gunn Senior High School and graduated in 1983. [2] Jenkins got interested in music early in life. He recalls creating original musical works at the age of five using pots and pans on the floor of his kitchen at home in northern California. In 1987, he graduated from University of California, Berkeley , with a B.A. in English Literature. [5] [6]
Jenkins began musical work as a drummer. During high school, he performed with Fast Forward , consisting of Jenkins on drums, Nick Dement (guitar), Ben Austin (bass), and Greg Magel (guitar). Though the precocious Jenkins was still in high school, the other three were students at neighboring Stanford University. With the breakup of Fast Forward, Austin and Magel departed; Jenkins and Dement added new bassist Scott Lockhart and formed the trio Splash. Stanford University student Lawrence Schoeffler made a music video for their song "Suzaie" as part of his graduate portfolio in film production, which was broadcast on MTV Basement Tapes (1983) and won a Bronze Medal at the International Film & TV Festival of New York. [7]
Jenkins then formed Puck and Natty (the name originating with the Shakespeare characters, but also serving as a playful poke at a well-known Bay Area jazz duo, Tuck & Patti ), a 'funky rap masta' group, with Detroit rapper Herman Anthony Chunn in 1992. Puck and Natty was short lived; however, their track, "Just Wanna Be Your Friend" landed on a soundtrack album of the hit TV show Beverly Hills, 90210 in 1992. In a 1999 interview with the San Francisco Chronicle , Jenkins provided a synopsis of the way things went down. "'You want me to do a song for your TV show that I've never seen? No problem,' recalled Jenkins. 'It was $7,800. I bought groceries.'" The duo later changed their name to Puck & Zen because of a complaint from the jazz duo, Tuck & Patti. [8]
Jenkins formed Third Eye Blind in 1993 with Kevin Cadogan . They played small gigs around the San Francisco Bay Area for years and were, for the most part, unknown until they were signed in 1996 by Elektra Records. The band's deal with Elektra was later reported as the largest publishing deal ever for a previously unsigned artist. Jenkins has written or co-written every song on the band's five studio albums and one EP . Jenkins won two California Music Awards for Best Songwriter along with bandmate Cadogan; in addition, he was nominated three years in a row as Best Vocalist and won Artist of the Year.
Jenkins has produced for Third Eye Blind and several music artists. In 1997, he co-produced Third Eye Blind's self-titled debut studio album with Eric Valentine . The duo also helmed production on The Braids' debut studio album, Here We Come (1999). He co-produced follow-up Blue (1999) and Out of the Vein (2003) with Arion Salazar and Third Eye Blind, while acting as the sole producer on Ursa Major (2009), Dopamine (2015), and We Are Drugs (2016). In 2004, Jenkins co-wrote four songs for and produced Vanessa Carlton 's second studio album, Harmonium . He co-wrote five songs for Carlton's follow-up, Heroes & Thieves (2007), in addition to co-producing the effort with Irv Gotti and Linda Perry . In 2015, Jenkins produced Spencer Barnett's extended play, 13 Summers In . In 2020, Jenkins co-wrote Blackbear 's "I Feel Bad".
Jenkins made his acting debut with a cameo in the film Rock Star (2001) playing Bradley, the lead singer of the fictional band Black Babylon. He has also appeared in the former Nickelodeon series All That , and he appeared on the MTV candid camera show Punk'd when Vanessa Carlton was the subject of one of Ashton Kutcher 's practical jokes. He also starred as the lead role in the 2003 independent thriller, Art of Revenge .
In 1987, Jenkins graduated from the University of California, Berkeley with a B.A. in English literature . [9] [10] Jenkins was diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome preceding the release of Third Eye Blind (1997). [9]
Jenkins was in a three-year relationship with actress Charlize Theron until October 2001. Some of Third Eye Blind 's third album, Out of the Vein , explores the emotions Jenkins experienced as a result of their breakup. [11] [12] From 2002 to 2007, Jenkins dated Vanessa Carlton . [12]
When asked about living as a high-profile musician, he stated "Am I a rock star? Yeah, I guess. I also get to live in North Beach and go to a pub and drink my pint and go to a café and drink my coffee. I carry groceries home on the tank of my motorcycle. I find pleasure in things that are simple. Is that a rock star's life? It is for me." [6]
Jenkins is a supporter of the Black Lives Matter movement. [13] He is an advocate for gay rights , stating that he was influenced by queer culture in San Francisco. [13] In 2016, Jenkins voiced support for Hillary Rodham Clinton in the 2016 U.S. presidential election . [14]
In a 2022 interview on the podcast Guys We Fucked , [15] Jenkins stated that "touring is bad for you," noting he hated how he looked [on tour] in the 2020 short film Motorcycle Drive By . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephan_Jenkins | 86 |
who's the lead singer of third eye blind | Stephan Jenkins - Wikipedia | This article is about the vocalist. For other similarly named people, see Stephen Jenkins .
Stephan Jenkins
|Background information|
|Birth name||Stephan Douglas Jenkins|
|Born|| September 27, 1964 |
Indio, California , U.S.
|Genres|
|Occupation(s)|
|Instruments|
|Years active||1983–present|
|Member of||Third Eye Blind|
|Formerly of||Puck and Natty|
|Website|| 3eb |
Stephan Douglas Jenkins ( / ˈ s t iː v ən / STEEV -ən ; born September 27, 1964) is an American singer, guitarist, and the frontman of the alternative rock band Third Eye Blind . He began his musical career in 1992 as part of the short-lived rap duo Puck and Natty, alongside Detroit rapper Herman Anthony Chunn. Following the breakup of the duo, Jenkins and guitarist Kevin Cadogan formed Third Eye Blind in 1993. The band released their eponymous debut studio album in 1997, which went multi-platinum in the United States. Since then, they have released nine more albums: Blue (1999), Out of the Vein (2003), Ursa Major (2009), Dopamine (2015), We Are Drugs (2016), Thanks for Everything (cover album) (2018), Screamer (2019), Our Bande Apart (2021), and Unplugged (2022). As part of Third Eye Blind, Jenkins has received one Billboard Music Award and eight California Music Awards.
Jenkins released a live album, Live at Amoeba , as a Record Store Day exclusive vinyl in 2016. Jenkins made his debut as a solo artist as a feature on Run-DMC 's 2001 single "Rock Show". In the same year, Jenkins made his acting debut with a cameo in the film Rock Star . Jenkins also appeared in the television series All That (2003) and Punk'd (2005), in addition to pursuing his first lead role in the 2003 thriller Art of Revenge . As a producer, Jenkins helmed the production on albums by The Braids, Vanessa Carlton , and Spencer Barnett.
Jenkins was born in Indio, California . Shortly after his birth, his family moved to Wisconsin where his father was a professor of political science at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee , after graduating from Northwestern University . [1] They later moved to Palo Alto, California , when Stephan was six. [2] When he was seven years old, his parents divorced. His mother became an alcoholic. [3] [4] During elementary school, he suffered from dyslexia , causing him to repeat first grade. His father, who later got positions at Stanford and then the University of California, Berkeley, would help him with his dyslexia. He attended Henry M. Gunn Senior High School and graduated in 1983. [2] Jenkins got interested in music early in life. He recalls creating original musical works at the age of five using pots and pans on the floor of his kitchen at home in northern California. In 1987, he graduated from University of California, Berkeley , with a B.A. in English Literature. [5] [6]
Jenkins began musical work as a drummer. During high school, he performed with Fast Forward , consisting of Jenkins on drums, Nick Dement (guitar), Ben Austin (bass), and Greg Magel (guitar). Though the precocious Jenkins was still in high school, the other three were students at neighboring Stanford University. With the breakup of Fast Forward, Austin and Magel departed; Jenkins and Dement added new bassist Scott Lockhart and formed the trio Splash. Stanford University student Lawrence Schoeffler made a music video for their song "Suzaie" as part of his graduate portfolio in film production, which was broadcast on MTV Basement Tapes (1983) and won a Bronze Medal at the International Film & TV Festival of New York. [7]
Jenkins then formed Puck and Natty (the name originating with the Shakespeare characters, but also serving as a playful poke at a well-known Bay Area jazz duo, Tuck & Patti ), a 'funky rap masta' group, with Detroit rapper Herman Anthony Chunn in 1992. Puck and Natty was short lived; however, their track, "Just Wanna Be Your Friend" landed on a soundtrack album of the hit TV show Beverly Hills, 90210 in 1992. In a 1999 interview with the San Francisco Chronicle , Jenkins provided a synopsis of the way things went down. "'You want me to do a song for your TV show that I've never seen? No problem,' recalled Jenkins. 'It was $7,800. I bought groceries.'" The duo later changed their name to Puck & Zen because of a complaint from the jazz duo, Tuck & Patti. [8]
Jenkins formed Third Eye Blind in 1993 with Kevin Cadogan . They played small gigs around the San Francisco Bay Area for years and were, for the most part, unknown until they were signed in 1996 by Elektra Records. The band's deal with Elektra was later reported as the largest publishing deal ever for a previously unsigned artist. Jenkins has written or co-written every song on the band's five studio albums and one EP . Jenkins won two California Music Awards for Best Songwriter along with bandmate Cadogan; in addition, he was nominated three years in a row as Best Vocalist and won Artist of the Year.
Jenkins has produced for Third Eye Blind and several music artists. In 1997, he co-produced Third Eye Blind's self-titled debut studio album with Eric Valentine . The duo also helmed production on The Braids' debut studio album, Here We Come (1999). He co-produced follow-up Blue (1999) and Out of the Vein (2003) with Arion Salazar and Third Eye Blind, while acting as the sole producer on Ursa Major (2009), Dopamine (2015), and We Are Drugs (2016). In 2004, Jenkins co-wrote four songs for and produced Vanessa Carlton 's second studio album, Harmonium . He co-wrote five songs for Carlton's follow-up, Heroes & Thieves (2007), in addition to co-producing the effort with Irv Gotti and Linda Perry . In 2015, Jenkins produced Spencer Barnett's extended play, 13 Summers In . In 2020, Jenkins co-wrote Blackbear 's "I Feel Bad".
Jenkins made his acting debut with a cameo in the film Rock Star (2001) playing Bradley, the lead singer of the fictional band Black Babylon. He has also appeared in the former Nickelodeon series All That , and he appeared on the MTV candid camera show Punk'd when Vanessa Carlton was the subject of one of Ashton Kutcher 's practical jokes. He also starred as the lead role in the 2003 independent thriller, Art of Revenge .
In 1987, Jenkins graduated from the University of California, Berkeley with a B.A. in English literature . [9] [10] Jenkins was diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome preceding the release of Third Eye Blind (1997). [9]
Jenkins was in a three-year relationship with actress Charlize Theron until October 2001. Some of Third Eye Blind 's third album, Out of the Vein , explores the emotions Jenkins experienced as a result of their breakup. [11] [12] From 2002 to 2007, Jenkins dated Vanessa Carlton . [12]
When asked about living as a high-profile musician, he stated "Am I a rock star? Yeah, I guess. I also get to live in North Beach and go to a pub and drink my pint and go to a café and drink my coffee. I carry groceries home on the tank of my motorcycle. I find pleasure in things that are simple. Is that a rock star's life? It is for me." [6]
Jenkins is a supporter of the Black Lives Matter movement. [13] He is an advocate for gay rights , stating that he was influenced by queer culture in San Francisco. [13] In 2016, Jenkins voiced support for Hillary Rodham Clinton in the 2016 U.S. presidential election . [14]
In a 2022 interview on the podcast Guys We Fucked , [15] Jenkins stated that "touring is bad for you," noting he hated how he looked [on tour] in the 2020 short film Motorcycle Drive By . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephan_Jenkins | 86 |
who's the lead singer of third eye blind | Stephan Jenkins - Wikipedia | This article is about the vocalist. For other similarly named people, see Stephen Jenkins .
Stephan Jenkins
|Background information|
|Birth name||Stephan Douglas Jenkins|
|Born|| September 27, 1964 |
Indio, California , U.S.
|Genres|
|Occupation(s)|
|Instruments|
|Years active||1983–present|
|Member of||Third Eye Blind|
|Formerly of||Puck and Natty|
|Website|| 3eb |
Stephan Douglas Jenkins ( / ˈ s t iː v ən / STEEV -ən ; born September 27, 1964) is an American singer, guitarist, and the frontman of the alternative rock band Third Eye Blind . He began his musical career in 1992 as part of the short-lived rap duo Puck and Natty, alongside Detroit rapper Herman Anthony Chunn. Following the breakup of the duo, Jenkins and guitarist Kevin Cadogan formed Third Eye Blind in 1993. The band released their eponymous debut studio album in 1997, which went multi-platinum in the United States. Since then, they have released nine more albums: Blue (1999), Out of the Vein (2003), Ursa Major (2009), Dopamine (2015), We Are Drugs (2016), Thanks for Everything (cover album) (2018), Screamer (2019), Our Bande Apart (2021), and Unplugged (2022). As part of Third Eye Blind, Jenkins has received one Billboard Music Award and eight California Music Awards.
Jenkins released a live album, Live at Amoeba , as a Record Store Day exclusive vinyl in 2016. Jenkins made his debut as a solo artist as a feature on Run-DMC 's 2001 single "Rock Show". In the same year, Jenkins made his acting debut with a cameo in the film Rock Star . Jenkins also appeared in the television series All That (2003) and Punk'd (2005), in addition to pursuing his first lead role in the 2003 thriller Art of Revenge . As a producer, Jenkins helmed the production on albums by The Braids, Vanessa Carlton , and Spencer Barnett.
Jenkins was born in Indio, California . Shortly after his birth, his family moved to Wisconsin where his father was a professor of political science at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee , after graduating from Northwestern University . [1] They later moved to Palo Alto, California , when Stephan was six. [2] When he was seven years old, his parents divorced. His mother became an alcoholic. [3] [4] During elementary school, he suffered from dyslexia , causing him to repeat first grade. His father, who later got positions at Stanford and then the University of California, Berkeley, would help him with his dyslexia. He attended Henry M. Gunn Senior High School and graduated in 1983. [2] Jenkins got interested in music early in life. He recalls creating original musical works at the age of five using pots and pans on the floor of his kitchen at home in northern California. In 1987, he graduated from University of California, Berkeley , with a B.A. in English Literature. [5] [6]
Jenkins began musical work as a drummer. During high school, he performed with Fast Forward , consisting of Jenkins on drums, Nick Dement (guitar), Ben Austin (bass), and Greg Magel (guitar). Though the precocious Jenkins was still in high school, the other three were students at neighboring Stanford University. With the breakup of Fast Forward, Austin and Magel departed; Jenkins and Dement added new bassist Scott Lockhart and formed the trio Splash. Stanford University student Lawrence Schoeffler made a music video for their song "Suzaie" as part of his graduate portfolio in film production, which was broadcast on MTV Basement Tapes (1983) and won a Bronze Medal at the International Film & TV Festival of New York. [7]
Jenkins then formed Puck and Natty (the name originating with the Shakespeare characters, but also serving as a playful poke at a well-known Bay Area jazz duo, Tuck & Patti ), a 'funky rap masta' group, with Detroit rapper Herman Anthony Chunn in 1992. Puck and Natty was short lived; however, their track, "Just Wanna Be Your Friend" landed on a soundtrack album of the hit TV show Beverly Hills, 90210 in 1992. In a 1999 interview with the San Francisco Chronicle , Jenkins provided a synopsis of the way things went down. "'You want me to do a song for your TV show that I've never seen? No problem,' recalled Jenkins. 'It was $7,800. I bought groceries.'" The duo later changed their name to Puck & Zen because of a complaint from the jazz duo, Tuck & Patti. [8]
Jenkins formed Third Eye Blind in 1993 with Kevin Cadogan . They played small gigs around the San Francisco Bay Area for years and were, for the most part, unknown until they were signed in 1996 by Elektra Records. The band's deal with Elektra was later reported as the largest publishing deal ever for a previously unsigned artist. Jenkins has written or co-written every song on the band's five studio albums and one EP . Jenkins won two California Music Awards for Best Songwriter along with bandmate Cadogan; in addition, he was nominated three years in a row as Best Vocalist and won Artist of the Year.
Jenkins has produced for Third Eye Blind and several music artists. In 1997, he co-produced Third Eye Blind's self-titled debut studio album with Eric Valentine . The duo also helmed production on The Braids' debut studio album, Here We Come (1999). He co-produced follow-up Blue (1999) and Out of the Vein (2003) with Arion Salazar and Third Eye Blind, while acting as the sole producer on Ursa Major (2009), Dopamine (2015), and We Are Drugs (2016). In 2004, Jenkins co-wrote four songs for and produced Vanessa Carlton 's second studio album, Harmonium . He co-wrote five songs for Carlton's follow-up, Heroes & Thieves (2007), in addition to co-producing the effort with Irv Gotti and Linda Perry . In 2015, Jenkins produced Spencer Barnett's extended play, 13 Summers In . In 2020, Jenkins co-wrote Blackbear 's "I Feel Bad".
Jenkins made his acting debut with a cameo in the film Rock Star (2001) playing Bradley, the lead singer of the fictional band Black Babylon. He has also appeared in the former Nickelodeon series All That , and he appeared on the MTV candid camera show Punk'd when Vanessa Carlton was the subject of one of Ashton Kutcher 's practical jokes. He also starred as the lead role in the 2003 independent thriller, Art of Revenge .
In 1987, Jenkins graduated from the University of California, Berkeley with a B.A. in English literature . [9] [10] Jenkins was diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome preceding the release of Third Eye Blind (1997). [9]
Jenkins was in a three-year relationship with actress Charlize Theron until October 2001. Some of Third Eye Blind 's third album, Out of the Vein , explores the emotions Jenkins experienced as a result of their breakup. [11] [12] From 2002 to 2007, Jenkins dated Vanessa Carlton . [12]
When asked about living as a high-profile musician, he stated "Am I a rock star? Yeah, I guess. I also get to live in North Beach and go to a pub and drink my pint and go to a café and drink my coffee. I carry groceries home on the tank of my motorcycle. I find pleasure in things that are simple. Is that a rock star's life? It is for me." [6]
Jenkins is a supporter of the Black Lives Matter movement. [13] He is an advocate for gay rights , stating that he was influenced by queer culture in San Francisco. [13] In 2016, Jenkins voiced support for Hillary Rodham Clinton in the 2016 U.S. presidential election . [14]
In a 2022 interview on the podcast Guys We Fucked , [15] Jenkins stated that "touring is bad for you," noting he hated how he looked [on tour] in the 2020 short film Motorcycle Drive By . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephan_Jenkins | 86 |
who's the lead singer of third eye blind | Stephan Jenkins Is Not Here to Talk About the Past | We caught up with the Third Eye Blind frontman on the 25th anniversary of his band’s six-times platinum debut. And yeah, he knows what you’ve said about him, but he’s more interested in the here and now.
By Julia Gray
I
I
met Stephan Jenkins at a chocolateria. Not the Willy Wonka kind, or even the kind that smells like candy at all. It was like a gift shop attached to a conference room, or the informational parts of Hersheypark. “This can’t be it,” I thought, peering in the window of the Williamsburg storefront. There was a small crew filming an unrelated news segment inside, which may have added to its bizarre aura. I entered from the January cold and everyone stopped to look at me. “Can I help you?” the manager asked in a way that was less “Would you like to order something?” and more “What are you doing here?” I was taken off guard. “I’m … here to see Stephan?” She stared blankly and said I could wait in the back. A few minutes later, she approached me. “Oh, I didn’t realize, you mean the Stephan.” The Stephan arrived after another 15.
Jenkins likes chocolate, but he won’t admit it. I asked why he chose this as our meeting place and whether he’s a “big chocolate guy.” The singer paused for a moment. “I don’t like being told what to like,” he said. “Radiohead: hate them. OK Computer : never listened to it. But one time, I was on a run and a great song came on. Guess what it was. OK Computer !”
I don’t really know what I expected. A café without a giant LED screen showing the cocoa-harvesting process, sure. But from the frontman of Third Eye Blind, I half-assumed I’d be met with a level of orneriness. This was, after all, the man who made enemies of everyone from Rob Thomas to Smash Mouth to some of his own bandmates. The man who started (or at the very least didn’t challenge ) an unverified rumor that he graduated as valedictorian at UC Berkeley. The man who rode away on his motorcycle after debating whether John Vanderslice’s studio rate was too high. To my surprise, the 57-year-old Jenkins was coated in Californian Zen, with the wrinkle-free skin and stylish tweed that a ’90s chart-topping single can afford. He spoke at a drawn-out pace that made metaphors lose their points. And despite the purpose of our meeting, he refused to dwell on the past. Third Eye Blind released their excellent self-titled debut 25 years ago this week. It remains a standout rock record, the fruit of glorious teamwork, talent, and grit. But Jenkins won’t give in to nostalgia, especially if it outshines the present.
A llow
Allow
me to fill in some blanks: You can trace Jenkins’s early music career back to the early ’90s, as half of the duo Puck and Natty. Their music could be described as “rap” in the most basic sense of the word, with the same type of sunny, boardwalk-lounging, white-boy talk-singing that made LFO’s “Summer Girls” go platinum in ’99 , a style that Jenkins himself revisited on Third Eye Blind’s “Semi-Charmed Life.” Puck and Natty landed a song on Beverly Hills, 90210 for a cool $7,800. Apparently, Jenkins was promised $8,000, but the show shaved off $200 because he used the word “horny.” Jenkins ditched the project and set out to start a rock band.
The singer-songwriter played around the Bay Area scene with a rotating cast of bandmates, all of whom apparently either bowed out due to substance use issues or joined other groups. Third Eye Blind started fitting together when Jenkins met guitarist Kevin Cadogan, bassist Arion Salazar, and drummer/percussionist Brad Hargreaves. The four worked on demos in local studios and garages, each member bringing something crucial to the music. Third Eye Blind had the big chords, intuitive storytelling, and hypnotic noodling that could command a room. The songs were blissed out and cynical at once. Jenkins boasted his wit, drive, and a selectively useful sense of grandeur. Salazar brought a powerful groove and Hargreaves offered rich jazz stylings. Cadogan’s deft, complex guitarwork is the spine and soul of the band’s debut.
Third Eye Blind is front to back with heavy hitters. Album opener “Losing a Whole Year” crashes in like a desperate mission statement. Cadogan’s reverb swirls around Jenkins’s coarse shout, “I remember you and me used to spend the whole goddamn day in bed.” Contagious riffs equalize Jenkins’s charming melodrama throughout. The band operates in measured extremes, alternating between scenes of suicidal ideation and snorting coke under golden skies. It was a perfect transition piece, between the garage grunge that came before it and the radio pop rock that would come after. Not only did the album showcase each members’ distinct strengths, the sound happened to be exactly what the industry was looking for at the time—vibrant, melodic pop rock à la Goo Goo Dolls and Counting Crows.
After signing to Elektra in ’96, Third Eye Blind released its self-titled debut in April 1997. Its singles—most prominently “Semi-Charmed Life”—quickly climbed to the top of the rock charts, while the album charted on the Billboard 200 for 106 weeks. “We want to be the biggest band in the world,” Jenkins told the Los Angeles Times that year . “But it has to be on my own terms.” Salazar left in 2009, while Cadogan didn’t make it past their second album. Meanwhile, Hargreaves, who joined in ’95, is still around. As the band changed and fractured—its former members outnumber its current ranks eight to five, with Jenkins as the only constant throughout the band’s history—so too did the music industry. Upon the release of TEB’s third album in 2003, Elektra was absorbed into Atlantic Records, leaving them without label support. And in 2004, Warner Music cut Third Eye Blind from its roster.
Today, despite the lineup behind him, Jenkins stands alone. From 2009’s Ursa Major forward, Jenkins has released all of Third Eye Blind’s albums and EPs on his own Mega Collider imprint. “I don’t have to ask anybody’s permission and I don’t have to have a conversation,” he reasoned to me over our steaming mochas. “I produce all the records … there’s no studio guys, there’s no other writers, there’s no machine.” But in our interview, Jenkins didn’t acknowledge the “conversations” and “guys” that were key to the band’s initial success. Reflecting on TEB’s early days, he said, “I really didn’t have a team. I had an idea in my head and I was chasing after it.”
Back then, Jenkins fit neatly into a ’90s rockstar archetype that included the likes of Damon Albarn and Liam and Noel Gallagher. They were brash bad boys with the kind of fuck-you-pay-me behavior that somehow led to record deals. It’s a model of stardom that doesn’t fully translate today, a charming arrogance that has fallen out of vogue in favor of an agreeable, risk-averse public persona. Perhaps that explains Jenkins’s put-on calm, and the way he asked for his mocha with oat milk: “pretty please.” By contrast, the Gallagher brothers are feuding on Twitter and Albarn recently found himself Twitter’s main character for discussing Taylor Swift’s songwriting .
Of course, in his prime, it would’ve been hard to envision Jenkins as the mild-mannered ’90s alt-rock survivor sitting across from me that day. In addition to feuds with Smash Mouth and Rob Thomas, he has varying degrees of beef with a laundry list of bands: Green Day . Jimmy Eat World . Max Collins from Eve 6 posted a viral Twitter thread in 2020 about Jenkins’s alleged dalliances with Collins’s then-girlfriend . The press has been eager to latch onto those beefs, painting a picture of Stephan Jenkins as a Rock Star Asshole.
But in our interview, Jenkins quickly casts off that representation of himself as “sleazy.” He’s here to focus on where his band is now, not what people said about them in the past: “Third Eye Blind is a bigger band now than it was 20 years ago … [we’re] an underground indie rock band. We’ve been mostly, until recent years, misunderstood and misidentified by the indie rock press. But we’ve always been a DIY indie rock band.”
W hat
What
are the marks of a modern rock star? Jenkins said “it’s always changing, always challenging society,” but maintained they’re “dirty fucks.” Parts of TEB’s 2021 album Our Bande Apart reckon with the younger generation of artists. “There’s a kind of a radical honesty amongst Gen Z that’s really appealing, but it’s also kind of like exhibitionism,” he said. Jenkins referenced Big Thief frontperson Adrianne Lenker and the show Hacks as two recent sources of inspiration before eventually returning to the question. “Some dirty, nasty fuckers are coming,” he said. Jenkins seems to think “tits and ass” are going to be the next big thing in rock music: “There’s gonna be a band coming up, and it’s gonna be all about that. It’s gonna be huge. And hipsters are gonna love it.” The thought has even infiltrated his music: One of TEB’s newer songs includes the line, “We’ll never sing about tits and ass again.”
When I brought up the ’90s rock scene, Jenkins made it clear he doesn’t want to get lumped in with the decade. “We’re not even from the late ’90s. I just don’t identify with that. It might be put on me, but I don’t wear it. I’m interested in how [my music] enlivens how people feel now,” he argued, winding himself up. “I just don’t think that’s something that gets said about Radiohead. Somehow, they didn’t get saddled with ‘Creep.’ They’re a band from the ’90s. Are they a ’90s band?” He posed the same thought experiment for Foo Fighters. He’s not wrong, but the difference is those other bands have released a string of critically adored releases over the past quarter-century. Radiohead, to use Jenkins’s example, has been putting out well-respected albums for decades, while Foo Fighters won three Grammy Awards just this week. By comparison, Third Eye Blind’s biggest and best appears to be decades behind them. This isn’t to say TEB’s more recent works are completely void of value. They just don’t hold much space in public musical memory. “I’m happier now. I say these are the good old days,” Jenkins said, unprompted, after a lull. “I’m not much of a back-looker. I don’t listen to old music.”
The night before our chocolate shop meet-up, I watched Jenkins perform barefoot on a stage with the current iteration of Third Eye Blind at New York’s Irving Plaza. A good chunk of the crowd appeared to have traveled from midtown Manhattan and Jersey for the show. Mid-30s men in button-downs and sports memorabilia stood alongside beanie-clad women, commanding the energy of a frat party or a cover-band bar. Between songs, Jenkins explained he’d been having vocal issues. The band traded out hits like “Semi-Charmed Life” and “Jumper” for Califone and Joy Division covers. Jenkins didn’t belt the refrain for “Graduate,” encouraging an audience-led shout-along instead. “It’s because you’re old,” a heckler yelled.
I figured its billing as “25 Years in the Blind” meant the band would pay homage to hits from their 1997 debut, but the set list largely relied on new material. Some fans even knew the words. Jenkins managed to have his cake and eat it too, pushing the band’s history without indulging in the songs that made them big, like sipping on an oat milk mocha in a chocolateria while scoffing at a question about whether he likes chocolate. “We just played what we wanted to play and didn’t play what we didn’t,” Jenkins later told me. “We kept the tickets for the show small so that … it kept in only people who go deeper into the music.” He’s fueled by these fierce supporters and die-hards, to the point that their cheers have sometimes meant more than the voices of his bandmates, to hear former Third Eye Blind members tell it.
While working on 1999’s sophomore effort, Blue , Jenkins assumed sole ownership of the newly incorporated Third Eye Blind Inc . “That’s when it really started falling apart,” Cadogan told me over the phone. “I thought being in a band was going to be more important than the corporate structure. … Maybe I just didn’t have the leverage I thought I had.” Salazar was devastated when he split from the band. “I had put everything else in my life on hold. I put this thing at the top,” he said on a call. “After Kevin left, it became apparent that it wasn’t going to work, even though I believed in it.”
(In response to Salazar’s and Cadogan’s remarks, Jenkins’s publicist said, “Since its inception by Stephan, well before he met anyone who performed on any of the albums, there has always been one.”)
In some ways, Cadogan and Salazar got out at TEB’s apex. If the four original members got together and worked tirelessly to write and record Third Eye Blind in 2022, it might get a Pitchfork review, but they probably wouldn’t become a household name. The rules, incentives, and economics have all changed. Music scenes form online, and the radio airwaves and MTV shows that broke TEB don’t wield the same power, to the extent they exist at all today. A short-form video platform can turn you into a pop star or render your music algorithmically irrelevant. The masses pay tech companies $9.99 per month to stream singles and vibe-driven playlists. Buying CDs is considered a niche hobby (albeit one that may be on the rise again ). The mainstream appetite for “rock music” seems to be satiated by guitar-adjacent pop acts like Machine Gun Kelly.
Cadogan and Salazar are more open to reflecting on the past. They still share a lot of pride in that first record, considering it both a timeless piece of art and a relic of the past. “We were a bunch of guys with youthful energy and determination. It was an easier path back then for artists in some ways,” Cadogan said. “People weren’t talking about startups and money, they were talking about bands and art. It was a lot easier to be broke and pursue your dreams in San Francisco at that time. It was a really transformative period.”
In 2017, the two joined other former Third Eye Blind members to perform the 1997 debut album under the moniker XEB . Cadogan says the last he heard from Jenkins was via cease-and-desist letters, which alleged misuse of Third Eye Blind’s corporate trademark. Before that, it had been over a decade. The case went into litigation, and they ultimately settled. “It was effective in getting us off Eventbrite, so we sold [on] Brown Paper Tickets. People came. It was shocking. They came to this decrepit auto body shop in San Leandro to hear us do this,” Cadogan laughed. XEB managed to get an agent involved and eventually embarked on one U.S. tour. They’re not closing the door on future shows, but it doesn’t seem likely. (In an email, Jenkins’s publicist said, “The band’s attorney sent a cease-and-desist to protect the band’s trademark, as it is his job.”)
“That first record speaks for itself. Whatever the dynamic was, we got the job done,” Cadogan said. During separate interviews, neither bore any strong personal animosity toward Jenkins, but Cadogan referenced one grievance that sticks with him. “If you look at the album, my face is cut in half in the picture. I remember being told that was something [Jenkins] directed the label to do.” He eventually got the label to put in a new photo of the band. In the updated pic, Cadogan is wearing a “little hat.” To him, the choice seemed to be another Jenkins power move.
Jenkins’s memory of that time period focused on his role in recording their debut and avoided mention of the original lineup. “I’m hard on myself, but I think in producing that album as a producer, I [was] really driving toward something,” he said. “The engineer was great, such a good partner for me because he could really give me what I wanted. … You have to be kind of crazy. That’s why musicians, we don’t look the same, don’t talk the same, don’t act the same, don’t dress the same, just different.” When asked if he ever speaks to his former bandmates, Jenkins replied with a simple “No.” Leo Kramer, he recalled after a beat, is one exception. He said he cried when the bassist left the band, but that they remained best friends.
Time and separation have made Third Eye Blind’s self-titled an artifact that exists outside of all three men. After 25 years, they can appreciate it as a piece of their past. “It’s amazing to play this music for new generations of people, to put the past away, reminisce and enjoy it,” Salazar said. On an alternate timeline, TEB could’ve recorded a whole catalog of that caliber. But as it stands, Third Eye Blind is Jenkins’s passion project. The goal is self-expression, and he has no interest in compromise. “I’ve gone through a lot to extract myself from toxic relationships and to have that real connection with the audience, to feel like we can do what we want,” Jenkins told me. “Twenty-five years in, I’m still excited [and the band is] all really still excited about what we’re doing next. It’s hard for me not to gauge things in something other than my own happiness quotient. I like my autonomy better than I used to.”
Rather than a rock star, Jenkins thinks of himself as a chef. I asked, “How so?” which was met with a moment of silence and then a five-minute monologue that did not involve food until the very end. “I’m taking these ingredients on stage and we’re having this exchange. What I want is to make this beautiful meal. And what I’m trying to do is make everybody feel lifted,” he said. “If I feel good about the offering that I’m making, then that’s pretty much all I need.”
Julia Gray is a Brooklyn-based music and culture writer. Her work has appeared in places like The Washington Post , Playboy , Pitchfork, and Stereogum . She makes chaotic tweets at @juliagrayok . | https://www.theringer.com/music/2022/4/8/23015792/third-eye-blind-self-title-debut-25th-anniversary-stephan-jenkins-interview | 86 |
who's the lead singer of third eye blind | Third Eye Blind hometown, lineup, biography | Last.fm | - Colin CreeV (2019 – present)
- Jason Slater (1993 – 1994)
- Kevin Cadogan (1994 – 2000)
- Kryz Reid (2010 – present)
- Michael Urbano
- Stephan Jenkins (1993 – present)
- Tony Fredianelli (1993 – 2010)
Third Eye Blind is a rock band formed in the mid 1990s in San Francisco, California. The original members were Stephan Jenkins (singer, songwriter, electric guitar), Kevin Cadogan (guitar), Adrian Burley (drums), and Jason Slater (bass guitar). The band's original line-up changed several times before the release of the group's debut album, and again shortly after the release of the band's second album Blue — at which point the band's main guitarist Kevin Cadogan was released from the band under circumstances that still elicit controversy among fans. Third Eye Blind's current line-up is Stephan Jenkins (vocals, electric guitar), Abe Millett (bass guitar), Brad Hargreaves (drums), and Kryz Reid (electric guitar). More recently, bassist Arion Salazar has not been playing with the band, and his future as part of the quartet is unclear. Leo Kremer has been filling in for Salazar during concerts, but it is not yet known if he will become a full-time member. For a time the band also featured ex- Smash Mouth drummer Michael Urbano and early Primus drummer Tim ''Curveball'' Wright .
Third Eye Blind recorded their first demo in 1993. In 1996, the band landed an opening gig for Oasis , prior to which performance, so the legend goes, Third Eye Blind was warned that the crowd might throw food at them. As it turned out, however, they were invited out for an encore, even after Oasis had already played, bringing Liam Gallagher to tears and sparking the friendly rivalry that would form between the two bands. The band was paid double what they were promised for the gig. Afterwards, the band found themselves in a bidding war among record labels, in which they settled on Elektra because they believed it offered the most artistic freedom. Stephan Jenkins' outspoken behavior after signing the deal earned him the title of "the biggest mouth in music" by many critics. Jenkins has spoken out many times against several different artists, including a heated feud with Rob Thomas of the band Matchbox Twenty .
A fourth album, tentatively titled Ursa Major, was released August 2009. Shortly after the band has slated the release of a follow-up album, Ursa Minor. Only Jenkins' lyrics and vocals are left to be finished; all instrumental work is reportedly complete. Recent live performances have revealed a majority of the new tracks being worked on, including "Don't Believe a Word," "Lay Back (and the Water Will Hold You)," "In the Skin," "Summer Town," "Second Born," "(You Really) Don't Like Me Now" aka "Campfire," "Monotov's Private Opera," "Break Me," "Stevie Ray Vaughan," "Red Star," and "Standing Up For You." Other tracks mentioned for the album by Fredianelli are "Away," "A Sharp Knife," "Captain of Emo," "Swimming," and "Jesse 2k." He also confirmed that "Lay Back" was scrapped. A number of previously unreleased recordings were made available, including "Persephone," "Carnival Barker" (an instrumental), and numerous instrumental sessions declined by Jenkins for inclusion on the fourth album. | https://www.last.fm/music/Third+Eye+Blind/+wiki | 86 |
how many sounds make up the english language | How Many Sounds Are There In The English Language | There are 44 sounds in the English language, not 42. This is because the letter "J" is pronounced two different ways, depending on the letter that follows it. When it follows a vowel, it is pronounced like the "Y" in "yes". When it follows a consonant, it is pronounced like the "H" in "house".
There are 44 sounds in the English language. To make these sounds, you use your mouth, tongue, and lips. English has 20 vowel sounds and 24 consonant sounds.
The English language has four main tones of voice: high, low, rising, and falling. Each tone of voice changes the pitch of your voice.
The high tone is a high pitch, like when you say "eeee".
The low tone is a low pitch, like when you say "oooo".
The rising tone is a high-pitched tone that starts low and rises in pitch, like when you say "huh?"
The falling tone is a low-pitched tone that starts high and falls in pitch, like when you say "uh-oh".
There are five vowel sounds in the English language that are pronounced with the mouth in a different position. These vowel sounds are: /æ/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ɒ/, and /ʌ/.
The /æ/ sound is pronounced like the a in "bat".
The /ɛ/ sound is pronounced like the e in "bed".
The /ɪ/ sound is pronounced like the i in "sit".
The /ɒ/ sound is pronounced like the o in "cot".
The /ʌ/ sound is pronounced like the u in "but".
There are an infinite number of sounds in the world, but only a limited number of sound types. Sound is created by vibrating objects, which cause air pressure waves to form. These pressure waves can be detected by our ears and interpreted by our brains as sound.
There are three main types of sound: mechanical, electrical, and acoustic. Mechanical sounds are created by physical objects vibrating, such as a tuning fork or a guitar string. Electrical sounds are caused by electricity flowing through a circuit, such as in a telephone or a stereo. Acoustic sounds are created by objects vibrating the air, such as when you speak or sing.
There are many different types of acoustic sounds. The most basic type is a simple tone, which is just a single frequency or pitch. Complex tones are created by combining multiple simple tones, and they can be heard when you play a musical instrument or sing a note. Timbre is the characteristic sound of a particular instrument or voice, and it is determined by the mix of frequencies that are present in a complex tone.
Sound can also be classified by its intensity or volume. Loud sounds have a higher pressure wave amplitude than soft sounds, and they can be heard over a greater distance. High-pitched sounds are typically louder than low-pitched sounds, because they have a higher frequency.
There are also a number of environmental factors that can affect the sound that we hear. Weather conditions, such as wind or rain, can create sound waves that interfere with the normal sound waves. The type of surface that the sound wave is hitting can also make a difference. Hard surfaces, such as concrete or metal, reflect sound waves more than soft surfaces, such as grass or cloth. This is why it is easier to hear someone’s voice when they are standing near a hard surface than when they are standing near a soft surface.
Finally, the distance between the source of the sound and the listener also affects the sound that we hear. The farther away the source is, the weaker the sound will be. This is why it is harder to hear someone talking in a noisy room than it is to hear them talking in a quiet room.
There are an infinite number of sounds in the world, but only a limited number of sound types. Sound is created by vibrating objects, which cause air pressure waves to form. These pressure waves can be detected by our ears and interpreted by our brains as sound.
There are three main types of sound: mechanical, electrical, and acoustic. Mechanical sounds are created by physical objects vibrating, such as a tuning fork or a guitar string. Electrical sounds are caused by electricity flowing through a circuit, such as in a telephone or a stereo. Acoustic sounds are created by objects vibrating the air, such as when you speak or sing.
There are many different types of acoustic sounds. The most basic type is a simple tone, which is just a single frequency or pitch. Complex tones are created by combining multiple simple tones, and they can be heard when you play a musical instrument or sing a note. Timbre is the characteristic sound of a particular instrument or voice, and it is determined by the mix of frequencies that are present in a complex tone.
Sound can also be classified by its intensity or volume. Loud sounds have a higher pressure wave amplitude than soft sounds, and they can be heard over a greater distance. High-pitched sounds are typically louder than low-pitched sounds, because they have a higher frequency.
There are also a number of environmental factors that can affect the sound that we hear. Weather conditions, such as wind or rain, can create sound waves
There are 44 letter sounds in the English language. Each letter has a unique sound, and when put together, they create words.
The 44 letter sounds are: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, and z.
Each letter has a unique sound, and when put together, they create words. The best way to learn the letter sounds is to practice with flashcards, or by reading aloud.
Phonics is a method of teaching reading and spelling that is based on the understanding that letters of the alphabet represent the sounds of speech. The 42 phonics sounds are the basic sounds that make up the English language.
The most common way to represent the phonics sounds is with a phonetic alphabet. This alphabet assigns a letter to each phonics sound. For example, the phonics sound /a/ is represented with the letter a, the phonics sound /i/ is represented with the letter i, and the phonics sound /z/ is represented with the letter z.
There are a number of different phonetic alphabets, but the most common one is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The IPA assigns a unique letter to each phonics sound, regardless of the language. So, the phonics sound /a/ is represented with the letter a in English, but it is represented with the letter ä in German, and the letter a in Spanish.
The IPA is shown below with the 42 phonics sounds represented by their corresponding letter.
Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a language. There are 44 phonemes in the English language, and each one has a unique sound. Learning the phonemes in English is an important step in learning to speak the language correctly.
The 44 phonemes in English are divided into two categories: consonants and vowels. Consonants are made by obstructing airflow in the mouth, while vowels are produced by letting the air flow freely.
There are 20 consonants in English: b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, and y. Each consonant has a unique sound, and they are all pronounced slightly differently depending on the surrounding letters.
There are 24 vowel phonemes in English: a, e, i, o, u, and the six diphthongs: au, aw, ei, eo, ie, oi. Each vowel has a unique sound, and they are all pronounced slightly differently depending on the surrounding letters.
One important thing to remember is that the letter “e” can be pronounced as either a consonant (in words like “bed”) or a vowel (in words like “beet”). The letter “y” can also be pronounced as a vowel (in words like “yes”) or a consonant (in words like “yacht”).
The best way to learn the 44 phonemes in English is to practice pronouncing them aloud. You can find phoneme charts online that show how each phoneme is pronounced. You can also practice by listening to native English speakers and repeating the sounds they make.
There are three types of sounds in the English language – vowels, consonants, and diphthongs.
Vowels are the most common type of sound in English. There are five vowel sounds in English – a, e, i, o, and u. Vowels are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is expelled from the lungs.
Consonants are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is not expelled from the lungs. There are 24 consonant sounds in English. Consonants are produced by air hitting the tongue, teeth, and lips.
Diphthongs are two vowel sounds that are produced when one vowel sound is followed by another vowel sound. There are 12 diphthongs in English. Diphthongs are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is expelled from the lungs. | https://hearinnh.org/how-many-sounds-are-there-in-the-english-language/ | 87 |
how many sounds make up the english language | How Many Sounds Are There In The English Language | There are 44 sounds in the English language, not 42. This is because the letter "J" is pronounced two different ways, depending on the letter that follows it. When it follows a vowel, it is pronounced like the "Y" in "yes". When it follows a consonant, it is pronounced like the "H" in "house".
There are 44 sounds in the English language. To make these sounds, you use your mouth, tongue, and lips. English has 20 vowel sounds and 24 consonant sounds.
The English language has four main tones of voice: high, low, rising, and falling. Each tone of voice changes the pitch of your voice.
The high tone is a high pitch, like when you say "eeee".
The low tone is a low pitch, like when you say "oooo".
The rising tone is a high-pitched tone that starts low and rises in pitch, like when you say "huh?"
The falling tone is a low-pitched tone that starts high and falls in pitch, like when you say "uh-oh".
There are five vowel sounds in the English language that are pronounced with the mouth in a different position. These vowel sounds are: /æ/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ɒ/, and /ʌ/.
The /æ/ sound is pronounced like the a in "bat".
The /ɛ/ sound is pronounced like the e in "bed".
The /ɪ/ sound is pronounced like the i in "sit".
The /ɒ/ sound is pronounced like the o in "cot".
The /ʌ/ sound is pronounced like the u in "but".
There are an infinite number of sounds in the world, but only a limited number of sound types. Sound is created by vibrating objects, which cause air pressure waves to form. These pressure waves can be detected by our ears and interpreted by our brains as sound.
There are three main types of sound: mechanical, electrical, and acoustic. Mechanical sounds are created by physical objects vibrating, such as a tuning fork or a guitar string. Electrical sounds are caused by electricity flowing through a circuit, such as in a telephone or a stereo. Acoustic sounds are created by objects vibrating the air, such as when you speak or sing.
There are many different types of acoustic sounds. The most basic type is a simple tone, which is just a single frequency or pitch. Complex tones are created by combining multiple simple tones, and they can be heard when you play a musical instrument or sing a note. Timbre is the characteristic sound of a particular instrument or voice, and it is determined by the mix of frequencies that are present in a complex tone.
Sound can also be classified by its intensity or volume. Loud sounds have a higher pressure wave amplitude than soft sounds, and they can be heard over a greater distance. High-pitched sounds are typically louder than low-pitched sounds, because they have a higher frequency.
There are also a number of environmental factors that can affect the sound that we hear. Weather conditions, such as wind or rain, can create sound waves that interfere with the normal sound waves. The type of surface that the sound wave is hitting can also make a difference. Hard surfaces, such as concrete or metal, reflect sound waves more than soft surfaces, such as grass or cloth. This is why it is easier to hear someone’s voice when they are standing near a hard surface than when they are standing near a soft surface.
Finally, the distance between the source of the sound and the listener also affects the sound that we hear. The farther away the source is, the weaker the sound will be. This is why it is harder to hear someone talking in a noisy room than it is to hear them talking in a quiet room.
There are an infinite number of sounds in the world, but only a limited number of sound types. Sound is created by vibrating objects, which cause air pressure waves to form. These pressure waves can be detected by our ears and interpreted by our brains as sound.
There are three main types of sound: mechanical, electrical, and acoustic. Mechanical sounds are created by physical objects vibrating, such as a tuning fork or a guitar string. Electrical sounds are caused by electricity flowing through a circuit, such as in a telephone or a stereo. Acoustic sounds are created by objects vibrating the air, such as when you speak or sing.
There are many different types of acoustic sounds. The most basic type is a simple tone, which is just a single frequency or pitch. Complex tones are created by combining multiple simple tones, and they can be heard when you play a musical instrument or sing a note. Timbre is the characteristic sound of a particular instrument or voice, and it is determined by the mix of frequencies that are present in a complex tone.
Sound can also be classified by its intensity or volume. Loud sounds have a higher pressure wave amplitude than soft sounds, and they can be heard over a greater distance. High-pitched sounds are typically louder than low-pitched sounds, because they have a higher frequency.
There are also a number of environmental factors that can affect the sound that we hear. Weather conditions, such as wind or rain, can create sound waves
There are 44 letter sounds in the English language. Each letter has a unique sound, and when put together, they create words.
The 44 letter sounds are: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, and z.
Each letter has a unique sound, and when put together, they create words. The best way to learn the letter sounds is to practice with flashcards, or by reading aloud.
Phonics is a method of teaching reading and spelling that is based on the understanding that letters of the alphabet represent the sounds of speech. The 42 phonics sounds are the basic sounds that make up the English language.
The most common way to represent the phonics sounds is with a phonetic alphabet. This alphabet assigns a letter to each phonics sound. For example, the phonics sound /a/ is represented with the letter a, the phonics sound /i/ is represented with the letter i, and the phonics sound /z/ is represented with the letter z.
There are a number of different phonetic alphabets, but the most common one is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The IPA assigns a unique letter to each phonics sound, regardless of the language. So, the phonics sound /a/ is represented with the letter a in English, but it is represented with the letter ä in German, and the letter a in Spanish.
The IPA is shown below with the 42 phonics sounds represented by their corresponding letter.
Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a language. There are 44 phonemes in the English language, and each one has a unique sound. Learning the phonemes in English is an important step in learning to speak the language correctly.
The 44 phonemes in English are divided into two categories: consonants and vowels. Consonants are made by obstructing airflow in the mouth, while vowels are produced by letting the air flow freely.
There are 20 consonants in English: b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, and y. Each consonant has a unique sound, and they are all pronounced slightly differently depending on the surrounding letters.
There are 24 vowel phonemes in English: a, e, i, o, u, and the six diphthongs: au, aw, ei, eo, ie, oi. Each vowel has a unique sound, and they are all pronounced slightly differently depending on the surrounding letters.
One important thing to remember is that the letter “e” can be pronounced as either a consonant (in words like “bed”) or a vowel (in words like “beet”). The letter “y” can also be pronounced as a vowel (in words like “yes”) or a consonant (in words like “yacht”).
The best way to learn the 44 phonemes in English is to practice pronouncing them aloud. You can find phoneme charts online that show how each phoneme is pronounced. You can also practice by listening to native English speakers and repeating the sounds they make.
There are three types of sounds in the English language – vowels, consonants, and diphthongs.
Vowels are the most common type of sound in English. There are five vowel sounds in English – a, e, i, o, and u. Vowels are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is expelled from the lungs.
Consonants are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is not expelled from the lungs. There are 24 consonant sounds in English. Consonants are produced by air hitting the tongue, teeth, and lips.
Diphthongs are two vowel sounds that are produced when one vowel sound is followed by another vowel sound. There are 12 diphthongs in English. Diphthongs are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is expelled from the lungs. | https://hearinnh.org/how-many-sounds-are-there-in-the-english-language/ | 87 |
how many sounds make up the english language | How Many Sounds Are There In The English Language | There are 44 sounds in the English language, not 42. This is because the letter "J" is pronounced two different ways, depending on the letter that follows it. When it follows a vowel, it is pronounced like the "Y" in "yes". When it follows a consonant, it is pronounced like the "H" in "house".
There are 44 sounds in the English language. To make these sounds, you use your mouth, tongue, and lips. English has 20 vowel sounds and 24 consonant sounds.
The English language has four main tones of voice: high, low, rising, and falling. Each tone of voice changes the pitch of your voice.
The high tone is a high pitch, like when you say "eeee".
The low tone is a low pitch, like when you say "oooo".
The rising tone is a high-pitched tone that starts low and rises in pitch, like when you say "huh?"
The falling tone is a low-pitched tone that starts high and falls in pitch, like when you say "uh-oh".
There are five vowel sounds in the English language that are pronounced with the mouth in a different position. These vowel sounds are: /æ/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ɒ/, and /ʌ/.
The /æ/ sound is pronounced like the a in "bat".
The /ɛ/ sound is pronounced like the e in "bed".
The /ɪ/ sound is pronounced like the i in "sit".
The /ɒ/ sound is pronounced like the o in "cot".
The /ʌ/ sound is pronounced like the u in "but".
There are an infinite number of sounds in the world, but only a limited number of sound types. Sound is created by vibrating objects, which cause air pressure waves to form. These pressure waves can be detected by our ears and interpreted by our brains as sound.
There are three main types of sound: mechanical, electrical, and acoustic. Mechanical sounds are created by physical objects vibrating, such as a tuning fork or a guitar string. Electrical sounds are caused by electricity flowing through a circuit, such as in a telephone or a stereo. Acoustic sounds are created by objects vibrating the air, such as when you speak or sing.
There are many different types of acoustic sounds. The most basic type is a simple tone, which is just a single frequency or pitch. Complex tones are created by combining multiple simple tones, and they can be heard when you play a musical instrument or sing a note. Timbre is the characteristic sound of a particular instrument or voice, and it is determined by the mix of frequencies that are present in a complex tone.
Sound can also be classified by its intensity or volume. Loud sounds have a higher pressure wave amplitude than soft sounds, and they can be heard over a greater distance. High-pitched sounds are typically louder than low-pitched sounds, because they have a higher frequency.
There are also a number of environmental factors that can affect the sound that we hear. Weather conditions, such as wind or rain, can create sound waves that interfere with the normal sound waves. The type of surface that the sound wave is hitting can also make a difference. Hard surfaces, such as concrete or metal, reflect sound waves more than soft surfaces, such as grass or cloth. This is why it is easier to hear someone’s voice when they are standing near a hard surface than when they are standing near a soft surface.
Finally, the distance between the source of the sound and the listener also affects the sound that we hear. The farther away the source is, the weaker the sound will be. This is why it is harder to hear someone talking in a noisy room than it is to hear them talking in a quiet room.
There are an infinite number of sounds in the world, but only a limited number of sound types. Sound is created by vibrating objects, which cause air pressure waves to form. These pressure waves can be detected by our ears and interpreted by our brains as sound.
There are three main types of sound: mechanical, electrical, and acoustic. Mechanical sounds are created by physical objects vibrating, such as a tuning fork or a guitar string. Electrical sounds are caused by electricity flowing through a circuit, such as in a telephone or a stereo. Acoustic sounds are created by objects vibrating the air, such as when you speak or sing.
There are many different types of acoustic sounds. The most basic type is a simple tone, which is just a single frequency or pitch. Complex tones are created by combining multiple simple tones, and they can be heard when you play a musical instrument or sing a note. Timbre is the characteristic sound of a particular instrument or voice, and it is determined by the mix of frequencies that are present in a complex tone.
Sound can also be classified by its intensity or volume. Loud sounds have a higher pressure wave amplitude than soft sounds, and they can be heard over a greater distance. High-pitched sounds are typically louder than low-pitched sounds, because they have a higher frequency.
There are also a number of environmental factors that can affect the sound that we hear. Weather conditions, such as wind or rain, can create sound waves
There are 44 letter sounds in the English language. Each letter has a unique sound, and when put together, they create words.
The 44 letter sounds are: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, and z.
Each letter has a unique sound, and when put together, they create words. The best way to learn the letter sounds is to practice with flashcards, or by reading aloud.
Phonics is a method of teaching reading and spelling that is based on the understanding that letters of the alphabet represent the sounds of speech. The 42 phonics sounds are the basic sounds that make up the English language.
The most common way to represent the phonics sounds is with a phonetic alphabet. This alphabet assigns a letter to each phonics sound. For example, the phonics sound /a/ is represented with the letter a, the phonics sound /i/ is represented with the letter i, and the phonics sound /z/ is represented with the letter z.
There are a number of different phonetic alphabets, but the most common one is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The IPA assigns a unique letter to each phonics sound, regardless of the language. So, the phonics sound /a/ is represented with the letter a in English, but it is represented with the letter ä in German, and the letter a in Spanish.
The IPA is shown below with the 42 phonics sounds represented by their corresponding letter.
Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a language. There are 44 phonemes in the English language, and each one has a unique sound. Learning the phonemes in English is an important step in learning to speak the language correctly.
The 44 phonemes in English are divided into two categories: consonants and vowels. Consonants are made by obstructing airflow in the mouth, while vowels are produced by letting the air flow freely.
There are 20 consonants in English: b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, and y. Each consonant has a unique sound, and they are all pronounced slightly differently depending on the surrounding letters.
There are 24 vowel phonemes in English: a, e, i, o, u, and the six diphthongs: au, aw, ei, eo, ie, oi. Each vowel has a unique sound, and they are all pronounced slightly differently depending on the surrounding letters.
One important thing to remember is that the letter “e” can be pronounced as either a consonant (in words like “bed”) or a vowel (in words like “beet”). The letter “y” can also be pronounced as a vowel (in words like “yes”) or a consonant (in words like “yacht”).
The best way to learn the 44 phonemes in English is to practice pronouncing them aloud. You can find phoneme charts online that show how each phoneme is pronounced. You can also practice by listening to native English speakers and repeating the sounds they make.
There are three types of sounds in the English language – vowels, consonants, and diphthongs.
Vowels are the most common type of sound in English. There are five vowel sounds in English – a, e, i, o, and u. Vowels are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is expelled from the lungs.
Consonants are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is not expelled from the lungs. There are 24 consonant sounds in English. Consonants are produced by air hitting the tongue, teeth, and lips.
Diphthongs are two vowel sounds that are produced when one vowel sound is followed by another vowel sound. There are 12 diphthongs in English. Diphthongs are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is expelled from the lungs. | https://hearinnh.org/how-many-sounds-are-there-in-the-english-language/ | 87 |
how many sounds make up the english language | The 44 Phonemes in English | Despite there being just 26 letters in the English language there are approximately 44 unique sounds, also known as phonemes . The 44 sounds help distinguish one word or meaning from another. Various letters and letter combinations known as graphemes are used to represent the sounds.
The 44 English sounds fall into two categories: consonants and vowels. Below is a list of the 44 phonemes along with their International Phonetic Alphabet symbols and some examples of their use. Note that there is no such thing as a definitive list of phonemes because of accents, dialects and the evolution of language itself. Therefore you may discover lists with more or less than these 44 sounds.
|Phoneme||IPA Symbol||Graphemes||Examples||Voiced?|
|1||b||b, bb||bug, bubble||Yes|
|2||d||d, dd, ed||dad, add, milled||Yes|
|3||f||f, ff, ph, gh, lf, ft||fat, cliff, phone, enough, half, often||No|
|4||g||g, gg, gh,gu,gue||gun, egg, ghost, guest, prologue||Yes|
|5||h||h, wh||hop, who||No|
|6||dʒ||j, ge, g, dge, di, gg||jam, wage, giraffe, edge, soldier, exaggerate||Yes|
|7||k||k, c, ch, cc, lk, qu ,q(u), ck, x||kit, cat, chris, accent, folk, bouquet, queen, rack, box||No|
|8||l||l, ll||live, well||Yes|
|9||m||m, mm, mb, mn, lm||man, summer, comb, column, palm||Yes|
|10||n||n, nn,kn, gn, pn, mn||net, funny, know, gnat, pneumonic, mnemonic||Yes|
|11||p||p, pp||pin, dippy||No|
|12||r||r, rr, wr, rh||run, carrot, wrench, rhyme||Yes|
|13||s||s, ss, c, sc, ps, st, ce, se||sit, less, circle, scene, psycho, listen, pace, course||No|
|14||t||t, tt, th, ed||tip, matter, thomas, ripped||No|
|15||v||v, f, ph, ve||vine, of, stephen, five||Yes|
|16||w||w, wh, u, o||wit, why, quick, choir||Yes|
|17||z||z, zz, s, ss, x, ze, se||zed, buzz, his, scissors, xylophone, craze||Yes|
|18||ʒ||s, si, z||treasure, division, azure||Yes|
|19||tʃ||ch, tch, tu, te||chip, watch, future, righteous||No|
|20||ʃ||sh, ce, s, ci, si, ch, sci, ti||sham, ocean, sure, special, pension, machine, conscience, station||No|
|21||θ||th||thongs||No|
|22||ð||th||leather||Yes|
|23||ŋ||ng, n, ngue||ring, pink, tongue||Yes|
|24||j||y, i, j||you, onion, hallelujah||Yes|
How can you pronounce a word you've never read? It can be a bit tricky. How about a word in a foreign language? Now that must be impossible! Or is it? Imagine a set of symbols that could tell you how to pronounce any word in any language on the planet? Well that is exactly what the International Phonetic Alphabet is. Currently, the IPA consists of 107 sound symbols, 52 diacritics (accents) and 4 prosodic marks (intonations) encompassing virtually every phoneme used in every language on the earth. So for any written word, you can identify the associated phoneme symbols, and with a bit of practice, pronounce the word! Congratulations, you can speak Greek now!
