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our solar systems mass minus the sun, does that equal enough mass for another star? | just wondering if under ideal conditions if our solar system could have been a binary star system or if we are mass locked in that sense. | not even close. jupiter is the dominant source of mass besides the sun, and it is about 1/80th the mass necessary for a star. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do animals share a similar left handed or right handed distinction as people do? | dogs have apparently been found to have different temperaments which can be determined by being left or right "pawed". i found a link to an article but can't guarantee accuracy: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/canine-corner/201307/dogs-left-paw-preferences-may-be-different-emotionally"
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|
are viruses alive? | damn good and tricky question which depends on one's definition of life and where one puts the cut off point in addition to who you ask. here's a scientific america article on this question. _url_0_ | 149 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=are-viruses-alive-2004",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus#Life_properties",
"http://philosophynow.org/issues/46/Newtons_Flaming_Laser_Sword",
"http://lesswrong.com/lw/no/how_an_algorithm_feels_from_inside/"
] | [
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|
are viruses alive? | viruses basically mark the border between what is clearly alive and clearly isn't. you will not be able to get a clear yes or no answer on this as arguments against viruses being alive are undermined by the accepted aliveness of symbiotic animals. ex. a virus does not really independently have there own metabolism, cannot survive independently, and do not respond to changes in the environment... except for while in a host cell. tl;dr - viruses are classic example of yes/no scientific discussions and the limit of the consensus on life/notlife | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/bb/Alien-The_Facehugger.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_and_life"
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|
are viruses alive? | i remember doing an assignment regarding this question in high school biology. i'm curious what reddit thinks. | no, viruses are not really alive in the sense that they cannot live or replicate without using the cellular machinery of their host. as one example, viruses do have the ability to synthesize proteins. once a virus gets inside a cell, the cell itself is "tricked" into making additional copies of the viral proteins, which assemble (with new copies of the viral genome also) into new viruses. the new viruses get out of the cell and go on to infect other cells or other hosts. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are viruses alive? | at school i had one teacher tell me that viruses are alive in the sense that bacteria are alive, and another tell me that they aren't in the sense that enzymes can't be considered as alive. can anybody clear this up for me? | the question of whether viruses are alive has no straightforward answer because there is not a precise single consensus definition of life (eg refs [1](_url_2_) and [2](_url_1_). bearing in mind that caveat i would say that the answer is clearly yes. i think that the attempts to answer the question of 'what is life' may confuse two separate questions: 1) what distinguishes dead from alive and 2) what distinguishes life from non-life. the metabolic constraint (living things must have a metabolism) that is often repeated pertains more to question number 1. in fact many living things have essentially no metabolic activity: resting spores of tardigrades, rotifers, and *clostridium*, [these seeds](_url_0_) frozen in the permafrost for 30 000 years, sperm cells frozen in a sperm bank. the other criterion, able to reproduce on its own, is probably violated for most living things but even in the strictest sense (able to reproduce outside of cells) some undisputedly living things would fail (e.g. *mycobacterium tuberculosis* and other obligate intracellular parasites). what do viruses do? they reproduce and evolve by natural selection, accumulate adaptations and behave as if self interested, and carry their own genetic material (a requirement for evolutionary potential). i think that makes them clearly alive. self-interested behaviour - which is much, much older than brains or even animals, is the intuitive hallmark of living things and the signature of adaptive evolution. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://phys.org/news/2012-02-russians-revive-ice-age-frozen.html",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/073911011010524992",
"http://c4.discovery.wisc.edu/resources/PAPERPDFS/RasmussenScience2004.pdf"
] | [
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is there a link between learning a programming language and a spoken language? | i've heard that this is true because they use the same side of the brain, but learning both currently, i don't consciously see much of an overlap. are there any specific examples where there are definite similarities? also i've heard that learning a second language decreases the risk of alzheimer's? can anyone attest to this? also sources would be awesome, as i'm contemplating writing a research paper on this subject. thanks! | first, per my tag, i'm not an expert here. although i've got a bit of a hobby-interest in linguistics and know computers well. it's a pretty broad question here, you could make connections to cognitive/neurosciences, to linguistics, to mathematics, logic, [semotics](_url_10_) and other branches of philosophy. (and the question could likely result in an interesting discussion in the philosophy subreddit) there are certianly similarities and differences. you could probably make the (philosophically probably a bit non-rigorous) distinction in that computer languages serve the purpose of communicating a set of instructions to a computer, and to provide a more human-friendly abstraction of the primitive instructions that the processor uses. whereas human languages serve to communicate human ideas and emotions between people. i believe the majority view among linguists (starting with [chomsky](_url_2_), which btw is his real claim to fame, political activisim aside) is that human languages look the way they do because they because they resemble or represent certain cognitive processes that we're "hard-wired" to perform. (how, and to what extent, is something you'd have to ask the experts) so there's an argument to be made that for a computer language to serve its purpose, it also has to do so. and they do share the features of a ["formal language"](_url_8_), with syntax and grammar and context and such. it's not hard to construct a computer language (like [brainf--k](_url_9_)) that's serves no purpose, in that it's even more incomprehensible to humans than machine code is. on the other hand, computer languages must be able to be "translated" into machine code by compilers, into something that's functionally unambiguous (even if the "literal" instructions may differ), so it's also influenced by how the _computer_ is "hard-wired" - literally. (on an aside, there's also the well-known [sapir-whorf hypothesis](_url_4_), which held that language basically dictates how you think. i'd be careful to make too much hay out of that one, though, because afaik it's largely discredited. like freud in psychology, it was influential far beyond its actual merit) one difference here is that computers operate on strict boolean logic, whereas humans don't. computer language syntax must be precisely defined and unambiguous. a statement which is logically ambiguous or inconsistent has no meaning in a computer language and can't compile or run. whereas human-language statements can easily still hold 'meaning', even if they're grammatically wrong or ambiguous. in some contexts, like jokes, the ambiguity may be entirely intentional. in poetry, ambiguity is often exploited to convey an idea or emotion in a more effective (but also more individually _subjective_) way. since computers follow strict logic, it follows that computer languages can also be viewed as an extension of mathematical [symbolic logic](_url_5_), which is a big deal to theoretical computer science. it means you can rigorously prove or compute facts about that which can be computed, insofar logic can describe itself (and here you have [gödel's incompleteness theorem](_url_11_), the [halting problem](_url_6_) and such) you might also ask whether mathematics _itself_ is a language. [gibbs](_url_1_), a famous guy in my field, strongly advocated that view. in human languages, you've got a whole philosophical can of worms with what it all means and works, and even if there's such a thing as 'objective' meaning. ask a literature major about [derrida](_url_0_). (at your own peril..) to get back to more concrete stuff.. neurologically i think you probably have to be careful with the whole same-region-of-the-brain arguments. almost anything that involves [localization of brain function](_url_7_), in particular with 'higher' functions, is usually a vague generalization at best, from what i understand. (and the pseudoscience of [phrenology](_url_3_) at worst) people who speak many languages typically have an easier time learning new ones - both with computer and human languages. but i don't know that learning computer languages makes you significantly better at learning human ones, or vice versa. that said, there must be _some_ overlap, since they do involve many of the same general features - recognizing and interpreting symbols in a formal syntax. but the 'message' is so very different. you "understand" a human language as soon as you understand the words and grammar. whereas with a computer language, merely knowing the syntax does not mean you can easily understand what a particular piece of code is actually doing, much less _why_ it's doing it. (decompiled code is generally very difficult to 'read') anyway.. those are my random speculations on the topic. hope it might give you some ideas on which "links" you might want to focus on. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Derrida",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halting_problem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_specialization_%28brain%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_language",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainfuck",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gödel's_incompleteness_theorems"
] | [
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are programming languages handled differently by the brain than oral and written languages? | i always thought that since programming languages are rooted in mathematics and algorithms they are handled by areas of the brain responsible for those kinds of tasks. however, the majority of programming involves describing systems and their interfaces, has a well-established grammar, and uses relatively simple logical statements, which, while mathematical in nature, are also common in everyday oral and written language. for me, writing a program and writing an essay tend to "feel" similar when i'm working through them, which is different than how i feel when solving a mathematical equation or physics problem. i'm genuinely curious now if there have been any studies on this subject. | as far as the grammars are concerned, most programming language grammars are context free, while most human language grammars aren't (at least not unless you want a incredibly ugly grammar that doesn't seem to capture the relationships that phrases can bear to one another). so in that respect, programming languages *could* be processed similarly. whether they are or not, however, is a different matter. there's no research on this, as far as i know, so the answer is "noone knows". as far as the semantics of programming languages are concerned, strangecharmvote's comment hits the major points: programming languages are mostly about procedures and changes of state and finding answers to questions, whereas human languages are mostly about propositions and representing concepts or requesting answers to questions. as a consequence, the meanings of programs are usually things like functions that transform data, while the meanings of natural language expressions are usually things like statements about what data looks like. in some sense, you could say that the meanings of natural language expressions are more like *types* of a programming language, and how to go and verify whether the statement is true or not is more like finding an inhabitant of a type in a programming language. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"http://lambda-the-ultimate.org/node/1624"
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it seems all craters from collisions with meteorites are round. can a meteorite hit a substantially bigger celestial body at an acute angle? if so, what kind of trace will it leave on its surface? (i'm not a native speaker, sorry for potentially obscure wording) | impact craters are almost always round because the crater isn't formed from the imprint of the actual object that hit the surface. the force of the impact on the surface is so large that it essentially creates an explosion/blast wave that causes the crater (and can often completely destroy the impacting object itself). those waves move out symmetrically and cause a circular crater much larger than the size of the actual object that came in. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why doesn't beer aged in barrels lose alcohol due to evaporation? | so this thought comes up quite a bit in the beer world. while there is a pick up of alcohol from the booze left in the wood, it does not seem to be significant enough to effect the alcohol content of the beer. the idea is that the evaporation of beer in the barrels condenses the alcohol content. my question is, why isn't the beer losing alcohol due to the evaporation point of alcohol? | law of partial pressures... since the barrel is sealed, the alcohols will evaporate up to a pressure in the 'atmosphere' of the barrel, that will be equivalent to the liquid pressure of the alcohols in the solution. i.e. - any alcohol molecules will as some point achieve a density/pressure, equal to that of the density/pressure of the same molecules in the liquid _url_0_ specifically reference henry's law within the partial pressure derived equations _url_1_ | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_pressure",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%27s_Law"
] | [
