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asks for the jar. My mother, setting the milk back in the fridge, tells her to wait her turn. The present tense takes readers right into the scene: we are there with her as she does the hard work of making butter. Finally, try your hand at drafting the OPENING and CONCLUSION of your narrative. You may not use them in the end, but getting something down in print will help you build momentum. Try to start in a way that will grab your audience's attention, make them interested in reading on.

There are many ways to conclude, but think about what you want them to take away from the story, what you want them to remember. See pp. 85 and 410-12 on ways to begin; pp. 92 and 417-18 on ways to conclude. Then work on drafting the rest of the narrative. When you've done that, see if the opening and closing still fit. REFLECT! You probably never got a cow for a present-or maybe you did. But think about gifts you've received-or given. What gift is most memorable, and what makes it so?

Write a paragraph or two that tells the story of that gift. Indicate why the story matters Readers expect more from a personal narrative than just a good story. We want to know why the subject of the narrative matters to the author-and why those of us reading it should care. You can't assume that readers will know why your story matters, so you need to make that clear. There's no simple formula for how to do that, other than to say what not to do: don't simply say why it matters.

Let's see how some of the authors in this chapter do that. The best arguments in the world won't change a person's mind. The only thing that can do that is a good story.

RICHARD POWERS, The Overstory In her essay about how school was a sanctuary for her, Lynda Barry writes about more than just herself, noting that while we know that a good education system saves lives, we are still told that cutting the budget for public schools is necessary, that poor salaries for teachers are all we can manage. She wants to change our minds about that.

Here's how she concludes her essay: Mrs. LeSane asked us to please stand, face the flag, place our right hands over our hearts and say the Pledge of Allegiance. Children across the country do it faithfully. I wonder now when the country will face its children and say a pledge right back. -LYNDA BARRY, The Sanctuary of School Here's how Melissa Hicks shows us why her essay is about more than just the price of butter: To me the cost of butter is more than a price tag.

The cost of butter reminds me of my childhood, and how my family struggled to be pioneers in the twentieth century. The cost of butter reminds me of the value of hard work, and how that brought my family together. . . . Yet the cost of butter is more than a symbol of hard work and quality. The fact that I buy it is an affirmation of my own choices in life. Because of my childhood, I know the cost in sweat of butter. As an adult, I choose to pay that price in cash.

-MELISSA HICKS, The High Price of Butter Finally, here's Michelle Obama, near the end of her memoir, Becoming , reflecting on her own journey and her purpose for writing that book: For me, becoming isn't about arriving somewhere or achieving a certain aim. I see it instead as forward motion, a means of evolving, a way to reach continuously toward a better self. The journey doesn't end. I became a mother, but I still have a lot to learn from and give to my children.

I became a wife, but I continue to adapt to and be humbled by what it means to truly love and make a life with another person. I have become, by certain measures, a person of power, and yet there are moments still when I feel insecure or unheard. It's all a process, steps along a path. Becoming requires equal parts patience and rigor. Becoming is never giving up on the idea that there's more growing to be done.

-MICHELLE OBAMA, Becoming In all three of these examples, the writers show just why the story matters, why it's important to them and should be to us as well. Read your draft with a critical eye, get response-and revise Once you have a draft, ask others to read it over and talk with you about it. Ask them to be frank and open: What did they get out of your story? Was anything confusing? What did they like best? Did they find it engaging? easy to follow?

Try to get response from people who represent your intended audience-and some who might not: you want to hear as many diverse perspectives as possible. Now's the time to do so! Eventually, of course, you need to be your own best critic. After all, you know what you were aiming for. So get out your magnifying glass, and take a very close look at what you've produced. How will the OPENING capture the audience's attention and make them want to read on? How else could the narrative begin?

How well has the scene for the story been DESCRIBED ? Is it clear when and where the story takes place? If there are shifts in time in your story, are they signaled by the use of different verb tenses? Will readers be able to follow the narrative easily? Are there TRANSITIONS from one part of the story to the next? If not, should there be? What vivid details or memorable words help the story come alive? Does the narrative include dialogue or direct quotation? If not, should you add some?

Are there any VISUALS -photos, maps, and so on? If so, what do they contribute to the narrative? If not, would adding some help carry the story along? How would you describe the TONE , and what words, visuals, or other things help establish that tone? Will the AUDIENCE you want to reach find this tone engaging? Is the point or significance of the story clear, both for you and others? What makes it clear? Have you stated it explicitly-and if not, should you do so? How does the narrative CONCLUDE ?