The IPA was created by the International Phonetic Association . Founded in 1886 in Paris, their original mission was to help school children pronounce words in foreign languages and to aid in the teaching of reading. Today their mission is to promote the scientific study of phonetics.
|Phoneme||IPA Symbol||Graphemes||Examples|
|25||æ||a, ai, au||cat, plaid, laugh|
|26||eɪ||a, ai, eigh, aigh, ay, er, et, ei, au, a_e, ea, ey||bay, maid, weigh, straight, pay, foyer, filet, eight, gauge, mate, break, they|
|27||ɛ||e, ea, u, ie, ai, a, eo, ei, ae||end, bread, bury, friend, said, many, leopard, heifer, aesthetic|
|28||i:||e, ee, ea, y, ey, oe, ie, i, ei, eo, ay||be, bee, meat, lady, key, phoenix, grief, ski, deceive, people, quay|
|29||ɪ||i, e, o, u, ui, y, ie||it, england, women, busy, guild, gym, sieve|
|30||aɪ||i, y, igh, ie, uy, ye, ai, is, eigh, i_e||spider, sky, night, pie, guy, stye, aisle, island, height, kite|
|31||ɒ||a, ho, au, aw, ough||swan, honest, maul, slaw, fought|
|32||oʊ||o, oa, o_e, oe, ow, ough, eau, oo, ew||open, moat, bone, toe, sow, dough, beau, brooch, sew|
|33||ʊ||o, oo, u,ou||wolf, look, bush, would|
|34||ʌ||u, o, oo, ou||lug, monkey, blood, double|
|35||u:||o, oo, ew, ue, u_e, oe, ough, ui, oew, ou||who, loon, dew, blue, flute, shoe, through, fruit, manoeuvre, group|
|36||ɔɪ||oi, oy, uoy||join, boy, buoy|
|37||aʊ||ow, ou, ough||now, shout, bough|
|38||ə||a, er, i, ar, our, ur||about, ladder, pencil, dollar, honour, augur|
|39||eəʳ||air, are, ear, ere, eir, ayer||chair, dare, pear, where, their, prayer|
|40||ɑ:||a||arm|
|41||ɜ:ʳ||ir, er, ur, ear, or, our, yr||bird, term, burn, pearl, word, journey, myrtle|
|42||ɔ:||aw, a, or, oor, ore, oar, our, augh, ar, ough, au||paw, ball, fork, poor, fore, board, four, taught, war, bought, sauce|
|43||ɪəʳ||ear, eer, ere, ier||ear, steer, here, tier|
|44||ʊəʳ||ure, our||cure, tourist|
Knowing that phonemic awareness is a critical skill and being able to effectively teach it are two different things. The book 50 Reading Strategies for K-8 Learners ( Sage Publications ) s uggests 5 guidelines for phonemic awareness instruction:
- Analysis of phonemic awareness assessment data should drive instruction, as only a small percentage of students need explicit instruction (Ehri & Roberts, 2006).
- Phonemic awareness instruction should be a positive, enriching experience that allows students to engage in language play (Yopp, 1992).
- Effective phonemic awareness instruction provides for individual differences in abilities and uses leveled scaffolding to facilitate growth (McGee & Ukrainetz, 2009).
- Developmentally appropriate phonemic awareness instruction uses chants, poetry, songs, and rhymes to engage students’ curiosity about language and to develop metalinguistic awareness (Yopp & Yopp, 2000).
- Effective phonemic awareness instruction explicitly labels sounds and demonstrates the process of blending-segmenting of sounds (Ehri et al., 2001).
Consistent with all the researched advice on teaching phonemic awareness above, educational therapist and author Dr. Erica Warren , believes that the key to successfully teaching the 44 phonemes in English is assessment, followed by individualized, multi-sensory instruction. She has developed a helpful assessment tool and a number of fun, effective instruction/remediation tools for helping young readers master the essential sounds of the English language. And she created a custom bundle of tools just for Reading Well parents and professional visitors at a special discounted price. The bundle includes an easy to administer assessment tool and over 50 fun, multisensory games and activities which children love. We suggest you check it out.
The difficulty people with dyslexia have in distinguishing phonemes is most clearly revealed in their poor spelling. While any phoneme can be a challenge, some are more problematic than others. The vowels and digraphs generally present more difficulty than the consonants, although any sound can present difficulty depending on the particular word and phrase in which it resides.
Good luck and good reading! | https://www.dyslexia-reading-well.com/44-phonemes-in-english.html | 87 |
how many sounds make up the english language | How Many Sounds Are There In The English Language | There are 44 sounds in the English language, not 42. This is because the letter "J" is pronounced two different ways, depending on the letter that follows it. When it follows a vowel, it is pronounced like the "Y" in "yes". When it follows a consonant, it is pronounced like the "H" in "house".
There are 44 sounds in the English language. To make these sounds, you use your mouth, tongue, and lips. English has 20 vowel sounds and 24 consonant sounds.
The English language has four main tones of voice: high, low, rising, and falling. Each tone of voice changes the pitch of your voice.
The high tone is a high pitch, like when you say "eeee".
The low tone is a low pitch, like when you say "oooo".
The rising tone is a high-pitched tone that starts low and rises in pitch, like when you say "huh?"
The falling tone is a low-pitched tone that starts high and falls in pitch, like when you say "uh-oh".
There are five vowel sounds in the English language that are pronounced with the mouth in a different position. These vowel sounds are: /æ/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ɒ/, and /ʌ/.
The /æ/ sound is pronounced like the a in "bat".
The /ɛ/ sound is pronounced like the e in "bed".
The /ɪ/ sound is pronounced like the i in "sit".
The /ɒ/ sound is pronounced like the o in "cot".
The /ʌ/ sound is pronounced like the u in "but".
There are an infinite number of sounds in the world, but only a limited number of sound types. Sound is created by vibrating objects, which cause air pressure waves to form. These pressure waves can be detected by our ears and interpreted by our brains as sound.
There are three main types of sound: mechanical, electrical, and acoustic. Mechanical sounds are created by physical objects vibrating, such as a tuning fork or a guitar string. Electrical sounds are caused by electricity flowing through a circuit, such as in a telephone or a stereo. Acoustic sounds are created by objects vibrating the air, such as when you speak or sing.
There are many different types of acoustic sounds. The most basic type is a simple tone, which is just a single frequency or pitch. Complex tones are created by combining multiple simple tones, and they can be heard when you play a musical instrument or sing a note. Timbre is the characteristic sound of a particular instrument or voice, and it is determined by the mix of frequencies that are present in a complex tone.
Sound can also be classified by its intensity or volume. Loud sounds have a higher pressure wave amplitude than soft sounds, and they can be heard over a greater distance. High-pitched sounds are typically louder than low-pitched sounds, because they have a higher frequency.
There are also a number of environmental factors that can affect the sound that we hear. Weather conditions, such as wind or rain, can create sound waves that interfere with the normal sound waves. The type of surface that the sound wave is hitting can also make a difference. Hard surfaces, such as concrete or metal, reflect sound waves more than soft surfaces, such as grass or cloth. This is why it is easier to hear someone’s voice when they are standing near a hard surface than when they are standing near a soft surface.
Finally, the distance between the source of the sound and the listener also affects the sound that we hear. The farther away the source is, the weaker the sound will be. This is why it is harder to hear someone talking in a noisy room than it is to hear them talking in a quiet room.
There are an infinite number of sounds in the world, but only a limited number of sound types. Sound is created by vibrating objects, which cause air pressure waves to form. These pressure waves can be detected by our ears and interpreted by our brains as sound.
There are three main types of sound: mechanical, electrical, and acoustic. Mechanical sounds are created by physical objects vibrating, such as a tuning fork or a guitar string. Electrical sounds are caused by electricity flowing through a circuit, such as in a telephone or a stereo. Acoustic sounds are created by objects vibrating the air, such as when you speak or sing.
There are many different types of acoustic sounds. The most basic type is a simple tone, which is just a single frequency or pitch. Complex tones are created by combining multiple simple tones, and they can be heard when you play a musical instrument or sing a note. Timbre is the characteristic sound of a particular instrument or voice, and it is determined by the mix of frequencies that are present in a complex tone.
Sound can also be classified by its intensity or volume. Loud sounds have a higher pressure wave amplitude than soft sounds, and they can be heard over a greater distance. High-pitched sounds are typically louder than low-pitched sounds, because they have a higher frequency.
There are also a number of environmental factors that can affect the sound that we hear. Weather conditions, such as wind or rain, can create sound waves
There are 44 letter sounds in the English language. Each letter has a unique sound, and when put together, they create words.
The 44 letter sounds are: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, and z.
Each letter has a unique sound, and when put together, they create words. The best way to learn the letter sounds is to practice with flashcards, or by reading aloud.
Phonics is a method of teaching reading and spelling that is based on the understanding that letters of the alphabet represent the sounds of speech. The 42 phonics sounds are the basic sounds that make up the English language.
The most common way to represent the phonics sounds is with a phonetic alphabet. This alphabet assigns a letter to each phonics sound. For example, the phonics sound /a/ is represented with the letter a, the phonics sound /i/ is represented with the letter i, and the phonics sound /z/ is represented with the letter z.
There are a number of different phonetic alphabets, but the most common one is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The IPA assigns a unique letter to each phonics sound, regardless of the language. So, the phonics sound /a/ is represented with the letter a in English, but it is represented with the letter ä in German, and the letter a in Spanish.
The IPA is shown below with the 42 phonics sounds represented by their corresponding letter.
Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a language. There are 44 phonemes in the English language, and each one has a unique sound. Learning the phonemes in English is an important step in learning to speak the language correctly.
The 44 phonemes in English are divided into two categories: consonants and vowels. Consonants are made by obstructing airflow in the mouth, while vowels are produced by letting the air flow freely.
There are 20 consonants in English: b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, and y. Each consonant has a unique sound, and they are all pronounced slightly differently depending on the surrounding letters.
There are 24 vowel phonemes in English: a, e, i, o, u, and the six diphthongs: au, aw, ei, eo, ie, oi. Each vowel has a unique sound, and they are all pronounced slightly differently depending on the surrounding letters.
One important thing to remember is that the letter “e” can be pronounced as either a consonant (in words like “bed”) or a vowel (in words like “beet”). The letter “y” can also be pronounced as a vowel (in words like “yes”) or a consonant (in words like “yacht”).
The best way to learn the 44 phonemes in English is to practice pronouncing them aloud. You can find phoneme charts online that show how each phoneme is pronounced. You can also practice by listening to native English speakers and repeating the sounds they make.
There are three types of sounds in the English language – vowels, consonants, and diphthongs.
Vowels are the most common type of sound in English. There are five vowel sounds in English – a, e, i, o, and u. Vowels are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is expelled from the lungs.
Consonants are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is not expelled from the lungs. There are 24 consonant sounds in English. Consonants are produced by air hitting the tongue, teeth, and lips.
Diphthongs are two vowel sounds that are produced when one vowel sound is followed by another vowel sound. There are 12 diphthongs in English. Diphthongs are produced when the vocal cords vibrate and air is expelled from the lungs. | https://hearinnh.org/how-many-sounds-are-there-in-the-english-language/ | 87 |
how many sounds make up the english language | How Many Vowel Sounds Does English Have? | How many English vowel sounds are there? Well, it depends on what variety of English we’re talking about. Here’s a brief overview for British and American English.
August 2, 2019
English has five vowels, right? A, E, I, O and U. Sometimes we count Y, too — so maybe six? While this might be true about the written language, it’s not the case for spoken English. There are many more distinct English vowel sounds (or phonemes ) that can make the difference between otherwise similar words.
Exactly how many vowel phonemes English has depends on which variety of the language we’re talking about. In this article, we’ll use Standard Southern British English (SSBE) and General American English (GenAm) as our reference accents. Other English accents will have a slightly different number of vowel sounds, but generally speaking, English has around 20 distinct vowel phonemes . This makes it one of the most complex vowel systems of any language in the world. Let’s get into the details.
In order to count the number of English vowel sounds, we need to know what counts as a vowel. Technically speaking, vowels are produced by releasing air from the lungs through the oral and/or nasal cavity . From there, we typically modify these sounds with our vocal cords, mouth and lips to produce distinct vowel sounds.
However, this description can also include sounds like the W in “with,” the Y in “year” and the R “red.” But these are not vowels because they lack the vital characteristic that all vowels have in common: Vowels are syllabic , meaning they can be a syllable all on their own.
From here, we can divide English vowel sounds up into a couple of categories: short vowels, long vowels, diphthongs, vowels before historical R, and weak vowels . First, the distinction between short and long vowels is pretty self-explanatory. Next, diphthongs are vowel phonemes that begin as one vowel sound and slide into another, but still only make up one syllable.
Meanwhile, vowels before historical R have undergone many changes in the history of English , and so this is an important category to consider. This is especially true because our two reference accents differ on this a lot, as SSBE has lost all traces of historical R when not at the beginning of a syllable. Finally, weak vowels are like short vowels, except they can never appear in a stressed syllable and they can end a syllable.
From this point, we’ll reference lexical sets and the International Phonetic Alphabet quite a bit, so a little background or research on these topics will be helpful for following along.
Standard Southern British English has 19 distinct vowel phonemes . Here’s the full list, with their relevant lexical sets below:
/ ɪ/ /e/ /æ/ /ʌ/ /ɒ/ /ʊ/ /iː/ /ɔː/ /uː/ /ɑː / / aɪ/ /eɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /aʊ/ /əʊ/ /ɪə/ /ɛː/ /ɜː/ /ə/
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|KIT||/ ɪ/||m y th, pr e tty, w o men|
|DRESS||/e/||br ea d, m a ny, fr ie nd|
|TRAP||/æ/||cat, m a n, A frica|
|STRUT||/ʌ/||s o n, c ou rage, bl oo d|
|LOT||/ɒ/||w a tch, kn ow ledge, Au stria|
|FOOT||/ʊ/||t oo k, g oo d, p u t|
Among SSBE’s short vowels, spellings vary pretty widely. The one thing that remains constant is the TRAP vowel, which is always spelled with a letter A. This is a reliable way to tell it apart from the STRUT vowel, which many English learners confuse it with.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|FLEECE||/iː/||s ea , p eo ple, pol i ce|
|THOUGHT, NORTH, CURE||/ɔː/||w a ter, f our , s ure|
|GOOSE||/uː/||n ew , d ue , t u na|
|BATH, PALM, START||/ɑː /||f a st, h al f, c ar|
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|PRICE||/ aɪ/||tr y , n i ght, h ei ght|
|FACE||/eɪ/||s ay , st ai n, fr ei ght|
|CHOICE||/ɔɪ/||n oi se, l oi ter, b oy|
|MOUTH||/aʊ/||n ou n, c ow , sh ow er|
|GOAT||/əʊ/||sl ow , t oe , m au ve|
Here we can see more examples of how spelling is not a reliable indicator of how many vowel sounds English has . The same spelling can represent distinct vowel pronunciations, and in reverse, the same pronunciation can be represented by multiple spellings.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|NEAR||/ɪə/||cl ear , t ear , b eer|
|SQUARE||/ɛː/||f air , ch air , h eir|
|NURSE||/ɜː/||m er cy, ear th, w or d|
As mentioned above, since SSBE lost all /r/s that were not before vowel sounds, all syllable-final /r/s are dropped in pronunciation too. This left a set of vowel sounds which are still written with the letter R in spelling, but have no remnant of the /r/ sound in them in this accent.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|LETTER, COMMA||/ ə/||hamm er , a bout, comm o n|
The weak vowel is also known as a schwa , and it just so happens to be the most common vowel sound in English. It can be tricky to see at first because the knowledge of spelling often overrides our perception of a spoken sound. But once you become aware of it, you’ll notice it everywhere.
General American English has 21 distinct vowel phonemes . They are as follows:
/ ɪ/ / ɛ / /æ/ /ʌ/ /ʊ/ /iː/ /ɑː / /uː/ / aɪ/ /eɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /aʊ/ /oʊ/ /ɪr/ /ɛr/ /ɔr/ /ɑr/ /ʊr/ /ɝ/ /ɚ/ /ə/
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|KIT||/ ɪ/||m y th, pr e tty, w o men|
|DRESS||/ ɛ /||br ea d, m a ny, fr ie nd|
|TRAP, BATH||/æ/||c a t, f a st, p a ss|
|STRUT||/ʌ/||s o n, c ou rage, bl oo d|
|FOOT||/ʊ/||t oo k, g oo d, p u t|
More or less the same as SSBE, GenAm’s system of short vowels differs only in that there is no difference between the sets TRAP and BATH, so the words “gas” and “grass” are perfect rhymes. Also, notice that the DRESS vowel is written with a different symbol in GenAm than in SSBE because the GenAm vowel tends to be much more open.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|FLEECE||/iː/||s ea , p eo ple, pol i ce|
|LOT, THOUGHT, PALM||/ɑː /||w a tch, c au ght, h al f|
|GOOSE||/uː/||n ew , d ue , t u na|
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|PRICE||/ aɪ/||tr y , n i ght, h ei ght|
|FACE||/eɪ/||s ay , st ai n, fr ei ght|
|CHOICE||/ɔɪ/||n oi se, l oi ter, b oy|
|MOUTH||/aʊ/||n ou n, c ow , sh ow er|
|GOAT||/oʊ/||sl ow , t oe , m au ve|
GenAm’s distribution of diphthongs is identical to SSBE’s, but one minor difference is the transcription of the GOAT vowel : Here it starts with a much rounder vowel sound.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|NEAR||/ɪr/||cl ear , t ear , b eer|
|SQUARE||/ɛr/||f air , ch air , h eir|
|NORTH||/ɔr/||b oar , f our , ch ore|
|CURE||/ʊr/||p ure , ens ure , cout ure|
|START||/ ɑr/||c ar , al ar m, Ar ctic|
|NURSE||/ɝ/||m er cy, ear th, w or d|
Since GenAm has retained the /r/ sound in all positions, this subset of vowels is quite large. We transcribe all of them as a vowel plus /r/, except for NURSE which has its own special symbol, used to indicate an “R-colored vowel.” We can also think of the NURSE vowel in GenAm as a syllabic /r/. This means that we could say that there isn’t vowel sound at all in this word, and instead the /r/ makes up the syllable itself.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|LETTER||/ɚ/||feath er , ent er ed|
|COMMA||/ə/||ninj a , comm o n, o riginal|
Unlike SSBE, GenAm makes a distinction between these two sets since all historical /r/s are kept. For example, this means that the words “clear” and “idea” do not rhyme in GenAm.
As you can see, the details of these accents’ vowel sounds vary a bit, but the number of distinct sounds is not that different. Other accents of English will have some different phonemes, too, but the actual number of vowel sounds doesn’t change much.
Scottish English has one of the simpler vowel systems of modern English — it’s changed less over time compared to other varieties of English — but even it still has 20 distinct vowel phonemes. Australian English , for example, has more or less the same system as SSBE with 19 vowels, though the qualities of the vowel sounds differ somewhat.
So next time someone tries to tell you there are only five vowels in English, you can tell them otherwise! | https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/english-vowel-sounds | 87 |
how many sounds make up the english language | How Many Vowel Sounds Does English Have? | How many English vowel sounds are there? Well, it depends on what variety of English we’re talking about. Here’s a brief overview for British and American English.
August 2, 2019
English has five vowels, right? A, E, I, O and U. Sometimes we count Y, too — so maybe six? While this might be true about the written language, it’s not the case for spoken English. There are many more distinct English vowel sounds (or phonemes ) that can make the difference between otherwise similar words.
Exactly how many vowel phonemes English has depends on which variety of the language we’re talking about. In this article, we’ll use Standard Southern British English (SSBE) and General American English (GenAm) as our reference accents. Other English accents will have a slightly different number of vowel sounds, but generally speaking, English has around 20 distinct vowel phonemes . This makes it one of the most complex vowel systems of any language in the world. Let’s get into the details.
In order to count the number of English vowel sounds, we need to know what counts as a vowel. Technically speaking, vowels are produced by releasing air from the lungs through the oral and/or nasal cavity . From there, we typically modify these sounds with our vocal cords, mouth and lips to produce distinct vowel sounds.
However, this description can also include sounds like the W in “with,” the Y in “year” and the R “red.” But these are not vowels because they lack the vital characteristic that all vowels have in common: Vowels are syllabic , meaning they can be a syllable all on their own.
From here, we can divide English vowel sounds up into a couple of categories: short vowels, long vowels, diphthongs, vowels before historical R, and weak vowels . First, the distinction between short and long vowels is pretty self-explanatory. Next, diphthongs are vowel phonemes that begin as one vowel sound and slide into another, but still only make up one syllable.
Meanwhile, vowels before historical R have undergone many changes in the history of English , and so this is an important category to consider. This is especially true because our two reference accents differ on this a lot, as SSBE has lost all traces of historical R when not at the beginning of a syllable. Finally, weak vowels are like short vowels, except they can never appear in a stressed syllable and they can end a syllable.
From this point, we’ll reference lexical sets and the International Phonetic Alphabet quite a bit, so a little background or research on these topics will be helpful for following along.
Standard Southern British English has 19 distinct vowel phonemes . Here’s the full list, with their relevant lexical sets below:
/ ɪ/ /e/ /æ/ /ʌ/ /ɒ/ /ʊ/ /iː/ /ɔː/ /uː/ /ɑː / / aɪ/ /eɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /aʊ/ /əʊ/ /ɪə/ /ɛː/ /ɜː/ /ə/
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|KIT||/ ɪ/||m y th, pr e tty, w o men|
|DRESS||/e/||br ea d, m a ny, fr ie nd|
|TRAP||/æ/||cat, m a n, A frica|
|STRUT||/ʌ/||s o n, c ou rage, bl oo d|
|LOT||/ɒ/||w a tch, kn ow ledge, Au stria|
|FOOT||/ʊ/||t oo k, g oo d, p u t|
Among SSBE’s short vowels, spellings vary pretty widely. The one thing that remains constant is the TRAP vowel, which is always spelled with a letter A. This is a reliable way to tell it apart from the STRUT vowel, which many English learners confuse it with.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|FLEECE||/iː/||s ea , p eo ple, pol i ce|
|THOUGHT, NORTH, CURE||/ɔː/||w a ter, f our , s ure|
|GOOSE||/uː/||n ew , d ue , t u na|
|BATH, PALM, START||/ɑː /||f a st, h al f, c ar|
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|PRICE||/ aɪ/||tr y , n i ght, h ei ght|
|FACE||/eɪ/||s ay , st ai n, fr ei ght|
|CHOICE||/ɔɪ/||n oi se, l oi ter, b oy|
|MOUTH||/aʊ/||n ou n, c ow , sh ow er|
|GOAT||/əʊ/||sl ow , t oe , m au ve|
Here we can see more examples of how spelling is not a reliable indicator of how many vowel sounds English has . The same spelling can represent distinct vowel pronunciations, and in reverse, the same pronunciation can be represented by multiple spellings.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|NEAR||/ɪə/||cl ear , t ear , b eer|
|SQUARE||/ɛː/||f air , ch air , h eir|
|NURSE||/ɜː/||m er cy, ear th, w or d|
As mentioned above, since SSBE lost all /r/s that were not before vowel sounds, all syllable-final /r/s are dropped in pronunciation too. This left a set of vowel sounds which are still written with the letter R in spelling, but have no remnant of the /r/ sound in them in this accent.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|LETTER, COMMA||/ ə/||hamm er , a bout, comm o n|
The weak vowel is also known as a schwa , and it just so happens to be the most common vowel sound in English. It can be tricky to see at first because the knowledge of spelling often overrides our perception of a spoken sound. But once you become aware of it, you’ll notice it everywhere.
General American English has 21 distinct vowel phonemes . They are as follows:
/ ɪ/ / ɛ / /æ/ /ʌ/ /ʊ/ /iː/ /ɑː / /uː/ / aɪ/ /eɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /aʊ/ /oʊ/ /ɪr/ /ɛr/ /ɔr/ /ɑr/ /ʊr/ /ɝ/ /ɚ/ /ə/
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|KIT||/ ɪ/||m y th, pr e tty, w o men|
|DRESS||/ ɛ /||br ea d, m a ny, fr ie nd|
|TRAP, BATH||/æ/||c a t, f a st, p a ss|
|STRUT||/ʌ/||s o n, c ou rage, bl oo d|
|FOOT||/ʊ/||t oo k, g oo d, p u t|
More or less the same as SSBE, GenAm’s system of short vowels differs only in that there is no difference between the sets TRAP and BATH, so the words “gas” and “grass” are perfect rhymes. Also, notice that the DRESS vowel is written with a different symbol in GenAm than in SSBE because the GenAm vowel tends to be much more open.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|FLEECE||/iː/||s ea , p eo ple, pol i ce|
|LOT, THOUGHT, PALM||/ɑː /||w a tch, c au ght, h al f|
|GOOSE||/uː/||n ew , d ue , t u na|
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|PRICE||/ aɪ/||tr y , n i ght, h ei ght|
|FACE||/eɪ/||s ay , st ai n, fr ei ght|
|CHOICE||/ɔɪ/||n oi se, l oi ter, b oy|
|MOUTH||/aʊ/||n ou n, c ow , sh ow er|
|GOAT||/oʊ/||sl ow , t oe , m au ve|
GenAm’s distribution of diphthongs is identical to SSBE’s, but one minor difference is the transcription of the GOAT vowel : Here it starts with a much rounder vowel sound.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|NEAR||/ɪr/||cl ear , t ear , b eer|
|SQUARE||/ɛr/||f air , ch air , h eir|
|NORTH||/ɔr/||b oar , f our , ch ore|
|CURE||/ʊr/||p ure , ens ure , cout ure|
|START||/ ɑr/||c ar , al ar m, Ar ctic|
|NURSE||/ɝ/||m er cy, ear th, w or d|
Since GenAm has retained the /r/ sound in all positions, this subset of vowels is quite large. We transcribe all of them as a vowel plus /r/, except for NURSE which has its own special symbol, used to indicate an “R-colored vowel.” We can also think of the NURSE vowel in GenAm as a syllabic /r/. This means that we could say that there isn’t vowel sound at all in this word, and instead the /r/ makes up the syllable itself.
|Lexical set||Transcription||Examples|
|LETTER||/ɚ/||feath er , ent er ed|
|COMMA||/ə/||ninj a , comm o n, o riginal|
Unlike SSBE, GenAm makes a distinction between these two sets since all historical /r/s are kept. For example, this means that the words “clear” and “idea” do not rhyme in GenAm.
As you can see, the details of these accents’ vowel sounds vary a bit, but the number of distinct sounds is not that different. Other accents of English will have some different phonemes, too, but the actual number of vowel sounds doesn’t change much.
Scottish English has one of the simpler vowel systems of modern English — it’s changed less over time compared to other varieties of English — but even it still has 20 distinct vowel phonemes. Australian English , for example, has more or less the same system as SSBE with 19 vowels, though the qualities of the vowel sounds differ somewhat.
So next time someone tries to tell you there are only five vowels in English, you can tell them otherwise! | https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/english-vowel-sounds | 87 |
how many sounds make up the english language | The 44 Sounds in the English Language for Spelling and Reading | Updated on October 15, 2019
When supporting children in learning the sounds of the English language, remember to choose words that demonstrate all 44 word-sounds or phonemes . English contains 19 vowel sounds —5 short vowels, 6 long vowels, 3 diphthongs, 2 'oo' sounds, and 3 r-controlled vowel sounds—and 25 consonant sounds.
The following lists provide sample words to use when teaching the sounds of the English language. You may choose to find more words to fill out word families or align with sight vocabulary lists such as a Dolch Word List . Your learners will benefit most from terms that are familiar to them or make sense in their life.
The five short vowel sounds in English are a, e, i, o, and u.
- short a: and, as, and after
- short e: pen, hen, and lend
- short i: it and in
- short o: top and hop
- short u: under and cup
Remember that these sounds are not necessarily indicative of spelling. Note that the above words all contain the vowel whose sound they make but this is not always the case. A word might sound as if it contains a certain vowel that is not there. Examples of words whose short vowel sounds do not correspond with their spelling are b u sy and d o es.
The six long vowel sounds in English are a, e, i, o, u, and oo .
- long a: make and take
- long e: beet and feet
- long i: tie and lie
- long o: coat and toe
- long u (pronounced "yoo"): music and cute
- long oo: goo and droop
Examples of words whose long vowel sounds do not correspond with their spelling are th e y, tr y, fr u it, and f e w .
An r-controlled vowel is a vowel whose sound is influenced by the r that comes before it. The three r-controlled vowel sounds are ar, er, and or.
- ar: bark and dark
- er: her, bird, and fur
- or: fork, pork, and stork
It is important that students pay close attention to the er sound in words because it can be created by an r-controlled e , i, or u . These vowels are all transformed into the same sound when an r is attached to the end of them. More examples of this include bett er , f ir st, and t ur n .
The letters c, q , and x are not denoted by unique phonemes because they are found in other sounds. The c sound is covered by k sounds in words like c rust, c runch, and c reate and by s sounds in words like c ereal, c ity, and c ent (the c is found in the spelling of these words only but does not have its own phoneme). The q sound is found in kw words like bac kw ard and Kw anza. The x sound is found in ks words like kic ks .
- b: bed and bad
- k: cat and kick
- d: dog and dip
- f: fat and fig
- g: got and girl
- h: has and him
- j: job and joke
- l: lid and love
- m: mop and math
- n: not and nice
- p: pan and play
- r: ran and rake
- s: sit and smile
- t: to and take
- v: van and vine
- w: water and went
- y: yellow and yawn
- z: zipper and zap
Blends are formed when two or three letters combine to create a distinct consonant-sound, often at the beginning of a word. In a blend, the sounds from each original letter are still heard, they are just blended quickly and smoothly together. The following are common examples of blends.
- bl: blue and blow
- cl: clap and close
- fl: fly and flip
- gl: glue and glove
- pl: play and please
- br: brown and break
- cr: cry and crust
- dr: dry and drag
- fr: fry and freeze
- gr: great and ground
- pr: prize and prank
- tr: tree and try
- sk: skate and sky
- sl: slip and slap
- sp: spot and speed
- st: street and stop
- sw: sweet and sweater
- spr: spray and spring
- str: stripe and strap
A digraph is formed when two consonants come together to create an entirely new sound that is distinctly different from the sounds of the letters independently. These can be found anywhere in a word but most often the beginning or end. Some examples of common digraphs are listed below.
- ch: chin and ouch
- sh: ship and push
- th: thing
- th: this
- wh: when
- ng: ring
- nk: rink
Point out to your students that there are two sounds that th can make and be sure to provide plenty of examples.
A diphthong is essentially a digraph with vowels—it is formed when two vowels come together to create a new sound in a single syllable as the sound of the first vowel glides into the second. These are usually found in the middle of a word. See the list below for examples.
- oi: oil and toy
- ow: owl and ouch
- ey: rain
Other special sounds include:
- short oo : took and pull
- aw: raw and haul
- zh: vision | https://www.thoughtco.com/sounds-in-english-language-3111166 | 87 |
how many sounds make up the english language | The 44 Phonemes in English | Despite there being just 26 letters in the English language there are approximately 44 unique sounds, also known as phonemes . The 44 sounds help distinguish one word or meaning from another. Various letters and letter combinations known as graphemes are used to represent the sounds.
The 44 English sounds fall into two categories: consonants and vowels. Below is a list of the 44 phonemes along with their International Phonetic Alphabet symbols and some examples of their use. Note that there is no such thing as a definitive list of phonemes because of accents, dialects and the evolution of language itself. Therefore you may discover lists with more or less than these 44 sounds.
|Phoneme||IPA Symbol||Graphemes||Examples||Voiced?|
|1||b||b, bb||bug, bubble||Yes|
|2||d||d, dd, ed||dad, add, milled||Yes|
|3||f||f, ff, ph, gh, lf, ft||fat, cliff, phone, enough, half, often||No|
|4||g||g, gg, gh,gu,gue||gun, egg, ghost, guest, prologue||Yes|
|5||h||h, wh||hop, who||No|
|6||dʒ||j, ge, g, dge, di, gg||jam, wage, giraffe, edge, soldier, exaggerate||Yes|
|7||k||k, c, ch, cc, lk, qu ,q(u), ck, x||kit, cat, chris, accent, folk, bouquet, queen, rack, box||No|
|8||l||l, ll||live, well||Yes|
|9||m||m, mm, mb, mn, lm||man, summer, comb, column, palm||Yes|
|10||n||n, nn,kn, gn, pn, mn||net, funny, know, gnat, pneumonic, mnemonic||Yes|
|11||p||p, pp||pin, dippy||No|
|12||r||r, rr, wr, rh||run, carrot, wrench, rhyme||Yes|
|13||s||s, ss, c, sc, ps, st, ce, se||sit, less, circle, scene, psycho, listen, pace, course||No|
|14||t||t, tt, th, ed||tip, matter, thomas, ripped||No|
|15||v||v, f, ph, ve||vine, of, stephen, five||Yes|
|16||w||w, wh, u, o||wit, why, quick, choir||Yes|
|17||z||z, zz, s, ss, x, ze, se||zed, buzz, his, scissors, xylophone, craze||Yes|
|18||ʒ||s, si, z||treasure, division, azure||Yes|
|19||tʃ||ch, tch, tu, te||chip, watch, future, righteous||No|
|20||ʃ||sh, ce, s, ci, si, ch, sci, ti||sham, ocean, sure, special, pension, machine, conscience, station||No|
|21||θ||th||thongs||No|
|22||ð||th||leather||Yes|
|23||ŋ||ng, n, ngue||ring, pink, tongue||Yes|
|24||j||y, i, j||you, onion, hallelujah||Yes|
How can you pronounce a word you've never read? It can be a bit tricky. How about a word in a foreign language? Now that must be impossible! Or is it? Imagine a set of symbols that could tell you how to pronounce any word in any language on the planet? Well that is exactly what the International Phonetic Alphabet is. Currently, the IPA consists of 107 sound symbols, 52 diacritics (accents) and 4 prosodic marks (intonations) encompassing virtually every phoneme used in every language on the earth. So for any written word, you can identify the associated phoneme symbols, and with a bit of practice, pronounce the word! Congratulations, you can speak Greek now!
The IPA was created by the International Phonetic Association . Founded in 1886 in Paris, their original mission was to help school children pronounce words in foreign languages and to aid in the teaching of reading. Today their mission is to promote the scientific study of phonetics.
|Phoneme||IPA Symbol||Graphemes||Examples|
|25||æ||a, ai, au||cat, plaid, laugh|
|26||eɪ||a, ai, eigh, aigh, ay, er, et, ei, au, a_e, ea, ey||bay, maid, weigh, straight, pay, foyer, filet, eight, gauge, mate, break, they|
|27||ɛ||e, ea, u, ie, ai, a, eo, ei, ae||end, bread, bury, friend, said, many, leopard, heifer, aesthetic|
|28||i:||e, ee, ea, y, ey, oe, ie, i, ei, eo, ay||be, bee, meat, lady, key, phoenix, grief, ski, deceive, people, quay|
|29||ɪ||i, e, o, u, ui, y, ie||it, england, women, busy, guild, gym, sieve|
|30||aɪ||i, y, igh, ie, uy, ye, ai, is, eigh, i_e||spider, sky, night, pie, guy, stye, aisle, island, height, kite|
|31||ɒ||a, ho, au, aw, ough||swan, honest, maul, slaw, fought|
|32||oʊ||o, oa, o_e, oe, ow, ough, eau, oo, ew||open, moat, bone, toe, sow, dough, beau, brooch, sew|
|33||ʊ||o, oo, u,ou||wolf, look, bush, would|
|34||ʌ||u, o, oo, ou||lug, monkey, blood, double|
|35||u:||o, oo, ew, ue, u_e, oe, ough, ui, oew, ou||who, loon, dew, blue, flute, shoe, through, fruit, manoeuvre, group|
|36||ɔɪ||oi, oy, uoy||join, boy, buoy|
|37||aʊ||ow, ou, ough||now, shout, bough|
|38||ə||a, er, i, ar, our, ur||about, ladder, pencil, dollar, honour, augur|
|39||eəʳ||air, are, ear, ere, eir, ayer||chair, dare, pear, where, their, prayer|
|40||ɑ:||a||arm|
|41||ɜ:ʳ||ir, er, ur, ear, or, our, yr||bird, term, burn, pearl, word, journey, myrtle|
|42||ɔ:||aw, a, or, oor, ore, oar, our, augh, ar, ough, au||paw, ball, fork, poor, fore, board, four, taught, war, bought, sauce|
|43||ɪəʳ||ear, eer, ere, ier||ear, steer, here, tier|
|44||ʊəʳ||ure, our||cure, tourist|
Knowing that phonemic awareness is a critical skill and being able to effectively teach it are two different things. The book 50 Reading Strategies for K-8 Learners ( Sage Publications ) s uggests 5 guidelines for phonemic awareness instruction:
- Analysis of phonemic awareness assessment data should drive instruction, as only a small percentage of students need explicit instruction (Ehri & Roberts, 2006).
- Phonemic awareness instruction should be a positive, enriching experience that allows students to engage in language play (Yopp, 1992).
- Effective phonemic awareness instruction provides for individual differences in abilities and uses leveled scaffolding to facilitate growth (McGee & Ukrainetz, 2009).
- Developmentally appropriate phonemic awareness instruction uses chants, poetry, songs, and rhymes to engage students’ curiosity about language and to develop metalinguistic awareness (Yopp & Yopp, 2000).
- Effective phonemic awareness instruction explicitly labels sounds and demonstrates the process of blending-segmenting of sounds (Ehri et al., 2001).
Consistent with all the researched advice on teaching phonemic awareness above, educational therapist and author Dr. Erica Warren , believes that the key to successfully teaching the 44 phonemes in English is assessment, followed by individualized, multi-sensory instruction. She has developed a helpful assessment tool and a number of fun, effective instruction/remediation tools for helping young readers master the essential sounds of the English language. And she created a custom bundle of tools just for Reading Well parents and professional visitors at a special discounted price. The bundle includes an easy to administer assessment tool and over 50 fun, multisensory games and activities which children love. We suggest you check it out.
The difficulty people with dyslexia have in distinguishing phonemes is most clearly revealed in their poor spelling. While any phoneme can be a challenge, some are more problematic than others. The vowels and digraphs generally present more difficulty than the consonants, although any sound can present difficulty depending on the particular word and phrase in which it resides.
Good luck and good reading! | https://www.dyslexia-reading-well.com/44-phonemes-in-english.html | 87 |
what car did dom drive in the first fast and furious | The History of Dom's Charger | Posted on
2020-05-20
The Fast & Furious franchise has captivated movie-going audiences for years with fast cars and death-defying stunts. In addition to the explosive chase sequences and racing that the films offer, the films have produced characters beloved by fans.
One of the main characters is Dominic "Dom" Toretto, played by Vin Diesel, who has appeared in 7 of the 9 movies. As these movies are focused on cars, Dom's character isn't complete without his vehicle.
Table of Contents
Dom's car is a 1970 Dodge Charger R/T. The history of Dom's Charger covers a great deal of ground. From its origin story and the many times it's been destroyed to behind the scene's modifications that made the car ready for the big screen, Dom's Charger has been through a lot.
"The Fast and the Furious," the first film in the franchise, introduced Dom's 1970 Dodge Charger R/T to audiences. In the movie, audiences learn that when Dom was a child, he helped his father build the Charger. With the car's 900 horsepower, Dom's father broke the record for the time it takes to go a 1/4 mile, traveling the distance in only nine seconds.
Dom recounts that though his father was a capable driver, he died in a racing accident. The death of Dom's father leaves him afraid of driving the Charger, and he refuses to get behind the wheel throughout the film. To reveal character growth and show off the Charger on the big screen, Dom ends up in a position where he has only one car left to drive — the Charger.
After the shooting of a friend, Dom and Brian O'Conner chase after the killers. At the time, there are no other cars for Dom to drive other than the Charger. While facing his fears behind the wheel, Dom sees that he can control the car and use it for good. He catches up to one of the killers, Lance, and knocks him off his motorcycle and down a hill.
Once both of the killers have been dealt with, Brian and Dom meet at a red light. Instead of being terrified by the car, Dom now has the confidence to race it. As soon as the light turns green, they start drag racing. After they both narrowly miss an oncoming train, Dom wins the race.
After the race ends, Dom crashes into the end of a semi-truck by accident, sending the car into the air. Dom sustains only minor injuries, but the Charger is totaled. Dom takes over Brian's Supra, leaving the Charger on the road and ending the car's story in the first movie.
The filmmakers built three different Chargers for the first movie, along with a buck. In film, a buck is a partially built vehicle that is attached to another working vehicle — it allows the actors to focus on saying their lines instead of driving the car. Each of the three Chargers had different purposes. One built for stunts, another for roll-over and the other, referred to as the Hero Charger, was built for close-ups.
To create the Hero Charger audiences see on screen, the filmmakers wanted a 1970 Dodge Charger R/T as the base. However, the filmmakers had difficulty finding a 1970 Dodge Charger R/T and had to modify a 1969 Charger to look it like it was from 1970. They also implemented Cragar 200-S wheels and a fake BDS 8-71 Roots-style supercharger to really make a statement with the car's look.
In the movie, the car's specs include Hedman headers, Hotchkis suspension, slide brakes, Wilwood discs, a Flowmaster exhaust, a mounted supercharger and a Holley fuel pump. Dom's Charger also featured Nitrous Oxide to give the car an extra boost of speed when it needed it. The car's use of Rear-Wheel Drive and Continental Sport Contact Tires offers the car superior handling and grip while out on the road.
To provide some reference points for what all these pieces of equipment mean, we've created a list of the most commonly asked questions about the original The Fast and The Furious Charger:
According to the first movie, the Charger can go a quarter-mile in only nine seconds flat. This is an incredibly fast speed, as it would mean the car was going somewhere between 140 and 150 miles per hour to make that distance in such a short amount of time.
In real life, only a few racers have ever broken ten seconds. For example, one of the most expensive and powerful cars in the world, The Bugatti Veyron Super Sport, makes a quarter-mile in 9.7 seconds.
The movie-version of the muscle car packs a whopping 900 horsepower that gives the vehicle the ability to speed past other cars while on the road. The addition of a N.O.S. 250 HP plate nitrous injection system gives the engine the ability to reach up to 1,100 horsepower whenever the N.O.S. is activated.
The car featured two engines — one that audiences saw and another that actually powered the car.
In the shots of the Charger in Dom's garage, audiences see a Hemi racing engine mounted in the front of the vehicle. This supercharged engine was a beast, rumored to have 900 horsepower and a 250 shot nitrous . Its power added to the plausibility of how fast the Charger could really go.
Since the engine was so powerful, the filmmakers didn't actually use it for filming. A 1970 Dodge Charger outfitted with that kind of engine would be difficult to control on the road, which could be a problem for filming highly coordinated driving shots. After getting the shots of the engine mounted in the car, the filmmakers shipped the engine back to the supplier. As such, the engine in the hero Charger isn't actually a Hemi.
Since a 900 horsepower engine wouldn't be practical for filming purposes and could be incredibly difficult to control, the hero Charger actually ran on a big block performance built 440 Magnum engine, which is still in the car today. The roll-over Charger ran on a 318 engine.
The Dodge Charger R/T that Dom uses is largely considered to be from 1970. However, 1970 Chargers are difficult to find in good condition due to Hollywood's love of using them for dangerous stunts. To get around this difficulty, the filmmakers had to modify earlier Dodge Charger models to make them look like they were from 1970.
For example, the hero car used for close-ups in "The Fast and the Furious" was actually a Dodge Charger from 1969 that was customized to look like it was from 1970. The filmmakers did a good job with the conversion, as the car took on the appearance of a newer model perfectly.
Determining the value of Dom's Charger is difficult to say, especially since there have been so many versions of it. It's likely that the original Hero Charger from the first movie is the most valuable, as it's the most iconic and desirable for collectors. To give you an idea of how much the car might sell for, consider that the original 1968 Ford Mustang used in the classic film, "Bullitt," recently sold for $3.74 million .
Since the 1970 Hero Charger used in "The Fast and Furious" kicked off the mega-popular franchise, its value is likely very high. It also helps that the hero version of the 1970 Dodge Charger RT has been well taken care of since filming wrapped and is still in the same condition as it was on screen.
While the hero car isn't for sale, if it were, collectors would likely expect to pay top dollar for it.
The blower motor is one of the most memorable parts of Dom's Charger. Typically a blower motor helps to circulate air into and outside of your car. The blower motor helps to pull in air from the outside and push it through the vents of your heating or A/C systems.
However, a supercharged blower, like the one on Dom's car, can help you pack more fuel and air into a car's cylinders, giving the car a boost in horsepower, starting speed and bottom-end performance.
The movie has the supercharged blower motor mounted inside the front carriage of Dom's Charger, coming through the hood, so the blower's prominently displayed for all to see. Like you might expect, the blower on the Charger is purely aesthetic in the movie and didn't actually offer any extra abilities to the car.
Dom's Charger has been heavily featured in "The Fast and the Furious," "Fast & Furious," "Fast & Furious - Fast Five" and "Furious 7." With this amount of use, the filmmakers continued to build the Charger's lore, and, at times, added new features and upgrades to it.
Below you can find out more about the car's evolution and story over the years:
Picking up where the last movie ended, Letty Ortiz, Dom's then-girlfriend, gets possession of the wrecked Charger, working on it to get it back to driving condition. After Dom returns to Los Angeles, he finishes rebuilding the vehicle and drives it to Mexico to take out the film's primary villain, Arturo Braga. Unfortunately for the vehicle, Dom has to jump out of it as the car barrels towards explosives. The Charger ends up hitting the explosives and is destroyed again.
However, at the end of the film, audiences see Brian driving the Charger in mint condition. Though "Fast & Furious" extended the lore of Dom's Charger, it didn't add any modifications to it.
In "Fast & Furious - Fast Five," the filmmakers decided to make a whole new Charger rather than rely on the one used originally. One of the changes included moving the supercharger lower. In the first two films the Charger was featured in, the supercharger went through the hood and sat on top of it. In "Fast Five," the new supercharger sat much lower in a hole in the hood.
Another main change came with the addition of large-diameter wheels and tires that gave the vehicle a more contemporary look. One of the six Chargers purchased for the film also featured a blown 528-cubic-inch Hemi V8 engine.
During this iteration of the Charger's story, the vehicle is used by Brian to help break Dom out of a prison bus. After escaping the bus, Dom takes control of the car again and drives it to Rio de Janeiro.
Off-screen, later in the movie, Dom uses the Charger to win a Porsche 996 GT3 RS in a pink slip race. Dom is last seen when Luke Hobbs smashes into the Charger with an armored car. The film continues to show the vehicle as a powerful racing machine that Dom has grown more and more comfortable driving.
For "Furious 7," the filmmakers took a different path, placing two 1970 Dodge Charger R/Ts in the movie. One of the cars was the original Charger that Dom has been using throughout the series. The second Charger was heavily modified to be taken off-road.
To build the "Off-Road" Dodge Charger R/T, the production team decided to place a Dodge Charger body over a Pro-2 chassis. This new chassis gave it the ability to drive on rough terrain and navigate off-road environments. The film shows Tej Parker installing parts from a military jeep onto it to improve its durability. With all of these modifications, some have compared the Charger to vehicles found in the original "Mad Max" movies.
The off-road Charger is used in the movie to help rescue a hacker, Ramsey, from the antagonist of the film, Mose Jakande. The film shows the Charger drop out of a plane and fall to the ground with a parachute deployed. Dom also uses a grappling hook installed on it to rip the back wall of a bus off.
In a moment where Dom and Ramsey are trapped by terrorists, Dom drives the car down a steep cliff in an attempt to get them out of harm's way. The car begins to roll down the cliff, which ends up destroying it. Dom and Ramsey, however, survive.
Back in Los Angeles, Dom uses his original Charger in a game of chicken with Deckard Shaw. They both crash their cars together, but the Charger does major damage to the front of Shaw's vehicle. Dom's Charger is destroyed at the end of the film when he vaults the car off a parking garage, so he can get close enough to throw a grenade into the villain's helicopter. Though he succeeds in blowing up the helicopter, the Charger crashes and is destroyed.
For now, this is where Dom's Charger's history ends. However, the car is expected to reappear in the next Fast & Furious movie.
"F9" introduces John Cena as Dom's villainous brother and a whole new plot of action-packed intensity and increasingly wild stunts. Throughout the "Fast and Furious" saga, storylines change and the graphics continue to improve, but one central aspect of the movies stays the same — the amazing cars.
In the latest installment of the epic movie franchise, Dom's new Charger gets to a whole new level. Dom is driving a classic mid-engined 1968 Charger with 707 horsepower . This incredible vehicle was actually built for the movie — the Wisconsin-based SpeedKore Performance Group fitted the classic car with a modern 6.2 liter "Hellcat" V-8 . Unlike in other movies which only featured props, "F9" raises the stakes and brings out the real deal. In the long history of Dom's Charger, the "F9" version — dubbed "Hellacious" — might be the most innovative and realistic.
The engine sits between the front and rear axles — essentially in the backseat — which gives more traction to the tires and decreases the likelihood of a spin-out. When you're weaving through traffic and dodging aircraft carriers like Dom is, you need as much traction as you can get. These mid-engines are usually found in lighter, more agile sportscars like Mercedes and Porsches — you don't usually see them in classic American muscle cars. But the "Fast and Furious" Charger is no stranger to disrupting the status quo , and the new mid-engine design lives up to that reputation.
To match the Hellcat's power and speed, SpeedKore had to find ways to keep the vehicle properly cooled. They mounted a radiator to the front and included intercoolers in the rear to offset the supercharger.
Even aside from its performance, one of the most impressive parts about Dom's new Charger is the way it looks. With its sleek, black carbon-fiber body, wide rear window and 18-inch wheels , it's one of the saga's coolest-looking cars. It's easy to admire as Dom weaves it around elegant European streets.
"F9" features more than just the 1968 Charger. There's the rocket-strapped Pontiac Fiero , for instance, the rugged 2020 Jeep Gladiator and many more. It's clear, however, that the "F9" Charger is the new bar to beat.
The Volo Auto Museum is proud to display the screen-used hero Dodge Charger that Vin Diesel drove in "The Fast and the Furious." The other Chargers from the film include a stunt car that has been restored and is owned by a private collector in Italy, the rolled over stunt car is in a museum in Indiana, and the buck is owned by a private collector.
The Charger from "The Fast and the Furious" displayed at our museum is also owned by us. As for the other chargers, they are kept in private collections or other museums. If you're a fan of Dom and his Charger, come check out our 1970 Dodge Charger - "The Fast and the Furious" exhibit .
At the Volo Auto Museum, we have something for every age. We also have a collection of other famous movie cars throughout our TV & Movie exhibit . | https://www.volocars.com/blog/history-of-doms-charger | 88 |
what car did dom drive in the first fast and furious | Fast & Furious: Every Car Dominic Toretto Has Driven In The Movies | By
Updated
Vin Diesel's character, Dom, drove many iconic cars in the Fast & Furious franchise. Here's everything he got behind the wheel of in The Fast Saga.
Dominic Toretto (Vin Diesel) was behind many wheels across the Fast & Furious movies, and among all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious sit some of the best and most expensive in the franchise. Every car Dom drove in Fast and Furious is a powerful beast that reflects the protagonist's personality, serving as an extension of the character's onscreen presence. Dominic Toretto has appeared in eight Fast & Furious movies, as well as Diesel's self-created and directed tie-in short film, Los Bandoleros . The actor will surely add a few more vehicles to this list with Fast X on the way.
Dom is a major fan of muscle cars, something that became apparent very early in the franchise. Rather than use typical models for speed during street races, Dom preferred something with horsepower. His love for this type of car was influenced by Dom's father, another car fanatic, and Dom had a tendency to argue with Brian O'Conner over his friend's loyalty to imports. Most recently, Dom appeared in a central role in the F9 cast . Dom will surely get behind the wheel of some more vehicles in the final two installments of Fast & Furious . Until then, here's every car Dom drives in Fast and Furious .
What is the black car Dom drove in Fast and Furious ' early movies? Dom's signature car in The Fast Saga is the black 1970 Dodge Charger R/T. Built by Dom and his father, it appeared in The Fast and the Furious , Fast & Furious , Fast Five , and Furious 7 - where it was destroyed when Dom faced off against Deckard Shaw in LA. Based on how the 1970 Dodge Charger R/T looks at the hideout in F9 , it seems Dom repaired the car after Furious 7 .
One of the most recognizable out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 1970 Dodge Charger R/T was a part of the second generation of cars, but featured a completely unique style from previous iterations. Equipped with one of the biggest motors Dodge had in production at the time, the R/T was the first to give the option of an installed 440 six-pack, which pushed out a whopping 375 horsepower and 490 pound-feet of torque. A cross between a luxury vehicle and a muscle car, the Charger remains in the annals of most coveted muscle cars of all time.
Not to be outdone by the other cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the end credits of The Fast and the Furious shows Dom escaping Los Angeles and driving a red Chevelle in Baja, Mexico. The car then returned in Fast & Furious when Dom drove home to attend Letty's funeral. Dom later sanded the car, repainted it gray, and blew it up while trying to get vengeance for Letty's "death" and then her subsequent resurrection several sequels later.
The 1970 Chevrolet Chevelle SS had the option of four different engine styles, with the 454 (LS6) maxing out at a staggering 450 horsepower. Coming in a wide variety of paint colors, 15 in total, the LS6 454 was the third-fastest classic muscle car from the muscle car era and the 2nd fastest overall in 1970. It also featured the highest advertised horsepower at the time and has surpassed its retail value. If one wanted to purchase a 1970 Chevrolet Chevelle SS today, one would have to shell out over $99,000 for the desirable Sport Coupe LS6 454.
Dom's Road Runner was first seen at the end of The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift when he encountered Sean at the race. He mentioned that he got the car from Han, which led back to Furious 7 when Dom traveled to Tokyo to retrieve Han's belongings after his presumed death. Of course, Han's death was faked by him and Mr. Nobody , returning for F9 . Dom used a different Road Runner in the movie when he was back in Los Angeles.
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the Plymouth Road Runner was the most revolutionary of the muscle car era. While other muscle cars hiked up their price tags and beefed up their size, the Road Runner did the opposite. Not only does it get its name from a famous cartoon character, but each Road Runner was equipped with a special horn to mimic the character. This stripped-down and basic muscle car, when equipped with a 426-ci Street Hemi, reached a shocking 494 horsepower, living up to its iconic namesake.
Dom bought the Challenger in Spain and was later seen racing Brian at the end of Fast Five while celebrating their successful heist. In the next film, Fast & Furious 6 , Dom and Brian were racing once again while using the same two cars. The fate of the car is currently unknown in The Fast Saga .
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 2009 Dodge Challenger SRT-8 is the newest. Running on a V-8 engine, the Challenger reaches a max horsepower of 425 with 420 pound-feet of torque. Its retro styling is reminiscent of the muscle car era, to be sure, and features a lower suspension for expert handling.
Dom first used the 1968 Dodge Charger Hellacious in F9 when the group arrived in Edinburgh to hunt down Jakob Toretto to stop him from using the Project Ares device. The car was then used during the convoy sequence in Tbilisi, specifically in taking down the armored vehicle with magnets. The Charger was then given to Jakob Toretto, who later attempted to return it to Dom as the brothers made amends.
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 1968 Dodge Charger Hellacious is by far the fastest. Custom-built by Speedkore, a supercharged 6.2-liter Hellcat HEMI V8 is what gives the vehicle a staggering 707 horsepower and 650 pound-foot of torque. The car also features a gated-manual Graziano transaxle from a Lamborghini Gallardo and also has a hydraulic handbrake to help deal with drifts and slides.
The Fast and the Furious (2001)
- 1993 Honda Civic EJ1 - The models used by Dom, Letty, and Leon when they hijack trucks at the start of the film.
- 1993 Mazda RX-7 - Drove the red Mazda during a race against Brian, Danny, and Edwin.
- 1994 Toyota Supra MK IV - Brian primarily used the car, but he gives it to Dom and lets Dom go at the end of the movie.
Fast & Furious (2009)
- 1987 Buick Grand National - Dom used it to hijack fuel tankers in the Dominican Republic.
- 2009 Subaru Impreza WRX STi GH - Dom gave the car to Brian after destroying the Nissan Skyline.
- 1973 Chevrolet Camaro F-Bomb - Dom stole the car and used it to later kill Fenix Calderon.
Los Bandoleros (2009 Short Film)
- 1966 Pontiac GTO Convertible - Dom and Letty drive together to the beach before rekindling their romance.
Related: | https://screenrant.com/fast-furious-movies-dominic-toretto-cars-drive-model/ | 88 |
what car did dom drive in the first fast and furious | Fast & Furious: Every Car Dominic Toretto Has Driven In The Movies | By
Updated
Vin Diesel's character, Dom, drove many iconic cars in the Fast & Furious franchise. Here's everything he got behind the wheel of in The Fast Saga.
Dominic Toretto (Vin Diesel) was behind many wheels across the Fast & Furious movies, and among all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious sit some of the best and most expensive in the franchise. Every car Dom drove in Fast and Furious is a powerful beast that reflects the protagonist's personality, serving as an extension of the character's onscreen presence. Dominic Toretto has appeared in eight Fast & Furious movies, as well as Diesel's self-created and directed tie-in short film, Los Bandoleros . The actor will surely add a few more vehicles to this list with Fast X on the way.
Dom is a major fan of muscle cars, something that became apparent very early in the franchise. Rather than use typical models for speed during street races, Dom preferred something with horsepower. His love for this type of car was influenced by Dom's father, another car fanatic, and Dom had a tendency to argue with Brian O'Conner over his friend's loyalty to imports. Most recently, Dom appeared in a central role in the F9 cast . Dom will surely get behind the wheel of some more vehicles in the final two installments of Fast & Furious . Until then, here's every car Dom drives in Fast and Furious .