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why is it that some beers, when bottled in colored glass and stored out of direct light, will continue to "age," while others just get "skunky"? | i hope this is the correct sub for such a question, as i believe the answer probably has something to do with the properties of the yeast/bacterial cultures in beers. does the ability to store beer and age it depend on how it was crafted/what type of brew was being made, or does the method of bottling make more of a difference than the recipe? if something is initially bottled and stored in a refrigerator, then later taken back out and moved to a room temperature area out of direct light, is it possible for the aging process to "reactivate," or does the temperature drop stop any further chemical reactions? | homebrewer here.... for "skunky" flavors, it's the bottling. oxygen and light are the enemies here. dark, cool storage, proper racking, good seals, and possibly oxygen absorbent caps are very useful here. if you let it go long enough, it gets a really nasty flavor here. the yeast have more or less shut down at this point. they are going through some metabolism, but it's greatly reduced due to the alcohol content. for other flavors, though, it depends on the brewing style. hop-forward beers don't age well, because those hop flavors degrade fairly quickly. low alcohol beers don't age well partly because of the slightly higher yeast activity (but other factors come into play here, as well). flavor adjunct beers typically don't age as well either; stuff like fruit and vanilla that some people add. these flavor go away rather rapidly. spices don't have this problem (as much). so high-gravity, high-alcohol, complex malt flavors with little to no non-beer stuff in it ages the best. it is always best to maintain stable conditions with your beer while aging. the process is largely chemical, and not so much biochemical so switching temperatures back and forth won't halt the process, but it will alter the process. undisturbed, constant, and upright is the way to age beer. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0035507"
] | [
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why do clouds turn a dark grey when they are filled with rain? | the darkness of clouds has to do with particulate density. clouds are basically water vapor that appears when the humidity reaches or gets close to the dew point. the cloud obscures light. the thicker or more dense the cloud the more sunlight it blocks making it appear darker from underneath. so, "filled with rain" might not be as accurate to say as saying "dense with condensed water vapor" or to say "the cloud is thick". either case would have the same effect of darkening the could. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/filfu/why_do_fabrics_get_darker_when_liquids_are/"
] | [
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|
do clouds actually turn grey and black or are they becoming darker because they absorb or reflect light away from earth? | they are darker because they are both (usually) thicker overall, but also have a higher density of water which lets less light through to the ground so they appear darker. "actually" turning grey and black is kind of irrelevant but in answer to what i think you're asking, no the water is always transparent. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there at least 1 molecule of dealer gas in my car after 10 years? | i've heard some intriguing stories lately indicating just how many molecules are in volumes of liquid. so i came up with an interesting problem. i can't remember my high school chemistry enough to remember how to solve this question, although i'm sure its at a grade 11-12 level. maybe askscience can help me? does my car still have at least 1 molecule of gasoline in it from it's first fill up? given information: - assume i fill up exactly once a week - assume i've been filling up the car for exactly 10 years - therefore there has been exactly 520 fill ups since purchase - assume that every fill up, brings the total volume of gasoline to exactly 50l - assume that i fill up when there is exactly 5l left every time - therefore i add 45l to the tank at each fillup - assume that the temperature, atmospheric pressure, and any other factors that slightly skew volumes are constant all year. if you need to assume a given temperature, pressure etc. to solve this; you pick average plausible numbers. - assume that gasoline from the station is 100% pure gasoline. don't worry about additives, ethanol, stabilizers or anything else, to clarify: we will assume that the car came with 50l in it. we will call that "dealer gas". since purchase there has been exactly 520 45l fill ups. since the tank has never run dry, it has only been diluting: is it probable that there are no molecules of "dealer gas" left, or are there so many molecules per litre, that it is exceedingly probable? i'm not looking for an answer along the lines of since we are diluting, we are always approaching 0 molecules of gasoline, but never reach it; therefore there will always be some dealer gas. i'm looking for something formula based, likely involving moles, molar masses, and the like. thanks reddit! edit: wow, thanks guys. ok here is a better question. after how many fillups, that meet the above criteria, is it likely that there remains no molecules of dealer gas. thanks for all the insight thus far! | the solution is relatively easy, as what you're doing here is no different from a serial dilution (assuming homogenous mixing after each fill up): you have 1 tank, and you're doing 1:10 dilution 520 times. this gives a dilution factor of 10^520. your original tank of 50 l of gasoline (we'll further assume it's pure octane, since gasoline is a mixture of a large number of organic compounds) will have 35150 g of octane (density of 0.703 g / ml), which is 307.7 mols of octane. apply the dilution factor, and you get 3.077 x 10^-518 mols octane (from your original tank) in your final tank. this translates to 1.8 x 10^-494 _molecules_ of octane. since molecules are indivisible, you can say there is a 1.8 x 10^-492 % chance 1 original molecule remains. this also happens to be the exact same calculation for why homeopathy is bs. | 376 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_series",
"http://www.afdc.energy.gov/pdfs/fueltable.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_dilution"
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why is your hair a different color than your skin? | so, what i'm trying to ask is why hair is pigmented differently than your skin. like why don't really pale people have pale hair, dark people dark hair etc? | well, you'll notice there *is* somewhat of a correlation: dark-skinned individuals usually *do* have dark hair. blonde hair is really only found in those with lighter skin, usually those of northern european descent. hair and skin color is determined by how much activity a person's melanocytes have and which kind of melanin they produce (it comes in blackish-brown and reddish-yellow). however, genetics can be modified by the body for different kinds of cells. think about it: all the cells in your body have the same dna sequences. but your brain cells are pretty different from, say, your liver cells. the body can turn "on" and "off" different genes and even modify their function without actually changing the dna. so it can have more active melanocytes in someone's hair follicles, but less active on their skin — so their hair can be darker than their skin. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why are we born with black/brown/blonde/red hair and not other colours such as pink/blue/purple? | because hair, like skin colour is determined by melenin and the most common type in humans that makes up hair colour is eumelanin which is brown/black _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin#Eumelanin"
] | [
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|
are there people who exist on the opposite end of the spectrum from sociopathy- i.e. an "anti-sociopath" or a hyper-empathic individual? | there's so much written about sociopathic and psychopathic people, but is there any information on the existence of people who are their opposite? in other words, someone possessing such an overdeveloped conscience, empathy, and a sense of the rights of others that it could possibly be considered debilitating or even a personality disorder? | the closest condition that i can think of like this is called williams syndrome (_url_0_). people who have it tend to be overly trusting, cheerful and friendly. they also have a distinctive appearance and some negative physiological symptoms. however, i believe that being tooooo trusting can lead to a few problems. | 162 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_syndrome",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_sensitive_person"
] | [
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how do we get vitamin(s) from the sun? | the energy from the sun is used as part of the process that your body uses to create vitamin d2 and d3 precursors. the sunlight itself is not converted into matter, it's used an an energy source for the reaction. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if we shed dead skin cells, how does the sun permanently affect our skins appearance? | when someone takes the sun too much, and doesn't use an spf, their skin looks bad as they age (aside from worse things that can happen). why does the sun affect their skin in 10 years, if we constantly shed dead skin cells? thank you! | [photoaging affects the connective tissue of the dermis](_url_0_), which underlies the epidermis. the layer of skin that is constantly being replaced is from the basal layer of the epidermis, which grows 'outward' and differentiates into the anucleated keratinized cells of the stratum corneum. thus, dermal components do not get 'shed' as epidermal components do. uv radiation also induces fibroblastic changes that again affect the ct (collagen and elastin, primarily) of the dermis. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1011134401002019"
] | [
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how is the formation of memories blocked in alzheimer's disease? | i know that alzheimer's is an amyloid disease and causes protein build up on the outside of cells, but i don't understand how that stops memories. does the protein build up block blood vessels to particular cells? | you are not alone in not understanding this process! in ad, there is early loss of synapses and then overt neuronal death. these events start in the hippocampal formation, an area of the brain involved in processing memory traces and routing them for permanent storage. exactly how or why this is occurring is unclear, but you're right that buildup of extracellular plaques and intracellular tangles are hallmarks of the disease process. depending on which expert in ad you talked to, they could make a strong case tying each, both, or neither of these histopathologies to blocking memory formation. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
do computer processors slow down as they age? | no, they do not. not in any noticeable way. with one exception that was mentioned by /u/daniu already; debris can accumulate inside the computer case, specifically in the heatsinks and fans on the cpu and gpu. this debris (dust, pet hair, etc.) will cause those heatsinks and fans to work less efficiently or stop working altogether. the cpu and gpu have thermostats that monitor their temperature, and will run them faster when the temperature allows, and slow them down if they get too hot. obviously, if the heatsink and fan for either or both of them are not working properly, they will run slower. the good news is, that has an easy fix. buy a can of compress air, turn off the computer, unplug it from the wall, open up the case and blow the dust out, then close the case back up and plug it back in. there is no meaningful degradation of the cpu or gpu themselves from normal operation. if you deliberately over clock them, it is possible to damage them which results in loss of performance or completely disabling the chip. but this requires some irresponsible over clocking. most slow performance people experience with their computers are due to a few things: 1) software. part of using a computer is installing software. every program you install is at least one piece of software, and modern software usually comes with various components it is dependent upon. often this includes some piece that stays in memory, sometimes even when the application itself is closed. individually these small programs are not a big deal, but they accumulate over time and eat up memory. when you run out of ram, that's when you get performance hits that most people notice and complain about. uninstalling software that you no longer need or use can help with this issue, but people who don't know much can end up causing more problems by uninstalling components of software they do use which that software depends upon. so it's important to make sure you have someone who knows what they are doing handle this. in addition to software accumulation, there's software bloat. as time goes on newer versions of applications, or new applications are made for faster and faster computers. if your computer is old, new software you download is designed for a computer that's faster than yours. thus that software may run slowly on your computer. 2) above mentioned debris accumulating inside the computer case. as mentioned this has an easy solution; canned air. i'd again recommend having someone who knows what they are doing handle this. if you do it yourself it's important to always hold the can upright and spray parallel to the ground, otherwise the can may eject very cold liquid and possibly cause damage to your computer. 3) hard drive degradation. a hard drive has moving parts, and over time it *will* wear out. your hard drive over time will accumulate bad sectors and these may force the file system to put your data on slower parts of the drive (yes, some parts of the disk are faster to read than others) which will cause the computer to perform read/write operations slower than previously. ssds also degrade over time, though in a predictable manner rather than the random way hdds accumulate bad sectors. lastly, people will also perceive a computer being slower than it used to be simply because what was considered fast when the computer was purchased is no longer fast a few years later. you get used to its performance and then eventually it starts to feel slow. sorry for going on and on. :) source: programmer and computer builder for 20+ years. | 35 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sematech.org/docubase/document/3955axfr.pdf",
"http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=00946458",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0026271412001916",
"http://www.sony.net/Products/SC-HP/tec/catalog/pdf/chapter2e_201108.pdf",
"http://www.cse.psu.edu/~yuanxie/Papers/ISQED07-NBTI.pdf",
"http://spectrum.ieee.org/semiconductors/processors/transistor-aging"
] | [
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|