What does it leave readers thinking? How else might it end? Have you chosen a title? If so, how will it get your readers' attention, and are you still satisfied with it? If not, try to come up with a title that will make your readers want to read what you've written. Now's the time to REVISE . If you've analyzed your draft and gotten advice from others, you've got a plan. You know what you need to do, and what you want to do. So now's your chance!

But remember that you're writing a NARRATIVE : you're telling a story. And you're telling it to an AUDIENCE , and they will want to know why you're telling this story. Be sure to tell them why the story matters to you-and why it might matter to them. REFLECT! Tell me a fact and I'll learn. Tell me the truth and I'll believe. But tell me a story and it will live in my heart forever. This Native American proverb sets a high standard for the stories we tell.

Think of a story that has stayed with you for a long time. What made it so memorable: the subject? the way the story was told? the message? Then write a paragraph or so about what makes a narrative live on forever. Glossary LITERACY NARRATIVE, 188-90 A GENRE of writing that tells about a writer's experience learning to read or write or do something else.

An informal outline simply lists ideas and then numbers them in the order that they will appear; a working outline distinguishes support from main ideas by indenting the former; a formal outline is arranged as a series of headings and indented subheadings, each on a separate line, with letters and numbers indicating relative levels of importance. STORYBOARD, 194, 232 A series of sketches used in planning a film or video essay to map out the sequence of camera shots, movement, and action.

POINT OF VIEW, 194 The position from which something is considered: first person ( I or we ), second person ( you ), or third person ( he, she , or they ). See also PERSPECTIVES CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER, 85, 194 A way of organizing text that proceeds from the beginning of an event to the end. Reverse chronological order proceeds in the other direction, from the end to the beginning. FLASHBACK, 194 In NARRATIVE , an interruption of the main story in order to show an incident that occurred at an earlier time.

OPENING, 146, 410-12 The way a text begins, which plays an important role in drawing an AUDIENCE in. Some ways of beginning an essay: with a dramatic or deceptively simple statement, with something others have said about your topic, with a provocative question or a startling CLAIM , or with an ANECDOTE . CONCLUSION, 92, 211, 417-18 The way a text ends, a chance to leave an AUDIENCE thinking about what's been said.

Some ways of concluding an essay: REITERATING your point, discussing the implications of your ARGUMENT , proposing some kind of action, inviting response. OPENING, 146, 410-12 The way a text begins, which plays an important role in drawing an AUDIENCE in. Some ways of beginning an essay: with a dramatic or deceptively simple statement, with something others have said about your topic, with a provocative question or a startling CLAIM , or with an ANECDOTE .

DESCRIPTION, 86 A STRATEGY that tells how something looks, sounds, smells, feels, or tastes. Effective description creates a clear DOMINANT IMPRESSION built from specific details. Description can be objective, subjective , or both. Description can serve as the organizing principle for a paragraph or whole text. TRANSITIONS, 424 Words or phrases that help to connect sentences and paragraphs and to guide readers through a text.

Transitions can signal COMPARISONS ( also, similarly, likewise, in the same way ); CONTRASTS ( but, instead, although, however, nonetheless ); examples ( for instance, in fact, such as ); place or position ( above, beyond, near, elsewhere ); sequence ( finally, next, again, also ); SUMMARIES or CONCLUSIONS ( on the whole, as we have seen, in brief ); time ( at first, meanwhile, so far, later ); and more. VISUALS, 455-57, 459-67 Photos, graphs, maps, diagrams, pie charts, tables, videos, and other images.

Visuals can be used to support or illustrate a point and also to present information that is easier to understand in a chart or graph than it would be in a paragraph. TONE, 27, 96 The way a writer's or speaker's STANCE is reflected in the text. AUDIENCE, 25-26 Those to whom a text is directed-the people who read, listen to, or view the text. Audience is a key part of any RHETORICAL SITUATION . CONCLUSION, 92, 211, 417-18 The way a text ends, a chance to leave an AUDIENCE thinking about what's been said.

Some ways of concluding an essay: REITERATING your point, discussing the implications of your ARGUMENT , proposing some kind of action, inviting response. REVISING, 93-94 The process of making substantive changes, including additions and deletions, to a DRAFT so that it contains all the necessary information in an appropriate organization. Revision generally moves from whole-text issues to details with the goals of sharpening the focus and strengthening the ARGUMENT .