What is the black car Dom drove in Fast and Furious ' early movies? Dom's signature car in The Fast Saga is the black 1970 Dodge Charger R/T. Built by Dom and his father, it appeared in The Fast and the Furious , Fast & Furious , Fast Five , and Furious 7 - where it was destroyed when Dom faced off against Deckard Shaw in LA. Based on how the 1970 Dodge Charger R/T looks at the hideout in F9 , it seems Dom repaired the car after Furious 7 .
One of the most recognizable out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 1970 Dodge Charger R/T was a part of the second generation of cars, but featured a completely unique style from previous iterations. Equipped with one of the biggest motors Dodge had in production at the time, the R/T was the first to give the option of an installed 440 six-pack, which pushed out a whopping 375 horsepower and 490 pound-feet of torque. A cross between a luxury vehicle and a muscle car, the Charger remains in the annals of most coveted muscle cars of all time.
Not to be outdone by the other cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the end credits of The Fast and the Furious shows Dom escaping Los Angeles and driving a red Chevelle in Baja, Mexico. The car then returned in Fast & Furious when Dom drove home to attend Letty's funeral. Dom later sanded the car, repainted it gray, and blew it up while trying to get vengeance for Letty's "death" and then her subsequent resurrection several sequels later.
The 1970 Chevrolet Chevelle SS had the option of four different engine styles, with the 454 (LS6) maxing out at a staggering 450 horsepower. Coming in a wide variety of paint colors, 15 in total, the LS6 454 was the third-fastest classic muscle car from the muscle car era and the 2nd fastest overall in 1970. It also featured the highest advertised horsepower at the time and has surpassed its retail value. If one wanted to purchase a 1970 Chevrolet Chevelle SS today, one would have to shell out over $99,000 for the desirable Sport Coupe LS6 454.
Dom's Road Runner was first seen at the end of The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift when he encountered Sean at the race. He mentioned that he got the car from Han, which led back to Furious 7 when Dom traveled to Tokyo to retrieve Han's belongings after his presumed death. Of course, Han's death was faked by him and Mr. Nobody , returning for F9 . Dom used a different Road Runner in the movie when he was back in Los Angeles.
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the Plymouth Road Runner was the most revolutionary of the muscle car era. While other muscle cars hiked up their price tags and beefed up their size, the Road Runner did the opposite. Not only does it get its name from a famous cartoon character, but each Road Runner was equipped with a special horn to mimic the character. This stripped-down and basic muscle car, when equipped with a 426-ci Street Hemi, reached a shocking 494 horsepower, living up to its iconic namesake.
Dom bought the Challenger in Spain and was later seen racing Brian at the end of Fast Five while celebrating their successful heist. In the next film, Fast & Furious 6 , Dom and Brian were racing once again while using the same two cars. The fate of the car is currently unknown in The Fast Saga .
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 2009 Dodge Challenger SRT-8 is the newest. Running on a V-8 engine, the Challenger reaches a max horsepower of 425 with 420 pound-feet of torque. Its retro styling is reminiscent of the muscle car era, to be sure, and features a lower suspension for expert handling.
Dom first used the 1968 Dodge Charger Hellacious in F9 when the group arrived in Edinburgh to hunt down Jakob Toretto to stop him from using the Project Ares device. The car was then used during the convoy sequence in Tbilisi, specifically in taking down the armored vehicle with magnets. The Charger was then given to Jakob Toretto, who later attempted to return it to Dom as the brothers made amends.
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 1968 Dodge Charger Hellacious is by far the fastest. Custom-built by Speedkore, a supercharged 6.2-liter Hellcat HEMI V8 is what gives the vehicle a staggering 707 horsepower and 650 pound-foot of torque. The car also features a gated-manual Graziano transaxle from a Lamborghini Gallardo and also has a hydraulic handbrake to help deal with drifts and slides.
The Fast and the Furious (2001)
- 1993 Honda Civic EJ1 - The models used by Dom, Letty, and Leon when they hijack trucks at the start of the film.
- 1993 Mazda RX-7 - Drove the red Mazda during a race against Brian, Danny, and Edwin.
- 1994 Toyota Supra MK IV - Brian primarily used the car, but he gives it to Dom and lets Dom go at the end of the movie.
Fast & Furious (2009)
- 1987 Buick Grand National - Dom used it to hijack fuel tankers in the Dominican Republic.
- 2009 Subaru Impreza WRX STi GH - Dom gave the car to Brian after destroying the Nissan Skyline.
- 1973 Chevrolet Camaro F-Bomb - Dom stole the car and used it to later kill Fenix Calderon.
Los Bandoleros (2009 Short Film)
- 1966 Pontiac GTO Convertible - Dom and Letty drive together to the beach before rekindling their romance.
Related: | https://screenrant.com/fast-furious-movies-dominic-toretto-cars-drive-model/ | 88 |
what car did dom drive in the first fast and furious | Fast & Furious: Every Car Dominic Toretto Has Driven In The Movies | By
Updated
Vin Diesel's character, Dom, drove many iconic cars in the Fast & Furious franchise. Here's everything he got behind the wheel of in The Fast Saga.
Dominic Toretto (Vin Diesel) was behind many wheels across the Fast & Furious movies, and among all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious sit some of the best and most expensive in the franchise. Every car Dom drove in Fast and Furious is a powerful beast that reflects the protagonist's personality, serving as an extension of the character's onscreen presence. Dominic Toretto has appeared in eight Fast & Furious movies, as well as Diesel's self-created and directed tie-in short film, Los Bandoleros . The actor will surely add a few more vehicles to this list with Fast X on the way.
Dom is a major fan of muscle cars, something that became apparent very early in the franchise. Rather than use typical models for speed during street races, Dom preferred something with horsepower. His love for this type of car was influenced by Dom's father, another car fanatic, and Dom had a tendency to argue with Brian O'Conner over his friend's loyalty to imports. Most recently, Dom appeared in a central role in the F9 cast . Dom will surely get behind the wheel of some more vehicles in the final two installments of Fast & Furious . Until then, here's every car Dom drives in Fast and Furious .
What is the black car Dom drove in Fast and Furious ' early movies? Dom's signature car in The Fast Saga is the black 1970 Dodge Charger R/T. Built by Dom and his father, it appeared in The Fast and the Furious , Fast & Furious , Fast Five , and Furious 7 - where it was destroyed when Dom faced off against Deckard Shaw in LA. Based on how the 1970 Dodge Charger R/T looks at the hideout in F9 , it seems Dom repaired the car after Furious 7 .
One of the most recognizable out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 1970 Dodge Charger R/T was a part of the second generation of cars, but featured a completely unique style from previous iterations. Equipped with one of the biggest motors Dodge had in production at the time, the R/T was the first to give the option of an installed 440 six-pack, which pushed out a whopping 375 horsepower and 490 pound-feet of torque. A cross between a luxury vehicle and a muscle car, the Charger remains in the annals of most coveted muscle cars of all time.
Not to be outdone by the other cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the end credits of The Fast and the Furious shows Dom escaping Los Angeles and driving a red Chevelle in Baja, Mexico. The car then returned in Fast & Furious when Dom drove home to attend Letty's funeral. Dom later sanded the car, repainted it gray, and blew it up while trying to get vengeance for Letty's "death" and then her subsequent resurrection several sequels later.
The 1970 Chevrolet Chevelle SS had the option of four different engine styles, with the 454 (LS6) maxing out at a staggering 450 horsepower. Coming in a wide variety of paint colors, 15 in total, the LS6 454 was the third-fastest classic muscle car from the muscle car era and the 2nd fastest overall in 1970. It also featured the highest advertised horsepower at the time and has surpassed its retail value. If one wanted to purchase a 1970 Chevrolet Chevelle SS today, one would have to shell out over $99,000 for the desirable Sport Coupe LS6 454.
Dom's Road Runner was first seen at the end of The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift when he encountered Sean at the race. He mentioned that he got the car from Han, which led back to Furious 7 when Dom traveled to Tokyo to retrieve Han's belongings after his presumed death. Of course, Han's death was faked by him and Mr. Nobody , returning for F9 . Dom used a different Road Runner in the movie when he was back in Los Angeles.
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the Plymouth Road Runner was the most revolutionary of the muscle car era. While other muscle cars hiked up their price tags and beefed up their size, the Road Runner did the opposite. Not only does it get its name from a famous cartoon character, but each Road Runner was equipped with a special horn to mimic the character. This stripped-down and basic muscle car, when equipped with a 426-ci Street Hemi, reached a shocking 494 horsepower, living up to its iconic namesake.
Dom bought the Challenger in Spain and was later seen racing Brian at the end of Fast Five while celebrating their successful heist. In the next film, Fast & Furious 6 , Dom and Brian were racing once again while using the same two cars. The fate of the car is currently unknown in The Fast Saga .
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 2009 Dodge Challenger SRT-8 is the newest. Running on a V-8 engine, the Challenger reaches a max horsepower of 425 with 420 pound-feet of torque. Its retro styling is reminiscent of the muscle car era, to be sure, and features a lower suspension for expert handling.
Dom first used the 1968 Dodge Charger Hellacious in F9 when the group arrived in Edinburgh to hunt down Jakob Toretto to stop him from using the Project Ares device. The car was then used during the convoy sequence in Tbilisi, specifically in taking down the armored vehicle with magnets. The Charger was then given to Jakob Toretto, who later attempted to return it to Dom as the brothers made amends.
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 1968 Dodge Charger Hellacious is by far the fastest. Custom-built by Speedkore, a supercharged 6.2-liter Hellcat HEMI V8 is what gives the vehicle a staggering 707 horsepower and 650 pound-foot of torque. The car also features a gated-manual Graziano transaxle from a Lamborghini Gallardo and also has a hydraulic handbrake to help deal with drifts and slides.
The Fast and the Furious (2001)
- 1993 Honda Civic EJ1 - The models used by Dom, Letty, and Leon when they hijack trucks at the start of the film.
- 1993 Mazda RX-7 - Drove the red Mazda during a race against Brian, Danny, and Edwin.
- 1994 Toyota Supra MK IV - Brian primarily used the car, but he gives it to Dom and lets Dom go at the end of the movie.
Fast & Furious (2009)
- 1987 Buick Grand National - Dom used it to hijack fuel tankers in the Dominican Republic.
- 2009 Subaru Impreza WRX STi GH - Dom gave the car to Brian after destroying the Nissan Skyline.
- 1973 Chevrolet Camaro F-Bomb - Dom stole the car and used it to later kill Fenix Calderon.
Los Bandoleros (2009 Short Film)
- 1966 Pontiac GTO Convertible - Dom and Letty drive together to the beach before rekindling their romance.
Related: | https://screenrant.com/fast-furious-movies-dominic-toretto-cars-drive-model/ | 88 |
what car did dom drive in the first fast and furious | 1993 Mazda RX-7 | Dominic Toretto drove a red 1993 Mazda RX-7 FD in the race with Brian O'Conner , Danny, and Edwin. During the race, Brian in his Mitsubishi Eclipse tries to gain the advantage by using nitrous but Dominic uses his nitrous as well and easily beats him. When the police arrive everyone flees: Dominic drives away his RX-7 to a parking garage and parks the car before fleeing on foot. Dominic apparently retrieved the car because it is seen at Dominic's house when Dom drives Brian to see his Dodge Charger and again at Race Wars near Dom's trailer. A white RX-7 is seen driven by another racer who Letty races against at Race Wars.
This FD was designed after a Keith Imoto car, and originally came with a roll cage. Unfortunately, Diesel couldn't fit into the car with the roll cage, so it had to go. It had a stock twin-turbo 255hp engine with 4-bottle NOS system, stock suspension, and aluminum struts. Appearance mods include VeilSide USA Aero bodykit, RX-7 GT rear wing, Lexan headlight covers, and VeilSide rims.
- Ported 13B-REW with 3mm Apex Seals
- Twin Turbo
- Blitz BOV
- Polished Intake Manifold
- Blitz SUS Power Air Intake
- Custom Inlet pipes
- Cosmo 20B fuel pump
- Magnecor Plug Wires
- MSD 6AL Ignition box
- Knight Sports Radiator
- MazdaTrix front pipe
- Racing Beat racing resonator
- Blitz Front Mount Intercooler kit
- APexi Power FC with FC Commander
- Blitz NUR Spec exhaust
- Veilside CII Body kit
- Veilside carbob fiber rear wing
- RE Amemiya “sleek light” kit
- Efini RX-7 tail lights
- Veilside Andrew Racing “F”: Sizes = 18″ x 8.5″ & 18″ x 9.5″
- Tires: Toyo T1 Proxes 235 and 255/40/18
- Brakes: Powerstop cross-drilled rotors, Goodridge stainless lines
- Suspension: APex T-Max
- Recaro SPG racing seat (driver’s side only)
- Sparco harnesses
- Veilside Combat Steering wheel & shift knob
- C’s short-throw shifter
- APex AVCR, tachometer and shift light
- APex oil temp and exhaust temp gauges
- GReddy turbo timer
- NR white-faced gauge covers
- Apexi boost gauge
- Apexi temperature gauge
- Apexi oil pressure gaugevolt gauge
- Sparco shift knob
- Dashmasters carbon fiber dash overlay kit.
- This is the only JDM tuner car Dominic Toretto races in, as he would mostly drive muscle cars in later movies.
Dom's RX7 Specs, Performance and the backstory. | https://fastandfurious.fandom.com/wiki/1993_Mazda_RX-7 | 88 |
what car did dom drive in the first fast and furious | Fast & Furious: Every Car Dominic Toretto Has Driven In The Movies | By
Updated
Vin Diesel's character, Dom, drove many iconic cars in the Fast & Furious franchise. Here's everything he got behind the wheel of in The Fast Saga.
Dominic Toretto (Vin Diesel) was behind many wheels across the Fast & Furious movies, and among all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious sit some of the best and most expensive in the franchise. Every car Dom drove in Fast and Furious is a powerful beast that reflects the protagonist's personality, serving as an extension of the character's onscreen presence. Dominic Toretto has appeared in eight Fast & Furious movies, as well as Diesel's self-created and directed tie-in short film, Los Bandoleros . The actor will surely add a few more vehicles to this list with Fast X on the way.
Dom is a major fan of muscle cars, something that became apparent very early in the franchise. Rather than use typical models for speed during street races, Dom preferred something with horsepower. His love for this type of car was influenced by Dom's father, another car fanatic, and Dom had a tendency to argue with Brian O'Conner over his friend's loyalty to imports. Most recently, Dom appeared in a central role in the F9 cast . Dom will surely get behind the wheel of some more vehicles in the final two installments of Fast & Furious . Until then, here's every car Dom drives in Fast and Furious .
What is the black car Dom drove in Fast and Furious ' early movies? Dom's signature car in The Fast Saga is the black 1970 Dodge Charger R/T. Built by Dom and his father, it appeared in The Fast and the Furious , Fast & Furious , Fast Five , and Furious 7 - where it was destroyed when Dom faced off against Deckard Shaw in LA. Based on how the 1970 Dodge Charger R/T looks at the hideout in F9 , it seems Dom repaired the car after Furious 7 .
One of the most recognizable out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 1970 Dodge Charger R/T was a part of the second generation of cars, but featured a completely unique style from previous iterations. Equipped with one of the biggest motors Dodge had in production at the time, the R/T was the first to give the option of an installed 440 six-pack, which pushed out a whopping 375 horsepower and 490 pound-feet of torque. A cross between a luxury vehicle and a muscle car, the Charger remains in the annals of most coveted muscle cars of all time.
Not to be outdone by the other cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the end credits of The Fast and the Furious shows Dom escaping Los Angeles and driving a red Chevelle in Baja, Mexico. The car then returned in Fast & Furious when Dom drove home to attend Letty's funeral. Dom later sanded the car, repainted it gray, and blew it up while trying to get vengeance for Letty's "death" and then her subsequent resurrection several sequels later.
The 1970 Chevrolet Chevelle SS had the option of four different engine styles, with the 454 (LS6) maxing out at a staggering 450 horsepower. Coming in a wide variety of paint colors, 15 in total, the LS6 454 was the third-fastest classic muscle car from the muscle car era and the 2nd fastest overall in 1970. It also featured the highest advertised horsepower at the time and has surpassed its retail value. If one wanted to purchase a 1970 Chevrolet Chevelle SS today, one would have to shell out over $99,000 for the desirable Sport Coupe LS6 454.
Dom's Road Runner was first seen at the end of The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift when he encountered Sean at the race. He mentioned that he got the car from Han, which led back to Furious 7 when Dom traveled to Tokyo to retrieve Han's belongings after his presumed death. Of course, Han's death was faked by him and Mr. Nobody , returning for F9 . Dom used a different Road Runner in the movie when he was back in Los Angeles.
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the Plymouth Road Runner was the most revolutionary of the muscle car era. While other muscle cars hiked up their price tags and beefed up their size, the Road Runner did the opposite. Not only does it get its name from a famous cartoon character, but each Road Runner was equipped with a special horn to mimic the character. This stripped-down and basic muscle car, when equipped with a 426-ci Street Hemi, reached a shocking 494 horsepower, living up to its iconic namesake.
Dom bought the Challenger in Spain and was later seen racing Brian at the end of Fast Five while celebrating their successful heist. In the next film, Fast & Furious 6 , Dom and Brian were racing once again while using the same two cars. The fate of the car is currently unknown in The Fast Saga .
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 2009 Dodge Challenger SRT-8 is the newest. Running on a V-8 engine, the Challenger reaches a max horsepower of 425 with 420 pound-feet of torque. Its retro styling is reminiscent of the muscle car era, to be sure, and features a lower suspension for expert handling.
Dom first used the 1968 Dodge Charger Hellacious in F9 when the group arrived in Edinburgh to hunt down Jakob Toretto to stop him from using the Project Ares device. The car was then used during the convoy sequence in Tbilisi, specifically in taking down the armored vehicle with magnets. The Charger was then given to Jakob Toretto, who later attempted to return it to Dom as the brothers made amends.
Out of all the cars Dom drives in Fast and Furious , the 1968 Dodge Charger Hellacious is by far the fastest. Custom-built by Speedkore, a supercharged 6.2-liter Hellcat HEMI V8 is what gives the vehicle a staggering 707 horsepower and 650 pound-foot of torque. The car also features a gated-manual Graziano transaxle from a Lamborghini Gallardo and also has a hydraulic handbrake to help deal with drifts and slides.
The Fast and the Furious (2001)
- 1993 Honda Civic EJ1 - The models used by Dom, Letty, and Leon when they hijack trucks at the start of the film.
- 1993 Mazda RX-7 - Drove the red Mazda during a race against Brian, Danny, and Edwin.
- 1994 Toyota Supra MK IV - Brian primarily used the car, but he gives it to Dom and lets Dom go at the end of the movie.
Fast & Furious (2009)
- 1987 Buick Grand National - Dom used it to hijack fuel tankers in the Dominican Republic.
- 2009 Subaru Impreza WRX STi GH - Dom gave the car to Brian after destroying the Nissan Skyline.
- 1973 Chevrolet Camaro F-Bomb - Dom stole the car and used it to later kill Fenix Calderon.
Los Bandoleros (2009 Short Film)
- 1966 Pontiac GTO Convertible - Dom and Letty drive together to the beach before rekindling their romance.
Related: | https://screenrant.com/fast-furious-movies-dominic-toretto-cars-drive-model/ | 88 |
what car did dom drive in the first fast and furious | 1993 Mazda RX-7 | Dominic Toretto drove a red 1993 Mazda RX-7 FD in the race with Brian O'Conner , Danny, and Edwin. During the race, Brian in his Mitsubishi Eclipse tries to gain the advantage by using nitrous but Dominic uses his nitrous as well and easily beats him. When the police arrive everyone flees: Dominic drives away his RX-7 to a parking garage and parks the car before fleeing on foot. Dominic apparently retrieved the car because it is seen at Dominic's house when Dom drives Brian to see his Dodge Charger and again at Race Wars near Dom's trailer. A white RX-7 is seen driven by another racer who Letty races against at Race Wars.
This FD was designed after a Keith Imoto car, and originally came with a roll cage. Unfortunately, Diesel couldn't fit into the car with the roll cage, so it had to go. It had a stock twin-turbo 255hp engine with 4-bottle NOS system, stock suspension, and aluminum struts. Appearance mods include VeilSide USA Aero bodykit, RX-7 GT rear wing, Lexan headlight covers, and VeilSide rims.
- Ported 13B-REW with 3mm Apex Seals
- Twin Turbo
- Blitz BOV
- Polished Intake Manifold
- Blitz SUS Power Air Intake
- Custom Inlet pipes
- Cosmo 20B fuel pump
- Magnecor Plug Wires
- MSD 6AL Ignition box
- Knight Sports Radiator
- MazdaTrix front pipe
- Racing Beat racing resonator
- Blitz Front Mount Intercooler kit
- APexi Power FC with FC Commander
- Blitz NUR Spec exhaust
- Veilside CII Body kit
- Veilside carbob fiber rear wing
- RE Amemiya “sleek light” kit
- Efini RX-7 tail lights
- Veilside Andrew Racing “F”: Sizes = 18″ x 8.5″ & 18″ x 9.5″
- Tires: Toyo T1 Proxes 235 and 255/40/18
- Brakes: Powerstop cross-drilled rotors, Goodridge stainless lines
- Suspension: APex T-Max
- Recaro SPG racing seat (driver’s side only)
- Sparco harnesses
- Veilside Combat Steering wheel & shift knob
- C’s short-throw shifter
- APex AVCR, tachometer and shift light
- APex oil temp and exhaust temp gauges
- GReddy turbo timer
- NR white-faced gauge covers
- Apexi boost gauge
- Apexi temperature gauge
- Apexi oil pressure gaugevolt gauge
- Sparco shift knob
- Dashmasters carbon fiber dash overlay kit.
- This is the only JDM tuner car Dominic Toretto races in, as he would mostly drive muscle cars in later movies.
Dom's RX7 Specs, Performance and the backstory. | https://fastandfurious.fandom.com/wiki/1993_Mazda_RX-7 | 88 |
what car did dom drive in the first fast and furious | The History of Dom's Charger | Posted on
2020-05-20
The Fast & Furious franchise has captivated movie-going audiences for years with fast cars and death-defying stunts. In addition to the explosive chase sequences and racing that the films offer, the films have produced characters beloved by fans.
One of the main characters is Dominic "Dom" Toretto, played by Vin Diesel, who has appeared in 7 of the 9 movies. As these movies are focused on cars, Dom's character isn't complete without his vehicle.
Table of Contents
Dom's car is a 1970 Dodge Charger R/T. The history of Dom's Charger covers a great deal of ground. From its origin story and the many times it's been destroyed to behind the scene's modifications that made the car ready for the big screen, Dom's Charger has been through a lot.
"The Fast and the Furious," the first film in the franchise, introduced Dom's 1970 Dodge Charger R/T to audiences. In the movie, audiences learn that when Dom was a child, he helped his father build the Charger. With the car's 900 horsepower, Dom's father broke the record for the time it takes to go a 1/4 mile, traveling the distance in only nine seconds.
Dom recounts that though his father was a capable driver, he died in a racing accident. The death of Dom's father leaves him afraid of driving the Charger, and he refuses to get behind the wheel throughout the film. To reveal character growth and show off the Charger on the big screen, Dom ends up in a position where he has only one car left to drive — the Charger.
After the shooting of a friend, Dom and Brian O'Conner chase after the killers. At the time, there are no other cars for Dom to drive other than the Charger. While facing his fears behind the wheel, Dom sees that he can control the car and use it for good. He catches up to one of the killers, Lance, and knocks him off his motorcycle and down a hill.
Once both of the killers have been dealt with, Brian and Dom meet at a red light. Instead of being terrified by the car, Dom now has the confidence to race it. As soon as the light turns green, they start drag racing. After they both narrowly miss an oncoming train, Dom wins the race.
After the race ends, Dom crashes into the end of a semi-truck by accident, sending the car into the air. Dom sustains only minor injuries, but the Charger is totaled. Dom takes over Brian's Supra, leaving the Charger on the road and ending the car's story in the first movie.
The filmmakers built three different Chargers for the first movie, along with a buck. In film, a buck is a partially built vehicle that is attached to another working vehicle — it allows the actors to focus on saying their lines instead of driving the car. Each of the three Chargers had different purposes. One built for stunts, another for roll-over and the other, referred to as the Hero Charger, was built for close-ups.
To create the Hero Charger audiences see on screen, the filmmakers wanted a 1970 Dodge Charger R/T as the base. However, the filmmakers had difficulty finding a 1970 Dodge Charger R/T and had to modify a 1969 Charger to look it like it was from 1970. They also implemented Cragar 200-S wheels and a fake BDS 8-71 Roots-style supercharger to really make a statement with the car's look.
In the movie, the car's specs include Hedman headers, Hotchkis suspension, slide brakes, Wilwood discs, a Flowmaster exhaust, a mounted supercharger and a Holley fuel pump. Dom's Charger also featured Nitrous Oxide to give the car an extra boost of speed when it needed it. The car's use of Rear-Wheel Drive and Continental Sport Contact Tires offers the car superior handling and grip while out on the road.
To provide some reference points for what all these pieces of equipment mean, we've created a list of the most commonly asked questions about the original The Fast and The Furious Charger:
According to the first movie, the Charger can go a quarter-mile in only nine seconds flat. This is an incredibly fast speed, as it would mean the car was going somewhere between 140 and 150 miles per hour to make that distance in such a short amount of time.
In real life, only a few racers have ever broken ten seconds. For example, one of the most expensive and powerful cars in the world, The Bugatti Veyron Super Sport, makes a quarter-mile in 9.7 seconds.
The movie-version of the muscle car packs a whopping 900 horsepower that gives the vehicle the ability to speed past other cars while on the road. The addition of a N.O.S. 250 HP plate nitrous injection system gives the engine the ability to reach up to 1,100 horsepower whenever the N.O.S. is activated.
The car featured two engines — one that audiences saw and another that actually powered the car.
In the shots of the Charger in Dom's garage, audiences see a Hemi racing engine mounted in the front of the vehicle. This supercharged engine was a beast, rumored to have 900 horsepower and a 250 shot nitrous . Its power added to the plausibility of how fast the Charger could really go.
Since the engine was so powerful, the filmmakers didn't actually use it for filming. A 1970 Dodge Charger outfitted with that kind of engine would be difficult to control on the road, which could be a problem for filming highly coordinated driving shots. After getting the shots of the engine mounted in the car, the filmmakers shipped the engine back to the supplier. As such, the engine in the hero Charger isn't actually a Hemi.
Since a 900 horsepower engine wouldn't be practical for filming purposes and could be incredibly difficult to control, the hero Charger actually ran on a big block performance built 440 Magnum engine, which is still in the car today. The roll-over Charger ran on a 318 engine.
The Dodge Charger R/T that Dom uses is largely considered to be from 1970. However, 1970 Chargers are difficult to find in good condition due to Hollywood's love of using them for dangerous stunts. To get around this difficulty, the filmmakers had to modify earlier Dodge Charger models to make them look like they were from 1970.
For example, the hero car used for close-ups in "The Fast and the Furious" was actually a Dodge Charger from 1969 that was customized to look like it was from 1970. The filmmakers did a good job with the conversion, as the car took on the appearance of a newer model perfectly.
Determining the value of Dom's Charger is difficult to say, especially since there have been so many versions of it. It's likely that the original Hero Charger from the first movie is the most valuable, as it's the most iconic and desirable for collectors. To give you an idea of how much the car might sell for, consider that the original 1968 Ford Mustang used in the classic film, "Bullitt," recently sold for $3.74 million .
Since the 1970 Hero Charger used in "The Fast and Furious" kicked off the mega-popular franchise, its value is likely very high. It also helps that the hero version of the 1970 Dodge Charger RT has been well taken care of since filming wrapped and is still in the same condition as it was on screen.
While the hero car isn't for sale, if it were, collectors would likely expect to pay top dollar for it.
The blower motor is one of the most memorable parts of Dom's Charger. Typically a blower motor helps to circulate air into and outside of your car. The blower motor helps to pull in air from the outside and push it through the vents of your heating or A/C systems.
However, a supercharged blower, like the one on Dom's car, can help you pack more fuel and air into a car's cylinders, giving the car a boost in horsepower, starting speed and bottom-end performance.
The movie has the supercharged blower motor mounted inside the front carriage of Dom's Charger, coming through the hood, so the blower's prominently displayed for all to see. Like you might expect, the blower on the Charger is purely aesthetic in the movie and didn't actually offer any extra abilities to the car.
Dom's Charger has been heavily featured in "The Fast and the Furious," "Fast & Furious," "Fast & Furious - Fast Five" and "Furious 7." With this amount of use, the filmmakers continued to build the Charger's lore, and, at times, added new features and upgrades to it.
Below you can find out more about the car's evolution and story over the years:
Picking up where the last movie ended, Letty Ortiz, Dom's then-girlfriend, gets possession of the wrecked Charger, working on it to get it back to driving condition. After Dom returns to Los Angeles, he finishes rebuilding the vehicle and drives it to Mexico to take out the film's primary villain, Arturo Braga. Unfortunately for the vehicle, Dom has to jump out of it as the car barrels towards explosives. The Charger ends up hitting the explosives and is destroyed again.
However, at the end of the film, audiences see Brian driving the Charger in mint condition. Though "Fast & Furious" extended the lore of Dom's Charger, it didn't add any modifications to it.
In "Fast & Furious - Fast Five," the filmmakers decided to make a whole new Charger rather than rely on the one used originally. One of the changes included moving the supercharger lower. In the first two films the Charger was featured in, the supercharger went through the hood and sat on top of it. In "Fast Five," the new supercharger sat much lower in a hole in the hood.
Another main change came with the addition of large-diameter wheels and tires that gave the vehicle a more contemporary look. One of the six Chargers purchased for the film also featured a blown 528-cubic-inch Hemi V8 engine.
During this iteration of the Charger's story, the vehicle is used by Brian to help break Dom out of a prison bus. After escaping the bus, Dom takes control of the car again and drives it to Rio de Janeiro.
Off-screen, later in the movie, Dom uses the Charger to win a Porsche 996 GT3 RS in a pink slip race. Dom is last seen when Luke Hobbs smashes into the Charger with an armored car. The film continues to show the vehicle as a powerful racing machine that Dom has grown more and more comfortable driving.
For "Furious 7," the filmmakers took a different path, placing two 1970 Dodge Charger R/Ts in the movie. One of the cars was the original Charger that Dom has been using throughout the series. The second Charger was heavily modified to be taken off-road.
To build the "Off-Road" Dodge Charger R/T, the production team decided to place a Dodge Charger body over a Pro-2 chassis. This new chassis gave it the ability to drive on rough terrain and navigate off-road environments. The film shows Tej Parker installing parts from a military jeep onto it to improve its durability. With all of these modifications, some have compared the Charger to vehicles found in the original "Mad Max" movies.
The off-road Charger is used in the movie to help rescue a hacker, Ramsey, from the antagonist of the film, Mose Jakande. The film shows the Charger drop out of a plane and fall to the ground with a parachute deployed. Dom also uses a grappling hook installed on it to rip the back wall of a bus off.
In a moment where Dom and Ramsey are trapped by terrorists, Dom drives the car down a steep cliff in an attempt to get them out of harm's way. The car begins to roll down the cliff, which ends up destroying it. Dom and Ramsey, however, survive.
Back in Los Angeles, Dom uses his original Charger in a game of chicken with Deckard Shaw. They both crash their cars together, but the Charger does major damage to the front of Shaw's vehicle. Dom's Charger is destroyed at the end of the film when he vaults the car off a parking garage, so he can get close enough to throw a grenade into the villain's helicopter. Though he succeeds in blowing up the helicopter, the Charger crashes and is destroyed.
For now, this is where Dom's Charger's history ends. However, the car is expected to reappear in the next Fast & Furious movie.
"F9" introduces John Cena as Dom's villainous brother and a whole new plot of action-packed intensity and increasingly wild stunts. Throughout the "Fast and Furious" saga, storylines change and the graphics continue to improve, but one central aspect of the movies stays the same — the amazing cars.
In the latest installment of the epic movie franchise, Dom's new Charger gets to a whole new level. Dom is driving a classic mid-engined 1968 Charger with 707 horsepower . This incredible vehicle was actually built for the movie — the Wisconsin-based SpeedKore Performance Group fitted the classic car with a modern 6.2 liter "Hellcat" V-8 . Unlike in other movies which only featured props, "F9" raises the stakes and brings out the real deal. In the long history of Dom's Charger, the "F9" version — dubbed "Hellacious" — might be the most innovative and realistic.
The engine sits between the front and rear axles — essentially in the backseat — which gives more traction to the tires and decreases the likelihood of a spin-out. When you're weaving through traffic and dodging aircraft carriers like Dom is, you need as much traction as you can get. These mid-engines are usually found in lighter, more agile sportscars like Mercedes and Porsches — you don't usually see them in classic American muscle cars. But the "Fast and Furious" Charger is no stranger to disrupting the status quo , and the new mid-engine design lives up to that reputation.
To match the Hellcat's power and speed, SpeedKore had to find ways to keep the vehicle properly cooled. They mounted a radiator to the front and included intercoolers in the rear to offset the supercharger.
Even aside from its performance, one of the most impressive parts about Dom's new Charger is the way it looks. With its sleek, black carbon-fiber body, wide rear window and 18-inch wheels , it's one of the saga's coolest-looking cars. It's easy to admire as Dom weaves it around elegant European streets.
"F9" features more than just the 1968 Charger. There's the rocket-strapped Pontiac Fiero , for instance, the rugged 2020 Jeep Gladiator and many more. It's clear, however, that the "F9" Charger is the new bar to beat.
The Volo Auto Museum is proud to display the screen-used hero Dodge Charger that Vin Diesel drove in "The Fast and the Furious." The other Chargers from the film include a stunt car that has been restored and is owned by a private collector in Italy, the rolled over stunt car is in a museum in Indiana, and the buck is owned by a private collector.
The Charger from "The Fast and the Furious" displayed at our museum is also owned by us. As for the other chargers, they are kept in private collections or other museums. If you're a fan of Dom and his Charger, come check out our 1970 Dodge Charger - "The Fast and the Furious" exhibit .
At the Volo Auto Museum, we have something for every age. We also have a collection of other famous movie cars throughout our TV & Movie exhibit . | https://www.volocars.com/blog/history-of-doms-charger | 88 |
who all is in line for the throne of england | The Line of Succession to the Throne, Explained | See where all the royals fall in line for the crown.By Chelsey Sanchez
The British line of succession delineates who will inherit the throne and become the king or queen of Great Britain. Queen Elizabeth II, who died on September 8, 2022, reigned over England for a record-breaking 70 years. Her husband, Prince Philip , who died in 2021 at 99 , was steadily by her side through the years, but he was not in line to succeed her. Instead, after the queen, her firstborn, Charles, ascended to the throne and became the British sovereign. Next in line is his firstborn, Prince William, Prince of Wales, and then his firstborn, Prince George.
Still, where do other known royals like Princess Charlotte, Princess Beatrice, and baby Lilibet fall in the line for the crown? Whether you're watching the new season of The Crown or brushing up on your royal knowledge, scroll through to see how close your favorite royals are to becoming the heir to the throne.
1
The now- Prince of Wales is first in line to the throne. He will succeed the throne after his father, King Charles.
2
The nine-year-old royal–as the firstborn to Prince William and Princess Kate–is second in line to the British throne.
3
As the second-born of the Prince and Princess of Wales, the princess is third in line to the throne.
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4
Prince Louis, the four-year-old son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, is the fourth in line to the throne.
5
Should none of the Waleses become the next monarch of Great Britain, Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex, will become the king.
6
As the firstborn to Prince Harry and Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, Prince Archie is eighth in line to the throne.
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7
Meghan and Harry's second child, a daughter named Lilibet "Lili" Diana , comes in at seventh in line to the throne. The official website for the Royal Family added Lilibet to the line of succession on July 26, 2021.
8
The third child of Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip, the Duke of York is eighth in the line of succession.
9
As the eldest daughter of Prince Andrew and Sarah, Duchess of York, Princess Beatrice is next in line after her father.
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10
Princess Eugenie is the next in line to the British throne after her older sister, Princess Beatrice.
11
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The son and first child of Princess Eugenie and Jack Brooksbank follows his royal mother as the 13th person in line for the throne.
12
As the youngest son to Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip, the Earl of Wessex comes in at 14th in line to the throne.
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13
As the only son of Prince Edward and Sophie, Countess of Wessex, James, Viscount Severn, is next in line after his father.
14
Lady Louise, the eldest child of the Earl and Countess of Wessex, is next in line after her brother, James.
15
As the second-eldest child of Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip, the Princess Royal is the 15th in line to the throne.
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16
Peter Phillips is the oldest grandchild of the queen and the only son of Princess Anne. He is 16th in line to the throne.
17
Savannah is the eldest child of Peter and Autumn Phillips, making her the first great-grandchild of Queen Elizabeth and the 17th in line to the throne.
18
Isla is the second child of Peter and Autumn Phillips, and is the 18th in line to the throne.
Advertisement - Continue Reading Below | https://www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/latest/g31928340/british-royals-line-of-succession/ | 89 |
who all is in line for the throne of england | Here's the line of succession to the British throne | Fox News senior foreign affairs correspondent Greg Palkot has the latest on 'Special Report' in the wake of Queen Elizabeth's death.
Upon the death of Queen Elizabeth II on Sept. 8, her son King Charles III immediately ascended the throne. Buckingham Palace announced Thursday the longest-reigning monarch had died at Balmoral Castle surrounded by members of the royal family.
The announcement was made shortly after the queen had been placed under medical supervision after her doctors became "concerned" for her health earlier that day.
The queen's death brought about an immediate and historic change in titles and roles within the royal family. Prince Charles, now King Charles III's, heir to the throne is his eldest son, Prince William.
The succession to the British throne "is regulated not only through descent but also by Parliamentary statute," according to the royal family’s website .
Here’s a look at who currently is in line for the throne after Queen Elizabeth II, who is 96 years old.
1. The Prince of Wales
Prince William is the oldest son of Charles, Prince of Wales. (Reuters/Yves Herman)
Prince William, the Prince of Wales, is the oldest son of Charles. The 40-year-old is first in line to the throne. He married Kate Middleton in 2011.
William and Catherine "Kate" Middleton, who were named the Prince and Princess of Wales by King Charles III on Friday, were previously known as the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge.
2. Prince George of Wales
Prince George smiles in a birthday portrait taken by mother. (The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge Twitter)
At only 9 years old, Prince George of Cambridge is second in line of succession to the British throne. He is the oldest child of Prince William.
4. Princess Charlotte of Wales
Britain's William and Kate shared a photo of their daughter Princess Charlotte to mark her seventh birthday. (Twitter/@KensingtonRoyal)
Princess Charlotte of Wales is the second child of Prince William and Princess Kate. She is 7 years old.
5. Prince Louis Arthur Charles of Wales
In this handout photo provided by the Princess of Wales, Britain's Prince Louis smiles before his first day of attending Willcocks Nursery School, at Kensington Palace in London, Wednesday, April 21, 2021. (Duchess of Cambridge via AP)
Prince William and Princess Catherine welcomed their third child, a boy, on April 23, 2018. The four-year-old is fourth in line to the throne.
He was named after William's grandfather, King Charles III, and the Duke's mentor -- Louis Mountbatten -- who was killed by a bomb in 1979.
6. Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex
Britain's Prince Harry and his wife Meghan Markle. He is fifth in line to the throne. (Reuters/Toby Melville)
Prince Harry is the sixth in line to the throne. He is the younger son of Charles, the Prince of Wales.
7. Archie Harrison Mountbatten-Windsor
Harry and Meghan sit with Archie during their Cape Town, South African tour. (Getty)
Prince Harry and Meghan welcomed their first child, a boy, on May 6, 2019. They named him Archie , and the three-year-old is sixth in line to the throne— behind his dad.
He is Queen Elizabeth II's eighth great-grandchild and the younger cousin of Prince George, Princess Charlotte and Prince Louis.
8. Lilibet Diana Mountbatten-Windsor
Meghan Markle and Prince Harry revealed daughter Lilibet's first photo on her birthday. (Misan Harriman)
Miss Lilibet Mountbatten-Windsor, 1, is seventh in line to the throne, behind her older brother.
9. Duke of York
Prince Andrew is the third child of Queen Elizabeth II and her second son. (Reuters/Neil Hall)
Prince Andrew, the Duke of York, is Queen Elizabeth II’s third child and second son. The 62-year-old is eigth in line of succession to the British throne.
10. Princess Beatrice of York
Princes Beatrice is Prince Andrew's oldest daughter. (Reuters/Toby Melville)
Princess Beatrice of York is Prince Andrew’s oldest daughter. She is 34 years old.
Kaitlyn Schallhorn is a Reporter for Fox News. Follow her on Twitter: @K_Schallhorn . | https://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/heres-the-line-of-succession-to-the-british-throne | 89 |
who all is in line for the throne of england | Here's the line of succession to the British throne | Fox News senior foreign affairs correspondent Greg Palkot has the latest on 'Special Report' in the wake of Queen Elizabeth's death.
Upon the death of Queen Elizabeth II on Sept. 8, her son King Charles III immediately ascended the throne. Buckingham Palace announced Thursday the longest-reigning monarch had died at Balmoral Castle surrounded by members of the royal family.
The announcement was made shortly after the queen had been placed under medical supervision after her doctors became "concerned" for her health earlier that day.
The queen's death brought about an immediate and historic change in titles and roles within the royal family. Prince Charles, now King Charles III's, heir to the throne is his eldest son, Prince William.
The succession to the British throne "is regulated not only through descent but also by Parliamentary statute," according to the royal family’s website .
Here’s a look at who currently is in line for the throne after Queen Elizabeth II, who is 96 years old.
1. The Prince of Wales
Prince William is the oldest son of Charles, Prince of Wales. (Reuters/Yves Herman)
Prince William, the Prince of Wales, is the oldest son of Charles. The 40-year-old is first in line to the throne. He married Kate Middleton in 2011.
William and Catherine "Kate" Middleton, who were named the Prince and Princess of Wales by King Charles III on Friday, were previously known as the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge.
2. Prince George of Wales
Prince George smiles in a birthday portrait taken by mother. (The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge Twitter)
At only 9 years old, Prince George of Cambridge is second in line of succession to the British throne. He is the oldest child of Prince William.
4. Princess Charlotte of Wales
Britain's William and Kate shared a photo of their daughter Princess Charlotte to mark her seventh birthday. (Twitter/@KensingtonRoyal)
Princess Charlotte of Wales is the second child of Prince William and Princess Kate. She is 7 years old.
5. Prince Louis Arthur Charles of Wales
In this handout photo provided by the Princess of Wales, Britain's Prince Louis smiles before his first day of attending Willcocks Nursery School, at Kensington Palace in London, Wednesday, April 21, 2021. (Duchess of Cambridge via AP)
Prince William and Princess Catherine welcomed their third child, a boy, on April 23, 2018. The four-year-old is fourth in line to the throne.
He was named after William's grandfather, King Charles III, and the Duke's mentor -- Louis Mountbatten -- who was killed by a bomb in 1979.
6. Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex
Britain's Prince Harry and his wife Meghan Markle. He is fifth in line to the throne. (Reuters/Toby Melville)
Prince Harry is the sixth in line to the throne. He is the younger son of Charles, the Prince of Wales.
7. Archie Harrison Mountbatten-Windsor
Harry and Meghan sit with Archie during their Cape Town, South African tour. (Getty)
Prince Harry and Meghan welcomed their first child, a boy, on May 6, 2019. They named him Archie , and the three-year-old is sixth in line to the throne— behind his dad.
He is Queen Elizabeth II's eighth great-grandchild and the younger cousin of Prince George, Princess Charlotte and Prince Louis.
8. Lilibet Diana Mountbatten-Windsor
Meghan Markle and Prince Harry revealed daughter Lilibet's first photo on her birthday. (Misan Harriman)
Miss Lilibet Mountbatten-Windsor, 1, is seventh in line to the throne, behind her older brother.
9. Duke of York
Prince Andrew is the third child of Queen Elizabeth II and her second son. (Reuters/Neil Hall)
Prince Andrew, the Duke of York, is Queen Elizabeth II’s third child and second son. The 62-year-old is eigth in line of succession to the British throne.
10. Princess Beatrice of York
Princes Beatrice is Prince Andrew's oldest daughter. (Reuters/Toby Melville)
Princess Beatrice of York is Prince Andrew’s oldest daughter. She is 34 years old.
Kaitlyn Schallhorn is a Reporter for Fox News. Follow her on Twitter: @K_Schallhorn . | https://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/heres-the-line-of-succession-to-the-british-throne | 89 |
who all is in line for the throne of england | Royal Family tree: King Charles III's closest family and order of succession | - Published
Following the death of Queen Elizabeth II, her eldest son Charles became King.
Find out more about the Royal Family and the line of succession below.
Born: 1948
Charles became King the moment his mother died.
The now former Prince of Wales married Lady Diana Spencer, who became the Princess of Wales, on 29 July 1981. The couple had two sons, William and Harry. They later separated and their marriage was dissolved in 1996. On 31 August 1997, the princess was killed in a car crash in Paris.
He married Camilla Parker Bowles on 9 April 2005. When Charles became King, she became Queen Consort, as per the wishes of Queen Elizabeth II.
Born: 1982
Prince William is the elder son of King Charles III and Diana, Princess of Wales, and is now first in line to the throne .
He was 15 when his mother died. He went on to study at St Andrews University, where he met his future wife, Kate Middleton. The couple were married in 2011.
On his 21st birthday he was appointed a Counsellor of State - standing in for the Queen on official occasions. He and his wife had their first child, George, in July 2013, their second, Charlotte, in 2015 and third, Louis, in 2018.
The prince trained with the Army, Royal Navy and RAF before spending three years as an RAF search-and-rescue pilot with RAF Valley on Anglesey, north Wales. He also worked part-time for two years as a co-pilot with the East Anglian Air Ambulance alongside his royal duties. He left the role in July 2017 to take on more royal duties on behalf of the Queen and Duke of Edinburgh.
William has inherited his father's Duchy of Cornwall and is now the Prince of Wales. Catherine is now the Princess of Wales.
As heir to the throne, his main duties are to support the King in his royal commitments.
Born: 2013
Prince George of Wales was born on 22 July 2013 at St Mary's Hospital in London. His father was present for the birth of his son, who weighed 8lb 6oz (3.8kg).
Prince George is second in line to the throne , after his father.
Born: 2015
Catherine, Princess of Wales gave birth to her second child, Charlotte Elizabeth Diana, on 2 May 2015, again at St Mary's Hospital. William was present for the birth of the 8lb 3oz (3.7kg) baby.
She is third in line to the throne, after her father and older brother, and is known as Her Royal Highness Princess Charlotte of Wales.
Born: 2018
The new Princess of Wales gave birth to her third child, a boy weighing 8lbs 7oz, on 23 April 2018, at St Mary's Hospital in London.
William was present for the birth of Louis Arthur Charles, who is fourth in line to the throne .
Born: 1984
Prince Harry trained at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst and went on to become a lieutenant in the Army, serving as a helicopter pilot.
During his 10 years in the armed forces, Capt Wales, as he became known, saw active service in Afghanistan twice, in 2012 to 2013 as an Apache helicopter co-pilot and gunner. He left the Army in 2015 and now focuses on charitable work, including conservation in Africa and organising the Invictus Games for injured members of the armed forces.
He has been a Counsellor of State since his 21st birthday and stood in for the Queen on official duties.
He married US actress Meghan Markle on 19 May, 2018, at Windsor Castle. In January 2020, the royal couple said they would step back as "senior" royals and divide their time between the UK and North America. They said they intended to "work to become financially independent".
Just over a year later, Buckingham Palace confirmed the couple would not be returning to royal duties, and would give up their honorary military appointments and royal patronages.
Born: 2019
The Sussexes' first child, Archie Harrison Mountbatten-Windsor, was born on 6 May 2019, weighing 7lbs 3oz, with the duke present for his birth.
Archie was not automatically a prince when he was born because he was not a grandson of the monarch. But he gained the right to that title when King Charles acceded to the throne. Harry and Meghan are understood to want their children to decide for themselves whether or not to use their titles when they are older.
Born: 2021
The Duchess of Sussex gave birth to her second child in Santa Barbara, California, on 4 June 2021. Lilibet Diana Mountbatten-Windsor - to be known as Lili - is named after the Royal Family's nickname for the Queen and is her 11th great-grandchild.
She was given the middle name Diana in honour of Prince Harry's mother, who died in a car crash in 1997 when he was 12 years old. Like her brother, she gained the right to use the royal title when her grandfather became king.
Born: 1960
Prince Andrew, eighth in line to the throne, was the third child of the Queen and Duke of Edinburgh - but the first to be born to a reigning monarch for 103 years.
He was created the Duke of York on his marriage to Sarah Ferguson, who became Duchess of York, in 1986. They had two daughters - Beatrice, in 1988, and Eugenie, in 1990. In March 1992 it was announced the duke and duchess were to separate. They divorced in 1996.
The duke served for 22 years in the Royal Navy and saw active service in the Falklands War in 1982. In addition to royal engagements, he served as a special trade representative for the government until 2011.
Prince Andrew stepped away from royal duties in 2019 after an interview with the BBC about his relationship with US financier Jeffrey Epstein, who killed himself while awaiting trial on sex-trafficking and conspiracy charges.
In February, he agreed to pay an undisclosed sum to settle a civil sexual assault case brought against him in the US by one of Epstein's victims, although he made no admission of liability and had repeatedly denied the allegations.
Born: 1988
Princess Beatrice is the elder daughter of Prince Andrew and Sarah, Duchess of York. Her full title is Her Royal Highness Princess Beatrice of York. She has no official surname, but uses the name York.
She married property tycoon Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi at The Royal Chapel of All Saints at Royal Lodge, Windsor, in July 2020. The couple had been due to marry in May, but coronavirus delayed the plans.
Born: 2021
Princess Beatrice had a baby girl, Sienna Elizabeth, in September 2021, who is 10th in line to the throne and is the Queen's 12th great-grandchild. Princess Beatrice is also stepmother to Mr Mapelli Mozzi's son Christopher Woolf, known as Wolfie, from his previous relationship with Dara Huang.
Born: 1990
Princess Eugenie is the younger daughter of Prince Andrew and Sarah, Duchess of York. Her full title is Her Royal Highness Princess Eugenie of York and she is 11th in line to the throne .
Like her sister Princess Beatrice, she has no official surname, but uses York. She married her long-term boyfriend Jack Brooksbank at Windsor Castle on 12 October 2018.
Born: 2021
Princess Eugenie and Jack Brooksbank's son, August, born on 9 February 2021, is the Queen's ninth great-grandchild.
Born: 1964
Prince Edward was given the title Duke of Edinburgh on his 59th birthday, almost two years after the death of his father Prince Philip, who previously held the title. It was understood that Philip had wanted Edward to take on the title, but the decision was left to King Charles.
Prince Edward's wife Sophie becomes the Duchess of Edinburgh and the prince's former title, the Earl of Wessex, has now been given to his son James, Viscount Severn. The couple also have a daughter, Lady Louise, born in 2003.
After a brief period with the Royal Marines, the prince formed his own TV production company. He subsequently supported the Queen in her official duties and carried out public engagements for charities. He is 13th in line to the throne .
Born: 2007
James, Earl of Wessex is the younger child of the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh. He was given the title after his father Prince Edward became the Duke of Edinburgh in March 2023. When James was born, he was given the title Viscount Severn - a "courtesy" title as son of an earl, rather than using prince. It is thought his parents made this decision to avoid some of the burdens of royal titles.
Born: 2003
Born in 2003, Lady Louise Windsor is the elder child of the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh. However, she is lower in the line of succession than her younger brother because she was born before a law came into force scrapping the system that meant a younger son could displace an older daughter.
Born: 1950
Anne, Princess Royal is the Queen's second child and only daughter. When she was born she was third in line to the throne, but is now 16th . She was given the title Princess Royal in June 1987.
Princess Anne has married twice; her first husband Captain Mark Phillips is the father of her two children, Peter and Zara, while her second is Vice-Admiral Timothy Laurence.
The princess was the first royal to use the surname Mountbatten-Windsor in an official document, in the marriage register after her wedding to Capt Phillips. She competed in equestrian events for Great Britain in the 1976 Montreal Olympics and is involved with a number of charities, including Save the Children, of which she has been president since 1970.
Born: 1977
Peter Phillips is the eldest of the Queen's grandchildren. He married Canadian Autumn Kelly in 2008 and together they have two daughters, Savannah, born in 2010, and Isla, born in 2012.
The children of the Princess Royal do not have royal titles, as they are descended from the female line. Mark Phillips refused the offer of an earldom when he married so their children do not have courtesy titles.
Peter Phillips and his wife announced they were getting divorced in February 2020.
Born: 2010
Savannah, born in 2010, is the elder daughter of Peter and Autumn Phillips and was the Queen's first great-grandchild .
Born: 2012
Isla, born in 2012, is the second daughter of Peter and Autumn Phillips.
Born: 1981
Zara Tindall followed her mother and father with a highly successful riding career - including winning a silver medal at the London 2012 Olympics. She married former England rugby player Mike Tindall in 2011 and the couple had their first child, Mia Grace, in 2014.
The children of the Princess Royal do not hold a royal title, as they are descended from the female line, but she remains 20th in line to the throne. Their father, Mark Phillips, turned down an earldom when he married Princess Anne, so they do not have courtesy titles.
Born: 2014
The Queen's granddaughter Zara Tindall gave birth to her first child, Mia Grace, in January 2014.
Born: 2018
The couple's second child was born on 18 June 2018 at Stroud Maternity Unit, Gloucestershire, weighing 9lb 3oz.
Lena Elizabeth was named in honour of her great-grandmother.
Like her sister, Lena Elizabeth does not have a royal title and so will also be known as Miss Tindall.
Born: 2021
Zara and Mike Tindall's son Lucas Philip, their third child - the Queen's 10th great-grandchild - was born on 21 March 2021 weighing 8lbs 4oz.
Read the latest from our royal correspondent Sean Coughlan - sign up here . | https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-23272491 | 89 |
who all is in line for the throne of england | Royal Family tree: King Charles III's closest family and order of succession | - Published
Following the death of Queen Elizabeth II, her eldest son Charles became King.
Find out more about the Royal Family and the line of succession below.
Born: 1948
Charles became King the moment his mother died.
The now former Prince of Wales married Lady Diana Spencer, who became the Princess of Wales, on 29 July 1981. The couple had two sons, William and Harry. They later separated and their marriage was dissolved in 1996. On 31 August 1997, the princess was killed in a car crash in Paris.
He married Camilla Parker Bowles on 9 April 2005. When Charles became King, she became Queen Consort, as per the wishes of Queen Elizabeth II.
Born: 1982
Prince William is the elder son of King Charles III and Diana, Princess of Wales, and is now first in line to the throne .
He was 15 when his mother died. He went on to study at St Andrews University, where he met his future wife, Kate Middleton. The couple were married in 2011.
On his 21st birthday he was appointed a Counsellor of State - standing in for the Queen on official occasions. He and his wife had their first child, George, in July 2013, their second, Charlotte, in 2015 and third, Louis, in 2018.
The prince trained with the Army, Royal Navy and RAF before spending three years as an RAF search-and-rescue pilot with RAF Valley on Anglesey, north Wales. He also worked part-time for two years as a co-pilot with the East Anglian Air Ambulance alongside his royal duties. He left the role in July 2017 to take on more royal duties on behalf of the Queen and Duke of Edinburgh.
William has inherited his father's Duchy of Cornwall and is now the Prince of Wales. Catherine is now the Princess of Wales.
As heir to the throne, his main duties are to support the King in his royal commitments.
Born: 2013
Prince George of Wales was born on 22 July 2013 at St Mary's Hospital in London. His father was present for the birth of his son, who weighed 8lb 6oz (3.8kg).
Prince George is second in line to the throne , after his father.
Born: 2015
Catherine, Princess of Wales gave birth to her second child, Charlotte Elizabeth Diana, on 2 May 2015, again at St Mary's Hospital. William was present for the birth of the 8lb 3oz (3.7kg) baby.
She is third in line to the throne, after her father and older brother, and is known as Her Royal Highness Princess Charlotte of Wales.
Born: 2018
The new Princess of Wales gave birth to her third child, a boy weighing 8lbs 7oz, on 23 April 2018, at St Mary's Hospital in London.
William was present for the birth of Louis Arthur Charles, who is fourth in line to the throne .
Born: 1984
Prince Harry trained at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst and went on to become a lieutenant in the Army, serving as a helicopter pilot.
During his 10 years in the armed forces, Capt Wales, as he became known, saw active service in Afghanistan twice, in 2012 to 2013 as an Apache helicopter co-pilot and gunner. He left the Army in 2015 and now focuses on charitable work, including conservation in Africa and organising the Invictus Games for injured members of the armed forces.
He has been a Counsellor of State since his 21st birthday and stood in for the Queen on official duties.
He married US actress Meghan Markle on 19 May, 2018, at Windsor Castle. In January 2020, the royal couple said they would step back as "senior" royals and divide their time between the UK and North America. They said they intended to "work to become financially independent".
Just over a year later, Buckingham Palace confirmed the couple would not be returning to royal duties, and would give up their honorary military appointments and royal patronages.
Born: 2019
The Sussexes' first child, Archie Harrison Mountbatten-Windsor, was born on 6 May 2019, weighing 7lbs 3oz, with the duke present for his birth.
Archie was not automatically a prince when he was born because he was not a grandson of the monarch. But he gained the right to that title when King Charles acceded to the throne. Harry and Meghan are understood to want their children to decide for themselves whether or not to use their titles when they are older.
Born: 2021
The Duchess of Sussex gave birth to her second child in Santa Barbara, California, on 4 June 2021. Lilibet Diana Mountbatten-Windsor - to be known as Lili - is named after the Royal Family's nickname for the Queen and is her 11th great-grandchild.
She was given the middle name Diana in honour of Prince Harry's mother, who died in a car crash in 1997 when he was 12 years old. Like her brother, she gained the right to use the royal title when her grandfather became king.
Born: 1960
Prince Andrew, eighth in line to the throne, was the third child of the Queen and Duke of Edinburgh - but the first to be born to a reigning monarch for 103 years.
He was created the Duke of York on his marriage to Sarah Ferguson, who became Duchess of York, in 1986. They had two daughters - Beatrice, in 1988, and Eugenie, in 1990. In March 1992 it was announced the duke and duchess were to separate. They divorced in 1996.
The duke served for 22 years in the Royal Navy and saw active service in the Falklands War in 1982. In addition to royal engagements, he served as a special trade representative for the government until 2011.
Prince Andrew stepped away from royal duties in 2019 after an interview with the BBC about his relationship with US financier Jeffrey Epstein, who killed himself while awaiting trial on sex-trafficking and conspiracy charges.
