text
stringlengths 185
593k
| url
stringlengths 15
3.92k
| source
stringclasses 1
value | estimate_token_length
int64 103
593k
| score
float64 2.58
5.22
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
Breakthroughs in Time, Talent, and Technology: Next Generation Learning Models in Public Charter Schools
Breakthroughs in Time, Talent, and Technology: Next Generation Learning Models in Public Charter Schools, authored by Shonaka Ellison and Gillian Locke of Public Impact, explains three core aspects of next generation learning:
- Time, structuring the day around a pace more suited to the students they serve rather than a strict bell schedule;
- Talent, hiring and cultivating teachers around their particular expertise, exploring innovative tutoring models, and utilizing master teachers; and
- Technology, incorporating digital self-paced learning with multiple ways for students to receive and understand new content.
As the report states, “The term ‘next generation’ connotes for many the idea of “technology enabled,” or using technology to enhance a certain product or process. But next-generation models move beyond technological innovation. These models’ core goal is to truly personalize learning so that each student can reach his or her potential. To do this, next generation models must use time and talent—in addition to technology—in ways that differ significantly from the traditional school model.”
In addition to providing an overview of next generation models and recommendations for policymakers, the report also looks at four different charter schools that are successfully implementing next-generation models: Venture Academy in Minneapolis, MN, Match Next in Boston, MA, Ingenuity Prep in Washington, D.C., and Summit Public Schools in the San Francisco Bay Area. | http://www.publiccharters.org/publications/next-gen-learning/ | fineweb | 1,590 | 2.6875 |
July 25, 2009
Gulf Dead Zone Smaller This Year
A scientist reported Friday that the Gulf of Mexico's "dead zone," where low amounts of oxygen in the water make it hard for anything to live there, is less than half the size as predicted earlier this year.
Every year in the gulf bacteria, Which feed on algae blooms from the flow of farming runoff and other nutrients from the Mississippi River, cause the notorious hypoxic area to form in the Gulf.According to Nancy Rabalais, a researcher that specializes in the problem for the Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, the area this year covers an area of 3,000 square miles, stretching from nearly the bottom to the surface. This hypoxic area is one of the smallest since 2000.
Scientists has predicted that this year's zone would be 7,500 to 8,500 square miles.
Rabalais wrote that the possible reasons for the difference include high winds and waves that helped mix more oxygen into some of the waters.
"This was surprisingly small given the forecast to be among the largest ever and the expanse of the dead zone earlier this summer," she said.
Hypoxia occurs when algae blooms - which nitrates and phosphates feed on - die and fall to the bottom. While this happens the wind dies down, meaning that fresh water coming out of the rivers does not get mixed into the denser salt water below it. Then microbes that feed on the dead algae use up oxygen from the bottom up, creating the dead zone.
In some areas where the oxygen was lowest, according to Rabalais, crabs, eels and shrimp, which are usually seen swimming on the bottom of the ocean, were seen swimming at the surface.
Other studies show that severely low oxygen levels in early July contributed to "jubilees," which is forced movement of fish, crabs and shrimp into shallow waters, off Grande Isle.
Monday, Rabalais and other researchers are expected to discuss the hypoxic problem through a telephone news conference with Jane Lubcheno of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
"We want to raise some of the issues behind it and some of the debate about the changes needed to shrink it," NOAA spokesman Ben Sherman said Wednesday.
According to researcher Robert Diaz of Virginia Marine Institute, the Gulf's dead zone is the largest of 250 hypoxic areas in the U.S. waters.
On the Net: | http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1726675/gulf_dead_zone_smaller_this_year/ | fineweb | 2,323 | 3.3125 |
GIVEN the looming obesity epidemic, it seems desirable to increase the cost of products high in sugar and at the same time reduce the cost of products which are an essential part of a healthy diet (your report, 19 February).
All of the discussion seems to be focused on levying a 20 per cent charge on sugary drinks but there is no mention of reducing the cost of more healthy products at the same time. The VAT system is the obvious solution.
If VAT were charged at 20 per cent on sugary drinks a negative rate of 20 per cent VAT could be applied to healthy food, constituting a healthy food rebate.
For example, say it costs £1.00 to buy a two-litre bottle of cola and it also costs £1.00 to purchase a pack of six apples. The bottle of cola contains 824 calories and 224 grams of sugar while the packet of six apples contains 318 calories and 66 grams of sugar plus other beneficial properties.
If VAT were applied to the cola, the cost would rise from £1.00 to £1.20.
If negative VAT were applied to the apples, the cost would fall from £1.00 to 80p, everything being equal.
So instead of both products having the same cost, there would be a difference of 40p and the bottle of cola would cost 50 per cent more than the pack of six apples. This could make a substantial impact on purchasing behaviour.
Surely it is time for our politicians to get off the fence and actually do something that will discourage the consumption of sugar and promote healthy eating whilst not increasing the overall cost of a family’s food bill.
A Healthy Food Rebate could be the solution.
Derek J Gray
Easter Belmont Road, Edinburgh | http://www.scotsman.com/news/opinion/your-say/some-give-and-take-required-if-we-are-to-advance-the-great-sugar-tax-debate-1-4034935 | fineweb | 1,616 | 2.828125 |
page 1 of 2
Sing to me of the man, Muse, the man of twists and turns
driven time and again off course, once he had plundered the hallowed heights of Troy.
The narrator of the Odyssey invokes the Muse, asking for inspiration as he prepares to tell the story of Odysseus. The story begins ten years after the end of the Trojan War, the subject of the Iliad. All of the Greek heroes except Odysseus have returned home. Odysseus languishes on the remote island Ogygia with the goddess Calypso, who has fallen in love with him and refuses to let him leave. Meanwhile, a mob of suitors is devouring his estate in Ithaca and courting his wife, Penelope, in hopes of taking over his kingdom. His son, Telemachus, an infant when Odysseus left but now a young man, is helpless to stop them. He has resigned himself to the likelihood that his father is dead.
With the consent of Zeus, Athena travels to Ithaca to speak with Telemachus. Assuming the form of Odysseus’s old friend Mentes, Athena predicts that Odysseus is still alive and that he will soon return to Ithaca. She advises Telemachus to call together the suitors and announce their banishment from his father’s estate. She then tells him that he must make a journey to Pylos and Sparta to ask for any news of his father. After this conversation, Telemachus encounters Penelope in the suitors’ quarters, upset over a song that the court bard is singing. Like Homer with the Iliad, the bard sings of the sufferings experienced by the Greeks on their return from Troy, and his song makes the bereaved Penelope more miserable than she already is. To Penelope’s surprise, Telemachus rebukes her. He reminds her that Odysseus isn’t the only Greek to not return from Troy and that, if she doesn’t like the music in the men’s quarters, she should retire to her own chamber and let him look after her interests among the suitors. He then gives the suitors notice that he will hold an assembly the next day at which they will be ordered to leave his father’s estate. Antinous and Eurymachus, two particularly defiant suitors, rebuke Telemachus and ask the identity of the visitor with whom he has just been speaking. Although Telemachus suspects that his visitor was a goddess in disguise, he tells them only that the man was a friend of his father.
When the assembly meets the next day, Aegyptius, a wise Ithacan elder, speaks first. He praises Telemachus for stepping into his father’s shoes, noting that this occasion marks the first time that the assembly has been called since Odysseus left. Telemachus then gives an impassioned speech in which he laments the loss of both his father and his father’s home—his mother’s suitors, the sons of Ithaca’s elders, have taken it over. He rebukes them for consuming his father’s oxen and sheep as they pursue their courtship day in and day out when any decent man would simply go to Penelope’s father, Icarius, and ask him for her hand in marriage.
Antinous blames the impasse on Penelope, who, he says, seduces every suitor but will commit to none of them. He reminds the suitors of a ruse that she concocted to put off remarrying: Penelope maintained that she would choose a husband as soon as she finished weaving a burial shroud for her elderly father-in-law, Laertes. But each night, she carefully undid the knitting that she had completed during the day, so that the shroud would never be finished. If Penelope can make no decision, Antinous declares, then she should be sent back to Icarius so that he can choose a new husband for her. The dutiful Telemachus refuses to throw his mother out and calls upon the gods to punish the suitors. At that moment, a pair of eagles, locked in combat, appears overhead. The soothsayer Halitherses interprets their struggle as a portent of Odysseus’s imminent return and warns the suitors that they will face a massacre if they don’t leave. The suitors balk at such foolishness, and the meeting ends in deadlock.
As Telemachus is preparing for his trip to Pylos and Sparta, Athena visits him again, this time disguised as Mentor, another old friend of Odysseus. She encourages him and predicts that his journey will be fruitful. She then sets out to town and, assuming the disguise of Telemachus himself, collects a loyal crew to man his ship. Telemachus himself tells none of the household servants of his trip for fear that his departure will upset his mother. He tells only Eurycleia, his wise and aged nurse. She pleads with him not to take to the open sea as his father did, but he puts her fears to rest by saying that he knows that a god is at his side.
The Odyssey is an epic journey, but the word journey must be broadly understood. The epic focuses, of course, on Odysseus’s nostos (“return home” or “homeward voyage”), a journey whose details a Greek audience would already know because of their rich oral mythic tradition. But Odysseus’s return is not the only journey in the Odyssey, nor is it the one with which the story begins. After the opening passages, which explain Odysseus’s situation, the focus shifts to the predicament of Odysseus’s son, Telemachus. He finds himself coming of age in a household usurped by his mother’s suitors, and it is he who, with the support of Athena and the other gods, must step into the role of household master that his father left vacant nearly twenty years earlier. Thus, in addition to a physical journey to Pylos and Sparta to learn more about his father’s fate, Telemachus embarks upon a metaphorical journey into manhood to preserve his father’s estate.
Odysseus covered his mens ears with beeswax, because they would never want to go back home listening to the sirens.
72 out of 179 people found this helpful
what can u tell me about the Odyssey so i can finish a crossword puzzle for english9
24 out of 167 people found this helpful
How am I supposed to do a book report on this book in 30 MINUTES????!?!? Please give me tips, pleeeeeeeezzz!! Copy of form: wwwhi-there.moonfruit.com
THANK YOU FOR THE HELP!!!!!!!!!
14 out of 93 people found this helpful | http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/odyssey/section1.html | fineweb | 6,043 | 2.84375 |
It has been a major topic of concern throughout the great plains of Texas, that he quail population is dangerously declining. In the good old days when locals discussed anything quail, it was typically about the great thrill of hunting them. Needless to say, quail was extremely common and hearing the call of the bobwhite quail can ascertain nostalgia long lost. Bobwhites and blue quail were a couple of the popular species roaming Texas grasslands and wooded areas.
But a bird once taken for granted has deeply impacted Texas landscape ecologically, economically, and even culturally. Some believe that they are nothing more than to serve the land aesthetically, however, conserving the native quails have far more significance. Their presence are proof that the range lands and the forest ecosystems are healthy and stable. The burden is on every Texan resident to pull together to conserve the quail population, and help it grow.
Not only are hunters feeling the absence of quail, but plenty of other bird enthusiasts and environmental groups are seeing the devastation of land due to their smaller numbers. With a number of circumstances of both natural and man-made detriments such as wildfire and over-developed land, quail are endangered of being locally extinct.
State officials are teaming up with several organizations to help spread awareness as well as solutions. Creating a wildlife habitat is in the works, as well as recruiting landowners and hunters in this endeavor. Below are a few tips that each branch of recruits can do to pull in efforts and resources to help substantiate the quail populace again.
Private Landowners – Experts believe that private landowners hold the key to the restoration of the quail population. Becoming educated on how the pros and cons of your land management is effecting quail habitats. Here are a few things you can do:
– To learn how you can modify your grazing and brush control methods to make them more quail friendly, you can contact your county TPWD biologists.
– Acquaint yourself with quail. Learning about quail can better equip you on applying changes and other strategies on becoming more quail-friendly. Attend programs and seminars to gain insight.
– Come together with your neighbors to launch your own quail cooperative groups.
– Seek knowledge on monitoring the quail trends and activities that are occurring on your property.
– Get your property enrolled in the Texas Quail index.
– Fill out applications for the assortment of Farm Bill Incentive programs to contribute to quail and wildlife habitats on your property, and be sure to submit them.
Obviously, quail hunters play their part in the grand scheme of things as well. Here is what you can do:
– Recruit new blood, especially the next generation into quail hunting.
– Band with landowners to promote adoption of habitat management practices.
– Join groups to help promote good quail management methods.
– Become more knowledgeable in your role of hunting in conservation and pass it on to others.
Outdoor and Environmental Enthusiasts
The folks who appreciate the great outdoors and all the wildlife that inhabits therein can join in the efforts as well. With everyone’s contributions, our plan can come to fruition. Check out below the things you can do to help the cause:
– Purchase a hunting license, even if you have no intention of using it. The funds that are generated are used in a variety of conservation programs.
– Promote and contribute to tourism of nature based themes. Doing so can generate additional income to management programs.
– Enlist in groups that cultivate an appreciation for all wildlife.
– Support and contribute as you can to educational efforts to spread the word on quail habitats.
There are simple things you can do to help protect our Texas heritage, including creating quail habitats to help increase the population. Contact your local groups like Texas Heritage Protection to find out more on what you can do to help in this noble quest. | http://www.texasheritageprotection.org/raising-quail-populations-in-texas/ | fineweb | 3,998 | 2.59375 |
Saturday, 16 January 2010
King Herod's Temple, temple mount, jerusalem
Herod's Temple, Jerusalem.
a number of sources indicate a lower location than the Dome of the Rock!
theories over its location article.
its Lower Location indicators:
"The Hulda Gates were the primary access to the Temple area from the south. According to the Mishna, the difference in heights between the Hulda Gates and the Holy of the Holies was approximately 10 meters, with about 39 m between the entrance to the Temple mount and the level of the Temple itself. The traditional Dome of the Rock proposals require 20 meters and 80 m separations.
The current assumptions regarding Hulda Gate tunnels are not mentioned in the ancient sources. The discrepancies suggest a lower, ...location."
this means the dome of the rock is too high (and is the hightest part of temple mount).
Flavius-Obscured View of temple.
"Josephus Flavius describes the fact that the Bizita Hill (Golgotha?) was located north of the Temple Mount and obscured the view of the Temple from the north.
If the Temple stood at the Dome of the Rock, it would be visible from as far away as the town of Ramallah. In order to obscure the view from the north, it would have to be at a lower level"
Water-Course. it innt flowing uphill rabbi.