why do computers get slower as they age? | my computer is slow as molasses now and drives me up a wall. i just updated the software and it went from slow before the update, to slower than a turtle with bricks tied to its legs. was just wondering what causes this. | the hardware in a computer does not gradually deteriorate, producing slower performance. it's also very sensitive hardware. if it physically deteriorates to the point where something no longer functions (a particular pathway doesn't conduct electricity, or something gets too hot), then the affected part will die quickly and suddenly. this is why you have people who just experience that their "computer died". some part died and there was no warning. the exception to this are mechanical hard drives, which are very different from other computer parts - they have very fine moving mechanisms, and they read and write data very slowly, so a dying hard drive may first have a significant slowdown before dying. computer slowdown over time is pretty much entirely due to software. you get more and more software onto the computer, the operating system and other old software get updates that do more stuff and therefore are more power hungry, and so on, and so on. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would high iron blood taste (or smell) different than low iron? | my wife just was diagnosed of having very low iron (i think 7 or 8... iron in blood measurements) and every time i've donated blood i've been told i have really high iron. would our blood taste different to a third party? this sounds insane. | while high and low iron levels in the body are medically important, the actual difference is somewhat small. for example low hemoglobin levels (which is what your doctors are most likely referring to) are roughly less than 11 g/dl and high is above 14 g/dl. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if the human body is only around .3% iron, why do i taste iron if i taste blood? | because red blood cells in plasma contain high levels of haemogoblin which is mixed with oxygen to form oxyhaemogoblin haemogoblin has high levels of iron(as well as other elemntshttp://_url_0_) so thats why if u taste blood, the flavour will be iron like. ps: sorry for my english, im natively spanish and i study english as a third lenguage. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoglobin"
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|
when we become accustomed to a smell in a room (like an air freshener), why don't we notice the absence of that smell when we leave? | if i walk into a room that has an air freshener (or a bathroom that has been cleaned with chemicals recently, etc.), i will notice the presence of that smell upon my arrival. if the smell isn't overwhelming, then i'll "get used to" the smell while i'm in that room. but, then, when i leave the room, i don't notice the absence of the smell that was in the room. why is that? thanks! | odorant molecules stimulate sensory neurons which start to rapidly fire nerve impulses to the brain. the brain processes the information and identifies the smell. if there is a constant odorant in the room our brain starts to perceive it as decreasing in intensity over time, i.e. the smell seems to fade. this is due to a phenomenon called sensory adaptation, which is not yet fully understood. during sensory adaptation our brain adapts, recognises the constant smell is not dangerous and stops identifying it so it is not overloaded with redundant information. this is the same reason why you don't actively feel your shirt after only a short period of wearing it. our olfactory sensory neurons also adapt to the repetitive odorant stimuli by reducing their rate of firing. therefore we perceive the smell to be fading, allowing us to adapt to our environment and perceive new smells. when you leave the room, there are few to no odorants in the air, and it's impossible for you to perceive something that isn't there, because there is nothing to trigger the sensory neurons. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would anything on earth be a different color if the sun were a different kind of star? | not sure how to word the question, but say i have a purple flower from earth and i take it to a different planet with a different star, would it still be purple? | if we orbited a cooler star which output more light in the near-infrared than the visible, it is possible our plants would have devised a method of photosynthesis which uses lower energy photons making our green leaves appear black. here is a whole article devoted to this subject _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ebscohost.com/uploads/imported/thisTopic-dbTopic-1033.pdf",
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is there a ratio for helium/oxygen to make a balloon consistently 'hover' at a given height? | there are a lot of variables in there; oxygen is only slightly denser than air (~80% nitrogen, atomic mass of 28, and ~20% oxygen, atomic mass of 32 g/mole, for an average of 28.8 g per mole of air molecules- ignoring all other gases, which are a relatively small proportion). one would need to account for the mass of the balloon, for example, as well as the (slight) compression afforded by the latex, increasing the pressure and, therefore, increasing the density. helium is 4.00 g/mole; a helium-air mix (assuming complete mixing) would hit the density of air (28.8 g/mole, as discussed above) at a proportion of something like 9% helium and 91% oxygen. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.argo.ucsd.edu/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_gas_law",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_%28unit%29"
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|
what is the nutritional comparison between "natural" and gm corn? | with most genetically modified products the nutritional value is increased, but with corn i have seen conflicting reports and was wondering if there was a good source to answer this question. | that depends on *what* modification was made. *current* commercial gm corn isn't modified to change the nutritional content, it's usually modified to either be resistant to herbicide(s), or to kill insects (bt). nutritional modification can quite certainly be done (the golden rice project is an excellent example of this), but as far as i'm aware, no commercial gm crop approved for use in the us has been modified to change the nutritional content. however, some genetic modifications do cause indirect changes to occur. this one is the only example i've found: _url_0_ still, this is not exactly a direct nutritional change of the type you are most likely looking for. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nbiap.vt.edu/news/2006/artspdf/sep0604.pdf"
] | [
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what is happening chemically when cooking oil is heated past its smoking point and it begins to smoke? | wikipedia's [article](_url_0_) explains how the fat is broken down into glycerol and free fatty acids, but i'd like to see an example chemical equation. also, what are the health risks involved in consuming oil that has gone beyond its smoke point? | it's pretty straightforward reaction. [here's a triglyceride with fatty acids and glycerol labeled.](_url_0_) upon heating, oxidation occurs at the ester bonds, releasing glycerol and free fatty acids. it's also possible that high heat can increase the presence of free radicals, which are highly reactive. additionally, high heat can introduce double or triple bonds in the fatty acid chains, increasing the amount of trans fat. the health effects of any of the above are unsettled scientifically. | 14 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_point"
] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/Sn8xN.jpg"
] | [
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does an oil's smoke point affect baking as well as frying? | this page gives a good run down of the typical surface and interior temperatures for baking bread. cakes will be not too far off although maybe a little cooler due to the additional liquid content. smaller drier items like cookies will be hotter. roughly surface temperature will be about 10 to 20% cooler than the oven temp and interrior temperature will max out about half the overn temperature. _url_0_ interior temperatures shouldn't get to flaxseed's smoke point. the surface temperatures will do. there won't be much of the oil contained at the surface so it probably isn't a huge issue. certainly not something i'd personally worry about as someone who likes bbq meat. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/bread/yeast_temp.html"
] | [
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|
déjà-vu | my own repost from /askreddit, told i'd get a better answer here i've had de-javu quite alot in my life and have always wondered what it actually is....could it be that our sub-conscience can see into the future and then show us a glimpse of it in our dreams or is it just my imagination that it's happened before? i remember these "dreams" and then weeks-months later they happen exactly the same as in my dreams back to the question what is de-javu??? | this is what i have been told and it could make sense if testable... from wikipedia "the explanation that has mostly been accepted of déjà vu is not that it is an act of "precognition" or "prophecy", but rather that it is an anomaly of memory, giving the false impression that an experience is "being recalled".[3][4] this explanation is supported by the fact that the sense of "recollection" at the time is strong in most cases, but that the circumstances of the "previous" experience (when, where, and how the earlier experience occurred) are quite uncertain or believed to be impossible. likewise, as time passes, subjects can exhibit a strong recollection of having the "unsettling" experience of déjà vu itself, but little or no recollection of the specifics of the event(s) or circumstance(s) they were "remembering" when they had the déjà vu experience. in particular, this may result from an overlap between the neurological systems responsible for short-term memory and those responsible for long-term memory (events which are perceived as being in the past). the events would be stored into memory before the conscious part of the brain even receives the information and processes it." | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if plants use water to produce oxygen, does that mean that over time the total amount of oxygen on earth slowly increases? | as i understand it, photosynthesis in plants convert water to oxygen, and it converts carbondioxide molecules into sugar molecules. plants don't actually convert carbondioxide into oxygen. the carbondioxide gets converted into sugars, which when the plants decay actually put carbondioxide back in the air, or which will end up in the ground. [source](_url_0_). so, considering that, does that mean that over time the total amount of oxygen on earth actually increases? bonus questions: - what does this mean in terms of climate? - does this mean that the earth's atmosphere slowly gets thicker, or does oxygen simply float out into space? | the atmospheric balance is dynamic - it can and does change over time. however, there are various processes in action, some of which tend to stabilise atmospheric concentration and others that exacerbate it. in the first instance, plants are one stage of a cycle. while plants do create both oxygen and sugars (among other things) the also respire - they use those sugars, 'burning' them with oxygen to fuel cellular functions. animals eat plants for their sugars (and stuff) and 'burn' the sugars with oxygen (producing water and carbon dioxide). the balance between photosynthesis and respiration is not automatically in balance - but if there are more plants that means more food for herbivores. so an increase in photosynthesis tends to be offset by an increase in numbers of animals. outside of that, volcanoes add gasses to the atmosphere and the oceans tend to act as a stabiliser (they absorb and emit gasses). more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere tends to make it easier for plants to photosynthesise (higher partial pressure makes the gas more available). this encourages plant growth and given one source of co2 is fossil fuels, puts both more carbon and oxygen into the system. it would seem plausible that the greater plant growth would offset the extra co2 - if it weren't for all the other factors... oxygen forms about 21% of the atmosphere. co2 forms about 0.04%. a small increase in co2 has a disproportionate affect on temperature compared to oxygen. oxygen is not a significant green house gas while co2 is. therefore we care about, and talk about very small absolute changes in co2. a similar (absolute quantity) change in oxygen makes very little difference to temperature or other long term trends in comparison. hence, yes there are changes in oxygen composition of the atmosphere. we tend not to focus on these changes very much because changes in other gas proportions make hugely more difference to living conditions. but there are bounds on the degree to which oxygen can increase - one of them being the carbon supply. tl;dr the system isn't static. it is complex with many influences. oxygen levels cannot increase without limit but do vary and may be increasing now. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.howplantswork.com/2009/02/16/plants-dont-convert-co2-into-o2/"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event"
] | [
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why is sugar "sticky" but sugar substitute (which shares a similar structure) not "sticky"? | i'm a physical chemist, not an organic guy, any ideas? | hey there, carbohydrate chemist here (i am doing my master's in this field). i work with two main types of sugars at the moment, galactose and n-glucosamine. there are some physical properties i noticed when doing any sort of chemistry on these molecules. i am taking an educated guess here and will say it has to do primarily with the hydrogen bonding of the -oh groups on the sugar and how it forms a lattice with other sugars/solvents. the different configurations of each hydroxyl group determines the type of sugar (ie glucose and galactose has 1 -oh group that differs in configuration, a c4 epimer). so it is to my understanding, especially doing chemistry on these types of sugars, that the configuration of the substituents on each sugar plays a role in the lattice network formed which may explain why some sugars are more "stickier" than others. i hope that is a somewhat decent explanation... | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much more rain does california need before it's out of drought trouble? | this question brought to you by a concerned californian! | the drought in california has 1 measure and it is snowpack. for california to get out of drought the state needs a snowpack over 40 inches(across the whole mountain range) and maintain it from the months of november to march. 2013 snowpack averaged 25 inches, 2014 snowpack average is 8 inches thru february 1st. snowpacks will fill the reservoirs. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much rain is needed to get california out of their drought? | [11 trillion gallons](_url_0_), according to nasa. several years worth. but underlying the drought are arcane water rights and poor agricultural choices. there was water available and western states badly mismanaged it. now they can't have nice things. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cnn.com/2014/12/18/us/california-rains-and-drought/",
"http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/08/28/californias-drought-what-losing-63-million-gallons-of-water-looks-like/",
"http://www.reddit.com/related/glhme/til_a_metric_shitton_is_approximately_2642/",
"https://www.climate.gov/sites/default/files/styles/featured-image/public/LakeMeadWaterLevel.jpg",