In February, he agreed to pay an undisclosed sum to settle a civil sexual assault case brought against him in the US by one of Epstein's victims, although he made no admission of liability and had repeatedly denied the allegations.
Born: 1988
Princess Beatrice is the elder daughter of Prince Andrew and Sarah, Duchess of York. Her full title is Her Royal Highness Princess Beatrice of York. She has no official surname, but uses the name York.
She married property tycoon Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi at The Royal Chapel of All Saints at Royal Lodge, Windsor, in July 2020. The couple had been due to marry in May, but coronavirus delayed the plans.
Born: 2021
Princess Beatrice had a baby girl, Sienna Elizabeth, in September 2021, who is 10th in line to the throne and is the Queen's 12th great-grandchild. Princess Beatrice is also stepmother to Mr Mapelli Mozzi's son Christopher Woolf, known as Wolfie, from his previous relationship with Dara Huang.
Born: 1990
Princess Eugenie is the younger daughter of Prince Andrew and Sarah, Duchess of York. Her full title is Her Royal Highness Princess Eugenie of York and she is 11th in line to the throne .
Like her sister Princess Beatrice, she has no official surname, but uses York. She married her long-term boyfriend Jack Brooksbank at Windsor Castle on 12 October 2018.
Born: 2021
Princess Eugenie and Jack Brooksbank's son, August, born on 9 February 2021, is the Queen's ninth great-grandchild.
Born: 1964
Prince Edward was given the title Duke of Edinburgh on his 59th birthday, almost two years after the death of his father Prince Philip, who previously held the title. It was understood that Philip had wanted Edward to take on the title, but the decision was left to King Charles.
Prince Edward's wife Sophie becomes the Duchess of Edinburgh and the prince's former title, the Earl of Wessex, has now been given to his son James, Viscount Severn. The couple also have a daughter, Lady Louise, born in 2003.
After a brief period with the Royal Marines, the prince formed his own TV production company. He subsequently supported the Queen in her official duties and carried out public engagements for charities. He is 13th in line to the throne .
Born: 2007
James, Earl of Wessex is the younger child of the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh. He was given the title after his father Prince Edward became the Duke of Edinburgh in March 2023. When James was born, he was given the title Viscount Severn - a "courtesy" title as son of an earl, rather than using prince. It is thought his parents made this decision to avoid some of the burdens of royal titles.
Born: 2003
Born in 2003, Lady Louise Windsor is the elder child of the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh. However, she is lower in the line of succession than her younger brother because she was born before a law came into force scrapping the system that meant a younger son could displace an older daughter.
Born: 1950
Anne, Princess Royal is the Queen's second child and only daughter. When she was born she was third in line to the throne, but is now 16th . She was given the title Princess Royal in June 1987.
Princess Anne has married twice; her first husband Captain Mark Phillips is the father of her two children, Peter and Zara, while her second is Vice-Admiral Timothy Laurence.
The princess was the first royal to use the surname Mountbatten-Windsor in an official document, in the marriage register after her wedding to Capt Phillips. She competed in equestrian events for Great Britain in the 1976 Montreal Olympics and is involved with a number of charities, including Save the Children, of which she has been president since 1970.
Born: 1977
Peter Phillips is the eldest of the Queen's grandchildren. He married Canadian Autumn Kelly in 2008 and together they have two daughters, Savannah, born in 2010, and Isla, born in 2012.
The children of the Princess Royal do not have royal titles, as they are descended from the female line. Mark Phillips refused the offer of an earldom when he married so their children do not have courtesy titles.
Peter Phillips and his wife announced they were getting divorced in February 2020.
Born: 2010
Savannah, born in 2010, is the elder daughter of Peter and Autumn Phillips and was the Queen's first great-grandchild .
Born: 2012
Isla, born in 2012, is the second daughter of Peter and Autumn Phillips.
Born: 1981
Zara Tindall followed her mother and father with a highly successful riding career - including winning a silver medal at the London 2012 Olympics. She married former England rugby player Mike Tindall in 2011 and the couple had their first child, Mia Grace, in 2014.
The children of the Princess Royal do not hold a royal title, as they are descended from the female line, but she remains 20th in line to the throne. Their father, Mark Phillips, turned down an earldom when he married Princess Anne, so they do not have courtesy titles.
Born: 2014
The Queen's granddaughter Zara Tindall gave birth to her first child, Mia Grace, in January 2014.
Born: 2018
The couple's second child was born on 18 June 2018 at Stroud Maternity Unit, Gloucestershire, weighing 9lb 3oz.
Lena Elizabeth was named in honour of her great-grandmother.
Like her sister, Lena Elizabeth does not have a royal title and so will also be known as Miss Tindall.
Born: 2021
Zara and Mike Tindall's son Lucas Philip, their third child - the Queen's 10th great-grandchild - was born on 21 March 2021 weighing 8lbs 4oz.
Read the latest from our royal correspondent Sean Coughlan - sign up here . | https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-23272491 | 89 |
what kind of legal system does india have | Law of India - Wikipedia | The legal system of India consists of Civil law , Common law , Customary law , Religious law and Corporate law within the legal framework inherited from the colonial era and various legislation first introduced by the British are still in effect in modified forms today. Since the drafting of the Indian Constitution , Indian laws also adhere to the United Nations guidelines on human rights law and the environmental law .
Indian personal law is fairly complex, with each religion adhering to its own specific laws. In most states, registering of marriages and divorces is not compulsory. Separate laws govern Hindus including Sikhs , Jains and Buddhist , Muslims , Christians , and followers of other religions. The exception to this rule is in the state of Goa , where a uniform civil code is in place, in which all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces, and adoption. In the first major reformist judgment for the last decade, the Supreme Court of India banned the Islamic practice of " Triple Talaq " (divorce by uttering of the " Talaq " word thrice by the husband). [1] The landmark Supreme Court of India judgment was welcomed by women activists across India. [2]
As of July 2022, there are about 839 Central laws as per the online repository hosted by the Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India. [3] Further, there are many State laws for each state, which can also be accessed from the same repository.
Ancient India represented a distinct tradition of law , and had a historically independent thought of legal theory and practice. The Dharmaśāstras played an important role. The Arthashastra , dating from 400 BC and the Manusmriti , from 100 AD, were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance. [4] Manu 's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism , and was cited across Southeast Asia . [5]
Early in this period, which culminated in the creation of the Gupta Empire , relations with ancient Greece and Rome were not infrequent. The appearance of similar fundamental institutions of international law in various parts of the world show that they are inherent in international society, irrespective of culture and tradition. [6] Inter-State relations in the pre-Islamic period resulted in clear-cut rules of warfare of a high humanitarian standard, in rules of neutrality, of treaty law, of customary law embodied in religious charters, in exchange of embassies of a temporary or semi-permanent character. [7]
After the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent , Islamic Sharia law spread with the establishment of Delhi Sultanate , Bengal Sultanate and Gujarat Sultanate . [8] The Corps of Forty also played a major role by establishing some Turkish law in India. [9]
In the 17th century, when the Mughal Empire became the world's largest economy, its sixth ruler, Aurangzeb , compiled the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri with several Arab and Iraqi Islamic scholars, which served as the main governing body in most parts of South Asia . [10] [11]
With the advent of the British Raj , there was a break in tradition, and Hindu and Islamic law were abolished in favour of British common law . [12] As a result, the present judicial system of the country derives largely from the British system and has few, if any, connections to Indian legal institutions of the pre-British era. [13]
The Constitution of India , which came into effect on 26 January 1950 is the lengthiest written constitution in the world. [14] Although its administrative provisions are to a large extent based on the Government of India Act 1935 , it also contains various other provisions that were drawn from other constitutions in the world at the time of its creation. [14] It provides details of the administration of both the Union and the States, and codifies the relations between the Federal Government and the State Governments. [15] Also incorporated into the text are a chapter on the fundamental rights of citizens, as well as a chapter on directive principles of state policy . [16]
The constitution prescribes a federal structure of government, with a clearly defined separation of legislative and executive powers between the Federation and the States. [17] Each State Government has the freedom to draft its own laws on subjects classified as state subjects. [18] Laws passed by the Parliament of India and other pre-existing central laws on subjects classified as central subjects are binding on all citizens. However, the Constitution also has certain unitary features, such as vesting power of amendment solely in the Federal Government, [19] the absence of dual citizenship , [20] and the overriding authority assumed by the Federal Government in times of emergency . [21]
The Indian Penal Code formulated by the British during the British Raj in 1860, forms the backbone of criminal law in India . The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 governs the procedural aspects of the criminal law. [22]
Jury trials were abolished by the government in 1960 on the grounds they would be susceptible to media and public influence. This decision was based on an 8-1 acquittal of Kawas Nanavati in K. M. Nanavati vs. State of Maharashtra , which was overturned by higher courts.
In February 2011, the Supreme Court of India ruled that criminal defendants have a constitutional right to counsel. [23]
Capital punishment in India is legal. Renuka Shinde and Seema Mohan Gavit , who were guilty of kidnapping and killing at least 13 children under 6 years, are currently lodged in Yerwada Central Jail . They were also the first women in India to be given capital punishment. The last execution was conducted on 20 March 2020, where the death sentence was awarded to the convicts—Pawan Gupta, Akshay Singh Thakur, Vinay Sharma, and Mukesh Singh—by a trial court, a decision which was upheld by Delhi High Court and Supreme Court as well. [24]
The main contract law in India is codified in the Indian Contract Act , which came into effect on 1 September 1872 and extends to all India. It governs entrance into contract, and effects of breach of contract. Indian Contract law is popularly known as mercantile law of India. Originally Indian Sales of Goods Act and Partnership Act were part of Indian Contract act, but due to needed amendment these acts were separated from Contract Act. The Contract act occupies the most important place in legal agreements in India.
Indian labour law are among the most comprehensive in the world. They have been criticised by the World Bank , [25] [26] primarily on the grounds of the inflexibility that results from government needing to approve dismissals. In practice, there is a large informal sector of workers, between 80 or 90 per cent of the labour force, to whom labour rights are not actually available and laws are not enforced.
The current Indian company law was updated and recodified in the Companies Act 2013 .
Tort law in India is primarily governed by judicial precedent as in other common law jurisdictions, supplemented by statutes governing damages , civil procedure, and codifying common law torts. As in other common law jurisdictions, a tort is breach of a non-contractual duty which has caused damage to the plaintiff giving rise to a civil cause of action and for which remedy is available. If a remedy does not exist, a tort has not been committed since the rationale of tort law is to provide a remedy to the person who has been wronged.
While Indian tort law is generally derived from English law , there are certain differences between the two systems. Indian tort law uniquely includes remedies for constitutional torts, which are actions by the government that infringe upon rights enshrined in the Constitution , as well as a system of absolute liability for businesses engaged in hazardous activity.
As tort law is similar in nature across common law jurisdictions, courts have readily referred to case law from other common law jurisdictions such as the UK, [27] Australia, [28] and Canada [29] in addition to domestic precedent. However, attention is given to local norms and conditions, as well as India’s distinct constitutional framework in applying foreign precedent. The legislature have also created statutes to provide for certain social conditions. Similar to other common law countries, [30] aspects of tort law have been codified. [31]
Certain conduct which gives rise to a cause of action under tort law is additionally criminalised by the Indian Penal Code [32] or other criminal legislation. Where a tort also constitutes a criminal offence, its prosecution by the state does not preclude the aggrieved party from seeking a remedy under tort law. The overlap between the two areas of law is a result of the distinct purposes each serves and the nature of the remedies each provides. Tort law aims to hold a tortfeasor accountable and consequently tort actions are brought directly by the aggrieved party in order to seek damages, whereas criminal law aims to punish and deter conduct deemed to be against the interests of society and criminal actions are thus brought by the state and penalties include imprisonment, fines, or execution.
In India, as in the majority of common law jurisdictions, the standard of proof in tort cases is the balance of probabilities as opposed to the reasonable doubt standard used in criminal cases or the preponderance of the evidence standard used in American tort litigation, although the latter is extremely similar in practice to the balance of probabilities standard. Similar to the constitutional presumption of innocence in Indian criminal law, the burden of proof is on the plaintiff in tort actions in India. India, [33] like the majority of common law jurisdictions in Asia [34] [35] and Africa, [36] does not permit the use of juries in civil or criminal trials, in direct contrast to America and the Canadian common law provinces which retain civil juries as well as to jurisdictions like England and Wales or New Zealand [37] which permit juries in a limited set of tort actions.
Indian tax law involves several different taxes levied by different governments. Income Tax is levied by the Central Government under the Income Tax Act 1961. Customs and excise duties are also levied by the Central government. Sales tax is levied under VAT legislation at the state level. Since a new tax reform in the form of GST was levied through constitutional amendment and came into existence since 1st July 2017 which took the place of excise duties and VAT.
The authority to levy a tax is derived from the Constitution of India which allocates the power to levy various taxes between the Centre and the State. An important restriction on this power is Article 265 of the Constitution which states that "No tax shall be levied or collected except by the authority of law." [38] Therefore, each tax levied or collected has to be backed by an accompanying law, passed either by the Parliament or the State Legislature . In 2010-11, the gross tax collection amounted to ₹ 7.92 billion ( Long scale ), with direct tax and indirect tax contributing 56% and 44% respectively. [39]
The Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) is a part of the Department of Revenue in the Ministry of Finance, Government of India . [40] The CBDT provides essential inputs for policy and planning of direct taxes in India and is also responsible for administration of the direct tax laws through Income Tax Department. The CBDT is a statutory authority functioning under the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1963. It is India’s official FATF unit. The Central Board of Revenue as the Department apex body charged with the administration of taxes came into existence as a result of the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1924. Initially the Board was in charge of both direct and indirect taxes. However, when the administration of taxes became too unwieldy for one Board to handle, the Board was split up into two, namely the Central Board of Direct Taxes and Central Board of Excise and Customs with effect from 1 January 1964. This bifurcation was brought about by constitution of the two Boards u/s 3 of the Central Boards of Revenue Act, 1963.
The major tax enactment is the Income Tax Act of 1961 passed by the Parliament , which establishes and governs the taxation of the incomes of individuals and corporations. [41] This Act imposes a tax on income under the following five heads: [42]
- Income from house and property, [43]
- Income from business and profession,
- Income from salaries,
- Income in the form of Capital gains, [44] and
- Income from other sources
However, this Act may soon be repealed and be replaced with a new Act consolidating the law relating to Income Tax and Wealth Tax, the new proposed legislation is called the Direct Taxes Code (to become the Direct Taxes Code, Act 2010). Act was referred to Parliamentary standing committee which has submitted its recommendations. Act is expected to be implemented with changes from the Financial Year 2013–14. [45]
Goods and Services Tax (India) is a comprehensive indirect tax on manufacture, sale and consumption of goods and services throughout India to replace taxes levied by the central and state governments. It was introduced as The Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act 2016, following the passage of Constitution 101st Amendment Bill. The GST is governed by GST Council and its Chairman is Nirmala Sitaraman , Finance Minister of India.
This method allows GST - registered businesses to claim tax credit to the value of GST they paid on purchase of goods or services as part of their normal commercial activity. Administrative responsibility would generally rest with a single authority to levy tax on goods and services. Exports would be considered as zero-rated supply and imports would be levied the same taxes as domestic goods and services adhering to the destination principle in addition to the Customs Duty which will not be subsumed in the GST.
Introduction of Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a significant step in the reform of indirect taxation in India. Amalgamating several Central and State taxes into a single tax would mitigate cascading or double taxation, facilitating a common national market. The simplicity of the tax should lead to easier administration and enforcement. From the consumer point of view, the biggest advantage would be in terms of a reduction in the overall tax burden on goods, which is currently estimated at 25%-30%, free movement of goods from one state to another without stopping at state borders for hours for payment of state tax or entry tax and reduction in paperwork to a large extent.
GST came into effect on 1 July 2017.
Trust law in India is mainly codified in the Indian Trusts Act of 1882, which came into force on 1 March 1882. It extends to the whole of India except for the state of Jammu and Kashmir and Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Indian law follows principles of English law in most areas of law, but the law of trusts is a notable exception. Indian law does not recognize "double ownership", and a beneficiary of trust property is not the equitable owner of the property in Indian law.
Family laws in India are different when Warren Hastings in 1772 created provisions prescribing Hindu law for Hindus and Islamic law for Muslims, for litigation relating to personal matters. [46] However, after independence, efforts have been made to modernise various aspects of personal law and bring about uniformity among various religions. Recent reform has affected custody and guardianship laws, adoption laws, succession laws, and laws concerning domestic violence and child marriage.
As far as Hindus are concerned Hindu Law is a specific branch of law. Though the attempt made by the first parliament after independence did not succeed in bringing forth a Hindu Code comprising the entire field of Hindu family law, laws could be enacted touching upon all major areas that affect family life among Hindus in India. [47] Jains, Sikhs and Buddhists are also covered by Hindu law.
Indian Muslims' personal laws are based upon the Sharia , which is thus partially applied in India , [48] and laws and legal judgements adapting and adjusting Sharia for Indian society. The portion of the fiqh applicable to Indian Muslims as personal law is termed Mohammedan law. Despite being largely uncodified, Mohammedan law has the same legal status as other codified statutes. [49] The development of the law is largely on the basis of judicial precedent, which in recent times has been subject to review by the courts. [49] The concept of the judicial precedent and of 'review by the courts' is a key component of the British common law upon which Indian law is based. The contribution of Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer in the matter of interpretation of the statutory as well as personal law is significant.
Sunni Law:
- Sunna or Ahdis (Tradition of the Prophet)
- Ijma (Unanimous Decision of the Jurists)
- Qiyas ( Analogical deduction)
As per Shia Law:
Usooli Shia
- Quran
- Tradition (only those that have come from the family of the Prophet)
- Ijma (only those confirmed by Imams)
- Reasons
Akhbari Shia
- Tradition (only those that have come from the family of the Prophet)
Polygamy is a subject of debate from long time. It has been abolished in many Islamic countries, but still holds its legal validity in the secular country of India. Supreme court asked the central government for its views, to which it replied that polygamy should be done away with. [50] [51] [52]
For Christians, a distinct branch of law known as Christian Law, mostly based on specific statutes, applies.
Christian law of Succession and Divorce in India have undergone changes in recent years. The Indian Divorce (Amendment) Act of 2001 has brought in considerable changes in the grounds available for divorce. By now Christian law in India has emerged as a separate branch of law. It covers the entire spectrum of family law so far as it concerns Christians in India. Christian law, to a great extent is based on English law but there are laws that originated on the strength of customary practices and precedents.
Christian family law has now distinct sub branches like laws on marriage , divorce, restitution, judicial separation, succession, adoption , guardianship , maintenance, custody of minor children and relevance of canon law and all that regulates familial relationship.
The Parsi law [53] is the law governing the Parsi Zoroastrian community.
Nationality law or citizenship law is mainly codified in the Constitution of India and the Citizenship Act of 1955. Although the Constitution of India bars multiple citizenship , the Parliament of India passed on 7 January 2004, a law creating a new form of very limited dual nationality called Overseas Citizenship of India . Overseas citizens of India have no form of political rights or participation in the government, however, and there are no plans to issue to overseas citizens any form of Indian passport.
Law enforcement in India is undertaken by numerous law enforcement agencies . Like many federal structures , the nature of the Constitution of India mandates law and order as a subject of the state, therefore the bulk of the policing lies with the respective states and territories of India.
At the federal level, the many agencies are part of the Union Ministry of Home Affairs, and support the states in their duties. Larger cities also operate metropolitan police forces, under respective state governments. All senior police officers in the state police forces, as well as those in the federal agencies, are members of the Indian Police Service (IPS) and Indian Revenue Service (IRS), two of the several kinds of civil services. They are recruited by the Union Public Service Commission .
The federal police are controlled by the central Government of India . The majority of federal law enforcement agencies are controlled by the Ministry of Home Affairs . The head of each of the federal law enforcement agencies is always an Indian Police Service officer (IPS). The constitution assigns responsibility for maintaining law and order to the states and territories, and almost all routine policing—including apprehension of criminals—is carried out by state-level police forces. The constitution also permits the central government to participate in police operations and organization by authorizing the maintenance of the Indian Police Service. Indian
Government usually appoints Law Commission panels to study and make non-binding recommendations for the law reform. In first 65 years 1,301 obsolete laws were repealed, including 1029 old laws in 1950 by Jawaharlal Nehru and 272 old laws in 2004 by Atal Bihari Vajpayee . After that 1,824 such laws were repealed by Narendra Modi government between May 2014 to December 2017, taking the total to 3,125. [54]
Subordinate, delegated or secondary legislation covers rules, regulations, by-laws, sub-rules, orders, and notification. [55] [56]
- rule : according to the General Clauses Acts, 1897, "rule" shall mean a rule made in exercise of a power conferred by any enactment, and shall include a Regulation made as a rule under any enactment. [57] [58]
- ^ Wu, Huizhong (23 August 2017). "Triple talaq: India's top court bans Islamic practice of instant divorce" . CNN . Archived from the original on 6 September 2017 . Retrieved 3 February 2018 .
- ^ Safi, Michael; Amrit Dhillon (22 August 2017). "India court bans Islamic instant divorce in huge win for women's rights" . The Guardian . Delhi. Archived from the original on 16 November 2017 . Retrieved 3 February 2018 .
- ^ "India Code: Browsing DSpace" . www.indiacode.nic.in . Retrieved 26 July 2022 .
- ^ Glenn 2000 , p. 255
- ^ Glenn 2000 , p. 276
- ^ Alexander, C.H. (July 1952). "International Law in India". The International and Comparative Law Quarterly . 1 (3): 289–300. doi : 10.1093/iclqaj/1.Pt3.289 . ISSN 0020-5893 .
- ^ Viswanatha, S.T., International Law in Ancient India , 1925
- ^ A. Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Leiden, 1980
- ^ Embree, Ainslie (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian history . Asia Society. p. 149.
- ^ Jackson, Roy (2010). Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State . Routledge. ISBN 9781136950360 .
- ^ Chapra, Muhammad Umer (2014). Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance . Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 62–63. ISBN 9781783475728 .
- ^ Glenn 2000 , p. 273
- ^ Jain 2006 , p. 2 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_India | 90 |
what kind of legal system does india have | Legal System of India | India’s common law legal system closely mirrors that of the United Kingdom. Legislation is accompanied by the prolific use of case law, which has both interpretive and law-making uses.
The Constitution of India is the foundational piece of legislation in the country. The court system begins with Subordinate and District Courts on the lowest tier in the court hierarchy and ends with the Supreme Court of India, which sits at the top of the court hierarchy.
Read below to learn more about the legal system of India.
Subordinate Court
The Subordinate Courts are supervised by the High Court in their respective states or union territories and are divided into the civil courts and the criminal courts. The highest level of each Subordinate Court is the District Court. There are also Subordinate Courts that deal with specific matters, such as the Revenue Courts, the Commissioner’s Court and the Courts of Tahsildar and Nayab Tahsildar, which deal with land revenue issues.
District Court
Each state in India sets up District Courts in each of its districts or, in some cases, groups of districts, depending on what is most viable administratively speaking. The District Courts in each state are under the purview of the High Court in that state.
Each District Court is headed by a state-appointed District Judge, who may be accompanied by Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges. The District Courts have both original and appellate jurisdiction and may be involved in civil and criminal hearings.
Sessions Court
A District Court becomes known as a Sessions Court when it is hearing criminal matters pursuant to the Criminal Procedure Code . The Sessions Court is presided over by a High Court Judge, who is chosen by the state to which the court belongs, and may be accompanied by Additional Sessions Judges and Assistant Sessions Judges. The Sessions Court has jurisdiction over criminal cases involving subject matter such as murders, theft, and dacoity or banditry.
High Court
There are 24 High Courts in India, each having jurisdiction at the state or union territory level. While High Courts have original jurisdiction over civil and criminal matters, it can be exercised only if the District Courts or Subordinate Courts are not competent to handle such matters, or if by law the High Courts are specifically granted jurisdiction over certain matters. This happens only in limited circumstances, and in practice, the bulk of the High Courts’ work involves appeals from the lower courts.
The High Courts also handle matters pursuant to Article 226 of the Constitution , which pertains to the issuance of certain writs including those relating to habeas corpus, prohibitions, mandamus, certiorari and quo warranto.
Supreme Court
The Supreme Court is the highest court in India. It is presided over by the Chief Justice, who is accompanied by 25 state-appointed Judges. The Supreme Court mainly hears appeals from the High Courts of the states and union territories. It also has jurisdiction over the issuance of writs relating to certain matters such as human rights violations or petitions under Article 32 of the Constitution , which provides for constitutional remedies. | https://indialawfirms.org/legal-system-of-india/#:~:text=Legal%20System%20of%20India.%20India%E2%80%99s%20common%20law%20legal,sits%20at%20the%20top%20of%20the%20court%20hierarchy. | 90 |
what kind of legal system does india have | Law of India - Wikipedia | The legal system of India consists of Civil law , Common law , Customary law , Religious law and Corporate law within the legal framework inherited from the colonial era and various legislation first introduced by the British are still in effect in modified forms today. Since the drafting of the Indian Constitution , Indian laws also adhere to the United Nations guidelines on human rights law and the environmental law .
Indian personal law is fairly complex, with each religion adhering to its own specific laws. In most states, registering of marriages and divorces is not compulsory. Separate laws govern Hindus including Sikhs , Jains and Buddhist , Muslims , Christians , and followers of other religions. The exception to this rule is in the state of Goa , where a uniform civil code is in place, in which all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces, and adoption. In the first major reformist judgment for the last decade, the Supreme Court of India banned the Islamic practice of " Triple Talaq " (divorce by uttering of the " Talaq " word thrice by the husband). [1] The landmark Supreme Court of India judgment was welcomed by women activists across India. [2]
As of July 2022, there are about 839 Central laws as per the online repository hosted by the Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India. [3] Further, there are many State laws for each state, which can also be accessed from the same repository.
Ancient India represented a distinct tradition of law , and had a historically independent thought of legal theory and practice. The Dharmaśāstras played an important role. The Arthashastra , dating from 400 BC and the Manusmriti , from 100 AD, were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance. [4] Manu 's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism , and was cited across Southeast Asia . [5]
Early in this period, which culminated in the creation of the Gupta Empire , relations with ancient Greece and Rome were not infrequent. The appearance of similar fundamental institutions of international law in various parts of the world show that they are inherent in international society, irrespective of culture and tradition. [6] Inter-State relations in the pre-Islamic period resulted in clear-cut rules of warfare of a high humanitarian standard, in rules of neutrality, of treaty law, of customary law embodied in religious charters, in exchange of embassies of a temporary or semi-permanent character. [7]
After the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent , Islamic Sharia law spread with the establishment of Delhi Sultanate , Bengal Sultanate and Gujarat Sultanate . [8] The Corps of Forty also played a major role by establishing some Turkish law in India. [9]
In the 17th century, when the Mughal Empire became the world's largest economy, its sixth ruler, Aurangzeb , compiled the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri with several Arab and Iraqi Islamic scholars, which served as the main governing body in most parts of South Asia . [10] [11]
With the advent of the British Raj , there was a break in tradition, and Hindu and Islamic law were abolished in favour of British common law . [12] As a result, the present judicial system of the country derives largely from the British system and has few, if any, connections to Indian legal institutions of the pre-British era. [13]
The Constitution of India , which came into effect on 26 January 1950 is the lengthiest written constitution in the world. [14] Although its administrative provisions are to a large extent based on the Government of India Act 1935 , it also contains various other provisions that were drawn from other constitutions in the world at the time of its creation. [14] It provides details of the administration of both the Union and the States, and codifies the relations between the Federal Government and the State Governments. [15] Also incorporated into the text are a chapter on the fundamental rights of citizens, as well as a chapter on directive principles of state policy . [16]
The constitution prescribes a federal structure of government, with a clearly defined separation of legislative and executive powers between the Federation and the States. [17] Each State Government has the freedom to draft its own laws on subjects classified as state subjects. [18] Laws passed by the Parliament of India and other pre-existing central laws on subjects classified as central subjects are binding on all citizens. However, the Constitution also has certain unitary features, such as vesting power of amendment solely in the Federal Government, [19] the absence of dual citizenship , [20] and the overriding authority assumed by the Federal Government in times of emergency . [21]
The Indian Penal Code formulated by the British during the British Raj in 1860, forms the backbone of criminal law in India . The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 governs the procedural aspects of the criminal law. [22]
Jury trials were abolished by the government in 1960 on the grounds they would be susceptible to media and public influence. This decision was based on an 8-1 acquittal of Kawas Nanavati in K. M. Nanavati vs. State of Maharashtra , which was overturned by higher courts.
In February 2011, the Supreme Court of India ruled that criminal defendants have a constitutional right to counsel. [23]
Capital punishment in India is legal. Renuka Shinde and Seema Mohan Gavit , who were guilty of kidnapping and killing at least 13 children under 6 years, are currently lodged in Yerwada Central Jail . They were also the first women in India to be given capital punishment. The last execution was conducted on 20 March 2020, where the death sentence was awarded to the convicts—Pawan Gupta, Akshay Singh Thakur, Vinay Sharma, and Mukesh Singh—by a trial court, a decision which was upheld by Delhi High Court and Supreme Court as well. [24]
The main contract law in India is codified in the Indian Contract Act , which came into effect on 1 September 1872 and extends to all India. It governs entrance into contract, and effects of breach of contract. Indian Contract law is popularly known as mercantile law of India. Originally Indian Sales of Goods Act and Partnership Act were part of Indian Contract act, but due to needed amendment these acts were separated from Contract Act. The Contract act occupies the most important place in legal agreements in India.
Indian labour law are among the most comprehensive in the world. They have been criticised by the World Bank , [25] [26] primarily on the grounds of the inflexibility that results from government needing to approve dismissals. In practice, there is a large informal sector of workers, between 80 or 90 per cent of the labour force, to whom labour rights are not actually available and laws are not enforced.
The current Indian company law was updated and recodified in the Companies Act 2013 .
Tort law in India is primarily governed by judicial precedent as in other common law jurisdictions, supplemented by statutes governing damages , civil procedure, and codifying common law torts. As in other common law jurisdictions, a tort is breach of a non-contractual duty which has caused damage to the plaintiff giving rise to a civil cause of action and for which remedy is available. If a remedy does not exist, a tort has not been committed since the rationale of tort law is to provide a remedy to the person who has been wronged.
While Indian tort law is generally derived from English law , there are certain differences between the two systems. Indian tort law uniquely includes remedies for constitutional torts, which are actions by the government that infringe upon rights enshrined in the Constitution , as well as a system of absolute liability for businesses engaged in hazardous activity.
As tort law is similar in nature across common law jurisdictions, courts have readily referred to case law from other common law jurisdictions such as the UK, [27] Australia, [28] and Canada [29] in addition to domestic precedent. However, attention is given to local norms and conditions, as well as India’s distinct constitutional framework in applying foreign precedent. The legislature have also created statutes to provide for certain social conditions. Similar to other common law countries, [30] aspects of tort law have been codified. [31]
Certain conduct which gives rise to a cause of action under tort law is additionally criminalised by the Indian Penal Code [32] or other criminal legislation. Where a tort also constitutes a criminal offence, its prosecution by the state does not preclude the aggrieved party from seeking a remedy under tort law. The overlap between the two areas of law is a result of the distinct purposes each serves and the nature of the remedies each provides. Tort law aims to hold a tortfeasor accountable and consequently tort actions are brought directly by the aggrieved party in order to seek damages, whereas criminal law aims to punish and deter conduct deemed to be against the interests of society and criminal actions are thus brought by the state and penalties include imprisonment, fines, or execution.
In India, as in the majority of common law jurisdictions, the standard of proof in tort cases is the balance of probabilities as opposed to the reasonable doubt standard used in criminal cases or the preponderance of the evidence standard used in American tort litigation, although the latter is extremely similar in practice to the balance of probabilities standard. Similar to the constitutional presumption of innocence in Indian criminal law, the burden of proof is on the plaintiff in tort actions in India. India, [33] like the majority of common law jurisdictions in Asia [34] [35] and Africa, [36] does not permit the use of juries in civil or criminal trials, in direct contrast to America and the Canadian common law provinces which retain civil juries as well as to jurisdictions like England and Wales or New Zealand [37] which permit juries in a limited set of tort actions.
Indian tax law involves several different taxes levied by different governments. Income Tax is levied by the Central Government under the Income Tax Act 1961. Customs and excise duties are also levied by the Central government. Sales tax is levied under VAT legislation at the state level. Since a new tax reform in the form of GST was levied through constitutional amendment and came into existence since 1st July 2017 which took the place of excise duties and VAT.
The authority to levy a tax is derived from the Constitution of India which allocates the power to levy various taxes between the Centre and the State. An important restriction on this power is Article 265 of the Constitution which states that "No tax shall be levied or collected except by the authority of law." [38] Therefore, each tax levied or collected has to be backed by an accompanying law, passed either by the Parliament or the State Legislature . In 2010-11, the gross tax collection amounted to ₹ 7.92 billion ( Long scale ), with direct tax and indirect tax contributing 56% and 44% respectively. [39]
The Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) is a part of the Department of Revenue in the Ministry of Finance, Government of India . [40] The CBDT provides essential inputs for policy and planning of direct taxes in India and is also responsible for administration of the direct tax laws through Income Tax Department. The CBDT is a statutory authority functioning under the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1963. It is India’s official FATF unit. The Central Board of Revenue as the Department apex body charged with the administration of taxes came into existence as a result of the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1924. Initially the Board was in charge of both direct and indirect taxes. However, when the administration of taxes became too unwieldy for one Board to handle, the Board was split up into two, namely the Central Board of Direct Taxes and Central Board of Excise and Customs with effect from 1 January 1964. This bifurcation was brought about by constitution of the two Boards u/s 3 of the Central Boards of Revenue Act, 1963.
The major tax enactment is the Income Tax Act of 1961 passed by the Parliament , which establishes and governs the taxation of the incomes of individuals and corporations. [41] This Act imposes a tax on income under the following five heads: [42]
- Income from house and property, [43]
- Income from business and profession,
- Income from salaries,
- Income in the form of Capital gains, [44] and
- Income from other sources
However, this Act may soon be repealed and be replaced with a new Act consolidating the law relating to Income Tax and Wealth Tax, the new proposed legislation is called the Direct Taxes Code (to become the Direct Taxes Code, Act 2010). Act was referred to Parliamentary standing committee which has submitted its recommendations. Act is expected to be implemented with changes from the Financial Year 2013–14. [45]
Goods and Services Tax (India) is a comprehensive indirect tax on manufacture, sale and consumption of goods and services throughout India to replace taxes levied by the central and state governments. It was introduced as The Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act 2016, following the passage of Constitution 101st Amendment Bill. The GST is governed by GST Council and its Chairman is Nirmala Sitaraman , Finance Minister of India.
This method allows GST - registered businesses to claim tax credit to the value of GST they paid on purchase of goods or services as part of their normal commercial activity. Administrative responsibility would generally rest with a single authority to levy tax on goods and services. Exports would be considered as zero-rated supply and imports would be levied the same taxes as domestic goods and services adhering to the destination principle in addition to the Customs Duty which will not be subsumed in the GST.
Introduction of Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a significant step in the reform of indirect taxation in India. Amalgamating several Central and State taxes into a single tax would mitigate cascading or double taxation, facilitating a common national market. The simplicity of the tax should lead to easier administration and enforcement. From the consumer point of view, the biggest advantage would be in terms of a reduction in the overall tax burden on goods, which is currently estimated at 25%-30%, free movement of goods from one state to another without stopping at state borders for hours for payment of state tax or entry tax and reduction in paperwork to a large extent.
GST came into effect on 1 July 2017.
Trust law in India is mainly codified in the Indian Trusts Act of 1882, which came into force on 1 March 1882. It extends to the whole of India except for the state of Jammu and Kashmir and Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Indian law follows principles of English law in most areas of law, but the law of trusts is a notable exception. Indian law does not recognize "double ownership", and a beneficiary of trust property is not the equitable owner of the property in Indian law.
Family laws in India are different when Warren Hastings in 1772 created provisions prescribing Hindu law for Hindus and Islamic law for Muslims, for litigation relating to personal matters. [46] However, after independence, efforts have been made to modernise various aspects of personal law and bring about uniformity among various religions. Recent reform has affected custody and guardianship laws, adoption laws, succession laws, and laws concerning domestic violence and child marriage.
As far as Hindus are concerned Hindu Law is a specific branch of law. Though the attempt made by the first parliament after independence did not succeed in bringing forth a Hindu Code comprising the entire field of Hindu family law, laws could be enacted touching upon all major areas that affect family life among Hindus in India. [47] Jains, Sikhs and Buddhists are also covered by Hindu law.
Indian Muslims' personal laws are based upon the Sharia , which is thus partially applied in India , [48] and laws and legal judgements adapting and adjusting Sharia for Indian society. The portion of the fiqh applicable to Indian Muslims as personal law is termed Mohammedan law. Despite being largely uncodified, Mohammedan law has the same legal status as other codified statutes. [49] The development of the law is largely on the basis of judicial precedent, which in recent times has been subject to review by the courts. [49] The concept of the judicial precedent and of 'review by the courts' is a key component of the British common law upon which Indian law is based. The contribution of Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer in the matter of interpretation of the statutory as well as personal law is significant.
Sunni Law:
- Sunna or Ahdis (Tradition of the Prophet)
- Ijma (Unanimous Decision of the Jurists)
- Qiyas ( Analogical deduction)
As per Shia Law:
Usooli Shia
- Quran
- Tradition (only those that have come from the family of the Prophet)
- Ijma (only those confirmed by Imams)
- Reasons
Akhbari Shia
- Tradition (only those that have come from the family of the Prophet)
Polygamy is a subject of debate from long time. It has been abolished in many Islamic countries, but still holds its legal validity in the secular country of India. Supreme court asked the central government for its views, to which it replied that polygamy should be done away with. [50] [51] [52]
For Christians, a distinct branch of law known as Christian Law, mostly based on specific statutes, applies.
Christian law of Succession and Divorce in India have undergone changes in recent years. The Indian Divorce (Amendment) Act of 2001 has brought in considerable changes in the grounds available for divorce. By now Christian law in India has emerged as a separate branch of law. It covers the entire spectrum of family law so far as it concerns Christians in India. Christian law, to a great extent is based on English law but there are laws that originated on the strength of customary practices and precedents.
Christian family law has now distinct sub branches like laws on marriage , divorce, restitution, judicial separation, succession, adoption , guardianship , maintenance, custody of minor children and relevance of canon law and all that regulates familial relationship.
The Parsi law [53] is the law governing the Parsi Zoroastrian community.
Nationality law or citizenship law is mainly codified in the Constitution of India and the Citizenship Act of 1955. Although the Constitution of India bars multiple citizenship , the Parliament of India passed on 7 January 2004, a law creating a new form of very limited dual nationality called Overseas Citizenship of India . Overseas citizens of India have no form of political rights or participation in the government, however, and there are no plans to issue to overseas citizens any form of Indian passport.
Law enforcement in India is undertaken by numerous law enforcement agencies . Like many federal structures , the nature of the Constitution of India mandates law and order as a subject of the state, therefore the bulk of the policing lies with the respective states and territories of India.
At the federal level, the many agencies are part of the Union Ministry of Home Affairs, and support the states in their duties. Larger cities also operate metropolitan police forces, under respective state governments. All senior police officers in the state police forces, as well as those in the federal agencies, are members of the Indian Police Service (IPS) and Indian Revenue Service (IRS), two of the several kinds of civil services. They are recruited by the Union Public Service Commission .
The federal police are controlled by the central Government of India . The majority of federal law enforcement agencies are controlled by the Ministry of Home Affairs . The head of each of the federal law enforcement agencies is always an Indian Police Service officer (IPS). The constitution assigns responsibility for maintaining law and order to the states and territories, and almost all routine policing—including apprehension of criminals—is carried out by state-level police forces. The constitution also permits the central government to participate in police operations and organization by authorizing the maintenance of the Indian Police Service. Indian
Government usually appoints Law Commission panels to study and make non-binding recommendations for the law reform. In first 65 years 1,301 obsolete laws were repealed, including 1029 old laws in 1950 by Jawaharlal Nehru and 272 old laws in 2004 by Atal Bihari Vajpayee . After that 1,824 such laws were repealed by Narendra Modi government between May 2014 to December 2017, taking the total to 3,125. [54]
Subordinate, delegated or secondary legislation covers rules, regulations, by-laws, sub-rules, orders, and notification. [55] [56]
- rule : according to the General Clauses Acts, 1897, "rule" shall mean a rule made in exercise of a power conferred by any enactment, and shall include a Regulation made as a rule under any enactment. [57] [58]
- ^ Wu, Huizhong (23 August 2017). "Triple talaq: India's top court bans Islamic practice of instant divorce" . CNN . Archived from the original on 6 September 2017 . Retrieved 3 February 2018 .
- ^ Safi, Michael; Amrit Dhillon (22 August 2017). "India court bans Islamic instant divorce in huge win for women's rights" . The Guardian . Delhi. Archived from the original on 16 November 2017 . Retrieved 3 February 2018 .
- ^ "India Code: Browsing DSpace" . www.indiacode.nic.in . Retrieved 26 July 2022 .
- ^ Glenn 2000 , p. 255
- ^ Glenn 2000 , p. 276
- ^ Alexander, C.H. (July 1952). "International Law in India". The International and Comparative Law Quarterly . 1 (3): 289–300. doi : 10.1093/iclqaj/1.Pt3.289 . ISSN 0020-5893 .
- ^ Viswanatha, S.T., International Law in Ancient India , 1925
- ^ A. Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Leiden, 1980
- ^ Embree, Ainslie (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian history . Asia Society. p. 149.
- ^ Jackson, Roy (2010). Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State . Routledge. ISBN 9781136950360 .
- ^ Chapra, Muhammad Umer (2014). Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance . Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 62–63. ISBN 9781783475728 .
- ^ Glenn 2000 , p. 273
- ^ Jain 2006 , p. 2 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_India | 90 |
what kind of legal system does india have | Legal Systems in India: Overview | Practical Law | by Ashish Bhan and Mohit Rohatgi, Trilegal
A Q&A guide to the legal system in India.
The Q&A gives a high level overview of the key legal concepts including the constitution, system of governance and the general legislative process; the main sources of law; the court structure and hierarchy; the judiciary and its appointment; the general rules of civil and criminal litigation, including reporting restrictions, evidentiary requirements, the roles of the judge and counsel, burdens of proof and penalties.
1. What form does your constitution take?
The Constitution of India of 1950 is a written document which currently comprises over 450 Articles and 12 Schedules. It is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world.
The Constitution of India was drafted and adopted by a constituent assembly of elected representatives of the people and came into effect on 26 January 1950. The Constitution of India is not the creation of parliament but of the people of India and is therefore supreme. India's constitutional supremacy is evidenced in the opening sentence of the Preamble to the Constitution of India: "We, The People of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic".
The Constitution of India is sometimes referred to as a cosmopolitan document because it derives several of its features from foreign sources, most notably:
- Parliamentary government, rule of law and bicameralism from the UK.
- Directive Principles of State Policy from Ireland.
- Fundamental rights, judicial independence and functions of the president from the US.
- Union list and state list from Canada.
- Concurrent list and freedom of trade from Australia.
- Fundamental duties from the former USSR.
Having features of both federal and unitary constitutions, the Constitution of India is neither purely federal nor purely unitary, and is widely considered as quasi-federal in nature.
India is a union of 28 states and eight union territories. India has a parliamentary system, with legislatures at both union and state levels.
The President is the constitutional head of the Union of India, commander-in-chief of the Indian armed forces and head of the government. The "real" executive power is vested in the Prime Minister and the council of ministers (and the President must act on their "aid and advice"). A similar system is established at the state level. While the governors are the head of the states, the executive powers are exercised by the chief ministers (leader of the state government) and their council of ministers.
The Indian Constitution has adopted a bicameral legislature at the union level. The Indian Parliament comprises two Houses, the:
- Lok Sabha (House of the People). The political party or coalition of political parties with a majority in the Lok Sabha forms the government. The members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people from their territorial constituencies.
- Rajya Sabha (Council of States). The members of the Rajya Sabha are indirectly elected from the state assemblies.
However, the legislative powers of these two Houses are quite similar.
At the state level, there is the state legislature. All states have a legislative assembly (which is similar to the Lok Sabha ) and some states may also have a second House (that is, a legislative council). Currently, only seven of the 28 states have a legislative council. The legislative assemblies have significantly more power than the legislative councils. The number of the state legislature members depends on the population of the specific state.
3. Does the constitution provide for a separation of powers?
The Constitution of India (unlike the US and the Australian constitutions) does not have an express provision for separation of powers. However, it still recognises and incorporates the doctrine of separation of powers between three branches (legislature, executive and judiciary). Therefore, while no formal lines have been drawn between them, it is widely considered that the doctrine of separation of powers "runs through" the Constitution of India.
There is often an overlap in the scope of the functions of the three branches. Because of the parliamentary form of government, the dividing line between the executive and the legislature is naturally rather a fine one. Under the Constitution, the executive can legislate using:
- The ordinance-making powers of the President and the governors.
- Delegated executive legislation.
The legislature exercises some form of control over the judiciary in that it can legislate on the constitution, jurisdiction and powers of the courts, and can also impeach judges.
The judiciary has wide powers to review and strike down unconstitutional executive and legislative decisions and actions. The legislature can make such rulings ineffective by amending the law while staying within the constitutional limits (a concept known as "legislative overruling"). This is an example of the inherent checks and balances under the Constitution which further strengthen the separation of powers.
Despite the fact that the three branches interconnect and have functional overlaps, the Indian judiciary has recognised the doctrine of separation of powers as a basic feature of the Constitution and an essential part of the rule of law.
4. What is the general legislative process?
India's parliamentary system empowers legislating at the union level by the Indian Parliament, and at the state level by the state legislatures. Their subjects of legislation are clearly defined under two separate lists in the Constitution of India, the Union List and the State List. There is also a Concurrent List of subjects on which both Parliament and the state legislatures can legislate. If there is a conflict between a legislation of the union and a state, union legislation prevails (although there are some exceptions to this). The law-making procedure is generally similar at both levels. This section focuses more on the legislative process of the Indian Parliament and reference is made to the state legislatures only where there is a material difference.
Typically, the text of a proposed law (that is, a bill) is drafted by the relevant ministry of the government. The bill is circulated to other relevant ministries and sometimes even to the public, for their input. After revisions are made (as necessary), the bill is presented for approval to the council of senior ministers, headed by the Prime Minister (this is known as the Union Cabinet). On approval, the bill is introduced in either House of the Parliament (either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha ). The only exception to this is money bills (bills of a fiscal nature) which can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha .
In either House of the Parliament, a bill generally goes through three readings, that is:
- One for introduction.
- One for scrutiny.
- One for passing.
Once a bill is passed by a majority in one House, it is then introduced to the other House where the same stages are repeated. All bills (except money bills) need the approval of each House. This is different from the state legislatures where the legislative council only plays an advisory role and where the legislative assembly is the final authority. For money bills, the Lok Sabha has the final authority and the Rajya Sabha has only recommendatory powers.
After a Bill is passed by majority in both Houses, the bill is sent to the President for assent. The President can seek information or clarification about the bill and can return it to the Parliament for reconsideration (but only once). If both Houses pass the bill again (regardless of whether they implement the President's recommendation), the President must give their assent.
When Presidential assent is received, the Bill becomes an Act of Parliament and is notified in the official government gazette.
The President can also legislate by passing an ordinance when the Parliament is not in session. Once the Parliament is in session again, the ordinance must be ratified by the Parliament for it to continue as a law (otherwise it will lapse). The governor has similar ordinance-making powers at the state level.
5. Is there a doctrine by which the judiciary can review legislative and executive actions?
Under the Constitution, the superior judiciary has been said to offer one of the widest and most extensive scopes of judicial review in the world.
The power of judicial review of legislative and executive action is considered to be an essential tool for preserving the doctrine of separation of powers and the rule of law. The Supreme Court of India and the High Courts can review and invalidate legislative or executive actions if they are found to breach the Constitution. This power is not exercised suo moto (that is, on its own motion), but only when the validity of an action, law or rule is specifically challenged before the court. Judicial review must be exercised with judicial restraint. The courts must not encroach into the legislative or executive domain by rewriting legal provisions or by making policy decisions.
6. Are certain emergency powers reserved for the executive?
The Constitution of India recognises three kinds of emergencies:
- National emergency. National emergency can be declared if there is a threat to the security of India or a part of India. It must be subsequently approved by Parliament within one month, and can be repeatedly extended. All fundamental rights under the Constitution (except the rights to life and personal liberty) are automatically suspended. National emergencies have been declared three times in India's history, two of which were during wars.
- State emergency. State emergency can be declared in a state if it is found that the "constitutional machinery" of the state has failed (that is, the governance cannot be carried out in a constitutional manner). Loss of majority of the ruling party in the state government, collapse of coalition or death of the chief minister of a state have been the most prominent causes of imposition of state emergency in India. Once declared, the President assumes all executive and administrative power of that state (this is known as the President's rule). State emergency must be approved by Parliament within two months and can be extended for a maximum period of three years. An extension beyond one year can be made only if a national emergency has been declared and it is difficult to hold elections in that state. State emergencies have been declared in various states several times.
- Financial emergency. Financial emergency can be declared if the financial stability or the credit of India (or of any part of it) is threatened. Normally, financial emergency can be declared for a period of two months but can be extended with parliamentary approval. During a financial emergency, the President can give any directions they deem necessary and adequate to states, including to present all money bills to them to consider, or to decrease the remuneration of public servants. Financial emergency has never been declared in India.
An emergency can be declared only by the President of India, and with the aid and advice of the Prime Minister and the Union Cabinet.
7. Are human rights constitutionally protected?
India is a signatory to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Most of the rights provided in it have been incorporated as Fundamental Rights in the Constitution of India. These rights include the following:
- Equality before the law.
- Right against discrimination.
- Equality of opportunity.
- Freedom of speech and expression, movement, religion, peaceful assembly and practicing any profession.
- Right to life and personal liberty.
These fundamental human rights differ from other constitutional rights as they are supreme and cannot be diminished by any law, ordinance, custom or administrative action. Any action that violates a fundamental right is void (whether legislative, executive or judicial). The right to approach the Supreme Court of India against such violation is itself a fundamental right under the Constitution.
8. By what means can the constitution be amended?
Amendments to the Constitution of India require a special majority of the Parliament (that is, more than half of the total membership and two-thirds majority of those present and voting). In a few cases relating to the federal structure of the Constitution, amendments require further ratification by at least half of the states (in addition to the special majority of the Parliament). There are also some changes which may be carried out by a simple majority of the Parliament (one-half majority of those present and voting). This last category of changes is, however, not formally considered to be an "amendment" to the Constitution. So far, there have been 104 amendments to the Constitution, with the last amendment, the Constitution (One Hundred and Fourth Amendment) Act, 2019, being enforced on 25 January 2020.
Amendments to the Constitution are not beyond the scope of judicial review. In one of the most remarkable constitutional judgments in India (also the lengthiest and with the largest ever bench of 13 presiding judges), the Supreme Court held that the legislature cannot amend, alter or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution (a term that originates from this judgment). The Constitution has no provision for holding referendums or plebiscites.
9. What form does your legal system take?
India has a hybrid legal system having elements of civil law, common law, equitable law, and customary and religious laws.
10. What are the main domestic sources of law?
The main sources of law are the following:
- The Constitution of India. This is the supreme source of law.
- Statutes. Statutes are enacted by the Parliament or the state legislatures. At local level, subordinate delegated legislation (such as rules, regulations and bye-laws) is passed by local authorities (such as government departments, municipal corporations, municipalities and gram panchayat ).
- Customary law. In certain aspects, local customs and conventions (usually religious in nature) that are not against any statute or morality are also applicable.
- Judicial decisions. While technically not law, judicial decisions of superior courts like the Supreme Court of India and High Courts are another important legal source, and have precedential value.
11. To what extent do international sources of law apply?
International sources of law (such as a treaty or a convention signed by India) can generally be enforced in India if they have been ratified and incorporated in Indian law. In certain cases, customary rules and principles of international law can be applied even without formal ratification in the interests of justice and if the international law in question is not inconsistent with Indian law. If there is a conflict between a domestic law and an international law, the domestic law will prevail. Indian courts regularly consider and rely on international legal principles and judicial decisions of other (mostly common law) jurisdictions while dealing with social, economic, environmental, governance and contractual issues.
12. What is the general court structure and hierarchy?
The Indian judicial system is a single integrated system. The Constitution of India divides the Indian judiciary into superior judiciary (the Supreme Court and the High Courts) and the subordinate judiciary (the lower courts under the control of the High Courts).
The Supreme Court of India is the apex court of the country and sits in New Delhi. It is presided by the Chief Justice of India. There are twenty-four High Courts in the country. Each state has one High Court, although some High Courts have jurisdiction over multiple states and Union Territories. For example, the Guwahati High Court exercises jurisdiction over the states of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh, all of which are situated close to each other in the north-eastern part of India. For administrative convenience, states are further sub-divided into districts, each of which has its own District Court. Barring a few states, the original jurisdiction for both civil and criminal cases vests with the District Court. The judicial system also consists of tribunals and commissions which are established under, and to deal with, specific statutes.
13. To what extent are lower courts bound by the decisions of higher courts?
The judicial pronouncements by the Supreme Court of India are binding precedents on all courts, judicial authorities and tribunals in India. Similarly, High Court decisions are binding on all subordinate courts, authorities and tribunals in India, unless there is a contrary decision from another High Court. If there is a contrary decision from a different High Court, the decision from the court with the larger judge bench usually prevails. District Court decisions are not binding on any other court.
14. Are there specialist courts for certain legal areas?
Under the Indian judicial system, certain traditional courts have been specifically tasked to deal with certain areas of law. District Courts usually have courts formed under specific statues, such as:
- Family courts to deal with issues relating to marriage, inheritance, guardianship of minors and maintenance.
- The Special Court of Central Bureau of Investigation to deal with cases of corruption and bribery.
- Some High Courts and District Courts, which house commercial courts which deal only with commercial matters of specified value, including matters relating to arbitration.
With the socialist aim of making legal remedies accessible and affordable to all, the Indian judicial system has constituted Lok Adalats and Gram Panchayats at the village level. These bodies apply traditional or customary laws and primarily work towards settling local disputes by using alternative dispute resolution mechanisms.
15. Are other quasi-legal authorities commonly used?
Apart from the courts, the Indian judicial system comprises tribunals, commissions and quasi-judicial authorities that derive their authority from specific statutes. These bodies include the:
- Central Administrative Tribunal, which adjudicates disputes that relate to the recruitment and conditions of service of public servants.
- National and State Human Rights Commissions for the protection of human rights.
- National Company Law Tribunal and National Company Law Appellate Tribunal, which adjudicate issues relating to company law, including insolvency and bankruptcy matters.
- Consumer disputes forums at national, state and district level to deal with consumer disputes.
- Competition Commission of India to promote and protect market competition.
- Ombudsman for banking, Insurance, Income tax and electricity matters.
- Income Tax Appellate Tribunal, Central Excise and Service Tax Appellate Tribunal and Sales Tax Appellate Tribunal to hear tax and excise matters.
Most quasi-judicial bodies oversee administrative actions and impose restrictions on administrative agencies.
16. Does the constitution provide for an independent judiciary?
There are several provisions under the Constitution of India that ensure an independent judiciary. For example:
- The judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts have secured tenure and cannot be removed from office (unless there is proven misconduct or incapacity).
- The Constitution empowers the Supreme Court and the High Courts to punish any person for its contempt.
Appointments and transfers of judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts is made through a collegium system. The collegium comprises the Chief Justice of India and a forum of four of the most senior judges of the Supreme Court. Remarkably, this system is not expressly found in the Constitution and was created by the Supreme Court while deciding a matter in 1998. Facets of an independent judiciary are found even in the subordinate judiciary, where matters relating to removal and disciplinary actions fall under the control of the High Courts.
17. How are members of the judiciary typically appointed?
Appointment of judges up to the highest level in the subordinate judiciary are either made by the state Public Service Commissions or the High Courts. These appointments are usually made on the basis of performance in dedicated examinations (that is, the Lower Judicial Services Examination or Higher Judicial Services Examination). Judges from the subordinate judiciary are regularly promoted and some are even appointed as High Courts or Supreme Court judges.
The appointment procedure in the superior judiciary is slightly different as the appointments are not made through judicial service examinations. High Court judges are appointed either through promoting judges from the subordinate judiciary or by direct elevation of advocates. Supreme Court judges are appointed either through promotion or direct elevation of judges from the High Courts. Supreme Court and High Courts judges are appointed through a collegium system, comprising the Chief Justice of India and a forum of the four most senior judges of the Supreme Court.
For a person to be eligible to sit the Lower Judicial Services Examination, they:
- Must be a citizen of India.
- Must be graduate in law.
- Should have been enrolled or qualified to be enrolled as an advocate.
The age limit for candidates varies from state to state and is usually between 21 to 35 years.
For the Higher Judicial Services Examination, a candidate must:
- Be a graduate in law
- Have the prescribed minimum experience as an advocate (usually seven years) or as a judge.
For a person to be eligible for an appointment as a High Court judge, they must:
- Be an Indian citizen.
- Be under the age of 62 years.
- Have either held a judicial office in India for ten years or practised as an advocate of High Court(s) for ten years.
For a person to be eligible for an appointment as a Supreme Court judge, they must:
- Be an Indian citizen.
- Be under the age of 65 years.
- Have been a:
- judge of a High Court for at least five years;
- an advocate of a High Court for at least ten years; or
- a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President of India.
18. Do the courts use an adversarial, non-adversarial or other system?
The Indian legal system is mainly adversarial. However, in certain aspects it is hybrid of adversarial and inquisitorial functions. Particularly the criminal justice system is not strictly adversarial, as some provisions in the criminal code require the judge to perform inquisitorial functions. For example, the judge will undertake active fact-finding exercises, such as:
- Directing further investigation.
- Assisting in the framing of charges.
- Calling any person as witness and procuring evidence.
19. Who is responsible for gathering evidence?
Generally, the party seeking to establish a fact or allegation is responsible for gathering and producing evidence.
In civil cases, the claimant is usually required to gather evidence, but assistance from the court is permitted for the discovery of documents and setting up commissions. Assistance from the civil courts to collect evidence may be available in ongoing arbitrations.
In criminal matters, the law enforcement agencies are responsible for investigating and gathering evidence. Therefore, police authorities and specialised investigating agencies have been given wide powers of summoning, search, seizure and examination. Criminal courts have wider powers to gather evidence than civil courts, as they can issue:
- Warrants of arrest
- Proclamations for enforcing a person's presence before the court (either for making a statement or for producing a document).