"A survey of the level of the aqueduct reveals that if the Temple had been located at the same elevation as the present Dome of the Rock shrine, the aqueduct would be over 20 meters too low to serve either the Azarah or the Water Gate."
"In fact, Tuvia's recent research suggests the Dome site may have been originally a Canaanite High Place with tombs beneath, and later (until the reforms of Josiah) the location of an Ashoreh pillar."
a Dome of the Tablets?
"The Mt. Moriah bedrock outcrops within the Dome of Rock, as is well known. Although the bedrock elevation drops sharply to the south in the direction of the City of David, the level of the bedrock is just beneath the paving stones for over 100 meters to the North of the Dome of the Rock shrine. One particular level outcropping of this bedrock lies under a small Islamic shrine known as "The Dome of the Tablets" or "The Dome of the Spirits," to the Arabs. Both names suggest an association with the Jewish Temples. It is under this small, unimpressive canopy supported by pillars that Dr. Kaufman locates the Temple site."
jooz found making priestly garments for cohon'im priests. youtube.
kohan'im levi conference youtube.
by the horns of baal! temple harps being made for harpists to play.
Rabbi Richman introduces the two Bezichin...
more vessels....of the temple.
sacrificial altar building (to be moved to temple later). | http://allearthlingstogetherblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/king-herods-temple-temple-mount.html | fineweb | 2,669 | 3.21875 |
Most native plants will grow adequately if planted on a suitable site but early growth rates can be increased by the addition of an appropriate type and amount of fertiliser. The fertiliser enriches the soil and ensures that plants have the necessary supply of nutrients as well as the major nutrients - nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur.
Trees also require trace elements such as iron, copper and zinc. The type and quantity of fertiliser used depends on soil types and conditions, and the species being planted.
Placement of fertiliser
Seedlings and young trees
Fertilisers can be spread in a ring around the tree if the area is relatively flat, but should otherwise be in a band on the uphill side of the tree. An alternative method i to dig one or two small holes 10-20 cm deep near the tree, place the fertiliser in the hole and refill with soil. Fertiliser should be 20-50 cm away from the base of the tree.
Advanced or mature trees
Healthy mature trees show little response when general fertilisers are applied, but particular elements may be applied to correct deficiencies. Sick or damaged trees may also benefit from fertiliser application. Spread the fertiliser evenly or place it in holes (e.g. made with a crowbar) across the area beneath the canopy. Organic fertilisers such as blood and bone and composted poultry manure vary in nutrient content but are usually good sources of phosphorus and nitrogen. Other organic substances such as old cow manure, hay, sawdust, newspapers, grass clippings and bagasse are not fertilisers.
In some cases these materials may even reduce nutrients available to young trees as they tie up nutrients in the composting process, only releasing them to the tree after composting has finished.
Native plants can be broadly categorised according to their natural habitat. Below is a general guide to the fertiliser requirements of trees from each category.
1. Rainforest from fertile soils
Rainforest trees are generally broad-leaved species which require high water and nutrient conditions. These species often demand nitrogen, particularly when grown in full sunlight (e.g. park or garden situations). If grown in the shade, their nitrogen (N) requirements are less. Phosphorus (P) is also necessary, so use of complete fertilisers is necessary for these species on poor soils.
2. Eucalypt forest from moderately fertile soils
Eucalypt forest includes wet sclerophyll types with species such as flooded gum, tallowwood etc, and broad leaved understorey species allied to rainforest elements. These are generally nitrogen demanders, but not to the same extent as the rainforest species. They will also respond to P provided N levels are adequate. Again, moderate applications of a complete fertiliser is recommended.
3. Eucalypt forest from poorer soils
These are generally dry sclerophyll forest trees with understoreys of sclerophyllous species. Nutrient requirements of mature specimens are probably adequately catered for in most soils, but seedlings will respond to balanced fertilisng with N and P on all but the best soils.
4. Heath and Wallum
Species on poor soils, often poorly drained These communities have minimal fertiliser requirements and do not need fertilising under most conditions. They generally respond well to mulching (e.g. pine bark) and a very small starter dose of low NP fertiliser.
5. Arid Zone Species
These come from variable soils, and good drainage takes precedence over nutrition in a horticultural situation. They often are adapted to alkaline soils so that careful liming can be helpful. Most are generally adapted to soils of poor fertility so treat as heath plants or dry sclerophyll plants depending on their origin.
6. Strand Plants - from dune areas, behind dunes and behind mangrove situations
These plants have adapted to salt spray/drift and periodic soil salinity. Soil alkalinity/acidity can be variable, though generally they prefer acid conditions. They will respond to N and P and some spray. Treat similarly to the dry sclerophyll species, but investigate any possible lime requirements. Fertiliser rates Rates of fertilising necessary will vary widely depending on the species being planted and soil types and conditions. Rates of between 50 and 300g at planting are common, followed by similar amounts after good rain in the spring or early summer. Another follow-up application the following spring may also be beneficial.
TYPES OF FERTILISERS
Type Elements Fertiliser % by Weight
Single Fertilisers High N Urea 46N
Moderate N Mitram 34N
Low N Ammonium sulphate 20.5N
High P Super King 19.2P
Low P Superphosphate 9.2P
High P Muriate of potash
Sulphate of potash
Compound V. High N, High P DAP 19 N 20 P
High N, High P MAP 12 N 22 P
High N, V High K Nitrate of potash 13 N 38 K
N P K
Mixtures High N, High P, High K Crop King 55 11.9 14.1 9.9
V High N, Low P, High K Crop King 88 15.3 4.0 11.7
High N, Low P, Low K Tropic 10.0 3.9 6.1
Low N, Low P, Low K Q5 5.0 6.8 4.0
Organic Low N, Very Low P Dynamic lifter 4.4 1.1 0.2 | http://ausbushfoods.com/index.php/plants/101-fertilising-native-plants | fineweb | 5,047 | 3.859375 |
Cornerstone of World's Highest Security Seed Bank is Laid
The cornerstone has been laid for a "doomsday vault" in the Arctic which is designed to secure crops like potatoes, wheat and apples, protecting them from extinction.
Threats include plant epidemics, nuclear war, natural disasters or climate change; the bank will offer the world a chance to restart growth of food crops that could be wiped out.
Dug into a frozen mountainside on the island of Svalbard, fenced in and guarded, with steel airlock doors, motion detectors and polar bears roaming outside, the 30-million kroner ($4.8-million) concrete facility will, its backers say, be the most secure building of its type in the world.
More than 100 countries have backed the vault, which will store seeds, packaged in foil, at sub-zero temperatures in Norway's remote Svalbard Islands, roughly 1,000 km (620 miles) from the North Pole. Norwegian Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg marked the start of construction by filling a special cornerstone with seeds.
Stoltenberg said: "The vault is of international importance. It will be the only one of its kind; all the other gene banks are of a commercial nature."
At temperatures of minus 18C (minus 0.4F), the seeds could last hundreds, even thousands, of years. Even if all cooling systems fail, the temperature in the frozen mountain will never rise above freezing due to the permafrost on the mountainside. Planners considered what would happen if global warming continues unabated. Computer models suggest that no matter what, Svalbard will always remain one of the coldest places on Earth.
And if, as some models predict, global warming shuts down the Gulf Stream and turns the Greenland Sea into a place even more frozen than it is now? It will still be easy enough to keep the door clear of snow, according to the analysis.
The Global Crop Diversity Trust, founded in 2004, will help run the vault, which is planned to open and start accepting seeds from around the world in September 2007. The bank is eventually expected to house as many as 3 million different types of seed from all over the world.
"This facility will provide a practical means to re-establish crops obliterated by major disasters," said Cary Fowler, executive secretary of the Global Crop Diversity Trust, a United Nations-linked organization that led the campaign to establish the seed bank.
Fowler, who was the lead writer of a study that led to the creation of the vault, said crop diversity was also threatened by "accidents, mismanagement, and short-sighted budget cuts".
``Despite changes being wrought by global warming, experts believe the deep permafrost will be reliably cool for at least the next 100 years. Even with a complete loss of refrigeration, vault temperatures would never rise above minus 3.5 Celsius or about 27 degrees Fahrenheit.''
The trust has established an endowment that so far has $50 million of the $260 million that will be needed to sustain operations without depleting its principal. Contributions have come from about a dozen countries as well as foundations, seed companies and others.
The vault is one of many strategies being implemented in sync with the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which came into force in 2004 and has been ratified by more than 100 nations, the most recent being Iran. The United States has signed the treaty, but the Senate has not ratified it.
Already, some 1,400 seed banks around the world, most of them national, hold samples of a country's crops. But these banks "can be affected by shutdowns, natural disasters, war or simply a lack of money," said Mr Riis-Johansen.
The samples will be held in ``black boxes'' that will only be released in the event that all other seed sources have been destroyed or exhausted, according to the trust.
While Norway will own the vault itself, countries sending seeds will own the material they deposit - much as with a bank safe-deposit box. The Global Crop Diversity Trust will help developing countries pay the cost of preparing and sending seeds.
The vault isn't the first attempt by scientists and government to preserve the planet's diversity. The Svalbard bank adds to crop collections in about 1,400 gene banks around the world that are supported by the trust. In July 2004, London's Natural History Museum announced a ``Frozen Ark'' project to preserve the DNA of animals that face extinction.
``If seeds stored in a commercial gene bank are destroyed, and this has apparently happened about 40 times to date, the contents of this gene bank will make it possible to replace the seeds which have been lost,'' Stoltenberg said. ``It is our final safety net.''
The Value of Seed
Scientists estimate there are 2 million varieties of plants used for food and forage today. That includes an astonishing 100,000 varieties of rice, the major staple of the human diet, and more than 1,000 varieties of banana, a nutritious fruit of global importance.
Seeds from these crops, which can be smaller than poppy seeds and as large as coconuts, are invaluable repositories of plant DNA. They are the raw material that farmers and researchers rely on to develop more productive and nutritious plants that can cope with climate change, new diseases or pests.
About 1,400 seed banks already exist, including large national collections in the United States and China; international ones maintained by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), funded by the World Bank, the Food and Agriculture Organization and the United Nations; and small ones at universities and research labs. Seeds are typically stored at minus 4 degrees Fahrenheit, and are periodically removed and germinated to grow plants, whose fresh seeds are redeposited.
But only a few dozen of these banks meet international standards, and even fewer have funding commitments that ensure their long-term maintenance. Indeed, recent surveys have revealed a slow-motion seed bank disaster in the making, with many collections seeing germination rates well below the internationally agreed upon minimum of 85 percent.
Worse, some seed banks have recently been destroyed, the victims of war and unrest in Afghanistan, Iraq and Rwanda and a reminder of the fragility of these resources. A backup bank could resupply regional banks like those. | http://bgci.org/news-and-events/news/0245/ | fineweb | 6,346 | 3.21875 |
Below are some additional resources which can be used in care groups.
Module 1: Soil Conservation (8 Lessons) This module covers simple practices farmers can follow to increase productivity. The modules begins with soil structure and moves on to the following improved practices: planting on a contour; applying appropriate planting density; addition of hedgerows, cover crops and mulch for improved productivity, composting and inter cropping. Note that the lesson plan was written in 2010 and was used without visual aids in Mozambique and DRC. The flip chart for DRC was developed two years later and follows the lesson plan with some modifications.
- (2010) Lesson Plan in English, French, and Portuguese
- (2013) Flip chart in English (MSWord and PDF) and Swahili (MSWord and PDF)
Module 2: Raising Goats: Housing, Care and Reproduction This module covers the benefits of owning goats, guidelines for breeding and reproduction, care and feeding, treating and preventing basic illness and building of a goat shelter. This module was developed for DRC.
- (2010) Lesson Plan in English and French
- (2012) Flip chart (Key Messages only) in English (Pub and PDF)
- (2012) Flip chart in Swahili (Pub and PDF)
Crops: Developed for Mozambique this module covers practices for 10 crops in Mozambique to help farmers better understand their characteristics and care needed for improved growth.
- (2010) Lesson Plan (draft) in English and (draft) Portuguese
- (2010) Flipchart (draft) in English Lessons 1-3 (Pub and PDF), 4-10 (Pub and PDF)
- (2010) Flipchart in Portuguese
* You may also be interested in Module 9: Kitchen Garden and Raising of Small Animals on the DRC page. | http://caregroupinfo.org/care-group-curricula/agricultural-curriculum/ | fineweb | 1,672 | 3.375 |
The air we breathe, whether inside or outside, can enhance or hinder our quality of life. Although Iowa is a rural state, air quality is just as important as any other state.
Poor air quality indoors can be attributed to mold/mildew, tobacco smoke, lead based paint hazards, pet dander, asbestos, carbon monoxide, chemicals, poor air circulation, and many other contributing factors.
Poor air quality outdoors can be natural or man-made. Natural occurrences such as volcanic eruptions, fires, dust, and wind all attribute to poor air quality. Man-made air pollution can come from a multitude of stationary and mobile sources. Stationary Sources include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories), and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. Mobile sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, and aircraft. Confined Animal Feeding Facilities or CAFO’s can also impact outdoor and indoor air quality. Click Here! for more information.
Outdoor air quality in Cerro Gordo County is handled by the Iowa Department of Natural Resources (IDNR). The IDNR provides the following air quality programming services in Cerro Gordo County:
Click Here! for more information about the IDNR Air Quality Program in Cerro Gordo County. | http://cghealth.com/topics/air-quality/ | fineweb | 1,293 | 3.609375 |
In many parts of Asia people actually try to have children in the year of the dragon. In China, the dragon is considered a powerful but benevolent creature. It is not the fire-breathing menace to society as in Western society. In the East, the dragon is almost like a God, hence the incorporation of the dragon in the Lunar New Year's celebrations. In fact, I caught a part of "Quest for Dragons" on the History Channel and learned that the Chinese and Native Americans have surprisingly similar views on dragons-- both cultures respect the dragon and see it as a god of rain and the bringer of prosperity. The dragon occupies a very important postion in Chinese (and Asian) mythology. It shows up in history, architecture, art, literature, religion and music. In fact, according to Vietnamese mythology, the Vietnamese are descendants of the dragon.