See also response and revision NARRATIVE, 186-202 A GENRE that tells a story for the PURPOSE of making a point. Key Features: a clearly defined event - a clearly described setting - vivid, descriptive details - a consistent POINT OF VIEW - a clear point. Also a strategy for presenting information as a story, for telling what happened. When used in an essay, narration is used to support a point-not merely to tell an interesting story for its own sake.

Narration can serve as the organizing principle for a paragraph or an entire text. See also LITERACY NARRATIVE AUDIENCE, 25-26 Those to whom a text is directed-the people who read, listen to, or view the text. Audience is a key part of any RHETORICAL SITUATION . A STUDENT NARRATIVE ISAAC LOZANO Remote Learning Is Hard. Losing Family Members Is Worse.

Isaac Lozano was a senior at Buena Vista High School in Chula Vista, California, when he sent this narrative to the New York Times , where it was published on August 13, 2020. He is currently at work on a children's book. Opens with dramatic events that make us read on: Will his parents be next? Last month, I learned that my uncle died of Covid-19. Not long after, his mother passed away from the virus, too.

Since my parents are essential workers, I'm starting my senior year of high school worrying whether they're next. Uses first-person point of view. I live in one of San Diego's most infected ZIP codes . And I'm a Latino in a county where Hispanics-43 percent of Covid-19 victims yet only 34 percent of the population-bear the brunt of the pandemic. Echoes his title's contrast, which leads up to his main point.

When schools went remote earlier this year, low-income students like me, who have limited access to computers and the internet, faced challenges keeping up with schoolwork. Trying to study in cramped quarters and without reliable connectivity was frustrating. But as schools begin this fall, I'd much rather endure the troubles of distance learning than return to campus prematurely and sacrifice my own health or that of my family.

Throughout the pandemic, my five-member family has been huddled in a 920-square-foot, two-bedroom apartment, where I share a room with my two brothers. For my parents, social distancing isn't an option. My father is a supervisor at a car distribution company, and my mother, in remission from cancer, recently resigned as a caregiver at a hospice facility. Cases in our county were rising, so she opted instead to take care of my autistic cousin through a respite care program.

It's not much, but in my mother's words, the extra money will allow us to salir adelante, or get ahead. In April, when my school started distance learning, I struggled to stay focused, bouncing from room to room in search of peace and quiet. In the morning, I settled in the kitchen table to attend online meetings while my family was asleep. By the afternoon, I fled to my parents' room to finish schoolwork but only until my father came home from work and ordered me out.

Dialogue evokes tension and brings the story to life. Sometimes I ignored my parents or grimaced at them for no apparent reason. Are you mad at me? my mother would ask. No, I just want to stay focused, I'd retort. Vivid details help us share his experience.

In truth, I was angry that I lived in a coronavirus hot spot; that my immigrant parents could only provide me with so much; that my middle-class peers were ensconced in their own bedrooms while I remained confined to a skinny metal chair in my kitchen. At school, I got straight A's and was praised by English teachers for my writing. I saw myself as the poor Mexican kid who could overcome financial barriers with enough determination.

But when my uncle died of the coronavirus, I realized that gumption wasn't enough to overcome the obstacles of a pandemic. We couldn't even say goodbye. Shift in tense returns us to the present. Black and Latino children already grapple with disproportionately high rates of Covid-19 and face systemic barriers to testing and treatment . Many of us live in multigenerational homes and have parents who are essential workers. We are less likely to have access to health care .

And low-income schools across the country are struggling to afford the supplies and infrastructure required to reopen safely. I'm lucky that my district is postponing school reopenings until at least October. But if I am ordered back to campus prematurely, I won't do it.

As difficult as distance learning was, returning to the classroom now-as cases in the U.S. break records and experts fore see the pandemic persisting until next year -would put my home and the homes of millions of low-income kids of color at greater risk of infection. Sensory details underscore reasons for his decision. I leave my apartment not knowing if my next-door neighbors-only three feet away from my front door-could have the virus.

I fear for my mother's life every time we go to our local laundromat, a cramped space where visitors don't always wear masks. Though we wash our hands and disinfect items after arriving home, I'm always left with a tingle of uneasiness-like sensing a mosquito in a dark room. I've lamented this to friends who, like me, live in tight quarters and have seen family members sickened: As much as we excel academically, our ZIP codes still hold dominion over us and our families .

