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oka Festival of theBarotse Floodplain in western Zambia (Flint, 2007). The festival is hosted byLozi peoples and rides on their history and heritage as a strong symbol of identification for African cultures and practices that have survived the test of time(Flint, 2007). The site is being considered for World Heritage Listing. However,ownership of the heritage has a bearing on its use and the beneficiation distribution to contesting IDCs (Flint, 2007). This study acknowledges that dealing withscattered IDCs in MCLWHS remains a complex matter compared to those ofthe Barotse Cultural Landscape. While the study also acknowledges the existingcontestations and complex dynamics among IDCs, they still have a role to playat MCLWHS. Establishing community museums in their current geographiclocations far away from the site and creating connecting tourism nodes withMCLWHS may be uneconomical given the current experience with a plethoraof similar white elephant museums and underfunded community, private, andpublic museums in Africa. COVID-19 has forced many of these institutions toeither scale down or permanently close operations.Alternative spaces to accommodate community-driven development initiatives have to be identified at WHS. At MCLWHS, the administrative facilityconstructed outside the main entrance gate could have been used to implementcreative and innovative projects that are mutually beneficial to SANParks andIDCs. For instance, the current range of curios at MCLWHS is limited and tantamount to an academic book shop. Therefore, a robust and community-drivencraft centre could be established by SANParks. This administration centre wouldbe a strategic location at MCLWHS in order to take advantage of the tourist trailsand main entrance. The centre could have traditional curios and meals associatedwith IDCs, which may give life and diversity to the current restaurant operated by SANParks through a contractual arrangement with a service provider.Many IDCs have cultural objects in their possessions that could be replicatedfor commercial purpose at MCLWHS. However, IDCs do not trust SANParkswith these collections given its history and inability to recover cultural objectsappropriated by the University of Pretoria (UP) over the years. UP has promisedto honour collections repatriation once SANParks has established secure facilities and is implementing good collections management practices. IDCs are notin the picture of this scientific dialogue. SANParks is now strengthening this 186 Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development aspect throughout parks. If SANParks is serious about resolving IDCs’ concerns,it has to make conditions and infrastructure conducive for the repatriation ofthese objects from Pretoria, including those that are in the custody of the IDCsthemselves.From a governance perspective, the community craft centre can be managedby trained IDC entrepreneurs either as a trust or joint venture with SANParksor whatever form it may take. Golden Gate National Park has a similar arrangement which can be replicated in other National Parks in South Africa. Thiswould be part of building self-worth among IDCs, allowing their reconnectionwith the landscape in a semi-commercialized sense and building their sustainableinvolvement at MCLWHS. This IDC-driven approach for tourism could alsogive birth to a process where facilities within MCLWHS could be renamed usingindigenous names and attributes important to the IDCs; a renaming approach(decolonizing interpretation and spaces) which is consistent with post-colonialprocesses in democratic nations. This approach will reduce material beneficiation to a secondary matter as IDCs are looking for official recognition in the firstplace. All this will strategically position IDCs to be part of the socio-economicdimensions of MCLWHS in a broader and sustainable way.However, dealing with community-driven developments at WHS has bothpositives and negatives dimensions as illustrated by a curio market located outside GZWHS. The selling of curios (including carved replicas of the famous soapstone birds) is now in the hands of local communities. While this downstreamindustry is functioning, more can be done to create better relations among them,heritage institutions, and consumers. The current location of the curio markethas its own limitations: absence of social amenities, limited and risky parkingspace, dislocation from the site, security concerns, and absence of value-add processes to create a competitive marketing edge while creating and curating lasting memories about GZWHS. As an alternative, the former golf course insideGZWHS could have been used as it is already archaeologically disturbed andcould be managed differently. Such proximity to GZWHS would entice visitors to “consume” both the narratives and curios under a community socializedambience setup at GZWHS. Also, value-added processes to the curio products,including communities acquiring entrepreneurship skills and product management, are important. For instance, curios could be packaged in materials thatcarry indigenous taste, terminology, and manifestation, all being the cornerstones of decolonizing the interpretation of GZWHS. At Goree Island (Senegal),local communities have free trading opportunities, and hence the island is littered with curio shops with diverse products. This may appear chaotic to a firsttime visitor to Goree Island, including on the ferries to Goree island, but theliberal approach breeds competition, which benefits consumers, improves qualityand range of products, and instills a sense of ownership which helps in protectingthe site as the chicken that lays eggs for the community on the island. This iswin-win situation between communities and WHS as both are capitalizing andoptimizing on tourist arrivals. Curio industries running as a family business have Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development 187 a higher tendency of sustainability and continuity compared to cooperatives thatare fraught with infighting and corruption, and eventually suffer from the tragedy of commoners (no one taking responsibility leading to their total collapse).At MCLWHS, and peculiar to SANParks, there is a 1% levy charged on allpark accommodation and activity reservations. Through this levy, SANParkssupports sustainable and strategic initiatives benefitting communities aroundparks such as clinics, schools, water, and sanitation projects (SANParks, 2018). Itis an opportunity for philanthropic approach in a heritage context, and this canbe replicated at other WHS in Africa. This SANParks initiative, coupled withother infrastructural developments in the area, may be the reason why stakeholders ranked infrastructure as the second dominant development at MCLWHS.Therefore, WHS could adapt this levy concept to generate additional revenuein order to support community development at WHS. However, this requiresnegotiating with public tourism boards who are already collecting such levies inthe name of promoting tourism, which includes these WHS. It is important thatWHS have their share of these levies as the “chicken that lays the eggs” beingconsumed by tourists. That “chicken” belongs to the community.Benefits accruing from agriculture have cross-cutting impacts beyondMCLWHS itself. At the local level, Musina area has many households involvedin agriculture such as citrus, cattle, and game farming. Agriculture is alabour-intensive activity (GMTFCA TTC, 2010; Limpopo Provincial Treasury,2017). In 2011, approximately 2,261 households were involved in agriculture(STATS S.A., 2011). Despite this, the soaring unemployment rate has risen from19.3% (2016) to 19.6% (2017) in the Limpopo Province (Limpopo ProvincialTreasury, 2017). Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic has induced massive joblosses due to the underperforming economy. Most productive sectors are closingor scaling down operations. Despite this, agriculture at MCLWHS still offerspermanent and seasonal opportunities to farm workers. Agriculture also employs10% of the population and contributes about 2% of the GVA-R Sectoral composition of Limpopo Province (Limpopo Provincial Treasury, 2017). However,agriculture poses challenges to conservation in the greater Mapungubwe areadue to continuous water abstraction from the rivers and underground watersources (Berry & Cadman, 2007). Also, private ownership of the agriculturalland infringes on free movement of tourists and local communities in the confluence area (Berry & Cadman, 2007).Regarding extractive industries at MCLWHS, these are known to provideboth short- and long-term benefits to the society. The benefits, which haveimpact beyond WHS, include employment opportunities, career awareness andorientation campaigns, internship programmes, infrastructural development,contribution to GDP, and support to manufacturing industries. At MCLWHS,extractive industries employ about 6% of the population and contribute 28% tothe overall economy of Limpopo Province (Limpopo Provincial Treasury, 2017).The contribution of this industry to SDGs agenda of South Africa is immenseand is recognized at political levels (Creamer, 2013). Extractive industries are 188 Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development expected to benefit both mining communities and labour-sending areas, whileupholding sustainable principles (Creamer, 2013). This underlines the politicalrhetoric associated with extractive industries in Africa: profit maximization yetbenefits accruing to labour-sending areas have remained low. The latter overshadows the positive benefits of these extractive industries in other areas. This isalso due to the fact that extractive industries have negative impacts on the environment and society and, furthermore, are not fulfilling the promised benefits tocommunities (Chirikure et al., 2010). The same applies to hunting, which provides some employment benefits through guiding services and assisting professional hunters, but trophy benefits do not automatically reach local communities.These are disbursed through some structured mechanism that always disadvantages local communities while conservancy owners get the lion’s share.Relating the above to other sites can be summarized as follows. Examples ofsuccessful development include the high employment levels, curio centre andconferencing facilities achieved by the COHWHS in Gauteng Province of SouthAfrica, the major re-positioning for tourism at Tarragona World Heritage site(Spain) and Goree Island (Senegal), and the blossoming craft and hotel industryaround the Mombasa and Lamu Islands WHS in Kenya. However, in Tanzania,the proposed re-opening of the Laetoli footprint trackway for tourism attractedthe attention of UNESCO, resulting in numerous reactive monitoring missions to the site and scientific discussions to find a balance between conservationand the tourism appetite for hominid footprints trackway to be opened up to visitors (Taruvinga, 2012). The point of the matter was that the SP of Tanzania saw anopportunity to diversify visitors experience using Laetoli and increase visitor numbers to the archaeological sites in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Currently,visitorship in Ngorongoro Conservation Area is concentrated in the crater where itis easier to see wildlife and the bomas, where Maasai communities dwell.Discussing how stakeholders are accruing benefits from development at WHScannot be fully understood without discussing how they impact each otherfrom a socio-economic perspective. This matter, rarely discussed, is equitableto the spirit of Ubuntu, an ancient African concept, that explains “how people centeredness approach, permeable walls, partisanship and progeny all interact together as stakeholders take collective decisions on conservation and SDat WHS” (Michael, 2007; Taruvinga, 2017). Ubuntu is a Nguni proverb thatstates “umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu” – “a person is a person through other persons” (Gade, 2011: 303; Michael, 2007). People centredness is the role of peoplein making conscious decisions that affect them as a whole, while “permeablewalls” is communication that is not restricted by hierarchy, political position,educational background, and position in society (Gade, 2011; Taruvinga, 2017).Partisanship is how loyalty is fostered among individual members of the community while “progeny” refers to how the individual members of the stakeholders promote collective decision-making which affects them as whole (Gade,2011; Taruvinga, 2017). Summarised, Ubuntu promotes the common good ofsociety and “humanness as an essential element of human growth” (Venter, Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development 189 FIGURE 7.6  ivot chart showing impact of stakeholders on each other based on theirPsocio-economic activities. 2004: 149). At MCLWHS, this humanness (impact on other stakeholders froma socio-economic perspective) is mainly “average” (1.15) followed by “very lowimpact” (Figure 7.6).The “average impact” at MCLWHS demonstrate stakeholder relations wovenwith different, rather than common interests, business goals, and expectations. Itis more of power, legitimacy, and urgency determining the “vertical and horizontal relations among stakeholders” (Sachs & Rühli, 2011: 38). Ubuntu is at theperiphery of this business-relationship among stakeholders at MCLWHS. Also,the average impact also explains the long-known tensions and weaker impactsamong stakeholders at MCLWHS, similarly at other WHS in Africa. However,“very high” impact is on learners, although it is equally ranked under “very low”impact. Learners are cross-cutting beneficiaries of the stakeholders at most WHSin Africa. The high impact on learners at MCLWHS emanates from career guidance and educational programmes offered by SP, heritage institutions, and theprivate sector. Also, in their own perspective, learners do not have the means toinduce impact on other stakeholders. Under “high” impact ranking, local communities come out top, but are also ranked “very low” impact. This points tooscillating impacts on local communities, however, dependent on the goodwillof other stakeholders. Both IDCs and learners are unlikely to benefit due to theirgeographical disconnection with MCLWHS.Also, notably, provincial government received the “highest average impact”,while tourism comes last in this same ranking, with local communities inbetween the two at MCLWHS. Interestingly, the “very low impact” is on international communities, national government, and tourists. The remoteness ofMCLWHS could explain this, being far from major cities and airports. Nationalgovernment’s low ranking could be resulting from its contradictory role as aninitiator of conservation and SDGs, as well as the watchdog on compliance across 190 Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development policies covering both nature and culture values. The average impact rankingamong stakeholders is an opportunity to domesticate an adapted social corporateresponsibility approach in heritage governance, possibly underpinned by Ubuntuprinciples. WHS in Africa are devoid of such approaches, implying they are failing to learn from other sectors and disciplines. Camaraderie between Conservation and DevelopmentThe comparative analysis of conservation and SD at WHS leads to understanding their contribution to each other, including how to measure their individual and collective contribution in meeting SDG indicators in Africa. Due toconservation and development having co-existed from time immemorial (seeChapter 2), they have developed some camaraderie over the years, but this hasremained unexplored at WHS until recently with the adoption of the 2015World Heritage Policy on SD. At MCLWHS, conservation appears to contributemore to development than the latter contributes to the former. Conservationprovides opportunities for sustainable tourism, controlled infrastructural developments, and many other downstream livelihood industries as guided throughHIA and EIA processes. Culture has become a catalyst for development. Onwhat is more important between conservation and development, stakeholderresponses at MCLWHS showed that former is “very important” compared tothe latter considered as “important”. However, stakeholders acceded that bothare very important and mutually beneficial to each other at MCLWHS. Thehistory and experience at MCLWHS show that, while conservation is more onthe compliance path, it has been deliberately building more “positive bridges”with development since precolonial