The earliest traditions of the Vietnamese people...are associated with the Hung kings who ruled the kingdom of Van-lang. The Hung kings claimed descent from Lac Long Quan, "Lac Dragon Lord," a hero who came to the Hong River plain in what is now northern Vietnam from his home in the sea; he subdued all evil demons in the land and civilized the people, teaching them to cultivate rice and to wear clothes. Lac Long Quan returned to the sea after instructing the people to call on him if they were ever in distress. Eventually, a monarch from the north, China, entered the land and, finding it without a king, claimed it for himself. When the people cried out to Lac Long Quan for deliverance from this alien ruler, he heard them and came back from the sea; he kidnapped Au Co, the wife of the intruder, and took her to the top of Mount Tan-vien, which overlooks the Hong River as it enters the plains. Failing to retrieve his wife, the northern king departed in despair. Au Co eventually gave birth to the first of the Hung kings, and Lac Long Quan returned to his home in the sea after again promising to return if needed. Lac Long Quan, a prince of the sea, and Au Co, a princess of the mountains, are regarded by the Vietnamese as the progenitors of their race."From Keith Weller Taylor's The Birth of Vietnam.
If that ain't enough, how's this personal characteristics:
The Dragon is one of the most powerful and lucky Signs of the Chinese Zodiac. Its warm heart makes the Dragon's brash, fiery energy far more palatable. This is a giving, intelligent and tenacious Sign that knows exactly what it wants and is determined to get it. Dragons possess a certain natural, charming charisma that ensures they can always influence their peers and often find themselves the center of attention in social situations. This Sign is truly blessed, too; Dragons are considered to be very lucky in love! The Dragon's friends are always keen to hear what this firebrand has to say and when it comes to dispensing advice, the Dragon has the floor.From here.
Its ego can get in the Dragon's way, but even so, this larger-than-life creature has a knack for initiating projects and keeping the troops motivated. According to Dragons, it's their natural born right to lead the way -- because who else could do it so surely and so well? As lucky as they are, Dragons have a good chance of achieving considerable material wealth during their lifetimes, although it isn't mere money that's this Sign's main motivation. Power is what the Dragon wants and truly believes it deserves. Dragons are quite the opportunists, forever searching for ways in which to consolidate their considerable power. Contrary to all this strength and fire, a weakened Dragon is a sad sack, a creature that refuses to take defeat with even a modicum of grace.
The role of leader is the only one the Dragon wants, the better from which to give orders and be king of the hill. They make solid leaders, too, knowing instinctively what needs to be done to stay on top. Crossing the Dragon is never a good idea -- this beast can singe! A valuable life lesson for this clever creature would be to absorb the principles of flexibility, compassion and tolerance. Being high and mighty can serve to inspire others, but it also keeps Dragons from living their lives to the fullest. If Dragons can learn to balance their quest for success with an appreciation for the little things, their life will be more than worthwhile.
Supposedly, dragons are compatible with rats and monkeys, but should avoid oxen, rabbits, dogs and other dragons. You dragons out there are in very good company (surprise surprise). Famous dragons include Joan of Arc, Julius Caesar, Abe Lincoln, Martin Luther King, Jr., Charles Darwin, Pelé, Ronaldo, Bruce Lee, Sandra Bullock, Keanu Reeves, Reese Witherspoon and a gaggle of Lord of the Rings folks (Dominic Monaghan, Orlando Bloom and Andy Serkis). | http://chanchow.blogspot.com/2006/01/chinese-zodiac-dragn.html | fineweb | 4,774 | 3 |
Allergies can put a serious crimp in gardening: A runny nose, itchy eyes, or a wheezing and persistent cough can drive allergy sufferers indoors during the growing season.
But there are many things you can do to reduce those irritations and remain a dedicated gardener.
Start by determining what’s causing your allergies. See an allergist for tests to define the problem. Then you can garden smarter by avoiding plants that give off harmful pollen, and working only when fewer spores are in the air.
An estimated 50 million Americans have seasonal allergy problems, according to the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America. The cause is pollen from plants, trees, grasses, weeds and mold spores.
Peak season usually is March through October, but that varies by region. Tree pollen can be a problem as early as January in the South.
Some allergy avoidance tips:
• Gear up. Medications suggested by a doctor or pharmacist usually relieve the symptoms, said Leonard Perry, an extension horticulturist with the University of Vermont.
• Wear a mask. Simple paper masks leak, said Dr. Richard Weber, an allergist and president of the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. For more sensitive allergy sufferers, he said, “it makes more sense to get the more sophisticated masks with respirators on each side of your face.”
• Check the daily pollen count. Avoid direct outside exposure on high pollen days when it is sunny, dry and windy, said Dr. Clifford Bassett, the director of Allergy and Asthma Care of New York.
• Eliminate problem plants, especially weeds that can aggravate late summer and fall allergies, Bassett said. Choose plants that are less likely to cause allergies, such as azalea, bulbs, cacti, daisies, dahlia, pansies and petunias, dogwood trees, hibiscus, boxwood and yucca shrubs. | http://chronicle.augusta.com/news/2013-11-07/simple-tips-can-help-allergy-sufferers-keep-gardening | fineweb | 1,809 | 2.84375 |
We've been learning at home for fifteen years. Our children learning at home are 14 and 16. Our two oldest children have graduated from their homeschool years and are now in college.
Monday, December 5, 2011
It's Elbow Grease Week here at Cornerstone Home Learning Academy. What does this mean?
Working 25 hours a week from home means I don't have a lot of time for house cleaning and chores. The students here at the academy are on a work-study program (meaning they do the cooking, cleaning, and yardwork).
My children's approach to chores tends toward minimalism. Also, they appear to be wearing blinders when doing their tasks. For example, one might clean all the normal surfaces in the bathroom, but since the floor is not a daily chore, the child would probably ignore a muddy streak in the middle of the floor.
Each child is responsible for two rooms/areas during each week, with normally specified chores to be done daily and weekly. The
instructions I give do explain that the entire room is supposed to be
clean, but the children seem to be ignorant of how to tell if that's the
In an effort to improve their thoroughness, I have declared this week Elbow Grease Week. I have put forth a challenge: choose one additional (normally unassigned) area in your assigned room that needs some cleaning or organizing attention. And Clean It!
The area that shows the most effort and benefit will get a prize each day! And the best for the week will get an even better prize! You know that great feeling that you get when you've done a good job and that surface is now shiny clean and organized? Hopefully they'll get that reward too. | http://cornerstonehomelearning.blogspot.com/2011/12/elbow-grease.html | fineweb | 1,634 | 2.59375 |
CSE231 Honor Project
see a working version of gomoku
check point #1(Nov. 2): Get familiar with pygame and draw Gomoku board
- use pygame.draw.line, see manual.
- use loop
- choose your own color scheme
- put it in to a function, no input & output e.g. def draw_board()
check point #2(Nov. 9): draw board with pieces according to the 2-dimensional
- use 2-dimensional list to represent board.
- 1: black piece, 2: white piece, 0: empty
- use function
check point #3(Nov. 16): keyboard interation: control cursor using keyboard
- draw a cursor.
- move cursor and place pieces, using keyboard[how to input with keyboard]
- follow the program flow on the lecture slides.
check point #4(Nov. 22): Test winning
put everything together, you program by Nov 22 should do the following
- after a piece is placed, test whether current play wins the game
- 5 pieces in a row, vertically, horizontally, diagnoally.
- draw a borard which has 15 x 15 cross points. Represent the board by
using a 2-dimensional list
- draw a cursor that can be control by keyboard.
- after a piece is placed, test whether this is a winning move(5 pieces
in a row)
- update board list
- redraw board and piece based on current board list
check point #final: simple AI
- make simple AI so your program can do easy defense and attack
- see slides for details | http://cse.msu.edu/~chengy/ | fineweb | 1,322 | 2.78125 |
A Math Board Game Adventure for Kids
Our Most Loved Game for 2016
On a deep space mission, your crew is stranded on a planet that's headed towards a black hole. Your only hope of escape is to race back to your rocket ship to escape in time.
- Kids Practice Early Math Skills - Moving Across the Board Adding and Subtracting 0-9, comparing numbers (greater than, less than, equal to) and practicing odds and evens.
- You Decide: Co-operative or Competitive Rules Lets Your Kids Work Together Towards a Common Goal or Race to the Finish.
- Co-operative game rules feature 3 difficulty levels to keep children interested over time.
- Ages: 5+, 2-4 Players
- Box Contents
- 12x18 inch Full Color Print Game Board
- 4 Color Pawns
- 2 10 sided Dice
- 1 Addition and Subtraction Die
- 1 Rocket Ship Token
- Game Rule Sheet
All printed materials made in U.S.A., assembled in U.S.A., game pieces mixed U.S.A and Imported origins. | http://davincisroom.com/math-board-game-sums-in-space | fineweb | 920 | 2.703125 |
No, it’s not an immutable law of nature. In the 1920s, retailers began encouraging pink (a strong color) for boys and blue (a dainty one) for girls, before the trend reversed after World War II. For centuries prior, both boys and girls wore white dresses.
For centuries, children wore dainty white dresses up to age 6. “What was once a matter of practicality—you dress your baby in white dresses and diapers; white cotton can be bleached—became a matter of ‘Oh my God, if I dress my baby in the wrong thing, they’ll grow up perverted,’ ” Paoletti says.
The march toward gender-specific clothes was neither linear nor rapid. Pink and blue arrived, along with other pastels, as colors for babies in the mid-19th century, yet the two colors were not promoted as gender signifiers until just before World War I—and even then, it took time for popular culture to sort things out.
In 1927, Time magazine printed a chart showing sex-appropriate colors for girls and boys according to leading U.S. stores. In Boston, Filene’s told parents to dress boys in pink. So did Best & Co. in New York City, Halle’s in Cleveland and Marshall Field in Chicago.
Today’s color dictate wasn’t established until the 1940s, as a result of Americans’ preferences as interpreted by manufacturers and retailers. “It could have gone the other way,” Paoletti says.
When the women’s liberation movement arrived in the mid-1960s, with its anti-feminine, anti-fashion message, the unisex look became the rage—but completely reversed from the time of young Franklin Roosevelt. Now young girls were dressing in masculine—or at least unfeminine—styles, devoid of gender hints. Paoletti found that in the 1970s, the Sears, Roebuck catalog pictured no pink toddler clothing for two years.
Latest posts by JacobSloan (see all)
- For Sale: Poveglia, The Haunted Italian Island With A Chilling History - Apr 20, 2014
- Lab Is Missing 2,000 Vials Of The Deadly SARS Virus - Apr 19, 2014
- Essential Vitamin B3 May Have Arrived From Space On Meteorites - Apr 18, 2014 | http://disinfo.com/2011/04/why-do-girls-wear-pink/ | fineweb | 2,025 | 2.84375 |
In the past 20 years, the eastern North American monarch butterfly population – a beautiful and majestic butterfly species, beloved by many throughout North America – has plunged by 95%, bringing them dangerously closer to extinction. One strategy to help save the butterflies has been to plant more milkweeds. That’s because, each spring in North America, as monarch butterflies venture north from their wintering grounds, they lay their eggs exclusively on milkweeds, which are the only plants that their caterpillars can eat. But the strategy for milkweed planting has involved roadside parks. And new research reveals that eastern North American monarch butterflies lay three-and-a-half times more eggs on milkweeds located on farmland, in contrast to milkweeds growing along roadsides or in natural areas or urban gardens.
The same new research also shows that the butterflies prefer laying their eggs in small milkweed patches over large ones.
These findings are published in the peer-reviewed journal Biological Conservation. They stem from a two-year survey of monarch egg-laying preferences by graduate student Grace Pitman and her professor, ecologist Ryan Norris at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada, and by conservation biologist Tyler Flockhart at the University of Maryland.
Pitman, the paper’s lead author, said in a press release:
Female monarchs are likely attracted to agricultural lands because it is easier for them to locate the milkweed growing there. Monarchs use chemical receptors in their antennae to detect milkweed. It may be easier for them to locate the plant in croplands where it is surrounded by monocultures so there is lower diversity.
She also suggested that smaller milkweed patches had higher egg densities because female monarchs likely used them to avoid male monarchs:
The males like to hang out in the larger patches and wait for the females. They tend to harrass them, and if the females are looking to lay their eggs, they don’t want to be harassed.
Roadside milkweeds, on the other hand, were found to have the lowest number of eggs. Ryan Norris commented that the reasons for this were not clear; did the butterflies simply avoid urban roadsides or was it due to the harsher conditions of those locations? He said:
There are a lot of factors that put the monarchs and their eggs and adult females at risk, including getting hit by cars, road salt and the frequent cutting of vegetation.
Norris also remarked, about the team’s discovery that monarchs prefer small milkweed patches in farmland:
These findings are significant given that there are currently initiatives under way that involve planting milkweed to help the survival of this butterfly. In some cases, the focus is on roadside planting, which based on these findings is not an ideal location.
A more effective strategy would be to develop incentive programs with landowners to plant and maintain milkweed within agricultural landscapes.
Monarch butterflies in eastern North America undergo long migratory journeys, as much as 3,000 miles. Most overwinter in forests in central Mexico.
In spring, the year’s founding generation moves northward, mating, laying their eggs, then dying. The next generation picks up the next leg of the journey, repeating the butterfly’s life cycle: hatching from an egg, going through its caterpillar stage, undergoing its dramatic transformation in its chrysalis, and finally emerging as a butterfly. This goes on up until the fourth generation.
The first, second, and third generations each have a two- to six-week lifespan, depending on weather conditions. The fourth generation, the final generation of the year, has a nine month lifespan. In late summer, this generation undertakes an extraordinary southward migration over thousands of miles, returning to the wintering grounds of their great-great-great-great grandparents; many of these monarchs spend the winter months roosting in dense colonies in a small area in the mountain forests of central Mexico. On the west coast, monarchs embark on a similar long-distance migration, wintering in forests along the southern California coast.
Monarch populations in eastern and western North America have undergone significant decline in the past two decades. Habitat loss, due to logging in their Mexico wintering grounds and development in southern California, is one reason. Along their migratory paths, monarch caterpillars face food shortages due to the destruction of milkweed plants in farmlands that use herbicide-resistant crops, and the butterflies themselves are killed by pesticides. There is also concern about the effect that climate change has on the breeding cycle and winter survival of monarch butterflies.
Bottom line: A recent study shows that eastern North American monarch butterflies lay three-and-a-half times more eggs on milkweeds in farmland compared to milkweeds in roadsides, natural areas, and urban gardens. An effective strategy to help save the butterflies from extinction might be to develop incentive programs with landowners to plant and maintain milkweed within agricultural landscapes.