Living in a noisy home with domestic responsibilities during a pandemic was already a challenge, but the death of a loved one sapped my hope for the future and brought closer the difference a few digits on my address can make. Transitions to a more hopeful view, and his mother's words. But passing the cracked sidewalks of my apartment complex, I'm reminded that others have it worse: My family is financially independent, and we've settled in a tight-knit community.

I hear my mother's trailing words as we bring home baskets of laundry-and for a moment, I smile. Sums up the significance of this story and looks to the future. The pandemic poses unique challenges for kids like me. But if schools can offer us support-as my district is doing by providing free meals, internet hot spots and laptops to those in need-I know we can continue to learn remotely while staying safe.

And with help from my teachers and hope that the quarantine subsides, I'm applying to college this fall. Concludes by saying why keeping students at home now is so important. Keeping students at home gives us-and America-the best chance to salir adelante. Thinking about the Text 1. What is Isaac Lozano's main PURPOSE in telling the story of his uncle's death and what it represents to him? 2. Lozano wrote this text as a NARRATIVE , but it's a story with a point. What is his ARGUMENT ?

Do you agree with the decision he comes to? Why, or why not? 3. What details does Lozano provide to bring this narrative to life? Cite specific examples from the text. 4. What do you expect Lozano thinks it will take to salir adelante in the United States today? 5. Think of an event in your life (perhaps one that occurred during or was related to the pandemic of 2020) that meant a great deal to you.

Then, using the guidelines provided in this chapter, write a narrative that will help others share and understand your experience. Glossary PURPOSE, 25 In writing, your goal: to explore a topic, to express an opinion, to entertain, to report information, to persuade, and so on. Purpose is one element of the RHETORICAL SITUATION . NARRATIVE, 186-202 A GENRE that tells a story for the PURPOSE of making a point.

Key Features: a clearly defined event - a clearly described setting - vivid, descriptive details - a consistent POINT OF VIEW - a clear point. Also a strategy for presenting information as a story, for telling what happened. When used in an essay, narration is used to support a point-not merely to tell an interesting story for its own sake. Narration can serve as the organizing principle for a paragraph or an entire text.

Key Features: an explicit POSITION - a response to what others have said - appropriate background information - a clear indication of why the topic matters - good REASONS and EVIDENCE - attention to more than one POINT OF VIEW - an authoritative TONE - an appeal to readers' values Endnotes Quotes his mother in Spanish to sum up his family's goals.

Return to text PART 3 WRITING / MAKE YOUR POINT Chapter 12 Summarizing &Responding EFFECTIVE ACADEMIC WRITING RESIDES NOT JUST IN STATING OUR OWN IDEAS BUT IN LISTENING TO OTHERS, SUMMARIZING THEIR VIEWS, AND RESPONDING WITH OUR OWN IDEAS IN KIND. -GERALD GRAFF AND CATHY BIRKENSTEIN Your American history instructor assigns Sojourner Truth's Ain't I a Woman? Your job: to summarize this speech and write an essay responding to it.

In your environmental science class, the instructor asks students to read the Clean Water Act of 1987 and then to summarize its major goals, followed by a response that suggests ways the act could be strengthened. And in your first-year writing class, it's presentation week! You're assigned to listen to a presentation given by two classmates and then to respond. The assignment specifies that you start by briefly summarizing what they say before responding with what you want to say.

Instructors who give these assignments know that one way to fully understand a text and remember what it says is to summarize it in our own words-and then to talk back to it, engaging with what it says and offering ideas of our own in response. That's why it's often said that such assignments are where writing meets reading. And these moves-read-understand-respond-are fundamental to much of the work you do in college, and wherever you engage with the ideas and words of others.

A GUIDE TO SUMMARIZING AND RESPONDING Summarizing and responding to a text is a common college assignment, a way of demonstrating that you've engaged with the text, that you understand what it says, and that you have something to say as a result. Following is some good advice on how to write effective summaries and responses, so listen up: these tips will help you! Read the text you'll be responding to Begin by reading the text straight through.

Then reread, underlining or jotting down the major CLAIMS and ideas and the main EVIDENCE supporting those ideas. If there's an explicit THESIS , put it in brackets. And put quotation marks around any words or phrases that are written so well that you think you may want to QUOTE them. Whatever the text says, read it with an open mind. Especially if you disagree with what it says, think about where the author is coming from and why they think differently than you do.