"http://www.zerohedge.com/sites/default/files/images/user3303/imageroot/2015/04/20150414_vegas.jpg"
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|
is there a limit to how big a telescope can be? why? | the largest resolution a optical telescope can get is related to the wavelength of the light. so optical wavelengths cannot see things in the sky less than a certain amount no matter how good the telescope is because the light itself is the limiting factor. here is the wikipedia link _url_0_ so you wanna stick to the higher energy light if you wanna get better resolution. also, telescopes don't have to be all in one part. for instance, this radio telescope array is able to simulate a radio telescope that has a diameter of 22 miles! here is the wiki _url_1_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction-limited_system",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_Large_Array"
] | [
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|
why is space so cold, but not absolute zero? | i have a feeling the answer has everything to do with entropy, but my question is in two parts: 1) take a thermos flask; the vacuum here is used to insulate the inside from the outside. my vague understanding of heat transference is that particles of whatever size vibrate one another, and some energy is lost when they do. since there are no particles to transfer to in space, is it just that the energy is lost without any transfererence? if so, why is it so damn cold to us warm objects? 2) given how little points of heat there are compared to void, i would have thought the temperature in space would be so close to absolute zero that there'd be almost no difference, and yet (from what i remember) it's a fair bit warmer than that. is it seriously just entropy or is something else at work? thanks guys! | heat can be given off as radiation as well. a hot body emits radiation and will cool down that way, it doesn't need other particles to interact with. the reason space is still above 0k is because of the cosmic microwave background, the afterglow of the big bang. there's still some residual heat left, albeit not much. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
if the universe is expanding and everything is moving away from each other, why do galaxies collide? | if everything came from a singular point and is expanding outward, how do galaxies get on collision courses with each other? | there are two issues here: the universe is expanding, but it did not come from a point. in fact, it may have always been infinite. see [this faq](_url_0_). the cosmological expansion only dominates on vary large distance scales (larger than about 10-20 megaparsecs). at smaller distance scales, one has gravitationally bound objects: stars, galaxies, clusters of galaxies, *etc*. within these bound objects, the motion of the constituents is dominated by their interactions and collisions can happen. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/f24pw/did_the_universe_actually_start_out_as_a_single/c1cpt8b"
] | [
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why are nearly all impact craters circular? | i heard pamela gay mention in an astronomy cast discussion that all (or nearly all) impact craters are circular, even those resulting from obliquely-angled strikes. would like to know the physics of this phenomenon. edit: typo | the short answer is that the energy involved in an impact is so huge that when the impactor hits the ground, it explodes like a bomb, rather than just denting the surface like a rock thrown into mud. explosions are generally symmetric, so the resulting crater from most impacts is circular. only very very shallow impacts form elliptical craters, but they do exist! a more extensive answer to this question can be found at scientific american. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when i open the window going fast in the car, what causes the low pitch annoying pulsating pressure sound? why does it get better if i open two windows? | that's what it is. it's called buffeting, or wind throb. when you roll down the window of a moving car air rushes into the cabin creating high pressure inside the car, which is in turn expelled back out the window, rinse repeat. the pressure inside the car and outside the car are trying to equalize, but they just keep teetering back and forth...overcompensating. when you crack a second window you allow for air to flow through the car instead if rapidly in and out of the same opening. think of one of those cans of v8 that you need to poke a hole in with a can opener. if you only make one hole the juice will come out in spurts, and air will fill the void in spurts. you won't get a smooth pour until you open up the second hole on the other side of the lid. hope that made sense. a more technical explanation:_url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://exa.com/sunroof--window-buffeting.html"
] | [
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|
why does the air pressure in the car fluctuate and hurt your ears when you are driving fast with only one window open? | edit: “pain” probably wasn’t the best choice of word. it causes a “tolerable discomfort” that is more annoying than it is painful. | the open window in your car makes your car act as a [helmholtz resonator](_url_0_). this is characterised by fluctuating air pressure in the cavity (which you're sitting in). as to why your ears hurt, that's a medical question that i cannot comment on. | 114 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz_resonance"
] | [
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how and why does lactose intolerance suddenly happen in adults? | so in most people, lactase, the enzyme that breaks down lactose, stops being expressed (made by your body) after childhood (when you would no longer be drinking your mothers milk back when we lived out in the wild) making the enzyme costs your body energy it could be using elsewhere and so we have evolved to stop making the protein after childhood. however, in some northern european and african populations, people have had mutations to the pieces of dna that dictate when lactase is made which in turn results in what is called “lactase persistence” or lactase being made your whole life. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Food_and_Cooking"
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|
why do we laugh? | why is it that whenever there's something funny, we have the urge to laugh? | [rant] man aside from the source links, these are some awful answers; q: "why do we laugh when we find something funny?" a: "we laugh be because find something funny!" groundbreaking. true science and critical thinking at work here. and the only decent answer which mentions the social function, is downvoted... is this yahoo answers? [/rant] to help you with your searches, the study of laughter is called [gelotology](_url_4_) laughter is most certainly a social function, and likely is advantageous from and evolutionary perspective. probably the best one liner i have found is from this msnbc [article](_url_2_) ** *"when we laugh, we’re often communicating playful intent. so laughter has a bonding function within individuals in a group."* ** some additional links are wikipedia's [laughter](_url_1_) and [theories of humor](_url_0_) page, this [blog entry](_url_3_) (careful for a little woo-woo in that blog entry) from serendip, and this [article](_url_5_) from psychology today | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_humor",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laughter",
"http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3077386/ns/technology_and_science-science/",
"http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/2054",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelotology",
"http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200011/the-science-laughter",
"http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/laughter2.htm",
"howstuffworks.com"
] | [
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why do we laugh? | i'm studying psychology at the moment and my best guess is that laugher facilitates the transition of your body from sns (sympathetic nervous system) to the parasympathetic nervous system. this would enable our systems to devote more metabolic resources to growth than maintaining a fight-or-flight state. evolutionarily this makes sense: in a large social group the organism is more safe and presumably can afford to make this transition. humor is essentially bred out of familiarity with those around us. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do we laugh? | what is happening to our bodies when we laugh, and what (if any) is the evolutionary reason for doing so? | laughter is an interesting topic... unlike spoken languages (french, english, german, etc.), laughter seems to be a universal language. every race understands it. we laugh almost unconsciously, we don't control our laughter, it just occurs. little is known on the specific brain mechanisms which causes laughter, what we do know is that it is triggered by sensations and thoughts. what we know about the change in your body during laughter is that it is an energetic activity that raises our heart rate and blood pressure, but these physiological effects are incompletely documented. there isn't really an evolutionary reason for performing this activity, and in actual fact, we perform laughter without knowing much evidence which supports why we do so. i understand that this response is quite vague, and the reason for this is that, to be honest, little information is known to scientists. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what are the differences between schizotypal personality disorder and schizophrenia, besides level of functioning (eg. response to drugs, etc...)? | this is certainly a confusing issue and one that is often inadequately explained, even in the context of college-level psychology education. the main thing to understand is that schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder, whereas schizotypal personality disorder is not. as such, people with schizophrenia experience full psychotic episodes which consist of delusional beliefs and hallucinatory experiences ([wikipedia is a good resource for information about psychosis](_url_0_)). people with schizotypal personality disorder, however, experience what the dsm 5 refers to as *psychoticism*, rather than true psychosis. the dsm defines psychoticism as the presence of the following three traits: eccentricity (odd/unusual behavior or appearance), cognitive and perceptual dysregulation (odd/unusual thought processes and speech), and unusual beliefs and experiences (odd/unusual thought content and experiences of reality). in addition to psychoticism, other symptoms of schizotypal pd include suspiciousness and detachment. as you can see, these symptoms do indeed resemble the symptomatology of someone with a psychotic disorder. the key difference, though, is in the severity of symptoms. if you compare the language used above with the language that the dsm uses in its description of psychotic episodes, you'll see that it's clearly toned down in order to indicate a decrease in intensity (suspiciousness vs. paranoia, unusual experiences of reality vs. hallucinations, odd speech vs. [thought disorder](_url_1_), etc.). there are certainly other differences between the two disorders, but this is the main distinction between the psychosis that comes with schizophrenia and the psychoticism that comes with schizotypal personality disorder. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis#Signs_and_symptoms",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_disorder#Possible_signs_and_symptoms"
] | [
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|
how is schizotypal personality disorder different from schizophrenia? | "schizotypal personality disorder can easily be confused with schizophrenia, a severe mental illness in which people lose contact with reality (psychosis). while people with schizotypal personality disorder may experience brief psychotic episodes with delusions or hallucinations, the episodes are not as frequent, prolonged or intense as in schizophrenia. another key distinction is that people with schizotypal personality disorder usually can be made aware of the difference between their distorted ideas and reality. those with schizophrenia generally can't be swayed away from their delusions." quote from: [_url_0_](_url_0_) & #x200b; | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/schizotypal-personality-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20353919"
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|
why do insects seem to only be able to survive in warm or hot climates? has there ever been an insect observed, that thrives in cold winter weather? | insects are [ectotherms](_url_0_), so they don't have the ability to regulate their body temperature and avoid freezing. freezing generally causes cell death due to the formation of water crystals and changes in osmotic pressure, which causes damage to cell structures. insects have several survival mechanisms to mitigate the danger of freezing, such as cryoprotectants and ice nucleators(to slow and control the inevitable formation of ice crystals such that they have some time to adjust to the changes in pressure), this [wiki page](_url_1_) provides an overview of insect cold adaptations. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectotherm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_winter_ecology"
] | [
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] |
|
if helium rises, and we've "used" nearly all of it that we have, and it's a noble element, shouldn't their be a bunch of helium being held against the inside of our atmosphere? | [inspired by this thread](_url_0_) | helium actually escapes the atmosphere. keep in mind there is no magical barrier that defines the boundary of the atmosphere - it's all held together by gravity. helium is light enough that it floats to the top, and gravity is too weak to retain it. also, from the thread you linked to - helium used for balloons is a very, very small percentage of total usage, so reducing that usage has next to no effect. | 171 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/qvtjx/til_earth_will_be_virtually_heliumfree_by_the_end/c40wmqb?context=3"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Helium_Reserve",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium#Extraction_and_use",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium#Natural_abundance",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_escape",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_escape",
"http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/Airbags/images/maxwell.jpg"
] | [