Shireen Gonzaga is a freelance writer who enjoys writing about natural history. She is also a technical editor at an astronomical observatory where she works on documentation for astronomers. Shireen has many interests and hobbies related to the natural world. She lives in Cockeysville, Maryland. | http://earthsky.org/earth/monarch-butterfly-egg-laying-farmlands-vs-roadsides | fineweb | 5,420 | 3.59375 |
That Which is Seen and That Which is Not Seen
by Frederic Bastiat
In all times, but more especially of late years, attempts have been made to extend wealth by the extension of credit.
I believe it is no exaggeration to say, that since the revolution of February, the Parisian presses have issued more than 10,000 pamphlets, crying up this solution of the social problem.
The only basis, alas! of this solution, is an optical delusion—if, indeed, an optical delusion can be called a basis at all.
The first thing done is to confuse cash with produce, then paper money with cash; and from these two confusions it is pretended that a reality can be drawn.
It is absolutely necessary in this question to forget money, coin, bills, and the other instruments by means of which productions pass from hand to hand. Our business is with the productions themselves, which are the real objects of the loan; for when a farmer borrows fifty francs to buy a plow, it is not, in reality, the fifty francs which are lent to him, but the plow; and when a merchant borrows 20,000 francs to purchase a house, it is not the 20,000 francs which he owes, but the house. Money only appears for the sake of facilitating the arrangements between the parties.
Peter may not be disposed to lend his plow, but James may be willing to lend his money. What does William do in this case? He borrows money of James, and with this money he buys the plow of Peter.
But, in point of fact, no one borrows money for the sake of the money itself; money is only the medium by which to obtain possession of productions. Now, it is impossible in any country to transmit from one person to another more productions than that country contains.
Whatever may be the amount of cash and of paper which is in circulation, the whole of the borrowers cannot receive more plows, houses, tools, and supplies of raw material, than the lenders altogether can furnish; for we must take care not to forget that every borrower supposes a lender, and that what is once borrowed implies a loan.
This granted, what advantage is there in institutions of credit? It is, that they facilitate, between borrowers and lenders, the means of finding and treating with each other; but it is not in their power to cause an instantaneous increase of the things to be borrowed and lent. And yet they ought to be able to do so, if the aim of the reformers is to be attained, since they aspire to nothing less than to place plows, houses, tools, and provisions in the hands of all those who desire them.
And how do they intend to effect this?
By making the State security for the loan.
Let us try and fathom the subject, for it contains something which is seen, and also something which is not seen. We must endeavor to look at both.
We will suppose that there is but one plow in the world, and that two farmers apply for it.
Peter is the possessor of the only plow which is to be had in France; John and James wish to borrow it. John, by his honesty, his property, and good reputation, offers security. He inspires confidence; he has credit. James inspires little or no confidence. It naturally happens that Peter lends his plow to John.
But now, according to the Socialist plan, the State interferes, and says to Peter, "Lend your plow to James, I will be security for its return, and this security will be better than that of John, for he has no one to be responsible for him but himself; and I, although it is true that I have nothing, dispose of the fortune of the tax-payers, and it is with their money that, in case of need, I shall pay you the principal and interest." Consequently, Peter lends his plow to James: this is what is seen.
And the Socialists rub their hands, and say, "See how well our plan has answered. Thanks to the intervention of the State, poor James has a plow. He will no longer be obliged to dig the ground; he is on the road to make a fortune. It is a good thing for him, and an advantage to the nation as a whole."
Indeed, it is no such thing; it is no advantage to the nation, for there is something behind which is not seen.
It is not seen, that the plow is in the hands of James, only because it is not in those of John.
It is not seen, that if James farms instead of digging, John will be reduced to the necessity of digging instead of farming.
That, consequently, what was considered an increase of loan, is nothing but a displacement of loan. Besides, it is not seen that this displacement implies two acts of deep injustice.
It is an injustice to John, who, after having deserved and obtained credit by his honesty and activity, sees himself robbed of it.
It is an injustice to the tax-payers, who are made to pay a debt which is no concern of theirs.
Will any one say, that Government offers the same facilities to John as it does to James? But as there is only one plow to be had, two cannot be lent. The argument always maintains that, thanks to the intervention of the State, more will be borrowed than there are things to be lent; for the plow represents here the bulk of available capitals.
It is true, I have reduced the operation to the most simple expression of it, but if you submit the most complicated Government institutions of credit to the same test, you will be convinced that they can have but one result; viz., to displace credit, not to augment it. In one country, and in a given time, there is only a certain amount of capital available, and all are employed. In guaranteeing the non-payers, the State may, indeed, increase the number of borrowers, and thus raise the rate of interest (always to the prejudice of the tax-payer), but it has no power to increase the number of lenders, and the importance of the total of the loans.
There is one conclusion, however, which I would not for the world be suspected of drawing. I say, that the law ought not to favor, artificially, the power of borrowing, but I do not say that it ought not to restrain them artificially. If, in our system of mortgage, or in any other, there be obstacles to the diffusion of the application of credit, let them be got rid of; nothing can be better or more just than this. But this is all which is consistent with liberty, and it is all that any who are worthy of the name of reformers will ask.
Tuesday, September 29, 2009
That Which is Seen and That Which is Not Seen | http://econin1lesson.blogspot.com/2009/09/twistwins-credit.html | fineweb | 6,330 | 2.703125 |
Ask any network guru what they do first when taking on a trouble ticket, and inevitably they’ll say “PING!” What is PING? By sending ICMP (Internet Control Messaging Protocol) Echo Request frames and listening for the Echo Reply frames, PING can give us assurance ofsome level of connectivity, response time, and packet loss.
ICMP over IP gives us an “inside out” starting point for troubleshooting… if the target host replies, we KNOW we have a path (connectivity) and a “rough idea” of network round trip time. If a host does not reply, well… that can mean that we don’t have a path (route), the device is offline, it was too busy to respond, the ping packet got discarded, ICMP could be blocked…and so on. So an unsuccessful PING just means, “time to look somewhere else”.
Response times in PING are only useful if you know what the NORMAL response time is to/from that network and host – but only the host’s NIC, as ICMP echo requests are handled by lower layers. Measuring packet loss via ping could be good information generally, but is still unreliable given that ICMP is often discarded by infrastructure devices. A much more reliable method is to utilize a TCP Port Open command. Ping is not performance!
*PS – Amaze your friends with this handy bit of trivia… What’s the acronym PING stand for? Packet Inter Net Groper. Well, maybe… read the story HERE. | http://enterprise.netscout.com/edge/tech-tips/problem-ping | fineweb | 1,363 | 3.265625 |
A new life after bonded labour in Azad Nagar, Pakistan
A small settlement in Pakistan’s Sindh province provides opportunity for freed formerly bonded labourers to start over.
Azad Nagar is a small, marked settlement around 200km north of Pakistan’s coastal city of Karachi.
Most of the houses in this community spread over 11 acres are made of baked clay with thatched roofs of straw strung together.
Azad Nagar means land of the free. The land was bought in 2006 by Green Rural Development Organisation (GRDO), a Pakistani NGO, with the help of Action Aid.
“The concept behind Azad Nagar was of a transit camp where freed bonded labourers would come and stay before moving on to where a job would take them,” Ghulam Haider, one of the co-founders of GRDO, told Al Jazeera.
Today, more than 100 families live here in houses that lack electricity and running water. A small temple serves as a place of worship for the Hindu-majority who live here.
Almost 45.8 million people are trapped in bonded labour across the world. Pakistan is home to more than two million of them, according to the Global Slavery Index.
A small loan taken out by a labourer – for a hospital bill or a small wedding – soon spirals out of reach. The landlord finds every excuse to trap the workers. They are threatened in every manner possible to prevent them from running away or asking for help.
Bonded labour can be found in agriculture, brick kilns, mining and fishing industries.
Syeda Ghulam Fatima, the award-winning activist who started the Bonded Labour Liberation Front (BLLF), is another individual fighting for the abolishment of bonded labour.
“The condition these people find themselves in is something I can’t even describe,” said Fatima.
“The parliament building you see, it’s made of bricks these people made. But there is no law helping them. Hospitals are made out of bricks they made, but there is no health facility for them.
“There is no education for these poor people even in the schools that are made from the bricks those children made. There is no justice for them despite the court buildings made out of the bricks these people made in that scorching heat.”
Follow Faras Ghani on Twitter: @farasG
‘When these people are freed with the help of the police, the feudal lords do not allow them to take their belongings. Therefore, these people come with nothing and have to start from scratch,’ said GRDO’s Haider. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
There is no organised layout for the houses in Azad Nagar. Those who come build their own houses, which are made of baked clay and baked bricks with thatched roofs. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
A few residents saved up enough money to buy cattle and survive on a day-to-day basis by selling buffalo and goat milk. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
Some residents have been hired by owners of the farms adjacent to Azad Nagar. ‘We worked on farms while in bonded labour, so this is something we know quite well,’ said one of the workers. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
Some of the women in Azad Nagar, including Sumar’s wife, are skilled at knitting and sewing. Most of what they make is used within the household or as gifts. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
Soomri’s husband was kidnapped and beaten to death by the feudal lord he worked for. ‘They wouldn’t let us see him. They killed him in captivity,’ said Soomri. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
‘We were kept chained up after work, sometimes for days even, in a dark room without food,’ recalled Kasturi who now helps Kohli counsel and educate young girls in Azad Nagar. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
The two-room makeshift primary school in Azad Nagar has been shut down for lack of funding. GRDO is seeking funding to ensure the 160 children in the community get a basic education. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
Of the 150 children of Azad Nagar, only 16 attend a school nearby. Previously, the children received primary-level education at the local school, but it was shut down. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
Gauri is one of the 16 children enrolled at a government school a kilometre away. ‘School is fun for me. I enjoy it that’s why I don’t mind walking that much every day to get to it,’ she said of her daily journey to the nearby school. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
Veeru Kohli was freed from bonded labour. She’s an award-winning activist. Kohli ran away from her captors and has since dedicated her life to not only freeing other bonded labourers in Pakistan but also to educating and counselling them. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
Kohli is well-known in Azad Nagar. Women greet her and look up to her whenever she visits the community. ‘I tell them to find a job and eat from what you earn, no need to be a slave for any feudal lords,’ said Kohli. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
The small temple caters to the Hindu-majority population of Azad Nagar. In addition to holding religious celebrations like Diwali and other festivals, children also receive a basic religious education here. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
Sumar is the priest who takes care of the temple and teaches children in the afternoon. ‘We don’t ask for anything from the government, except education for our children. We have suffered all our life, we don’t want our kids to go through the same,’ he said. ‘There is no education for these poor people even in the schools that are made from the bricks those children made. There is no justice for them despite the court buildings made out of the bricks these people made in that scorching heat,’ said activist Syeda Ghulam Fatima. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
A brick kiln is situated right next to Azad Nagar. Some of those who used to make bricks as bonded labourers have now been employed to work here. ‘It does bring back bad memories of the past,’ commented a worker. [Faras Ghani/Al Jazeera]
By Faras Ghani
Powered by Facebook Comments | http://forpakistan.org/breaking-away-chains-slavery/ | fineweb | 5,792 | 2.703125 |
“We pursued our course westward to San Francisco Mountain. The country at the foot of that mountain (a gradually ascending plain) although somewhat rocky, in places was covered with the finest grama grass, with timber sufficient for fuel, and water in abundance.[It is] well watered with springs, and is by far the most beautiful region I ever remember to have seen in any portion of the world. A vast forest of gigantic pine, intersected frequently by extensive open glades, sprinkled all over with mountain meadows and wide savannahs, filled with the richest grasses, was traveled by our party for many successive days.” The comments of E.F. Beale in 1857 as he traveled through northern Arizona, as quoted by D. Ashworth in Biography of a Small Mountain (1991).
The northern Arizona forests of the new millenium are significantly changed from the days of Beale. The arrival of Euro-American settlers began the process of changing the landscape. As early as the 1830’s and 1840’s mountain men began trapping wildlife for commercial purposes. Stockmen followed in the late 1860’s, bringing thousands of sheep and cattle to graze the lush grasses. The giant timber of the region was cut for the railroad and human use. Some would say that by the time the railroad was completed through Flagstaff in 1882 the area was settled.
Early Euro-American settlement radically changed the forest before the dawn of the 20th Century. The grizzly bears, wolves and big horn sheep noted by early explorers as present in “great numbers” were severely reduced or gone. The cattle and sheep consumed the grasses, flowers and shrubs that contributed to the plant diversity of the landscape. Removing the largest trees changed the structure of the forest.
One of the most influential changes that occurred to the forest ecosystem was the alteration of the way the forest burned. Research indicates that the ponderosa pine forest evolved with low-intensity fire (fire that moves along the ground through the grasses and not in the canopies of trees) that occurred at regular intervals of approximately 2-12 years. The crown fires witnessed during the fire season of 2000 were rare or nonexistent.
With the removal of grasses to carry low-intensity fire, the forest stopped burning at regular intervals. Around 1919 conditions were right to create a population explosion of pine seedlings. Because fire was removed, this irruption of trees led the forest to become denser than historical records suggest was natural. In many sites, the tree density went from 40 to 60 trees per acre to more than 2,000 per acre.
The early 1900s saw the birth of an aggressive policy of fire suppression. Although intended to protect trees, the action of stopping fires in the early 1900’s has led to the high-risk fire conditions that exist today. In a naturally functioning forest the frequent ground fires would have reduced the number of small seedlings. Without fire large areas of the forest have become choked with dense stands of small trees. The unnatural density of the forest now permits fire to move up into the forest canopy creating crown fires. The result is an increasing size, frequency and severity of unnatural fires in the pine forest. Unfortunately, this means that fires can kill trees over large landscapes, eliminate important wildlife habitat, and pose significant danger to people and forest communities. | http://gffp.org/our-forests/historical-degradation/ | fineweb | 3,392 | 3.171875 |
Tuesday, August 16, 2016
Russian Transmutation of Elements
This is very interesting and makes complete sense to myself. We have discovered or understood the two critical aspects of the problem itself. The first is that all atomic matter is assembled axially from neutron proton pairings. That means that component decay can be triggered with a specific photon including neutron decay.
At the same time we have understood that all cells are managed by their own super computer through the mechanism of using a coded photon to change the coding of a key electron.
All that means is that cellular life has the means to modify elements when it is necessary. Curiously it also explains the presence of atomic gold in biological environments. This has been one of those unanswered questions.
This work shows us that nature actually does exactly this.