times (see Chapters 3 and 4). Therefore,camaraderie between conservation and SD symbolizes progressive, inescapable,and sometimes conflicting synergies. This area needs more research in Africa topaint a clearer picture on this evolving beneficial relationship. Development Benefitting Conservation at WHSThe benefits of development to conservation are important in understanding thenature of the symbiotic relationship between the two. It is the ground for moving towards scientific and social trade-off towards their co-existence at WHS. AtMCLWHS, most stakeholders “don’t know” (1.03) how development contributesto conservation (Figure 7.6). This could be explained by the fact that heritageinstitutions always have biased reporting towards conservation indicators withlittle inference to the contribution of development at WHS. Equally glaring isthe absence of and inaccessible public and private datasets on how developmentcontributes to conservation at WHS in Africa. Private companies jealously guardtheir datasets and only disclose such information in their statutory annual auditedreports. Stakeholders at WHS in Africa have not created buy-in from each otheron these matters. Silo planning of heritage institutions may explain this situation Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development 191 FIGURE 7.7 Pivot chart showing the highest ranked contribution response option. at WHS in Africa. Equally, this may explain why conservation and developmentare always perceived as conflicting at WHS.Despite the above quandary, there is a “high” level of dominance of tourism(27%), infrastructure development (19%), and agriculture (16%) contributing toconservation at MCLWHS. While tourism largely complies with the conservation protocols at most WHS, there are recorded negative impacts. Both tourism and agriculture seem to have gradually developed a symbiotic relationshipwith conservation at MCLWHS. Regarding the contribution of infrastructuredevelopments to conservation, only qualitative inferences can be made, such ascreating access to the site (roads), provision of sanitary and ablution facilities, collections and conservation facilities among others. Depending on the size of theinfrastructure footprint, negative impacts may be recorded at WHS. Measuringthe contribution of all these dimensions to conservation at MCLWHS remainsdifficult in the absence of statistical datasets. This equally applies to most WHSin Africa.While stakeholders (19%) indicated that extractive industries are not contributing to conservation at MCLWHS, archival analysis demonstrates the opposite.Stakeholder views are affected by absence of statistical datasets on the matter,including the inability to access such information from private sector. Fromarchival analysis, activities and research leading to the discovery and recognitionof MCLWHS were partly financed by extractive industries. Explorers, mines,and farmers settling in the Mapungubwe area invested resources in heritage management one way or another. They raised awareness on Mapungubwe, whichin turn attracted funding for research and conservation activities. Regrettably,cultural objects were looted and appropriated in the process from Africa, butthis cannot overshadow how explorers, commissioned researchers, and miningcompanies variedly and unintentionally contributed to knowledge production 192 Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development and conservation in Africa. One can argue this knowledge had colonial context,but this has become the rational for decolonizing heritage knowledge and spacesin Africa. For example, many scholars have conducted EIA and HIA fully paidby developers at many WHS in Africa. This research has resulted in the creationof massive heritage databanks in the custody of universities, research institutions,academics, and museums. For example, the University of Pretoria (South Africa)holds priceless collections from MCLWHS, which have now become the subjectof local repatriation discussion. IDCs want the collections at MCLWHS whilethe university has no faith in SANParks’ capacity to look after this collection.Also, other universities in South Africa have benefitted from scholarships/grantsawarded by extractive industries, thereby furthering academic and scholarlyworks. Additionally, EIA and HIA have developed and implemented developerfunded mitigation plans, thereby supporting conservation at WHS. For example,De Beers developed a heritage management plan for the property where they areextracting minerals at MCLWHS.The sharing of information between heritage institutions and developersmay further synergies between conservation and development at WHS inAfrica. For instance, without SANParks sharing their conservation needs andchallenges, and equally, developers sharing their needs and challenges, bothparties would not know how to assist each other at MCLWHS. Without developers proactively engaging WHS on conservation issues, they are not able toassist, yet this may favour their social corporate responsibility programmes.Heritage as a shared value for society should be a natural fit for social corporateresponsibility programmes. The partnership between African World HeritageFund (AWHF) and NAMDEB in 2012 to rescue the Oranjemund Shipwreckunderwater site is testimonial to how conservation and development can benefit each other. AWHF awarded a recognition certificate to NAMDEB fortheir role in the process. In the midst of tensions between conservation anddevelopment, stakeholders should find beneficial opportunities, which may nothave been conceivable and feasible before due to biased focuses on each otherand in the absence of constructive dialogue among them. While the SP is thebeneficiary of corporate taxes and most partnerships, these hardly filter to heritage compared to security, health, education, mining, and agriculture, whichare prioritized in national budget allocations. Constructive confrontation andpro-activeness are steps towards resolving conservation and development tensions at WHS in Africa. Measuring Heritage Contribution toSocio-Economic Indicators at WHSMeasuring the contribution of heritage to SDGs (culture statistics) at WHSremains a matter of concern at WHS in Africa. Though generally known but cannot be proven by solid statistical datasets (culture statistics), heritage as a resourceprovides opportunities for “job creation, infrastructure development, and Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development 193 educational opportunities” and “revenue alike” (Carruthers, 2006; Lowenthal,2005: 28; Ndoro, 2015: 393). While culture statistics are largely non-existentat heritage sites in Africa, some can be extracted, such as the number of visitorsand jobs created at WHS. A stakeholder assessment on how these statistics shouldbe measured at MCLWHS was undertaken. Stakeholders indicated potentialand multiple measuring indicators, among them jobs created, state of conservation, level of community development, number of tourists, contribution toGDP, number of business/investors, infrastructure development, and return oninvestment at WHS. The indicators could be both direct or indirect, as well asquantitative and qualitative.Direct indicators would be those that are directly measured by heritage institutions, while indirect ones would be inferred from measurements of other stakeholders, such as tourism and national statistic offices. Quantitative measurementsrefer to a number of phenomenon presented as output while qualitative measuresthe quality of the phenomenon; in this case, it would be the well-being of thesociety. The absence of culture statistics makes WHS peripheral to developmentissues. This also creates a flaw in aligning heritage to SD indicators. This affectsbudgetary allocations to conservation and further influences the legal classification of heritage institutions as non-profit, thereby making them non-bankablebusinesses, yet they are magnets of tourism worldwide. Sites such as RIWHS,COHWHS in South Africa, and NCA (Tanzania) generate over 40% of theirtotal annual operational budget, although currently impacted by the COVID-19pandemic in 2020/21.The proposed culture statistics indicators could benefit from broader SDGindicators which are already measured in different countries and regions.Applying these indicators at WHS is not a far-fetched matter. For example,SANParks has already conceptualized “development as being one of the threecore pillars of the organisation of conservation and tourism” (Mketeni, 2016: 2).In this conceptualization, SANParks argues that PA are strategically placed tobecome drivers of local economic development that should benefit neighbouringlocal communities (Mketeni, 2016). Therefore, SANParks continuously looksfor sustainable opportunities and strategies that uplift the livelihoods of the localcommunities around PA (Mketeni, 2016). WHS should adopt this conceptualization for local economic development and become more relevant to grassrootsissues of society. This points to adapted social responsibility strategies contributing towards “national identity, national pride, national and transformationaleconomy and politics” at MCLWHS (Carruthers, 2006: 11). This way, culturalstatistics will become a decision-making tool at WHS on balancing conservationand SD. In this process, various government departments, development monitoring agencies and universities need to conduct baseline studies to establishculture statistics towards closing this gap at WHS in Africa. This would assist inunearthing the hidden and the assumed “very insignificant” contribution of heritage to the GDP of African countries. Such baseline indicators will help WHSunderstand how far they are aligned to SDG and related indicators (Hart, 1996; 194 Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development Miller, 2001). What cannot be measured may not exist (Daly & Cobb, 1990) andmay be difficult to argue for. Some of the existing SDG indicators can be adaptedand localized at WHS in Africa. Camaraderie and Co-existence as a Reality!The camaraderie and co-existence between conservation and SD is a reality atWHS in Africa. Regional meetings and reports, including UNESCO itself viathe 2015 World Heritage Policy of SD, confirm this reality. For example, the2015 Policy aims to “ensure that the conservation and management of WorldHeritage properties are aligned with broader sustainable development objectivesnamely environmental sustainability, inclusive social development, inclusiveeconomic development, as well as fostering peace and security” (Labadi, et al.,2020: 7). In the same breadth, MCLWHS stakeholders suggested different typesof developments that should be allowed at WHS in the present and the future.Such suggestions include already known developments, however classified byUNESCO as threats to WHS. However, for all these developments to happenat WHS, the localization of SDGs is needed in Africa, in particular borrowingfrom the pioneering spirit and experiences of IDCs, involving other stakeholdersand ensuring the 2015 Policy is aligned to local context of the WHS.A regional workshop on the 2015 Policy held at RIWHS in 2019 and attendedby 30 participants from 18 countries from the Africa region recommended manypractical approaches. Participants included site managers, decision-makers, universities, private sector, UNESCO, ABs, and research institutions. The mainobjective was to discuss how best to implement practices and principles on conservation and SD at WHS in Africa. Localization was defined as connecting andempowering the full range of actors and stakeholders, from policy makers (policylevel) to communities and individuals at grassroots level (Labadi et al., 2020).Localization has the potential to “fulfil the African Union aspirations of “Agenda2063; The Africa We Want” (African Union, 2015), the 2016 NgorongoroDeclaration on Safeguarding African World Heritage as a Driver of SustainableDevelopment, Recommendations of the 2018 Position Paper on World Heritageand Sustainable Development in Africa, and the 2012 Recommendations ofthe 40th Anniversary Conference on the World Heritage Convention themed“Living with World Heritage in Africa” (Labadi, et al., 2020: 7). The RIWHSmeeting adopted an action plan for 3–4 years, and this will be coordinated byAWHF and African SPs. Another outcome is the publication of case studies fromAfrica demonstrating various levels of localization of SDGs and associated challenges. Implementing SDGs is a stakeholder-driven process that capitalizes ontheir different competencies, experiences, and wisdom towards achieving pragmatic, practical, and inclusive approach in balancing conservation and development at WHS. For example, meaningful community participation together withpublic sector support present opportunities for the development of small-scaleindigenous tourism projects in less developed areas (Briedenhann & Wickens,2004; Brown & Hay-Edie, 2014). Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development 195 An emerging concept in South Africa is the application of the nodal approach/crowdfunding in promoting sustainable tourism and increased benefits to stakeholders. The nodal approach prioritizes destinations rather than individual tourism projects/products/activities (Manetsi, 2017). This approach brings togethervarious efforts, funds, and influence of stakeholders in a locality of development(Manetsi, 2017). This improves relationships with other departments or entities,and among stakeholders towards strengthening development linkages with othersectors (Manetsi, 2017). The National Department of Tourism (NDT) is applying this nodal approach at WHS under the Destination Development Initiative(DDI) in South Africa. The DDI nodal approach promotes the identificationand prioritization of clusters/nodes in particular locality of development. NDTdefines a “tourism node” as a defined geographic area with a concentration ofclearly defined tourism potential or attractiveness, with the following attributes: collection of tourist attractions in close proximity, accessible or potentialto enable accessibility, having basic infrastructure or potential for developmentand enhancements thereof, having supporting tourism facilities and services orpotential thereof, and potential for tourism and commercial value chain opportunities (Manetsi, 2017).In selecting the node for clustering of resources and stakeholders input, NDTconsiders existing investment commitments, relevance to jobs, poverty alleviation, and sustainability of the projects (Manetsi, 2017). It also considers whetherthe node addresses tourism infrastructure gaps at high usage tourism destinations and iconic attractions, as well as underperforming tourism destinations andnational attractions (Manetsi, 2017). Supporting tourism infrastructure development at new priority tourism destinations is also an important criterion considered by NDT (Manetsi, 2017). Other criteria applied include clear destinationdevelopment goals; existing or potential tourism drivers; avoiding stand-aloneproducts but fostering significant clustering and compactness; and significant levelof population concentration. NDT also considers the destination for potentialupgrades and linkages with existing attractions, destinations, precincts, and routes(Manetsi, 2017). Nodal approach can be applied across various socio-economicinitiatives at localities of development, but this requires greater stakeholder cooperation, which is where MMST plays an integrative role as discussed before. Stakeholder Opportunities and Challenges at WHSAnalyzing the opportunities and challenges of stakeholders is a step towardsunderstanding and improving engagements among them, as well as mitigating their conflicts at WHS. However, it appears there are more challenges thanopportunities for stakeholders at WHS in Africa. Opportunities for Stakeholders at MCLWHSStakeholders, regardless of discipline and sector, are always looking foropportunities at WHS. Opportunity is universally understood to be a time 196 Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development or set of circumstances that makes it possible to do something. Stakeholdersat MCLWHS ranked potential opportunities between 32% and 45%, withcommunication at international and local levels being considered important.Communication or dialogue is central to balancing conservation and SD atWHS. At MCLWHS, 36% of stakeholders are willing to attend meetings andanother 23% have financial resources to do so. Therefore, there is a need tocapitalize on the growing communication opportunity at local and nationallevels at WHS. Heritage institutions and stakeholders should not be surprising each other by taking decisions without discussing them together in orderto establish areas of common agreement and variance, including mitigatingthe latter. Stakeholders and heritage institutions should demonstrate how theirrespective mandates can benefit each other. Lessons learnt