That said, the judges must usually play a neutral role in both civil and criminal matters.
20. Is evidence independently examined before a trial?
Before a trial, the party bringing the action is responsible for examining evidence. In criminal cases, the responsibility is with the prosecution, and in civil cases, with the claimant.
In criminal cases, the prosecution (assisted by the law enforcement agencies) must examine the evidence collected during their investigation. This examination has a broad scope, and usually involves witness examinations and preparing written witness statements. When the investigation is concluded and based on the examination of the available evidence, the prosecution can decide whether it has sufficient cause to bring charges against the accused. If charges are brought and before moving to trial, the criminal court only needs to take a prima facie view that there is sufficient basis to proceed against the accused (rather than sufficient basis to convict).
In civil cases, the pre-trial evidence is usually examined by the claimant (without any assistance from law enforcement agencies). Therefore, the scope, form or threshold of the evidence is immaterial to the claimant's decision to make a claim before the court. However, before the court decides whether the civil action brought before it is admissible, the claimant must show that there is a prima facie case in its favour, based on the available evidence.
21. Are trials/hearings open to the public?
Barring a few exceptional circumstances where trials or hearings are conducted in camera , all trials or hearings, whether civil or criminal, are open to public at large. The Constitution of India provides that the judgments of the Supreme Court of India must be delivered only in open court.
All civil courts are open courts and generally accessible by the public. This is subject to the discretion of judge who may want to avoid public or any particular person from attending the court. Evidence of witnesses is also required to be taken in open court.
Much like civil courts, all criminal courts are also open courts. The recognised exception to the principle of open court are private proceedings in certain sensitive matters at the discretion of the court. These are usually matters which call for anonymity of the victim, such as matters involving rape or matrimonial disputes. In such cases, proceedings are carried out in private through video conferencing, and the public and the press do not have access to them.
22. Are reporting restrictions typically imposed in relation to a trial?
The Constitution of India provides for the right of freedom of speech and expression as a fundamental right. There is no absolute ban on reporting pending trials by the media or the public. Discussion and reporting of ongoing trials is often held by the media and the public on television channels and social networks. For example, live tweeting is also gaining popularity in India, especially in matters before the Supreme Court and the High Courts or high-profile trials in lower courts.
With the introduction of virtual hearings, the Supreme Court has recently started live-streaming its proceedings on YouTube. Some High Courts, such as the Gujarat High Court, have also began live streaming their proceedings on YouTube.
Lawyers appearing in ongoing matters also regularly give interviews to news channels. While reasonable restrictions can be imposed by the court if any such reporting will create a real and substantial risk of prejudice to the proper administration of justice or to the fairness of trial, such restrictions are rare in practice.
Court orders passed during or after a trial are public documents and are generally made available on the website of the concerned court. The judgement of the Supreme Court, the High Courts and various other courts and tribunals are reported by various online and print publishers, and law reporters.
23. What is the main function of the trial and who are the main parties to it?
The main parties to civil matters are the claimant and the defendant. In criminal matters, the main parties are the state prosecution and the accused. The main function of a trial is assessing the available evidence by the court, and weighing and balancing it before pronouncing the verdict. A trial usually includes examination and cross-examination of witnesses, interrogation of the accused (defendant) and scrutiny of the evidence. Re-examination of witnesses may also be allowed (with the permission of the court). In some cases, the court can also direct further investigation to collect evidence while the trial is ongoing.
24. What is the main role of the judge and counsel in a trial?
In line with the adversarial system, the judge is a neutral arbiter. They facilitate the trial, weighs the facts of the case and considers the evidence collected against the standard of proof. However, judges have wide powers under both civil and criminal law not only to examine the parties or witnesses, but also to compel a person who is relevant to the hearing to attend court and give evidence.
Legal counsel in India are officers of the court. They must assist the court in properly adjudicating the dispute and in the administration of justice. The counsel must also advise the client, keep client information confidential (unless it is required to be disclosed by law) and represent them in legal proceedings in the best possible manner.
25. To what extent are juries used?
The jury system has been abolished in India since 1959.
26. What restrictions exist as to the evidence that can be heard by the court?
The evidence law of India has detailed provisions on admissibility or inadmissibility, and relevancy or irrelevancy of evidence. Broadly speaking, evidence can be primary or secondary. Secondary evidence can be given only if (under the "best evidence" rule):
- There is no better evidence (that is, primary evidence, which is required to be given first).
- A proper explanation is given for the absence of primary evidence.
Both oral and documentary evidences (including electronic records) are admissible. Only direct oral evidence in personal knowledge and experience is admissible. Hearsay or derivative evidence is inadmissible, but this rule is not absolute. For example, a dying declaration can be admissible as hearsay evidence.
27. Which party has the burden of proof in a trial and at what standard is this burden met?
The burden of proof in both civil and criminal proceedings is either on:
- The party that would fail if no evidence were given on either side.
- The party asserting a claim or who intends to persuade the court of any fact.
If any fact is in the special knowledge of a person, the burden of proof is on that person to prove the fact. This rule applies in all situations unless an exception is created by law. However, if the statutory or legal threshold is met by one party, the burden of proof shifts to the other side. For example, in proving the existence of a document, if a party adduces a photocopy (if the original is unavailable) and the other party claims the document is forged, that other party has the burden to prove it is a forgery.
In a civil suit, the standard of proof is "preponderance of probabilities" (that is, the occurrence of something in a certain manner was more likely than not).
Generally, in criminal matters, the standard of proof is to establish guilt "beyond all reasonable doubt". However, departing from the general rule of evidence, in certain criminal or penal provisions (such as dowry death or customs evasion), the law requires meeting a bare minimal threshold by the prosecution to presume the guilt of the accused. The burden of proving otherwise then lies on the accused.
28. What verdicts can the court give?
In a civil suit, depending on the reliefs sought and the outcome of the case, the court can give a variety of verdicts. A verdict in favour of the claimant will typically be a money decree, a declaratory decree, or both. A verdict in favour of the defendant may result in the claimant being ordered to pay costs (if necessary).
In criminal matters, the verdict can be either a conviction or acquittal. Where more than one person is accused, the court can convict some parties and acquit the rest.
29. What range of penalties/relief can the court order upon a verdict?
On reaching a verdict, a civil court can grant all or any of the monetary or declaratory reliefs sought by the claimant in its claim before the court. A civil court will not usually grant any relief which is either not sought at all or is beyond what has been sought. Monetary reliefs can be general damages (whether liquidated or unliquidated) for a breach of contract, or special damages in special circumstances. A civil court can also grant incidental damages (such as reasonable expenses or costs). Indirect losses (for example, for reputational harm, or loss of business and opportunity) can also be granted, although the threshold of proving them is quite high. Only losses that have been proved can be compensated, as Indian law does not provide for windfall. Apart from monetary reliefs, declaratory reliefs (usually, permanent or mandatory injunctions) can be granted.
After a guilty verdict, depending on the nature of the crime and the statutory penalty prescribed, the criminal court can sentence the convict to simple or rigorous imprisonment (ranging from a few months to imprisonment for life), or the death penalty. A fine can also be imposed, if permitted under the statute. Upon conviction of corporate entities, Indian criminal law does not permit imposing punishment on their officers (unless specifically permitted by a statute).
T +91 11 4259 9321
F +91 11 4163 9292
E [email protected]
Professional qualifications. LL.M., University College London
Areas of practice. Dispute resolution; arbitration; white-collar crimes.
- Recent transactions. Some of the key contentious white collar and criminal law work that Ashish has led includes representing:
- Telenor in the 2G Scam case.
- Agusta-Westland and Leonardo in their proceedings before the CBI and the Enforcement Directorate relating to allegations under the VVIP Helicopter contract with the Indian government.
- Embraer and Virgin Mobile in separate enquiries before the Enforcement Directorate.
- Some of the key clients that Ashish has advised and represented include AgustaWestland, Leonardo, Embraer, MBDA, Tata Communications, Telenor, Mitsubishi Group, Axiom Telecom, Western Union, D. E. Shaw, AES Energy, Cairn Energy and Mytrah Energy.
- Advising and representing telecom companies on issues including disputes with shareholders, with the regulatory authorities and with various vendors in the telecom industry.
- Currently representing Eight Capital (as an investor in Patel Engineering Limited) in several arbitrations and related court proceedings in multiple jurisdictions across India.
Languages. English, Hindi.
Professional associates/memberships. Member of the Supreme Court Bar Association, Delhi High Court Bar Association and is on the anti-corruption committee of the International Bar Association.
Publications. Co-author of the Indian Criminal Law chapter in the International Fraud and Asset Tracing book, published by Thomson Reuters. Has written on legal developments for various national newspapers, including the Economic Times and the Business Standard , as a legal expert.
T +91 11 4259 9345
F +91 11 4163 9292
E [email protected]
Professional qualifications. BCom LLB (Hons), Gujarat National Law University
Areas of practice. Dispute resolution; arbitration; white collar crimes.
Recent transactions.
- Advising on various high-profile white-collar disputes relating to issues of anti-corruption/ anti-bribery, anti-money-laundering, economic frauds and cyber frauds, including:
- Agusta-Westland and Leonardo in their proceedings before the CBI and the Enforcement Directorate relating to allegations under the VVIP Helicopter contract with the Indian government.
- Embraer in its ongoing Enforcement Directorate enquiry.
- Several other clients in regulatory investigations of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), the Directorate of Enforcement (ED), the Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI), the Serious Fraud Investigation Office (SFIO), the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the local police.
- Matters on employee frauds, in-house compliances, anti-corruption/ anti-bribery laws and cyber frauds
- Representing and advising global entities such as Leonardo Spa, AgustaWestland, Embraer S.A., MBDA, Axon Partners, TCI Fund Management, Aon plc, Azure Power, Heineken, Omron, Mitsubishi, Grupo T-Solar, Deutsche Investitions (DEG), Madison Capital, Asian Genco, Khazanah Nasional, Eight Capital, Patel Engineering, Tata Communications and GMR Group.
- Currently representing Eight Capital (as an investor in Patel Engineering Limited) in several arbitrations and related court proceedings in multiple jurisdictions across India.
Languages. English, Hindi
Professional associates/memberships. Member of the Delhi High Court Bar Association and the Bar Council of Delhi. Member of anti-corruption committee and arbitration committee of the International Bar Association.
Publications
- India Chapter in the Chambers International Fraud & Asset Tracing 2021 Global Practice Guide (Chambers and Partners).
- Country Q&A titled "Regulation of the Legal Profession in India: Overview" in Practical Law Global Guide (Thomson Reuters).
- The operation of the mandatory bid rule as a result of buy-back: recent developments in India, (Law and Financial Markets Review, Oxford).
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what kind of legal system does india have | Law of India - Wikipedia | The legal system of India consists of Civil law , Common law , Customary law , Religious law and Corporate law within the legal framework inherited from the colonial era and various legislation first introduced by the British are still in effect in modified forms today. Since the drafting of the Indian Constitution , Indian laws also adhere to the United Nations guidelines on human rights law and the environmental law .
Indian personal law is fairly complex, with each religion adhering to its own specific laws. In most states, registering of marriages and divorces is not compulsory. Separate laws govern Hindus including Sikhs , Jains and Buddhist , Muslims , Christians , and followers of other religions. The exception to this rule is in the state of Goa , where a uniform civil code is in place, in which all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces, and adoption. In the first major reformist judgment for the last decade, the Supreme Court of India banned the Islamic practice of " Triple Talaq " (divorce by uttering of the " Talaq " word thrice by the husband). [1] The landmark Supreme Court of India judgment was welcomed by women activists across India. [2]
As of July 2022, there are about 839 Central laws as per the online repository hosted by the Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India. [3] Further, there are many State laws for each state, which can also be accessed from the same repository.
Ancient India represented a distinct tradition of law , and had a historically independent thought of legal theory and practice. The Dharmaśāstras played an important role. The Arthashastra , dating from 400 BC and the Manusmriti , from 100 AD, were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance. [4] Manu 's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism , and was cited across Southeast Asia . [5]
Early in this period, which culminated in the creation of the Gupta Empire , relations with ancient Greece and Rome were not infrequent. The appearance of similar fundamental institutions of international law in various parts of the world show that they are inherent in international society, irrespective of culture and tradition. [6] Inter-State relations in the pre-Islamic period resulted in clear-cut rules of warfare of a high humanitarian standard, in rules of neutrality, of treaty law, of customary law embodied in religious charters, in exchange of embassies of a temporary or semi-permanent character. [7]
After the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent , Islamic Sharia law spread with the establishment of Delhi Sultanate , Bengal Sultanate and Gujarat Sultanate . [8] The Corps of Forty also played a major role by establishing some Turkish law in India. [9]
In the 17th century, when the Mughal Empire became the world's largest economy, its sixth ruler, Aurangzeb , compiled the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri with several Arab and Iraqi Islamic scholars, which served as the main governing body in most parts of South Asia . [10] [11]
With the advent of the British Raj , there was a break in tradition, and Hindu and Islamic law were abolished in favour of British common law . [12] As a result, the present judicial system of the country derives largely from the British system and has few, if any, connections to Indian legal institutions of the pre-British era. [13]
The Constitution of India , which came into effect on 26 January 1950 is the lengthiest written constitution in the world. [14] Although its administrative provisions are to a large extent based on the Government of India Act 1935 , it also contains various other provisions that were drawn from other constitutions in the world at the time of its creation. [14] It provides details of the administration of both the Union and the States, and codifies the relations between the Federal Government and the State Governments. [15] Also incorporated into the text are a chapter on the fundamental rights of citizens, as well as a chapter on directive principles of state policy . [16]
The constitution prescribes a federal structure of government, with a clearly defined separation of legislative and executive powers between the Federation and the States. [17] Each State Government has the freedom to draft its own laws on subjects classified as state subjects. [18] Laws passed by the Parliament of India and other pre-existing central laws on subjects classified as central subjects are binding on all citizens. However, the Constitution also has certain unitary features, such as vesting power of amendment solely in the Federal Government, [19] the absence of dual citizenship , [20] and the overriding authority assumed by the Federal Government in times of emergency . [21]
The Indian Penal Code formulated by the British during the British Raj in 1860, forms the backbone of criminal law in India . The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 governs the procedural aspects of the criminal law. [22]
Jury trials were abolished by the government in 1960 on the grounds they would be susceptible to media and public influence. This decision was based on an 8-1 acquittal of Kawas Nanavati in K. M. Nanavati vs. State of Maharashtra , which was overturned by higher courts.
In February 2011, the Supreme Court of India ruled that criminal defendants have a constitutional right to counsel. [23]
Capital punishment in India is legal. Renuka Shinde and Seema Mohan Gavit , who were guilty of kidnapping and killing at least 13 children under 6 years, are currently lodged in Yerwada Central Jail . They were also the first women in India to be given capital punishment. The last execution was conducted on 20 March 2020, where the death sentence was awarded to the convicts—Pawan Gupta, Akshay Singh Thakur, Vinay Sharma, and Mukesh Singh—by a trial court, a decision which was upheld by Delhi High Court and Supreme Court as well. [24]
The main contract law in India is codified in the Indian Contract Act , which came into effect on 1 September 1872 and extends to all India. It governs entrance into contract, and effects of breach of contract. Indian Contract law is popularly known as mercantile law of India. Originally Indian Sales of Goods Act and Partnership Act were part of Indian Contract act, but due to needed amendment these acts were separated from Contract Act. The Contract act occupies the most important place in legal agreements in India.
Indian labour law are among the most comprehensive in the world. They have been criticised by the World Bank , [25] [26] primarily on the grounds of the inflexibility that results from government needing to approve dismissals. In practice, there is a large informal sector of workers, between 80 or 90 per cent of the labour force, to whom labour rights are not actually available and laws are not enforced.
The current Indian company law was updated and recodified in the Companies Act 2013 .
Tort law in India is primarily governed by judicial precedent as in other common law jurisdictions, supplemented by statutes governing damages , civil procedure, and codifying common law torts. As in other common law jurisdictions, a tort is breach of a non-contractual duty which has caused damage to the plaintiff giving rise to a civil cause of action and for which remedy is available. If a remedy does not exist, a tort has not been committed since the rationale of tort law is to provide a remedy to the person who has been wronged.
While Indian tort law is generally derived from English law , there are certain differences between the two systems. Indian tort law uniquely includes remedies for constitutional torts, which are actions by the government that infringe upon rights enshrined in the Constitution , as well as a system of absolute liability for businesses engaged in hazardous activity.
As tort law is similar in nature across common law jurisdictions, courts have readily referred to case law from other common law jurisdictions such as the UK, [27] Australia, [28] and Canada [29] in addition to domestic precedent. However, attention is given to local norms and conditions, as well as India’s distinct constitutional framework in applying foreign precedent. The legislature have also created statutes to provide for certain social conditions. Similar to other common law countries, [30] aspects of tort law have been codified. [31]
Certain conduct which gives rise to a cause of action under tort law is additionally criminalised by the Indian Penal Code [32] or other criminal legislation. Where a tort also constitutes a criminal offence, its prosecution by the state does not preclude the aggrieved party from seeking a remedy under tort law. The overlap between the two areas of law is a result of the distinct purposes each serves and the nature of the remedies each provides. Tort law aims to hold a tortfeasor accountable and consequently tort actions are brought directly by the aggrieved party in order to seek damages, whereas criminal law aims to punish and deter conduct deemed to be against the interests of society and criminal actions are thus brought by the state and penalties include imprisonment, fines, or execution.
In India, as in the majority of common law jurisdictions, the standard of proof in tort cases is the balance of probabilities as opposed to the reasonable doubt standard used in criminal cases or the preponderance of the evidence standard used in American tort litigation, although the latter is extremely similar in practice to the balance of probabilities standard. Similar to the constitutional presumption of innocence in Indian criminal law, the burden of proof is on the plaintiff in tort actions in India. India, [33] like the majority of common law jurisdictions in Asia [34] [35] and Africa, [36] does not permit the use of juries in civil or criminal trials, in direct contrast to America and the Canadian common law provinces which retain civil juries as well as to jurisdictions like England and Wales or New Zealand [37] which permit juries in a limited set of tort actions.
Indian tax law involves several different taxes levied by different governments. Income Tax is levied by the Central Government under the Income Tax Act 1961. Customs and excise duties are also levied by the Central government. Sales tax is levied under VAT legislation at the state level. Since a new tax reform in the form of GST was levied through constitutional amendment and came into existence since 1st July 2017 which took the place of excise duties and VAT.
The authority to levy a tax is derived from the Constitution of India which allocates the power to levy various taxes between the Centre and the State. An important restriction on this power is Article 265 of the Constitution which states that "No tax shall be levied or collected except by the authority of law." [38] Therefore, each tax levied or collected has to be backed by an accompanying law, passed either by the Parliament or the State Legislature . In 2010-11, the gross tax collection amounted to ₹ 7.92 billion ( Long scale ), with direct tax and indirect tax contributing 56% and 44% respectively. [39]
The Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) is a part of the Department of Revenue in the Ministry of Finance, Government of India . [40] The CBDT provides essential inputs for policy and planning of direct taxes in India and is also responsible for administration of the direct tax laws through Income Tax Department. The CBDT is a statutory authority functioning under the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1963. It is India’s official FATF unit. The Central Board of Revenue as the Department apex body charged with the administration of taxes came into existence as a result of the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1924. Initially the Board was in charge of both direct and indirect taxes. However, when the administration of taxes became too unwieldy for one Board to handle, the Board was split up into two, namely the Central Board of Direct Taxes and Central Board of Excise and Customs with effect from 1 January 1964. This bifurcation was brought about by constitution of the two Boards u/s 3 of the Central Boards of Revenue Act, 1963.
The major tax enactment is the Income Tax Act of 1961 passed by the Parliament , which establishes and governs the taxation of the incomes of individuals and corporations. [41] This Act imposes a tax on income under the following five heads: [42]
- Income from house and property, [43]
- Income from business and profession,
- Income from salaries,
- Income in the form of Capital gains, [44] and
- Income from other sources
However, this Act may soon be repealed and be replaced with a new Act consolidating the law relating to Income Tax and Wealth Tax, the new proposed legislation is called the Direct Taxes Code (to become the Direct Taxes Code, Act 2010). Act was referred to Parliamentary standing committee which has submitted its recommendations. Act is expected to be implemented with changes from the Financial Year 2013–14. [45]
Goods and Services Tax (India) is a comprehensive indirect tax on manufacture, sale and consumption of goods and services throughout India to replace taxes levied by the central and state governments. It was introduced as The Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act 2016, following the passage of Constitution 101st Amendment Bill. The GST is governed by GST Council and its Chairman is Nirmala Sitaraman , Finance Minister of India.
This method allows GST - registered businesses to claim tax credit to the value of GST they paid on purchase of goods or services as part of their normal commercial activity. Administrative responsibility would generally rest with a single authority to levy tax on goods and services. Exports would be considered as zero-rated supply and imports would be levied the same taxes as domestic goods and services adhering to the destination principle in addition to the Customs Duty which will not be subsumed in the GST.
Introduction of Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a significant step in the reform of indirect taxation in India. Amalgamating several Central and State taxes into a single tax would mitigate cascading or double taxation, facilitating a common national market. The simplicity of the tax should lead to easier administration and enforcement. From the consumer point of view, the biggest advantage would be in terms of a reduction in the overall tax burden on goods, which is currently estimated at 25%-30%, free movement of goods from one state to another without stopping at state borders for hours for payment of state tax or entry tax and reduction in paperwork to a large extent.
GST came into effect on 1 July 2017.
Trust law in India is mainly codified in the Indian Trusts Act of 1882, which came into force on 1 March 1882. It extends to the whole of India except for the state of Jammu and Kashmir and Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Indian law follows principles of English law in most areas of law, but the law of trusts is a notable exception. Indian law does not recognize "double ownership", and a beneficiary of trust property is not the equitable owner of the property in Indian law.
Family laws in India are different when Warren Hastings in 1772 created provisions prescribing Hindu law for Hindus and Islamic law for Muslims, for litigation relating to personal matters. [46] However, after independence, efforts have been made to modernise various aspects of personal law and bring about uniformity among various religions. Recent reform has affected custody and guardianship laws, adoption laws, succession laws, and laws concerning domestic violence and child marriage.
As far as Hindus are concerned Hindu Law is a specific branch of law. Though the attempt made by the first parliament after independence did not succeed in bringing forth a Hindu Code comprising the entire field of Hindu family law, laws could be enacted touching upon all major areas that affect family life among Hindus in India. [47] Jains, Sikhs and Buddhists are also covered by Hindu law.
Indian Muslims' personal laws are based upon the Sharia , which is thus partially applied in India , [48] and laws and legal judgements adapting and adjusting Sharia for Indian society. The portion of the fiqh applicable to Indian Muslims as personal law is termed Mohammedan law. Despite being largely uncodified, Mohammedan law has the same legal status as other codified statutes. [49] The development of the law is largely on the basis of judicial precedent, which in recent times has been subject to review by the courts. [49] The concept of the judicial precedent and of 'review by the courts' is a key component of the British common law upon which Indian law is based. The contribution of Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer in the matter of interpretation of the statutory as well as personal law is significant.
Sunni Law:
- Sunna or Ahdis (Tradition of the Prophet)
- Ijma (Unanimous Decision of the Jurists)
- Qiyas ( Analogical deduction)
As per Shia Law:
Usooli Shia
- Quran
- Tradition (only those that have come from the family of the Prophet)
- Ijma (only those confirmed by Imams)
- Reasons
Akhbari Shia
- Tradition (only those that have come from the family of the Prophet)
Polygamy is a subject of debate from long time. It has been abolished in many Islamic countries, but still holds its legal validity in the secular country of India. Supreme court asked the central government for its views, to which it replied that polygamy should be done away with. [50] [51] [52]
For Christians, a distinct branch of law known as Christian Law, mostly based on specific statutes, applies.
Christian law of Succession and Divorce in India have undergone changes in recent years. The Indian Divorce (Amendment) Act of 2001 has brought in considerable changes in the grounds available for divorce. By now Christian law in India has emerged as a separate branch of law. It covers the entire spectrum of family law so far as it concerns Christians in India. Christian law, to a great extent is based on English law but there are laws that originated on the strength of customary practices and precedents.
Christian family law has now distinct sub branches like laws on marriage , divorce, restitution, judicial separation, succession, adoption , guardianship , maintenance, custody of minor children and relevance of canon law and all that regulates familial relationship.
The Parsi law [53] is the law governing the Parsi Zoroastrian community.
Nationality law or citizenship law is mainly codified in the Constitution of India and the Citizenship Act of 1955. Although the Constitution of India bars multiple citizenship , the Parliament of India passed on 7 January 2004, a law creating a new form of very limited dual nationality called Overseas Citizenship of India . Overseas citizens of India have no form of political rights or participation in the government, however, and there are no plans to issue to overseas citizens any form of Indian passport.
Law enforcement in India is undertaken by numerous law enforcement agencies . Like many federal structures , the nature of the Constitution of India mandates law and order as a subject of the state, therefore the bulk of the policing lies with the respective states and territories of India.
At the federal level, the many agencies are part of the Union Ministry of Home Affairs, and support the states in their duties. Larger cities also operate metropolitan police forces, under respective state governments. All senior police officers in the state police forces, as well as those in the federal agencies, are members of the Indian Police Service (IPS) and Indian Revenue Service (IRS), two of the several kinds of civil services. They are recruited by the Union Public Service Commission .
The federal police are controlled by the central Government of India . The majority of federal law enforcement agencies are controlled by the Ministry of Home Affairs . The head of each of the federal law enforcement agencies is always an Indian Police Service officer (IPS). The constitution assigns responsibility for maintaining law and order to the states and territories, and almost all routine policing—including apprehension of criminals—is carried out by state-level police forces. The constitution also permits the central government to participate in police operations and organization by authorizing the maintenance of the Indian Police Service. Indian
Government usually appoints Law Commission panels to study and make non-binding recommendations for the law reform. In first 65 years 1,301 obsolete laws were repealed, including 1029 old laws in 1950 by Jawaharlal Nehru and 272 old laws in 2004 by Atal Bihari Vajpayee . After that 1,824 such laws were repealed by Narendra Modi government between May 2014 to December 2017, taking the total to 3,125. [54]
Subordinate, delegated or secondary legislation covers rules, regulations, by-laws, sub-rules, orders, and notification. [55] [56]
- rule : according to the General Clauses Acts, 1897, "rule" shall mean a rule made in exercise of a power conferred by any enactment, and shall include a Regulation made as a rule under any enactment. [57] [58]
- ^ Wu, Huizhong (23 August 2017). "Triple talaq: India's top court bans Islamic practice of instant divorce" . CNN . Archived from the original on 6 September 2017 . Retrieved 3 February 2018 .
- ^ Safi, Michael; Amrit Dhillon (22 August 2017). "India court bans Islamic instant divorce in huge win for women's rights" . The Guardian . Delhi. Archived from the original on 16 November 2017 . Retrieved 3 February 2018 .
- ^ "India Code: Browsing DSpace" . www.indiacode.nic.in . Retrieved 26 July 2022 .
- ^ Glenn 2000 , p. 255
- ^ Glenn 2000 , p. 276
- ^ Alexander, C.H. (July 1952). "International Law in India". The International and Comparative Law Quarterly . 1 (3): 289–300. doi : 10.1093/iclqaj/1.Pt3.289 . ISSN 0020-5893 .
- ^ Viswanatha, S.T., International Law in Ancient India , 1925
- ^ A. Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Leiden, 1980
- ^ Embree, Ainslie (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian history . Asia Society. p. 149.
- ^ Jackson, Roy (2010). Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State . Routledge. ISBN 9781136950360 .
- ^ Chapra, Muhammad Umer (2014). Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance . Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 62–63. ISBN 9781783475728 .
- ^ Glenn 2000 , p. 273
- ^ Jain 2006 , p. 2 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_India | 90 |
what kind of legal system does india have | Introduction to the Indian Judicial System | The Indian judicial system follows the common law system based on recorded judicial precedents as inherited from the British colonial legacy. The court system of India comprises the Supreme Court of India, the High Courts and subordinate courts at district, municipal and village levels.
The Indian judiciary is divided into several levels in order to decentralize and address matters at the grassroots levels. The basic structure is as follows:
1. Supreme Court: It is the Apex court of the country and was constituted on 28th January 1950. It is the highest court of appeal and enjoys both original suits and appeals of High Court judgments. The Supreme Court is comprised of the Chief Justice of India and 25 other judges. Articles 124-147 of the Constitution of India lay down the authority of the Supreme Court.
2. High Courts: High Courts are the highest judicial body at the State level. Article 214 lays down the authority of High Courts. There are 25 High Courts in India. High Courts exercise civil or criminal jurisdiction only if the subordinate courts in the State are not competent to try the matters. High Courts may even take appeals from lower courts. High Court judges are appointed by the President of India upon consultation with the Chief Justice of India, the Chief Justice of the High Court and the Governor of the State.
3. District Courts: District Courts are established by the State Governments of India for every district or group of districts based on the caseload and population density. District Courts are under the direct administration of High Courts and are bound by High Court judgments. Every district generally has two kinds of courts:
a. Civil Courts
b. Criminal Courts
District Courts are presided over by District Judges. Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges may be appointed based on the caseload. Appeals against District Court judgments lie in the High Court.
4. Lok Adalats/Village Courts: these are subordinate courts at the village level which provide a system for alternate dispute resolution in villages.
5. Tribunals: the Constitution provides the government with the power to set up special Tribunals for the administration of specific matters such as tax cases, land cases, consumer cases etc.
Appellate jurisdiction refers to the authority of a court to rehear/review a case decided by a lower court. In India, appellate jurisdiction is vested in both the Supreme Court and High Courts. They may either overrule or uphold the judgments of lower courts.
Civil courts provide remedies for civil wrongs committed by individuals against other individuals and entities. Civil matters range from property disputes to breaches of contract to divorce cases. Civil courts follow the principle of ubi jus ibi remedium (for every wrong the law provides remedy). Unless expressly or impliedly barred by any other law in force, civil courts have the jurisdiction to try all suits of civil nature.
The Code of Civil Procedure (CPC) 1908 governs the procedures to be followed by civil courts in administering civil cases in India.
As a matter of fact, every suit must be instituted before the court of lowest jurisdiction (the Munsif court). Upon institution, it is decided whether the respective court has competence to try the case.
The Civil Court hierarchy in districts is as follows:
1. District Court: The court of district judges is the highest civil court in a district. It exercises both judicial and administrative functions. The District Judge combines the powers of trying both civil and criminal cases. Hence, they are designated the District and Sessions Judge.
2. Sub-judge Court: if the value of the subject-matter of the suit is worth more than Rs. 1 lakh, the Sub-judge and Additional Sub-judge courts may try the suit.
3. Additional Sub-judge Court: this is created based on the case-load.
4. Munsif Court: if the value of the subject-matter of the suit is worth Rs. 1 lakh or below, the Munsif court is competent to try the suit.
The power of the various criminal courts is mentioned under the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) .
According to Section 26 of the CrPC, any offence mentioned under the Indian Penal Code may be tried by:
- High Courts
- Courts of Session
- Any other Court as specified in the First Schedule of the Code of Criminal Procedure
Articles 141 and 144 of the Constitution uphold the authority and jurisdiction given to the Supreme Court to make decisions and uphold the law of the land. These Articles give animal welfare judgments their binding force, ensuring that they are appropriately enforced and implemented by the respective authorities. They allow for the Supreme Court to issue directives and fill gaps in law until the legislature steps in.
Article 141 lays down that “ the law declared by the Supreme Court shall be binding on all courts within the territory of India .”
This Article embodies the English principle of stare decisis which holds that law must be definite, fixed, known and consistent. Since the Supreme Court is the Apex court of the country and all courts and tribunals are bound by its decisions, Supreme Court judgments become a source of law in themselves.
The binding part is the operative part of the judgment or the ratio decidendi (“reason of decision) determined after reading the judgment in its entirety. It is the general principle derived from a judgment that is deduced by courts when deciding the case based on facts. Mere observations, or the obiter dicta (“said by the way”), on the other hand, refer to those parts of judicial decisions which are general observations of the judge in the case. Obiter dicta have only persuasive value, not binding authority.
Article 144 lays down that “ all authorities, civil and judicial, in the territory of India shall act in aid of the Supreme Court .”
The Supreme Court has the power to hold any authority in contempt if they disregard or disobey the order of the court.
Since India is a common law country, previously decided judgments of higher courts such as the Supreme Court and High Courts are binding on subordinate and lower courts, i.e., subordinate courts are bound to follow the decisions and hold them to be the law. Precedents are an important source of law in India. The binding value of different courts in the court hierarchy is as follows:
- Decisions of the Supreme Court are binding on all courts in India. The Supreme Court is not bound by decisions of High Courts, lower courts or other judicial authorities.
- Decisions of a High Court are binding on all inferior courts (as long as they don’t conflict with Supreme Court decisions) within its jurisdiction but holds only persuasive value for courts outside its jurisdiction. In case the decisions of the High Court conflict with the decisions of a similar bench, the matter is referred to a higher bench.
- Lower courts are bound by decisions of higher courts in their own states. Decisions by High Courts of other states hold only persuasive value.
Public Interest Litigation (PIL) is an effective tool to advance social justice in India. Borrowed from the American tradition of Social Action Litigation, PILs have been widely used in India to advance the causes of disadvantaged and marginalized communities. The general rule to bring a cause of action in court is the rule of locus standi i.e. the party must possess sufficient connection or suffer particular harm in order to be a party to the case. In PILs, this rule is relaxed considerably as any citizen of India may bring an action in court to reduce a wrong if there has been a breach of Fundamental Rights. PILs are an effective tool in the furtherance of animal protection by allowing animal rights groups and activists to file PILs at the Supreme Court and give a voice to the voiceless.
Some landmark PILs related to animal welfare filed in the Supreme Court of India include the cases of People for Ethical Treatment of Animals v. Union of India (a case regarding the protection of animals against exploitation and ill-treatment during film-making) and Animal Welfare Board of India v. A. Nagaraja & Ors. (a case regarding the prohibition of a traditional bull-fighting practice called Jallikattu). | https://www.animallaw.info/article/introduction-indian-judicial-system | 90 |
what kind of legal system does india have | Indian Legal System | Global Library | Introduction to Indian Legal System
Indian Judicial System is largely based on English Common Law system (where, law is developed by judges through their decisions, orders, and judgments). It has created a federal system; with a Central government coupled with State government.
This research guide is prepared by the library staff aims to list useful sources of information on Indian legal system. This guide lists sources which are available in JGU Library and elsewhere, both in print and electronic forms and also includes important links to useful free & open access web resources. | https://library.jgu.edu.in/content/indian-legal-system | 90 |
what kind of legal system does india have | Legal Systems in India: Overview | Practical Law | by Ashish Bhan and Mohit Rohatgi, Trilegal
A Q&A guide to the legal system in India.
The Q&A gives a high level overview of the key legal concepts including the constitution, system of governance and the general legislative process; the main sources of law; the court structure and hierarchy; the judiciary and its appointment; the general rules of civil and criminal litigation, including reporting restrictions, evidentiary requirements, the roles of the judge and counsel, burdens of proof and penalties.
1. What form does your constitution take?
The Constitution of India of 1950 is a written document which currently comprises over 450 Articles and 12 Schedules. It is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world.
The Constitution of India was drafted and adopted by a constituent assembly of elected representatives of the people and came into effect on 26 January 1950. The Constitution of India is not the creation of parliament but of the people of India and is therefore supreme. India's constitutional supremacy is evidenced in the opening sentence of the Preamble to the Constitution of India: "We, The People of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic".
The Constitution of India is sometimes referred to as a cosmopolitan document because it derives several of its features from foreign sources, most notably:
- Parliamentary government, rule of law and bicameralism from the UK.
- Directive Principles of State Policy from Ireland.
- Fundamental rights, judicial independence and functions of the president from the US.
- Union list and state list from Canada.
- Concurrent list and freedom of trade from Australia.
- Fundamental duties from the former USSR.
Having features of both federal and unitary constitutions, the Constitution of India is neither purely federal nor purely unitary, and is widely considered as quasi-federal in nature.
India is a union of 28 states and eight union territories. India has a parliamentary system, with legislatures at both union and state levels.
The President is the constitutional head of the Union of India, commander-in-chief of the Indian armed forces and head of the government. The "real" executive power is vested in the Prime Minister and the council of ministers (and the President must act on their "aid and advice"). A similar system is established at the state level. While the governors are the head of the states, the executive powers are exercised by the chief ministers (leader of the state government) and their council of ministers.
The Indian Constitution has adopted a bicameral legislature at the union level. The Indian Parliament comprises two Houses, the:
- Lok Sabha (House of the People). The political party or coalition of political parties with a majority in the Lok Sabha forms the government. The members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people from their territorial constituencies.
- Rajya Sabha (Council of States). The members of the Rajya Sabha are indirectly elected from the state assemblies.
However, the legislative powers of these two Houses are quite similar.
At the state level, there is the state legislature. All states have a legislative assembly (which is similar to the Lok Sabha ) and some states may also have a second House (that is, a legislative council). Currently, only seven of the 28 states have a legislative council. The legislative assemblies have significantly more power than the legislative councils. The number of the state legislature members depends on the population of the specific state.
3. Does the constitution provide for a separation of powers?
The Constitution of India (unlike the US and the Australian constitutions) does not have an express provision for separation of powers. However, it still recognises and incorporates the doctrine of separation of powers between three branches (legislature, executive and judiciary). Therefore, while no formal lines have been drawn between them, it is widely considered that the doctrine of separation of powers "runs through" the Constitution of India.
There is often an overlap in the scope of the functions of the three branches. Because of the parliamentary form of government, the dividing line between the executive and the legislature is naturally rather a fine one. Under the Constitution, the executive can legislate using:
- The ordinance-making powers of the President and the governors.
- Delegated executive legislation.
The legislature exercises some form of control over the judiciary in that it can legislate on the constitution, jurisdiction and powers of the courts, and can also impeach judges.
The judiciary has wide powers to review and strike down unconstitutional executive and legislative decisions and actions. The legislature can make such rulings ineffective by amending the law while staying within the constitutional limits (a concept known as "legislative overruling"). This is an example of the inherent checks and balances under the Constitution which further strengthen the separation of powers.
Despite the fact that the three branches interconnect and have functional overlaps, the Indian judiciary has recognised the doctrine of separation of powers as a basic feature of the Constitution and an essential part of the rule of law.
4. What is the general legislative process?
India's parliamentary system empowers legislating at the union level by the Indian Parliament, and at the state level by the state legislatures. Their subjects of legislation are clearly defined under two separate lists in the Constitution of India, the Union List and the State List. There is also a Concurrent List of subjects on which both Parliament and the state legislatures can legislate. If there is a conflict between a legislation of the union and a state, union legislation prevails (although there are some exceptions to this). The law-making procedure is generally similar at both levels. This section focuses more on the legislative process of the Indian Parliament and reference is made to the state legislatures only where there is a material difference.
Typically, the text of a proposed law (that is, a bill) is drafted by the relevant ministry of the government. The bill is circulated to other relevant ministries and sometimes even to the public, for their input. After revisions are made (as necessary), the bill is presented for approval to the council of senior ministers, headed by the Prime Minister (this is known as the Union Cabinet). On approval, the bill is introduced in either House of the Parliament (either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha ). The only exception to this is money bills (bills of a fiscal nature) which can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha .
In either House of the Parliament, a bill generally goes through three readings, that is:
- One for introduction.
- One for scrutiny.
- One for passing.
Once a bill is passed by a majority in one House, it is then introduced to the other House where the same stages are repeated. All bills (except money bills) need the approval of each House. This is different from the state legislatures where the legislative council only plays an advisory role and where the legislative assembly is the final authority. For money bills, the Lok Sabha has the final authority and the Rajya Sabha has only recommendatory powers.
After a Bill is passed by majority in both Houses, the bill is sent to the President for assent. The President can seek information or clarification about the bill and can return it to the Parliament for reconsideration (but only once). If both Houses pass the bill again (regardless of whether they implement the President's recommendation), the President must give their assent.
When Presidential assent is received, the Bill becomes an Act of Parliament and is notified in the official government gazette.
The President can also legislate by passing an ordinance when the Parliament is not in session. Once the Parliament is in session again, the ordinance must be ratified by the Parliament for it to continue as a law (otherwise it will lapse). The governor has similar ordinance-making powers at the state level.
5. Is there a doctrine by which the judiciary can review legislative and executive actions?
Under the Constitution, the superior judiciary has been said to offer one of the widest and most extensive scopes of judicial review in the world.
The power of judicial review of legislative and executive action is considered to be an essential tool for preserving the doctrine of separation of powers and the rule of law. The Supreme Court of India and the High Courts can review and invalidate legislative or executive actions if they are found to breach the Constitution. This power is not exercised suo moto (that is, on its own motion), but only when the validity of an action, law or rule is specifically challenged before the court. Judicial review must be exercised with judicial restraint. The courts must not encroach into the legislative or executive domain by rewriting legal provisions or by making policy decisions.
6. Are certain emergency powers reserved for the executive?
The Constitution of India recognises three kinds of emergencies:
- National emergency. National emergency can be declared if there is a threat to the security of India or a part of India. It must be subsequently approved by Parliament within one month, and can be repeatedly extended. All fundamental rights under the Constitution (except the rights to life and personal liberty) are automatically suspended. National emergencies have been declared three times in India's history, two of which were during wars.
- State emergency. State emergency can be declared in a state if it is found that the "constitutional machinery" of the state has failed (that is, the governance cannot be carried out in a constitutional manner). Loss of majority of the ruling party in the state government, collapse of coalition or death of the chief minister of a state have been the most prominent causes of imposition of state emergency in India. Once declared, the President assumes all executive and administrative power of that state (this is known as the President's rule). State emergency must be approved by Parliament within two months and can be extended for a maximum period of three years. An extension beyond one year can be made only if a national emergency has been declared and it is difficult to hold elections in that state. State emergencies have been declared in various states several times.
- Financial emergency. Financial emergency can be declared if the financial stability or the credit of India (or of any part of it) is threatened. Normally, financial emergency can be declared for a period of two months but can be extended with parliamentary approval. During a financial emergency, the President can give any directions they deem necessary and adequate to states, including to present all money bills to them to consider, or to decrease the remuneration of public servants. Financial emergency has never been declared in India.
An emergency can be declared only by the President of India, and with the aid and advice of the Prime Minister and the Union Cabinet.
7. Are human rights constitutionally protected?
India is a signatory to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Most of the rights provided in it have been incorporated as Fundamental Rights in the Constitution of India. These rights include the following:
- Equality before the law.
- Right against discrimination.
- Equality of opportunity.
- Freedom of speech and expression, movement, religion, peaceful assembly and practicing any profession.
- Right to life and personal liberty.
These fundamental human rights differ from other constitutional rights as they are supreme and cannot be diminished by any law, ordinance, custom or administrative action. Any action that violates a fundamental right is void (whether legislative, executive or judicial). The right to approach the Supreme Court of India against such violation is itself a fundamental right under the Constitution.
8. By what means can the constitution be amended?
Amendments to the Constitution of India require a special majority of the Parliament (that is, more than half of the total membership and two-thirds majority of those present and voting). In a few cases relating to the federal structure of the Constitution, amendments require further ratification by at least half of the states (in addition to the special majority of the Parliament). There are also some changes which may be carried out by a simple majority of the Parliament (one-half majority of those present and voting). This last category of changes is, however, not formally considered to be an "amendment" to the Constitution. So far, there have been 104 amendments to the Constitution, with the last amendment, the Constitution (One Hundred and Fourth Amendment) Act, 2019, being enforced on 25 January 2020.
Amendments to the Constitution are not beyond the scope of judicial review. In one of the most remarkable constitutional judgments in India (also the lengthiest and with the largest ever bench of 13 presiding judges), the Supreme Court held that the legislature cannot amend, alter or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution (a term that originates from this judgment). The Constitution has no provision for holding referendums or plebiscites.
9. What form does your legal system take?
India has a hybrid legal system having elements of civil law, common law, equitable law, and customary and religious laws.
10. What are the main domestic sources of law?
The main sources of law are the following:
- The Constitution of India. This is the supreme source of law.
- Statutes. Statutes are enacted by the Parliament or the state legislatures. At local level, subordinate delegated legislation (such as rules, regulations and bye-laws) is passed by local authorities (such as government departments, municipal corporations, municipalities and gram panchayat ).
- Customary law. In certain aspects, local customs and conventions (usually religious in nature) that are not against any statute or morality are also applicable.
- Judicial decisions. While technically not law, judicial decisions of superior courts like the Supreme Court of India and High Courts are another important legal source, and have precedential value.
11. To what extent do international sources of law apply?
International sources of law (such as a treaty or a convention signed by India) can generally be enforced in India if they have been ratified and incorporated in Indian law. In certain cases, customary rules and principles of international law can be applied even without formal ratification in the interests of justice and if the international law in question is not inconsistent with Indian law. If there is a conflict between a domestic law and an international law, the domestic law will prevail. Indian courts regularly consider and rely on international legal principles and judicial decisions of other (mostly common law) jurisdictions while dealing with social, economic, environmental, governance and contractual issues.
12. What is the general court structure and hierarchy?
The Indian judicial system is a single integrated system. The Constitution of India divides the Indian judiciary into superior judiciary (the Supreme Court and the High Courts) and the subordinate judiciary (the lower courts under the control of the High Courts).
The Supreme Court of India is the apex court of the country and sits in New Delhi. It is presided by the Chief Justice of India. There are twenty-four High Courts in the country. Each state has one High Court, although some High Courts have jurisdiction over multiple states and Union Territories. For example, the Guwahati High Court exercises jurisdiction over the states of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh, all of which are situated close to each other in the north-eastern part of India. For administrative convenience, states are further sub-divided into districts, each of which has its own District Court. Barring a few states, the original jurisdiction for both civil and criminal cases vests with the District Court. The judicial system also consists of tribunals and commissions which are established under, and to deal with, specific statutes.
13. To what extent are lower courts bound by the decisions of higher courts?
The judicial pronouncements by the Supreme Court of India are binding precedents on all courts, judicial authorities and tribunals in India. Similarly, High Court decisions are binding on all subordinate courts, authorities and tribunals in India, unless there is a contrary decision from another High Court. If there is a contrary decision from a different High Court, the decision from the court with the larger judge bench usually prevails. District Court decisions are not binding on any other court.
14. Are there specialist courts for certain legal areas?
Under the Indian judicial system, certain traditional courts have been specifically tasked to deal with certain areas of law. District Courts usually have courts formed under specific statues, such as:
- Family courts to deal with issues relating to marriage, inheritance, guardianship of minors and maintenance.
- The Special Court of Central Bureau of Investigation to deal with cases of corruption and bribery.
- Some High Courts and District Courts, which house commercial courts which deal only with commercial matters of specified value, including matters relating to arbitration.
With the socialist aim of making legal remedies accessible and affordable to all, the Indian judicial system has constituted Lok Adalats and Gram Panchayats at the village level. These bodies apply traditional or customary laws and primarily work towards settling local disputes by using alternative dispute resolution mechanisms.
15. Are other quasi-legal authorities commonly used?
Apart from the courts, the Indian judicial system comprises tribunals, commissions and quasi-judicial authorities that derive their authority from specific statutes. These bodies include the:
- Central Administrative Tribunal, which adjudicates disputes that relate to the recruitment and conditions of service of public servants.
- National and State Human Rights Commissions for the protection of human rights.
- National Company Law Tribunal and National Company Law Appellate Tribunal, which adjudicate issues relating to company law, including insolvency and bankruptcy matters.
- Consumer disputes forums at national, state and district level to deal with consumer disputes.
- Competition Commission of India to promote and protect market competition.
- Ombudsman for banking, Insurance, Income tax and electricity matters.
- Income Tax Appellate Tribunal, Central Excise and Service Tax Appellate Tribunal and Sales Tax Appellate Tribunal to hear tax and excise matters.
Most quasi-judicial bodies oversee administrative actions and impose restrictions on administrative agencies.
16. Does the constitution provide for an independent judiciary?
There are several provisions under the Constitution of India that ensure an independent judiciary. For example:
- The judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts have secured tenure and cannot be removed from office (unless there is proven misconduct or incapacity).
- The Constitution empowers the Supreme Court and the High Courts to punish any person for its contempt.
Appointments and transfers of judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts is made through a collegium system. The collegium comprises the Chief Justice of India and a forum of four of the most senior judges of the Supreme Court. Remarkably, this system is not expressly found in the Constitution and was created by the Supreme Court while deciding a matter in 1998. Facets of an independent judiciary are found even in the subordinate judiciary, where matters relating to removal and disciplinary actions fall under the control of the High Courts.
17. How are members of the judiciary typically appointed?
Appointment of judges up to the highest level in the subordinate judiciary are either made by the state Public Service Commissions or the High Courts. These appointments are usually made on the basis of performance in dedicated examinations (that is, the Lower Judicial Services Examination or Higher Judicial Services Examination). Judges from the subordinate judiciary are regularly promoted and some are even appointed as High Courts or Supreme Court judges.
The appointment procedure in the superior judiciary is slightly different as the appointments are not made through judicial service examinations. High Court judges are appointed either through promoting judges from the subordinate judiciary or by direct elevation of advocates. Supreme Court judges are appointed either through promotion or direct elevation of judges from the High Courts. Supreme Court and High Courts judges are appointed through a collegium system, comprising the Chief Justice of India and a forum of the four most senior judges of the Supreme Court.
For a person to be eligible to sit the Lower Judicial Services Examination, they:
- Must be a citizen of India.
- Must be graduate in law.
- Should have been enrolled or qualified to be enrolled as an advocate.
The age limit for candidates varies from state to state and is usually between 21 to 35 years.
For the Higher Judicial Services Examination, a candidate must:
- Be a graduate in law
- Have the prescribed minimum experience as an advocate (usually seven years) or as a judge.
For a person to be eligible for an appointment as a High Court judge, they must:
- Be an Indian citizen.
- Be under the age of 62 years.
- Have either held a judicial office in India for ten years or practised as an advocate of High Court(s) for ten years.
For a person to be eligible for an appointment as a Supreme Court judge, they must:
- Be an Indian citizen.
- Be under the age of 65 years.
- Have been a:
- judge of a High Court for at least five years;
- an advocate of a High Court for at least ten years; or
- a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President of India.
18. Do the courts use an adversarial, non-adversarial or other system?
The Indian legal system is mainly adversarial. However, in certain aspects it is hybrid of adversarial and inquisitorial functions. Particularly the criminal justice system is not strictly adversarial, as some provisions in the criminal code require the judge to perform inquisitorial functions. For example, the judge will undertake active fact-finding exercises, such as:
- Directing further investigation.
- Assisting in the framing of charges.
- Calling any person as witness and procuring evidence.
19. Who is responsible for gathering evidence?
Generally, the party seeking to establish a fact or allegation is responsible for gathering and producing evidence.
In civil cases, the claimant is usually required to gather evidence, but assistance from the court is permitted for the discovery of documents and setting up commissions. Assistance from the civil courts to collect evidence may be available in ongoing arbitrations.
In criminal matters, the law enforcement agencies are responsible for investigating and gathering evidence. Therefore, police authorities and specialised investigating agencies have been given wide powers of summoning, search, seizure and examination. Criminal courts have wider powers to gather evidence than civil courts, as they can issue:
- Warrants of arrest
- Proclamations for enforcing a person's presence before the court (either for making a statement or for producing a document).
That said, the judges must usually play a neutral role in both civil and criminal matters.
20. Is evidence independently examined before a trial?
Before a trial, the party bringing the action is responsible for examining evidence. In criminal cases, the responsibility is with the prosecution, and in civil cases, with the claimant.
In criminal cases, the prosecution (assisted by the law enforcement agencies) must examine the evidence collected during their investigation. This examination has a broad scope, and usually involves witness examinations and preparing written witness statements. When the investigation is concluded and based on the examination of the available evidence, the prosecution can decide whether it has sufficient cause to bring charges against the accused. If charges are brought and before moving to trial, the criminal court only needs to take a prima facie view that there is sufficient basis to proceed against the accused (rather than sufficient basis to convict).
In civil cases, the pre-trial evidence is usually examined by the claimant (without any assistance from law enforcement agencies). Therefore, the scope, form or threshold of the evidence is immaterial to the claimant's decision to make a claim before the court. However, before the court decides whether the civil action brought before it is admissible, the claimant must show that there is a prima facie case in its favour, based on the available evidence.
21. Are trials/hearings open to the public?
Barring a few exceptional circumstances where trials or hearings are conducted in camera , all trials or hearings, whether civil or criminal, are open to public at large. The Constitution of India provides that the judgments of the Supreme Court of India must be delivered only in open court.
All civil courts are open courts and generally accessible by the public. This is subject to the discretion of judge who may want to avoid public or any particular person from attending the court. Evidence of witnesses is also required to be taken in open court.
Much like civil courts, all criminal courts are also open courts. The recognised exception to the principle of open court are private proceedings in certain sensitive matters at the discretion of the court. These are usually matters which call for anonymity of the victim, such as matters involving rape or matrimonial disputes. In such cases, proceedings are carried out in private through video conferencing, and the public and the press do not have access to them.
22. Are reporting restrictions typically imposed in relation to a trial?
The Constitution of India provides for the right of freedom of speech and expression as a fundamental right. There is no absolute ban on reporting pending trials by the media or the public. Discussion and reporting of ongoing trials is often held by the media and the public on television channels and social networks. For example, live tweeting is also gaining popularity in India, especially in matters before the Supreme Court and the High Courts or high-profile trials in lower courts.
With the introduction of virtual hearings, the Supreme Court has recently started live-streaming its proceedings on YouTube. Some High Courts, such as the Gujarat High Court, have also began live streaming their proceedings on YouTube.
Lawyers appearing in ongoing matters also regularly give interviews to news channels. While reasonable restrictions can be imposed by the court if any such reporting will create a real and substantial risk of prejudice to the proper administration of justice or to the fairness of trial, such restrictions are rare in practice.
Court orders passed during or after a trial are public documents and are generally made available on the website of the concerned court. The judgement of the Supreme Court, the High Courts and various other courts and tribunals are reported by various online and print publishers, and law reporters.
23. What is the main function of the trial and who are the main parties to it?
The main parties to civil matters are the claimant and the defendant. In criminal matters, the main parties are the state prosecution and the accused. The main function of a trial is assessing the available evidence by the court, and weighing and balancing it before pronouncing the verdict. A trial usually includes examination and cross-examination of witnesses, interrogation of the accused (defendant) and scrutiny of the evidence. Re-examination of witnesses may also be allowed (with the permission of the court). In some cases, the court can also direct further investigation to collect evidence while the trial is ongoing.
24. What is the main role of the judge and counsel in a trial?
In line with the adversarial system, the judge is a neutral arbiter. They facilitate the trial, weighs the facts of the case and considers the evidence collected against the standard of proof. However, judges have wide powers under both civil and criminal law not only to examine the parties or witnesses, but also to compel a person who is relevant to the hearing to attend court and give evidence.
Legal counsel in India are officers of the court. They must assist the court in properly adjudicating the dispute and in the administration of justice. The counsel must also advise the client, keep client information confidential (unless it is required to be disclosed by law) and represent them in legal proceedings in the best possible manner.
25. To what extent are juries used?
The jury system has been abolished in India since 1959.
26. What restrictions exist as to the evidence that can be heard by the court?
The evidence law of India has detailed provisions on admissibility or inadmissibility, and relevancy or irrelevancy of evidence. Broadly speaking, evidence can be primary or secondary. Secondary evidence can be given only if (under the "best evidence" rule):
- There is no better evidence (that is, primary evidence, which is required to be given first).
- A proper explanation is given for the absence of primary evidence.
Both oral and documentary evidences (including electronic records) are admissible. Only direct oral evidence in personal knowledge and experience is admissible. Hearsay or derivative evidence is inadmissible, but this rule is not absolute. For example, a dying declaration can be admissible as hearsay evidence.
27. Which party has the burden of proof in a trial and at what standard is this burden met?
The burden of proof in both civil and criminal proceedings is either on:
- The party that would fail if no evidence were given on either side.
- The party asserting a claim or who intends to persuade the court of any fact.
If any fact is in the special knowledge of a person, the burden of proof is on that person to prove the fact. This rule applies in all situations unless an exception is created by law. However, if the statutory or legal threshold is met by one party, the burden of proof shifts to the other side. For example, in proving the existence of a document, if a party adduces a photocopy (if the original is unavailable) and the other party claims the document is forged, that other party has the burden to prove it is a forgery.
In a civil suit, the standard of proof is "preponderance of probabilities" (that is, the occurrence of something in a certain manner was more likely than not).
Generally, in criminal matters, the standard of proof is to establish guilt "beyond all reasonable doubt". However, departing from the general rule of evidence, in certain criminal or penal provisions (such as dowry death or customs evasion), the law requires meeting a bare minimal threshold by the prosecution to presume the guilt of the accused. The burden of proving otherwise then lies on the accused.
28. What verdicts can the court give?
In a civil suit, depending on the reliefs sought and the outcome of the case, the court can give a variety of verdicts. A verdict in favour of the claimant will typically be a money decree, a declaratory decree, or both. A verdict in favour of the defendant may result in the claimant being ordered to pay costs (if necessary).
In criminal matters, the verdict can be either a conviction or acquittal. Where more than one person is accused, the court can convict some parties and acquit the rest.
29. What range of penalties/relief can the court order upon a verdict?
On reaching a verdict, a civil court can grant all or any of the monetary or declaratory reliefs sought by the claimant in its claim before the court. A civil court will not usually grant any relief which is either not sought at all or is beyond what has been sought. Monetary reliefs can be general damages (whether liquidated or unliquidated) for a breach of contract, or special damages in special circumstances. A civil court can also grant incidental damages (such as reasonable expenses or costs). Indirect losses (for example, for reputational harm, or loss of business and opportunity) can also be granted, although the threshold of proving them is quite high. Only losses that have been proved can be compensated, as Indian law does not provide for windfall. Apart from monetary reliefs, declaratory reliefs (usually, permanent or mandatory injunctions) can be granted.
After a guilty verdict, depending on the nature of the crime and the statutory penalty prescribed, the criminal court can sentence the convict to simple or rigorous imprisonment (ranging from a few months to imprisonment for life), or the death penalty. A fine can also be imposed, if permitted under the statute. Upon conviction of corporate entities, Indian criminal law does not permit imposing punishment on their officers (unless specifically permitted by a statute).
T +91 11 4259 9321
F +91 11 4163 9292
E [email protected]
Professional qualifications. LL.M., University College London
Areas of practice. Dispute resolution; arbitration; white-collar crimes.
- Recent transactions. Some of the key contentious white collar and criminal law work that Ashish has led includes representing:
- Telenor in the 2G Scam case.