And while you're at it, think about why you think the way you do. Most important, be sure that you understand exactly what the author is saying so that you'll be able to present it from their perspective rather than yours. Write out a few sentences in your own words stating the text's main points. It can be rough-imagine you're telling a friend about what you've just read; the idea is to give the jist of what the author has said.

Think about your rhetorical situation Once you've carefully read the text you'll be summarizing and responding to, stop and think about who your audience is and the rest of your rhetorical situation. Purpose. If you've been assigned to write a summary/response essay, one purpose will likely be to demonstrate that you understand what the text says. But responding also gives you the opportunity to engage with what it says-and to add your own thoughts to the conversation.

What do you think about what the text says, and what would you like to say back to the author? Audience. This is a common college assignment, so your audience will likely include your instructor. But other students may read what you write-and if so, how will that affect what you write? Genre. There are various ways you might respond. If you respond to what the text says, you'll be writing a rhetorical argument. If you respond to the way it's written, that will call for ANALYSIS .

Or maybe the text just gets you thinking, in which case you might write a REFLECTION . Stance. What is your attitude about the text? Are you a critic? a neutral reporter? something else? Think about how it will affect your response. Context. What are the requirements of your assignment-length, due date, and so on? And what's the larger context surrounding the text you'll be writing about? Media and design. If you get to choose, is there a medium that will work especially well for your subject?

If you're writing about a film, for instance, doing so online would enable you to include audio or video clips. Whatever the medium, will your essay need headings or images or any other design elements? Summarize accurately, fairly, and concisely Reread the text slowly , making a list of the main ideas. Then go back and check to see that you've noted every idea that matters, ones that you'll need to account for in your summary. Write out a sentence stating the text's main message.

You could then start your summary with this sentence, and it will function as a kind of THESIS sentence. Focus on the main ideas , leaving out unnecessary details. Keep in mind that you just need to give readers enough information so that they'll understand what you're responding to. And be sure that you capture the main ideas accurately and fairly. Use your own words, but leave out your own opinions . This should be a SUMMARY of what the text says, not of what you think about it.

(You can get to that when you respond to what it says!) Use neutral, non-judgmental language-say the author's point, for example, rather than the author's questionable point. Once you've drafted your summary, go back to the text to make sure that you haven't inadvertently copied any of the original wording or sentence structures.

If you QUOTE any words or phrases , be sure to enclose them in quotation marks and introduce them with a SIGNAL PHRASE to clearly distinguish what the author says from what you say. And while you could use neutral words (X says, according to X), it's better to use words that reflect the author's STANCE . Here, for example, is how you might quote a line from Poet Laureate Joy Harjo's blog: As Poet Laureate Joy Harjo argues in a blog post about music, The saxophone is so human.

Its tendency is to be rowdy, edgy, talk too loud, bump into people. But quote sparingly, and only when you need to use the author's exact wording for accuracy-or because the wording is so memorable that you want to call special attention to it.

For example, here's a sentence you might well want to quote if you were summarizing Sojourner Truth's Ain't I a Woman?: Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! This sentence is so powerful and clear in its message that it's hard to imagine how you could summarize it, so this is definitely one to quote. Name the author and title of the text you're summarizing, usually in the first paragraph.

If you're summarizing a lengthy work, you'll need to provide IN-TEXT DOCUMENTATION giving the pages you've summarized. And if you've consulted additional sources, you'll need to DOCUMENT them in a list of works cited or references. A model summary In the following summary, Taylor Jordan, a student at North Carolina A &T, sums up the argument about college admissions made in a New York Times op-ed. You can read the op-ed on page 214 .

In a New York Times opinion piece, I Learned in College That Admission Has Always Been for Sale, Rainesford Stauffer argues that college bribery schemes, a huge test prep industry, and big-time donors strip opportunities from those students who actually work hard on their own.

She begins with a personal narrative about a friend who had a personalized standardized test tutor while applying for college-and recalls her shock at realizing that some of her other friends even had professional editors and college admission coaches.

She notes that the current college admissions scandal with celebrities engaging in bribery and other illegal acts is only one example of what some rich people do to help their children get into college-and that it's no more abhorrent than what happens every day. Still, she acknowledges her own privileges as a white student with parents who went to college and says that what really makes her mad is thinking about those who have fewer privileges than she does.