business
Stakeholder Perspectives on World Heritage and Development in Africa
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16
from the past shouldbe part of shaping this dialogue at WHS with a view of riding on the positiveswhile minimizing the negatives. Without communicating with each other,conservation and development run the risk of self-engineered and sideliningsolutions detached from broader discussions and processes in Africa seekingthe integration of the two. The effectiveness of the Park Forum (MCLWHS),EPPAC (RIWHS), Ngorongoro Pastoral Council (NCA, Tanzania), and manyother stakeholder management approaches at WHS in Africa should be interrogated towards enhancing and improving governance approach beyond legislative consultations. Challenges for Stakeholders at MCLWHSStakeholder management at WHS is often fraught with multiple and unresolvedchallenges, of which some are historical while others are evolving in the present.At MCLWHS, these challenges were identified and ranked as follows: lack offinancial resources, communication challenges at national and provincial levels,politics, time constraints in attending meetings, and generally, communicationamong stakeholders at various levels. The lack of financial resources, communication challenges, and politics at MCLWHS point more towards localized challenges for most stakeholders at WHS in Africa. Financial resourcing affects theiractive and consistent participation in decision-making processes at WHS. Thelearners, impoverished IDCs and older generations, may not have the financialcapacity to participate in WHS governance. Therefore, decisions are taken intheir absence, and they are only informed of these decisions through public platforms such as newspapers and websites, or through Park Forum meetings like atMCLWHS. Heritage institutions and stakeholders should leverage each other,including considering strategies for implementing good governance at WHS.Though this sounds idealistic, if done, governance will not remain dominatedby those with power and resources, and neither will it remain an emotive process that induces a crisis management mode at WHS. That crisis mode furtherinduces retrospective engagements with stakeholders, rather than proactivelydialoguing before a crisis emerges at WHS. Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development 197 The communication challenge identified at national and provincial levels atMCLWHS is typical of most of the WHS in Africa. Communication remainskey to any dialogue at WHS. Having communication challenges at WHS couldbe a sign of mistrust, lack of transparency, and absence of defined communication channels among stakeholders (Aas et al., 2015). Such challenges can leadto unnecessary tensions and legal battles bordering on counter accusations andnon-disclosure of information among stakeholders. As an example, site managers are known to resist “supplying pertinent information to interest groups”(Pedersen, 2002: 38). This only breeds distrust, thereby limiting the site manager’s ability to deal with the public in a transparent and honest manner (Keith,1994; Pedersen, 2002: 38). Hierarchical communication structures employed byheritage institutions like SANParks are fraught with bureaucracy, confidentiality,and secrecy that inhibits effective communication with stakeholders (Aas et al.,2015). Stakeholders are always seeking information in order to make informeddecisions, yet this is what is denied to them.Even among stakeholders, the same happens, like the lack of trust betweenthe Mapungubwe Coalition Group and CoAL, which led to litigation afterthe former accused the latter of not disclosing critical information. The samemistrust also ensued during the trade-off negotiations between Department ofEnvironmental Affairs (now DFFE) and CoAL, even in the hands of a brokerbetween the parties. Certain information is often considered sensitive, yet itis critical to solicit honest and informed opinions from interested and affectedstakeholders at WHS. This equally applies to how other stakeholders jealouslyguard sensitive information not meant for public consumption, unless demandedthrough legal processes. Even though formal structures of organizations are necessary, they sometimes, and when coupled with cultural norms, make it “difficult to elicit the opinions of certain stakeholder” at WHS (Pedersen, 2002:38). On the other side, open and transparent communication can be a threat tothe powers of management authorities at WHS (Pedersen, 2002: 38). Integrityand credibility are issues that all stakeholders operating at WHS should improvein order to create a conducive environment for mitigating contentious issuesbeyond legislative limitations. Collective participation may improve communication among stakeholders at WHS (Hillman & Michael, 1999; Keith, 1994;Morrel, 2007; Pedersen, 2002; Ury et al., 1983).Regarding political challenges, these are widespread at WHS across the world,and neither are new as the past has always been politicized and contested. Thecontestation has intensified with contemporary politics filtering into governance levels of WHS (Meskell, 2011). Politics happen at local, national, regional,and international levels. At WHC level, the Committee has become politicallypolarized with increased participation of politically appointed permanent delegations to UNESCO, Ambassadors, multilateral and bilateral representatives, andin some cases, Ministers deployed by SP during World Heritage Committees.This also includes economic blocs such as the Economic Community of WestAfrican States (ECOWAS), Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), 198 Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development AU, Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA), InternationalMonetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, the coalition of Brazil, Russia, India, China,and South Africa (BRICS) and many others lobbying for favourable decisionssupporting their economic partners through various platforms and channels.At MCLWHS, political contestations are rife, including discussions on therole of the site in establishing national identity in a once racially fractured nation(Pikirayi, 2016). Nation-building, identity construction, and social cohesion aretools used to politicize heritage as a unifying factor in Africa. At MCLWHS,IDCs are divided along political lines characterizing the democratic SouthAfrica. Also, based on archival analysis at MCLWHS, it is clear that politics isas old as the site itself, and has filtered into the land restitution, conservation,developments, and the establishment of the GMTFCA. In essence and eitherway, UNESCO has at some point bowed down to national political dynamics and localized aspirations at WHS. Also, in South Africa, a subtle politicaltension between DFFE and DMR extended to a recent inscription, BarbertonMountains WHS (Mpumalanga, South Africa), where mining is a threat toattributes of the site. The inscription hanged in balance as political principalshad to make the final decision on the matter, even though credibility of theOutstanding Universal Value (OUV) had been favourably reviewed by IUCN inits advice to the WHC. Such situations leave other stakeholders in the “limbo”and unsure of the actual position of the SP. Political principals (ministers) sit inthe same cabinet meetings where such contradictory decisions are taken, yetthey can resolve matters at that level. This tension may be interpreted as “egos”of political principals playing out at heritage sites in Africa. Mining has alwaysreceived an upper hand over conservation in Africa. These political dimensionsforce stakeholders to align themselves with the “camp” that can make their owndreams a reality.Another example of a political decision that achieved a positive result forthe SP and its mining stakeholders, and the nation at large, relates to whenUNESCO conceded to uranium extraction at Selous Game Reserve WHS(Tanzania). This World Heritage Committee decision was granted against heavypolitical lobbying, which at some point witnessed over 30 officials from Tanzaniaattending a side event in 2012 at a WHC session in Paris (France) to lobby otherSP on the matter. At a political level, the request for a boundary modificationby the SP was premised on mitigating poverty affecting her citizens, while atthe same time retaining the OUV of the site. At a technical level, and in termsof the Operational Guidelines on the Implementation of the World HeritageConvention (OGWHC), while the request for a minor boundary modificationis permissible, this was going against the commonly agreed principle of “no gozone’’ in protected areas signed between IUCN and the mining community barring any form of mining in natural WHS. The SP emphasized the provisions ofthe OPWHC as subsuming this IUCN and mining community agreement. Onthe home front, the SP was consistent with its position that WHC should not be anobstacle to development in Tanzania. These political dynamics almost witnessed Stakeholders, Conservation, and Development 199 the government considering withdrawing from the WHC, and also the SPstopped developing further nomination files for potential sites on the TentativeList. Politics is thus a double-edged sword that can be used by stakeholders totheir own advantage. ConclusionThe above analysis reinforces that the management of WHS in Africa is stilldriven by conservation thinking as advanced by SBMS and supported byUNESCO Conventions, with limited engagement and involvement of stakeholders, who may be solution bearers to their own local challenges. Equallyimportant is the need to understand stakeholder perspectives on the relationshipbetween conservation and development at WHS in Africa as an ongoing process. This assists in unpacking the relationship developing between the two inAfrica. The opportunities and challenges bedeviling stakeholders at WHS areequally important in unpacking past mistakes, strengths and forging the future.This cannot be divorced from assessing the elasticity and relevance of heritagemanagement in embracing stakeholder management at WHS. Applying goodgovernance approaches in stakeholder management is important (King Code IV,2016). This includes adopting “a stakeholder-inclusive approach that balances theneeds, interests, and expectations of material stakeholders in the best interest ofthe organisation over time” (King Code IV, 2016). This is equally important inthe localization of SDGs alongside conservation as a stakeholder-driven processin Africa.Furthermore, this discussion confirms that both conservation and SDare grassroots stakeholder-driven issues, which are equally vulnerable to theever-changing local and global contexts. From pre-colonial times, these issueshave been dealt with by communities, thereby confirming that heritage and useof resources around it has always been a local issue requiring learning by implementing. Grassroots issues require localized solutions. These solutions can onlybe unlocked through psychological empowerment emanating from self-esteem andpride of cultural practices/traditions which are embedded in the values of thesite; social empowerment, derived from increased community cohesion when theyare brought together; economic empowerment, by maintaining ownership/controlof resources; and through political empowerment, being participation in decisions, development of leadership, and increased local governance over resources(Scheyvens, 2003; Sofield, 2003; YuLong & Hunter, 2015). Stakeholder empowerment is more “action driven” and aims at “changing power structures to removebarriers that prevent people from participation” (YuLong & Hunter, 2015: 254).WHS governance must negotiate with other competing socio-economic needsin the same locality and how to do it is the focus of the last chapter. 8CONCLUSIONFrom Local to Global Perspectives Introduction: Abandoning the Conservation Comfort ZoneThis concluding chapter recommends the process of deconstructing stakeholdersand their profiles, localization of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), implementing Adaptive Management Approach (AMA) to improve the effectivenessof State-Based Management Systems (SBMS) and World Heritage Site (WHS)governance, converting challenges into opportunities, creativity, and innovationas a function of multidisciplinary mindsets at WHS. Furthermore, it argues thatconservation must abandon its comfort zone by embracing development valuepropositions at WHS. From a futuristic perspective, WHS governance shouldbe a continuous process of managing continuity and change as conservation anddevelopment are going to have a life-long relationship. As stakeholder-drivenprocesses, conservation and development must find each other, otherwise delisting of WHS shall become a norm, a threat looming at Selous Game ReserveWHS (Tanzania) and a reality for Liverpool (United Kingdom), which wasdelisted from World Heritage List in July 2021. These are the binary choicesbetween heritage and development challenging World Heritage across the globe.This challenges WHS to do things differently to get different results fully knowing that failure to do so is risking the future of conservation in Africa. “Inseparable and Inexorable Relations” betweenConservation and Sustainable Development?Conservation and sustainable development (SD) are “inseparable” (indissoluble)and “inexorable” (unavoidable) stakeholder-driven processes at WHS. This relationship has its roots in pre-colonial Africa. Currently, competing demands arebeing placed on both processes. Due to a lack of statistical data, it is challengingDOI: 10.4324/9781003149361-8 Conclusion 201 to confirm how they contribute to each other in reality. It appears that conservation contributes more to SD than what the latter is contributing to conservation. However, more research is needed as there seems to be some empiricalevidence that shows that development has and continues to contribute to conservation through identification, documentation, and management mitigationoffered through Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Heritage ImpactAssessment (HIA), which are developer-funded. Equally, and of further concern,demonstrating how heritage contributes to achieving development indicatorsalso suffers from paucity of data. Therefore, developing baseline cultural statistics towards monitoring the alignment of conservation to development goals isa priority in Africa.The evolving “inseparable” and “inexorable” relationship between conservation and SD is no longer a debatable issue; the issue now is rather, how to practically manage their co-existence as mutually beneficial and stakeholder-drivenprocesses at WHS (Taruvinga, 2019). There is a lack of practical integrationat WHS level, hence the need for integrated management approach at WHS.Heritage should be managed beyond conservation mandate, implying it has tobecome integral to the needs of the society. Heritage integration into broaderterritorial processes at WHS remains a negotiated process at different levels thatincludes integrating (i) legislation and policies applicable, (ii) conservation andSD value proposition, (iii) stakeholders, and (iv) reviewing governance framework (Figure 8.1). Practically integrating conservation and SD is now an unavoidable choice for WHS in Africa. The slow pace at which the Conventionhas aligned itself to SD is viewed as a burden that hinders development (Labadi,2018). WHS have to “accept compromises with development to secure a morepositive heritage future” (Chirikure, 2014: 242).Conservation, stakeholder, and development needs are mutually nonexclusive at heritage sites since pre-colonial Africa. Earlier it was a communallydriven process but it now involves multiple stakeholders. Therefore, localizingSDGs at WHS is an inevitable stakeholder-driven process. However, this requiresa conducive governance framework to be in place at WHS. Such a governanceframework links conservation to broader territorial planning processes at WHS.In the same vein, AMA should be a catalyst in linking the experiences of conservation, development, and stakeholders at WHS. Adaptive management demandslearning from doing (experience) and is also effective when it considers a multidisciplinary