- Agusta-Westland and Leonardo in their proceedings before the CBI and the Enforcement Directorate relating to allegations under the VVIP Helicopter contract with the Indian government.
- Embraer and Virgin Mobile in separate enquiries before the Enforcement Directorate.
- Some of the key clients that Ashish has advised and represented include AgustaWestland, Leonardo, Embraer, MBDA, Tata Communications, Telenor, Mitsubishi Group, Axiom Telecom, Western Union, D. E. Shaw, AES Energy, Cairn Energy and Mytrah Energy.
- Advising and representing telecom companies on issues including disputes with shareholders, with the regulatory authorities and with various vendors in the telecom industry.
- Currently representing Eight Capital (as an investor in Patel Engineering Limited) in several arbitrations and related court proceedings in multiple jurisdictions across India.
Languages. English, Hindi.
Professional associates/memberships. Member of the Supreme Court Bar Association, Delhi High Court Bar Association and is on the anti-corruption committee of the International Bar Association.
Publications. Co-author of the Indian Criminal Law chapter in the International Fraud and Asset Tracing book, published by Thomson Reuters. Has written on legal developments for various national newspapers, including the Economic Times and the Business Standard , as a legal expert.
T +91 11 4259 9345
F +91 11 4163 9292
E [email protected]
Professional qualifications. BCom LLB (Hons), Gujarat National Law University
Areas of practice. Dispute resolution; arbitration; white collar crimes.
Recent transactions.
- Advising on various high-profile white-collar disputes relating to issues of anti-corruption/ anti-bribery, anti-money-laundering, economic frauds and cyber frauds, including:
- Agusta-Westland and Leonardo in their proceedings before the CBI and the Enforcement Directorate relating to allegations under the VVIP Helicopter contract with the Indian government.
- Embraer in its ongoing Enforcement Directorate enquiry.
- Several other clients in regulatory investigations of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), the Directorate of Enforcement (ED), the Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI), the Serious Fraud Investigation Office (SFIO), the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the local police.
- Matters on employee frauds, in-house compliances, anti-corruption/ anti-bribery laws and cyber frauds
- Representing and advising global entities such as Leonardo Spa, AgustaWestland, Embraer S.A., MBDA, Axon Partners, TCI Fund Management, Aon plc, Azure Power, Heineken, Omron, Mitsubishi, Grupo T-Solar, Deutsche Investitions (DEG), Madison Capital, Asian Genco, Khazanah Nasional, Eight Capital, Patel Engineering, Tata Communications and GMR Group.
- Currently representing Eight Capital (as an investor in Patel Engineering Limited) in several arbitrations and related court proceedings in multiple jurisdictions across India.
Languages. English, Hindi
Professional associates/memberships. Member of the Delhi High Court Bar Association and the Bar Council of Delhi. Member of anti-corruption committee and arbitration committee of the International Bar Association.
Publications
- India Chapter in the Chambers International Fraud & Asset Tracing 2021 Global Practice Guide (Chambers and Partners).
- Country Q&A titled "Regulation of the Legal Profession in India: Overview" in Practical Law Global Guide (Thomson Reuters).
- The operation of the mandatory bid rule as a result of buy-back: recent developments in India, (Law and Financial Markets Review, Oxford).
End of Document | https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/w-017-5278?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default) | 90 |
who played julie on gimme a break | Where Is Lauri Hendler of 'Gimme a Break' Fame? | By Robyn Flans on September 8, 2013
What’s up with Lauri Hendler, who played Julie on Gimme a Break!?
—Colleen Bergman, DeKalb, Illinois
Since that sitcom ended in 1986, Lauri Hendler, 48, says she’s “never been famous again, but I’ve been a successful working actor in that I make my living acting.” The native of Fort Belvoir, Virginia, keeps busy doing commercials, theater, video game voice-overs and other projects, including recent guest appearances on TV’s “Shameless,” “Southland” and “Torchwood.” Married 19 years, she lives in Los Angeles, Calif., where she is active in the Screen Actors Guild. | https://americanprofile.com/articles/where-is-lauri-hendler-of-gimme-a-break-fame/ | 91 |
who played julie on gimme a break | Where Is Lauri Hendler of 'Gimme a Break' Fame? | By Robyn Flans on September 8, 2013
What’s up with Lauri Hendler, who played Julie on Gimme a Break!?
—Colleen Bergman, DeKalb, Illinois
Since that sitcom ended in 1986, Lauri Hendler, 48, says she’s “never been famous again, but I’ve been a successful working actor in that I make my living acting.” The native of Fort Belvoir, Virginia, keeps busy doing commercials, theater, video game voice-overs and other projects, including recent guest appearances on TV’s “Shameless,” “Southland” and “Torchwood.” Married 19 years, she lives in Los Angeles, Calif., where she is active in the Screen Actors Guild. | https://americanprofile.com/articles/where-is-lauri-hendler-of-gimme-a-break-fame/ | 91 |
who played julie on gimme a break | Gimme a Break! - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the television series. For other uses, see Give Me a Break (disambiguation) .
Some of this article's listed sources may not be reliable . ( March 2011 )
This article possibly contains original research . ( July 2011 )
|Gimme a Break!|
|Genre||Sitcom|
|Created by|
|Directed by|
|Starring|
|Theme music composer|| Bob Christianson (first two seasons only) |
Jay Graydon & Richard Page (subsequent seasons)
|Opening theme||"Gimme a Break" performed by Nell Carter|
|Ending theme||"Gimme a Break" (instrumental)|
|Composers|| Bob Christianson |
Jay Graydon & Richard Page (after first two seasons)
|Country of origin||United States|
|Original language||English|
|No. of seasons||6|
|No. of episodes||137 ( list of episodes )|
|Production|
|Executive producers|
|Producers|
|Running time||24–25 minutes|
|Production companies|
|Release|
|Original network||NBC|
|Picture format||Color|
|Audio format|
|Original release|| October 29, 1981 – |
May 12, 1987
Gimme a Break! is an American television sitcom created by Mort Lachman and Sy Rosen , that aired on NBC for six seasons from October 29, 1981, to May 12, 1987. The series starred Nell Carter as the housekeeper for a widowed police chief ( Dolph Sweet ) and his three daughters.
- Nell Carter as Nellie Ruth "Nell" Harper
- Dolph Sweet as Carl Kanisky (seasons 1-4)
- Kari Michaelsen as Kathleen "Katie" Kanisky (seasons 1-5)
- Lauri Hendler as Julie Kanisky Maxwell (seasons 1-5)
- Lara Jill Miller as Samantha "Sam" Kanisky (seasons 1-5, recurring season 6)
- John Hoyt as Stanley Kanisky (seasons 2-6, previously recurring)
- Joey Lawrence as Joey Donovan (seasons 3-6)
- Howard Morton as Ralph Waldo Simpson (seasons 3-5, previously recurring)
- Telma Hopkins as Dr. Adelaide "Addy" Wilson (seasons 4-6, previously recurring)
- Jonathan Silverman as Jonathan Maxwell (season 5, previously recurring)
- Rosetta LeNoire as Maybelle Harper (season 6, previously recurring)
- Matthew Lawrence as Matthew Donovan (season 6)
- Rosie O'Donnell as Maggie O'Brien (season 6)
- Paul Sand as Marty (season 6)
- Lynne Thigpen as Loretta Harper
- Alvernette Jimenez as Angie McDaniel
- Elvia Allman (Season 1, Episode 11), Elizabeth Kerr (Season 1, Episode 15), and Jane Dulo (Season 2) as Mildred Kanisky (née Wuchetzky)
- Pete Schrum as Ed Kanisky
- Patrick Collins as Tim Donovan
- Jack Fletcher as Erwin J. Swackhammer
- Harrison Page as Hamilton Storm ( character dropped after Season 2)
|Season||Time||Nielsen Ratings|
|1981–82||Thursday at 9:30–10:00||#47|
|1982–83|| Saturday at 9:00–9:30 (1982) |
Thursday at 9:00–9:30 (1983)
|#62|
|1983–84||Thursday at 8:00–8:30||#48|
|1984–85|| Saturday at 8:30–9:00 (Episodes 1–9) |
Saturday at 9:00–9:30 (Episodes 10–25)
|14.2 rating/24 share, #41 [1]|
|1985–86||Saturday at 8:00–8:30||#36 [2]|
|1986–87|| Wednesday at 9:00–9:30 (Episodes 1, 3–15, 17–21) |
Wednesday at 9:30–10:00 (Episodes 2, 16, 22)
Tuesday at 9:00–9:30 (Episodes 23–25)
|14.3 rating, #46 [3]|
The show was produced by Alan Landsburg Productions (renamed as Reeves Entertainment Group in 1985). The US syndication rights are held by NBCUniversal Television Distribution , the successor company to original syndicator MCA TV. FremantleMedia owns the international rights, as they own Thames Television , which acquired Reeves Entertainment Group in 1990. The creators of the show were Mort Lachman and Sy Rosen. The series was taped at Metromedia Square in Hollywood before a studio audience.
Over its run, the series used two different theme songs. The first was composed by Bob Christianson with lyrics by Bob Garrett and Marley Sims; two versions of this song were used, one for the first season and a new recording for the second. A new theme, with music by Jay Graydon and lyrics by Richard Page, was introduced in the third season and used for the remainder of the show's run. The new theme has similarities to the first but with a more positive attitude. Carter performed both themes.
Carter distanced herself from the show following its run. “I don't want to go to my grave being known as the girl from 'Gimme a Break,’” she told The New York Times in 1988. “That wasn't me; it was just a job.” [4]
The show received mixed reviews from critics when it premiered. Writing for the Washington Post , Tom Shales wrote an especially scathing review of the pilot episode. “I wish I could sue NBC for the grievous consternation, intestinal distress and aggravated low moaning I have suffered as a result of ‘Gimme a Break,’” Shales wrote, going on to criticize the show’s sex jokes and what he found to be the racial stereotypes embodied by Carter’s character. “If I thought television could get substantially worse than this, I am not sure I would have the courage or desire ever to turn the set on again,” Shales concluded. [5]
By contrast, the New York Times found the show promising, praising the performances of Carter and Sweet and the way the show balanced wisecracks with bits of seriousness. “The abrupt changes in tone are handled adroitly,” John J. O’Connor wrote. “Given some supportive scripts, Miss Carter and Mr. Sweet could insure a good run for this series.” [6]
The show has been in syndication since 1985. Reruns have also aired nationally on WWOR EMI Service and USA . [7] [8] [9] [10] Distribution rights are jointly owned by The Program Exchange and NBCUniversal Television Distribution , successor in interest to previous syndicator MCA Television. Reruns of the series are a mainstay of many of Sinclair Broadcast Group 's The CW , MeTV and MyNetworkTV stations, especially in low-traffic time periods, due to the low-cost barter setup of The Program Exchange.
Antenna TV aired the show from January 2, 2018 until December 31, 2021. Cozi TV started airing the show as of January 3, 2022.
Tubi acquired all seasons of the show as of February 1, 2022.
Visual Entertainment (under license from FremantleMedia) released the first two seasons of Gimme a Break! on DVD in Canada between 2006–07. In 2009, VEI announced that they plan on releasing the entire series in a complete series box set in 2010. [11] VEI released Gimme a Break! The Complete Series on DVD in Canada on July 20, 2010. [12]
Nell Carter received two Emmy nominations as Best Actress in a Comedy Series. [13] and two Golden Globe nominations as Best Actress in a Television Series-Comedy or Musical. [14]
|Year||Award||Category||Nominee||Result|
|1982||Primetime Emmy Award||Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series||Nell Carter||Nominated|
|Golden Globe Award||Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy||Nominated|
|Young Artist Award||Best Young Actress in a Comedy Series||Kari Michaelsen||Nominated|
|1983||Young Artist Award||Lauri Hendler||Nominated|
|Primetime Emmy Award||Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series||Nell Carter||Nominated|
|1984||Golden Globe Award||Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy||Nominated|
|Young Artist Award||Best Young Actress in a Television Comedy Series||Lauri Hendler||Nominated|
|Best Young Supporting Actor in a Television Comedy Series||Joey Lawrence||Nominated|
|Best Young Supporting Actress in a Television Comedy Series||Lara Jill Miller||Nominated|
|1985||Young Artist Award||Best Young Actor Starring in a Television Series||Joey Lawrence||Nominated|
- ^ "the Best and Worst by the numbers". TV Guide . 1985.
- ^ "PRIME-TIME NIELSEN RATINGS" . Chicago Tribune. 1986-04-20 . Retrieved 1 August 2019 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gimme_a_Break! | 91 |
who played julie on gimme a break | Gimme a Break! (TV Series 1981–1987) - IMDb | Lauri Hendler: Julie Kanisky, Julie Kanisky Maxwell Showing all 2 items Jump to: Photos (2) | https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0081869/characters/nm0376661 | 91 |
who played julie on gimme a break | See the 3 Teen Daughters From "Gimme a Break!" Now | The women who played Katie, Julie, and Sam are in their 50s and 60s.
By
March 22, 2022
From 1981 to 1987, viewers tuned into Gimme a Break! to check out the antics of the Kanisky family. The show followed Nell Harper, the housekeeper to Carl Kanisky and his three teenage daughters, Katie, Julie, and Sam. Sadly, Nell Carter , who played Nell, and Dolph Sweet , who played Carl, have since passed away. But, the actors who played the teen girls in their care are now in their 50s and 60s. Kari Michaelsen , Lauri Hendler , and Lara Jill Miller have all gone in different directions with their lives since their days as the Kanisky family came to an end. Read on to find out about the actors today.
Kari Michaelsen is a motivational speaker.
Michaelsen, who played Katie, quit acting in the late '80s, with her final roles being in the movie Girl Talk and an episode of Full House . The 60-year-old is now a motivational speaker and consultant. According to her website , she began public speaking and hosting educational seminars in 1990. She's also worked in broadcasting and interviewed celebrities for morning shows and for a series called In the Spotlight . As for her personal life, she has a 17-year-old son , Nick , with her ex-husband.
Lauri Hendler is still acting.
Hendler, who played middle sister Julie, is still an actor. She has appeared on many popular television shows, including The West Wing , Becker , Without a Trace , ER , and Veep . Some of her most recent roles were on Young Sheldon , The Goldbergs , and Animal Kingdom . She has also done voice work for various video games. Hendler, 56, shares moments from her personal life, including photos with her husband , on her Instagram account.
RELATED: For more celebrity news delivered right to your inbox, sign up for our daily newsletter .
Lara Jill Miller is a voice actor.
Like Hendler, Miller, 54, is also still an actor, but these days, she's focused on voice work. She's provided voices for a variety of children's animated shows, including Curious George , Doc McStuffins , Clifford's Puppy Days , The Loud House , and Digimon . That said, Miller has worked outside of the entertainment industry, too. According to her website , she was previously a lawyer in New York City and passed the bar in three states. As with her former co-stars, you can follow updates about Miller's life and career on Instagram .
There's been at least one reunion.
The stars of Gimme a Break! have clearly all gone their separate ways, but there has been at least one semi-reunion in recent years. In 2018, Hendler and Michaelsen both attended the pop culture fan convention The Hollywood Show and posed for photos together.
Lia Beck
Lia Beck is a writer living in Richmond, Virginia. In addition to Best Life, she has written for Refinery29, Bustle, Hello Giggles, InStyle, and more. Read more
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It’s investing $2 billion in inflight upgrades. | https://bestlifeonline.com/gimme-a-break-daughters-now-news/ | 91 |
who played julie on gimme a break | Which 'Gimme a Break!' Cast Members Are Still Alive? | The ’80s was the golden age for TV sitcoms. Some of the biggest hits left lasting legacies that still endure. Gimme a Break! had a successful six-season run, cementing the NBC show’s catchy theme song in viewers’ minds forever.
The quirky series starred Nell Carter as a housekeeper, Nell Harper, who makes a promise to a dying friend to take care of her family. Harper takes on a motherly role and becomes the center of the household, often butting heads with the widowed police chief and his three teenage daughters.
When the cameras stopped rolling in 1987, the stars of the long-running NBC sitcom went their separate ways. While several of the Gimme a Break! actors continued working in film and television, a few are no longer with us. Here is a look at where the cast of Gimme a Break! is now.
Throughout her life, the multi-talented actor and singer was best known for her role as the wise-cracking housekeeper on Gimme a Break! The role earned Carter two Emmy nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series. In 1982, she won an Emmy for her role in the televised version of the Broadway musical revue Ain’t Misbehavin’ .
After Gimme a Break! , Carter made guest appearances in several popular TV sitcoms, despite intense personal struggles . According to IMDb , “She endured constant weight problems and severe alcohol/cocaine habits (recovered) as well as two divorces, a suicide attempt, several miscarriages, bankruptcy, the death of a brother from AIDS, and multiple surgeries after suffering a near-fatal brain aneurysm in 1992.”
The sassy actor also battled obesity and diabetes for most of her adult life. In 2003, at 54 years of age, Carter died, suffering a fatal heart attack .
Lara Miller portrayed Sam, the youngest sister, who fans of the show may remember as a spunky tomboy. Miller took a short break from acting after Gimme A Break! to pursue her education. She received her law degree from Fordham School of Law, but according to IMDb , missed the graduation ceremony so she could play Peter Pan in a stage production.
Today, Miller is 55 years old and according to her Twitter bio is still active in the entertainment industry. She describes herself as “that girl from GimmeABreak DocMcStuffins LoudHouse MollyMcGee JuniperLee WowWowWubbzy SciGirls CuriousGeorge OKKO! BEASTARS HenryHugglemonster GiveAMouseACookie.”
Kari Michaelsen starred as the popular older sister, Katie, on Gimme a Break! from 1981-87. After leaving the sitcom , the young actor became a motivational speaker and has hosted educational seminars ever since.
She also worked as the host of ABC’s In the Spotlight . Today, the self-proclaimed media and video expert is 60 years old and the mom of a 17-year-old son.
Lauri Hendler, now 56 years old, played the role of middle sister, Julie. After the long-running series ended, she continued acting. According to Best Life , Hendler has appeared on popular TV shows such as ER , The West Wing , Veep , Without a Trace , Young Sheldon , and Animal Kingdom . Her most recent role was a guest appearance on The Goldbergs .
Dolph Sweet played the role of widowed father, Carl Kanisky, the local police chief of the fictional California town, Glenlawn.
In real life, Sweet was a World War II POW and had accrued a long list of film and television credits to his name. Before getting into acting, he was an English and drama teacher at Barnard College of Columbia University.
The LA Times reported that Sweet missed four episodes of Gimme a Break! during the 1983-84 season due to stomach surgery. In 1985, the beloved actor died from stomach cancer . Carter delivered his eulogy.
When Joey Lawrence joined the cast of Gimme a Break! , he was only seven years old. He landed a recurring role as foster son, Joey Donovan, and stayed with the series until its end.
The child actor then starred in the TV series Blossom alongside Mayim Bialik . The role helped him became one of the biggest teen idols of the ’90s. While pursuing his passion for music, his single “Nothin’ My Love Can’t Fix” hit No. 19 on the Billboard 100 charts. From 2010-15, Lawrence starred with Melissa Joan Hart in the long-running series Melissa & Joey.
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The 46-year-old actor has had an impressive career thus far and continues to pursue new material for his singing and acting endeavors. The father of two recently remarried and, according to People , has a new baby on the way. | https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/gimme-a-break-cast-members-still-alive.html/ | 91 |
who played julie on gimme a break | Julie on 'Gimme a Break!': 'Memba Her?! | Lauri Hendler played middle daughter Julie Kanisky on the '80s TV series " Gimme a Break! " Guess what she looks like now !
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which of the following is an instrumental activity of daily living | Instrumental Activity of Daily Living - StatPearls | Hui Jun Guo ; Amit Sapra .
Last Update: November 14, 2022 .
Instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) are those activities that allow an individual to live independently in a community. Although not necessary for functional living, the ability to perform IADLs can significantly improve the quality of life. The major domains of IADLs include cooking, cleaning, transportation, laundry, and managing finances. Occupational therapists commonly assess IADLs in the setting of rehab to determine the level of an individual’s need for assistance and cognitive function.
IADLs are commonly confused with basic activities of daily living (ADLs). The major domains of ADLs are feeding, dressing, bathing, and walking. In contrast with IADLs, ADLs are necessary for basic functional living. Deficits in performing ADLs may indicate the need for home healthcare or placement in a skilled nursing facility. [1]
There exist multiple scales or instruments for the evaluation of IADLs. These include, but are not limited to, Lawton and Brody IADL, Health and Retirement Study Care Questionnaire, and Pfeffer Functional Activities Questionnaire. Each instrument includes its definition of IADL disability. Therefore, in analyzing cognitive impairment, the results differ depending on which instrument the evaluator used.
One of the significant limitations that all these instruments have in common is that they are often self-reported. A person is biased toward his or her abilities to perform specific tasks. Thus, they may either overestimate or underestimate their abilities.
Another major issue arises when examiners use IADL instruments to detect the probability of dementia in mildly cognitive impaired (MCI) individuals. Studies have shown that there is no difference in performing certain IADLs between MCI individuals with dementia and MCI individuals without dementia, which may be because current instruments are not sensitive to subtle changes. For example, an individual may have no issues with driving but have trouble adhering to traffic laws. On the Lawton and Brody IADL questionnaire, this individual would receive full points in evaluating the mode of transportation. Although current IADL instruments are widely helpful, they may still require a few refinements. [2] [3] [4] [5]
Despite some limitations, the assessment of IADLs remains useful in determining the cognitive function of an individual. Individuals with MCI who have impairments performing IADLs are more likely to develop dementia. The ability to perform IADLs is the first to decline in individuals with Alzheimer disease, while the ability to perform basic activities remains unimpaired. This finding can be helpful to healthcare professionals in detecting early-onset Alzheimer and dementia.
In most hospitals, the interdisciplinary approach to healthcare has become a popular concept. In rehab facilities, the physician, nurses, occupational therapists, and physical therapists work together to share knowledge and patient care skills. As stated before, occupational therapists generally assess ADLs and IADLs. Reports from occupational therapists can help analyze the functional and mental status of the patient. Studies have shown physical disability is a strong risk factor for cognitive decline. Thus, physicians and occupational therapists need to work closely together to minimize the risk of physical disability to limit cognitive decline. Understanding the importance of assessing ADLs and IADLs is crucial, as it can be a useful screening tool for dementia in the elderly population. [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]
Nursing staff and other home health aides can assist patients with IADLs, including cooking, cleaning, laundry, and even managing finances. These services can be provided in various facility arrangements, from nursing homes to home care. | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553126/ | 92 |
which of the following is an instrumental activity of daily living | What are Instrumental Activities of Daily Living? | By Angela Stringfellow on Mar 27, 2017 11:34:56 AM
Definition of Instrumental Activities of Daily Living
Instrumental activities of daily living are the skills and abilities needed to perform certain day-to-day tasks associated with an independent lifestyle. These activities are not considered to be essential for basic functioning, but are regarded as important for assessing day-to-day quality of life and relative independence. An evaluation of a person’s ability to manage instrumental activities of daily living is often used as one of several factors to assess whether an individual can safely continue to reside in their own home without outside assistance.
There are typically 8 areas of focus for instrumental activities of daily living, including :
- Ability to use the telephone
- Laundry and dressing
- Shopping and running errands
- Transportation
- Meal preparation
- Medication management
- Housekeeping activities
- Ability to manage finances
How Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Work
There are several different scales that measure an individual’s ability to perform instrumental activities of daily living, including the Older Americans Resources and Services (OARS) ADL/IADL scale , the Katz ADL scale , the Bristol Activities of Daily Living Scale , and the Lawton IADL scale .
These questionnaires are typically used by care provider services, health care professionals, and family members in order to measure and track an individual’s competence with these skills and are often used in assessments to determine whether older adults can safely live at home independently or, alternatively, as a gauge to determine the level of services required in order to enable an older adult or disabled person to continue living in their own home.
While such decisions are often emotional and difficult, these assessments allow for objective consideration with regards to decision-making around care and therapies. The lower one’s score, the higher their dependence level, and conversely, a higher score indicates greater independence.
Improving Abilities Related to Instrumental Activities of Daily Living
Supporting your loved one in maintaining their instrumental activities of daily living can allow for them to live independently in their own home for a longer period of time. This can help to increase overall happiness and well-being, and helps to cut down on elder care costs over the long term.
There are a number of ways that elders can boost or sustain their abilities surrounding the instrumental activities of daily living. These include:
- Exercise daily: Research shows that seniors can reduce healthcare costs, remain active, and reduce hospital admissions all by being physically active. Even a walk around the block has been shown to be incredibly beneficial in helping seniors to keep their mobility and ultimately their independence.
- Complete puzzles: Research has found that those who complete brain-stimulating puzzles such as crosswords and word searches approximately four times per week can reduce their risk of dementia by up to 47%.
- Focus on nutrition: A healthy diet is key to overall health and longevity for elders. Eating nutrient-dense foods such as seafood and lean meats, green leafy vegetables, and healthy fats from foods such as avocados and olives are all excellent ways to support good health, ultimately helping increase a senior’s independence with daily activities.
- Accept help: This could be as simple as hiring someone to aid in tasks such as running errands or preparing meals. Some seniors benefit from more comprehensive, professional services such as physical or occupational therapy, which can help to maintain or improve skills in a certain area, such as walking or cleaning.
Why Are Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Important?
It is estimated that by 2030 there will be 55 million Americans over the age of 65, or 20% of the total population, with the 85-and-older group growing significantly. Being able to accurately and adequately assess an older adult’s competence with instrumental activities of daily living will be of utmost importance in providing quality and timely care to this rapidly growing sector of the population.
A person’s score on an IADL scale is essential in helping to make care decisions and decisions about an elder’s ability to continue living independently. Depending on a person’s score, some sort of assisted-living arrangement or initiation of companion care services may be indicated.
IADL scores can also be an important measure of cognitive abilities and as such are an important early screening tool for those with signs of, or a family history of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.
Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Assistance
There are a number of professionals who can assist older adults in carrying out the instrumental activities of daily living. These professionals include physical therapists, occupational therapists, nurses, companion caregivers, social workers, and personal support workers.
The average cost of assistance with instrumental activities of daily living can vary widely depending on the amount and type of assistance required, your location, and the number of caregivers needed. On average, expect to pay somewhere in the range of $15-30 per hour for something like companion care or nursing and around $40+ per hour for occupational or physical therapy services. There are also alternative programs like Caregiver Homes that help family members to assist with IADLs at home through coaching and support.
If you have a loved one approaching the senior years, it’s a good idea to monitor their ability to manage instrumental activities of daily living so that you can seek out appropriate services to support your loved one as they age.
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which of the following is an instrumental activity of daily living | Activities of Daily Living - StatPearls | Activities of daily living (ADLs) are essential and routine tasks that most young, healthy individuals can perform without assistance. The inability to accomplish essential activities of daily living may lead to unsafe conditions and poor quality of life. The healthcare team should be aware of the importance of assessing ADL in patients to help ensure that patients who require assistance and are identified. This activity details the activities of daily living and highlights the role of the interprofessional team in assessing ADLs to enhance patient care and management.
Objectives:
- Describe the six essential activities of daily living and know the instrumental activities of daily living and the impact of patient functioning.
- Summarize causes of limitation in activities of daily living and decline in activities of daily living.
- Review the commonly used instruments for measuring the basic and instrumental activities of daily living.
- Explain the role of the interprofessional team in managing and assessing patients with limited activities of daily living.
The activities of daily living (ADLs) is a term used to collectively describe fundamental skills required to independently care for oneself, such as eating, bathing, and mobility. The term activities of daily living was first coined by Sidney Katz in 1950. [1] [2]
ADL is used as an indicator of a person’s functional status. The inability to perform ADLs results in the dependence of other individuals and/or mechanical devices. The inability to accomplish essential activities of daily living may lead to unsafe conditions and poor quality of life. Measurement of an individual’s ADL is important as these are predictors of admission to nursing homes, need for alternative living arrangements, hospitalization, and use of paid home care. The outcome of a treatment program can also be assessed by reviewing a patient’s ADLs. [3] [4] [5] [6]
Nurses are often the first to note when patients' functionality declines during hospitalization; therefore, routine screening of ADLs is imperative, and nursing assessment of ADLs is performed on all hospitalized patients. Hospitalization for an acute or chronic illness may influence a person’s ability to meet personal goals and sustain independent living. Chronic illnesses progress over time, resulting in a physical decline that may lead to a loss of ability to perform ADLs.
In 2011, the United States National Health Interview Survey determined that 20.7% of adults aged 85 or older, 7% of those aged 75 to 84, and 3.4% of those aged 65 to 74 needed help with ADLs. [7] [8]
Types of ADL
The activities of daily living are classified into basic ADLs and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs). The basic ADLs (BADL) or physical ADLs are those skills required to manage one’s basic physical needs, including personal hygiene or grooming, dressing, toileting, transferring or ambulating, and eating. The Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs) include more complex activities related to the ability to live independently in the community. This would include activities such as e.g., managing finances and medications, food preparation, housekeeping, laundry.
Basic ADLs
The basic ADL include the following categories:
- Ambulating: The extent of an individual’s ability to move from one position to another and walk independently.
- Feeding: The ability of a person to feed oneself.
- Dressing: The ability to select appropriate clothes and to put the clothes on.
- Personal hygiene: The ability to bathe and groom oneself and maintain dental hygiene, nail, and hair care.
- Continence: The ability to control bladder and bowel function
- Toileting: The ability to get to and from the toilet, using it appropriately, and cleaning oneself.
Learning how each basic ADL affects an individual to care for themselves can help determine whether a patient would need daily assistance. It can also help the elderly or disabled people to determine their eligibility got state and federal assistance programs.
Instrumental ADLs
The instrumental ADLs are those that require more complex thinking skills, including organizational skills.
- Transportation and shopping: Ability to procure groceries, attend events Managing transportation, either via driving or by organizing other means of transport.
- Managing finances: This includes the ability to pay bills and managing financial assets.
- Shopping and meal preparation, i.e., everything required to get a meal on the table. It also covers shopping for clothing and other items required for daily life.
- Housecleaning and home maintenance. Cleaning kitchens after eating, maintaining living areas reasonably clean and tidy, and keeping up with home maintenance.
- Managing communication with others: The ability to manage telephone and mail.
- Managing medications: Ability to obtain medications and taking them as directed.
The IADL differs from ADL as people often begin asking for outside assistance when these tasks become difficult to manage independently. [9]
Causes for limitations in ADLs
Decline or impairment in physical function arises from many conditions. Aging is a natural process that may present a decline in the functional status of patients and is a common cause of subsequent loss of ADLs. [10] Musculoskeletal, neurological, circulatory, or sensory conditions can lead to decreased physical function leading to impairment in ADLs. A cognitive or mental decline can also lead to impaired ADL's. [11] Severe cognitive fluctuations in dementia patients have a significant association with impaired engagement in activities of daily living that negatively affect the quality of life. Social isolation can lead to impairment in instrumental activities of daily living. Other factors such as side effects of medications, social isolation, or the patient's home environment can influence the ability to perform ADLs. [12] [13]
Hospitalization and acute illnesses have also been associated with a decline in ADLs. Sands et al. reported that loss of ADL functioning over 1 year is independently associated with acute hospital admission for acute illness and cognitive impairment among frail older adults. Similarly, Cinvinsky et al. performed a prospective observational study that evaluated the changes in ADL function occurring before and after hospital admission. They found that many hospitalized older people are discharged with ADL function that is worse than their baseline function.
Measurement of ADLs
Defining the extent of loss of ADL and IADL is important to help define and ensure appropriate care support. Several checklists have been developed by various entities. Although there is some consensus among what ADLs should be included, there exists significant variability on how these questionnaires ask about ADL functions. [14] [15]
The most frequently used checklists are the Katz Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living and the Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) Scale. The Katz scale assesses the basic activities of daily living but does not assess more advanced activities of daily living. The Katz ADL scale is sensitive to changes in declining health status, but its limitations include the limited in its ability to measure small elements of change seen in the rehabilitation of older adults. However, it is very useful in creating a common language about patient function for healthcare providers involved in the overall care and discharge planning. [16] [1]
The Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) Scale is used to evaluate independent living skills (Lawton & Brody, 1969). The instrument is most useful for identifying how a person is functioning and identifying improvement or deterioration over time. The scale measures eight domains of function, including food preparation, housekeeping, laundering. Individuals are scored according to their highest level of functioning in that category. A summary score ranges from 0 (low function, dependent) to 8 (high function, independent). The scale is easy to administer assessment instrument that provides self-reported information about functional skills necessary to live in the community. Specific deficits identified can assist nurses and other disciplines in planning for safe discharge. The limitations of this scale are that it is a self-administered test rather than the actual demonstration of the functional task. This may lead either to over-estimation or under-estimation of the ability to perform the activity. [17] [18]
Assessment of ADLs is an important aspect of routine patient assessment and assists healthcare providers in assessing the patient’s status, plan, and intervene appropriately. A provider needs to address a patient’s general medical condition when determining their level of accomplishing functional capabilities that otherwise ensure independent living and personal care. [4]
An ADL assessment helps determine whether a patient may require further rehabilitation or assistance at home or if a skilled nursing or long-term care facility would be a safer environment for the patient. Inability to ambulate may result in an increased risk of falls. It is well-reported that falls are associated with an increased mortality rate. Individuals who have experienced more than one incidence of falling and are 65 years of age and older tend to have a poor prognosis after a fall. Such falls and subsequent hospitalization also place a burden on healthcare utilization and costs. [19] Other issues to consider before placement in assisted living or nursing home as opposed to independent living at home include a patient’s ability to cook and clean their homes, shop, use public transportation, or drive. [20]
It is important to recognize the impact of a loss of ADL on the patient. Independent living is highly encouraged and advocated in American society, and many aging individuals fear a loss of autonomy. [20] [21]
Occupational therapists perform an ADL assessment to determine benefits for disability insurance and long-term care insurance policies. The cost of home care, skilled care, assisted living, and nursing homes is a concern for many families. Not all supportive care is covered by Medicare or private insurance, thus leading to financial concerns for patients and significant others. The high cost of care may lead to decisions that preclude patients from receiving the care required to support ADL's. [22]
Access to care can also be an issue. Often lower socioeconomic groups or disadvantaged persons have difficulty accessing quality care for seniors. Access can be difficult due to transportation, distance, and availability. [23] Though many placements at care facilities are short-term, most patients end up staying longer than a year due to the inability to perform more than two of the six ADLs. [24]
Nurses need to communicate patients' ability to perform ADLs and IADLs with providers so that the health care team and their families can discuss if a patient meets the pre-defined criteria to either continue to live in their homes or be placed in assisted living, skilled care, or nursing home facilities. (United States National Library of Medicine, 2017) Occupational therapists assess the patients. Depending on the severity of the patient's impairment, most home health nurses complete assessments to make plans for improvements, help with medication administration, and bring resources to assist with independence. Occupational therapists are invaluable in working with these patients. Unlicensed assistive personnel help with bathing, light housekeeping, shopping, and activity to support the patient's desire for continued independent living. [25] [5]
All interprofessional healthcare team members, including clinicians, nurses, physical therapists, and occupational therapists, should collaborate to assess the functionality of patients before discharge. Patients who are unable to perform activities of daily living may require further rehabilitation or assistance at home. The inability to dress or toilet can lead to poor quality of life. Difficulty ambulating or transferring can lead to falls and further decline. Difficulty in eating independently can lead to poor nutrition, dehydration, and further weakness. Appropriate referrals to OT, PT, and dieticians should be considered. Assessment of functionality should become routine practice for all patients as it can affect people of all ages. An interprofessional team communicating and collaborating will provide the best patient evaluation and discharge with good follow-up care. The nursing staff should report to the medical team concerns in regards to patients unable to complete ADLs. The interprofessional clinical team assists in directing the nursing home health and social work coordinators to make sure patients receive the care they need. The home health nursing staff needs to provide ongoing monitoring and reporting back to the clinical team should an increase in deficiency of ADLs occur. [Level 5]
The implications and role of a change in ADLs in any particular patient differ among the various stakeholders in the patient’s care team.
- Case manager, nurse, and social worker
- Primary care clinician
- Home health or skilled nursing agencies
- Physical and occupational therapy
- Long-term care insurance providers
- Government agencies
The nurse and care manager typically assess and collect information on a person’s ability to perform ADLs. This data enables them to plan for each person’s continuum of care. The physicians use the assessments to formulate and plan of care which is then provided to the home health agency or skilled nursing agency. The agency will then select the appropriate staff needed for each client. The physical and occupational therapists work with the plan of care and document the progress in ADL to ensure the rehabilitation goals are achieved to the extent possible. Insurance providers and government agents use the assessments of ADL to determine the patient's qualifications and pay for the services rendered. [5] [26]
Nurses and occupational therapists assess ADLs and IADLs daily in all hospitalized patients. Appropriately assessing, planning, intervening, and evaluating ADLs and IADLs can mean the difference between independent aging and needing daily assistance.
There are many tools included in daily shift assessments, but all nurses should be aware of each patient's needs for assistance in managing ADLs. When a patient is at risk for a change in ADLs or IADLs, the nurse should assist patients and report to the interprofessional team members to establish a new plan of care.
Possible NANDA nursing diagnoses include altered health maintenance, defined as a "State in which an individual has no physiological or psychological energy enough to resist or complete required or desired daily activities." Other possible nursing diagnoses include: risk of injury, activity intolerance, social isolation, or ineffective family coping. | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470404/#:~:text=The%20Instrumental%20Activities%20of%20Daily%20Living%20%28IADLs%29%2C%20which,and%20medications%2C%20food%20preparation%2C%20housekeeping%2C%20laundry.%20Basic%20ADLs | 92 |
which of the following is an instrumental activity of daily living | Activities of Daily Living - StatPearls | Activities of daily living (ADLs) are essential and routine tasks that most young, healthy individuals can perform without assistance. The inability to accomplish essential activities of daily living may lead to unsafe conditions and poor quality of life. The healthcare team should be aware of the importance of assessing ADL in patients to help ensure that patients who require assistance and are identified. This activity details the activities of daily living and highlights the role of the interprofessional team in assessing ADLs to enhance patient care and management.
Objectives:
- Describe the six essential activities of daily living and know the instrumental activities of daily living and the impact of patient functioning.
- Summarize causes of limitation in activities of daily living and decline in activities of daily living.
- Review the commonly used instruments for measuring the basic and instrumental activities of daily living.
- Explain the role of the interprofessional team in managing and assessing patients with limited activities of daily living.
The activities of daily living (ADLs) is a term used to collectively describe fundamental skills required to independently care for oneself, such as eating, bathing, and mobility. The term activities of daily living was first coined by Sidney Katz in 1950. [1] [2]
ADL is used as an indicator of a person’s functional status. The inability to perform ADLs results in the dependence of other individuals and/or mechanical devices. The inability to accomplish essential activities of daily living may lead to unsafe conditions and poor quality of life. Measurement of an individual’s ADL is important as these are predictors of admission to nursing homes, need for alternative living arrangements, hospitalization, and use of paid home care. The outcome of a treatment program can also be assessed by reviewing a patient’s ADLs. [3] [4] [5] [6]
Nurses are often the first to note when patients' functionality declines during hospitalization; therefore, routine screening of ADLs is imperative, and nursing assessment of ADLs is performed on all hospitalized patients. Hospitalization for an acute or chronic illness may influence a person’s ability to meet personal goals and sustain independent living. Chronic illnesses progress over time, resulting in a physical decline that may lead to a loss of ability to perform ADLs.
In 2011, the United States National Health Interview Survey determined that 20.7% of adults aged 85 or older, 7% of those aged 75 to 84, and 3.4% of those aged 65 to 74 needed help with ADLs. [7] [8]
Types of ADL
The activities of daily living are classified into basic ADLs and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs). The basic ADLs (BADL) or physical ADLs are those skills required to manage one’s basic physical needs, including personal hygiene or grooming, dressing, toileting, transferring or ambulating, and eating. The Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs) include more complex activities related to the ability to live independently in the community. This would include activities such as e.g., managing finances and medications, food preparation, housekeeping, laundry.
Basic ADLs
The basic ADL include the following categories:
- Ambulating: The extent of an individual’s ability to move from one position to another and walk independently.
- Feeding: The ability of a person to feed oneself.
- Dressing: The ability to select appropriate clothes and to put the clothes on.
- Personal hygiene: The ability to bathe and groom oneself and maintain dental hygiene, nail, and hair care.
- Continence: The ability to control bladder and bowel function
- Toileting: The ability to get to and from the toilet, using it appropriately, and cleaning oneself.
Learning how each basic ADL affects an individual to care for themselves can help determine whether a patient would need daily assistance. It can also help the elderly or disabled people to determine their eligibility got state and federal assistance programs.
Instrumental ADLs
The instrumental ADLs are those that require more complex thinking skills, including organizational skills.
- Transportation and shopping: Ability to procure groceries, attend events Managing transportation, either via driving or by organizing other means of transport.
- Managing finances: This includes the ability to pay bills and managing financial assets.
- Shopping and meal preparation, i.e., everything required to get a meal on the table. It also covers shopping for clothing and other items required for daily life.
- Housecleaning and home maintenance. Cleaning kitchens after eating, maintaining living areas reasonably clean and tidy, and keeping up with home maintenance.
- Managing communication with others: The ability to manage telephone and mail.
- Managing medications: Ability to obtain medications and taking them as directed.
The IADL differs from ADL as people often begin asking for outside assistance when these tasks become difficult to manage independently. [9]
Causes for limitations in ADLs
Decline or impairment in physical function arises from many conditions. Aging is a natural process that may present a decline in the functional status of patients and is a common cause of subsequent loss of ADLs. [10] Musculoskeletal, neurological, circulatory, or sensory conditions can lead to decreased physical function leading to impairment in ADLs. A cognitive or mental decline can also lead to impaired ADL's. [11] Severe cognitive fluctuations in dementia patients have a significant association with impaired engagement in activities of daily living that negatively affect the quality of life. Social isolation can lead to impairment in instrumental activities of daily living. Other factors such as side effects of medications, social isolation, or the patient's home environment can influence the ability to perform ADLs. [12] [13]
Hospitalization and acute illnesses have also been associated with a decline in ADLs. Sands et al. reported that loss of ADL functioning over 1 year is independently associated with acute hospital admission for acute illness and cognitive impairment among frail older adults. Similarly, Cinvinsky et al. performed a prospective observational study that evaluated the changes in ADL function occurring before and after hospital admission. They found that many hospitalized older people are discharged with ADL function that is worse than their baseline function.
Measurement of ADLs
Defining the extent of loss of ADL and IADL is important to help define and ensure appropriate care support. Several checklists have been developed by various entities. Although there is some consensus among what ADLs should be included, there exists significant variability on how these questionnaires ask about ADL functions. [14] [15]
The most frequently used checklists are the Katz Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living and the Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) Scale. The Katz scale assesses the basic activities of daily living but does not assess more advanced activities of daily living. The Katz ADL scale is sensitive to changes in declining health status, but its limitations include the limited in its ability to measure small elements of change seen in the rehabilitation of older adults. However, it is very useful in creating a common language about patient function for healthcare providers involved in the overall care and discharge planning. [16] [1]
The Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) Scale is used to evaluate independent living skills (Lawton & Brody, 1969). The instrument is most useful for identifying how a person is functioning and identifying improvement or deterioration over time. The scale measures eight domains of function, including food preparation, housekeeping, laundering. Individuals are scored according to their highest level of functioning in that category. A summary score ranges from 0 (low function, dependent) to 8 (high function, independent). The scale is easy to administer assessment instrument that provides self-reported information about functional skills necessary to live in the community. Specific deficits identified can assist nurses and other disciplines in planning for safe discharge. The limitations of this scale are that it is a self-administered test rather than the actual demonstration of the functional task. This may lead either to over-estimation or under-estimation of the ability to perform the activity. [17] [18]
Assessment of ADLs is an important aspect of routine patient assessment and assists healthcare providers in assessing the patient’s status, plan, and intervene appropriately. A provider needs to address a patient’s general medical condition when determining their level of accomplishing functional capabilities that otherwise ensure independent living and personal care. [4]
An ADL assessment helps determine whether a patient may require further rehabilitation or assistance at home or if a skilled nursing or long-term care facility would be a safer environment for the patient. Inability to ambulate may result in an increased risk of falls. It is well-reported that falls are associated with an increased mortality rate. Individuals who have experienced more than one incidence of falling and are 65 years of age and older tend to have a poor prognosis after a fall. Such falls and subsequent hospitalization also place a burden on healthcare utilization and costs. [19] Other issues to consider before placement in assisted living or nursing home as opposed to independent living at home include a patient’s ability to cook and clean their homes, shop, use public transportation, or drive. [20]
It is important to recognize the impact of a loss of ADL on the patient. Independent living is highly encouraged and advocated in American society, and many aging individuals fear a loss of autonomy. [20] [21]
Occupational therapists perform an ADL assessment to determine benefits for disability insurance and long-term care insurance policies. The cost of home care, skilled care, assisted living, and nursing homes is a concern for many families. Not all supportive care is covered by Medicare or private insurance, thus leading to financial concerns for patients and significant others. The high cost of care may lead to decisions that preclude patients from receiving the care required to support ADL's. [22]
Access to care can also be an issue. Often lower socioeconomic groups or disadvantaged persons have difficulty accessing quality care for seniors. Access can be difficult due to transportation, distance, and availability. [23] Though many placements at care facilities are short-term, most patients end up staying longer than a year due to the inability to perform more than two of the six ADLs. [24]
Nurses need to communicate patients' ability to perform ADLs and IADLs with providers so that the health care team and their families can discuss if a patient meets the pre-defined criteria to either continue to live in their homes or be placed in assisted living, skilled care, or nursing home facilities. (United States National Library of Medicine, 2017) Occupational therapists assess the patients. Depending on the severity of the patient's impairment, most home health nurses complete assessments to make plans for improvements, help with medication administration, and bring resources to assist with independence. Occupational therapists are invaluable in working with these patients. Unlicensed assistive personnel help with bathing, light housekeeping, shopping, and activity to support the patient's desire for continued independent living. [25] [5]
All interprofessional healthcare team members, including clinicians, nurses, physical therapists, and occupational therapists, should collaborate to assess the functionality of patients before discharge. Patients who are unable to perform activities of daily living may require further rehabilitation or assistance at home. The inability to dress or toilet can lead to poor quality of life. Difficulty ambulating or transferring can lead to falls and further decline. Difficulty in eating independently can lead to poor nutrition, dehydration, and further weakness. Appropriate referrals to OT, PT, and dieticians should be considered. Assessment of functionality should become routine practice for all patients as it can affect people of all ages. An interprofessional team communicating and collaborating will provide the best patient evaluation and discharge with good follow-up care. The nursing staff should report to the medical team concerns in regards to patients unable to complete ADLs. The interprofessional clinical team assists in directing the nursing home health and social work coordinators to make sure patients receive the care they need. The home health nursing staff needs to provide ongoing monitoring and reporting back to the clinical team should an increase in deficiency of ADLs occur. [Level 5]
The implications and role of a change in ADLs in any particular patient differ among the various stakeholders in the patient’s care team.
- Case manager, nurse, and social worker
- Primary care clinician
- Home health or skilled nursing agencies
- Physical and occupational therapy
- Long-term care insurance providers
- Government agencies
The nurse and care manager typically assess and collect information on a person’s ability to perform ADLs. This data enables them to plan for each person’s continuum of care. The physicians use the assessments to formulate and plan of care which is then provided to the home health agency or skilled nursing agency. The agency will then select the appropriate staff needed for each client. The physical and occupational therapists work with the plan of care and document the progress in ADL to ensure the rehabilitation goals are achieved to the extent possible. Insurance providers and government agents use the assessments of ADL to determine the patient's qualifications and pay for the services rendered. [5] [26]
Nurses and occupational therapists assess ADLs and IADLs daily in all hospitalized patients. Appropriately assessing, planning, intervening, and evaluating ADLs and IADLs can mean the difference between independent aging and needing daily assistance.
There are many tools included in daily shift assessments, but all nurses should be aware of each patient's needs for assistance in managing ADLs. When a patient is at risk for a change in ADLs or IADLs, the nurse should assist patients and report to the interprofessional team members to establish a new plan of care.
Possible NANDA nursing diagnoses include altered health maintenance, defined as a "State in which an individual has no physiological or psychological energy enough to resist or complete required or desired daily activities." Other possible nursing diagnoses include: risk of injury, activity intolerance, social isolation, or ineffective family coping. | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470404/#:~:text=The%20Instrumental%20Activities%20of%20Daily%20Living%20%28IADLs%29%2C%20which,and%20medications%2C%20food%20preparation%2C%20housekeeping%2C%20laundry.%20Basic%20ADLs | 92 |
which of the following is an instrumental activity of daily living | What are ADLs & IADLs? (Activities of Daily Living & Instrumental Activities of Daily Living) | Professionals who work in aging often want to know whether an older person needs any help with “ADLs or IADLs.”
These medical abbreviation terms stand for Activities of Daily Living (ADLs) and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs). They represent key life tasks that people need to manage, in order to live at home and be fully independent.
If you’re an older adult or a family caregiver, it can be good to familiarize yourself with these terms and the related skills.
Difficulties with ADLs and IADLs often correspond to how much help, supervision, and hands-on care an older person needs. This can determine the cost of care at an assisted-living facility, whether someone is considered “safe” to live at home, or even whether a person is eligible for certain long-term care services.
Continue reading, or watch this subtitled video, to learn what ADLs and IADLs are and why they matter for older adults.
Featured Download: Checking ADLs and IADLs worksheet. Use this free PDF to easily note how much help is needed with key life tasks. You can report this information to a doctor or use it to get better care and support. Click here to download.
These are the basic self-care tasks that we initially learn as very young children. They are sometimes referred to as “Basic Activities of Daily Living” (BADLs). They include:
- Walking , or otherwise getting around the home or outside. The technical term for this is “ambulating.”
- Feeding , as in being able to get food from a plate into one’s mouth.
- Dressing and grooming , as in selecting clothes, putting them on, and adequately managing one’s personal appearance.
- Toileting , which means getting to and from the toilet, using it appropriately, and cleaning oneself.
- Bathing , which means washing one’s face and body in the bath or shower.
- Transferring , which means being able to move from one body position to another. This includes being able to move from a bed to a chair, or into a wheelchair. This can also include the ability to stand up from a bed or chair in order to grasp a walker or other assistive device.
If a person is not fully independent with ADLs, then we usually include some information about the amount of assistance they require.
For each ADL, people can vary from needing just a little help (such as a reminder or “stand-by assist”) to full dependency, which requires others to do the task for them.
ADLs were originally defined in the 1950s by a geriatrician named Sidney Katz, who was trying to define what it might look like for a person to recover to independence after a disabling event such as a stroke or hip fracture. So these measures are sometimes called the “Katz Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living.”
These are the self-care tasks we usually learn as teenagers. They require more complex thinking skills, including organizational skills. They include:
- Managing finances , such as paying bills and managing financial assets.
- Managing transportation , either via driving or by organizing other means of transport.
- Shopping and meal preparation . This covers everything required to get a meal on the table. It also covers shopping for clothing and other items required for daily life.
- Housecleaning and home maintenance . This means cleaning kitchens after eating, keeping one’s living space reasonably clean and tidy, and keeping up with home maintenance.
- Managing communication , such as the telephone and mail.
- Managing medications , which covers obtaining medications and taking them as directed.
Because managing IADLs requires a fair amount of cognitive skill, it’s common for IADLs to be affected when an older person is having difficulty with memory or thinking.
For those older adults who develop Alzheimer’s disease or a related dementia , IADLs will usually be affected before ADLs are.
IADLs were defined about ten years after ADLs, by a psychologist named M.P. Lawton. Dr. Lawton felt there were more skills required to maintain independence than were listed on the original Katz ADL index, and hence created the “Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale.”
Generally, older adults need to be able to manage ADLs and IADLs in order to live independently without the assistance of another person.
Geriatricians, social workers, and other professionals assess ADLs and IADLs as part of assessing an older person’s “function.” Problems with ADLs and IADLs usually reflect problems with physical health and/or cognitive health. Identifying functional difficulties can help us diagnose and manage important health problems.
But most importantly, we try to identify functional difficulties because we want to make sure older adults are getting the help and support they need to compensate for, or overcome, these difficulties. We also want to help any family caregivers who might be struggling to assist a relative who needs help.
ADLs and IADLs are also important when it comes to moving an older person to a residential facility.
If you are wondering what type of senior living would be a good fit for an aging parent (independent living vs assisted living vs memory care vs a nursing home), answering this question often requires understanding what type of ADL and IADL support the older person needs now…and is likely to need in the near future.
For instance, assisted living facilities can often help with the IADL of medication management, and can provide meals and housekeeping.
But assisted living facilities may not be a good fit for an aging adult who needs help with many ADLs, such as help with personal hygiene, or toileting, or help transferring from a bed to a wheelchair. Whereas nursing homes are able to care for residents who need assistance with ADLs.
Now, some assisted living facilities do offer help with toileting or other ADLs, for an extra cost. It’s also sometimes possible for families to hire their own personal care assistant . Or, help with ADLs may be included as part of memory care. So it is often possible for older adults to remain in assisted living, even if they need help with ADLs. But, it’s usually expensive!
For all these reasons, most facilities will request some type of ADL and IADL assessment, as part of evaluating an older person who may want to move into the facility.
Last but not least: ADL and IADL assessments are often required to trigger long-term care insurance benefits, which may not be available unless an older adult needs help with ADLs.
Featured Download: Checking ADLs and IADLs worksheet. Use this free PDF to easily note how much help is needed with key life tasks. You can report this information to a doctor or use it to get better care and support. Click here to download. | https://betterhealthwhileaging.net/what-are-adls-and-iadls/ | 92 |
which of the following is an instrumental activity of daily living | What are ADLs & IADLs? (Activities of Daily Living & Instrumental Activities of Daily Living) | Professionals who work in aging often want to know whether an older person needs any help with “ADLs or IADLs.”
These medical abbreviation terms stand for Activities of Daily Living (ADLs) and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs). They represent key life tasks that people need to manage, in order to live at home and be fully independent.
If you’re an older adult or a family caregiver, it can be good to familiarize yourself with these terms and the related skills.
Difficulties with ADLs and IADLs often correspond to how much help, supervision, and hands-on care an older person needs. This can determine the cost of care at an assisted-living facility, whether someone is considered “safe” to live at home, or even whether a person is eligible for certain long-term care services.
Continue reading, or watch this subtitled video, to learn what ADLs and IADLs are and why they matter for older adults.
Featured Download: Checking ADLs and IADLs worksheet. Use this free PDF to easily note how much help is needed with key life tasks. You can report this information to a doctor or use it to get better care and support. Click here to download.
These are the basic self-care tasks that we initially learn as very young children. They are sometimes referred to as “Basic Activities of Daily Living” (BADLs). They include:
- Walking , or otherwise getting around the home or outside. The technical term for this is “ambulating.”
- Feeding , as in being able to get food from a plate into one’s mouth.
- Dressing and grooming , as in selecting clothes, putting them on, and adequately managing one’s personal appearance.
- Toileting , which means getting to and from the toilet, using it appropriately, and cleaning oneself.
- Bathing , which means washing one’s face and body in the bath or shower.
- Transferring , which means being able to move from one body position to another. This includes being able to move from a bed to a chair, or into a wheelchair. This can also include the ability to stand up from a bed or chair in order to grasp a walker or other assistive device.
If a person is not fully independent with ADLs, then we usually include some information about the amount of assistance they require.
For each ADL, people can vary from needing just a little help (such as a reminder or “stand-by assist”) to full dependency, which requires others to do the task for them.
ADLs were originally defined in the 1950s by a geriatrician named Sidney Katz, who was trying to define what it might look like for a person to recover to independence after a disabling event such as a stroke or hip fracture. So these measures are sometimes called the “Katz Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living.”
These are the self-care tasks we usually learn as teenagers. They require more complex thinking skills, including organizational skills. They include:
- Managing finances , such as paying bills and managing financial assets.
- Managing transportation , either via driving or by organizing other means of transport.
- Shopping and meal preparation . This covers everything required to get a meal on the table. It also covers shopping for clothing and other items required for daily life.
- Housecleaning and home maintenance . This means cleaning kitchens after eating, keeping one’s living space reasonably clean and tidy, and keeping up with home maintenance.
- Managing communication , such as the telephone and mail.
- Managing medications , which covers obtaining medications and taking them as directed.
Because managing IADLs requires a fair amount of cognitive skill, it’s common for IADLs to be affected when an older person is having difficulty with memory or thinking.
For those older adults who develop Alzheimer’s disease or a related dementia , IADLs will usually be affected before ADLs are.
IADLs were defined about ten years after ADLs, by a psychologist named M.P. Lawton. Dr. Lawton felt there were more skills required to maintain independence than were listed on the original Katz ADL index, and hence created the “Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale.”
Generally, older adults need to be able to manage ADLs and IADLs in order to live independently without the assistance of another person.
Geriatricians, social workers, and other professionals assess ADLs and IADLs as part of assessing an older person’s “function.” Problems with ADLs and IADLs usually reflect problems with physical health and/or cognitive health. Identifying functional difficulties can help us diagnose and manage important health problems.
But most importantly, we try to identify functional difficulties because we want to make sure older adults are getting the help and support they need to compensate for, or overcome, these difficulties. We also want to help any family caregivers who might be struggling to assist a relative who needs help.
ADLs and IADLs are also important when it comes to moving an older person to a residential facility.
If you are wondering what type of senior living would be a good fit for an aging parent (independent living vs assisted living vs memory care vs a nursing home), answering this question often requires understanding what type of ADL and IADL support the older person needs now…and is likely to need in the near future.
For instance, assisted living facilities can often help with the IADL of medication management, and can provide meals and housekeeping.
But assisted living facilities may not be a good fit for an aging adult who needs help with many ADLs, such as help with personal hygiene, or toileting, or help transferring from a bed to a wheelchair. Whereas nursing homes are able to care for residents who need assistance with ADLs.
Now, some assisted living facilities do offer help with toileting or other ADLs, for an extra cost. It’s also sometimes possible for families to hire their own personal care assistant . Or, help with ADLs may be included as part of memory care. So it is often possible for older adults to remain in assisted living, even if they need help with ADLs. But, it’s usually expensive!
For all these reasons, most facilities will request some type of ADL and IADL assessment, as part of evaluating an older person who may want to move into the facility.
Last but not least: ADL and IADL assessments are often required to trigger long-term care insurance benefits, which may not be available unless an older adult needs help with ADLs.
Featured Download: Checking ADLs and IADLs worksheet. Use this free PDF to easily note how much help is needed with key life tasks. You can report this information to a doctor or use it to get better care and support. Click here to download. | https://betterhealthwhileaging.net/what-are-adls-and-iadls/ | 92 |
which of the following is an instrumental activity of daily living | Instrumental Activity of Daily Living - StatPearls | Hui Jun Guo ; Amit Sapra .