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we've all heard fun facts about how sharks can smell a drop of blood in water from miles away. my question is, how does the "scent" of blood travel so many miles in every direction fast enough for the smell to be relevant to the predator? | this is a physics question, not a biology one! the scent travels as blood diffuses through the water, like a drop of food coloring spreading in a (really big) glass. this is just random thermal motions causing the particles to spread out. fick's second law is an equation that models how diffusion occurs in through time. if you assume that the concentration of blood at its source is constant, which is probably an ok assumption to make given the short time period over which your fishy friend will bleed out, it's straight forward to find a solution in 1d. a rough measure of at what distance the concentration of blood will still be significant is a quantity called the diffusion length, 2*sqrt(d*t). t is the time and d is some constant that accounts for the physics of your situation. significant means concentration similar to at its source, so a shark could detect blood well beyond that value. maybe you could find a reasonable value for d online somewhere and make some assumptions about your shark to test this expression for the situation. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is laughter, and why do we do it? | the behavior of laughing most likely came about as a means of communication. the general purpose would have been to inform others of false predator alarms. danger was expected, and when nothing happened, laughter was a sign that any danger had passed or was never there. laughter still serves its purpose as a response to the non-threathening unexpected as humor, but its not uncommon to also see people "laugh it off" after escaping from some dangerous situation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the difference between induced pluripotent stem cells and embryonic stem cells? | hi, i am curious, what is the difference between induced pluripotent stem cells and embryonic stem cells? i know about and what stem cells are, but i am wondering if it is possible to generate an embryo from induced pluripotent stem cells. effectively my interest is, can one induce pluripotent stem cells and then differentiate these into an embryo? thanks | embryonic stem cells are pluripotent stem cells derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst. induced pluripotent stem cells are cells that have been reprogrammed from a differentiated to a pluripotent state by the introduction of ectopic transcription factors. part of the definition of pluripotency is the ability of a cell to contribute to an entire embryo when implanted into a blastocyst. induced pluripotent stem cells are indeed able to do this. the ability of ips cells to contribute to chimeric mice was demonstrated independently by several labs, including those of shinya yamanaka and james thomson, in 2007. the most stringent test of pluripotency is what is called a "tetraploid complementation assay". in short, the ipscs injected into the blastocyst must alone produce an entire viable mouse, without help of escs from the blastocyst. ipscs passed this test in 2009 and this is described in the paper linked [here.](_url_0_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.nature.com/articles/nature08267"
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are there any powers of pi that are rational? | it's obvious that some irrational numbers can be put to the power of rational numbers to make rational numbers (for example sqrt(2)^2, so is there an example of this being true for pi, or a proof that it's never true for pi? | nope, π is what is called [transcendental](_url_0_), which means that there is no way to make π into the root of a polynomial with rational coefficients. if π^n =p/q then π would be a zero of the polynomial x^n -p/q , which can't happen for a transcendental number. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_number",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schanuel%27s_conjecture",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker%27s_theorem"
] | [
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according to a documentary i was watching, the universe initially expanded faster than the speed of light during the big bang. how? | i thought nothing could exceed the speed of light? | you're asking about [cosmological inflation](_url_0_). though you can't transmit matter or energy faster than light, you can stretch the space between them faster than light. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_inflation"
] | [
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why or how do mirrors appear to be silver? | i absolutely cannot get my head around this. mirrors are silver; everyone seems to know this. but if you look at a mirror, aren't you just seeing the reflected light of your image? i've been standing in the bathroom trying to figure out where the silver ends and the reflection begins? and i am not on drugs. | let me drop some neuroscience into the conversation. the mirror is silver, that we've established. we know that on some level, the reflected light is "grayer" than what went in. this hasn't affected the detail at all, the reflection is perfectly specular, but it's not the same set of wavelengths. if mirrors were made of gold, we'd get the same effect, just more yellow. i believe what op is asking about know, is "why the fuck is the apple no more silver than the apple in my hand!?". i believe what you're observing is *chromatic adaptation*. this is a neuropsychological phenomenon. have you ever experienced (or heard of) the classic case of "omg i bought the perfect shirt and when i brought it home it looked nothing like in the store?" these phenomena are linked. in the case i just described, you go to a store, pick a shirt of whatever colour, and bring it home. when you get home, perhaps you try it on in a room lit by sunlight, and you're not happy with it. this shirt might have looked perfect under the fluorescent or halogen lights in the store. the colour temperatures in the two different environments were vastly different, yet your skin and the clothes you were wearing looked the same in each! why? it's evolutionary. our visual systems have adapted to conserve colour information on objects which are known. other sensory systems do this too. if your friend is talking to you on the bus, you don't think his voice sounds different because there's a motor running in the background, your brain filters that out and preserves his voice as his. interference is subtracted, and sometimes missing information is added. it's a powerful effect. back to the shirt: if your'e buying a shirt you've never seen, you have no frame of reference. you establish the colour info right there in the store, and when you unpack it in some more universal or familiar light, like sunlight, you see you've been duped. now if you'd put an apple in your pocket that morning for a snack, and took it out in the store, would you catch yourself going "oh my god this doesn't look like the apple i pocketed this morning!"? no. very convincingly, chromatic adaptation has conserved the apple's original rouge. getting to your mirror example, this is an apple you're holding in your hand, and it's well established to you that the reflection of it is in fact the same apple, so it can't look different to you. perhaps in an experiment someone could show you a reflection of an apple you've never seen (in a silvered mirror), and following this you could have a choice of which apple it was. the line up of apples would include your original, but also be tainted with apples that are coloured more like the apple you saw in the reflection would've *appeared* to be. if your'e following, i'm saying have some apples planted in the lineup that are coloured (in the choosing light) just right to offset the mirror recolouring that might have occurred. i think under these circumstances, assuming the apples are equal in every other way, you may be inclined to pick the wrong one, because you had no frame of reference. as a little side note, ever notice if you don't adjust the white balance on your camera for the conditions that the colours are whacky and way off? that's cause your camera isn't nearly as good at chromatic adaptation as your noodle. hope this helps. **tl;dr chromatic adaptation is a crazy bitch** [edit] i still didn't answer the original question: how do we know the mirror is silver? we have a reference for every object in the room because our brains have already noted the white balance of the light, while the mirrored manifestations of those objects are *all* off by the same amount, ie they have been equally silvered. in this way it is possible to perceive two things at once. you know what colour all the known objects are in the mirror because you have experience with them, while simulatneously perceiving that the mirror is not true to those exact original shades. you are perceiving exactly what you are reporting: that the mirror is not reflecting everything with accurate colour, but it doesn't make you *believe* that inaccuracy. just like your friend talking to you on the bus. hope this helps. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wisegeek.com/how-are-mirrors-made.htm"
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why does a mirror appear to be silver? when it in fact reflects all light? | any perfect mirror will appear silver. silver in that sense is not a colour but the appearance of a metallic object. so you associate high reflectivity with "silver" even when the mirror is not actually grey. white objects are objects which scatter light of all wavelengths, not objects which reflect light of all wavelengths. | 1,814 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-yrZpTHBEss",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tk4RMdtLJFA",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-yrZpTHBEss",
"youtube.com/watch?v=-yrZpTHBEss",
"http://youtu.be/-yrZpTHBEss"
] | [
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|
how does liquid glue (ie gorilla glue) not get stuck to the inside of the bottle? | glues are said to "cure" when they convert from their original form to their adhesive form. most glues you're talking about contain many short polymer segments, and during the curing process those short segments will link together to make long chains and crosslink between chains to form a rigid bond that we call adhesion. most adhesives fall into one of three categories: 1. curing through the addition of moisture. this is true of gorilla glue and many other common glues such as wood glue, superglue, and pva glues (white elmer's glue). once applied to a surface these glues will absorb moisture from the air and from the materials themselves, and this moisture is what activates the polymerization of the glue. 2. curing through the addition of heat. here the glue only begins polymerization once heated, so the glue working time is improved. this can also be used to create some very high strength glues. 3. curing through the addition of some other reagent or catalyst, such as two-part epoxies. neither part of the epoxy is adhesive on its own, but when mixed together a polymerization reaction begins and you can get very powerful adhesives. but, these are not the only possibilities. the world of adhesive chemistry is about as large and varied as the world of chemistry, and the only thing you need to make an adhesive is some kind of polymerization reaction. for example, some thread-locking adhesives (e.g. loctite) are anaerobic adhesives, meaning that they only cure in the absence of oxygen and the presence of certain metals. these are also a good example of an adhesive where heat can destroy the bond rather than strengthen it. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
instead of all matter distributed in near-circular clouds ; why do galaxies have a considerably flattened shape? | it's a specialty of 3 dimensional space. a system of randomly moving particles has one net angular momentum. consequently, there is a plane on which the whole system rotates.over time, all momentum in the dimension orthogonal to this plane will cancel out through collisions. what remains is a flat disc. [this](_url_0_) video does a really great job explaining this phenomenon. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tmNXKqeUtJM"
] | [
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] |
|
what benefits of reading are lost when you listen to an audio book rather than reading it normally? | reading improves our vocabulary and teaches us about the topic at hand, but are any of the benefits lost when you listen to the book as an audio book rather than reading it? | it depends on what you are attending to and what you mean by benefits. if you attending to material that has higher requirement of imagery, it appears that you actually have a better time understanding the material through listening than reading, due to reading interfering with imagery. [source.] (_url_0_) if you mean benefits in terms of recall, then it is difficult to generalize a superior method since everyone has a different preference and ability to direct attention. however, it does go back to encoding specificity, which can be grossly summarized as: you will be able to recall material better if your method, environment, and physiological state of encoding matches that of your recall. so you would want your learning circumstances be similar to your most common ways of using the material. are you going to need to recall it on a writing exam? then it is better to read it sitting down in a quiet room, as you would be in an exam setting. are you going to use the material in everyday conversation? then it is better to listen to an audio book while you are moving about, so you end up with more retrieval cues similar to your everyday environment. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022537181904837"
] | [
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] |
would the sun be brighter if we could see uv rays? | i'm in physics 30 and recently have been learning about light waves. i understand that our visual spectrum is between infrared and ultraviolet, but hypothetically, if our spectrum could expand to view ultraviolet light, would the sun appear brighter due to the uv coming from it? all answers are appreciated, just started learning the basics of waves and struck some curiosity! | not really. uv radiation makes up [less than 10% of the sun's light](_url_0_) at ground level: the majority of uv light is absorbed by the atmosphere. to give you an idea of how minor the effect would be, that's comparable to the change in brightness [between july and january](_url_1_) due to earth's elliptical orbit. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://naturalfrequency.com/wiki/solar-radiation",
"https://medium.com/starts-with-a-bang/ask-ethan-42-is-the-sun-brighter-in-the-summer-2cda7ffad492"
] | [