approach. Multidisciplinary (also interdisciplinary) approaches drawand benefit from multiple disciplines beyond conservation. It assists in creating solutions based on understanding the complex and conflicting situations asopportunities for innovative solutions (Duval et al., 2019). It is impossible toresolve the complex situation of conservation and SD without looking at otherdisciplines. Heritage governance should not remain in the conservation compliance enforcement mode. Furthermore, heritage experts should become part ofthe solution rather than being obstacles to the integration of conservation, stakeholders, and SD at WHS. More importantly, inclusive stakeholder approaches 202 Conclusion FIGURE 8.1 Levels of integrated management approach at WHS such as Multiple and Multi-layered Stakeholders Theory (MMST) should beadopted as preferred governance frameworks to facilitate this transition at WHS.Overall, the nature and local relevance of the WHS value proposition tostakeholders should be the reason why they support or do not support its continued implementation in Africa. This value proposition should be aligned tothe development value proposition of the society, otherwise conservation valueproposition becomes a risk to itself. The development value proposition, if notfacilitated to materialize, will degenerate into a political issue, which may unintentionally reverse the gains of conservation at WHS. The “pristine approach” ofconservation should be dismantled at WHS in Africa (Nelson, 2003; Taruvinga,2020). The contribution of the WHS value proposition to development indicators should be demonstrated by measurable quantitative indicators (culture Conclusion 203 statistics). The existing SDG- and stakeholder-proposed indicators are importantin establishing WHS-specific cultural statistics. Sustaining poverty in the nameof conservation is no longer tenable and threatens the future of WHS in Africa. Deconstructing, Constructing, and ReconstructingStakeholder Profiles at WHSEngaging and involving stakeholders is inseparable from legislative context,evolving land uses, development needs, politics, social environment, and heritage value layers at WHS. Neither can it be considered a one-off process becausestakeholders are continuously evolving and reimagining ways of being relevantat WHS. Therefore, deconstructing, constructing, and reconstructing stakeholders is a dynamic and site-specific process. This discussion has provided alternative methods of doing this, including how to categorize stakeholders usingMultiple and Multi-layered Stakeholder Framework (MMSF) (Figure 8.2). FIGURE 8.2 Categories of stakeholders identified at WHS through MMSF 204 Conclusion MMSF attests that the local perspectives of stakeholders cannot be replacedby universal dimensions of the World Heritage Convention (WHC). Ignoringstakeholders makes WHS more vulnerable to destruction in the long term.Though conflicts may arise between and among stakeholders at WHS, thesecan be mediated through conflict resolution mechanisms. The future of WHSlies in the hands of stakeholders, often overlooked, but are a powerful forcewith alternative voices and adaptive capabilities built on their past and presentexperiences. For instance, Indigenous and Descendent Communities (IDCs)have wielded these capabilities since pre-colonial times, but they were largelyuntapped by SBMS and WHC. While MMST recognizes that there are morebenefits realizable from negotiated agreements with stakeholders at WHS apartfrom enforcing legislative frameworks, this is beyond enforcing the conservationmantra at WHS in Africa. Stakeholders are co-creators of knowledge, conservation, and development practices in various ways, as well as in making decisionsrelating to their own well-being. Heritage should be about co-creating andengagement with stakeholders as an adaptive process of an inclusive governanceframework. Heritage management should not be a unilateral process reservedonly for authorized role players. It is an inclusive process that should involveother stakeholders as well. Stakeholders and the DevelopmentValue Proposition at WHSThe “construction” of development value proposition, including its benefits atWHS, is a stakeholder function negotiating within the rigidity of WHS valueproposition (conservation). Stakeholders decide on the nature and type of developments that solve their problems regardless of what conservation can say. Theyenvision benefits for themselves in order to meet their needs. While stakeholdersare aware of developments at WHS, the sad part is that the majority of them arenot aware of any benefits accruing to them. This points to those with power andresources to initiate developments, including determining their nature, type, andthe quantum of benefits that should accrue to other stakeholders. Hence the verylow stakeholder influence on decision-making process related to developmentsat WHS, except for the instigators themselves, and IDCs when they are fully orpartial managing a site. Furthermore, the observable dysfunctional connectionamong and between stakeholders at WHS is equally contributing to this skewedpattern favouring those with power, legitimacy, and resources. Meanwhile,WHS are always watching for opportunities to enforce compliance favouringconservation. The challenge with this approach is that WHS value propositiondoes not operate on an island; it’s implemented in the midst of other competingneeds. Only formal and inclusive governance structures, as opposed to goodwillapproach, can improve this observed skewed pattern. Heritage values are notstatic but rather dynamic, so is their use by the society. Conclusion 205 Localization of SDGs at WHSWhile WHC is a universal concept, heritage itself is a function and a manifestation of society-driven processes at the local levels of WHS. This means, firstand foremost, heritage is local before it is universalized. So is its use and application in development issues. The same applies to development needs, which areprimarily local needs of the society. Therefore, conservation decisions shouldconsider these local needs before trying to align with the exogenous or universal concepts that have little sympathy with local needs. If conservation cannotdo so, it is likely not going to be supported by stakeholders, nor is it going tonegotiate with development as a learning by doing process at WHS. What needsto be localized is not the conservation and development practices as these areevident from pre-colonial times. Rather, localization should be about how topersuade this localized experience with that of the new and exogenous perspectives. Localization is not an imposing process; it is rather an engagement of goodpractices and innovation from different players without making any proposalsubservient to another. It is negotiating in good faith for a commonly agreedcause or outcome. It is better to support rather than appropriate local aspirationsof stakeholders at WHS.The above engaging localization approach lacks a mindset shift at global levelsas local input is often not viewed and considered favourably. This induces localresistance from stakeholders. For instance, pushing the adoption of the 2015 Policyon World Heritage and SD without this mindset is a futile exercise in Africa.Conservation and development should practically facilitate their integration whilemitigating the actual and perceived negative impacts from both. When conservation stops development, this negatively impacts society’s well-being aspirations.Equally, when development threatens or destroys heritage, this also negativelyimpacts conservation aspirations. The complexity here is that all stakeholders arecustodians of either or both conservation and SD processes, however, with varying responsibilities, powers, and expected outcomes. In the process, both conservation and development should bring positive and measurable benefits to thesociety. These are two necessary processes at WHS. The cautionary approachof conservation in this process stems from its inability to (i) embracing creativeand innovative development approaches and techniques and (ii) accommodatestakeholders (Nelson, 2003). The localization of a common understanding onhow conservation and SD can pragmatically engage at WHS is important. Thisis because conservation and development have never been mutually exclusive aslocal processes since pre-colonial times. Also, both have a commitment and aspirations to the past, present, and future stakeholders. Their co-existence or integration should be responsive to the past and present experiences of stakeholders whileupholding common commitment to the future of WHS.Furthermore, conservation needs to align with national, regional, and theAfrican Union (AU) 2063 development plans in order to establish sustainablepartnerships at the local levels of WHS. This helps in building relationships and 206 Conclusion liaising with stakeholders beyond the heritage discipline (ADCOM, 2017/2).This also paves the way for building bridges between heritage and developmentsectors. Equally, this will distil some sanity given the “self-view” of heritagepractitioners as being the “all-encompassing experts” at WHS. They need behavioural, psychological, technical, and mindset changes in order to appreciate otherdisciplines which are beneficial to them and their functions at WHS. Ability tolisten to other sectors and experts, collaborating and dissenting voices in areaswhere one is not competent is wisdom and power in any decision-making process for any sector. While the localization of SDGs is assumed to guarantee conservation at WHS, not all developments are sustainable in nature (Taruvinga,2020; UNESCO, 2010), hence the risk of unintended threats being created inthe process, which needs the experience of other sectors and experts who arecompetent in a particular area. This contradictory position needs to be addressedin an inclusive and holistic manner as stakeholder-driven process at WHS. Inthis process, considering the human, social, economic, and political dimensionsis equally important. Given the broader geographic context of WHS, innovative and creative approaches, including in the area of governance, are requiredat WHS (UNESCO, 2010). Also, and while rigid and stricter scientific processare essential in managing conservation and development, stakeholder-negotiatedoutcomes should be given an opportunity at WHS. Balancing the two is nolonger a scientific process only, but a broad-based social approach that requiresan inclusive governance approach at WHS. Governance and Adaptive Management at WHSAs noted from empirical perspectives and discussions in this book, most stakeholders have an average role in WHS governance in Africa. Equally, they do notprovide meaningful resources in the process, and neither are they consulted asan ongoing process, nor are they involved in the decision-making processes atWHS. SBMS are still in charge because of their legal power and the resourcesat their disposal. Despite the advent of democracy at political level, heritagegovernance has remained in the realm of colonial philosophy, thereby reinforcing alienation and exclusionary perspectives. Despite this, stakeholders still havegovernance aspirations at WHS. On the other hand, WHS governance comeswith responsibilities that these stakeholders should be willing to assume if theyare to be part of this process. What needs to be explored is how WHS governance can be adapted to effectively involve other stakeholders in the managementof WHS.As discussed earlier, WHS governance represents an “extremely complex”system supposedly “involving multiple stakeholders”, yet empirically it is marginalizing them (Molated, et al., 2017). This governance system is defined bypower, legitimacy, and resources channelled towards conservation. However,this system is becoming insufficient in WHS value proposition given the intensifying development value proposition at WHS. In this case, WHS governance Conclusion 207 cannot remain in the realm of the all-knowing experts, Advisory Bodies (ABs)and State Parties (SP), yet it operates at the local levels of WHS. The net effectis that managing WHS in relation to other land uses within its proximity nowrequires a lot of conscious effort from the SP, SBMS, UNESCO, and stakeholders (Selman, 2004, 2007). Thus, WHS governance needs moral, ethical,constructive, and inclusive dimensions that benefit interested and affected stakeholders. WHS governance cannot afford to remain in a conservation mode thatis supported by top-down management approaches in an ever-changing operational environment. This demands that a bottom-up management approach beconsidered at WHS in order to replace “the usual sector or one-dimensionalapproaches with new transversal or multidimensional ones” (Ripp, 2018: 2). Bydoing so, WHS governance will be “taking into account the role of each partin the whole structure” of stakeholders (Ripp, 2018: 2; European Union, 2010).This further supports the AU 2063 Agenda, which is advocating for a fully participatory and bottom-up approach in all spheres of the economy in Africa. It isimportant to involve society in the “ongoing process of defining and managingcultural heritage” (Council of Europe, 2005: Faro Convention, Article 1c).There is a popular adage that says, “nothing about me without me” (a phraseinitially coined by Valerie Billingham during the Salzburg Global Seminar presentation “Through the Patient’s Eyes” in 1998) that is applicable to both conservation and development. This means neither conservation nor developmentcan be planned from the beginning to the end without involving the intendedbeneficiaries. Neither can the two be planned without considering each other atWHS anymore. The overall implication of this saying is WHS have to effectivelyinvolve stakeholders in their planning process, while developers have to equallyinvolve conservation in their planning. The bottom-line is that conservation,stakeholders, and development should involve each other as stakeholder-drivenprocesses at WHS. As such, WHS governance has become a social and political construct reflecting the interests and needs of the society in its diversity(Chirikure et al., 2016; Labadi & Logan, 2015; Leick & Lang, 2018; Pike et al.,2017; Tomlinson & Branston, 2017). In the above context, WHS governancedemands an appetite for AMA, which builds on learning by doing as sharedexperiences among stakeholders in their areas of operation at WHS. This allowsfor multivocality at WHS.AMA is defined as the continual learning process which can be used forsite-specific management that is operating in ever-changing circumstances(Walters, 1986). The approach is not reactive but rather responsive in nature. Itenhances “information flow among policy actors and provides opportunities forcreating shared understandings” in the decision-making processes (McLain &Lee, 1996: 437). This approach incorporates “knowledge from multiple sources”and “use of multiple systems models” while supporting “new forms of cooperation among stakeholders” (McLain & Lee, 1996: 437). AMA borrows fromadaptive control process theory, which provides a framework for constructingdecision-making controls (Bellman, 1961). Such controls are capable of learning 208 Conclusion from experiences (Bellman, 1961). Central to AMA is consultation, collaboration, monitoring, quantitative modelling, and simulations (Schreiber et al.,2004). AMA anticipates how to deal with any unforeseen surprises, which areinevitable when dealing with multiple stakeholders, contradictory interests andneeds, as well as changing operating environments (Timmerman, 1986). It alsohas the ability to deal with broad impact of policies (Timmerman, 1986).Interestingly, AMA has been practised by many IDCs for centuries throughTraditional Management Systems (TMS) and equally applied in Protected Areasmanagement in Africa. Being proactive and creative is necessary in developingand fostering effective stakeholder collaborations (Louw & Venter, 2013). Moreimportant, participation of stakeholders can never be quantified as either toolittle or too much (Bryson, 2004). Neither can one say they have fully exhaustedalternative approaches to get the best from stakeholders or a situation. AMA is anevolving process and has attained a degree of success in Australia (e.g., Kakaduand other Australian Northern Territory areas), where different local communities have power in the decision-making structures of WHS. They have enteredinto agreements with mining companies and derive royalties from them. In otherinstances, they have decided against mining, which makes them less affluent tothose deriving royalties. These are choices underlying the dynamics of society. Similarly, the agreements reached with the ǂKhomani and South AfricanNational Parks (SANParks) in the Kgalagadi National Park in South Africa areemerging examples of “learning by doing” that still needs detailed analysis as totheir impact. Adaptive management is context-sensitive, which makes solutionsvery localized to each WHS.If AMA is adopted as part of WHS governance, maintaining the conservationmantra becomes increasingly difficult as it creates a sense that no generation isallowed to enjoy the benefits of this “past in the present and the future”. Thisrenders preserving WHS