Russian Transmutation of Elements
Cheap ‘Precious’ Metals and Transmutation of Nuclear Waste
Russian Team “Actinides” Announces Discovery of Industrial Biochemical Method of Elemental Transmutation
by Frank Acland
A press conference was held at the Swiss Press Club in Geneva on June 21, 2016 by a Russian Corporate Partnership called Actinedes consisting of inventors Viktor Kurashov and Tamara Sakhno, and the administrator Vladislav Karabanov. Here is a transcription from the conference:
Vladislav Karabanov: Ladies and Gentlemen, Today, in Geneva we are making public a discovery and technology which, without any exaggeration, could be described as having historic significance. Now the essence of this discovery and technology boils down to the development of an industrial method for the transformation of chemical elements into other elements and their isotopes.
What we have to show you today is a transmutation without any nuclear reactors, without heavy water or anything of the kind, to obtain a transmutation of elements. Our approach to the chemical transmutation of elements is biochemical in nature. It is still too early to grasp the economic and civilizational significance of this development and technology. It would not be an exaggeration to say that this discovery is a veritable revolution which is going to open a new chapter in the technological progress.
“Unlikely as it may sound, this is a fact. The architects of this discovery and technology are leading Russian Chemists, Mrs Tamara Sahno and Mr. Victor Kurashov. These are theoretical and experimental scientists who stand on the shoulders of a dynasty of researchers who have been instrumental in discovering these methods for the transformation of chemical methods. Mankind, represented by the authors, has discovered this method for the transmutation of matter which is likely to change the face of today’s world, perhaps as deeply as it was changed by the use of electricity, perhaps even deeper. The repercussions of this revolution will be felt in the energy sector, medicine, industry and perhaps would also open up new industries, brand new industries that will have enormous humanitarian implications.
“What is most important to bear in mind is that what we are talking about here is a ready-made industrial approach that will be capable of producing target products in industrial quantities in a matter of months. With respect to the economic aspects of this discovery I am going to brief you about that later . . .
Victor Kurashov: “Ladies and gentlemen, our work to develop the technology for the transmutation of chemical elements goes back to the early 90s. The very first results were obtained back in 1998, but the bulk of this effort and research, as well as hundreds of successful experiments fall on the Summer and Autumn of 2013. Our further efforts involved patenting this work, and so for all these reasons we haven’t rushed to publish our findings until the patent was issued. We received the patent priority on the 15th of May 2014, whereas the patent itself was issued on the 25th of August 2015.
“Let’s move onto the process itself very briefly. The first component used in the process is ore, or nuclear waste. The second component of the process are valuable valency metals such as vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, and others. Either of these will do, but we tend to use iron as the least costly element. The third component and a factor in this process, these are bacteria. Usually we use iron and sulphur-reducing bacterial species which we select along a certain list of criteria, such as that the bacteria are active, that they are resistant to radiation, that they are adapted to a heavily salted solution — ore, suspended in water.
“Now about the technology itself: ore, or nuclear waste (there’s no difference) is processed by bacteria in the presence of valuable valency elements in any closed vessel. The transmutation process kicks off immediately, and proceed stage by stage for two or three weeks until target elements are obtained. But if it is not stopped on time, this process would carry on until stable isotopes are obtained as the end product.”
I find this interesting. I have not yet found the patents referred to (harder to do in Russian), but the process here does not sound too complicated, and I imagine as word gets out there could interest among researchers to try and replicate the results.
Below is the text of a press release published on June 13: http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/presentation-of-biochemical-method-of-elements-transmutation-300283573.html
GENEVA, June 13, 2016 /PRNewswire/ — Gathered in a corporate partnership called “Actinides”, Vladislav Karabanov – administrator of the group and inventors Tamara Sakhno and Viktor Kurashov, claim to have created a revolutionary new method of transmutation of chemical elements through biochemistry. This approach would artificially produce many valuable and most valuable chemical elements and their isotopes from other chemical elements biochemically without the use of atomic reactors, cyclotrons, highly enriched uranium or heavy water. The method does not represent any threat to the environment or personnel. Its effectiveness in comparison to traditional methods is enormous.
The method leads to obtaining various valuable and most valuable elements and isotopes, demanded in energy, medicine, and industry. Among them Francium, Radium, Actinium, Protactinium, Americium, Berkelium, Californium, and various other isotopes. All of them in convenient form, favorable for separation and purification. It would also be applicable for the 100% deactivation of nuclear waste.
This method and its results are confirmed by the Russian Patent of the Patent Office. The inventors claim to have performed over 2000 experiments and obtained substantial and consistent results. The research work was conducted with private money and the technology is 100% owned by the group. The inventors claim, that this method is immediately ready for commercial scale production of many valuable elements and their isotopes, needed for medicine and industry.
The presented invention provides access to new sources of energy and medicines. Due to methods cost effectiveness, it will make most advanced nuclear medicine technologies available for a wide range of people. It will give impulse to the development in spheres such as energy, industry, medicine, space exploration and inaccessible areas of the earth and the oceans.
Authors of the invention will hold a press conference, its goal is to present this revolutionary method in Europe and the United States and find partners.
Members of Partnership:
Tamara Sakhno – scientist, chemist biotechnologist, author of the invention
Viktor Kurashov – scientist, chemist biotechnologist, author of the invention
Vladislav Karabanov – administrator of the group, commercial application manager
Press Conference will be held in Swiss Press Club in Geneva, Switzerland
Address: “La Pastorale” Route de Ferney 106, Geneva, Switzerland
Date: 21st of June, 2016 at 12:00 pm local time.
Language of press conference – English. | http://globalwarming-arclein.blogspot.com/2016/08/russian-transmutation-of-elements.html | fineweb | 8,030 | 2.6875 |
The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) and American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) announced the adoption of a joint statement: The Value of Professional Collaboration in Protecting the Health of People and Animals. Issued in honor of the inaugural “One Health Day” on Thursday, November 3, the medical groups outline potential opportunities for collaboration that would benefit their patients, families, and communities.
The complete statement can be found here.
“The lives of people and animals are so closely intertwined that the health and welfare of all of our patients, both human and animals, will fare much better if we share our knowledge,” said Dr. Janet Donlin, Chief Executive Officer of the AVMA. “The importance of preventive health care, exposure to environmental hazards, and the safety and quality of the food we eat are just a few of the areas that will benefit from our collaboration.”
Representatives from both organizations recently met at the AVMA headquarters to discuss opportunities for collaboration. The professionals found that both groups are increasingly focused on the benefits of healthy lifestyles and environments with an emphasis on preventive care for improved physical and mental health of their patients. There is increasing science-based evidence outlining how a pet can improve a person’s well-being. In addition to the positive benefits of the human-animal bond connection, their shared space can shed light on potential threats to their health.
“Healthy pets can be important members of healthy households,” said Dr. Karen Remley, CEO and Executive Vice President of the AAP. “Because people and pets share the same environments, they will be exposed to similar hazards such as asbestos, lead, second-hand smoke and others. We must commit to a greater sharing of our scientific knowledge and practical expertise. We must also work together as medical professionals toward the judicious use of antimicrobials and combatting antimicrobial resistance.”
Advancing technology is not only increasing awareness of interdependencies among people, animals and the environment; it is also making it easier to collaborate and solve medical and scientific mysteries. By identifying initiatives and sharing information across disciplines, both associations will protect, promote, and advance the health and well-being of all community members – human and animal.
The AVMA, founded in 1863, is one of the oldest and largest veterinary medical organizations in the world, with more than 88,000 member veterinarians worldwide engaged in a wide variety of professional activities and dedicated to the art and science of veterinary medicine. Visit www.avma.org for more information.
The American Academy of Pediatrics is an organization of 66,000 primary care pediatricians, pediatric medical subspecialists and pediatric surgical specialists dedicated to the health, safety and well-being of infants, children, adolescents and young adults. For more information, visit www.aap.org. | http://goodnewsforpets.com/12767-2/ | fineweb | 3,015 | 2.703125 |
The highlight of the day was the children of grade 5 creating a Ning network : [email protected]
All the children joined this network and learnt how to use it. We will be using this one to share any information, thoughts, ideas and opinions regarding the PYP Exhibition. I recommend all the parents also to join this one as their inputs are also very important!
The children did an activity on Etymology. They divided themselves into 6 groups. Many words were put in a jar. Each group was asked to pick a word and find the origin of that word. The group which solved the maximum words would win.
In math, the children learnt division of fractions. They watched a video and tried to solve it through pictures. They then learnt the mathematical way of solving it and solved some problems on the board.
The children were also divided into groups in UOI. Now that they have got a wholesome understanding of the Indus Valley Civilization, each group will research into the essential components of one other civilization. The other civilizations are: Egyptian, Roman, Aztec and Chinese Civilization. Next week each group will present their understanding through 3 media: Written, Musical and technological. | http://grade5iish.blogspot.com/2010/02/highlight-of-day-was-children-of-grade.html | fineweb | 1,200 | 3.234375 |
How would we fare if November’s tornadoes hit here?
December 16, 2013 | By: Mark Ross
A tornado outbreak like the one that struck the Midwest in November 2013 is not something you’d wish on anyone anywhere. Tragically eight people died. But that is much less than might have been expected given the hundreds of homes destroyed.
Excellent forecasting and communication are credited with keeping loss of life and injuries to a minimum.
What if the tornadoes had hit here?
In the Midwest, timely, accurate information flowed smoothly from the National Weather Service to emergency managers and ordinary people in communities at high risk for devastation. People were warned to protect themselves before the storms hit.
Fortunately, Greater Philadelphia has the tools and teamwork to accomplish what worked so well in the Midwest. Over the last decade, the Southeastern Pennsylvania Regional Task Force, government, and the hospital community have put in place a strong communication infrastructure.
First responders—police, fire, and emergency managers—hospitals, and other health care providers can share information via the web-based Knowledge Center system. That way, the professionals who must manage and mitigate the effects of a disaster are all contributing to the development of a common situational awareness, or knowledge base, about the disaster, its impact, response efforts, and concerns and needs.
With Knowledge Center, these professionals can communicate and coordinate efficiently, often without a single phone call.
By signing up for ReadyNotifyPA, the general public can receive, on their cell phones, emergency alerts from their local government. This gives first responders a direct line to the people in harm’s way.
Emergency managers and others are also using social media to communicate life-saving informationand to monitor and respond to rumors, questions, and fears.
Together, these tools provide the framework to communicate quickly and accurately during a disaster. The region’s effective response to Hurricane Sandy last year is proof positive that they work.
As government budgets tighten even further and priorities shift, the region should take care to maintain and enhance the communication infrastructure and teamwork we have built. They weren’t easy to come by, and they would be invaluable should tornados touch down here. | http://haponline.org/Newsroom/Blog-Postings/ID/18/How-would-we-fare-if-Novembers-tornadoes-hit-here | fineweb | 2,356 | 2.671875 |
Suicide rates among farmers are at a higher rate than other occupation in the United States.
As The Guardian reports, last year, a study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that people working in agriculture – including farmers, farm laborers, ranchers, fishers, and lumber harvesters – take their lives at a rate higher than any other occupation.
The rate of suicide for agricultural workers in 17 states, according to the study, was almost five times higher than that of the general population. And according to a 2016 Newsweek article, the rate is double that of military veterans.
Dr. Mike Rosman, an Iowa farmer and a psychologist, is one of the leading farmer behavioral health experts and often answers phone calls from those in crisis. He said the suicide may be much higher because an unknown number of farmers disguise their suicides as farm accidents.
Rosman said farming has always been a stressful occupation because of the myriad of factors that impact agricultural production, most of which are beyond farmers’ control, such as weather. | http://hppr.org/post/study-finds-suicide-rate-among-farmers-higher-any-other-occupation | fineweb | 1,077 | 2.796875 |
Around 7:20 Sunday morning, a single-engine Japanese reconnaissance plane entered the cloud-streaked airspace over Pearl Harbor. Launched earlier that morning from the heavy cruiser Chikuma, the plane circled as the pilot studied the ground below.
Having seen all he needed to see, at precisely 7:35 the recon pilot radioed his report to the striking force, which quickly relayed the information to the Japanese planes now approaching Oahu from the north: “Enemy formation at anchor; nine battleships, one heavy cruiser, six light cruisers are in the harbor.”
The attack on Pearl Harbor set in motion a series of battles in the Pacific between the Japanese and the United States.
With the fall of Wake Island to the Japanese in late-December 1941, Midway became the westernmost US outpost in the central Pacific.
Midway occupied an important place in Japanese military planning. According to plans made before Pearl Harbor, the Japanese fleet would attack and occupy Midway and the Aleutian Islands in Alaska as soon as their position in South Asia was stabilized.
Defenses on the atoll were strengthened between December and April. Land-based bombers and fighters were stationed on Eastern Island. US Marines provided defensive artillery and infantry.
Operating from the atoll’s lagoon, seaplanes patrolled toward the Japanese-held Marshall Islands and Wake, checking on enemy activities and guarding against further attacks on Hawaiʻi.
The turning point in the Pacific came in June 1942, when the US surprised and overpowered the Japanese fleet in the Battle of Midway.
That victory was possible, in large part, because of the work of a little-known naval codebreaker named Joe Rochefort. (Rochefort, responsible for the Pacific Fleet’s radio intelligence unit at the time of the Pearl Harbor attack, felt immense guilt at the failure to predict the Pearl Harbor attack.)
The Japanese Combined Fleet depended on a complex system of codes to communicate by radio. The codes were regularly modified to avoid detection, but in the confusion of the rapid Japanese expansion in the South Pacific the change scheduled for early-1942 was delayed.
The course to Midway started not on a map in a top secret chart room with top strategists and tacticians contemplating Japan’s next move, but was set by the deciphering of messages from the Japanese Fleet.
This was done by a handful of US Navy intelligence officers stationed at Pearl Harbor.
In the spring of 1942, it took cryptanalysts in Australia, Washington, DC and Hawai‘i to achieve the breakthrough that made an American victory at Midway possible.
The Japanese naval code, known as JN 25, consisted of approximately 45,000 five-digit numbers, each number representing a word or a phrase.
Breaking this code, which was modified regularly, meant finding the meanings of enough of these numbers that a whole message could be decrypted by extrapolating the missing parts.
According to one of the leading codebreakers involved, it was like putting together a jigsaw puzzle with most of its pieces always missing.
Leading the codebreaking effort was Station Hypo, the code name for the combat intelligence unit at Pearl Harbor under Commander Joseph Rochefort.