Stauffer seems most angry about the fact that there's a huge industry of tutors and essay writers and college admission coaches for those who can afford them-and that it's all perfectly legal.

Citing the work of a Harvard education professor, she points out that it's a system that results in working class and poor students, black, Latino, Native American and first generation students [being] underrepresented on most campuses. To sum up, Stauffer's central argument is with the unfairness of the college admission system, and the signal it sends to students that their hard work counts for less than their parents' money.

-TAYLOR JORDAN, North Carolina A &T State University Note that this summary begins by naming the author of the text being summarized and summing up the author's main ideas. Subsequent sentences in the first paragraph point to the author's use of her own experience and provide additional details to back up the main ideas. As she does so, Taylor Jordan includes brief quotations directly from the article, enclosed in quotation marks and integrated smoothly into her own sentences.

Note also that Jordan is careful to leave her own opinions out of the summary, which focuses solely on the article she is summarizing, and that she is careful to qualify statements (Stauffer seems most angry) rather than putting words in the author's mouth. Finally, note that Jordan quotes a memorable sentence from one of the article's sources, which sums up the author's central argument. REFLECT!

Choose a text that you really like-a film, an episode in a TV series, a comic book, a favorite podcast or book, whatever. Then do your best to summarize what you've chosen so that someone who isn't familiar with it will get a good sense of what it's about, and why. Keep your audience in mind as you write your summary-and then ask for their response: How well did you capture the essence of the text you summarized?

Develop your response Responding to something you've read (or heard or seen) gives you the opportunity to speak up-to ask questions, point out details you think were overlooked, analyze the way it's written, agree, disagree.

There's more than one way of responding to a text, but often you'll be assigned to respond in one of three ways: to respond to what the text says to respond to how the text is written to respond to the way the text affects you If you're responding to what the text says In this case you'll likely be making an ARGUMENT . You could agree or disagree with the author's ideas-or both; whatever it is, you should do so explicitly.

In general, it's a good idea to provide a THESIS sentence that makes your overall response to the text clear. And then you need to give reasons and evidence to support what you say: facts, examples, textual evidence, data the author overlooked, and so on. Even if you agree with what the author says, you need to do more than just re-state views you share.

Perhaps you could point out evidence the author didn't mention, some personal experience that's pertinent to the conversation, or counterarguments that need to be mentioned. Here are some questions that will help you think about what a text says: What's the CLAIM ? What good REASONS and EVIDENCE support that claim? Remember that evidence can include VISUALS as well as words. Does the text include any COUNTERARGUMENTS or other PERSPECTIVES -and if not, are there some that should be acknowledged?

What's your response? Do you agree, disagree, or both agree and disagree with the author's conclusions? Why? If you're responding to the way the text is written Here you'll be writing a rhetorical analysis, and you could do so in various ways. You could analyze its use of language, its sentence patterns, the way it's organized, or other elements of its style-and how these things affect the way you understand or respond to the author's message.

In any case, you'll need to support your analysis with examples from the text. Here are some questions that will help you think about the way a text is written: How would you describe the author's STYLE -humorous? serious? conversational? passionate? logical? something else? What words or structures or images help to establish this style? How do they affect the way you respond? You'll need to show examples in the text that help create this style.

Does the author use any METAPHORS , ANALOGIES , or other figures of speech-and how do they help get the point across? How does the way the text is written contribute to the effectiveness of its message? If you're responding with your personal reaction You could go in many directions. This kind of response gives you the opportunity to REFLECT on how the text affected you personally. What did it make you think about-and are you still thinking about it?

Did the author make you think the subject matters or make you care about it? As with any kind of writing, you'll need to give reasons and evidence to help your audience understand your reactions-and care about what you say. Here are some questions that may help you reflect on your own reaction to a text: What was your first reaction to this text? Did anything in the text surprise you? make you laugh? annoy you? mystify you? Show some examples! Did it make you think or change your thinking about something?

If so, in what way? Do you now want to learn more about the topic-and if so, what? What would you say about this text if you were telling a friend about it? What REASONS would you give to explain your reaction? Begin your essay in a way that gets readers' interest If you're responding to a text about an unusual issue, you might want to begin with a question or a dramatic statement about that subject.