business
Stakeholder Perspectives on World Heritage and Development in Africa
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17
for future generations meaningless. Whoever has beenviewed as the future generation in the “past” should be given reasonable userights in the present as this is their time. Future generations cannot remain inperpetuity. By advocating for AMA, the point being made is that heritage shouldlearn from implementing rather than stopping development without trying andmitigating impacts along the way together with stakeholders. Simply put, thisshould trigger change management towards the systematic transformation ofheritage governance in Africa. It has to become responsive rather than being alegal reaction to broader planning processes of the society.WHS governance system should be underpinned by an open, transparent,inclusive, and accountable framework (Philips, 2003: 16). This is where MMSTgovernance framework comes into play as it promotes effective participationof stakeholders, in particular those at grassroots level who are often voiceless,powerless, resource-impoverished, and lacking opportunities, unless and untilthey yield to the powerful SBMS, UNESCO, and other stakeholders with privileges to act as they deem fit. MMST provides governance flexibility whichencourages varied opinions, policy decisions, and local discussions to inform Conclusion 209 global processes. Global processes are often oblivious to the gravity of local needsof stakeholders at WHS. Stakeholders are intricately linked with each other inachieving their aspirations, resolving conflicts, encouraging holistic views, andpursuing common solutions in a culturally diverse environment ( Jamal & Getz,1995; YuLong & Hunter, 2015). Overall, MMST caters for the normative,instrumental, and descriptive stakeholders operating at different levels of WHS(YuLong & Hunter, 2015). These stakeholders have a “shared value” that “looksfor opportunities to solve social problems” (Bouwer, 2018: 75). Africa has todevelop governance models it desires rather than continuing with those that arenot effectively working for them. Borrowing and learning from others should becontextualized rather than applied as an abstract truth. It is naïve for one to thinkthat conservation and SD will always deliver on their full promises to stakeholders without a deliberate effort to do things differently at WHS. There are inherent public relations promises in both dimensions that have to be “sanitized” withthe support of stakeholders through an AMA. Converting Challenges into Opportunities:Reimagining the Role StakeholdersThis discussion observed that there are more challenges with stakeholders thanopportunities at WHS in Africa. Stakeholders are seen as opposed to conservationin favour of development, yet they are equally concerned with both. Stakeholdersargue that they are disadvantaged because of limited financial resources, ineffective communication, politics, time constraints, conflicts and tensions, inaccessibility, growing intergenerational gaps, and bureaucratic governance structuresof SBMS and UNESCO. While these challenges appear insurmountable to SPand UNESCO, they are actually opportunities for developing a responsive andinclusive governance framework at WHS, just like how democratic governancesystems have been curved out of and under challenging conditions in Africa.Applying SD principles only in this process is not sufficient. There is a need toembrace solutions offered by stakeholders themselves given their different spheresof influence. Furthermore, there shall never be equal roles and benefits for stakeholders at WHS, but what is needed is turning contestants into solution bearersto their own challenges while optimizing the magnitude of the benefits accruingto them and conservation.However, and despite the above opportunity, it is unfortunate that IDCsremain subdued in WHS governance. IDCs are “dispossessed former authorities”of pre-colonial Africa. They made sound decisions that improved livelihoodsand shaped regional economic development, including influencing modern-dayeconomic blocks, however, with varied structural arrangements due to changing times. Giving them a governance role now is like “re-empowering them”;however, this is curtailed by positions leveraged by current legal and bureaucraticgovernance systems. While some traditional leaders play a role in the currentpolitical structures of African SP, their involvement in heritage management 210 Conclusion remains at arm’s length, with the SBMS still wielding “dominant” authority.Also, participation of traditional leaders in civic functions is ceremonial in Africaexcept in a few circumstances such as the Ingwenyama Trust in the KwaZuluNatal (KZN) province of South Africa. This trust owns large tracts of land inKZN administered through the Zulu King. They have powers to make decisions regarding the land and associated developments. What is not clear in thisemerging pattern is the actual power and benefits accruing to such stakeholdersin capitalistic economies of Africa riddled with corruption and notions of #StateCapture in the case of South Africa.Overall, IDCs are limited by legislation, lack of clarity, limited resources, andthe long-overdue land redistribution. Their role, and equally that of other stakeholders, has to be reimagined as a local process in heritage management in Africa.It has to be reimagined beyond the political rhetoric of civic functions and that ofWHS governance. The experiences of IDCs embedded in their pioneering spiritand practices of balancing conservation and use of resources have remained largelyuntapped and often neglected in favour of new approaches and terminologies, yetthe very same exist in their own local vocabulary and experiences. Reimaginingthe role of stakeholders in WHS governance cannot be done without them,neither can it be left to chance, including World Heritage not becoming a silentobservor on the unfolding land issue in Africa, which equally affects its processes”.World Heritage has to become part of the solution while balancing both the caring of heritage and needs of local communities. It has to be a deliberately engaging process among SBMS, WHS governance, and stakeholders. Beyond the Conservation Comfort Zone:Multi- and Inter-Disciplinary ApproachReimagining the role of stakeholders and implementing AMA at WHS demandsdoing things differently in order to get the different results compared to thepresent experience. There is a need to explore different strategies and techniquesthat facilitate moving towards mutually beneficially outcomes beyond conservation at WHS. In the process, different experts and disciplines have a role to play.Generally, heritage management has not effectively harnessed benefits from theunlimited innovation and creativity that comes with disciplines other than conservation itself. There is too much “inward thinking and in-breeding” withinheritage management systems, yet the opportunity of multidisciplinary approachexists. Conservation always defaults to its traditional dimension when faced withchallenges beyond its practice such as development. Therefore, there is a need toharness innovation and creativity embedded in multidisciplinary approaches forthe purposes of solving the varying and emerging multiple challenges at WHS.The varying geographic, social, political, and economic contexts of heritagesites is a conducive environment for multi-disciplinary approach to aid adaptiveresponse beyond conservation benefits.When this is contextualized in the relationship between WHS and academicinstitutions in Africa, it is unfortunate that the latter still struggles with detaching Conclusion 211 itself from historical and colonially choreographed course outlines designed toinstill scientific facts and philosophies rather than adapting and being responsive to the emerging challenges and needs of WHS, including embracing themuch-needed Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) dimensions (Taruvinga,2018). The question is how relevant are these historical facts to the emergingchallenges of society and prospective employers of heritage trained graduates?University curricula should not be fixated on mastering traditional courses butrather explore new multidisciplinary thematic areas, which would make curricula dynamic and relevant to contemporary needs. Heritage curricula shouldpromote interdisciplinary mindsets by linking heritage to other disciplines suchas tourism, development, entrepreneurship, business management, economics,financial management, disaster management, climate change, engineering, andmany others relevant to broader territorial planning processes in which WHS arelocated. This demands cross-cutting inter- and intra-faculty courses being madeavailable to heritage students. Expecting a heritage expert to be a one-stop shop atWHS is a huge mistake and a risk to the future of heritage. Furthermore, heritagetraining programmes in Africa should go beyond the conservation mantra andtake a cue from technical and artisanal curricula which links students with current practical developments in their industry, including emerging technologies.There is need to link academic institutions with both World Heritage and broadersocio-economic disciplines as part of changing mindsets at training level, whichwill then improve practices at WHS. Heritage is never in a social vacuum in anygiven context, neither is it the only discipline that can offer solutions to society.A multi-disciplinary approach will prepare future heritage practitioners tobecome innovative and creative in interfacing with evolving conservation anddevelopment needs of society. This requires synergies among universities themselves, and between universities and heritage institutions, as well as betweenstakeholders and experts operating at WHS (Taruvinga, 2018). This transformation is not possible if it is not seen and implemented through the “eyes or lenses”of the affected/interested stakeholders and challenges that need to be solved(Taruvinga, 2018). Without this, solutions offered shall remain theoretical, temporary, and consultant-dependent without changing mindsets and transferringskills among the intended beneficiaries, including the stakeholders themselves(Taruvinga, 2018). Therefore, interdisciplinary approach will ensure the transferof the highly sought after multifaceted skills and interdisciplinary mindsets atWHS in Africa. Futuristic Perspectives on Conservation and SDSolutions to local challenges at WHS cannot only be provided through enforcinglaws and conventions. Stakeholders are always naturally looking for solutionsto their own challenges, regardless of what these laws or conventions permit,prohibit, or do not provide for. For example, IDCs want the historical landissue resolved, which is inadvertently linked to places now curved as WHS.Repossessing that land carries the hope of a better life for them. As such, there 212 Conclusion is a need to understand the impact of land restitution on conservation and SDin the context of the envisioned compensatory land uses by successful claimantsat WHS in Africa. Land reform is a moral, cultural, social, political, and economic imperative for the society, and this affects WHS in many ways in Africa.Failing to resolve the land issue at WHS means WHS governance is not partof the solution to grassroots challenges. In South Africa, the San communitieshave repeatedly pronounced their position as the “first citizens” of the nation,including demanding their land back. Petitions after petitions, demonstrationsafter demonstrations on these issues are happening in South Africa and otherAfrica countries. Resolving these land issues requires strategies beyond the conservation approach. WHS have to become part of the solution to this politicallycharged issue in Africa. Lessons have to be learnt from cases where land has beenreturned to rightful custodians, in particular, how the land is being used andwhat is nature and impact on both conservation and development.The land use issue relating to Maasai communities in Ngorongoro ConservationArea (NCA) (Tanzania) is not new and neither is it their own making at all, but itis a classical illustration of dynamics associated with the great experiment on theco-existence of people and wildlife dating back to 1965. The nomadic lifestyleof Maasai has always been a “living dimension” of many landscapes in Tanzaniafor times immemorial. With NCA being established, their lifestyle was gradually “frozen” through subtle enforcement of restrictions advancing or leveragingconservation of wildlife. This is affecting their traditional lifestyle and seasonalmovements, access to water sources and salt pans, as well as their shifting cultivation system. This has led to tensions, largely because the 1965 vision of coexistence between the Maasai and wildlife has placed emphasis on the latter in recentyears, instead of balancing both. In mitigation, the NCA has diverted substantialfinancial resources for their development as a community, but the restrictionson their lifestyle and associated land uses remain as matters of primary concernto them. They are strategically and intentionally being indirectly pushed intosedentary lifestyle inside and outside the NCA in exchange for these financialand technical resources from NCA. At the same time, the Maasai communitystill views the NCA as their “place” and continues to argue that their lifestyleshould be permitted while contributing to conservation as they have always hada relationship with the landscape. This is a clear cry for culture to be allowed tobe the determinant of change for them rather than a conservation decision. Thischallenges NCA as a WHS, thereby pitying the SP and UNESCO against thecommunities.Pursuant to the above, there is an ongoing discussion in Tanzania on howsuch communities should be permanently settled in the parks where they arecurrently residing. This is not far off from a long-term local solution to addressing a century-old crisis issue of land alienation in Africa. While parks are meantfor conservation and tourism, that should not be used to subvert solving localland uses and ownership issues. This includes national heritage in private handsin many parts of Africa. Settling the Maasai communities permanently in the Conclusion 213 NCA should be seen as an opportunity of developing an adaptive conservationand development approach at the WHS. This should, however, take the experiences of both over the years without making either of them subservient to theother, nor usurping local dimensions at the property in the name of universalconservation aspirations. This requires dialogue among stakeholders, includingdeveloping an integrated conservation framework for the site.Another emerging classical example is the Barotse Plains Cultural Landscape(BPCL) in Western Zambia proposed for inscription as WHS. The nominationprocess of BPCL is riddled with unresolved land uses, socio-economic, political, and other pertinent local issues that stretch for decades. As a result of this,an official objection against the inscription by some members of the community has been lodged with UNESCO, African World Heritage Fund (AWHF),and the National Heritage Conservation Commission (NHCC) of Zambia inSeptember 2020. One can only imagine the magnitude of conflicts and tensionthat will ensue if the inscription proceeds without resolving these matters. Theproposed Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) of the BPCL is not questionableas it illustrates an exceptional interaction of human society and settlement overtime under the influence of the physical constraints and opportunities presentedby the natural environment (massive floodplain supported by river system). Thisinteraction reflects the complex and long-standing traditions of the Lozi peopleand their social and economic organization, which is inseparable from origin,conservation, and ecological functioning of the Barotse Plains. The ongoinginteractions are illustrated by dynamic and living cultural tradition of water andland management involving transhumance as well as land drainage system basedon an elaborate and robust TMS. This system and accompanying traditions havesustained subsistence agriculture, navigation systems, settlement mounds, as wellas the social, political, and cultural structures that have existed for over 400 years.The objection against the proposed inscription was lodged by the BarotseNational Freedom Alliance (BNFA)-Namungelele. BNFA was launched in2012 as a political organization bringing together “all activists” groups. Thepredecessor to BNFA is the Barotse Cultural Association (BCA) established in1992. The activists groups constituting BNFA are the Linyungandambo, BarotseFreedom Movement, Movement for the Restoration of Barotseland, BarotseImilemas, Barotse Youth league, and others. The purpose of BNFA is to implement the sovereign resolutions of March 2012 Barotse National Council in a“pacific manner and protecting the human rights of the peoples of Barotseland”(BNFA, 2020). According to the BNFA, the history of BPCL is linked to theBarotseland Agreement of 1964, which in an intricately crafty manner broughttogether Barotseland and Northern Rhodesia as an independent Unitary Statecalled Zambia, with the former retaining her governance system (BNFA, 2020).Furthermore, as per the Zambia Local Government Act No. 69 of 1965, the powers and privileges of the Litunga of Barotseland were taken away, including theabolition of the Barotse National Council and seizing of their budgets, therebyprecipitating the current tensions simmering between Zambia (BNFA, 2020). 