Rochefort included members of the band from the battleship ‘California,’ damaged at Pearl Harbor. He thought their musical skills might make them adept codebreakers in much the same way that Marine bandsmen used to serve as fire control technicians on ship — the ability to quickly read and play music made them excellent mathematical problem solvers.
By May 8, Rochefort knew that a major enemy operation, whose objective was sometimes called AF, was in the offing and that it would take place somewhere in the Central Pacific.
When they checked this against their partially solved map grid, the found that “A” represented on coordinate of Midway’s potion and “F” represented the other.
His superiors in Washington weren’t convinced; they devised a test that would flush out the location of AF.
The radio station on Midway dispatched an uncoded message falsely reporting that the water distillation plant on the island had broken, causing a severe water shortage. Within 48 hours, a decrypted Japanese radio transmission was alerting commanders that AF was short of water.
Several days later, he was sure the target was Midway. As a result, the Americans entered the battle with a very good picture of where, when and in what strength the Japanese would appear.
On June 4, 1942, armed with information from Rochefort and his team, American planes caught the Japanese by surprise and won the decisive battle – it marked the turning point in the war in the Pacific.
In the four-day sea and air battle, 292 aircraft, four Japanese aircraft carriers – Akagi, Kaga, Soryu and Hiryu, all part of the six carrier force in the attack on Pearl Harbor six months earlier – and a heavy cruiser were sunk. There were 2,500 Japanese casualties.
The US lost the carrier Yorktown, the destroyer USS Hammann, 145 aircraft and suffered 307 casualties.
The image shows Midway in November 1941. (The inspiration and information in this summary comes from NPS, NPR and Naval History) In addition, I have included other images and maps related to the Battle of Midway in a folder of like name in the Photos section on my Facebook and Google+ pages. | http://imagesofoldhawaii.com/codebreakers-secret-to-success-at-battle-of-midway/ | fineweb | 5,334 | 3.328125 |
If going gluten-free seems hard now, try doing it in ancient Rome. A well-heeled young woman with coeliac disease tried to adapt her diet in an unsuccessful effort to cope with gluten sensitivity, studies of her remains suggest.
The woman’s remains were buried in a 2,000-year-old tomb at the Cosa archaeological site on the Tuscan coast in Italy. The ancient Roman city's economy depended on growing wheat and olives and was not particularly prosperous, yet archaeologists discovered gold and bronze jewellery entombed alongside the woman’s bones. They concluded that she was relatively wealthy and would have had access to plenty of food.
Yet the skeleton of the woman — who researchers estimate was 18–20 years old — bore signs of malnutrition and osteoporosis. Both can be complications of untreated coeliac disease, which is characterized by a severe allergic reaction to gluten in the intestinal lining. Many of the woman's bones were eroded at the tips, and she would have stood just 140 centimetres (4 feet, 7 inches) tall.
DNA analysis had previously shown that the woman carried two copies of an immune system gene variant that is associated with coeliac disease2. Although coeliac is a complex disease in which multiple environmental factors may play a role, the gene variant is found in nearly all patients in contemporary populations.
The combination of those genetic risk factors and malnutrition in someone likely to have good access to food make coeliac disease a reasonable diagnosis, says Gabriele Scorrano, a biological anthropologist at the University of Rome Tor Vergata, who led the latest study, published this month in American Journal of Physical Anthropology1.
To determine if the woman altered her diet, he and his colleagues analysed carbon and nitrogen isotopes in her bones, which tend to relate to food intake. The chemicals cannot reconstruct a person’s diet perfectly but instead paint broad brushstrokes of the consumption of foods such as plants, meats, freshwater fish and seafood. They can also indicate whether an individual consumed foods that were different from others.
Scorrano and his team found that the young woman would have consumed more meat and possibly freshwater fish and fewer plants than did people living in the area in the sixth century and medieval times. Carbon and nitrogen levels in her bones were also distinct from those in most other inhabitants from the Imperial Roman period previously sampled, but similar to those in bones from an early Christian burial site in Rome, where individuals may have favoured freshwater fish.
Scorrano notes that malabsorption of nutrients could offer an alternative explanation for the unusual isotope levels in her bones.
Leonard Rutgers, an archaeologist at Utrecht University in the Netherlands, says that the researchers make a good case that the woman changed her diet to cope with coeliac disease. But he says it is unclear why she would have eaten freshwater fish, given Cosa's proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Perhaps she moved to Cosa shortly before her death, he says.
The Greek physician Aretaeus of Cappadocia recorded symptoms in line with coeliac disease around the first century AD, but a definitive link between the condition and gluten was not made until the 1950s. Scorrano says that the young woman probably did not entirely avoid gluten. “If she had excluded cereals from her diet she wouldn’t have experienced these problems,” he says. "Probably she didn't understand she had this disease." | http://itsallgreekmythologytome.blogspot.com/2014/05/ancient-bones-show-signs-of-struggle.html | fineweb | 3,509 | 3.71875 |
Types of Architecture
While New York City is renowned for its towering skyscrapers, the character of the city is defined by the style of its buildings.
One glance at the skyline and it becomes evident that no two buildings are really alike and each lends the city a different flavor, making NYC one of the most architecturally diverse cities in the world. Here are the five styles that built New York—and a quick primer on where to explore each one.
Often described as a refinement of Georgian Style, Federal or Adam architecture once dominated the American landscape. Typically federal houses are a square or rectangular shape and are no more than two stories high. Made from brick, they feature low-hipped roofs, elaborate doors usually surrounded with decorative crowns or small entry porches, and double-hung sash windows arranged in symmetrical rows.
Period: Early 1780-1830
Where to find them: Vandam Street in Soho has a sweet little row of Federal houses that have managed to remain close to their original appearance since being built in the 1820s.
Favorite find: 77 Bedford Street in the West Village. Built in 1799 this historic home is a free-standing, two-story home located on one of the most charming corners in the West Village. Its second owner, a copper merchant, supplied metal to Paul Revere for the boilers that powered steamboats.
Art Deco first appeared in France following World War I and can be best described as a “modernization” of many different artistic styles. The defining features of Art Deco are rich colors, bold geometric shapes, lavish ornamentation, and sleek, linear appearance.
Period: This style enjoyed popularity between 1920–1940.
Where to find them: Art Deco buildings can found all over the city, but some of the best are in Midtown between 34th Street and 50th Street between 5th and 6th Avenue.
Favorite find: Aside from one of the most famous, the Empire State Building, the Woolworth Building at 233 Broadway was one of the first US skyscrapers, and was once the tallest building in New York City.
Often perceived as the last phase of Neoclassical architecture development, Greek Revival-style homes are usually painted white to resemble the white marble found on many costly public buildings. Bold details with simple moldings along with heavy cornices, gables with pediments, unadorned friezes, and columns and pilasters are typical of this style.
Period: Late 18th through early 19th Century
Where to find them: The East Village/Lower East Side Historic District, which runs from Second Avenue and Second Street up through Sixth Street. With over 330 buildings in the historic district, there is no shortage of building constructed in the Greek Revival style.
Favorite find: St. Mark’s church on 10th Street and Second Avenue. Steeped in New York City history, the church was originally built in 1660 as a family chapel by Peter Stuyvesant. One hundred years later, his great-grandson, Petrus, donated the property to the Episcopal church, and in 1795 the cornerstone of the present day church was laid.
Popularized in the 1840s as an alternative to Gothic or Greek Revival architecture, this style is characterized by low pitched roofs with emphatic eaves. Rounded windows separated or flanked by columns or pilasters are trimmed with lively variations such as U-shaped crowns, but the most outstanding feature is the square tower, topped with a bracketed cornice.
Where to find them: The city is rich in Italianate-style buildings, especially in the Soho-Cast Iron Historic District, which has 26 blocks full of buildings with cast-iron facades, many of which are done in this style. Greene Street between Houston and Canal has the richest section of Italianate-style buildings.
Favorite find: Completed in 1871 as a warehouse for the famous furrier William Gunther, the Gunther Building at 469 Broome Street in Soho should not be missed. Finished in a stunning white and featuring a cast-iron façade, ornate Corinthian columns, and 90-degree curved glass windows, the building is a visual masterpiece rich in history.
A popular style for churches, Gothic Revival is notable for the steeply pitched roofs, gables, pointed arches, elaborate porches, roof gables, and medieval details such as gargoyles and stained glass.
Where to find them: Gothic Revival style buildings and churches can be found all over the city. The campus of Fordham University and City College both have numerous buildings done in this style that are worth seeing.
Favorite find: Located at 112th Street and Amsterdam Avenue, St. John the Divine is the city’s most exquisite example of Gothic Revival architecture. Its grandeur begins with its length—601 feet—and continues with its 124-foot high nave; at the east end of the nave is the largest stained glass window in the United States. | http://jcmitchellbuilders.co.uk/OxfordUniversity/types-of-architecture | fineweb | 4,814 | 3.171875 |
Monday, 15 April 2013
Latest veterinary techniques set to spread through China
Academics responsible for training
China’s vets have been armed with the latest technologies and techniques at an educational workshop held this week at China’s . Nanjing Agricultural University
The workshop is part of an ongoing programme of events that have been put together by the
and Animals Asia. The workshop was held in partnership with University of Edinburgh , the Chinese Veterinary Medical Association and the Nanjing Public Security Bureau. Nanjing Agricultural University
The Jeanne Marchig International Centre for Animal Welfare Education (JMICAWE) of the
, is a hub of expertise on animal welfare science in education and research, collaborating with international partners to advance understanding of animal welfare issues. Animals Asia is an animal welfare organisation working to improve the welfare of animals in University of Edinburgh China and . Vietnam
The event will share international standards of best practice in veterinary education and promote the integration of innovative new approaches and technologies into veterinary teaching.
Following the event, a second workshop aimed at veterinary students at the
Nanjing Agricultural University will provide training in surgery, anaesthesia and dog population management by veterinary experts from the and Animals Asia through a collaborative programme with the Nanjing Public Security Bureau. University of Edinburgh
This forum will promote practical training in key analytical, problem-solving and advanced clinical veterinary skills, helping to better equip veterinarians with the skills needed to work in an increasingly global profession and to deal practically with welfare issues such as rabies and dog population management without resorting to inhumane or ineffective practices.
Heather Bacon of the Jeanne Marchig International Centre for Animal Welfare Education (JMICAWE) of the
commented: University of Edinburgh
“Society increasingly expects veterinarians to ensure that animals used for food, companionship or research are healthy and managed humanely. It is understood that international standards of animal welfare are vital to public health, animal disease management and the economic role of animals in society. The public expects the veterinary profession to take a leading role in promoting respect for animals in a harmonious society.” | http://jmicaweactivities.blogspot.com/2013/04/latest-veterinary-techniques-set-to.html | fineweb | 2,412 | 2.953125 |
Optogenetics reveal the organization of rhythmogenic locomotor networks
By using optogenetics — a method that involves the use of light to activate nerve cells — to stimulate excitatory and inhibitory neurons in the spinal cord, neuroscientists at Karolinska Institutet have managed to switch on and off neural circuits that control locomotion. The study, which is published in the scientific journal PNAS, shows that the basic structure underlying the locomotor network in mammals has a distributed organization with many intrinsically rhythmogenic modules. The results provide deeper insight into how networks of nerve cells cooperate to generate complex movements.
Optogenetics uses genetic techniques to express light sensitive channels from unicellular organisms in specific populations of cells in multicellular organisms to be able to turn on and off the activity of these cells with light. The most widely used channel, Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), when expressed in neurons, can make the neurons excitable when they are illuminated by blue light. The channel that governs the process of light-induced deactivation of neurons is called Halorhodopsin (HR). Optogenetics is now widely used in neuroscience to gain bi-directional control of neuronal activity in a cell specific way.
Professor Ole Kiehn's research group at the Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet was one of the first to produce a genetically modified mouse in which ChR2 was found in molecularly defined groups of cells. In a study published in 2010 in Nature Neuroscience the researchers showed that light-activation of excitatory neurons expressing ChR2 in the spinal cord was able to activate locomotion.
"We've now taken this work further," says the study's first author Martin Hägglund. "In the study we've just published, we used several different optogenetic methods that enabled us to activate or inactivate groups of excitatory or inhibitory neurons by shining light on them."
The experiments in the present study were conducted in vitro. Using ChR2 and HR, the researchers were able to show that the networks of cells that control locomotion are formed of clusters, or modules, of neurons that control individual muscles. These modules are like building blocks which interconnect with each other during locomotion to generate coordinated activity. The conclusions of the study show how molecularly defined groups of neurons produce and control movements.
The study was financed by grants from the Söderberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council, Karolinska Institutet and the European Research Council (ERC).
Optogenetic dissection reveals multiple rhythmogenic modules underlying locomotion.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2013 Jul;110(28):11589-94 | http://ki.se/en/news/optogenetics-reveal-the-organization-of-rhythmogenic-locomotor-networks | fineweb | 2,745 | 3.203125 |
White potatoes are often given a bad rap while sweet potatoes seem to be glorified as a health food. Is there any truth to sweet potatoes being “healthier” than white potatoes, or is the only difference colour? Read on to find out.
You might be surprised that in term of calories and macronutrients, sweet potatoes and white potatoes are pretty much the same. A 120 gram baked potato or sweet potato both contain about 110 calories and 25 grams of carbohydrate. However, be careful of the health halo effect of ordering sweet potato fries instead of regular fries. If you order the sweet potato fries over the regular fries at the Keg, you’ll also be ordering an extra 260 calories.
When comparing the vitamin and mineral differences between sweet potatoes and white potatoes, sweet potatoes are a clear winner when it comes to vitamin A. Vitamin A plays an important role in eye and skin health and immune function. However, the other vitamins and minerals are very similar between the two. Both sweet potatoes and white potatoes are a great source of potassium and vitamin B6.
Sweet potatoes do have a slightly lower glycemic index than white potatoes. The glycemic index is a measure of how fast blood sugars rise and fall after eating a food. Lower glycemic index foods tend to keep you full longer since they keep blood sugar levels more stable. However, there are many factors that influence glycemic index, such as other foods consumed and even preparation method. Since people rarely just eat potatoes by themselves, glycemic index is not the most accurate measurement.
Where potatoes can become a problem is the preparation technique, and what other foods are being consumed with them. The classic example is French fries. 120 grams of French fries contain 360 calories compared to 110 calories in a 120 gram baked potato. It’s also a whole lot easier to overeat French fries. The other issue is what is being added to the potato. While a baked potato is a great option, it becomes less so if you’re smothering it in butter, cheese or sour cream.