Last Update: November 14, 2022 .
Instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) are those activities that allow an individual to live independently in a community. Although not necessary for functional living, the ability to perform IADLs can significantly improve the quality of life. The major domains of IADLs include cooking, cleaning, transportation, laundry, and managing finances. Occupational therapists commonly assess IADLs in the setting of rehab to determine the level of an individual’s need for assistance and cognitive function.
IADLs are commonly confused with basic activities of daily living (ADLs). The major domains of ADLs are feeding, dressing, bathing, and walking. In contrast with IADLs, ADLs are necessary for basic functional living. Deficits in performing ADLs may indicate the need for home healthcare or placement in a skilled nursing facility. [1]
There exist multiple scales or instruments for the evaluation of IADLs. These include, but are not limited to, Lawton and Brody IADL, Health and Retirement Study Care Questionnaire, and Pfeffer Functional Activities Questionnaire. Each instrument includes its definition of IADL disability. Therefore, in analyzing cognitive impairment, the results differ depending on which instrument the evaluator used.
One of the significant limitations that all these instruments have in common is that they are often self-reported. A person is biased toward his or her abilities to perform specific tasks. Thus, they may either overestimate or underestimate their abilities.
Another major issue arises when examiners use IADL instruments to detect the probability of dementia in mildly cognitive impaired (MCI) individuals. Studies have shown that there is no difference in performing certain IADLs between MCI individuals with dementia and MCI individuals without dementia, which may be because current instruments are not sensitive to subtle changes. For example, an individual may have no issues with driving but have trouble adhering to traffic laws. On the Lawton and Brody IADL questionnaire, this individual would receive full points in evaluating the mode of transportation. Although current IADL instruments are widely helpful, they may still require a few refinements. [2] [3] [4] [5]
Despite some limitations, the assessment of IADLs remains useful in determining the cognitive function of an individual. Individuals with MCI who have impairments performing IADLs are more likely to develop dementia. The ability to perform IADLs is the first to decline in individuals with Alzheimer disease, while the ability to perform basic activities remains unimpaired. This finding can be helpful to healthcare professionals in detecting early-onset Alzheimer and dementia.
In most hospitals, the interdisciplinary approach to healthcare has become a popular concept. In rehab facilities, the physician, nurses, occupational therapists, and physical therapists work together to share knowledge and patient care skills. As stated before, occupational therapists generally assess ADLs and IADLs. Reports from occupational therapists can help analyze the functional and mental status of the patient. Studies have shown physical disability is a strong risk factor for cognitive decline. Thus, physicians and occupational therapists need to work closely together to minimize the risk of physical disability to limit cognitive decline. Understanding the importance of assessing ADLs and IADLs is crucial, as it can be a useful screening tool for dementia in the elderly population. [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]
Nursing staff and other home health aides can assist patients with IADLs, including cooking, cleaning, laundry, and even managing finances. These services can be provided in various facility arrangements, from nursing homes to home care. | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553126/ | 92 |
which of the following is an instrumental activity of daily living | Learning About Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs) | Instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) are things you do every day to take care of yourself and your home. They are one way to measure how well you can live on your own. While activities of daily living (ADLs) are basic self-care tasks like bathing, IADLs require more complex planning and thinking.
Sometimes aging and health problems make it hard to do these tasks. You might not even notice that you can't do them as well as you used to. Often, the first sign that someone needs a little extra help is when that person can't do IADLs.
Your doctor uses IADLs to measure how much help you need. Knowing what you can and can't do for yourself is an important first step to getting help. And when you have the help you need, you can stay as independent as possible.
Your doctor will want to know if you are able to do tasks such as:
- Use the phone. This includes answering and calling others.
- Shop for groceries on your own.
- Plan, heat, and serve your own meals.
- Manage your medicines. This includes refilling them when needed and taking them correctly.
- Clean your house or apartment.
- Get around on your own, either by car, taxi, or public transportation.
- Manage money and pay bills.
If you are having trouble taking care of yourself or your home, talk with your doctor. You may want to bring a caregiver or family member who can help the doctor understand your needs and abilities.
Asking about IADLs is part of a routine health checkup your doctor will likely do as you age. Your health check might be done in a doctor's office, in your home, or at a hospital. The goal is to find out if you are having any problems that could make your health problems worse or that make it unsafe for you to be on your own.
For example, to measure your IADLs, your doctor may ask:
- Do you ever cook using your stove?
- When you need to take medicines, do you take them by yourself? Or do you have help?
- How do you get to the store?
- Do you pay your own bills, write cheques yourself, and go to the bank on your own?
It's common to feel worried or anxious if you find you can't do all the things you used to be able to do. But talking with your doctor about IADLs isn't a test that you either pass or fail. It's just a way to learn more about your health and safety.
Follow-up care is a key part of your treatment and safety. Be sure to make and go to all appointments, and call your doctor or nurse advice line ( 811 in most provinces and territories) if you are having problems. It's also a good idea to know your test results and keep a list of the medicines you take.
Current as of: March 9, 2022 | https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Health/aftercareinformation/pages/conditions.aspx?hwid=abk6308 | 92 |
which of the following is an instrumental activity of daily living | What are Instrumental Activities of Daily Living? | By Angela Stringfellow on Mar 27, 2017 11:34:56 AM
Definition of Instrumental Activities of Daily Living
Instrumental activities of daily living are the skills and abilities needed to perform certain day-to-day tasks associated with an independent lifestyle. These activities are not considered to be essential for basic functioning, but are regarded as important for assessing day-to-day quality of life and relative independence. An evaluation of a person’s ability to manage instrumental activities of daily living is often used as one of several factors to assess whether an individual can safely continue to reside in their own home without outside assistance.
There are typically 8 areas of focus for instrumental activities of daily living, including :
- Ability to use the telephone
- Laundry and dressing
- Shopping and running errands
- Transportation
- Meal preparation
- Medication management
- Housekeeping activities
- Ability to manage finances
How Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Work
There are several different scales that measure an individual’s ability to perform instrumental activities of daily living, including the Older Americans Resources and Services (OARS) ADL/IADL scale , the Katz ADL scale , the Bristol Activities of Daily Living Scale , and the Lawton IADL scale .
These questionnaires are typically used by care provider services, health care professionals, and family members in order to measure and track an individual’s competence with these skills and are often used in assessments to determine whether older adults can safely live at home independently or, alternatively, as a gauge to determine the level of services required in order to enable an older adult or disabled person to continue living in their own home.
While such decisions are often emotional and difficult, these assessments allow for objective consideration with regards to decision-making around care and therapies. The lower one’s score, the higher their dependence level, and conversely, a higher score indicates greater independence.
Improving Abilities Related to Instrumental Activities of Daily Living
Supporting your loved one in maintaining their instrumental activities of daily living can allow for them to live independently in their own home for a longer period of time. This can help to increase overall happiness and well-being, and helps to cut down on elder care costs over the long term.
There are a number of ways that elders can boost or sustain their abilities surrounding the instrumental activities of daily living. These include:
- Exercise daily: Research shows that seniors can reduce healthcare costs, remain active, and reduce hospital admissions all by being physically active. Even a walk around the block has been shown to be incredibly beneficial in helping seniors to keep their mobility and ultimately their independence.
- Complete puzzles: Research has found that those who complete brain-stimulating puzzles such as crosswords and word searches approximately four times per week can reduce their risk of dementia by up to 47%.
- Focus on nutrition: A healthy diet is key to overall health and longevity for elders. Eating nutrient-dense foods such as seafood and lean meats, green leafy vegetables, and healthy fats from foods such as avocados and olives are all excellent ways to support good health, ultimately helping increase a senior’s independence with daily activities.
- Accept help: This could be as simple as hiring someone to aid in tasks such as running errands or preparing meals. Some seniors benefit from more comprehensive, professional services such as physical or occupational therapy, which can help to maintain or improve skills in a certain area, such as walking or cleaning.
Why Are Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Important?
It is estimated that by 2030 there will be 55 million Americans over the age of 65, or 20% of the total population, with the 85-and-older group growing significantly. Being able to accurately and adequately assess an older adult’s competence with instrumental activities of daily living will be of utmost importance in providing quality and timely care to this rapidly growing sector of the population.
A person’s score on an IADL scale is essential in helping to make care decisions and decisions about an elder’s ability to continue living independently. Depending on a person’s score, some sort of assisted-living arrangement or initiation of companion care services may be indicated.
IADL scores can also be an important measure of cognitive abilities and as such are an important early screening tool for those with signs of, or a family history of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.
Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Assistance
There are a number of professionals who can assist older adults in carrying out the instrumental activities of daily living. These professionals include physical therapists, occupational therapists, nurses, companion caregivers, social workers, and personal support workers.
The average cost of assistance with instrumental activities of daily living can vary widely depending on the amount and type of assistance required, your location, and the number of caregivers needed. On average, expect to pay somewhere in the range of $15-30 per hour for something like companion care or nursing and around $40+ per hour for occupational or physical therapy services. There are also alternative programs like Caregiver Homes that help family members to assist with IADLs at home through coaching and support.
If you have a loved one approaching the senior years, it’s a good idea to monitor their ability to manage instrumental activities of daily living so that you can seek out appropriate services to support your loved one as they age.
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which of the following is an instrumental activity of daily living | What are ADLs & IADLs? (Activities of Daily Living & Instrumental Activities of Daily Living) | Professionals who work in aging often want to know whether an older person needs any help with “ADLs or IADLs.”
These medical abbreviation terms stand for Activities of Daily Living (ADLs) and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs). They represent key life tasks that people need to manage, in order to live at home and be fully independent.
If you’re an older adult or a family caregiver, it can be good to familiarize yourself with these terms and the related skills.
Difficulties with ADLs and IADLs often correspond to how much help, supervision, and hands-on care an older person needs. This can determine the cost of care at an assisted-living facility, whether someone is considered “safe” to live at home, or even whether a person is eligible for certain long-term care services.
Continue reading, or watch this subtitled video, to learn what ADLs and IADLs are and why they matter for older adults.
Featured Download: Checking ADLs and IADLs worksheet. Use this free PDF to easily note how much help is needed with key life tasks. You can report this information to a doctor or use it to get better care and support. Click here to download.
These are the basic self-care tasks that we initially learn as very young children. They are sometimes referred to as “Basic Activities of Daily Living” (BADLs). They include:
- Walking , or otherwise getting around the home or outside. The technical term for this is “ambulating.”
- Feeding , as in being able to get food from a plate into one’s mouth.
- Dressing and grooming , as in selecting clothes, putting them on, and adequately managing one’s personal appearance.
- Toileting , which means getting to and from the toilet, using it appropriately, and cleaning oneself.
- Bathing , which means washing one’s face and body in the bath or shower.
- Transferring , which means being able to move from one body position to another. This includes being able to move from a bed to a chair, or into a wheelchair. This can also include the ability to stand up from a bed or chair in order to grasp a walker or other assistive device.
If a person is not fully independent with ADLs, then we usually include some information about the amount of assistance they require.
For each ADL, people can vary from needing just a little help (such as a reminder or “stand-by assist”) to full dependency, which requires others to do the task for them.
ADLs were originally defined in the 1950s by a geriatrician named Sidney Katz, who was trying to define what it might look like for a person to recover to independence after a disabling event such as a stroke or hip fracture. So these measures are sometimes called the “Katz Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living.”
These are the self-care tasks we usually learn as teenagers. They require more complex thinking skills, including organizational skills. They include:
- Managing finances , such as paying bills and managing financial assets.
- Managing transportation , either via driving or by organizing other means of transport.
- Shopping and meal preparation . This covers everything required to get a meal on the table. It also covers shopping for clothing and other items required for daily life.
- Housecleaning and home maintenance . This means cleaning kitchens after eating, keeping one’s living space reasonably clean and tidy, and keeping up with home maintenance.
- Managing communication , such as the telephone and mail.
- Managing medications , which covers obtaining medications and taking them as directed.
Because managing IADLs requires a fair amount of cognitive skill, it’s common for IADLs to be affected when an older person is having difficulty with memory or thinking.
For those older adults who develop Alzheimer’s disease or a related dementia , IADLs will usually be affected before ADLs are.
IADLs were defined about ten years after ADLs, by a psychologist named M.P. Lawton. Dr. Lawton felt there were more skills required to maintain independence than were listed on the original Katz ADL index, and hence created the “Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale.”
Generally, older adults need to be able to manage ADLs and IADLs in order to live independently without the assistance of another person.
Geriatricians, social workers, and other professionals assess ADLs and IADLs as part of assessing an older person’s “function.” Problems with ADLs and IADLs usually reflect problems with physical health and/or cognitive health. Identifying functional difficulties can help us diagnose and manage important health problems.
But most importantly, we try to identify functional difficulties because we want to make sure older adults are getting the help and support they need to compensate for, or overcome, these difficulties. We also want to help any family caregivers who might be struggling to assist a relative who needs help.
ADLs and IADLs are also important when it comes to moving an older person to a residential facility.
If you are wondering what type of senior living would be a good fit for an aging parent (independent living vs assisted living vs memory care vs a nursing home), answering this question often requires understanding what type of ADL and IADL support the older person needs now…and is likely to need in the near future.
For instance, assisted living facilities can often help with the IADL of medication management, and can provide meals and housekeeping.
But assisted living facilities may not be a good fit for an aging adult who needs help with many ADLs, such as help with personal hygiene, or toileting, or help transferring from a bed to a wheelchair. Whereas nursing homes are able to care for residents who need assistance with ADLs.
Now, some assisted living facilities do offer help with toileting or other ADLs, for an extra cost. It’s also sometimes possible for families to hire their own personal care assistant . Or, help with ADLs may be included as part of memory care. So it is often possible for older adults to remain in assisted living, even if they need help with ADLs. But, it’s usually expensive!
For all these reasons, most facilities will request some type of ADL and IADL assessment, as part of evaluating an older person who may want to move into the facility.
Last but not least: ADL and IADL assessments are often required to trigger long-term care insurance benefits, which may not be available unless an older adult needs help with ADLs.
Featured Download: Checking ADLs and IADLs worksheet. Use this free PDF to easily note how much help is needed with key life tasks. You can report this information to a doctor or use it to get better care and support. Click here to download. | https://betterhealthwhileaging.net/what-are-adls-and-iadls/ | 92 |
did bowie and queen perform under pressure live | The Story of... 'Under Pressure' by Queen & David Bowie | 27 August 2021, 19:28
By Thomas Curtis-Horsfall
The unmistakable bassline in 'Under Pressure' is probably one of the most iconic intro's in rock music history.
It's a rock anthem we've all heard, and have all likely belted out at the top of our lungs at some point in our lives.
Two titans of British rock music came together arm in arm to create one of the most recognisable songs of the past 40 years.
But who wrote the song and how did it come about? Was the song a success when it was first released? Here's all you need to know about the classic track:
Queen - Under pressure (Live at Wembley)
Well, this answer is surprisingly straight-forward. Both David Bowie and Queen wrote the song together.
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They had individually booked recording sessions at Mountain Studios in Montreux, Switzerland in July 1981. It was in fact Queen's recording engineer Dave Richards that reached out to Bowie with an impromptu phone call and asked if he wanted to join Queen for a session.
Bowie later recalled: "They were recording there and, David (Richards) knew that I was in town, and phoned me up and asked me if I’d come down, if I’d like to go down and see what was happening.
"So I went down and these things happen, you know, suddenly you’re writing something together and it was totally spontaneous, it certainly wasn’t planned. It was peculiar!"
Queen 1981: Under Pressure (Episode 24)
Each of the band members have slightly different versions of how the song came to be, but they all agree it was after a long night of jamming and messing about about with various cover versions before deciding to write their own material whilst they were in the same place together.
"We were fooling around and then just sort of jamming with tracks and suddenly we said ‘why don’t we just see what we can do on the spur of the moment?’ Freddie Mercury remembered from the session.
After John Deacon came up with the iconic "Ding, ding, ding, de de, ding, ding” bassline, things got creatively tense between Bowie and Freddie.
Brian May said on the Queen The Greatest series: "by that time David was very impassioned with it and he had a vision in his head I think. It’s quite a difficult process and somebody has to back off, and actually I did back off, which is unusual for me."
Hearing the way it turned out, it was evidently for the best Brian.
' Under Pressure ' was initially released as a standalone single in October 1981.
Queen later included it on their album Hot Space which was released the following year.
The song reached No.1 in the UK singles chart, and hit the top spot in 10 other countries.
It became Queen's second No.1 single, and David Bowie's third. Queen's previous No.1 single was with 'Bohemian Rhapsody', where Bowie had achieved No.1's in the UK with ' Space Oddity ' and 'Ashes To Ashes'.
(1992) David Bowie+Annie Lennox+Queen / Under Pressure
Unfortunately they never actually performed the song live together, despite one major opportunity to at 1985's Live Aid concert in which they were both on the bill.
Work commitments meant they didn't even have time to shoot the music video together. The official music video directed by David Mallet was beautifully put together using a mish-mash of 1920's silent cinema and documentary footage.
Sadly the nearest we came to hearing David Bowie performing the song with Queen was without Freddie, when Annie Lennox performed the song with the band and Bowie at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in 1992 at Wembley Stadium.
Foo Fighters + Roger Taylor - Under Pressure (Super Saturday Night 2019)
Numerous artists have covered 'Under Pressure' over the years including Shawn Mendes, Joss Stone , Pink , and Keane .
Foo Fighters cover it on a regular basis in their headline sets, one time even inviting Roger Taylor onstage to perform the iconic track with them.
Vanilla Ice also famously sampled the bassline for his 1990 single 'Ice Ice Baby', but failed to properly credit either David Bowie or Queen which later lead to a lawsuit.
Queen - Under Pressure (Official Video)
'Under Pressure' is widely considered one of the greatest collaborations of all time, given its perfect mix of anthemic lyricism and genuine human sentiment.
One critic said of the track: "[It's] an incredibly powerful and poignant pop song that we will likely not see matched in our lifetimes."
You'd be hard pushed to find someone that doesn't agree.
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did bowie and queen perform under pressure live | The Story of... 'Under Pressure' by Queen & David Bowie | 27 August 2021, 19:28
By Thomas Curtis-Horsfall
The unmistakable bassline in 'Under Pressure' is probably one of the most iconic intro's in rock music history.
It's a rock anthem we've all heard, and have all likely belted out at the top of our lungs at some point in our lives.
Two titans of British rock music came together arm in arm to create one of the most recognisable songs of the past 40 years.
But who wrote the song and how did it come about? Was the song a success when it was first released? Here's all you need to know about the classic track:
Queen - Under pressure (Live at Wembley)
Well, this answer is surprisingly straight-forward. Both David Bowie and Queen wrote the song together.
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They had individually booked recording sessions at Mountain Studios in Montreux, Switzerland in July 1981. It was in fact Queen's recording engineer Dave Richards that reached out to Bowie with an impromptu phone call and asked if he wanted to join Queen for a session.
Bowie later recalled: "They were recording there and, David (Richards) knew that I was in town, and phoned me up and asked me if I’d come down, if I’d like to go down and see what was happening.
"So I went down and these things happen, you know, suddenly you’re writing something together and it was totally spontaneous, it certainly wasn’t planned. It was peculiar!"
Queen 1981: Under Pressure (Episode 24)
Each of the band members have slightly different versions of how the song came to be, but they all agree it was after a long night of jamming and messing about about with various cover versions before deciding to write their own material whilst they were in the same place together.
"We were fooling around and then just sort of jamming with tracks and suddenly we said ‘why don’t we just see what we can do on the spur of the moment?’ Freddie Mercury remembered from the session.
After John Deacon came up with the iconic "Ding, ding, ding, de de, ding, ding” bassline, things got creatively tense between Bowie and Freddie.
Brian May said on the Queen The Greatest series: "by that time David was very impassioned with it and he had a vision in his head I think. It’s quite a difficult process and somebody has to back off, and actually I did back off, which is unusual for me."
Hearing the way it turned out, it was evidently for the best Brian.
' Under Pressure ' was initially released as a standalone single in October 1981.
Queen later included it on their album Hot Space which was released the following year.
The song reached No.1 in the UK singles chart, and hit the top spot in 10 other countries.
It became Queen's second No.1 single, and David Bowie's third. Queen's previous No.1 single was with 'Bohemian Rhapsody', where Bowie had achieved No.1's in the UK with ' Space Oddity ' and 'Ashes To Ashes'.
(1992) David Bowie+Annie Lennox+Queen / Under Pressure
Unfortunately they never actually performed the song live together, despite one major opportunity to at 1985's Live Aid concert in which they were both on the bill.
Work commitments meant they didn't even have time to shoot the music video together. The official music video directed by David Mallet was beautifully put together using a mish-mash of 1920's silent cinema and documentary footage.
Sadly the nearest we came to hearing David Bowie performing the song with Queen was without Freddie, when Annie Lennox performed the song with the band and Bowie at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in 1992 at Wembley Stadium.
Foo Fighters + Roger Taylor - Under Pressure (Super Saturday Night 2019)
Numerous artists have covered 'Under Pressure' over the years including Shawn Mendes, Joss Stone , Pink , and Keane .
Foo Fighters cover it on a regular basis in their headline sets, one time even inviting Roger Taylor onstage to perform the iconic track with them.
Vanilla Ice also famously sampled the bassline for his 1990 single 'Ice Ice Baby', but failed to properly credit either David Bowie or Queen which later lead to a lawsuit.
Queen - Under Pressure (Official Video)
'Under Pressure' is widely considered one of the greatest collaborations of all time, given its perfect mix of anthemic lyricism and genuine human sentiment.
One critic said of the track: "[It's] an incredibly powerful and poignant pop song that we will likely not see matched in our lifetimes."
You'd be hard pushed to find someone that doesn't agree.
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did bowie and queen perform under pressure live | The Story of... 'Under Pressure' by Queen & David Bowie | 27 August 2021, 19:28
By Thomas Curtis-Horsfall
The unmistakable bassline in 'Under Pressure' is probably one of the most iconic intro's in rock music history.
It's a rock anthem we've all heard, and have all likely belted out at the top of our lungs at some point in our lives.
Two titans of British rock music came together arm in arm to create one of the most recognisable songs of the past 40 years.
But who wrote the song and how did it come about? Was the song a success when it was first released? Here's all you need to know about the classic track:
Queen - Under pressure (Live at Wembley)
Well, this answer is surprisingly straight-forward. Both David Bowie and Queen wrote the song together.
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smoothradio.com
They had individually booked recording sessions at Mountain Studios in Montreux, Switzerland in July 1981. It was in fact Queen's recording engineer Dave Richards that reached out to Bowie with an impromptu phone call and asked if he wanted to join Queen for a session.
Bowie later recalled: "They were recording there and, David (Richards) knew that I was in town, and phoned me up and asked me if I’d come down, if I’d like to go down and see what was happening.
"So I went down and these things happen, you know, suddenly you’re writing something together and it was totally spontaneous, it certainly wasn’t planned. It was peculiar!"
Queen 1981: Under Pressure (Episode 24)
Each of the band members have slightly different versions of how the song came to be, but they all agree it was after a long night of jamming and messing about about with various cover versions before deciding to write their own material whilst they were in the same place together.
"We were fooling around and then just sort of jamming with tracks and suddenly we said ‘why don’t we just see what we can do on the spur of the moment?’ Freddie Mercury remembered from the session.
After John Deacon came up with the iconic "Ding, ding, ding, de de, ding, ding” bassline, things got creatively tense between Bowie and Freddie.
Brian May said on the Queen The Greatest series: "by that time David was very impassioned with it and he had a vision in his head I think. It’s quite a difficult process and somebody has to back off, and actually I did back off, which is unusual for me."
Hearing the way it turned out, it was evidently for the best Brian.
' Under Pressure ' was initially released as a standalone single in October 1981.
Queen later included it on their album Hot Space which was released the following year.
The song reached No.1 in the UK singles chart, and hit the top spot in 10 other countries.
It became Queen's second No.1 single, and David Bowie's third. Queen's previous No.1 single was with 'Bohemian Rhapsody', where Bowie had achieved No.1's in the UK with ' Space Oddity ' and 'Ashes To Ashes'.
(1992) David Bowie+Annie Lennox+Queen / Under Pressure
Unfortunately they never actually performed the song live together, despite one major opportunity to at 1985's Live Aid concert in which they were both on the bill.
Work commitments meant they didn't even have time to shoot the music video together. The official music video directed by David Mallet was beautifully put together using a mish-mash of 1920's silent cinema and documentary footage.
Sadly the nearest we came to hearing David Bowie performing the song with Queen was without Freddie, when Annie Lennox performed the song with the band and Bowie at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in 1992 at Wembley Stadium.
Foo Fighters + Roger Taylor - Under Pressure (Super Saturday Night 2019)
Numerous artists have covered 'Under Pressure' over the years including Shawn Mendes, Joss Stone , Pink , and Keane .
Foo Fighters cover it on a regular basis in their headline sets, one time even inviting Roger Taylor onstage to perform the iconic track with them.
Vanilla Ice also famously sampled the bassline for his 1990 single 'Ice Ice Baby', but failed to properly credit either David Bowie or Queen which later lead to a lawsuit.
Queen - Under Pressure (Official Video)
'Under Pressure' is widely considered one of the greatest collaborations of all time, given its perfect mix of anthemic lyricism and genuine human sentiment.
One critic said of the track: "[It's] an incredibly powerful and poignant pop song that we will likely not see matched in our lifetimes."
You'd be hard pushed to find someone that doesn't agree.
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did bowie and queen perform under pressure live | Brilliant Video Edit Shows Freddie Mercury And David Bowie Performing “Under Pressure” | It was 1981 when David Bowie and Queen co-wrote Under Pressure, one of the most iconic songs in rock music history. They met at Mountain Studios in Montreux, Switzerland, as they were recording some material for upcoming projects. That’s when David Richards, Queen’s recording engineer, asked Bowie if he wanted to attend one of their sessions.
The rest is history. The song was released in October 1981 and later included on Queen’s tenth studio album, Hot Space, in 1982. It was an immediate success, referred to as one of the best songs by both Queen and David Bowie, Under Pressure ranked number one in the UK Singles Chart, and in the top 10 of several countries worldwide.
Cormac Thompson
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Despite the fact that both Queen and David Bowie were present at the Live Aid concert held at London’s Wembley Stadium in 1985, they were sadly unable to be together on stage to perform Under Pressure. The video is therefore a mix between Queen’s performance at Wembley during their 1986 concert, and The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert held in the same stadium in 1992, in which Bowie performed the song with Annie Lennox.
This does not change the fact that both Bowie and Mercury carried the memory of this collaboration close to their hearts. In different interviews they spoke about how the process of creating the song was something absolutely spontaneous, born from the urge of the moment.
It is reported that Under Pressure was a rough draft of a song written by Roger Taylor, Queen’s drummer, and it was originally titled Feel Like. As for the music, Freddie Mercury came up with the first arrangements, and then the rest of the band contributed to the eventual track. When David Bowie joined the team, he brought his personal touch to the lyrics and sound, but mainly handled the writing.
However, according to Taylor, it all started on a night when the band and Bowie were drunkenly playing and singing along to some covers, when the idea of making up a song of their own struck them. Brian May recounted how David Bowie sometimes wrote some of his lyrics by putting together random newspaper cut outs with odd quotes. All together they did a similar thing whilst writing Under Pressure, but scribbling the opening line of each verse. It was only at the end that Bowie eventually took over and arranged the lyrics to make sense of them.
What is safe to say is that Under Pressure to this day is still one of the most beautiful songs in the history of rock collaborations. The world still remembers the immense talent of David Bowie and Freddie Mercury and regrets not having had the chance to see the two musicians perform together. | https://www.themusicman.uk/freddie-mercury-david-bowie-under-pressure/ | 93 |
did bowie and queen perform under pressure live | Freddie Mercury and David Bowie's 'Under Pressure' a cappella will give you goosebumps | 23 November 2021, 14:20 | Updated: 31 January 2022, 23:28
The isolated vocals of Freddie Mercury and David Bowie's iconic collaboration are further proof that these two are some of music's greatest.
It was a song that soared straight to the top of the charts when it was initially released in 1981, becoming Queen 's second number one hit in their home country, and David Bowie 's third.
'Under Pressure' brought together one legendary band, and another incredible singer of the same calibre.
Surprisingly, the hit actually evolved from a "chance encounter", when Bowie spontaneously joined a jam session the rock group were having at their studio in Switzerland.
The unplanned collaboration led to the creation of one of their most iconic hits – and a song which is still celebrated decades later.
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And though the catchy lyrics and iconic riff are parts of what make the track so great, it's the vocals of Mercury and Bowie which are truly unmatched...
Under Pressure (A-Capella) - Only Vocals
The track Queen were originally working on was called 'Feel Like', but the rock band weren't happy with the results.
Bowie had already planned to head to the group's studios as he was singing backing vocals on another Queen song, 'Cool Cat'.
It was during this trip that Bowie ended up sitting down with the band and working on 'Under Pressure'.
The 'Space Oddity' singer joined the group for a jam session, which eventually led to the final song we know today.
"David came in one night and we were playing other people’s songs for fun, just jamming," Roger Taylor recalled in the book Is This the Real Life?: The Untold Story of Freddie Mercury and Queen.
"In the end, David said, 'This is stupid, why don't we just write one?'"
Queen and Adam Lambert perform 'We Are The Champions' in isolation
Guitarist Brian May explained some of the decisions behind the song to Ultimate Classic Rock : "The vocal was constructed in a very novel way, which came through David, because he had experience of this avant-garde method of constructing the vocals.
"Everybody just goes in there with no ideas, no notes, and sings the first thing that comes into their head over the backing track. So we all did, and then we compiled all the bits and pieces – and that's what 'Under Pressure' was based on; all those random thoughts."
May continued: "But somebody has to take the helm. Somebody has to decide what you actually use.
"And really, to be honest, that person was David, because he just went, 'I'm doing it, I'm doing it,' being David Bowie. And we went, 'Ooh, okay…'"
Unsurprisingly, the hit was voted the second best collaboration of all time in a poll by Rolling Stone (just losing out to Boyz II Men and Mariah Carey’s 'One Sweet Day').
Bowie had never sang the song before an audience until he performed it alongside Annie Lennox and the surviving Queen members at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert.
The tribute concert took place on April 20, 1992, at Wembley Stadium. The legendary music star had passed away in November the year before aged 45 due to complications from AIDS. | https://www.goldradiouk.com/artists/david-bowie/freddie-mercury-queen-under-pressure-a-cappella-vocals/ | 93 |
did bowie and queen perform under pressure live | Inside David Bowie and Queen’s 'Tense' Recording Session for "Under Pressure" | A spontaneous meeting of two powerhouse British musical acts in Switzerland created one of the most iconic songs in music history.By Rachel Chang
It’s perhaps one of the most recognizable guitar riffs in popular music — those six identical notes followed by one a fourth down. But the impromptu recording session that created the hit “Under Pressure” was packed with tension between David Bowie and Queen , especially Freddie Mercury .
“Freddie and David locked horns, without a doubt,” Queen guitarist Brian May told MOJO magazine in 2017. “But that’s when the sparks fly and that’s why it turned out so great.”
Not only did the 1981 track become a worldwide sensation, reaching No. 1 on U.S. and UK charts, but it’s also shown its permeance in pop culture throughout the generations with the riff’s sampling in Vanilla Ice’s “Ice Ice Baby” (which led to a copyright infringement case settled out of court — and Bowie and Queen getting songwriting credit on the track) as well as covers by My Chemical Romance and The Used in 2005 and Shawn Mendes and Teddy Geiger in 2018.
But it all started with a chance get-together in a small town in Switzerland.
During their most prolific decade in the 1970s, Queen spent much of their time songwriting at the small Mountain Studios in Montreux, Switzerland, sitting on the eastern end of Lake Geneva. They loved the space so much, the band bought the studios and worked there throughout Mercury’s life.
Meanwhile, Bowie had independently also settled just north of there in Vevey.
“Since we already knew him a little, he popped in to say hello one day while we were recording,” May wrote in Mirror in 2016, following Bowie’s death. “Now time dims the memory a little, but the way I remember it, we all very quickly decided that the best way to get to know each other was to play together.”
Little did the “sleepy little town,” as he described it, know what was about to happen.
The five musicians picked up their instruments. “We had fun kicking around a few fragments of songs we all knew,” May remembered. “But then we decided it would be great to create something new on the spur of the moment.”
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“They just started knocking things around,” said Peter Hince, who was part of Queen’s road crew, according to the Guardian . “They … performed some original songs they did together and also covers. They were just jamming in the studio and it all got recorded – ‘All the Young Dudes’, ‘All the Way from Memphis’ and various rock classics.”
But it was when a certain guitar riff was played that inspiration hit. “We all brought stuff to the table, and my contribution was a heavy riff in D which was lurking in my head,” May continued. “But what we got excited about was a riff which [John Deacon] began playing.”
Queen in 1981
But it wasn’t all work, no play. “Suddenly hunger took over and we repaired to a local restaurant for food and a fair amount of drink,” May recalled. “A couple or three hours later, we’re back in the studio. ‘What was that riff, you had, Deacy?’ says David B. ‘I was like this,’ says John Deacon.”
But Bowie protested: “No it wasn’t, it was like this.”
“This was a funny moment because I can just see DB going over and putting his hand on John’s fretting hand and stopping him,” May continued to the Mirror . “It was also a tense moment because it could have gone either way.”
Those strong opinions continued dominating. “It wasn't easy because we were all precocious boys and David was very... forceful, yes,” May told MOJO .
With the riff settled, Queen would have normally moved on to their next step: mapping out a song structure. But Bowie stepped in.
“David said something like, ‘We should just press on instinctively. Something will happen,’” May wrote in the Mirror. “And he was right. It did. I put a little tinkling guitar riff on top of John’s bass riff. (David later was adamant it ought to be played on a 12-string, so I overdubbed that later at some point.)”
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By the time they got through the instrumentation, they knew they were onto something. “At this point there is no song … no vocal, no words – no title even – no clue as to what the song will mean – just an instrumental backing track,” he said. “But it really rocked. Born completely spontaneously, it was fresh as a daisy.”
While that seemed like yet another natural stopping point, Bowie instructed them to continue trusting instinct.
“The procedure was each of us went into the vocal booth consecutively, without listening to each other and listening to the track, vocalised the first things that came into our heads, including any words which came to mind, working with the existing chord structure,” May described.
All the bits were then mixed and matched to create a single track using the best sections. Sure enough, some of Mercury’s most standout “de dah day” came out of that process. “It came out pretty strange, but very different,” he said. “We all went home that night with a rough mix which was provisionally called ‘People on Streets’, because these words were part of the rough.”
The next morning, Queen was prepared to continue working through the rough draft, but Bowie stepped in. “David was in there first and told us he wanted to take the track over, because he knew what he wanted it to be about,” May said. “We all backed off and David put down a lyric which now focused on the ‘Under Pressure’ part of the existing lyric.”
May admits the behavior wasn’t typical of Queen: “It was unusual for us all to relinquish control like that but really David was having a genius moment because that is a very telling lyric. And the rest is history?”
While the song was, in essence, complete, the mixing still had to be done — and tensions continued. “I wasn’t there, so all I know is that Freddie and David had different views of how the mix should be done, and the engineer didn’t completely know how the studio worked,” May added. “So it ended up as a compromise.”
Looking back on the tense times, May chooses the remember the positive, especially after Mercury died of AIDS in 1991 and Bowie died of liver cancer in 2016. “It was sort of wonderful and terrible," he said of the sessions. “But in my mind, I remember the wonderful now, more than the terrible.”
As for those other tracks that were laid down during the initial jam session? May has confirmed their existence. “Not all of what we did in those sessions has ever come to light, so there's a thought,” he hinted to MOJO.
“There’s stuff with Freddie and David singing together – proper full-length rock’n’roll tracks — raw, but good,” Hince added. “David did vocals on some of the other tracks which ended up not being used. So somewhere there is an archive.”
“It was all quite spontaneous. It was one of those rock’n’roll moments,” Hince said, noting he was in the studio while they were recorded. “Pretty raw, but original material definitely. They were just incredibly spontaneous, good musicians. I can categorically say I know that there were complete tracks, not mixed tracks, but fully formed songs that were done. Does it belong to the David Bowie estate or to Queen? That’s probably part of the reason these things have never come to light.” | https://www.biography.com/news/david-bowie-queen-under-pressure-recording-session | 93 |
did bowie and queen perform under pressure live | Under Pressure - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the song by Queen and David Bowie. For other uses, see Under Pressure (disambiguation) .
" Under Pressure " is a song by the British rock band Queen and singer David Bowie . Originally released as a single in October 1981, it was later included on Queen's 1982 album Hot Space . The song reached number one on the UK Singles Chart , becoming Queen's second number-one hit in their home country and Bowie's third, and also charted in the top 10 in more than 10 countries around the world.
The song has been described as a "monster rock track that stood out" on the Hot Space album, as well as "an incredibly powerful and poignant pop song". [1] [2] "Under Pressure" was listed at number 31 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the '80s, and voted the second-best collaboration of all time in a poll by Rolling Stone . In 2021, it was ranked number 429 on Rolling Stone ' s list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . It was played live at every Queen concert from 1981 until the end of the band's touring career in 1986. [3] [4] [5] Live recordings appear on the Queen live albums Queen Rock Montreal and Live at Wembley '86 .
The song was included on some editions of Queen's first Greatest Hits compilations, such as the original 1981 Elektra release in North America. It is included on the band's compilation albums Greatest Hits II , Classic Queen , and Absolute Greatest , as well as Bowie compilations such as Best of Bowie (2002), The Platinum Collection (2005), Nothing Has Changed (2014), Legacy (2016), and Re:Call 3 (2017).
"Under Pressure" was sampled by American rapper Vanilla Ice for his 1990 single " Ice Ice Baby ". Vanilla Ice initially did not credit Bowie or Queen for the sample, resulting in a lawsuit that gave Bowie and Queen songwriting credit. "Under Pressure" has been covered by American rock bands My Chemical Romance and the Used , and singer Shawn Mendes , whose version featured singer Teddy Geiger . Xiu Xiu also covered the song with Swans frontman Michael Gira , a version that was included on Xiu Xiu's 2008 album Women as Lovers .
"Under Pressure" was recorded at Mountain Studios in Montreux , Switzerland, in July 1981. [6] Queen, working on their 1982 album Hot Space , had been working on a song called "Feel Like", but were not satisfied with the result. [7] [8] While they were there, David Bowie was also at Mountain recording his vocals for " Cat People (Putting Out Fire) ", the title song for the 1982 horror film of the same name . [9] The artists ran into each other during the session. [10] Bowie sang backing vocals for Queen's song "Cool Cat", [11] but his vocals were removed from the final song because he was not satisfied with his performance. Afterward, they worked together for a while and wrote the song. [9] [12] It was credited as being co-written by the five musicians. The scat singing that dominates much of the song is evidence of the jam-beginnings as improvisation . However, according to Queen bassist John Deacon (as quoted in a French magazine in 1984), [13] the song's primary musical songwriter was Freddie Mercury – though all contributed to the arrangement. As Brian May recalled to Mojo magazine in October 2008, "It was hard, because you had four very precocious boys and David, who was precocious enough for all of us. David took over the song lyrically. Looking back, it's a great song, but it should have been mixed differently. Freddie and David had a fierce battle over that. It's a significant song because of David and its lyrical content." [14] The earlier, embryonic version of the song without Bowie, "Feel Like", is widely available in bootleg form, and was written by Queen drummer Roger Taylor . [15]
Also, some confusion has arisen about who had created the song's bassline . John Deacon said (in Japanese magazine Music life in 1982) that David Bowie created it. In more recent interviews, Brian May and Roger Taylor credited the bass riff to Deacon. Bowie, on his website, said the bassline was already written before he became involved. [16] Roger Taylor, in an interview for the BBC documentary Queen: The Days of Our Lives , stated that Deacon did indeed create the bassline, and that all through the sessions in the studio, he had been playing the riff over and over. He also claims that when the band returned from dinner, Deacon misremembered the riff, but Taylor was still able to remember it. [17] Brian May clarified matters in a 2016 article for Mirror Online , writing that it was actually Bowie, not Taylor, who had inadvertently changed the riff. The riff began as "Deacy began playing, 6 notes the same, then one note a fourth down". After the dinner break, Bowie changed Deacon's memory of the riff to "Ding-Ding-Ding Diddle Ing-Ding". [18]
"Under Pressure" has received critical acclaim since its release, with multiple publications ranking it among Queen and Bowie's best songs and among the greatest songs of all time. On release, Sandy Robertson of Sounds called "Under Pressure" the "cornerstone" of its parent album. [19] Record World said that "Bowie and Freddie Mercury combine for a spellbinding musical experience." [20] Reviewing Hot Space decades later, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called "Under Pressure" as the album's "undeniable saving grace" and "the only reason most listeners remember this album". [21] He described the song as "an utterly majestic, otherworldly duet ... that recaptures the effortless grace of Queen's mid-'70s peak, but is underscored with a truly affecting melancholy heart that gives it a genuine human warmth unheard in much of their music." [21] Similarly, Ned Raggett of AllMusic described the song as "anthemic, showy, and warm-hearted, [and] a clear standout for both acts". [22]
Following Bowie's death in 2016, Jack Hamilton of Slate called "Under Pressure" a "masterpiece" and is a reminder to the public that Bowie could be "wonderfully, powerfully human." [23] Jack Whatley wrote for Far Out Magazine "with all the animosity, wine, cocaine, and vocal battles, which helped come together to birth the song, what remains is an incredibly powerful and poignant pop song that we will likely not see matched in our lifetimes. The two juggernauts of Freddie Mercury and David Bowie collide here with perfect and enriching precision." [2]
The September 2005 edition of online music magazine Stylus singled out the bassline as the best in popular music history. [24] In November 2004, Stylus music critic Anthony Miccio commented that "Under Pressure" "is the best song of all time" and described it as Queen's " opus ". [25] In 2012, Slant Magazine listed "Under Pressure" as the 21st best single of the 1980s. [26] It was listed at number 31 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the '80s [27] and voted the second best collaboration of all time in a poll by Rolling Stone magazine. [28] It is ranked number 429 on Rolling Stone ' s list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . [29]
The music video for the song features neither Queen nor David Bowie due to touring commitments. [30] Taking the theme of pressure, director David Mallet edited together stock footage of traffic jams, commuter trains packed with passengers, explosions, riots, cars being crushed, and various pieces of footage from silent films of the 1920s, most notably Sergei Eisenstein 's influential Soviet film Battleship Potemkin , the silent Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde starring John Barrymore , and F.W. Murnau 's Nosferatu , a masterpiece of the German Expressionist movement . [30] [31] The video explores the pressure-cooker mentality of a culture willing to wage war against political machines, and at the same time love and have fun (there is also footage of crowds enjoying concerts, and many black and white kissing scenes). [31] Top of the Pops refused to show the video in its original form due to it containing footage of explosions in Northern Ireland, so an edited version was instead shown. [32] In 2003, Slant Magazine ranked "Under Pressure" number 27 among the 100 greatest music videos of all time. [33]
Controversy arose when Vanilla Ice sampled the song's intro bassline and piano chords for his 1990 single " Ice Ice Baby ". Initially, he denied the accusation and then said he had modified it [34] but did not originally pay songwriting credit or royalties to Queen and Bowie. [35] [36] A lawsuit resulted in Bowie and all members of Queen receiving songwriting credit for the sample. [37] Vanilla Ice later claimed that he purchased the publishing rights to "Under Pressure", [38] [39] saying that buying the song made more financial sense than paying out royalties, [38] but a Queen spokesman clarified that Vanilla Ice's statement was inaccurate. [40]
Side one
- "Under Pressure" (Mercury, May, Taylor, Deacon, Bowie) – 4:08
Side two
- "Soul Brother" (Mercury) – 3:38
Side one
- "Under Pressure" (Mercury, May, Taylor, Deacon, Bowie) – 4:08
Side two
- "Soul Brother" (Mercury) – 3:38
- "Under Pressure" – 4:08
- "Soul Brother" – 3:40
According to Bowie biographer Chris O'Leary: [11]
- Freddie Mercury – lead and backing vocals, piano, Hammond organ , handclaps, finger snaps
- Brian May – electric guitar, handclaps, finger snaps
- John Deacon – bass guitar, handclaps, finger snaps
- Roger Taylor – drums, backing vocals, handclaps, finger snaps
- David Bowie – lead and backing vocals, synthesiser , handclaps, finger snaps
Although very much a joint project, only Queen incorporated the song into their live shows at the time. Bowie chose not to perform the song before an audience until the 1992 Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert , when he and Annie Lennox sang it as a duet (backed by the surviving Queen members). [41] However, after Mercury's death and the Outside tour in 1995, Bowie performed the song at virtually every one of his live shows, with bassist Gail Ann Dorsey taking Mercury's vocal part. The song also appeared in set lists from A Reality Tour mounted by Bowie in 2004, when he frequently would dedicate it to Freddie Mercury. Queen + Paul Rodgers have recently performed the song; and in summer of 2012, Queen + Adam Lambert toured, including a performance of the song by Lambert and Roger Taylor in each show. [42] While Bowie was never present for a live performance of the song with Mercury, Taylor instead filled for backing vocals in unison with Mercury, as Mercury took over all of Bowie's parts.
- Queen first recorded a live full version of the song at the Montreal Forum in Canada on 24 November 1981. This was included in the concert films We Will Rock You and Queen Rock Montreal . [43] Incidentally it is one of the few times in concert where Mercury used falsetto in the song on the line "these are the days it never rains but it pours".
- A second live version of the song was recorded at Milton Keynes , England, in 1982. This was released in 2004 on the live album/DVD Queen on Fire - Live at the Bowl . Prior to the concert, rumours circulated that Bowie would appear with Queen to sing his parts on stage, but he probably did not even attend the concert.
- In September 1982 the band performed the song during an appearance on the eighth-season premiere of Saturday Night Live , which turned out to be Freddie Mercury's final live performance with Queen in the United States.
- Later, Queen recorded a third live version of the song at Wembley Stadium , London, in 1986. This was released on the live album/DVD Live at Wembley Stadium . [44] Another rendition from this same tour (from Queen's concert in Budapest) appeared in edited form on the album Live Magic in 1986. A recording taken from Queen's last gig in Knebworth Park in 1986, appears, albeit in remixed form, as a B-side from second CD single of "Rah Mix" version of this song, released in 1999. ( See below )
- During the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in 1992, the surviving members of Queen along with Bowie and Annie Lennox (fulfilling Mercury's role) performed the song. [41] The concert was later released on DVD in 2002 for the 10th anniversary. [41]
- A version recorded by David Bowie's live band in 1995 was released on the bonus disc included with some versions of Outside – Version 2 . This live version was also released on the single " Hallo Spaceboy " in 1996. Two live recordings from the Outside Tour appear on Bowie's live concert albums Ouvre le Chien (Live Dallas 95) (2020) and No Trendy Réchauffé (Live Birmingham 95) (2020).
- Bowie's 25 June 2000 performance of the song at the Glastonbury Festival was released in 2018 on Glastonbury 2000 . [45]
- Bowie's DVD A Reality Tour (2004) and album A Reality Tour (2010) include a November 2003 live version from the A Reality Tour , recorded in Dublin, with Bowie's bassist Gail Ann Dorsey singing Mercury's parts.
A remixed version (called the "Rah Mix") was issued in December 1999 to promote Queen's Greatest Hits III compilation, reaching No. 14 on the UK Singles Chart . The video for the Rah Mix was directed by DoRo, featuring footage of Freddie Mercury from Queen's Wembley concert on 12 July 1986 and David Bowie at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert also at Wembley Stadium on 20 April 1992 spliced together using digital technology (with Annie Lennox carefully edited out). This version is featured on the Greatest Hits III compilation, the Rah Mix CD single (as an Enhanced CD video) and the 2011 iTunes LP edition of Hot Space .
Two CD singles (one multimedia enhanced) released 6 December 1999 and 7" picture disc released 13 December 1999. As " Bohemian Rhapsody " won The Song of The Millennium award, this was released with Bohemian Rhapsody as B-side [47]
- It was initially released in the US on the Elektra Records US and Canadian versions of Queen's Greatest Hits as a new track.
- It was released in the UK on Queen's Greatest Hits II in 1991 (which would later be included in The Platinum Collection (2000, 2002 and 2011) in a version removing the second time David Bowie sings, "This is our last dance."
- It was released as a bonus track on the Virgin Records reissue of Bowie's Let's Dance in 1995.
- Hollywood Records remixed the song for their 1992 release, Classic Queen . This version features improved sound quality but also removes Mercury's interjection "that's okay!" at about 0:53.
- It also appeared on the Bowie compilation Bowie: The Singles 1969-1993 (1993).
- The original single version appears on disc three of Bowie's The Platinum Collection (2005). This disc was later released separately as The Best of David Bowie 1980/1987 (2007).
- The original single version also appears on Bowie's Nothing Has Changed (2014), Legacy (2016), and the Re:Call 3 compilation included in A New Career in a New Town (1977–1982) (2017).
- An instrumental version was performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra on their 1995 album The Queen Collection . [48] [49]
Mouth Pressure . Released in January 2017 as a part of the Neil Cicierega album Mouth Moods , "Mouth Pressure" pairs the instrumentals from "Under Pressure" with the vocals from Smash Mouth 's " All Star ". [50] [51]
Percy's Pressure . A karaoke version of the song was released in September as a part of the soundtrack of the animated Warner Brothers musical film Smallfoot whose lyrics detail one of the central human characters Percy's (voiced by James Corden ) fall from fame and his need to bounce back. Additional lyrics were written by Karey Kirkpatrick, the film's director, and his brother Wayne Kirkpatrick. [52]
In the U.K., "Under Pressure" was Queen's second number-one hit and Bowie's third. Queen's smash hit "Bohemian Rhapsody" reached number one in November 1975, just two weeks after Bowie's "Space Oddity" had done the same. Bowie also topped the British charts in August 1980 with "Ashes to Ashes", his answer song to "Space Oddity". [53]
(2016)
(2018)
In October 2018, Canadian singer and songwriter Shawn Mendes featuring American singer and songwriter Teddy Geiger (credited as teddy<3) released a version of the song. [103]
The song was released to coincide with the release of the film Bohemian Rhapsody . Universal Music Group released three tracks by different artists "channeling their inner Freddie Mercury "; this was the first installment, released in October 2018 followed by 5 Seconds of Summer 's " Killer Queen " cover track. [104] [105] [106]
A portion of the profits from the "Under Pressure" cover was donated to Mercury Phoenix Trust, which was founded by Queen's Brian May and Roger Taylor (and the group's manager, Jim Beach) after Mercury's death to help fight AIDS worldwide. Mendes said in a statement: "I am so honoured to be able to support the amazing legacy of Freddie and Queen by doing a cover of one of my favourite songs, 'Under Pressure'". [105] [107]
Taylor Weatherby from Billboard called the track "breezy" and said "Mendes and Geiger put their voices at the forefront of the stripped-down rendition, with Mendes' falsetto and Geiger's 'raspier' tone complementing their plucky acoustic guitars." [105] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_Pressure | 93 |
did bowie and queen perform under pressure live | Freddie Mercury and David Bowie's 'Under Pressure' a cappella will give you goosebumps | 23 November 2021, 14:20 | Updated: 31 January 2022, 23:28
The isolated vocals of Freddie Mercury and David Bowie's iconic collaboration are further proof that these two are some of music's greatest.
It was a song that soared straight to the top of the charts when it was initially released in 1981, becoming Queen 's second number one hit in their home country, and David Bowie 's third.
'Under Pressure' brought together one legendary band, and another incredible singer of the same calibre.
Surprisingly, the hit actually evolved from a "chance encounter", when Bowie spontaneously joined a jam session the rock group were having at their studio in Switzerland.
The unplanned collaboration led to the creation of one of their most iconic hits – and a song which is still celebrated decades later.
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And though the catchy lyrics and iconic riff are parts of what make the track so great, it's the vocals of Mercury and Bowie which are truly unmatched...
Under Pressure (A-Capella) - Only Vocals
The track Queen were originally working on was called 'Feel Like', but the rock band weren't happy with the results.
Bowie had already planned to head to the group's studios as he was singing backing vocals on another Queen song, 'Cool Cat'.
It was during this trip that Bowie ended up sitting down with the band and working on 'Under Pressure'.
The 'Space Oddity' singer joined the group for a jam session, which eventually led to the final song we know today.
"David came in one night and we were playing other people’s songs for fun, just jamming," Roger Taylor recalled in the book Is This the Real Life?: The Untold Story of Freddie Mercury and Queen.
"In the end, David said, 'This is stupid, why don't we just write one?'"
Queen and Adam Lambert perform 'We Are The Champions' in isolation
Guitarist Brian May explained some of the decisions behind the song to Ultimate Classic Rock : "The vocal was constructed in a very novel way, which came through David, because he had experience of this avant-garde method of constructing the vocals.
"Everybody just goes in there with no ideas, no notes, and sings the first thing that comes into their head over the backing track. So we all did, and then we compiled all the bits and pieces – and that's what 'Under Pressure' was based on; all those random thoughts."
May continued: "But somebody has to take the helm. Somebody has to decide what you actually use.
"And really, to be honest, that person was David, because he just went, 'I'm doing it, I'm doing it,' being David Bowie. And we went, 'Ooh, okay…'"
Unsurprisingly, the hit was voted the second best collaboration of all time in a poll by Rolling Stone (just losing out to Boyz II Men and Mariah Carey’s 'One Sweet Day').
Bowie had never sang the song before an audience until he performed it alongside Annie Lennox and the surviving Queen members at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert.
The tribute concert took place on April 20, 1992, at Wembley Stadium. The legendary music star had passed away in November the year before aged 45 due to complications from AIDS. | https://www.goldradiouk.com/artists/david-bowie/freddie-mercury-queen-under-pressure-a-cappella-vocals/ | 93 |
did bowie and queen perform under pressure live | Remembering David Bowie & Annie Lennox’s Incredible 'Under Pressure' Rehearsal with Queen in 1992 | Posted 21 Nov 2022
By Kara Jayne
Looking back at rehearsal footage of David Bowie and Annie Lennox performing Under Pressure in 1992 with Queen is a majestic reminder of the icons' glittering legacy!
The footage below takes us behind the scenes at rehearsals for the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert at Wembley Stadium held in honour of legendary Queen frontman, Freddie Mercury , who had died from AIDS just months earlier. An audience of around 72,000 attended the mammoth concert, while up to one billion… yes billion… tuned into the live television broadcast that went out to 76 countries around the world. All profits were donated to AIDS charities.
Eurythmics singer, Annie Lennox was recruited to perform Mercury’s vocals on David Bowie and Queen’s classic collaborative single – and it’s no small task! Lennox’s incredible range stands up to the challenge of Mercury’s winding scales, matched by Bowie’s own unstoppable performance is a powerful reminder of the Starman’s sheer vocal talents, too often overshadowed by his radiant aesthetics.
Enjoy David Bowie and Annie Lennox’s magnificent rehearsal of Under Pressure at Wembley Stadium in 1992 below – watch closely to spot a young George Michael and Seal looking on in awe.
David Bowie & Annie Lennox | 'Under Pressure' [FMT Rehearsal, 1992] | https://www.ilikeyouroldstuff.com/news/remembering-david-bowie-annie-lennoxs-incredible-under-pressure-rehearsal-with-queen-in-1992 | 93 |
who sang oh happy day in sister act 2 | Blog about habits and tips | Try light stretches, instead. By moving your neck around carefully and slowly (without cracking), you’ll relieve the stiffness that is causing discomfort or pain. Some exercises include light head rolls, side to side stretches, and front to back movements. Complete neck training exercises. What will happen if I crack my neck too much? Cracking your… | https://www.toridawnselden.com/all-about-habits/who-sang-happy-days-on-sister-act-2-back-in-habit-best-solution.html | 94 |
who sang oh happy day in sister act 2 | 'Oh Happy Day': The history of the popular and controversial gospel hit | An hour into “Sister Act 2,” Whoopi Goldberg leads a choir of students who look like they’d rather be anywhere than onstage. A young Lauryn Hill and a dozen teenagers mumble along to what sounds like a stuffy hymn. Then, inspired by Grammy nominee Ryan Toby, the choir suddenly turns joyous, belting out a stomping rendition of “Oh Happy Day.”
The performance inspires Goldberg to enter the choir into an all-state competition, which naturally receives pushback from the stuffy father of the parish… the same reaction that church elders had to the song when it was first released by Oakland-based choir leader Edwin Hawkins in 1967.
Hearing the song today, it can be hard to understand how it could ever be considered controversial. Based on a mid-18th century hymn that stems from Acts 8:35, the lyrics about Jesus washing sins away are literally textbook gospel. It has become a pop culture staple, appearing not only in “Sister Act 2,” but serving as the soundtrack for Robin Williams presiding over a beach wedding in “License to Wed,” the intro church scene in “Nutty Professor 2” and the closing credits for Spike Lee’s “BlacKkKlansman.” Artists who’ve covered the song include Elvis Presley, Spiritualized and Quincy Jones, to name of a few of the 126, listed on Secondhand Songs. George Harrison cited it as an influence for “My Sweet Lord.”
“Oh Happy Day” sounds infectious and celebratory, the type of praise song that makes you want to get up and dance. Which was exactly the problem.
“When ‘Oh Happy Day’ broke, the church was upset about it,” choir member Adrienne Kryor recounted in the documentary “Summer of Soul,” which features footage of Edwin Hawkins Singers performing at the Harlem Cultural Center. “We were part of the Pentecostal movement. You didn’t drink, you didn’t dance, you didn’t go to clubs. So we were persecuted. It was very humiliating, but we felt like the world needed ‘Happy Day.’”
“[Church leaders] were thinking it was too jazzy. And to see people actually dancing to the music, not the sacred dance but doing the secular dance to music… Some people in the Black community didn’t like that. They really ostracized Edwin Hawkins and his group for doing it,” Dr. Joyce Jackson, associate professor of African & African American Studies at Louisiana State University, told NPR .
Born in Oakland in 1943, Edwin Hawkins started his music career at a young age, growing up in the Campbell Village public housing complex. His parents encouraged him to sing to keep him out of trouble. He sang alongside his siblings in local churches, and by age five, he was playing piano at the Church of God in Christ. He formed the Northern California State Youth Choir when he was 16 and hosted a gospel radio show as well, absorbing a wide array of musical influences.
“I heard everything growing up,” Edwin Hawkins said in an interview at the Grammy Awards. “In the house my aunt listened to pop music, Perry Como, Nat King Cole, all those people. We heard all kinds of music, including gospel, that happened to be our favorite. When it was time for me to rearrange and create, I was hearing these different harmonies from these different genres of music, and there developed the sound of Edwin Hawkins.”