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why do some trees have purple leaves? | i understand that most trees are green because of chlorophyll etc, but why do some trees have purple leaves instead of green ones? | the colour in leaves is a function of the coloured photopigments in the tissue. while chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light effectively, it reflects most green light instead of absorbing it. other pigments absorb other colours, with anthocyanins absorbing green better but not as much with red or blue and thus a red(dish) colour is observed. when chlorophyll breaks down in the fall, the other photopigments like anthocyanin take longer to break down, and as such leaves can change colour to yellow/brown/red as fall progresses. with purple leaves, these trees have more anthocyanin, leading to the purple colour. this can help a plant with predation of leaves, since plants/trees with this colouration tend to have phenols appearing with them that deter herbivores. alternatively it can help with excess sunlight, which can be problematic for photosystems, in the form of a lot of reactive oxygen species being generated which can inhibit the efficiency. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what evolutionary reason is there for ticklish behavior? | seems like it's just a pain in the ass to me... | i don't know, but with regards to the question i'd like to point out that there doesn't necessarily have to be a evolutionary reason as such. it could be just a result of random genetic drift that never got selected against. after all, a non-ticklish mutant probably doesn't have any particular survival/procreation advantage. or it could be a side-effect of something else or a vestigial trait or an emergent property. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tickling#Purpose_of_tickling"
] | [
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] |
was there ever really a hole in the ozone layer? | [yup.](_url_2_) they still is one, but it's predicted to become smaller--which is thankfully due to the drop in [atmospheric cfcs](_url_3_) since they have been banned/phased/phasing out. however, it's best not to think of it as a literal hole, it's the reduced concentration in ozone in one strata of the atmosphere. it's more like a "thinning." not only that, the size of the thinning is seasonal and happens mainly at the poles--though nasa released a report predicting a future global ozone depletion had cfc emission not slowed down. here's a couple more images: * [arctic ozone depletion](_url_1_) * [seasonal ozone minimums over the years](_url_0_) | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Min_ozone.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Uars_ozone_waves.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/NASA_and_NOAA_Announce_Ozone_Hole_is_a_Double_Record_Breaker.png/480px-NASA_and_NOAA_Announce_Ozone_Hole_is_a_Double_Record_Breaker.png",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Ozone_cfc_trends.png",
"http://www.citylab.com/tech/2013/09/50-years-after-its-discovery-acid-rain-offers-lesson-climate-change/6837/"
] | [
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|
has the ozone layer recovered from where it once was? | it’s starting to recover, but the recovery has been a bit delayed by some volcanic eruptions. it’s not expected to fully heal until 2050-2080. _url_0_ | 16 | [] | [] | [
"https://news.mit.edu/2016/signs-healing-antarctic-ozone-layer-0630",
"https://nationalpost.com/news/world/scientists-discover-china-has-been-secretly-emitting-banned-ozone-depleting-gas"
] | [
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|
why can i taste salt but not smell it? | chemicals you can smell are volatile (small molecules that evaporate readily). it's the vapor that triggers a reaction in your smell receptors. table salt forms a stable crystalline lattice which doesn't allow it to evaporate under normal conditions, which is why you can't smell it. there's literally nothing coming out of it to carry the smell. furthermore, table salt (nacl) is an ionic compound - if it would evaporate, it would be chlorine gas (lethal) and solid sodium (a metal that ignites when exposed to normal air). that would ruin your whole day. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavor"
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|
why does salt seemingly have no smell compared to its intense flavour? | most other seasonings have a more noticeable odour. why is this? | salt is an ionic lattice of sodium and chloride ions. they are strongly bound to each other and stay as a solid. the chemical term for substances that can easily become a vapour is volatility and because of the lattice energy that hold the sodium and chloride ions together salt has a very very low volatility. this means that no salt becomes airborne and hits your nose, hence no smell. as others have mentioned taste and smell make up flavour salt tastes very strong but has little smell. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can a planet have a non-rocky moon (i.e. gas)? | a gas moon would have to be very massive, enough to hold a significant atmosphere. i'm going to assume your moon has the size and mass of neptune. for it to be a moon, it would have to be orbiting a much more massive planet. if the mass ratio is not big enough then it will be a [double planet](_url_1_) instead (okay, actually the mass ratio is not the only variable here. if the bodies are too far apart from each other than this can also shift the barycenter out of the major body, and so they'd be orbiting each other instead of the smaller orbiting the larger.) but the major planet cannot be more than 13 jovian masses. at this point it would be able to fuse deuterium, and so we'd call it a [brown dwarf](_url_0_) instead (which is technically not a star, but also not a planet). the ratio between 13 jovian masses and neptune's mass is 150. the earth-moon system has a mass ratio of 81. therefore, yes, it is possible. however this kind of system is unlikely to form naturally. moons formed from an accretion disc are usually a lot smaller than their parent planet. fun fact: the earth-moon system close to the boundary between a double planet and a planet-moon system. the barycenter is 1000km below earth's surface, or 1/6 of earth's radius. edit: spelling, links | 31 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_dwarf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_planet"
] | [
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|
when i am about to cry or feel like crying, what is that "lump" feeling in my throat? | it seems to happen to a lot of people and there is the saying of "having a lump in your throat." what exactly is happening that causes that sensation? | not an expert, but [here is a decent explanation](_url_0_) basically, we go though a small fight or flight response because our ancestors only really went through these emotions in stressful situations or life-threatening circumstances. part of this is to open up the airway. > an important part of opening the throat to allow the lungs to get more air involves expanding the glottis - the muscle which controls the opening from the back of the throat (pharynx) into the voice box (larynx) - so that more air can pass through it. so part of the autonomic response of crying is to use throat muscles to open the glottis as wide as possible. this doesn't pose a problem until you want to swallow; swallowing involves closing the glottis, so that food doesn't get into your larynx. so if you try to swallow while you are crying, the muscles for swallowing are fighting against the muscles for crying, and this tug-of-war over the glottis is perceived as a lump behind your larynx which makes it difficult to swallow. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/1997-03/855114309.An.r.html"
] | [
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why are jupiter's colors not mixed together? | the colors are caused by different compounds and with different properties i can see how you might see stripes for example. but when you look at a close up image, there are swirls of different colors all over the planet. why don't they mix together more uniformly? | this is a tough one, because we're still not really sure of what causes the different colors in the jovian belts, nor, to be honest, are we really sure what their structure represents. are they mostly an upper-level phenonemon, or do they go down deep into the atmosphere in the same arrangement? no one's sure. we have only one direct observation of the atmosphere (the galileo probe, which dropped into one of the cloud belts in 1995), although, to be fair, that's one more than we have for any other gas giant planet. the overall arrangement has been pretty stable over the years, as recorded by both amateur and professional astronomers, although the contrast levels of the various belts does change a bit - much like the great red spot, which it currently as pale as it's ever been, again for reasons unknown. you're right, though, that a lot of mixing does go on at the edges of the belts and zones (for a dramatic example see here: _url_0_). this makes one think that there might be some sort of constant replenishment of the various colored species from below - one theory is these bands are zones of upwelling and sinking, like the hadley cells in the earth's atmosphere. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Jupiter#/media/File:PIA02863_-_Jupiter_surface_motion_animation.gif"
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when colors on fabric or paper fade from sunlight, where does the color go? | does it just float away? | when a fabric has colour it is caused by a dye or pigmentation. colour is caused by deflecting or absorbing certain wavelengths of light. dyes are chemical species which absorb light to provide a specific colour due to their particular structure. when exposed to chemical reactions like photodegredation (light breaking down the chemicals) or bleaching it will cause the chemical dyes to break apart and lose their shape, stopping them from absorbing that light. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how /exactly/ is fructose metabolized differently from glucose? | from what i can gather, glucose is more regulated than fructose, but what exactly is the difference? | fructose is converted to fructose-6-phosphate, whereby it enters the normal glycolytic pathway. glucose enters the cell, is phosophorylated to glucose-6-phosphate, which is then converted to fructose-6-phosphate. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i put a candle in a box, then put a candle and a mirror in another box, will the one with the mirror be brighter inside? | thought about this as i put a mirror up in my room. i flicked on a flashlight in the dark and it shone through the mirror to reflect back into the room. then i wondered if the room was actually any brighter now than it was without the mirror. | yeah, as jushiblue pointed out, it depends where you're looking. some of the first "flashlights" (or torches you crazy brits you) were basically this principle. stick a candle in some type of enclosure and a bunch of reflective mirrors to focus the light outward very brightly. that outward light is much brighter than just the candle by itself, but only because it's focused much like a lens. an easy way to think of it is that a candle in an open enclosure emits light radially, if you use mirrors you're "moving" some of the light that would have gone in other directions into the same direction, thus making it brighter! | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do teeth whitening procedures physically strip your teeth of material? | or is it more like a dyeing process? | i've been offering whitening for over 20 years and i've never seen evidence of enamel dissolution. there are a group of people that have dark gray teeth due to tetracycline antibiotics taken when they were young and these patients sometimes whiten their teeth for 6 months straight. even in this group, you don't see enamel eroding or dissolving. i use to worry that the peroxide solutions used in this process could cause cancer of the soft tissue in populations that were careless and kept this in contact with their gums for prolonged periods, but the research hasn't found trouble. believe it or not, there are people who are obsessed with whitening their teeth. i have some patients who buy refills monthly despite the fact that their teeth are whiter than bathroom porcelain. they're too white even. i'd rather look directly at the sun. i don't get it. the only problem with whitening is the sensitivity it sometimes causes. enamel is more porous than you might think and the dentin layer underneath the enamel is made up of tiny hollow tubules that transmit stimuli right to the center of the tooth where the nerve is. fortunately, the sensitivity eventually goes away after you stop the whitening process. some people never experience sensitivity while others can have extreme temperature issues and even toothaches. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if boiling (or heating to 100ºc) kills all germs, what is the component in "gone bad" meat that can make you sick even after it is cooked. | if i had to guess it would be that maybe a chemical reaction creates some sort of toxin that obviously doesn't 'die' but i'm an art student and really have no idea.. | bacteria produce toxins, [endotoxin](_url_1_), which is part of the bacterium, and released when the cell dies, and [exotoxin](_url_0_), which is secreted by the cell when it is alive. both of these can survive the boiling process. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotoxin",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotoxin",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_121",
"http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/prions/"
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bacteria can only live at certain temperatures, so when i eat cooked meat, am i eating a lot of dead bacteria? if not where do they go? | yes you are. or at least the chemical composition or chemical products of cooking that made them up. cooking kills bacteria by raising their internal temperature to the point where they die. depending on the process and the temperature, the cell walls of the bacteria can rupture, they can carbonize and effectively turn to carbon char, they can just sit there as a dead cell, or they could be partially digested by enzyme or other chemical processes that destroy and/or dissociate the chemicals that compose them. some of those constituents, such as water, could boil off or be washed out in the cooking water or oil in the frying pan or "burn" into carbon dioxide, and others will simply go into your mouth and be digested same as any other food. finally, if you're eating leftovers or rare meat products, or eating meat that's been sitting out for a while, you're eating live bacteria too. but your body's digestive systems can easily handle most types of live bacteria without any trouble, it's only certain ones that cause problems, so that's usually nothing to worry about. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