When you're responding to what a text says, you might begin with a sentence that first SUMMARIZES what the text says (or what others have said), before responding with what you think. If you're analyzing the way a text is written, you could start by QUOTING a line that exemplifies what you'll be writing about.

Or perhaps you're responding to a text that touches on something you yourself have experienced; in that case, you might begin with a personal ANECDOTE that shows how you are connected to the topic in question. No matter how you begin, be sure to name the author and the title of the text you're responding to somewhere-ideally, in the first paragraph. For more on ways of beginning, see pp. 85 and 410-12 .

Conclude in a way that leaves readers thinking Here's your chance to leave your audience thinking about the implications of what you've said. If you're responding to the text's argument, you could REITERATE your main point; if you're analyzing the way the text was written, you may want to remind readers about how the writer's STYLE affects the message; if your response is a personal one, you might conclude with some insight you got from reading the text.

Sometimes you might conclude by QUOTING something memorable from the text that your essay is all about. One student who summarized an interview with rapper Nipsey Hussle and responded to what he said about luck and hard work concluded by quoting a famous line from that interview: Luck is just bein' prepared at all times, so when the door opens you're ready. For more on ways of concluding, see pp. 92 and 417-18 . Regardless of how you conclude, you might also invite your audience to respond.

Keep the conversation going! Come up with a title If you've written an argument, your title should indicate the topic; if you've written an analysis, your title should indicate something about what you analyzed; if you've written a reflection, the title should indicate what the text has led you to think. For more on coming up with a title, see pp. 92-93 and 409.

Read your draft with a critical eye, get response-and revise Now's the time to read over what you've written to see that you've summarized the text accurately, fairly, and concisely-and responded cogently and persuasively. Does your title make clear what the essay is about? Can you think of a better title? How will the OPENING make readers want to read on? Does it mention the author and title of the text you're responding to? If not, are they mentioned elsewhere?

Is the summary written in your own words? Check to be sure. And have you provided enough detail so that readers will understand what you're responding to? Is all the detail you've included actually necessary? Have you SUMMARIZED the text in a fair-minded way, and without indicating your own opinion? If you've quoted anything, is the wording so memorable or important that it needs to be QUOTED ? Is anything quoted enclosed in quotation marks?

If you've quoted a full statement, is it introduced with a SIGNAL PHRASE -and does the verb suit the quotation? If you've used said , is there a more interesting or more accurate verb you might use instead- claimed ? pointed out ? declared ? Is the point of your response clear? Have you stated it in a THESIS sentence-and if not, should you do so? What EVIDENCE have you provided to support your response-facts? examples from the text? personal experience?

counterarguments or viewpoints the author didn't mention? Have you included any VISUALS ? If not, is there anything that could be presented in a photo, a chart, or a graph? Have you provided DOCUMENTATION for any text you've summarized or quoted? How does the essay CONCLUDE ? This is your chance to help readers engage with some ideas worth thinking about. Now REVISE ! If you've analyzed your draft and gotten advice from others, you've got a plan: you know what you need to do.

But remember that you're writing a SUMMARY/RESPONSE essay, which means summing up a text succinctly and fairly and then responding in some way. Here's what you think about the text-and why! Glossary CLAIM, 84-85, 103-5 A statement of a belief or POSITION . In an ARGUMENT , a claim needs to be stated in a THESIS or clearly implied, and requires support by REASONS and EVIDENCE . EVIDENCE, 85-90 In ARGUMENT , the data you present to support your REASONS .

Such data may include statistics, calculations, examples, ANECDOTES , QUOTATIONS , case studies, or anything else that will convince your readers that your reasons are compelling. Evidence should be sufficient (enough to show that the reasons have merit) and relevant (appropriate to the argument you're making). THESIS, 84-85 A statement that identifies the topic and main point of a piece of writing, giving readers an idea of what the text will cover.

ANALYSIS, 132-56 A GENRE of writing in which you look at what a text says and how it says it. Key Features: a SUMMARY of a text or other subject - attention to CONTEXT - a clear INTERPRETATION or judgment - reasonable support for your conclusions REFLECT, 48, 98 To explore a topic thoughtfully. Reflections are a GENRE of writing.

Key Features: a topic that intrigues you - appropriate structure - specific details - a speculative TONE THESIS, 84-85 A statement that identifies the topic and main point of a piece of writing, giving readers an idea of what the text will cover. SUMMARY/RESPONSE, 203-22 A GENRE of writing that conveys a text's main ideas in condensed form and engages with those ideas by ARGUING a position, ANALYZING the text, or REFLECTING on what it says.