214 Conclusion All land and the resources of the Barotseland become subject to national controlsof the Zambia government (BNFA, 2020).Informed by all these perceived losses, BNFA lodged a complaint withthe African Commission on Human & People’s Rights in Banjul, Gabon –Communication 429/12 titled the “Ngambela of Barotseland and Others vsThe Republic of Zambia over Zambia government occupation of Barotseland”.Furthermore, BNFA invited the Government of Zambia to sign the PermanentCourt of Arbitration (PCA) submission agreement to allow peaceful resolutionof the matter, and this was supported by over 10,000 signatures (BNFA, 2020).This political issue remains unresolved, and has precipitated the objection toWHS inscription process by Zambia. On the other hand, the Government ofZambia remains committed to maintaining a unitary Statehood, includingmaintaining peace and order to ensure that the nation continues to develop inevery sphere of the economy. The tension between BNFA and the SP of Zambiareflects a deep-seated local political issue preceding the birth of the Convention.The BNFA objection against the proposed inscription of BPCL is premised onthe following.TABLE 8.1 Reasons cited by BNFA for objecting to the inscription of Barotse CulturalLandscape, Zambia (Source: BNFA Letter to National Heritage ConservationCommission, Zambia, 2020) The BNFA objection letter (copied to the United Nations Secretary Generaland the Director, UNESCO World Heritage Centre) states their willingness to amplify the objection to the inscription application at an appropriateforum (BNFA, 2020). The question is then, what is an appropriate forum beingdemanded by BNFA? Is this mediation at local, national, or international level? Conclusion 215 If it is at the national level, it is localized dialogue to find each other beyondWHS issues. Equally, if it is at the international level, then UNESCO has tobroker discussions on a local matter, however, being sensitive to the sovereigntyof the SP. And how does the site managers of the BPCL, as scientific technocratson culture and nature conservation, feature in this politically sensitive matterat the local level? Are they strategically positioned to address these interconnecting political and economic issues at BPCL? Is it a political or stakeholderengagement forum capitalizing on the proposed inscription for political mileageto score victory on decades-long issues? It is clear that the proposed inscriptionis not the issue at stake, but it is being used to attract attention to long-knownpolitical and socio-economic issues relating to BPCL. This demonstrates thatstakeholder issues at WHS are not restricted to conservation matters only. Thereare other issues that have to be resolved to avoid WHC becoming a victim ofthese dynamics.As part of stakeholder engagement at WHS, there is a need sometimes toexclude UNESCO from addressing local issues. The SP needs to work towardsreaching amicable solutions with stakeholders before they become issues of concern to UNSECO. Though this may not be consensual due to varied and historical positions, local dialogue is likely to yield more practical solutions than“international arbitration”. Instead of dealing with the localness of these issues,SBMS often use UNESCO to subvert providing solutions to long-standing issuesthat are equally beyond the scope of the Convention. Stakeholders should beafforded attention in their own sphere of operation and influence in addressinglocal issues at WHS. Stakeholders are themselves solution bearers. Conservationsolutions cannot solve political issues at WHS, neither are heritage managerstrained as politicians and in conflict resolution. Political issues require politicalsolutions, while threats to WHS require conducive socio-economic and political context in order to be mitigated. Balancing the competing needs of BPCLrequires a scientific, political, economic, and socially negotiated process. It cannot be solved by simply enforcing legislations and defensive positions of SBMS.Additionally, solving local issues at WHS is linked to the emerging application of People Centered Approaches in heritage management, in particular forprotected areas traditionally preserved as enclaves of biodiversity (Thompson &Wijesuriya, 2018). This paradigm shift promotes both the caring for heritageand the well-being of the society (Thompson & Wijesuriya, 2018). New issuesemerging include conflicts, civil wars, rights-based and knowledge issues, as wellas pandemics such as COVID-19 that require mitigation at WHS. Conclusion: Local Challenges, Local SolutionsThe relationship between conservation and SD is as old as humanity itself andthus remains evolving. The two are localized and stakeholder-driven issuesrequiring grassroots solutions. Currently these solutions are engineered from theexclusionary governance systems of SBMS and WHC. The weaknesses of these 216 Conclusion governance systems in Africa are that they remain heavily leaning towards legalpowers and conservation mantra and have been slow in embracing developmentand accommodating stakeholders at WHS. As much as conservation and development are not mutually exclusive to each other, so is heritage governance andstakeholder involvement in post-colonial Africa. Neither is the past, present,and the future mutually exclusive to each other, because there is adaptation andcontinuity through time and space. However, adapted heritage governance hasthe potential to offer practical solutions to challenges at WHS. Heritage governance needs to integrate itself in broader territorial planning and stakeholdermanagement processes. This will strategically position conservation to providefor the well-being of the society. Development is inevitable and is here to stay,and WHS value proposition may become a risk to itself if it maintains the current approach and pace in embracing development. An emerging case of theLiverpool Waterfront WHS (United Kingdom) testifies to this. The SP has developed skyscrapers considered interfering with the integrity of the WHS, henceforcing UNESCO to recommend delisting. What more in developing nationsdesiring an improved state of life and well-being, as well as regenerating leftbehind nations and communities in line with SDGs? It is becoming a reality thatUNESCO cannot continue preserving everything in a pristine way. It appearsthat more SPs will rather opt to have their sites delisted in the future in order tosolve local challenges.While localization of SDGs may be viewed as the best strategy to integrateconservation and development dimensions at WHS, this should be a stakeholderdriven process supported by AMAs. Stakeholders have an equal opportunity ofplaying an increased role at WHS given their varying past and present experiences. This will equally benefit in shifting the mindsets of the hard-liner conservationist approach in Africa. Equally important, and as part of decolonizinglong-entrenched heritage governance systems in Africa, legislation reviewsand accompanying guidelines that formally embrace stakeholders are urgentlyneeded. Moving towards inclusive stakeholder management approaches is a goodstep in WHS governance worldwide. Such an approach will encourage an inclusive stakeholder-driven decision-making process on conservation and development at WHS.The WHS value proposition to its stakeholders should be the compellingreason why it must remain in existence as an international concept in a localized environment. Conservation means nothing if it cannot give meaningful and measurable expression to socio-economic needs of stakeholders at thelocal levels of the site. The reality is that stakeholders at grassroots levels wantmore than conservation at WHS. The future of WHS is now dependent onhow fast adaptive management is adopted by SBMS and UNESCO to mitigatethe impact of their top-down approach in heritage governance and, equally,embrace development as a lifelong relationship with conservation. WHS expertscan no longer impose solutions on stakeholders. Rather, stakeholders, togetherwith these experts, should provide solutions to their own challenges. Effective Conclusion 217 change at WHS will only happen as long as it is supported from the bottomrather than imposed from the top. The localness of heritage and how it should beused shall remain on the radar of WHS governance and stakeholders for a longtime. Engaging and involving stakeholders in practically balancing conservationand development at WHS in Africa is now a priority. Either WHC is with them,or they are without it: denoting how binary choices between heritage and development are becoming a reality! REFERENCES Aas, C., Ladkin, A. & Fletcher, J. 2015. Stakeholder collaboration and heritage management. Annals of Tourism Research 32(1): 28–48.Abungu, O.K. 2019. Personal Comment during the SANParks Capacity Building Workshop.Kruger National Park, South Africa.Abungu, O.K. 2016. Introduction. In Abungu, O.K., Ndukuyakhe, N., Thiombiano,E.F.I., Zulu, J. & Varrissou, S. (eds.). Traditional Management Systems at Heritage Sites inAfrica. 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18
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19
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20
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21
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INDEX Note: Page references in italics denote figures and in bold tables.Abuja Treaty 24academics: on IDCs 109–110; as professionals representing others 110–112active social power 103–104adaptative management 2adaptive management: and conflictresolution mechanisms 171–172;as context-sensitive 208; at WHS206–209Adaptive Management Approach (AMA)2, 200; defined 5, 207; and heritagegovernance 5; learning by doingapproach 14Advisory Bodies (ABs) 11, 54, 207;African experts and African missions134; roles and functions of 32Africa: actual and projected populationgrowth in 22; challenges faced by 3;examples of SBMS in 3; geopolitics21–26; heritage governance in 12–13;heritage governance “scaffolding” in48–57; heritage legislations in 6; andheritage management systems 5–6,26–40; historiography 49; and HumanDevelopment Index (HDI) 24; MMSTin 165–170; post-colonial conservationapproaches in 2; pre-colonial governance in 50–52; socio-economic needs21–26; and stakeholders 12–13; andWorld Heritage concept 7–9; WorldHeritage Sites (WHS) in 1–3, 8, 165–170 African Leadership Council 49African National Congress 121African Union (AU) 198, 205; 2063Agenda 10, 24, 25, 165, 205, 207African World Heritage Fund (AWHF)39, 134, 192, 194, 213agriculture 187; and archaeological communities 111; benefits accruing from187; commercial 41, 157; as labourintensive activity 187; subsistence 106,213; sustainable 77Anglo-Boer war 112Annual Mapungubwe Arts Festival 122appropriation governance 52–54archaeological communities 10, 103,110–112,
business
Stakeholder Perspectives on World Heritage and Development in Africa
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22
114Asante Buildings WHS 110Association for Southern AfricanProfessional Archaeologists (ASAPA)116, 118, 127, 137–138, 170Aswan Dam Project (Egypt) 40, 43–44Barotse Cultural Association (BCA)213Barotse Freedom Movement 213Barotse Imilemas 213Barotse National Council 213Barotse National Freedom Alliance(BNFA) 213–214, 214Barotse Plains Cultural Landscape(BPCL) 213; economic issues at 215; Index outstanding universal value (OUV) of213; political issues at 215Barotse Youth League 213Basu, P. 14Berliner, D. 15Billingham, Valerie 207biological resource use/modification135–137Birdlife South Africa 116Birwa dynasty 105–106Black Consciousness Movement 121border patrols 120–121Borobudur temple 44Brazil, Russia, India, China, and SouthAfrica (BRICS) 49, 198British South Africa Company 114Brumann, C. 15Buller, Illtyd 72Burra Charter 87Bushman Relics Protection Act 87case studies 16–19; GZWHS 17–18;MCLWHS 70–101Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS)115–116chapungu 80Charter for African Cultural Renaissance39Chirikure, S. 14, 78chitemene 40Coal of Africa (CoAL) 111–112, 114, 123,131, 197Code of African Leadership 49colonial environmentalism 6colonialism 5–6, 112; environmental 29;and farmers 112; and heritage management 28–29; and local communities 5;and State-Based Management Systems49; and underdevelopment in Africa 22Commiphora species 82Common Market for East and SouthernAfrica (COMESA) 198Communal Areas ManagementProgramme for Indigenous Resources(CAMPFIRE) 12communally driven governance 50Community Based-ResourcesManagement (CBRM) 12Community Management of ProtectedAreas Conservation (COMPACT) 12Comprehensive Africa AgriculturalDevelopment Programme (CAADP)24Conroy, Andrew 72 247 conservation: and development 36–40,145, 190–195; futuristic perspectives on211–215; irony in Africa 21; measuringimpact of 45–46; and SD 200–203; andsocio-economic development 5, 40,159–161; and stakeholders 5, 13–16;and State Parties (SP) 11conservation comfort zone: abandoning 200; beyond 210–211; multi- andinter-disciplinary approach 210–211Conservation Development Framework(CDF) 97contested narratives: and intangibles104–110; and spirituality 104–110“Convention concerning the Protectionof the World Cultural and NaturalHeritage of 1972” 3Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Flora andFauna (CITES) 84coordinated development framework(CDP) 99Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)113COVID-19 pandemic 87, 121–122, 173,185, 187, 193, 215Cradle of Humankind World HeritageSite (COHWHS) 170crops 112–113; see also agriculturecultural heritage 13, 53, 97; defined 2;resources 14cultural identity 88cultural nationalism approach 42cultural tours 179–180Cultural Triangle of Sri Lanka 44cultural values/significance: Iron Ageperiod 76–79; MCLWHS 74–82;Ngorongoro Conservation Area(NCA) 90; Stone Age period 76culture 135, 164, 190; and authenticity31; as catalyst for development 190;material 93, 124; and nature 26, 30–31,75, 90; statistics 45–46; and sustainabledevelopment 36Deacon, J. 14De Beers 74, 111, 114, 134, 135decision-makers, at MCLWHS 116–118decision-making 42–43democracy 56–57Department of Fisheries, Forestry andEnvironment (DFFE) 85, 89–91,93–94, 107–108, 113, 116, 125;and DSAC 108; environmental 248 Index management framework 89–90;Management Effectiveness TrackingTool (METT) 97; NEMA Act 89;WHCA 93; World Heritage Unit 123Department of Sport, Arts and Culture(DSAC) 85, 86–87, 107–108, 116–117,168De Rothschild Foundation 135descriptive model 63, 63development: benefitting conservation atWHS 190–192; and conservation36–40, 145, 190–195; irony in Africa21; measuring impact of 45–46;socio-economic 159–161; and stakeholders 5, 13–16; and State Parties (SP)11; see also sustainable development(SD)Domboshava Rock Art site 176–177Donaldson, T. 61Dongola Wildlife Sanctuary 72–73Duvenage, J.G. 107Economic Community of West AfricanStates (ECOWAS) 197economic empowerment 199economic growth pillar, of SD 36empirical stakeholder perspectives126–161; emerging stakeholdersperspectives at MCLWHS 145–161;field approach 127; IDCs 143–145;MCLWHS 128–138, 143–145;MCLWHS and experts 138–143; stateof conservation 128–138environmental colonialism 29Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)35, 89, 111, 132, 170, 201environmental justice 115–116, 118Environmental Lobbying groups 170exclusion 144–145exclusionary governance 52–54exclusionist approach 44–45Expanded Public Works Programme(EPWP) 90experts: on MCLWHS 138–143; overarching views of 142–143Ex Political Prisoners Advisory Forum(EPPAF) 142extractive industries 103, 113–118; atMCLWHS 116–118farmers 103; and colonialism 112; crops,livestock, fruits, and wildlife 112–113;see also agricultureFossil Hominid World Heritage Site 24fruits 112–113; see also agriculture; crops futuristic perspectives: on conservation211–215; on SD 211–215Gender Development Index 9Gender Inequality Index 9geopolitics: and Africa 21–26; andsocio-economic needs 21–26globalization: defined 64; and MMSF 66;particularism 64; universalism 64global-local nexus concept 64–65glocalization approach 65Golden Gate National Park 186good governance 57governance: appropriation 52–54; communally driven 50; defined 2, 58;exclusionary 52–54; good 57; heritage(see heritage governance); poor 57;principles and stakeholder managementtheory 58–60, 59; at WHS 206–209;World Heritage 54–56governance comfort zone 139Greater Mapungubwe TransfrontierConservation Area (GMTFCA) 16, 70,74, 84, 116, 133; core area and planningdomain of 85; interstate governance of91–93; MoA of 91, 92; stakeholders 120Great Zimbabwe World Heritage Site(GZWHS) 13, 17–18, 178gross domestic product (GDP): African22; and population growth 22heritage 2, 13; cultural 97; local 88; management philosophy 3–5; national 88;see also specific entriesheritage governance: in Africa 12–13; andAMA 5; and bureaucratic forms of protection 14; inclusive 15; “scaffolding”in Africa 48–57Heritage Impact Assessment (HIA) 35,88, 111–112, 114, 132–134, 141, 170,181, 192, 201heritage management systems: and Africa5–6, 26–40, 30; and SBMS 11heritage sites: cultural heritage sites inthe Greater Mapungubwe Area 75;identifying multiple and multi-layeredstakeholders at 139; mitigations measures for 133; provincial 88; stakeholdersexploiting renewable and nonrenewable resources at 67–68; see alsoWorld Heritage Sites (WHS)High Human Development Index(HDDI) 9historiography 49, 103–104human development 56–57 Index Human Development Index (HDI) 9; andAfrica 24; indicators 9Icon pottery 105inclusion 144–145inclusive management approach 98–101Indigenous and Descendant Communities(IDCs) 8–9, 26, 102, 103, 143–145,164, 204; beneficiation mechanismsfor 177; contested narratives 104–110;and cultural tours 180; as “dispossessedformer authorities” 209; and heritage activism 125; and historical landissues 211–212; intangibles 104–110;land claims by 119–120, 136; ofMapungubwe 79–80; overview 48; andpost-colonial governance approaches49; and SBMS 28; spirituality 104–110;urbanized 28Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) 3,48, 144, 211Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI) 9Information CommunicationTechnologies (ICT) 48Ingwenyama Trust 210innovation 13, 20, 28, 56, 200, 205, 210;and SANParks 90; “Smart Cities” 178;by WHS MAs 178instrumental model 62–63, 63intangibles: and contested narratives104–110; and spirituality 104–110integrated: decision-making system 58;management of MCLWHS 97; management system 88, 97, 121, 201–202;perspective of stakeholders 20; planning frameworks 29; SD principles37, 46International Centre for the Study ofthe Preservation and Restoration ofCultural Property (ICCROM) 32,166International Council of Mining andMetals (ICMM) 38, 132International Council on Monumentsand Sites (ICOMOS) 32; Guidelineson HIA for Cultural World HeritageProperties 89International Monetary Fund (IMF) 198International Union on Conservationof Nature (IUCN) 32, 137, 166;Indigenous Community Forum 35;and outstanding universal value (OUV)198; principle of “no go area zone”169, 198; roles and functions of 32Iron Age period 76–79 249 Johannesburg Declaration 36, 38justice: environmental 115–116, 118;social 115Kasubi Tombs 6, 27Keitumetse, S.O. 14“Kids in the Parks” (KiP) educationalprogramme 113Kruger National Park 121Lagos Plan of Action 24land conversion 135–137land restitution: and judiciary players118–120; and restorative aspirations118–120“learning by doing” 5legal stakeholders 115–116legitimacy: and role of stakeholders139–141; and stakeholder identification61; of TMS publics 28Lemba community 80, 104Lemba Cultural Association 108Leshiba community 80, 104Lesiba (tribal chief ) 107Limpopo Coal Company (Pty) Ltd 131;see also CoALLimpopo Department of EconomicDevelopment, Environment andTourism (LEDET) 95–96, 116–117Limpopo Heritage Resources Authority(LIHRA) 88Limpopo Land Claims Commission 119Linyungandambo 213List of World Heritage in Danger 33, 34Liverpool Waterfront WHS (UnitedKingdom) 216livestock 112–113; see also agricultureLivingstone, David 75local communities 2, 4–6, 8, 10, 53–54,139–146, 186–189, 193, 208; inAfrica 40; conservation ethics in 113;empowerment of 109; global heritage policies 15; as heritage victims45; and IDCs 28, 169; “inclusionaryengagement” approach 99; Indigenousrights of 11; marginalized 91; as slaves(labourers) 112; spiritual well-beingof 88, 90; traditional water management systems 27; and World Heritage37local heritage 88localization: defined 2, 194; and MMSF66; of SDGs 163, 194, 199, 200,205–206, 216Lotriet, Francois 75 250 Index Low Human Development Index(LHDI) 9Machete community 80, 104–105Machete II (tribal chief ) 106–107Madidimalo (Mamadi Chief ) 107management: MCLWHS 85–98; asNational Heritage Site 87–89; asnational park 89–91; as World HeritageSites 93–95, 94Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool(METT) 97–98mapungu 80Mapungubwe Action Group (MAG) 116,118Mapungubwe Annual Lecture Series 122Mapungubwe Coalition Group (MCG)170, 197Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape WorldHeritage Site (MCLWHS) 13, 67, 102,126, 143–145; ASAPA and extractiveindustries at 118; benefits from development 141–142; case study 16–17, 17,70–101; challenges for stakeholders at196–199; core area and buffer zone of82; cross-cutting management dimensions of 95–96, 96; cultural values andsignificance 74–82; decision-makersand extractive industries at 116–118;emerging stakeholders at 124–125,145–161; environmental justice115–116; experts views on 138–143;historical context 71–74; integratedmanagement planning framework of97–98, 98; Iron Age period 76–79;legal stakeholders 115–116; locationof 73; management 85–98; management and institutional factors at 135;Mapungubwe Action Group (MAG)116; mining impacts at 130–135;multiple and multi-layered stakeholders 139; nature values and significance82–83; opportunities for stakeholdersat 195–196; OUV of 71–72, 81, 81–82;overarching views of experts 142–143;overview 70; politicians and 123–124;power, legitimacy, influence, capability, and role of stakeholders 139–141;roles and responsibilities of stakeholders at 149–155; “Save MapungubweCoalition” (SMC) 116; and spirituality79–81; stakeholders knowledge on147–149; stakeholder theory 139; stakeholder views on protecting 155–159;state of conservation 128–138; Stone Age period 76; transfrontier conservation values 83–84Mapungubwe Kingdom Seminar 127Mapungubwe National Park (MNP)70, 71, 72, 82, 113, 122, 134, 136;management planning framework for86; nature values and significances of83; reptiles in 83; sustainable solutionschallenges 91; zoning of 97Mapungubwe Steering Committee 107Mapungubwe Tourism Initiative 122Maramani Communal Area (Zimbabwe)120Matobo Hills World Heritage Site(Zimbabwe) 140Medium Human Development Index(MHDI) 9Mijikenda Forests 6, 26military stakeholders 120–121Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) 24mineral contribution, of Africa 23, 23Minerals Advisory Council of Canada38Minerals and Petroleum ResourcesDevelopment Act (MPRDA) 95, 131Minimum Integration Programme(MIP) 24Modest, W. 14Mohenjo-Daro project 44Mokaila, Kisto 84Movement for the Restoration ofBarotseland 213multidimensional poverty 24Multidimensional Poverty Index 9multilateral (network) mode of interaction 62Multiple and Multi-layered StakeholderFramework (MMSF) 65–68, 203, 203;defined 2, 47, 66; identifying stakeholders using 67–68; localization andglobalization perspectives of 66; andstakeholder management 49; and WHSgovernance 47; and World Heritagegovernance 47–69multiple and multi-layered stakeholders(MMS) 2; identifying at heritage site139; at WHS 163–172Multiple and Multi-layered StakeholderTheory (MMST) 162, 165–170Mzansi Golden Economy Strategy 87NAMDEB (Namibia) 175, 192National Arts Council (NAC) of SouthAfrica 143 Index National Department of MineralResources (DMR) 95National Department of Tourism (NDT)195National Development Plans (NDPs): ofAfrican countries 25; role of 25National Environmental Management Act(NEMA) 89National Environmental Management:Biodiversity Act (Act No. 10 of 2004)(NEM:BA) 48National Environmental ManagementProtected Areas Act 57 90national heritage 19, 88, 212; laws 35;legislations 87National Heritage ConservationCommission (NHCC) of Zambia 213National Heritage Resources Act(NHRA) 53, 74, 85, 87, 138; definitionof cultural identity 88; ideology 88–89National Heritage Site 87–89National Monuments Act 87National Museums and Monuments ofKenya (NMK) 85National Museums and Monuments ofZimbabwe (NMMZ) 3, 85–86, 140,176National Museums of Kenya (NMK) 3National Parks Trust (NTP) 135national sovereignty 42–43National Steering Committee (NSC) 91National Water Act 95Natural and Historical Monuments Act 87natural resources, in Africa 23Nature-Culture Journey approach 12nature values/significance 71; MCLWHS82–83; and NCA 164“Ndambakurimwa” 176Ndoro, W. 14New Partnership for Africa’sDevelopment (NEPAD) 24Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA)90, 135, 164, 188, 212Ngorongoro Conservation AreaAuthority (NCAA) 137Ngorongoro Declaration of 2016 39Ngorongoro Pastoral Council 196normative model 62, 63ntemele 40Operational Guidelines of theConvention 38Operational Guidelines on theImplementation of the World HeritageConvention (OGIWHC) 3, 131, 198 251 organizational identity 61Osun Oshogbo Sacred Groves 27Oswell, Henry Cotton 112outstanding universal value (OUV) 3, 7,30–31; of MCLWHS 71–72, 81,81–82Pan African Congress 121pandemics, and Africa 22; see alsoCOVID-19 pandemicparticularism 64partnerships 63, 67, 69, 113, 179, 205passive social power 103–104peace and security 120–121Peace Park Foundation (PPF) 84, 116,135People Centred approach 12periodic reporting 45Peterson, D. 14Pick n Pay 113political empowerment 199politicians, and MCLWHS 123–124poor governance 57population growth: and Africa 22, 22;and GDP 22power 66; governance, in Africa 52; androle of stakeholders 139–141; social103–104; and stakeholder identification61; and stakeholders 67power-interest matrix approach 66pre-colonial: Africa 4, 10, 14, 16, 20, 46,49–50, 76–78, 200–201, 204–205;communities 84; governance inAfrica 50–52; and IDCs 124; institutions of Africa 27; institutions ofAfrica 26; understanding ofsustainability 40–42; use ofheritage 40pre-colonial leadership 51post-colonial: Africa 4, 26, 29, 39,114–115, 118, 216; conservationapproaches in Africa 2; economicmodels 22; governance systems 49–50;heritage experts in Africa 6; heritagemanagement 46; land redistributions48; leadership challenges 50; legislations and policies 6Preston, L. 61Price, Bernard 72Programme for InfrastructuralDevelopment in Africa (PIDA) 24Protected Areas (PA) 5, 29, 48, 105Provincial Heritage Resources Authority(PHRA) 88psychological empowerment 199 252 Index qualitative research 68quantitative 19, 45–46, 126; analyticaltools 68; indicators 193, 202; modelling208reactive monitoring 82, 188Reactive Monitoring Missions 18, 34, 56,93, 118, 124, 132, 134, 166, 167Reburial Policy 108Relics and Antiques Act 87resource mobilization at WHS 177–179Rhodes, John Cecil 114Rich, Peter 122Robben Island World Heritage Site(RIWHS) 17–18, 129, 138, 142, 164Robertson, R. 64–65Roualeyn Gordon Cumming 112Royal Palaces of Abomey 26–27Rupert Family Foundation 135Rustenburg Game Reserve (South Africa)121San (Hunter-Gatherer): communities 108;ethnography 76“Save Mapungubwe Coalition” (SMC)116scaffolding: defined 50; heritage governance, in Africa 48–57Selous, Fredrick Courtney 112Selous Game Reserve World Heritage site(Tanzania) 34, 198, 200Shell 38Sinamai 14Site Managers Forum (SMF) 94–95Smuts, Jan 72social empowerment 199social equality pillar, of SD 36Social Investment Programme (SIP) 90social justice 115social power: active 103–104; passive103–104social responsibility 113–118socio-economic decisions 181–184socio-economic development 4–5; andconservation 40; conservation and159–161; EPWP 90; SIP 90socio-economic needs 4; Africa 21–26South Africa: British invasion of 112;Destination Development Initiative(DDI) in 195; human rights violations against blacks in 121; interests ofstakeholders in 147; land restitutionprocesses of 118–119; racial segregationpolicies (apartheid) of 73; San communities in 212; separatist politics in 29; SOC reporting patterns 130; stakeholder categories 146South African Heritage ResourcesAgency (SAHRA) 3, 85, 88–89, 117,134South African National Parks (SANParks)82, 87, 89–91, 109, 113, 125South African World HeritageConvention Act (WHCA) 74, 93–94South African World HeritageConvention Committee (SAWHCC)94–95, 123Southern African DevelopmentCommunity (SADC) 84, 181, 197Southern African DevelopmentCommunity Protocol on WildlifeConservation and Law Enforcement 84Southern African DevelopmentCommunity Wildlife Policy 84spirituality: and contested narratives104–110; and intangibles 104–110; andMCLWHS 79–81stakeholder management 12, 170–172; andMMSF 49; perception of 49stakeholder management theory 47,57–65; accountability 57; globallocal nexus concept 64–65; governanceprinciples 58–60, 59; organizationaltheory 57; power, legitimacy, andurgency 61; stakeholder participationmodels 61–64, 63stakeholder participation models 61–64,63; descriptive model 63, 63; instrumental model 62–63, 63; normativemodel 62, 63stakeholders 54, 139, 166–170; and Africa12–13; and benefits from development at WHS 141–142; on benefits ofprotecting MCLWHS 155–159; andcapillary action 55; on conservation174–177; conservation and development 5, 13–16; defined 2, 48, 57; anddevelopment value proposition at WHS204; emerging, at MCLWHS 124–125;empowerment 199; engagement 47;on evolving approach of WHC 10–11;geographic location of 48; GMTFCA120; identification, attributes of 61;identifying, using MMSF 67–68;influence on socio-economic decisions181–184; interactions 64–65; knowledge on MCLWHS 147–149; legal115–116; marginalizing 44–45; military120–121; opportunities and challenges at WHS 195–199; perspectives Index 68–69; reimagining role 209–210;role in heritage management 2; rolesand responsibilities 149–155; on SDGs179–190; social power 103–104; andWHS governance 172–179; and WorldHeritage Sites (WHS) 8, 1
business
Stakeholder Perspectives on World Heritage and Development in Africa
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23