assuming an infinite universe, what does it mean when cosmologists say that the early universe was a particular size? | assuming an infinite universe, what does it mean when cosmologists say that the early universe was a particular size? i understand what it means in the case of a finite universe, but in an infinite universe, do they mean the *observable* universe was a particular size in the past? | yeah. usually it means that the region of the universe which we can see today was a certain size. it's extremely difficult - often impossible - to know anything about the universe beyond that, due to the finiteness of the speed of light. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the tip of my nose get prickly the instant before i sneeze? | sneezing is a reflex that occurs when the sensory nerves inside your nasal cavity sense a foreign object, or irritation. these sensory nerves dont just stop in the nasal cavity, but continue onwards to innervate your nose. so when they get a stimuli, some of that stimulation could be misinterpreted by the brain as a signal coming from the tip of your nose. you can sort of replicate this in a different way by rubbing on your ulnar nerve. if you flex your right arm and look down on your elbow you see two bony protrusions, one is your elbow, and the other is slightly closer to you. the ulnar nerve runs between these two bony protrusions, so if you firmly rub the area between them with one finger, you should feel a prickly sensation extending towards your little finger. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why can't humans hibernate? | or rather, why can some animals? what is hibernation? what happens to the brain, and how do the organs not shut down? what qualities would i have to have to hibernate? this was really bugging me last night, so i thought i'd come to you guys. thanks. edit: thank you guys for all the answers, i think i understand now. | hibernation is an exquisitely coordinated process that decreases energy demand by cellular processes. we have a good understanding of how this happens in animals. we've observed widespread reversible protein phosphorylation (among other rapidly reversible modifications) in hibernating cells, leading to decreases in enzyme activity, which directly leads to decreased energy consumption by these proteins. thus, cells don't really "shut down" but they do in fact slow down quite a bit. there are quite a few other cellular and physiological changes, and here are a few good review papers on the subject: [morin and storey, 2009. mammalian hibernation: differential gene expression and novel application of epigenetic controls](_url_1_). [carey et al, 2003. mammalian hibernation: cellular and molecular responses to depressed metabolism and low temperature](_url_4_) (may be behind paywall). [andrews 2008. advances in molecular biology of hibernation in mammals](_url_0_) (paywall). [hellgren 1998. physiology of hibernation in bears](_url_3_) (paywall). it is less clear how these changes are orchestrated on an organismal level. it is conjectured that there exists some hormone that is secreted during the initiation of hibernation, such as the [hibernation induction trigger (hit)](_url_2_), but this agent has never been isolated and characterized. hit may be a opioid receptor agonist of some sort, but it remains to be resolved. as for whether humans can hibernate, that's an interesting question. torpor is quite a widespread strategy for reducing energy expenditure by animals in adverse environmental conditions. however, there's a difference between passive cooling (the reduction of core body temperature to ambient temperature to reduce energy demand) and true hibernation (which often involves passive cooling plus inhibition of cellular activities at the molecular level). we already utilize passive cooling in certain medical procedures. inducing hibernation in humans is quite a bit trickier, as it would involve many physiological and cellular changes. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bies.20560/abstract",
"http://www.cnslab.carleton.ca/~kbstorey/pdf/557.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibernation_induction_trigger",
"http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/3873159",
"http://physrev.physiology.org/content/83/4/1153.short",
"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6197339.stm"
] | [
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] |
can humans hibernate? | is it possible for humans to hibernate like other mammals? | there has been work done involving cooling the body and infusing the blood with hydrogen sulfide to mimic the state of a hibernating mammal to induce a similar state in humans. see: _url_0_ | 38 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide#Induced_hypothermia_and_suspended_animation",
"http://www.freedivingaustralia.com/hibernaut-milestones-1.htmll"
] | [
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] |
how much safer are electronic cigarettes than real ones? in what ways if any does it increase the risk of cancer or other diseases? | i did some research before i bought my first e-cigarette, and this is what i recall: in an e-cig cartridge, you basically have three things: nicotine, flavor, and the propylene glycol (or equivalent) that acts as a suspension, a sort of gel to keep everything together and uniformly distributed (so that you get roughly the same amount of nicotine/flavor with each drag). these chemicals (at least the propylene glycol, but maybe not the flavors; i don't recall the specifics here) are non-carcinogenic according to the fda. however, the fda's stance is based on the chemicals being used in foods, so it is possible that these chemicals could be carcinogenic if heated and inhaled. however, there isn't, so far as i'm aware, any evidence that this is the case. the short answer, then, is that we aren't really sure, especially in the long term, whether e-cigarettes are safer than regular cigarettes. in the end, though, i chose to think about it like this: there are somewhere between 50 and 70 compounds in cigarettes that are known to cause cancer. even if every kind of chemical compound that goes into an e-cig turns out to cause cancer, that means there are two (or maybe three or four, depending on what goes into the flavors) chemicals in e-cigs that would cause cancer. even without firm evidence that the e-cigs are "safe", i took my chances that cigarettes were almost certainly worse for you than their electronic brethren. | 27 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Tobacco/cessation"
] | [
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|
do species with a shorter lifespan evolve faster than those with a longer lifespan? | i got to thinking about insects and the other species with really short life spans and noticed that they almost always have more complex eye systems, nervous systems, and more limbs. is this just coincidence did having more focus on development of the brain functions for complex thought, etc, lead species into another direction? or does having a shorter life span have an effect on evolution? | the answer to your main question is that yes, shorter generation times (lifespan itself doesn't really matter) allow faster evolution, more or less by definition since evolution is a change in allele frequencies from one generation to the next. but the underlying premise is mistaken: * insects' generation times vary just like those of other organisms, and there are plenty of non-insects with shorter generations than plenty of insects * the animal kingdom is full of complex eyes, insect or not * insects aren't really toward the high end of nervous-system complexity * what does number of limbs have to do with anything? * the things with the fastest generation times, single-celled organisms or viruses, evolve very quickly but also tend to have the simplest anatomies it sounds like you're imagining insects as somehow "more evolved" than longer-lived animals. do you suppose lions and tigers are on their way to developing an extra pair of legs if you just wait for them to reach the same number of generations? will mice get there before elephants? the "design space" of eyes or brains or body plans is vast, and different lineages have gone down different routes that lead to different places. after billions of years of evolution, we can generally assume anything is pretty stably adapted to the environment it's been living in all this time, and the rate of adaptation only becomes important when the environment itself is changing. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do organisms with shorter lifespans evolve faster? | yes. a single slightly beneficial mutation in one individual can become ubiquitous in a large population in as few as 10,000 generations. in a long lived species this could take a hundred thousand years, but in short lived microscopic species this can be less than a year. many 10,000, 20,000, and 50,000 generation experiments have been done in labs with bacteria. this would take decades with short lived insects, and thousands of years with even the quickest reproducing mammals. edit: spelling. | 38 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do seedless watermelons and grapes reproduce? | how do we get new plants/generations of seedless grape vines, or watermelon plants? i do know they are a relatively new discovery, and also am wondering why they weren't possible before. thanks for the help! | seedless grapes and watermelons very rare in the wild. the first seedless orange came from a tree in brazil in the 1900's that by chance didn't have seeds. seedless oranges are genetic clones of that one. we plant them by making a cutting of the plant and planting that. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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while sleeping in a sealed room, and the oxygen was quietly being removed, would you ever wake up before you died? | if co2 was added in replace of the oxygen being removed | you would wake up with a headache because of the low oxygen content of the room. if you could then not extract yourself from the room you'd be ready for the past tense. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheyne-Stokes_respiration"
] | [
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if i fell asleep in an airtight room filled with only enough oxygen to keep me alive for a few hours, would i wake up before dying? | you would probably wake up gasping for air before dying slowly. the partial pressure of oxygen in air is 21kpa. and in blood about 13 kpa. it gets diluted as it makes it's way through the lungs. if some one was in a room with fixed amount of oxygen the concentration of oxygen in that room would fall in an exponential fashion. you would get a similar mirroring in your arterial concentration. your body has chemoreceptors which predominantly sense carbon dioxide levels (that's why you get breathless when holding your breath, your carbon dioxide levels rise) but they do sense oxygen levels but only when they drop to a significant level. once the partial pressure of oxygen in blood falls below 8kpa, which in normal life happens at altitude you will start increasing your respiratory rate and depth of breathing. and this will increase massively for every drop in kpa. as in op's situation it would be an insidious onset there would be a considerable amount of time before one dies. arterial blood samples have been taken from people near the top of everest and people have been alive with arterial oxygen pressure of around 4kpa (i can't remember the exact number) there are a host of other acute physiological changes that occur to keep you alive longer. edit: spelling | 48 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical\\)"
] | [
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|
how are dogs able to detect cancer in humans? | i am aware that evidence suggests that dogs are able to detect cancer in humans, but what is it about the cancer that allows dogs to be aware of the disease? | first, they really can't, to any degree that would change a diagnosis. there's some promising studies but the accuracy is too low and very few dogs have been trained to do this. as for how, we're not sure. one hypothesis is that there are compounds that are detectable in some types of cancer, in some places in the body. so, they're in breath or lung cancer, or in pee for bladder cancer. but no one has identified these compounds or demonstrated that that's actually what's going on. there's a couple of discussions [here](_url_1_) and [here](_url_0_). they're a couple years old, i don't think much has changed. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2009/02/03/can-dogs-detect-the-smell-of-cancer/",
"http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/what-to-make-of-medical-dogs/"
] | [
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there are dogs who can detect (smell) the presence of cancer in patients with a remarkably high degree of accuracy. what are they smelling? | there is obviously some mechanism they are using to detect cancerous cells. what chemical are they smelling and how is it possible for cancerous cells to give off some sort of chemcial indicator distinct from normal cells? can we build any machines that can detect these chemicals? | i don't know what you call "a high degree of accuracy", but dogs smelling cancer seems way below my "high degree" cutoff: --[canine scent detection in the diagnosis of lung cancer: revisiting a puzzling phenomenon](_url_2_) --[study of the art: canine olfaction used for cancer detection on the basis of breath odour. perspectives and limitations](_url_0_) "better than chance" doesn't seem all that good to me. what's more, the patients in this study were diagnosed cancer patients, meaning they were undergoing treatment, meaning they had received cancer therapy, meaning they had drugs in them that would have a distinct odor. (not to mention, possibly, other detectable characteristics of cancer patients.) how well could dogs detect cancer before diagnosis, which is when it would be interesting? my assumption is, much less effectively than with 71% sensitivity. what compounds are they detecting? it's not known (["disadvantages and limitations of this method are related to the fact that it is still not known exactly to which chemical compounds and/or their combinations the dogs react"](_url_0_)) but there are some candidates: --[study of the art: canine olfaction used for cancer detection on the basis of breath odour. perspectives and limitations](_url_0_) --[volatile s-nitrosothiols and the typical smell of cancer.](_url_1_) it's an interesting phenomenon, and potentially could have some use, but i wouldn't get very excited about this at the moment. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1752-7155/9/2/027001/meta;jsessionid=D87249EEFAB460D719544EB0679F2077.c4.iopscience.cld.iop.org",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25749837",
"http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/early/2011/08/05/09031936.00051711.abstract?sid=b4c367ac-6264-4d94-8b46-2b1505bb3fcf"
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since a star has used up its hydrogen before it goes supernova, how does the resulting gasses give birth to new stars? | wouldn't there be a lack of hydrogen to start a fusion reaction? | a star doesn't use up all of the hydrogen in the whole star, only the material in the core can fuse. the outer layers of the star, containing most of the mass, aren't burned. some mixing can occur by convection as the star ages, but for the most part the composition of the core will be very different than the composition of the outer envelope. the hydrogen in the outer envelope isn't burned, so when the supernova happens it seeds the area nearby with not only the metals in the core but with the hydrogen and helium that still make up the vast majority of the mass of the star. | 67 | [] | [] | [
"http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast122/lectures/lec13.html"