In a carbahophobic country, potatoes often get a bad rap. However, both sweet and white potatoes are whole grains, a great source of fibre and deserve a place on your plate. When it comes to deciding between the two, choose the one which tastes best to you. | http://megankuikmanrd.ca/2017/11/21/the-sweet-potato-vs-white-potato-debate/ | fineweb | 2,313 | 2.828125 |
Print based texts (newspapers) and multimodal texts (online weblogs) are both aimed at forming interaction between the reader and the text. As Schriver (1997) suggests that the typography of a document can influence a readers perception of the content and help them engage with the subject matter, therefore, in order to further engage readers with the document, designers must be aware of the contrasting styles when designing for online and print.
Online – Malaysia Today Blog
(Caption: Written in a quick and easy format for readers to grasp information fast and consists of a F shaped reading pattern)
Actionable Writing Style
The Web is known for its fast-paced nature; users who search for information online are usually very specific with their search and filtering of content. Thus, content for Web ‘must be brief and get to the point quickly’ (Nielsen 2008) in order to cater to the online readers’ needs. For instance, group content into bullet form and bold keywords to capture the attention readers.
F Shaped Reading Pattern
When reading content on the Web, users tend to read quicker, scanning for keywords that are of relevance to them; instead of reading the complete text. According to Nielsen (2008), ‘eye tracking visualizations show that users often read Web pages in an F-shaped pattern: two horizontal stripes followed by a vertical stripe’
Caption: F Shaped reading (useit.com)
Print - The Star Newspaper
Caption: Written in long and well-construct sentences, consists of many reading paths and significant details are arrange on the top of the page.
Narrative Writing Style
Unlike on the Web, content published in newspapers depict an author-driven style of writing. As readers will take time to read the complete document, a linear narrative with well-crafted sentences in a story telling manner is the right way to arrange a print based document (Nielsen 2008)
Multiple Reading Paths
Due to its nature of a non-linear text, newspapers and magazines have many reading paths. Therefore, the content should be strategically sub-headed in order to maintain the readers attention on the document; as Bernhardt (1986) affirms ‘in the visible text, the goal is to call the reader's attention visually to semantically grouped information, focusing the reader's attention on discrete sections’ Furthermore, all important quotes and images as well as the logo and headline are arranged on the top of the page; as described by Penman (1998) the reader’s eye is also more likely to gravitate to the top of the page and not the bottom.
Bernhardt, SA 1986, ‘Seeing the text’, College composition and communication, vol. 37, no. 1, pp.66-78
Nielsen, J 2008, F-Shaped Pattern For Reading Web Content, Jakob Nielsen’s Alertbox, viewed 18 November 2009, <http://www.useit.com/alertbox/reading_pattern.html>
Nielsen, J 2008, Differences Between Print Design and Web Design, Jakob Nielsen’s Alertbox, viewed 18 November 2009, <http://www.useit.com/alertbox/990124.html>
Nielsen, J 2008, Writing Style for Print vs. Web, Jakob Nielsen’s Alertbox, viewed 18 November 2009, <http://www.useit.com/alertbox/print-vs-online-content.html>
Penman, R 1998, ‘Document structures and readers’ habits’, Communication News, vol.11, no.2, pp. 1 & 10-11.
Schriver, K. A.1997, Chapter 6: ‘The interplay of words and images’, Dynamics in document design : creating texts for readers, Wiley Computer Pub., New York, pp. 361-441 | http://melizarani.blogspot.com/2009/11/blogs-designing-for-online-vs-print.html | fineweb | 3,414 | 3.0625 |
Common everyday memory strategies
The most frequently used everyday memory strategies are:
- writing calendar or diary notes
- putting things in a special place
- writing reminder notes
- writing shopping lists
- using face-name associations
- mentally rehearsing information
- using a timer
- asking someone else to help
How effective are these strategies?
In general, external aids are regarded as easier to use, more accurate, and more dependable. In particular, external aids are preferred for reminding oneself to do things (planning memory). Mental strategies however, are equally preferred as retrieval cues for stored information. The preferred strategies are mentally retracing (for retrieving stored information) and mentally rehearsing (for storing information for later retrieval).
Note that these preferred strategies are not those that are most effective, but those strategies that are least effortful. The popularity of asking someone to help you remember has surprised researchers, but in this context it is readily understandable — asking someone is easiest strategy of all! It is not, however, particularly effective.
Older people in particular, are less inclined to use a strategy merely because it is effective. For them it is far more important that a strategy be familiar and easy to use.
Learning effective strategies does require effort, but once you have mastered them, the effort involved in using them is not great. The reason most people fail to use effective strategies is that they haven’t mastered them properly. A properly mastered skill is executed automatically, with little effort. (see Skill learning) | http://mempowered.com/strategies/everyday-memory-strategies | fineweb | 1,637 | 3.46875 |
It is estimated that approximately 15 million Americans and over 17 million Europeans have food allergies. In the U.S.A. food allergies are common in children, affecting 1 in every 13 under the age of 18. With the rise of convenience and processed foods coupled with pollution, chemicals and pesticides that our food is exposed to, there is an on-going debate whether these factors have a direct link to the rapid rise in food allergens and sensitivities.
Food allergies, intolerances and sensitivities are similar in that they are in the family of negative reactions to food, however the severity of the reaction can be drastically different. With an allergic reaction, the body’s immune system (our defense system) overreacts to a perceived danger. The system sees the protein (egg, wheat, gluten, soy, etc.) as a danger like it would with a bacterium or a virus and creates a special “fighter” protein antibodies designed to identify and neutralize the dangerous “enemy”. The “fighter” protein are called immunoglobulin E or IgE and their purpose is to seek and destroy the enemy or invader by creating one or more of allergic reactions: hives, dizziness, itchy throat, diarrhea, stomach ache, rash, constricted breathing or in extreme cases anaphylactic shock which can be fatal. The IgE proteins are the most aggressive antibodies in the body and their response occurs within seconds or minutes. The immediacy of the IgE response is the defining characteristic of an allergic reaction.
Food sensitivities are also on the rise in the Western world but harder to quantify given the variability and timing of responses. Food sensitivities are like the half-sister of allergies in that they start out in a similar way. A protein introduced to a person with a food sensitivity system and perceived as a threat. This person’s system will create a different fighter protein known as Immunglobulin G or IgG. The IgG and IgE antibodies play similar roles and often have overlapping symptoms but the crucial distinguishing feature is their reaction time. The IgG antibodies are less aggressive and produce a delayed response that can occur hours or even days after the offending food has been consumed. Common food sensitivity symptoms can include bloating, gas, fatigue, brain fog, muscle and joint pain, itchy skin and skin rashes like eczema, chronic runny nose, congestion and sleeplessness.
Given the response time of food sensitivities they are often difficult to pin point and diagnose. While blood tests do exist in the market, one of the best ways to discover food intolerances or sensitivities is through an elimination diet. On such plans, individuals eliminate the common food triggers (dairy, gluten, soy, corn, eggs, peanuts, shellfish) and any other foods they might believe are problematic. They stick to a limited food plan of “safe” foods often prepared very simply (grilled, steamed, roasted, boiled) for a period of time, generally 3-4 weeks then slowly re-introduce one food at time. The re-introduction phase can be long but it is important to give the food time to “react” and see how the body responds to the food after being on a “trigger food fast”. Typically it is recommended that individual wait 4 days, between re-introductions to see or feel if there is a reaction. Often over the elimination period symptoms have drastically reduced or have even disappeared. With the re-introduction of a possible trigger food, the symptoms can reappear but more drastically than before, which is usually a clear signal that the food in question was indeed an intolerant food for that individual. | http://mimiandme.net/about-me/food-allergies-sensitivities/ | fineweb | 3,607 | 3.5 |
Do your students feel shy when it comes to speaking, especially a foreign language? We can help them lower
their fear by playing team-building games, offering an enjoyable educational atmosphere, developing communicativeskills, cooperation, and problem-solving and creative competences.
Team-building activities are a good way to strengthen the students’ interactions, help them learn about each other, and encourage them to find ways to achieve a common goal. By playing team-building games, students learn to build relationships and trust, open up new friendships, and feel more connected. In the meantime,they use the target language to communicate, without even realizing this. The tasks require sharing ideas, listening to others, and willingness to try new approaches and cooperation.
These games work well for every age group and in multiple environments. They were tested on teenagers
taking part in four team-building camps in the Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Romania, and Turkey, within the Erasmus+
project Let Us Speak.
The games have been divided into five categories and come with full descriptions and instructions, to make
them easier to work with.
MoroccoEnglish.com’s webmaster, High School teacher of English, from Nador and currently working in Bouarfa city. A BA degree holder, from Mohamed first university in Oujda .
Leave a Comment
Together to Keep This Platform Free and More Secure for all
Unlike many ELT resources platforms, we haven’t put a paywall.
We want to keep our website as open as possible for you,
and for all the world teachers who believe in the teacher’s noble message.
Editing and preparing content besides the technical management of the website,
takes a lot of time, hard work and money to produce.
We need our readers including you dear teachers and learners all over the world to fund us,
so that the future this platform would be much more secure. Support us for whatever you can by clicking on the button below. | http://moroccoenglish.com/2017/09/17/megabook-team-building-games-students/ | fineweb | 1,956 | 2.671875 |
Back River, 974 km long, rises in Contwoyto Lake, north of Great Slave Lake, NWT, and flows northeast across the Barren Lands of Nunavut to Chantrey Inlet, south of King William Island. It has a drainage area of 106 500 km2 and a mean discharge of 612 m3/sec. The river is turbulent in its upper course, but as it enters a broad plain, it widens to form Lakes Pelly, Garry, Upper Macdougall and Lower Macdougall. On its final leg it narrows to cut through another rocky section to the coast. The Thelon Game Sanctuary lies along part of its length between the Consul and Baillie rivers.
The river is named for Sir George Back, who first explored it in 1834. The original name was Thlew-ee-choh, likely Dogrib for "great fish river." Back named the lakes after Sir John Henry Pelly and Nicholas Garry, governor and deputy governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, and his friend Lieutenant-Colonel Macdougall of the 79th Highlanders. | https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/back-river | fineweb | 928 | 3.046875 |
California Vehicle Emissions Are Up, Despite Strict Pollution Controls
In spite of tough CARB standards, road vehicle emissions rose 3.1 percent in 2015.
California is known for being among the most restrictive states when it comes to legally modifying cars. Their emission requirements are much more strict than other states'—except for those parts of the Union that have adopted California's standards for themselves. Yet despite their efforts, pollution from on-road vehicles actually increased 3.1 percent between 2014 and 2015, according to a report published by Next 10. Though overall greenhouse gas emissions levels are slowly dropping, they are being offset by the increase in vehicle emissions, which accounts for 38.5 percent of all emissions in California.
But the state's stringent emission standards are not the issue, according to the report. On the contrary, they are the primary reason why the situation isn't worse than it is.
See, Californians are driving more than they used to. Part of the reason is inexpensive gas, which encourages people to take vacations or joyride through the canyons. Additionally, housing near the cities keeps getting more and more expensive, forcing people to live farther away from work—and thus making their commutes longer. According to the report, commute times increased 2.8 percent statewide between 2014 and 2015. On the flip side, public transportation ridership decreased by 4.8 percent during that same period.
California is a leader is in electric cars, however. Around half of all electric cars ever sold in the U.S. have been purchased in California. The number of registered electric cars increased a whopping 45.5 percent between 2014 and 2015, with fossil fuel-powered cars increasing only 1.7 percent. In the first quarter of 2017, electric cars accounted for 5 percent of total vehicle sales in the state.
Unfortunately, the biggest problem with electric cars in California is, not surprisingly, infrastructure. Only 0.05 public charging outlets exist for every zero-emission vehicle on the road. (Or, to put it another way, there's one public charger for every 20 EVs.) Only New Jersey and Alaska are more poorly-equipped to handle the growing desire for electric cars. Unless you can charge your car at home—and many housing communities prohibit it, while others don't have the capacity—you're out of luck when it comes time to charge.
The report doesn't offer any solutions for these problems—but clearly, the answer to rising emissions is not to relax the current standards as the Trump administration seems willing to do. Governor Jerry Brown and California Air Resources Board Chair Mary Nichols agree; they're strongly opposed to changing the standards agreed to by automakers and President Obama in 2011.
- RELATED$3 Billion Electric Car Subsidy Bill Working Its Way Through California LegislatureThe program could bring EVs down to Honda Civic prices in the state.READ NOW
- RELATEDTesla Model 3 Could Cost as Little as a Prius in California After IncentivesBuyers in California are eligible for $10,000 in state and federal incentives.READ NOW
- RELATEDMany Homes Lack the Capacity to Charge Future Electric Cars, National Grid SaysThe utility company believes public charging stations are the better solution.READ NOW
- RELATEDBMW C Evolution Electric Scooter Is Coming to CaliforniaWill this innovative moped be a revolution or a novelty?READ NOW
- RELATEDElectric Cars Will Leave Lots Of 'Losers' In Their Wake, Says JPMorganAdoption of electric cars will happen faster than many people expect, according to the financial firm.READ NOW | https://www.thedrive.com/news/13738/california-vehicle-emissions-are-up-despite-strict-pollution-controls | fineweb | 3,613 | 2.90625 |
By now the wooly bear caterpillar (Pyrrharctia isabella) has become a familiar site in The Parklands. You may have seen them crossing park roads or the Louisville Loop trail. They are easily recognized by their fuzzy black bodies with a brown band across their backs. Children are amazed by the fuzzy little creatures that curl up into a tight round ball when touched.They were plentiful in The Parklands throughout October and can still be seen on sunny fall days. They seem to be in a hurry to get somewhere, but where are they going?
In the coolness of fall the wooly bear caterpillars begin their search for a proper place to spend the winter months, burrowing under leaf litter and logs. As the temperature drops so does the body temperature of the wooly bear, metabolism slows and they enter a period of hibernation similar to the mammalian bears. Wooly bear caterpillars produce a cryoprotectant in their circulatory fluids which prevents damage to their body tissues and allows them to actually freeze solid in the winter. Folklore has it that the size of the brown band on the caterpillar can predict the severity of the coming winter. While most scientists rule out this connection, the life cycle of the wooly bear may provide some interesting clues about the climate of an area.