1State-Based Management Systems (SBMS)102, 130, 200; colonial approach toheritage management 11, 42; andcolonialism 49; defined 2; emergencein Africa 28–30; examples in Africa3; governance systems 52; governancevalue 12; and IDCs 28; and local communities 6; stakeholders on consultative process of 45; and WHS 4–5“#StateCapture” 169state of conservation (SOC) 127State Parties (SP) 54–55; conservationand development 11; defined 3; WorldHeritage Committee on 34Stone Age 76Strategic Adaptive Management (SAM)97Strategic Environmental ImpactAssessments (SEA) 89sustainability: pre-colonial understandingof 40–42; and TMS 40–41sustainable development (SD): and conservation 200–203; defined 3, 9; futuristicperspectives on 211–215; indicators 25;pillars of 10, 36–37; principles 5, 15,36, 37; and World Heritage 38; see alsodevelopmentSustainable Development Goals (SDGs)10, 24, 163, 200; benefits of development at WHS 184–190; localizationof 163, 194, 199, 200, 205–206, 216;stakeholder and socio-economic decisions 181–184; stakeholder awarenesson developments 179–181; stakeholdersperspectives on 179–190; and WorldHeritage 37systemic exclusionary managementapproach 98–101technical bureaucracy 12Thaha (tribal chief ) 106Thohoyandou (tribal leader) 105“tourism node” 195tourists 121–123Traditional Management Systems (TMS)50–51, 110, 144, 208; and Africa26–28; defined 3; and SBMS 4; stakeholders’ role at 28; and sustainability40–41; and WHC 4 253 transfrontier conservation area (TFCA)16, 84transfrontier conservation values 83–84Trilateral Advisory Committee (TAC) 91Trilateral Ministerial Committee (TMC)91Trilateral Technical Committee (TTC) 91Tshivhula 104Tshivhula clan 80Tshivula (tribal chief ) 106Tshivula dynasty 105, 106Tshivula Royal Family 1082063 Agenda 10, 24, 25Ubuntu 188, 190unilateral mode of interaction 61United Nations Charter of 1945 42United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification 84United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) 56United Nations Educational, Scientificand Cultural Organization (UNESCO)7, 8, 10, 32, 35, 54–56, 69, 110, 123, 125universalism 64urgency, and stakeholder identification 61Van Doornum, B. L. 76van Graan, E.S.J. 74–75“vaVenda” 105Venda communities 104Venetia Limpopo Nature Reserve(VLNR) 74Venetia National Park (VNP) 136Very High Human Development index(VHHDI) 9Vhangona Cultural Movement 108Vhembe-Dongola National Park (VDNP)73–74Waterton, E. 15Watson, S. 15Wilderness Foundation South Africa 116wildlife 112–113Wildlife Fund for Nature in South Africa135World Bank 198World Commission on Culture andSustainable Development Conference36World Heritage 13; and Africa 7–9;defined 3; and development dimensions9–12; governance 54–56, 172–179;management system and Africa 30–36;and processes 31; and socio-economic 254 Index development 4; supporting sites fromAfrica 18; and sustainable development38; and Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) 10, 37World Heritage Committee 11, 32–34,44–45, 54, 81World Heritage Convention (WHC)3–5, 54, 87, 102, 126; and Africa 7–9,12; definition of OUV 31; governancevalue 12; impact of 10World Heritage Policy on SustainableDevelopment 35, 45World Heritage Sites (WHS) 20, 47,165–170; in Africa 1–3, 8; benefitsfrom development at 141–142; andconservation 15; conservation anddevelopment 190–195; conservationat 174–177; crossing and integratingfrontiers 162–163; defined 3; anddevelopment 15, 179–181; developmentbenefitting conservation at 190–192;development value proposition at 204;emerging stakeholders at MCLWHS124–125; governance and adaptive management at 206–209; governanceand stakeholders 172–174; heritage contribution to socio-economic indicatorsat 192–194; localization of SDGs at205–206; management as 93–95, 94;multiple and multi-layered stakeholders163–172; opportunities and challengesat 195–199; resource mobilization at177–179; and SBMS 4–5; and socialpower 103–104; stakeholder profiles at203–204; and stakeholders 8, 12; stakeholders perspectives on SDGs 179–190;value to stakeholders at 164–165World War 1 112World Wide Fund for Nature SouthAfrica 116Zambia 112, 185, 213–214Zambia Local Government Act No. 69 of1965 213Zhizho settlements 76Zimbabwe 6, 84, 91; land reform processin 92–93; neighbouring landscapes of76 <|end|>
business
Stakeholder Perspectives on World Heritage and Development in Africa
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24
<s> The OptimalResume.com system is a secured, hosted and customized website created for yourorganization. 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Initial graphics for11Addingarea Section 7SwitchtheResume the websiteprovided by OptimalResume.comand are made to matchclient’s existing website. 11ReorderingSections 7Default content for examples and help text is provided by OptimalResume.com.Deleting a Section 7Editing your Resume 12EditingSection provides8 comprehensive trainingAnd ofcourse,a OptimalResume.comand support throughout the process.SharingyourResume 12Editing Tools 8 Post-Production Tools Document Settingswww.optimalresume.comStyle your Resume Spellcheck Format your Header Example 9910 10 Contact us for more information or to schedule your free trial today. Email: [email protected] • Phone: (877) 998-7654 Getting StartedCreating a New ResumeTo begin a new resume, find the Resumebox in the Document Center and clickCreate New Resume. You will be asked toenter a name for your resume on the nextpage. Naming a New ResumeNames can include any combinationof letters, numbers, and spaces. Ifapplicable, select the primary languageof your resume. 2 www.optimalresume.com • 877.998.7654 • [email protected] Getting StartedUploading an Existing ResumeOn the naming page, you have theoption to upload a resume from yourcomputer that can be submitted forreview by a counselor, to ResumeGPS™or to apply for jobs. Uploaded resumescannot be edited in the Optimal Resumebuilder. 3 Ways to Build a ResumeOnce you have named your resume, you will be able to browse avariety of section sets and sample resumes, or start from scratch. 3 www.optimalresume.com • 877.998.7654 • [email protected] Getting StartedBrowsing Section SetsSection sets are outlines of sections that youcan use in your resume. They are organizedby job level, such as Recent Graduate andExperienced Professional, then by industryor career. There are dozens of section sets tobrowse through.Clicking on a Section Preset reveals itssections in the rightmost box in the orderthey would appear in your resume. TheContinue button below the example lets youput those sections directly into your resume. Browsing SamplesSample resumes, on the other hand, showresumes in their entirety, from headerlayouts to section sets to writing samples.Resume samples are organized by industryand job level. Clicking on a sample bringsup a preview of that resume. To use thattemplate in your own resume, click the UseThis Sample button. Starting from ScratchIf you chose not to add preset sections or workfrom a sample, you will begin your resume byclicking the Add Section link in the right-handtoolbar. You will select a section type to add toyour resume, at which point a new content fieldwill open. 4 www.optimalresume.com • 877.998.7654 • [email protected] Working with Resume SectionsResume HeaderThe Header is the topmost part of yourresume that contains your contactinformation. If you already filled out yourcontact information when you registered foran Optimal Resume account, the header willautomatically contain that data. However,if you wish to change your information,you can do so by clicking on a piece ofinformation, such as the address or yourname. Once you’re finished editing, clickSave to save your work. When editing a fieldin the header, you also have the option toremove the field by clicking the Removebutton. For additional options, click FormatHeader in the right-hand toolbar. Resume Section TypesThere are three types of sections you can add in a resume: General Section – the most basicparts of your resume, generalsections simply allow you toenter a name and content. Mostsections, including Objective,Education, and Skills, work best asgeneral sections. 5 Experience Section – Mostresumes should have at leastone experience section, whichgenerally refers to current andprevious jobs. These sectionsare organized by employer, thenfurthermore by individual jobs.You can add employers and jobsto this section as needed. Whenyou begin making an experiencesection, you will only see afew text fields at first. To enteradditional content, click the Add/Delete Employer/Job link foundunder the section title in theSections area of the right-handtoolbar. You will have the optionto add or delete a job or employerfrom the experience section. Hybrid Section – This sectionis the happy medium betweengeneral and experience sections.Like the experience section, thehybrid section is organized byOrganization and you must addthem as needed from the righthand toolbar. However, the fieldsfor each individual organizationare less detailed than employersand lack information such asEmployer URL and location. www.optimalresume.com • 877.998.7654 • [email protected] Working with Resume SectionsExperience SectionExperience sections are organized on several levels, first by employes, thenby jobs at specific employers. Employer Job Job Add/Delete an Employer/JobTo add an employer to an experience section, or to add a job to an employer,click the Add/Delete Employer/Job link under the experience section in theright-hand toolbar.That will display a window that makes it easy to adjust your experiencesection. Click the Add Employer button to add an employer to the section.Click the Add Job at this Employer link beside each employer to add a job atthat given employer.When you add a new job or employer, it will be placed at the bottom of theemployer or the experience section, respectively. You can use the Reorderbutton to rearrange your jobs, employers, as well as your sections. 6 www.optimalresume.com • 877.998.7654 • [email protected] Working with Resume SectionsAdding a SectionTo insert a new section, click the Add Sectionlink in the right-hand toolbar. A new windowwill open, and you can choose the locationof the new section in relation to anothersection on your resume. Then select the typeof section you wish to add. Your new sectionwill appear on the resume upon clicking theSelect button. Reordering SectionsTo change the order in which your sectionsappear, click the Reorder button in the righthand toolbar. This will open a new windowshowing all of the sections currently in yourresume. Drag and drop your sections intothe desired order. Note that this window alsoallows you to reorder employers and jobs.Click Apply to save your changes. Deleting a SectionTo delete a section, click the trashcan iconnext to the section name in the right-handtoolbar. You’ll be asked if you are sure youwish delete the section. Click Delete toproceed. 7 www.optimalresume.com • 877.998.7654 • [email protected] Working with Resume SectionsEditing a SectionHover over any section. When the sectionturns orange, click on it to begin editing.When you’re finished editing, click Save tokeep your changes. Editing Tools 121 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 13 14 910 11 Every section has fields for a section name and section content. When entering content, you will notice a toolbar abovethe editing field. This bar contains helpful features to format and guide your writing:1. Bold – bolds highlighted text2. Italic – italicizes highlighted text3. Underline – underlines highlighted text4. Text Color – allows you to change text to a color selected from the palette5. Eraser – removes any formatting applied to selected text6. Bullets – adds a bulleted list7. Link – inserts, changes, or removes a hyperlink to another website8. Resume Table – inserts a table into your resume. You can set the number of rows and columns for your table afterclicking this button.9. Line After – adds an empty line after current content in editor10. Line Before – adds an empty line before current content in editor11. Remove Line Before – removes an empty line before current content in editor12. Examples – opens the Examples menu, where you can browse sample content for a specific section. Availablesections are listed in the left box. Click on a section type to see examples for that section. If available, you can alsoclick the Add button next to an example to insert that example into your editor.13. Action Verbs - 400+ verbs to help you describe your work experience14. Infobyte – opens the Infobyte menu, where you can insert an Infobyte next to selected section. Infobytes appearonly in your online resume. They are small icons that can be moused over to reveal additional information aboutyour resume. These are a great way to elaborate on the sections of your resume without adding extra pages.There is also an Examples section specifically for Infobytes if you are unsure of what to write. Editing a TableIf you are working with a resume that containsa table, you can access additional options byright clicking on the table. You can add rowsand columns, as well as delete the table. 8 www.optimalresume.com • 877.998.7654 • [email protected] Document SettingsStyle your ResumeTo style your resume, click the Style Resumebutton in the Document section of theright-hand toolbar. This will open theStyling Palette. Click the pre-styles tab toapply a pre-made resume template to yourdocument. Use the other tabs to customizealmost any aspect of your resume: Layout – Set the margins,columns and header format foryour resume Font – Change the font and fontstyle for different parts of yourresume Lines – Add, remove, and changelines used on your resume Spacing – Set the spacingbetween parts of your document Bullets – Change bullet stylesand the level of indentation If you’re unsure of what asetting corresponds to, thereis a magic wand featurenext to every setting thathighlights exactly where thestyle changes will be applied.Affected areas will behighlighted in orange whenthe wand is clicked. SpellcheckClicking Spellcheck will highlight in redmisspelled words in your document. If youright click on a misspelled word, you canreplace it with the correct spelling or ignorethe error and move on. 9 www.optimalresume.com • 877.998.7654 • [email protected] Document SettingsFormat your Header Example This link will open the Header Layout optionin the Styling Palette where you can changethe appearance of your header and contactinformation. There are four header layoutoptions. Choose one, then drag and dropindividual information fields into yourchosen header layout. Also note that youhave the option to add a headline here. ClickApply when you’ve finished arranging yourinformation. Divides your header into invisible boxes soyou can arrange elements within each box Drag individual fields into a part of thelayout. Notice that each box can have its ownalignment. That is how we achieve the effectwhere the name, email and phone numbersare centered, but the other information isright and left aligned, respectively. 10 www.optimalresume.com • 877.998.7654 • [email protected] Document ToolsResume TipsSelect a job family (occupations grouped together based on type ofwork and skills required) and view professionally written top 5 tips forwriting a successful resume for that job family Resume SamplesView professionally written resume samples, which you can sort by jobfamily and experience level. Section ExamplesView examples for each kind of section on your resume (e.g. education,experience, honors and awards). Action VerbsA list of 400+ action verbs to help you describe your work experience Explore CareersOpens the O*NET database, where you can find occupation-specificinformation like skills and education required, and salary and growthtrends Document Toolbar Rename – lets you change the name of your resumeClone – creates a duplicate copy of your resume in theDocument Center. Before cloning, you must enter aunique name for your cloned resume.Review Center (if available) – Allows you to send yourresume to a career counselor. Select your counselor fromthe drop-down menu, and include a message if desired.ResumeGPS (if available) – Select the current resumeto be used as your GPS resume. Your GPS resume ismade available to employers for searching. For moreinformation on Resume GPS, click here. 11 Print Preview – Shows an HTML version of your resume.This is how your resume will appear in downloadableversions. More importantly, Print Preview shows howmany pages your resume will take up. To move to anotherpage, use the arrow buttons or the Go To Page feature.You can also zoom in and out of your resume to see howit will look from different ranges.Download – Download a hard copy of your resume intodifferent formats: PDF, HTML, Plain Text, and MicrosoftWord Compatible.Switch Resumes – Clicking this button shows all of theresumes you have created so far in the Document Center.Click on a resume’s name to go to the editing page forthat document. www.optimalresume.com • 877.998.7654 • [email protected] Post-production ToolsEditing your ResumeTo edit a resume at a later time, click theresume’s name in the Document Center.This will bring you back to the editing pagewhere you can save new changes to yourdocument. Sharing your ResumeUse the Share Button within the taskbar toeasily share your resume with your network.Choose from a variety of different socialmedia sites, search engines, e-mail, etc. We recommend that you add a resumeto your resume website in order to easilyshare your resume online with employers.If you haven’t already, create a website inthe Website Builder and select your desiredresume from the list of available resumes.For more information, refer to the WebsiteBuilder help. 12 www.optimalresume.com • 877.998.7654 • [email protected] <|end|>
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