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why do things taste differently when cooked or burnt? | i would imagine it would have something to do with chemical changes. | foodservice professional here: heating foods increases the general rate of oxidation(combustion) in the food product, this has several effects of note, not the least of which is the "malliard browning process" which is the high temperature combination of a lipid, a protein and relatively simple starches that are common in items like bacon. this process is responsible for the delicious brown crispy outside on most cooked meats/high temp "dry" cooking methods. in addition proteins tend to contract into a more compact form under particular temperature conditions (eg. albumin coagulates at 115 f) and this causes some pretty dramatic changes in food as well due to them tangling amongst themselves. (eggs hardening, bacon curling). as for burned food, just don't do it. or eat it (i have heard tell that seriously burning certain foods can create nasty carcinogens) < heresay. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maillard_reaction"
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how does carbon dating accurately work considering all of the molecules likely come from beyond ancient supernova? | i'm just confused. | don't worry about supernova and the formation of the earth. carbon dating is waaaay simpler than that. high energy cosmic rays are constantly bombarding the earth from space which convert a little bit of the nitrogen-14 in the atmosphere into carbon-14. that carbon-14 is radioactive and decays away slowly, with a half-life of about 5700 years. what this means is that there is an approximately constant fraction of the carbon in the world which is this radioactive carbon. it gets taken from the air and used in photosynthesis by plants, and so all living things should have this same fraction of 14c in them as long as they are alive and actively exchanging matter with the environment. when something dies its 14c begins to decay away and by measuring how much 14c is left in some dead thing (either by counting the decay rate with a geiger counter or running it through a mass-spectrometer) we can measure how long ago it died. | 204 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is so advantageous about the color green that such a large percentage of plants are some shade it? | for starters... the sun [is white](_url_1_). it is all colors mixed together. rainbows are just the sun's light separated into its constituent parts. [chlorophyll](_url_4_) absorbs red and blue light, reflecting the green back to our eyes. a perfectly absorbent molecule would be black. but plants don't absorb every bit of light that they receive. as to why, there are different theories. [one of them](_url_0_) is that the bacteria in ancient oceans which eventually evolved into plants were competing with a purple microorganism called [archaea](_url_3_), and since the bacteria were below the archaea (which absorbed and used the green light and reflected red and blue), the bacteria evolved to use every shade except green. archaea didn't make the cut. they went extinct. it [turns out](_url_2_) that green light is the least effective wavelength at generating electrons, which means it would be bad for photosynthesis. plants, by rejecting green light, are able to concentrate their resources on the more effective wavelengths. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://gizmodo.com/5990764/we-dont-actually-know-why-plants-are-green",
"http://solar-center.stanford.edu/SID/activities/GreenSun.html",
"http://www.ehow.com/info_8421202_advantages-plants-green-color.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea",
"http://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/7A.html"
] | [
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|
what is the purpose of pubic hair? | if we have evolved into the creatures we are, why do we still have hair down there? | most of the hypotheses i've read have to do with social cues (signaling sexual maturity and the like) or holding on to pheromone signals (i've never seen convincing evidence of this). however, these sorts of questions are incredibly difficult to determine. evolution is a tricky beast - natural selection is an incredibly potent force, but the "rationale" behind what gets selected and what is not is not always apparent. whenever you read stuff about "why" something evolved in humans, especially behaviors (though things like pubic hair fall under this as well), you should immediately turn your bull-shit detectors up to 11. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is high fructose corn syrup less energetically efficient than sucrose? | i know that sucrose is a disaccharride comprised of glucose and fructose. the glucose can undergo glycolysis immediately then enter the citric acid cycle to produce atp. i also know that any non-glucose molecule can be catabolyzed, but they require a higher initial energy cost, and thus fructose is overall less energy efficient than glucose. since the high fructose corn syrup in most sodas is 55% fructose, does this mean that the mixture is overall less energetically efficient than a molar equivalent solution of sucrose? | first, be careful when you say "any non-glucose molecule can be catabolyzed." an easy counterexample is lactose, which many people specifically can't break down due to lactase deficiency. in response to your question, you might want to look at this graphic which shows glycolysis and how it relates to fructolysis: _url_0_ this is a somewhat complex diagram if you haven't had any biochemistry background to know what you're looking at. i'm mainly referencing the top half, in the upper right is the beginning of glycolysis and the upper left, the beginning of fructolysis. the lower right (starting from glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate going to pyruvate straight down) shows the rest of glycolysis, and the lower left shows some parts of fat and lipid metabolism. in short, when your body performs glycolysis it actually converts the glucose to a phosphorylated form of fructose (fructose-1,6-bisphosphate), spending two atp molecules in the process. it then splits this fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two 3-carbon units. these units go on to continue glycolysis, and potentially feed into the citric acid cycle. (although i should mention that this isn't necessarily their fate, as metabolites have different fates depending on the energy needs of the cell, e.g. pyruvate could be kept around for gluconeogenesis, etc.) when you look at metabolism of fructose, it also reaches these two 3-carbon units that glucose is broken into, and your body also spends two molecules of atp to get them there. so if you're talking about "energy-efficiency" in terms of number of atp molecules, metabolism of glucose and fructose is actually the same cost. now that doesn't mean its equally preferable to glucose, as there are a lot more factors to consider. for example, glucose and fructose use different transporters, different enzymes immediately after entering the cell, and so the efficiency in terms of total energy cost to produce these proteins in higher quantities if you're taking in a lot of fructose compared to glucose, etc. would have to be considered as well. but in a more relevant answer to your question, there isn't actually a lot of conclusive data to say how comparable high fructose corn-syrup is to sucrose. this review (_url_1_) is about carbohydrate diet and obesity. i only read the abstract, but basically there is evidence to say that solid carbohydrates induce satiety more easily than sugary solutions found in soda, whether it's hfcs or natural sugar. the one take away though, is that the differences between hfcs and sucrose metabolism is not the only factor in the debate over hfcs's health value. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://cheminfo2011.wikispaces.com/file/view/fructose_metabolism.png/282709376/fructose_metabolism.png",
"http://www.nature.com/ejcn/journal/v61/n1s/full/1602939a.html"
] | [
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why does sunburned skin feel warmer than usual? | because it is. blood has moved to it (just like any other injury) in an attempt to heal it. it also increases the temperature to acceleration the healing process (biological processes generally happen faster in the warmer environments). | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if moving above the speed of light is impossible, how will we ever get to see planets up close which are 100+ lightyears away? | this may be a silly question, but i don't now a lot about astronomy and it would be interesting to see what people have to say. | we most likely won't. planets don't emit any light, so even with super powerful telescopes this will be more than difficult. getting there is also nothing more but a dream. sure, like trizzwizz said, if you go sufficiently fast you can make the trip seem as short as you want, but these speeds are way beyond our reach. while physically not impossible, i personally believe we will never have the technology, the resources or the manpower for such an endeavor, but for sure not in the foreseeable future. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_ship",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormhole"
] | [
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] |
can we produce ozone? | as far as i know, it's just another chemical, so why can't we just make more of it? | short answer: yes we can and we do produce it. i'm guessing you are asking in relation to replenishing the ozone layer though. in that case we can produce it but no where near enough of it to replace the natural production of ozone. longer answer: the us epa has a decent article that is fairly easy to understand found [here](_url_0_). if you have more specific questions feel free to reply to this comment and i'll help you out. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/makemore.html"
] | [
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how does a person become lactose intolerant? | i know there was a post a little while ago that discussed lactose intolerance, but i'm curious how it begins. how does someone that could previously digest lactose develop problems digesting? what changes occur creating the digestion problem? | there are actually two different types of lactose intolerance. one of them you're born with and it's called congenital lactase deficiency. it's pretty rare. it's believed that only about 1% of the population of finland has it. it also makes for a very difficult infancy, being unable to digest mother's milk. the lactose intolerance you're talking about is actually also not a mutation per say. in every other mammal on the planet, milk consumption stops after infancy. there is no need to keep producing the enzymes that break it down (lactase), so the body stops and becomes unable to digest milk. that's the same way that it was with most humans until some decided to keep drinking milk into adulthood. it's good for your bones! why stop? a mutation developed and spread in europe allowing adults to continue producing lactase after infancy and continue digesting milk normally and that was that. lactose intolerance is the normal state of humans. the ability to continue to safely digest it, just like blonde hair or blue eyes is simply a very common mutation. edit: i should also probably add that most people do have a degree of lactose intolerance and symptoms can develop in people who previously thought they didn't have it if they consume enough. it's a build up process. if you only have a glass of milk you're probably good. if you decide to drink 5 or so in one sitting you may have some issues. this is all depending on your degree of intolerance of course. source: i have congenital lactase deficiency. i did my research. tl;dr- you don't become lactose intolerant, your body simply stops producing the enzymes to digest milk after infancy. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will the asteroid belt eventually become a planet? | figure that seems like a logical step in the formation of planets (a bunch of small pieces forming larger and larger chunks of matter), but then i'm wondering if there's some counteracting that the outer planets do that might keep them in a more uniform distribution. | no. the current thinking is that the asteroid belt is matter that never formed a planet, but there is no mechanism that would cause it to merge into a single object. it's also worth noting that the entire asteroid belt has a mass equal to about only 4% of the mass of the moon. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_%28dwarf_planet%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt"
] | [
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will the asteroid belt eventually coalesce into a planet? | looking at maps and knowing ceres is 1/3 the mass of the entire belt, it makes me wonder if with enough time the asteroid belt could become a 1000 km diameter minor planet. of course, i suspect the gravitational pull from jupiter, and to a lesser extent mars, prevents such clumping and keeping it a belt. i know it's a large area, but there is appreciable grouping in different parts of the belt leading me to think minor planet formation is still in progress. so, will we have another minor planet in the inner solar system in a billion years? | no. even in groups herded into gravitational clusters by jupiter (the [kirkwood gaps](_url_0_)) the empty space between asteroids of any size averages hundreds of thousands of kilometers. first, consider the current mass distribution in the asteroid belt. the four largest asteroids (ceres, vesta, pallas, and hygiea) contain about 51% of asteroid belt's mass. these bodies are in stable orbits that come nowhere close to one another. the remaining material is scattered over a massive volume of space, and in orbits that also bring them nowhere close to the large asteroids. the vast majority of that mass is contained in asteroids smaller than 50km in diameter. the smaller the body, the more likely it is to disrupt in an impact. unless these small bodies are colliding with those big asteroids, the material is more likely to be scattered out into space than it is to continue to grow into a larger body. while the debris from the impact might be swept up by a large body later, dust and small fragments slowly spiral into the sun due to the [poynting-robertson effect](_url_1_). over time, collisions between small bodies and the subsequent removal of dust mean that the asteroid belt is slowly losing mass. barring a massive shakeup in the inner solar system, the asteroid belt will continue to be an asteroid belt. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkwood_gap",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poynting%E2%80%93Robertson_effect"
] | [
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how did we determine dogs were colorblind? | well dogs aren't exactly colorblind. they can see colors, just not all the colors humans can. this was determined partly because of scientific research revealing dogs' eyes don't have as many cones as humans' eyes do. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.academia.edu/download/42142510/Color_vision_in_the_dog20160205-27972-kanf6c.pdf"
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