Key Features: identification of the author and title - a concise summary - an explicit response - support for your response QUOTE, 285-90 To cite someone else's words exactly as they were said or written. Quotation is most effective when the wording is worth repeating or makes a point so well that no rewording will do it justice or when you want to cite someone's exact words. Quotations in academic writing need to be acknowledged with DOCUMENTATION .

QUOTE, 285-90 To cite someone else's words exactly as they were said or written. Quotation is most effective when the wording is worth repeating or makes a point so well that no rewording will do it justice or when you want to cite someone's exact words. Quotations in academic writing need to be acknowledged with DOCUMENTATION . SIGNAL PHRASES, 293-94 Words used to attribute QUOTED , SUMMARIZED , or PARAPHRASED material to a source, as in according to X or Z claims .

STANCE, 17-19, 26-27 A writer's attitude toward the subject-for example, reasonable, neutral, angry, curious. Stance is conveyed through TONE and word choice. IN-TEXT DOCUMENTATION Brief documentation in a text that tells readers what the writer has taken from a source and where in the source they found that information. DOCUMENTATION, 309-44, 360-86 Publication information about the sources cited in a text.

IN-TEXT DOCUMENTATION usually appears in parentheses at the point where it's cited or in an endnote or a footnote. Complete documentation usually appears as a list of WORKS CITED or REFERENCES at the end of the text. Documentation styles vary by discipline. See also APA STYLE ; MLA STYLE ARGUMENT, 99-131 Any text that makes a CLAIM supported by REASONS and EVIDENCE . A GENRE that uses REASONS and EVIDENCE to support a CLAIM .

Key Features: an explicit POSITION - a response to what others have said - appropriate background information - a clear indication of why the topic matters - good REASONS and EVIDENCE - attention to more than one POINT OF VIEW - an authoritative TONE - an appeal to readers' values THESIS, 84-85 A statement that identifies the topic and main point of a piece of writing, giving readers an idea of what the text will cover. CLAIM, 84-85, 103-5 A statement of a belief or POSITION .

In an ARGUMENT , a claim needs to be stated in a THESIS or clearly implied, and requires support by REASONS and EVIDENCE . REASONS, 105-8 Support for a CLAIM or a POSITION . A reason, in turn, requires its own support. EVIDENCE, 85-90 In ARGUMENT , the data you present to support your REASONS . Such data may include statistics, calculations, examples, ANECDOTES , QUOTATIONS , case studies, or anything else that will convince your readers that your reasons are compelling.

Evidence should be sufficient (enough to show that the reasons have merit) and relevant (appropriate to the argument you're making). VISUALS, 455-57, 459-67 Photos, graphs, maps, diagrams, pie charts, tables, videos, and other images. Visuals can be used to support or illustrate a point and also to present information that is easier to understand in a chart or graph than it would be in a paragraph. COUNTERARGUMENT, 16, 90-91, 265 In ARGUMENT , an alternative POSITION or objection to the writer's position.

The writer of an argument should not only acknowledge counterarguments but also, if at all possible, accept, accommodate, or refute each counterargument. PERSPECTIVES, 90-91, 29-41 Viewpoints, an important part of a writer's STANCE . As a writer and a researcher, you should always strive to seek, think about, and work to understand multiple perspectives.

STYLE, 210, 406-7 The particular way something is written, designed, or communicated-its sentence structure, TONE , DESIGN , and word choice-that make it distinctive and get attention. METAPHOR A figure of speech that makes a comparison without using the word like or as : All the world's a stage / And all the men and women merely players (Shakespeare, As You Like It ). See also SIMILE ANALOGY, 414 A STRATEGY for COMPARISON by explaining something unfamiliar in terms of something that is more familiar.

See also FALSE ANALOGY REFLECT, 48, 98 To explore a topic thoughtfully. Reflections are a GENRE of writing. Key Features: a topic that intrigues you - appropriate structure - specific details - a speculative TONE REASONS, 105-8 Support for a CLAIM or a POSITION . A reason, in turn, requires its own support. SUMMARIZE To use your own words and sentence structure to condense someone else's text into a version that gives the main ideas of the original. In academic writing, summarizing requires DOCUMENTATION .