The group recorded “Oh Happy Day” as part of an album entitled “Let Us Go Into the House of the Lord” using a two-track tape machine lent to Hawkins by a friend. The album was intended primarily as a fundraiser for the church and to help the group attend a state choir competition (in a coincidental parallel to “Sister Act 2”). But when underground Bay Area rock radio station KSAN began spinning the song, it became an unlikely local hit, then landed on national radio, charting as high as number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 despite a petition from local pastors to have it pulled from the airwaves. Internationally, the song reached number one in France and Germany.
A 1969 San Francisco Chronicle profile of Dorothy Morrison, one of the breakout stars of the Edwin Hawkins Singers, summed up the popularity of the song best, declaring that if you don’t know “Oh Happy Day,” then “you are simply not with it.” (SFGATE and the San Francisco Chronicle are both owned by Hearst but operate independently of one another.)
The Edwin Hawkins Singers toured internationally, performing at rock festivals where they were often the only gospel group, opening for massive audiences like at The Isley Brothers’ 1969 performance at Yankee Stadium. The group also had a five-week run at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas. Their album went on to sell more than seven million copies and won a Grammy for best soul gospel performance, buoyed by the soulful pop sheen and funky exclamations of “good god,” inspired by James Brown.
“Edwin Hawkins revolutionized what it meant to be a gospel artist,” said Stephen Kallao, contributing host of World Café on NPR. He fused contemporary sounds, a Latin groove, synthesizers and a soul influenced lead vocal performance to create a new model for gospel music.”
Hawkins told the Washington Post in 1979 that his group was ridiculed by established churches in the Bay Area, and he wasn’t sure if they feared the group’s influence or considered them something of a cult movement. Although demonized, Hawkins still saw the song as a way of evangelizing to audiences.
“With the situation of the world today, a lot of people don’t believe in God anymore. They don’t go to church, especially our youth,” says Hawkins in a radio interview from 1969. “It’s really messed up and confused. They don’t know who to turn to or which way to go so they’re trying this or that and not finding satisfaction. I feel like with young people, such as our group, instead of us trying to take the gospel to them by preaching to them, we’re taking the gospel to them with contemporary songs, new beats, new rhythms and something they can feel and express themselves in.”
Hawkins never had another major crossover success, but his steady gospel output over the course of his career led to 19 Grammy nominations and three more wins. In addition to sharing the gospel through music, Hawkins worked in an official church capacity, helping his younger brother Walter start Love Center Ministries, which still operates in Oakland off SR 185 near 104th Avenue (officially renamed Walter Hawkins Way). Edwin eventually took over preaching duties at Love Center in 2010 after his brother’s death from pancreatic cancer. Eight years later, the same disease would take Edwin’s life, yet his music will always live on and continues to inspire the next generation of gospel artists.
“What makes gospel music is the message. Not whether it’s hip-hop or contemporary or country, but the message of the song,” said Hawkins.
More music | https://www.sfgate.com/sf-culture/article/oh-happy-day-sister-act-2-edwin-hawkins-oakland-16319955.php | 94 |
who sang oh happy day in sister act 2 | Who actually sang in Sister Act? - TimesMojo | Lois De Banzie , a Tony-nominated actress best known for the films “Annie” and “Sister Act,” has died. She was 90 years old.
Yes, that movie from 1992…
IT TURNS OUT Sister Act may have been based on a true story . Remember that film starring Whoopi Goldberg about a pretend nun in Harlem whose former life involved a mobster boyfriend and a Las Vegas singing career?
Whoopi can really sing? We finally realize that the decent sister can win one, but it’s not really actress Wendy Makkena who sings. She was voiced by singer Andrea Robinson. However, Whoopi sang her song .
Screenwriter Paul Rudnick pitched Sister Act to producer Scott Rudin in 1987, with Bette Midler in mind for the lead role. The script was brought to Disney. However, Midler turned down the role, fearing that her fans would not want to see her play a nun .
Her rapping was improvised. The famed high note performed by Ryan Toby (Ahmal) during the “Oh, Happy Day” song is an E natural high , one of the highest and toughest notes to hit for singers and vocalists. Toby was sixteen years old during the shooting of this movie.
Since the film officially entered development back in mid-December 2020, details of the release date are still mostly unknown. Considering that the project was just announced and that filming will not begin until later in 2021, it’s fair to expect the film won’t premiere until 2022 at the earliest.
Paul’s Church , Immortalized by Sister Act. A large church on the corner of Church and Valley was used as the main location of the famous 1992 Whoopi Goldberg film.
DELORIS/ SISTER MARY CLARENCE WAS PARTIALLY INSPIRED BY A REAL NUN . As part of his research, screenwriter Paul Rudnick visited the Regina Laudis Abbey in Bethlehem, Connecticut, to meet Mother Dolores Hart.
Many people definitely remember Ryan Toby’s (@ryantobyryan) breakout role in the 1993 film “Sister Act 2.” He starred as the talented Ahmal in the film, and everyone remembers the scene from the school’s assembly when he killed it during his class’ performance of “Oh Happy Day.”
Lauryn Hill became an international sensation
They followed it up with The Score in 1996. And in 1998, she released her solo album, The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, which earned her five Grammy awards and was recently named by Rolling Stone as one of the greatest albums of all time.
All the seasons of ‘Sisters Sisters’ were filmed at Paramount Studios on 5555 Melrose Avenue in Hollywood, Los Angeles . Tamera’s father’s house, which is where most of the action of the show takes place, was built in the studios.
Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit is a 1993 American musical comedy film loosely based on the life of Crenshaw High School choir instructor Iris Stevenson and starring Whoopi Goldberg.
Indeed, it would be fitting that the original nuns, Hill, and other former students of Sister Mary Clarence, belt out Shaiman’s tunes in Sister Act 3. … For now, it can be expected that some familiar faces from the first two films will show up in Sister Act 3.
Sorry, Sister Act is not available on American Netflix .
But the actress didn’t actually belt her verses and was instead dubbed by Andrea Robinson. Whoopi Goldberg, however, sang all of her parts herself .
Rita was the first major film role for then up-and-coming musician and child soap opera actress Lauryn Hill. Here’s where Hill’s career took her after her breakthrough performance in Sister Act 2.
Unfortunately for fans, however, Ray and Lisa do not end up together . Although Ray and Lisa date each other for a brief period in Season 4, their relationship comes to an abrupt end in Season 5, when the two realize that they are not meant for each other.
And towards the end of the series, she gets together with Ray’s friend Victor , who she marries in the series finale. Before the events of the series, Ray was married to Tamera’s adoptive mother, but she died a few years after Tamera’s birth.
Sister, Sister is not streaming on Disney+ because Disney does not own television or streaming rights to the series . A deal allowed the show to appear on Disney Channel during the years that it did. Walt Disney Television was not behind Sister, Sister.
2022-07-07 | https://www.timesmojo.com/who-actually-sang-in-sister-act/ | 94 |
who sang oh happy day in sister act 2 | Who actually sang in Sister Act? - TimesMojo | Lois De Banzie , a Tony-nominated actress best known for the films “Annie” and “Sister Act,” has died. She was 90 years old.
Yes, that movie from 1992…
IT TURNS OUT Sister Act may have been based on a true story . Remember that film starring Whoopi Goldberg about a pretend nun in Harlem whose former life involved a mobster boyfriend and a Las Vegas singing career?
Whoopi can really sing? We finally realize that the decent sister can win one, but it’s not really actress Wendy Makkena who sings. She was voiced by singer Andrea Robinson. However, Whoopi sang her song .
Screenwriter Paul Rudnick pitched Sister Act to producer Scott Rudin in 1987, with Bette Midler in mind for the lead role. The script was brought to Disney. However, Midler turned down the role, fearing that her fans would not want to see her play a nun .
Her rapping was improvised. The famed high note performed by Ryan Toby (Ahmal) during the “Oh, Happy Day” song is an E natural high , one of the highest and toughest notes to hit for singers and vocalists. Toby was sixteen years old during the shooting of this movie.
Since the film officially entered development back in mid-December 2020, details of the release date are still mostly unknown. Considering that the project was just announced and that filming will not begin until later in 2021, it’s fair to expect the film won’t premiere until 2022 at the earliest.
Paul’s Church , Immortalized by Sister Act. A large church on the corner of Church and Valley was used as the main location of the famous 1992 Whoopi Goldberg film.
DELORIS/ SISTER MARY CLARENCE WAS PARTIALLY INSPIRED BY A REAL NUN . As part of his research, screenwriter Paul Rudnick visited the Regina Laudis Abbey in Bethlehem, Connecticut, to meet Mother Dolores Hart.
Many people definitely remember Ryan Toby’s (@ryantobyryan) breakout role in the 1993 film “Sister Act 2.” He starred as the talented Ahmal in the film, and everyone remembers the scene from the school’s assembly when he killed it during his class’ performance of “Oh Happy Day.”
Lauryn Hill became an international sensation
They followed it up with The Score in 1996. And in 1998, she released her solo album, The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, which earned her five Grammy awards and was recently named by Rolling Stone as one of the greatest albums of all time.
All the seasons of ‘Sisters Sisters’ were filmed at Paramount Studios on 5555 Melrose Avenue in Hollywood, Los Angeles . Tamera’s father’s house, which is where most of the action of the show takes place, was built in the studios.
Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit is a 1993 American musical comedy film loosely based on the life of Crenshaw High School choir instructor Iris Stevenson and starring Whoopi Goldberg.
Indeed, it would be fitting that the original nuns, Hill, and other former students of Sister Mary Clarence, belt out Shaiman’s tunes in Sister Act 3. … For now, it can be expected that some familiar faces from the first two films will show up in Sister Act 3.
Sorry, Sister Act is not available on American Netflix .
But the actress didn’t actually belt her verses and was instead dubbed by Andrea Robinson. Whoopi Goldberg, however, sang all of her parts herself .
Rita was the first major film role for then up-and-coming musician and child soap opera actress Lauryn Hill. Here’s where Hill’s career took her after her breakthrough performance in Sister Act 2.
Unfortunately for fans, however, Ray and Lisa do not end up together . Although Ray and Lisa date each other for a brief period in Season 4, their relationship comes to an abrupt end in Season 5, when the two realize that they are not meant for each other.
And towards the end of the series, she gets together with Ray’s friend Victor , who she marries in the series finale. Before the events of the series, Ray was married to Tamera’s adoptive mother, but she died a few years after Tamera’s birth.
Sister, Sister is not streaming on Disney+ because Disney does not own television or streaming rights to the series . A deal allowed the show to appear on Disney Channel during the years that it did. Walt Disney Television was not behind Sister, Sister.
2022-07-07 | https://www.timesmojo.com/who-actually-sang-in-sister-act/#:~:text=Who%20is%20the%20boy%20who%20sang%20Oh%20Happy,during%20his%20class%E2%80%99%20performance%20of%20%E2%80%9COh%20Happy%20Day.%E2%80%9D | 94 |
who sang oh happy day in sister act 2 | Who actually sang in Sister Act? - TimesMojo | Lois De Banzie , a Tony-nominated actress best known for the films “Annie” and “Sister Act,” has died. She was 90 years old.
Yes, that movie from 1992…
IT TURNS OUT Sister Act may have been based on a true story . Remember that film starring Whoopi Goldberg about a pretend nun in Harlem whose former life involved a mobster boyfriend and a Las Vegas singing career?
Whoopi can really sing? We finally realize that the decent sister can win one, but it’s not really actress Wendy Makkena who sings. She was voiced by singer Andrea Robinson. However, Whoopi sang her song .
Screenwriter Paul Rudnick pitched Sister Act to producer Scott Rudin in 1987, with Bette Midler in mind for the lead role. The script was brought to Disney. However, Midler turned down the role, fearing that her fans would not want to see her play a nun .
Her rapping was improvised. The famed high note performed by Ryan Toby (Ahmal) during the “Oh, Happy Day” song is an E natural high , one of the highest and toughest notes to hit for singers and vocalists. Toby was sixteen years old during the shooting of this movie.
Since the film officially entered development back in mid-December 2020, details of the release date are still mostly unknown. Considering that the project was just announced and that filming will not begin until later in 2021, it’s fair to expect the film won’t premiere until 2022 at the earliest.
Paul’s Church , Immortalized by Sister Act. A large church on the corner of Church and Valley was used as the main location of the famous 1992 Whoopi Goldberg film.
DELORIS/ SISTER MARY CLARENCE WAS PARTIALLY INSPIRED BY A REAL NUN . As part of his research, screenwriter Paul Rudnick visited the Regina Laudis Abbey in Bethlehem, Connecticut, to meet Mother Dolores Hart.
Many people definitely remember Ryan Toby’s (@ryantobyryan) breakout role in the 1993 film “Sister Act 2.” He starred as the talented Ahmal in the film, and everyone remembers the scene from the school’s assembly when he killed it during his class’ performance of “Oh Happy Day.”
Lauryn Hill became an international sensation
They followed it up with The Score in 1996. And in 1998, she released her solo album, The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, which earned her five Grammy awards and was recently named by Rolling Stone as one of the greatest albums of all time.
All the seasons of ‘Sisters Sisters’ were filmed at Paramount Studios on 5555 Melrose Avenue in Hollywood, Los Angeles . Tamera’s father’s house, which is where most of the action of the show takes place, was built in the studios.
Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit is a 1993 American musical comedy film loosely based on the life of Crenshaw High School choir instructor Iris Stevenson and starring Whoopi Goldberg.
Indeed, it would be fitting that the original nuns, Hill, and other former students of Sister Mary Clarence, belt out Shaiman’s tunes in Sister Act 3. … For now, it can be expected that some familiar faces from the first two films will show up in Sister Act 3.
Sorry, Sister Act is not available on American Netflix .
But the actress didn’t actually belt her verses and was instead dubbed by Andrea Robinson. Whoopi Goldberg, however, sang all of her parts herself .
Rita was the first major film role for then up-and-coming musician and child soap opera actress Lauryn Hill. Here’s where Hill’s career took her after her breakthrough performance in Sister Act 2.
Unfortunately for fans, however, Ray and Lisa do not end up together . Although Ray and Lisa date each other for a brief period in Season 4, their relationship comes to an abrupt end in Season 5, when the two realize that they are not meant for each other.
And towards the end of the series, she gets together with Ray’s friend Victor , who she marries in the series finale. Before the events of the series, Ray was married to Tamera’s adoptive mother, but she died a few years after Tamera’s birth.
Sister, Sister is not streaming on Disney+ because Disney does not own television or streaming rights to the series . A deal allowed the show to appear on Disney Channel during the years that it did. Walt Disney Television was not behind Sister, Sister.
2022-07-07 | https://www.timesmojo.com/who-actually-sang-in-sister-act/#:~:text=Who%20is%20the%20boy%20who%20sang%20Oh%20Happy,during%20his%20class%E2%80%99%20performance%20of%20%E2%80%9COh%20Happy%20Day.%E2%80%9D | 94 |
who sang oh happy day in sister act 2 | Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Sister Act 2: |
Back in the Habit
|Directed by||Bill Duke|
|Written by|
|Based on|| Characters |
by Joseph Howard
|Produced by|
|Starring|
|Cinematography||Oliver Wood|
|Edited by|
|Music by|
Production
company
|Distributed by||Buena Vista Pictures Distribution|
Release date
Running time
|107 minutes [1]|
|Country||United States|
|Language||English|
|Budget||$38 million [2]|
|Box office||$125 million [3]|
Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit is a 1993 American musical comedy film , directed by Bill Duke , and released by Touchstone Pictures . It is the sequel to the 1992 film Sister Act , and is loosely based on the life of Crenshaw High School choir instructor Iris Stevenson . The story sees Whoopi Goldberg reprising her role as Deloris van Cartier, as she finds herself coming to the aid of her nun friends who need her help to save her old school. Maggie Smith , Kathy Najimy , Wendy Makkena , and Mary Wickes also reprised their roles in the sequel. [4] [5]
The film performed well at the box office, but was less commercially successful than its predecessor, and initially received generally negative reviews from critics. However it has proved popular with fans and has become a cult classic . [6] [7] It starred Lauryn Hill in her breakout role, as well as Sheryl Lee Ralph , Alanna Ubach , and Jennifer Love Hewitt . [8] Gospel singer Erica Campbell of the duo Mary Mary , R&B singer Ryan Toby of the group City High , and The War and Treaty singer Tanya Trotter , also made appearances as members of the film's choir.
Deloris Van Cartier has become a famous performer in Las Vegas since her time posing as a nun to hide from the mob, presenting an entire dinner show based on her experience . During her latest performance, she is reunited with her friends, Sisters Mary Patrick, Mary Robert, and Mary Lazarus, who are in the audience. They have come to Las Vegas to beg her assistance.
Deloris meets with another old friend, the Reverend Mother, who explains that the convent nuns now teach at the St. Francis Academy in San Francisco . Coincidentally, Deloris attended this school in her childhood. The school faces closure unless its reputation can be improved. The nuns ask her to reprise her persona as Sister Mary Clarence and become the new music teacher. She reluctantly agrees.
At the school, Mary Clarence meets the school's staff of friars, led by the humble but inept Father Maurice, and the diocese administrator, Mr. Crisp, who wants the school to close, so he may receive early retirement. She attends her first music class, meeting the rowdy teenagers, who attend the class with the expectation of receiving an easy "A". Mary Clarence butts heads with ringleader, Rita Louise Watson. Rita walks out when Mary Clarence informs the students that they will have to earn their grades. The other students stay to avoid failure. When they break into spontaneous, synchronized singing, Mary Clarence is inspired to turn them into a choir . Initially, the students are dismayed and object to her proposal.
Mary Robert overhears Rita's talented singing. She recommends that Mary Clarence convince Rita to return to class. Students, nuns and friars work to restore the school's decrepit music room, and the class begins to practice extensively. They perform "Oh, Happy Day" before the whole school, led by Ahmal, a talented vocalist. The nuns discover numerous trophies, revealing the school won the All-State Choir Championship multiple times in the past, and decide to enter them once again. Father Maurice allows it, as long as they raise the money themselves and each student has a signed parental permission slip.
Rita's strict but well-meaning mother Florence refuses to let her attend, believing a musical career is a dead end as her husband died trying to chase fame. However, Rita forges her mother's signature to attend, leaving an apology note for her disobedience, prompting Florence to drive to Hollywood to see the competition. Mr. Crisp discovers a magazine in the school library with Deloris Van Cartier on the cover. Recognizing her as Mary Clarence, he warns Father Maurice of the sham. The choir has already left for the competition, so the friars pile into their old van and race to confront Mary Clarence.
Backstage at the competition, the choir are intimidated by the other entrants and consider quitting, but Mary Clarence inspires them to persevere. The friars arrive, and Father Maurice decides to support the choir upon seeing their enthusiasm. The other friars trap Mr. Crisp in a closet to prevent him from interfering. The choir takes to the stage, Rita performing a solo before the choir perform an urban contemporary gospel rendition of " Joyful, Joyful ", with hip hop choreography.
The choir wins the competition. Impressed with the performance, the school's local diocese agrees to keep the school open. To thwart Mr. Crisp, the Reverend Mother states that the competition entry was his idea, and that the diocese must have another "hot spot" position for him..."we cannot let such a prize bull be put out to pasture".
Rita and Florence make amends, while the choir learns Mary Clarence is actually a professional singer. They ask her if she is a Las Vegas showgirl , to which she claims she has never been such, but is a "headliner".
The end credits feature the film's cast performing " Ain't No Mountain High Enough ".
- Maggie Smith – Reverend Mother
- Barnard Hughes – Father Maurice
- James Coburn – Mr. Crisp
- Michael Jeter – Father Ignatius
- Robert Pastorelli – Joey Bustamente
- Thomas Gottschalk – Father Wolfgang
- Brad Sullivan – Father Thomas
- Ryan Toby – Wesley Glen "Ahmal" James
- Ron Johnson – Richard "Sketch" Pincham
- Tyse Saffuri – Choir Member
- Devin Kamin – Frankie
- Christian Fitzharris – Tyler Chase
- Mehran Marcos Sedghi – Marcos
- Erica Atkins – Competing Choir
- Deondray Gossett – Classroom Kid
- Monica Calhoun – Classroom Kid
- David Kater – Classroom Kid
- Valeria Andrews – Classroom Kid
- Riley Weston – Classroom Kid
- Sheri Cladd – Uncredited Nun
- Alexandrea Martin – Classroom Kid
The film was not as successful as Sister Act . It grossed $57.3 million in the United States and Canada [9] and $67.3 million internationally for a worldwide total of $124.6 million, against a $38 million budget. [3] [10]
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an 18% approval rating based on 38 reviews, with an average rating of 3.6/10. The consensus states: " Sister Act is off-key in this reprise, fatally shifting the spotlight from Whoopi Goldberg to a less compelling ensemble of pupils and trading its predecessor's sharp comedy for unconvincing sentiment." [11] On Metacritic it has a score of 38% based on reviews from 23 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". [12] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale. [13]
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times rated it 2 out of 4 and wrote "What's strange about Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit is that it abandons most of what people liked about the first movie and replaces it with a formula as old as the hills." [14] Brian Lowry of Variety wrote that it "Lacks the charm and buoyancy that made the first "Act" a mass-appeal hit." [15] Rita Kempley of The Washington Post called it "Shamelessly contrived pap." [16]
Ty Burr of Entertainment Weekly criticized the lack of originality but says "The recycling’s so cheerily blatant it almost short- circuits criticism" and "What saves the movie is a young cast with astonishing talent and energy: You respond to their high spirits more than to the hackneyed characters they play." He gave the film a B− grade. [17]
The film gained a strong following since its release and became a cult classic among fans. Director Bill Duke said about the reception: "The reviewers at that time could not really be linked to our communities or the message. As you know, the faces of the reviewers were very different than the viewers. So I was surprised, but not shocked, because they didn't get us at the time. They didn't get the message and did not relate on an emotional level." [18]
In a reader's poll conducted in 2014, the film ranked amongst the 25 Greatest Movie Sequels by Rolling Stone . [19] In 2023, the movie was named one of best musical movies of all time by Marie Claire . [20]
|Award||Category||Nominee(s)||Result|
|American Comedy Awards [21]||Funniest Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture||Kathy Najimy||Nominated|
|Kids' Choice Awards [22]||Favorite Movie Actress||Whoopi Goldberg||Won|
|MTV Movie Awards [23]||Best Comedic Performance||Whoopi Goldberg||Nominated|
|Young Artist Awards [24]||Best Family Motion Picture - Comedy or Musical||Nominated|
At the time of its release, Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit was panned by film critics. However, the film began to resurface in syndication, as its stars Lauryn Hill and Jennifer Love Hewitt became cultural phenomenons in the 1990s, ultimately leading the film to become a cult classic . It has since been reassessed over the years by modern journalist and is considered a standard in black cinema . [25] David Dennis Jr. of Andscape , proclaimed "the cultural impact of Sister Act 2 is felt across movies, music and even your Sunday church services ." [26]
Rotten Tomatoes referred to the film as a landmark for diversity for films released in its time, and a showcase of "representation in mainstream American film". [27] Furthermore, the film has received praise by Vice as "a work of art whose ambition and execution redefined what sequels could do". [28]
Sister Act 2: Back In The Habit along with gospel musician Kirk Franklin , has been credited with helping to usher in a new era of gospel music that made the genre more palpable for a wider audience by incorporating elements of hip-hop and rhythm and blues . Singer Syleena Johnson stated that " Sister Act 2 was part of the movement to bring all of that mainstream". [26] The film's popularity seemingly led to a spike in interest for " glee clubs and choirs"; becoming a precursor to similar productions such as Glee (2009-2015), [29] High School Musical (2006), [30] Joyful Noise (2012), [31] and Praise This (2023). [32] In Japan, the film inspired the creation of nearly thirty choirs in the country. Entertainer Ken Taylor stated "what happened was the businesses in Japan, who are quick to adopt these fads, started offering Gospel choir lessons. It was not the churches, but the community centers that had these choirs"; further adding "So here were non-Christians in Japan saying that they wanted to sing just like the nuns in the movie." [33] [34]
Lauryn Hill's performance has received acclaim from fans, critics and musicians alike. According to music executive Jerry L. Greenberg , Hill's role led her to receive a solo record deal offer from Michael Jackson , which she turned down due to being a member of The Fugees . [35] Over the years, countless musicians have cited Hill's performance as an inspiration for them to pursue music careers, including Lianne La Havas , [36] Todrick Hall , [37] Colbie Caillat , [38] August Alsina , [39] Hillary Scott of Lady A , [40] and Lecrae . Singer-Actress Janelle Monáe cited Hill's performance as a source of inspiration for her acting career. [41] Pop star Katy Perry stated that the only secular music she was allowed to listen to growing up was the film's accompanying soundtrack. [42] Perry also told Rolling Stone that she was raised on Hill's version of " His Eye Is on the Sparrow ". [43] Billboard ranked Hill's performance at number 38 on their list of the 'The 100 Best Acting Performances by Musicians in Movies' in 2018. [44]
Additionally, English singer Harry Styles has cited Ryan Toby's singing in the film as the primary source of inspiration for him to pursue a music career. [45] EGOT -winner Jennifer Hudson dressed up as Sister Mary Clarence (Whoopi Goldberg) during a Halloween episode of her daytime talk show The Jennifer Hudson Show . Hudson also name the film along with Goldberg as inspirations for her to pursue a career in music. [46]
The music video for " Shake It Off " by Taylor Swift references the film during the end credits. [47] Lizzo paid tribute to the film during her performance of " Juice " at the 2019 MTV Movie & TV Awards . [48] The film's " Joyful, Joyful " scene was reenacted in the 'Game Over' episode, during season 3 of the American comedy series Broad City by Ilana Glazer and Abbi Jacobson , and featured Goldberg reprising her role. [49] [50]
The soundtrack album was released on November 23, 1993 by Hollywood Records , it reached #74 on the Billboard Top 200 Albums Chart [51] and #40 on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums [52] charts and received a Gold certification from the RIAA for shipment of 500,000 copies on March 26, 1996. [53]
- Greatest Medley Ever Told – Whoopi Goldberg & The Ronelles
- Wandering Eyes – Nuttin' Nyce
- Pay Attention – Valeria Andrews & Ryan Toby
- Ode to Joy – Chapman College Choir
- Joyful, Joyful – St. Francis Choir featuring Lauryn Hill
The finale performance of "Joyful Joyful" was produced and arranged by Mervyn Warren , noted jazz and gospel musician who is best known as an original member of a cappella vocal group Take 6 . The arrangement also includes rap lyrics written by Ryan Toby , and a bridge adapted from the chorus of Janet Jackson 's 1986 single, What Have You Done for Me Lately .
The all-region Blu-ray, including both Sister Act and Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit , was released on June 19, 2012 with both films presented in 1080p. The 3-disc set also includes both films on DVD with the same bonus features as previous releases. [54]
When asked in 2013 about acting in a sequel, Whoopi Goldberg initially refused, [55] but by 2015 changed her stance to a maybe. [56] After a Broad City cameo, in 2016 Whoopi expressed doubts about a sequel based on missing cast members, but said she thought it would be fun and likeable. [57] In May 2017, she affirmed her desire for the third film to happen, [58] adding in July that she would like to direct it and had confidence it would be made. [59] On December 7, 2018, it was confirmed that Regina Y. Hicks and Karin Gist were hired to write the script to Sister Act 3 for a release on Disney+ . [60] In December 2020, it was announced that Goldberg would be reprising the role of Deloris and serve as a producer alongside Tyler Perry . [61] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_Act_2%3A_Back_in_the_Habit | 94 |
who determines what is and what is not criminal | What Constitutes a Crime? | - Share
Updated on July 14, 2021
A crime occurs when someone breaks the law by an overt act, omission, or neglect that can result in punishment. A person who has violated a law, or has breached a rule, is said to have committed a criminal offense .
In the U.S., three primary classifications of criminal offenses exist—felonies, misdemeanors, and infractions. Federal, state, and local government officials pass laws defining what constitutes a crime, so the definition of crime can vary from state to state and even city to city. In the U.S., police and sheriff's departments generally enforce the law and may arrest those accused of committing a crime, while the judicial system—comprised of judges and juries—generally imposes punishments or sentences for various crimes, as they are defined in given jurisdictions.
There are two main categories of crime : property crime and violent crime. There are other types outside of these, but many crimes can be placed into these two categories.
A property crime is committed when someone damages, destroys, or steals someone else's property. Stealing a car and vandalizing a building are examples of property crimes. Property crimes are by far the most commonly committed crime in the United States.
A violent crime occurs when someone harms, attempts to harm, threatens to harm, or conspires to harm someone else. Violent crimes involve force or threat of force and include crimes such as rape, robbery, and homicide. Some crimes can be both property crimes and violent crimes. Examples include carjacking someone's vehicle at gunpoint and robbing a convenience store with a handgun.
Some crimes are neither violent crimes nor property crimes. A crime of omission entails failing to obey the law, which can endanger people and property. Running a stop sign, for example, is a crime because it puts the public in danger. Withholding medication or neglecting someone who needs medical care or attention are also examples of crimes of omission. If you know someone who is abusing a child and you do not report it, you could be charged with a crime for failing to act.
The phrase "white-collar crime" was first used in 1939 by sociologist Edwin Sutherland during a speech to members of the American Sociological Society. Sutherland defined it as "a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation."
Generally, white-collar crime is nonviolent and committed for financial gain by business professionals, politicians, and others in positions of relative power. Often, white-collar crimes include fraudulent financial schemes. Examples include securities fraud, insider trading, Ponzi schemes, embezzlement, money laundering, insurance fraud, tax fraud, and mortgage fraud.
Society decides what is and is not a crime through its system of laws. In the United States, there are three separate systems of laws: federal, state, and local.
Federal laws are passed by the U.S. Congress and applied to everyone in the United States. When federal laws conflict with state and local laws, federal laws generally prevail. Federal laws cover a range of areas including immigration, business, child welfare, Social Security, consumer protection, controlled substances, bankruptcy, education, housing, environmental protection and land use, and discrimination based on gender, age, race, or ability. The impeachment of government officials is often decided by federal laws as well.
State laws are passed by elected legislators—also known as lawmakers—and can vary widely from state to state. Gun laws, for example, are different across the country. Although drunk driving is illegal in all 50 states, the penalties for driving while intoxicated can be very different between states. Some areas covered by state laws include education, family issues (such as wills, inheritance, and divorce), criminal offenses, health and safety, public assistance, licensing and regulation, Medicaid, and property crimes.
Local laws, usually known as ordinances, are passed by local county or city governing bodies such as commissions or councils. Local ordinances usually control how residents are expected to behave in the community, such as slowing down in school zones and disposing of trash properly. Local laws often pertain to safety and property.
In the criminal justice system of the U.S., if you are arrested for a crime, you are detained and read your Miranda rights , which state that you have the right to an attorney, the right to remain silent, and that anything you say "can and will" be used against you in a court of law. You are then given an arraignment , where you make your first appearance in court. Under due process , your constitutional rights entitle you to:
- A trial by a jury of your peers
- A public trial
- A speedy trial
- The right to confront witnesses against you
- Protection from cruel and unusual punishment
- Protection from paying excessive bail
- Protection from being tried twice for the same crime, which is called double jeopardy
The criminal justice system is not a one-size-fits-all system; it is dependent on human beings. Because of this, biases exist, and different populations, such as Black men and other underserved populations, can and often are treated differently by the legal system.
One area of note about the criminal justice system is that usually someone has to have "intent" to be accused of a crime, meaning they intended to break the law, but this is not always the case. You can be charged with a crime even if you don't know the law exists. For example, you may not know that a city has passed an ordinance banning the use of cell phones while driving, but if you are caught doing it, you can be charged and punished.
The phrase "ignorance of the law is no exception" means that you can be held liable for breaking a law you didn't know existed.
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who determines what is and what is not criminal | What Constitutes a Crime? | - Share
Updated on July 14, 2021
A crime occurs when someone breaks the law by an overt act, omission, or neglect that can result in punishment. A person who has violated a law, or has breached a rule, is said to have committed a criminal offense .
In the U.S., three primary classifications of criminal offenses exist—felonies, misdemeanors, and infractions. Federal, state, and local government officials pass laws defining what constitutes a crime, so the definition of crime can vary from state to state and even city to city. In the U.S., police and sheriff's departments generally enforce the law and may arrest those accused of committing a crime, while the judicial system—comprised of judges and juries—generally imposes punishments or sentences for various crimes, as they are defined in given jurisdictions.
There are two main categories of crime : property crime and violent crime. There are other types outside of these, but many crimes can be placed into these two categories.
A property crime is committed when someone damages, destroys, or steals someone else's property. Stealing a car and vandalizing a building are examples of property crimes. Property crimes are by far the most commonly committed crime in the United States.
A violent crime occurs when someone harms, attempts to harm, threatens to harm, or conspires to harm someone else. Violent crimes involve force or threat of force and include crimes such as rape, robbery, and homicide. Some crimes can be both property crimes and violent crimes. Examples include carjacking someone's vehicle at gunpoint and robbing a convenience store with a handgun.
Some crimes are neither violent crimes nor property crimes. A crime of omission entails failing to obey the law, which can endanger people and property. Running a stop sign, for example, is a crime because it puts the public in danger. Withholding medication or neglecting someone who needs medical care or attention are also examples of crimes of omission. If you know someone who is abusing a child and you do not report it, you could be charged with a crime for failing to act.
The phrase "white-collar crime" was first used in 1939 by sociologist Edwin Sutherland during a speech to members of the American Sociological Society. Sutherland defined it as "a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation."
Generally, white-collar crime is nonviolent and committed for financial gain by business professionals, politicians, and others in positions of relative power. Often, white-collar crimes include fraudulent financial schemes. Examples include securities fraud, insider trading, Ponzi schemes, embezzlement, money laundering, insurance fraud, tax fraud, and mortgage fraud.
Society decides what is and is not a crime through its system of laws. In the United States, there are three separate systems of laws: federal, state, and local.
Federal laws are passed by the U.S. Congress and applied to everyone in the United States. When federal laws conflict with state and local laws, federal laws generally prevail. Federal laws cover a range of areas including immigration, business, child welfare, Social Security, consumer protection, controlled substances, bankruptcy, education, housing, environmental protection and land use, and discrimination based on gender, age, race, or ability. The impeachment of government officials is often decided by federal laws as well.
State laws are passed by elected legislators—also known as lawmakers—and can vary widely from state to state. Gun laws, for example, are different across the country. Although drunk driving is illegal in all 50 states, the penalties for driving while intoxicated can be very different between states. Some areas covered by state laws include education, family issues (such as wills, inheritance, and divorce), criminal offenses, health and safety, public assistance, licensing and regulation, Medicaid, and property crimes.
Local laws, usually known as ordinances, are passed by local county or city governing bodies such as commissions or councils. Local ordinances usually control how residents are expected to behave in the community, such as slowing down in school zones and disposing of trash properly. Local laws often pertain to safety and property.
In the criminal justice system of the U.S., if you are arrested for a crime, you are detained and read your Miranda rights , which state that you have the right to an attorney, the right to remain silent, and that anything you say "can and will" be used against you in a court of law. You are then given an arraignment , where you make your first appearance in court. Under due process , your constitutional rights entitle you to:
- A trial by a jury of your peers
- A public trial
- A speedy trial
- The right to confront witnesses against you
- Protection from cruel and unusual punishment
- Protection from paying excessive bail
- Protection from being tried twice for the same crime, which is called double jeopardy
The criminal justice system is not a one-size-fits-all system; it is dependent on human beings. Because of this, biases exist, and different populations, such as Black men and other underserved populations, can and often are treated differently by the legal system.
One area of note about the criminal justice system is that usually someone has to have "intent" to be accused of a crime, meaning they intended to break the law, but this is not always the case. You can be charged with a crime even if you don't know the law exists. For example, you may not know that a city has passed an ordinance banning the use of cell phones while driving, but if you are caught doing it, you can be charged and punished.
The phrase "ignorance of the law is no exception" means that you can be held liable for breaking a law you didn't know existed. | https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-crime-970836#:~:text=Society%20decides%20what%20is%20and%20is%20not%20a,laws%20may%20conflict%20with%20state%20and%20local%20laws. | 95 |
who determines what is and what is not criminal | Criminal law - The elements of crime | It is generally agreed that the essential ingredients of any crime are (1) a voluntary act or omission ( actus reus ), accompanied by (2) a certain state of mind ( mens rea ). An act may be any kind of voluntary human behaviour . Movements made in an epileptic seizure are not acts, nor are movements made by a somnambulist before awakening, even if they result in the death of another person. Criminal liability for the result also requires that the harm done must have been caused by the accused. The test of causal relationship between conduct and result is that the event would not have happened the same way without direct participation of the offender.
Criminal liability may also be predicated on a failure to act when the accused was under a legal duty to act and was reasonably capable of doing so. The legal duty to act may be imposed directly by statute, such as the requirement to file an income tax return, or it may arise out of the relationship between the parties, as the obligation of parents to provide their child with food.
Although most legal systems recognize the importance of the guilty mind, or mens rea, the statutes have not always spelled out exactly what is meant by this concept. The Model Penal Code has attempted to clarify the concept by reducing the variety of mental states to four. Guilt is attributed to a person who acts “purposely,” “knowingly,” “recklessly,” or, more rarely, “negligently.” Broadly speaking, these terms correspond to those used in Anglo-American courts and continental European legal theory. Singly or in combination, they appear largely adequate to deal with most of the common mens rea problems. They have been adopted literally or in substance by a majority of U.S. states and clarify and rationalize a major element in the substantive law of crimes. Under the Model Penal Code and in most states, most crimes require a showing of “purposely,” “knowingly,” or “recklessly.” Negligent conduct will support a conviction only when the definition of the crime in question includes it.
Some penal offenses do not require the demonstration of culpable mind on the part of the accused. These traditionally include statutory rape , in which knowledge that the child is below the age of consent is not necessary to liability. There is also a large class of “public welfare offenses,” involving such things as economic regulations or laws concerning public health and safety. The rationale for eliminating the mens rea requirement in such offenses is that to require the prosecution to establish the defendant’s intent, or even negligence , would render such regulatory legislation largely ineffective and unenforceable. Such cases are known in Anglo-American law as strict liability offenses, and in French law as infractions purement matérielles . In German law they are excluded because the requirement of mens rea is considered a constitutional principle.
There has been considerable criticism of statutes that create liability without actual moral fault. To expose citizens to the condemnation of a criminal conviction without a showing of moral culpability raises issues of justice . In many instances the objectives of such legislation can more effectively be achieved by civil sanctions, as, for example, suits for damages , injunctions, and the revocation of licenses.
In most countries the law recognizes that a person who acts in ignorance of the facts of his action should not be held criminally responsible. Thus, one who takes and carries away the goods of another person, believing them to be his own, does not commit larceny , for he lacks the intent to steal. Ignorance of the law, on the other hand, is generally held not to excuse the actor; it is no defense that he was unaware that his conduct was forbidden by criminal law. This doctrine is supported by the proposition that criminal acts may be recognized as harmful and immoral by any reasonable adult.
The matter is not so clear, however, when the conduct is not obviously dangerous or immoral. A substantial body of opinion would permit mistakes of law to be asserted in defense of criminal charges in such cases, particularly when the defendant has in good faith made reasonable efforts to discover what the law is. In West Germany the Federal Court of Justice in 1952 adopted the proposition that if a person engages in criminal conduct but is unaware of its criminality, that person cannot be fully charged with a criminal offense; this has since been incorporated as rule in the German criminal code. Law and practice in Switzerland are quite similar. In Austria mistake of law is a legal defense. In the U.S. the Model Penal Code would allow a defense of mistake of law, but this would rarely include a mistake such as the existence or meaning of the law defining the crime itself.
It is universally agreed that in appropriate cases persons suffering from serious mental disorders should be relieved of the consequences of their criminal conduct. A great deal of controversy has arisen, however, as to the appropriate legal tests of responsibility. Most legal definitions of mental disorder are not based on modern concepts of medical science, and psychiatrists accordingly find it difficult to make their knowledge relevant to the requirements of the court .
Various attempts have been made to formulate a new legal test of responsibility. The Model Penal Code endeavoured to meet the manifold difficulties of this problem by requiring that the defendant be deprived of “substantial capacity either to appreciate the criminality of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of the law” as a result of mental disease or defect. This resembles the Soviet formulation of 1958, which required a mental disease as the medical condition and incapacity to appreciate or control as the psychological condition resulting from it. The same may be said of the German law, although the latter includes in mental illness such disorders as psychopathy and neurosis in addition to psychoses and provides for various gradations of diminished responsibility . Several U.S. jurisdictions, including federal law, have abandoned the volitional prong of the insanity test and returned to the ancient English rule laid down in M’Naghten’s Case (1843) 8 Eng. Rep. 718, 722. According to that case, an insane person is excused only if he did not know the nature and quality of his act or could not tell right from wrong. The English Homicide Act of 1957 also recognizes diminished responsibility, though to less effect. The act provides that a person who kills another shall not be guilty of murder “if he was suffering from such abnormality of mind…as substantially impaired his mental responsibility for his acts or omissions in doing or being a party to the killing.” The primary effect of this provision is to reduce an offense of murder to one of manslaughter .
Intoxication is usually not treated as mental incapacity. Soviet law was especially harsh; it held that the mental-disease defense was not applicable to persons who committed a crime while drunk and that drunkenness might even be an aggravating circumstance. American law is similar. In German law, on the other hand, intoxication like any other mental defect is acceptable as a defense in criminal cases.
The law generally recognizes a number of particular situations in which the use of force , even deadly force, is excused or justified. The most important body of law in this area is that which relates to self-defense . In general, in Anglo-American law , one may kill an assailant when the killer reasonably believes that he is in imminent peril of losing his life or of suffering serious bodily injury and that killing the assailant is necessary to avoid imminent peril. Some jurisdictions require that the party under attack must try to retreat when this can be done without increasing the peril. Under many continental European laws and in most U.S. states, however, the defendant may stand his ground unless he has provoked his assailant purposely or by gross negligence or unless the assailant has some incapacity such as inebriation, mistake, or mental disease. Other situations in which the use of force is generally justifiable, both in Anglo-American law and in continental European law , include the use of force in defense of others, in law enforcement, and in defense of one’s dwelling . Use of force in the protection of other property is sometimes limited to nonlethal force.
The use of force may also be excused if the defendant reasonably believed himself to be acting under necessity. The doctrine of necessity in Anglo-American law relates to situations in which a person, confronted by the overwhelming pressure of natural forces, must make a choice between evils and engages in conduct that would otherwise be considered criminal. In the oft-cited case of United States v. Holmes , in 1842, a longboat containing passengers and members of the crew of a sunken American vessel was cast adrift in the stormy sea. To prevent the boat from being swamped, members of the crew threw some of the passengers overboard. In the trial of one of the crew members, the court recognized that such circumstances of necessity may constitute a defense to a charge of criminal homicide , provided that those sacrificed be fairly selected, as by lot. Because this had not been done, a conviction for manslaughter was returned. The leading English case, Regina v. Dudley and Stephens (1884) 14 Q.B.D. 273, appears to reject the necessity defense in homicide cases. In German or French courts, however, the defendants would probably have been acquitted.
In general, the use of nonlethal force may be excused if the defendant reasonably believed himself to be acting under duress or coercion. Lethal force may be justified if the defendant was carrying out military orders he believed to be lawful.
All advanced legal systems condemn as criminal the sorts of conduct described in the Anglo-American law as treason , murder , aggravated assault , theft , robbery , burglary , arson , and rape . With respect to minor police regulations, however, substantial differences in the definition of criminal behaviour occur even between jurisdictions of the Anglo-American system. Comparisons of the continental European criminal law with that based on the English common law of crimes also reveal significant differences in the definition of certain aspects of more serious crimes. Continental European law, for example, frequently articulates grounds for mitigation involving considerations that are taken into account in the Anglo-American countries only in the exercise of discretion by the sentencing authority or by lay juries. This may be illustrated with respect to so-called mercy killings . The Anglo-American law of murder recognizes no formal grounds of defense or mitigation in the fact that the accused killed to relieve someone of suffering from an apparently incurable disease. Many continental European and Latin American codes, however, provide for mitigation of offenses prompted by such motives and sometimes even recognize in such motives a defense to the criminal charge. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/criminal-law/The-elements-of-crime | 95 |
who determines what is and what is not criminal | What Constitutes a Crime? | - Share
Updated on July 14, 2021
A crime occurs when someone breaks the law by an overt act, omission, or neglect that can result in punishment. A person who has violated a law, or has breached a rule, is said to have committed a criminal offense .
In the U.S., three primary classifications of criminal offenses exist—felonies, misdemeanors, and infractions. Federal, state, and local government officials pass laws defining what constitutes a crime, so the definition of crime can vary from state to state and even city to city. In the U.S., police and sheriff's departments generally enforce the law and may arrest those accused of committing a crime, while the judicial system—comprised of judges and juries—generally imposes punishments or sentences for various crimes, as they are defined in given jurisdictions.
There are two main categories of crime : property crime and violent crime. There are other types outside of these, but many crimes can be placed into these two categories.
A property crime is committed when someone damages, destroys, or steals someone else's property. Stealing a car and vandalizing a building are examples of property crimes. Property crimes are by far the most commonly committed crime in the United States.
A violent crime occurs when someone harms, attempts to harm, threatens to harm, or conspires to harm someone else. Violent crimes involve force or threat of force and include crimes such as rape, robbery, and homicide. Some crimes can be both property crimes and violent crimes. Examples include carjacking someone's vehicle at gunpoint and robbing a convenience store with a handgun.
Some crimes are neither violent crimes nor property crimes. A crime of omission entails failing to obey the law, which can endanger people and property. Running a stop sign, for example, is a crime because it puts the public in danger. Withholding medication or neglecting someone who needs medical care or attention are also examples of crimes of omission. If you know someone who is abusing a child and you do not report it, you could be charged with a crime for failing to act.
The phrase "white-collar crime" was first used in 1939 by sociologist Edwin Sutherland during a speech to members of the American Sociological Society. Sutherland defined it as "a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation."
Generally, white-collar crime is nonviolent and committed for financial gain by business professionals, politicians, and others in positions of relative power. Often, white-collar crimes include fraudulent financial schemes. Examples include securities fraud, insider trading, Ponzi schemes, embezzlement, money laundering, insurance fraud, tax fraud, and mortgage fraud.
Society decides what is and is not a crime through its system of laws. In the United States, there are three separate systems of laws: federal, state, and local.
Federal laws are passed by the U.S. Congress and applied to everyone in the United States. When federal laws conflict with state and local laws, federal laws generally prevail. Federal laws cover a range of areas including immigration, business, child welfare, Social Security, consumer protection, controlled substances, bankruptcy, education, housing, environmental protection and land use, and discrimination based on gender, age, race, or ability. The impeachment of government officials is often decided by federal laws as well.
State laws are passed by elected legislators—also known as lawmakers—and can vary widely from state to state. Gun laws, for example, are different across the country. Although drunk driving is illegal in all 50 states, the penalties for driving while intoxicated can be very different between states. Some areas covered by state laws include education, family issues (such as wills, inheritance, and divorce), criminal offenses, health and safety, public assistance, licensing and regulation, Medicaid, and property crimes.
Local laws, usually known as ordinances, are passed by local county or city governing bodies such as commissions or councils. Local ordinances usually control how residents are expected to behave in the community, such as slowing down in school zones and disposing of trash properly. Local laws often pertain to safety and property.
In the criminal justice system of the U.S., if you are arrested for a crime, you are detained and read your Miranda rights , which state that you have the right to an attorney, the right to remain silent, and that anything you say "can and will" be used against you in a court of law. You are then given an arraignment , where you make your first appearance in court. Under due process , your constitutional rights entitle you to:
- A trial by a jury of your peers
- A public trial
- A speedy trial
- The right to confront witnesses against you
- Protection from cruel and unusual punishment
- Protection from paying excessive bail
- Protection from being tried twice for the same crime, which is called double jeopardy
The criminal justice system is not a one-size-fits-all system; it is dependent on human beings. Because of this, biases exist, and different populations, such as Black men and other underserved populations, can and often are treated differently by the legal system.
One area of note about the criminal justice system is that usually someone has to have "intent" to be accused of a crime, meaning they intended to break the law, but this is not always the case. You can be charged with a crime even if you don't know the law exists. For example, you may not know that a city has passed an ordinance banning the use of cell phones while driving, but if you are caught doing it, you can be charged and punished.
The phrase "ignorance of the law is no exception" means that you can be held liable for breaking a law you didn't know existed.
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who determines what is and what is not criminal | criminal law | Criminal law, as distinguished from civil law , is a system of laws concerned with crimes and the punishment of individuals who commit crimes. Thus, where in a civil case two parties dispute their rights , a criminal prosecution involves the government deciding whether to punish an individual for either an act or an omission .
A “ crime ” is any act or omission in violation of a law prohibiting said action or omission.
Each state decides what conduct to designate a crime. As such, each state has its own criminal code . Congress has also chosen to punish certain conduct, codifying federal criminal law in Title 18 of the U.S. Code . Criminal laws vary significantly among the states and the federal government. While some statutes resemble the common law criminal code, others, like the New York Penal Law , closely mimic the Model Penal Code (MPC).
Congress codified the federal criminal law and criminal procedure in Title 18 of the U.S. Code with §§ 1 to 2725 dealing with crimes. Title 18 designates various conduct as federal crimes, such as arson , use of chemical weapons , counterfeit and forgery , embezzlement , espionage , genocide , and kidnapping . These statutes usually prescribe a maximum sentence appropriate for a convicted individual. For additional Federal Regulations, consult 28 C.F.R.
The federal government has also codified the specific procedures which must take place during a criminal proceeding in the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure .
An individual commits a crime if they act in a way that fulfills every element of an offense . The statute establishing the offense also establishes the elements of the offense. In general, every crime involves three elements: first, the act or conduct ( actus reus ); second, the individual’s mental state at the time of the act ( mens rea ); and third, the causation between the act and the effect (typically either proximate causation or but-for causation ). In a criminal prosecution, the government has the burden of proof to establish every element of a crime beyond a reasonable doubt .
According to the Supreme Court in Elonis v. United States, 575 U.S. (2015) , when a statute does not prescribe a specific mental state, a court will infer the “ mens rea which is necessary to separate wrongful from innocent conduct .”
Crimes can be generally separated into four categories: felonies , misdemeanors , inchoate offenses , and strict liability offenses.
Each state, and the federal government, decides what sort of conduct to criminalize. At common law , there were nine major felonies ( Murder , Robbery , Manslaughter , Rape , Sodomy , Larceny , Arson , Mayhem , and Burglary ) and various misdemeanors (i.e. assault , battery , false imprisonment , perjury , and intimidation of jurors ).
The U.S. Code is far more extensive than the common law. Nonetheless, Congress has limited power to make criminal laws. As this power is generally reserved to the states, state criminal codes, such as the New York Penal Law , are far more complicated than the U.S. Code . The N.Y. Penal Law prescribes nine levels of felonies, ranging from residential mortgage fraud in the fourth degree to terrorism .
The federal government and state governments have created various sentencing guidelines. Federal courts use the Federal Sentencing Guidelines, while state courts will look at state-specific sentencing guidelines.
When multiple parties are involved, the traditional first step is to classify the participants according to the following categories:
- Principal in the first degree – those who actually commit a crime (i.e., the perpetrator).
- Perpetrators are not accomplices, and this section does not pertain to them.
- Principal in the second degree – those who aided, counseled, commanded, or encouraged the perpetrator in the actual commission of a crime.
- An abettor is considered an accomplice.
- Accessory before the fact – those who aided, counseled, commanded, or encouraged the perpetrator to commit the crime, without actually being present at the moment of perpetration.
- An accessory (before the fact) is considered an accomplice.
- Accessory after the fact – those who aid an individual, knowing the individual to be a criminal, in an effort to hinder the individual’s detection, arrest, trial, or punishment.
- Accessories (after the fact) are guilty of a separate crime, so this section does not pertain to them.
To convict an accomplice, the prosecutor needs to establish the requisite actus reus and mens rea . That is, the prosecutor must prove that the accomplice acted in support of the perpetrator and had the requisite mental state while doing so. It is important to note that some jurisdictions allow accomplices to be prosecuted independently of the principal perpetrator. Thus, an accomplice could be found guilty of a more severe offense than the principal. In certain jurisdictions, an accomplice may be convicted while the alleged perpetrator is acquitted .
An ex post facto law retroactively punishes actions. The Constitution explicitly forbids this practices in Article 1, Sections 9 and 10 .
A law cannot punish a person simply for their status. As the Supreme Court explained in Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962) , any statute that criminalizes the status of a person inflicts a cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment .
- For example, a state could not punish an individual for “being homeless,” which would be a status offense, but could punish a homeless individual for trespassing or loitering, which involves some conduct.
There are several defenses available to a defendant in a criminal prosecution. The following list illustrates some common defenses individuals rely on:
- Failure of Proof – an individual’s simplest defense in a criminal prosecution is to claim that the prosecution has not or cannot prove an element of the offense.
- Mistakes – in certain circumstances, an individual’s mistake can be used as a defense.
- Mistake of Law – a mistake regarding the legal status or effect of some situation.
- Mistake of Fact – a mistake regarding the facts of some situation. | https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/criminal_law | 95 |
who determines what is and what is not criminal | Who Decides Whether Or Not I Will Be Charged With A Crime? | Contrary to what some people think, the police are not who make the decision to charge someone with a crime. Police do wield tremendous investigatory and persuasive power, but the decision of whether or not to officially charge a person with a crime lies with the prosecutor, who will be the local district attorney if you are charged with a state-level crime, or the U.S. District Attorney if you are charged with a federal crime.
For misdemeanors in North Carolina, the criminal process papers (citation, criminal summons, order from a magistrate, or arrest warrant) usually double as the charging document in district court. A prosecutor can also file a statement of charges. A charge in North Carolina is referred to as a “pleading.”
The Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution requires that all felonies (offenses typically punishable by at least a year in prison) be charged via an indictment by a grand jury.
A grand jury is the group of people that votes on whether or not a person should be initially charged with a crime after the person is arrested. If it is for a felony charge, the grand jury usually convenes after a probable cause hearing in court. Like a jury at trial (the petit jury), grand juries are comprised of a randomly selected cross-section of community citizens who are supposed to be representative of society as a whole.
How a Grand Jury Functions
The grand jury reviews the evidence against the informally-accused person from the police and prosecutor. If at least 12 jurors find probable cause that the individual committed the crime (a relatively low standard), the grand jury returns an indictment. At this point the accused person becomes a defendant officially charged with a crime. The grand jury for a federal crime must be between 16 and 23 people; for state crimes in North Carolina a grand jury must contain between 12 and 18 jurors. Only 12 are needed to indict for either.
Unlike the jury at a criminal trial who is free to go once they reach a verdict or hang, a grand jury makes decisions on many cases and for a much longer amount of time. A federal grand jury can serve for up to 18 months and a grand jury in North Carolina can serve for up to a year. The actual amount of time served on a grand jury is usually a fraction of this. Grand juries do not meet every day like a trial jury but rather whenever the prosecutor calls them because they have cases they want the grand jury to hear, usually a couple of times a week.
The Enormous Powers of the Grand Jury
The grand jury was originally designed as a check on government power—individuals facing prosecution that was baseless or politically-motivated in seventeenth-century England needed neutral community members to decide whether there was sufficient evidence to officially charge them with a crime. However, grand juries are given enormous power by the government. Grand juries issue indictments in the vast majority of cases they consider, resulting in the grand jury often referred to as the government’s “rubber stamp.”
In a grand jury:
- You do not have the right to an attorney. Your right to an attorney does not attach until you have been officially charged, so you do not have the right to be represented by a defense attorney at a grand jury.
- You do not have the right to hear evidence the prosecution is presenting against you. As discussed below, grand juries meet in secret. Therefore, unlike other trial rights, the grand jury does not afford a suspect the right to confront his or her accusers as guaranteed in the Sixth Amendment.
- You do not have the right to receive exculpatory evidence. There is also no constitutional requirement that the prosecution present exculpatory evidence (evidence such as an alibi that indicates innocence) to a grand jury, so this frequently doesn’t happen.
- You do not have the right to present evidence. A potential defendant does not present any evidence to the grand jury. If the prosecution wants to put them on the stand to question them they are not given the chance to explain or elaborate their actions.
- However, one of the few traditional pretrial rights preserved at a grand jury is the potential defendant’s right to “plead the Fifth” and not incriminate themselves if the prosecutor tries to force them to testify.
- Hearsay is allowed against you. Prosecutors are allowed to use hearsay evidence against you at a grand jury, something that is not normally allowed at the trial level. Hearsay is information from other people that hasn’t been substantiated yet.
- The Exclusionary Rule to evidence does not apply. The Exclusionary Rule prevents our government from using most evidence in a criminal trial that was gathered illegally in violation of the U.S. Constitution. This means the grand jury can consider illegally-obtained evidence that police handed over to the prosecution in weighing whether there is probable cause that you committed the accused crime.
- The grand jury has investigatory powers beyond those of the police. Not only are witnesses not allowed to have their own counsel in a grand jury proceeding, but the prosecution can question witnesses in a grand jury without informing the witness who or what their object of investigation is. This includes situations where a witness might be a potential co-defendant in the same case.
- The grand jury also has the power to subpoena witnesses and force them to testify or bring in evidence. If the potential witness does not obey the subpoena, they can be held in contempt of court. This is another power (besides official charging) that the grand jury has that police do not.
- The police need at least probable cause to get evidence with a warrant. If a case has already focused on a suspect, police cannot question that person without their having an attorney present. As mentioned, there is no right to an attorney at the grand jury, either for the potential defendant or witnesses. This loophole lets grand juries fish for information not yet backed by probable cause and greatly boosts the grand jury’s power.
- Grand juries meet in secret. Courts normally keep public records of trial proceedings so that they will be available in deciding appeals, and to promote transparency and fairness in judicial proceedings (with certain exceptions involving domestic violence, juveniles, and/or national security). However, it is illegal for anyone, including the grand jurors, to talk about what happened in the grand jury room with anyone who was not there. The one exception to this blanket rule is that a witness may discuss matters to which he or she testified.
Even if a grand jury does not indict an individual, the prosecutor can re-bring the same defendant before the grand jury on the same charges multiple times, although prosecutors will usually wait until a new grand jury is convened for especially high-profile cases. This is allowed because issues of double jeopardy do not attach until a person has been formally charged. If you or someone you love is the subject of police or prosecutorial investigation, or you have been officially charged with a crime, it is important to have the advice and/or representation of a skilled criminal defense attorney. At Arnold & Smith, PLLC our attorneys have years of experience in defending individuals accused of both crimes at both the state and federal levels. Our firm also offers the unique insight of a former prosecutor. Contact us today for a free consultation. | https://www.arnoldsmithlaw.com/who-decides-whether-or-not-i-will-be-charged-with-a-crime.html | 95 |
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