As the caterpillars grow, they molt and go through several instars before they are full-grown and can complete metamorphosis to become Isabella Tiger Moths. The color of their bristles changes as the caterpillar undergoes each molting, with each molting the black bristles are replaced by bristles with a brown or orange color. Their spring and summer growth is dependent on the length of the season. In very cold climates, such as northern Canada, the wooly bear may hibernate up to 13 times before completing metamorphosis. Here in the temperate climate of Kentucky the wooly bear can complete two generations in one year. In the spring as the temperatures warm, the caterpillars wake from their winters sleep and form a cocoon to pupate, from this they emerge as Isabella Tiger Moths. The moths only live a few days during which time they mate and lay eggs. So while we can’t necessarily predict the severity of the coming winter with these fuzzy insects, we can predict that as these caterpillars head off to hibernate, winter is surely on its way. We can expect to see abundant Isabella Tiger Moths in spring!
Want to keep a pet Wooly Bear Caterpillar over the winter and see if it is ready to become a moth in the spring? Check out the following link for everything you need to know: http://www.backyardwildlifehabitat.info/captureabear.htm
Don’t forget to release the moth in the spring so it can complete its life cycle!
Being a donor-supported public park means we rely on donations, not tax dollars, for annual operations each year. Because of your generosity, we are able to maintain, program, and further develop this extraordinary public space without charging an entry fee. Together we work to enhance quality of life and help our community and economy grow in ways that are healthy, sustainable, and enjoyable for people of all ages. Help us reach our goal of sustaining The Parklands by becoming a Member today. Members make it happen!
Become a Member | https://www.theparklands.org/Blog/65/Where-Are-You-Going-Wooly-Bear | fineweb | 3,258 | 3.609375 |
According to a reporter from CBC Nunavut, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau’s plane to Iqaluit had to be grounded in Goose Bay, N.L., as conditions on the landing strip were considered unsafe.
The apology ceremony will be delayed until further notice, though it is expected that the meeting between Trudeau and the representatives of four Inuit regions will continue once the weather clears up and conditions are deemed suitable.
Trudeau is set to apologize on behalf of Canada’s actions in decades passed. During the 1940’s up until the 1960’, Inuit people were separated from their families for tuberculosis treatment. Their families were often not informed of their kin’s whereabouts.
Those who underwent the treatments often lived for long periods of times in sanatoriums.
“We’ve heard a lot about families that heard that their loved one passed away, or getting a telegram of their loved one passing away, but there was no details about where their loved one was buried, if there was a funeral service,” said Jeannie arreak-Kullualik, the chief operating officer for Nunavut Tunngavik Inc.
Arreak-Kullualik estimates there were between 700 to 800 people who never returned home, and remain at unmarked grave sites.
In a report, the Qikiqtani Inuit Association says they’re looking for an apology that covers the “modern-day” colonial practices that were practiced between 1950 and 1975.
What do you think? Let us know in the comments below. | https://www.thepostmillennial.com/pm-trudeaus-plane-unable-to-land-in-iqaluit-for-apology-ceremony/ | fineweb | 1,441 | 2.890625 |
Art Therapy and Anger
Art Therapy and Anger demonstrates how the non-verbal medium of art therapy provides an ideal outlet for the expression of thoughts and feelings that are too complex and painful to put into words, presenting a new and practical approach to dealing with this area of need.
Art Therapy and Social Action
Art Therapy and Social Action is an exciting exploration of how professionals can incorporate the techniques and approaches of art therapy in their work to address social problems.
Creating Children's Art Games for Emotional Support
This book offers an abundance of fun games that help children to confront personal problems and issues in a light-hearted yet meaningful way.
Creative Coping Skills for Children
This book is full of fun, easy, creative project ideas for parents of children aged 3–12, teachers, counselors, play therapists, social workers, and all professionals working with children.
Creative Expression Activities for Teens
This imaginative and insightful book is a useful resource for all therapists, social workers, and counselors who wish to encourage self-expression in teenagers.
Grief Unseen Healing Pregnancy Loss through the Arts
An established art therapist and mental health counselor, Laura Seftel shares her own experiences of miscarriage and recovery, and describes the use of art and ritual as a response to loss in traditional and modern cultures.
Inner Journeying Through Art-Journaling
The book guides the reader through the process of creative journaling and presents the key elements of the technique. Case studies and art journals of Marianne Hieb's own clients and retreat participants show the effectiveness of journaling as a therapeutic intervention and as a meditative tool.
Sand, Water, Silence - The Embodiment of Spirit
Mary Jane Markell
Therapists often encounter people who have suffered severe emotional damage resulting in feelings of psychological fragmentation. Sandplay therapy, which combines the physical actions of play with observation and understanding through the use of symbolism, can be a useful method of treating this kind of damage.
Spirituality and Art Therapy
Reflecting the increasing recognition of the importance of the spiritual in healing, Spirituality and Art Therapy is an exciting exploration of the different ways in which the spiritual forms an essential, life-enhancing component of a well-rounded therapeutic approach.
The Creation of Imaginary Worlds
This enlightening book will be of interest to students of child development, art therapists, play therapists, counselors and child psychologists, as well as parents, teachers and anyone else who wishes to gain a better understanding of childhood imagination. | https://www.therapeuticresources.com/ArtTherapy.html | fineweb | 2,712 | 2.875 |
Have you heard the term senescence but don’t know what it is? Want to learn techniques to study it? Look no further. Read this blog post.
Scott Clarke, B.S., a Senior Staff Scientist, and Taryn Jackson, Ph.D., are R&D scientists at Thermo Fisher Scientific who work on the development of fluorescent reagents for cell and tissue staining. Along with a team of other cell biologists, they have developed a novel fluorogenic β-galactosidase (β-gal) substrate for the detection of senescent cells by flow cytometry and fluorescence imaging. They sat down and spoke to us about how the new Invitrogen™ CellEvent™ Senescence Green Probe detects cellular senescence and share information on the probe’s benefits and guidelines for its use in multiplex flow cytometry and imaging experiments.
What is senescence?
Senescent cells are cells that have stopped dividing due to telomere shortening, stress, or damage, but remain metabolically active.1-4
How does senescence occur? What are characteristics of senescent cells?
Normal cells are known to have a limited replicative lifespan commonly known as the Hayflick limit.5 After normal cells enter cell cycle arrest, they enter a senescent phase where they remain metabolically active without undergoing cell death processes. These senescent cells adopt a specific phenotypic state that includes the appearance of multinucleated cells, increased vacuolization, expression of pH-dependent β-gal, and morphological changes where cells become enlarged and extended.6,7 This change in cell state is accompanied by an increase in expression (β-gal), making any substrate for this enzyme an ideal marker to identify senescent cells when selectively labelled.
How is senescence detected?
β-gal activation is commonly used as a biomarker for senescent cells. Although β-gal activity is considered a hallmark of senescence, it does not cause the phenomena. Rather, it has been shown that there is an increase in enzymatic activity as the cells enter a senescent state. This hydrolase enzyme resides in lysosomes and converts β-galactosides into monosaccharides under acidic conditions. The activity is optimal under lysosomal pH 4, but conventional assays measure at pH 6. It has been shown that normalized β-gal activity is twice as high in senescent cells as in pre-senescent cells, regardless of the pH value used for testing.8
What assays are available to detect senescence?
There are several assays used by researchers for detecting senescence.9 The colorimetric substrate for β-gal, 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-β-D-galactopyranoside, known as x-gal has long been used to detect metabolic activity in cells in vitro. On hydrolysis by β-gal, x-gal is converted into a blue precipitate that can be detected using microscopy. While the x-gal assay is viewed as the “gold standard” method, it is limited in that it is a colourimetric assay. C12FDG is a fluorescent alternative to x-gal. If also functions as a β-gal substrate, but has the drawback of leaking out of the cell within a short period of time. In flow cytometry, many researchers prefer to rely on a combination of antibody markers such as p16ARF and p21. An alternative is CellEvent Senescence Green Reagent (Figure 1). It offers a sensitive, fluorescent substrate for β-gal that can be used for the detection of senescent cells in flow cytometry assays and imaging applications. It offers the advantage of not only being a fluorescent substrate for β-gal, but does not leak out of cells with time due to its ability to covalently bind to intracellular proteins.
Figure 1. Senescent and non-senescent cells treated with CellEvent Senescence Green Probe or X-gal. T47D human epithelial cells were untreated (day 0) or treated with 5 µM palbociclib every other day for 15 days to induce senescence (days 2-14) Cells were stained with the CellEvent Senescence Green Probe for 90 minutes or with X-gal overnight. Stained cells were imaged using the Thermo Scientific CellInsight CX5 High Content Screening Platform using the FITC filter for CellEvent Senescence Green or brightfield for colorimetric X-gal detection.
What type of research can utilize a fluorescent senescence reagent?
Identifying cellular senescence is of growing interest in cancer treatment, aging, developmental biology, and inflammatory disorders such as arthritis. Senescent cells have been implicated in contributing to age-related diseases such as Parkinson’s and diabetes, along with cancer resistance and metastasis. Senolytic compounds that selectively target senescent cells may have therapeutic implications in a variety of age-related disorders and cancer treatment. Because the CellEvent Senescence Green Flow Cytometry Kit can selectively identify senescent cells and is fixable and multiplexable, it can be used in research studies on the role of senescent cells in aging and age-related disorders, cellular stresses such as inflammation, and cancer treatment.
Tell me more about the CellEvent Senescence Green Assay.
The Invitrogen™ CellEvent Senescence Green Reagent is a fluorogenic substrate for senescence-associated β-gal detection (Figures 2 and 3). It contains two galactoside moieties, making it specific to β-gal. Upon recognition and enzymatic cleavage by β-gal, the CellEvent Senescence Green Probe produces a reactive, fluorescent product that covalently binds to cellular components containing thiols, amines and hydroxyl groups and emits a fluorogenic signal. This covalent attachment allows for cellular retention and multiplexing with intracellular markers and other fixable fluorescent probes in flow cytometry. Other β-gal substrates, such as C12FDG, have been used to detect senescent cells but this reagent does not covalently react, so it leaks out of cells and cannot be combined with fixation, permeabilization, and intracellular staining protocols.
Figure 2. Histogram of senescent and non-senescent cells treated with CellEvent Senescence Green Flow Cytometry Assay Kit. T47D human epithelial cells were left untreated (cycling/control; grey histogram peak) or treated with 5 uM palbociclib for 15 days to induce senescence (red histogram peak) through cyclin D checkpoint blockade. The median fluorescence intensity of the senescent cell peak as measured by staining with Invitrogen™ CellEvent Senescence Green Reagent, is approximately 1 log higher than non-senescent cells.
Figure 3. Cyclin A2 and B1 expression decreases with the onset of senescence. Senescence was induced in T47D, human epithelial cells by treating with 5 uM palbociclib in media every other day for 15 days, and were stained with CellEvent Senescence Green Reagent following the protocol. Cycling T47D cells progress through the various cell cycle stages as indicated by the expression of cyclin A2 and B1. A lack of expression of the cyclins (B) demonstrates cell cycle arrest in senescent cells.
If incorporating the CellEvent Senescence Green reagent into a flow cytometry panel, what other markers or fluorescent reagents would be recommended for use and why?
As a multi-faceted process, senescence is implicated in many biological functions and diseases. Studying the contribution or impact that other markers have on senescent cells will provide insights into the mechanisms involved (see Table 1).
Table 1. A non-exhaustive list of markers for studying senescence-associated mechanisms and proteins.
Other non-antibody based fluorescent reagents measuring various cellular features of senescence could also be useful to include in panels such as the Invitrogen™ Click-iT EdU Cell Proliferation Kits to confirm the lack of proliferation of senescent cells, the Invitrogen™ FxCycle stains to detect cell cycle arrest, Invitrogen™ CellROX Deep Red Flow Cytometry Assay Kit to monitor the increase in reactive oxygen species, and Invitrogen™ MitoTracker Deep Red reagent to monitor mitochondrial changes associated with cellular senescence (see Table 2).
Table 2. A list of cell health flow cytometry reagents that could be multiplexed with CellEvent Senescence Green Reagent.
Any tips and tricks you recommend for using the CellEvent Senescence Green reagent in flow cytometry panels?
- When combining CellEvent Senescence Green with intracellular staining, cells should be stained with the CellEvent Senescence Green Probe after fixation but before permeabilization since permeabilizing the cells prior to staining can affect the β-gal enzyme and result in loss of the CellEvent Senescence Green signal. Once cells have been stained with the CellEvent Senescence Green Probe, the cleaved substrate covalently reacts so that cells can be permeabilized with detergents such as Triton X-100 or saponin followed by staining for intracellular targets.
- When incubating with the CellEvent Senescence Green Probe, cells should be kept in a 37°C incubator with no CO2 so that the reaction buffer remains at pH 6, which is the optimal pH to detect SA-β-gal. Because the level of SA-β-gal can vary in different cell types and samples, the substrate concentration and incubation time should be optimized to allow for optimal discrimination between senescent and cycling cells.
- Because senescent cells are typically larger than cycling cells, forward scatter and side scatter parameters can be used as an advantage to separate the populations in senescent cells with weakly upregulated SA-β-gal expression.
- Suggested controls are unstained cells for autofluorescence and normal cycling cells of the same cell type as the senescent cells for a negative control. As a positive control, senescence can be experimentally induced in cells through a variety of methods and treatment with agents that cause DNA damage, cellular stress, or cell cycle arrest.5,6, 7
Does the CellEvent Senescence Green Reagent work in other applications?CellEvent Senescence Green can also be used for the detection of cellular senescence in fixed cells for imaging applications. This reagent provides a fluorescent alternative to colorimetric X-gal staining that is the gold standard for detection of senescent cells in imaging, along with the added benefit of multiplexing with fluorescence immunostaining and other fixed cell reagents. The CellEvent Senescence Green Detection Kit provides the CellEvent Senescence Green Reagent and Buffer optimized for imaging applications along with a protocol for staining senescent cells for detection using fluorescence microscopy or in high-content screening applications. It is important to note that SA-β-gal activity is destroyed in FFPE (formalin fixed paraffin embedded) tissue, but is active in cryopreserved tissue. Gentle formaldehyde fixation of cell cultures with 2% formaldehyde plus 0.2% glutaraldehyde for 10 minutes results in good retention of SA-β-gal activity for image based detection. 11What key references should I review if I want to learn more about detecting senescence?
- Cellular senescence in aging and age-related disease: from mechanism to therapy. Nat Med. 2015;21(12):1424-35.
- Aging, Cellular Senescence, and Cancer. Annu Rev Physiol. 2013;75:685-705.
- Characterization of novel markers of senescence and their prognostic potential in cancer. Cell Death Dis. 2014;5:e1528.
- Senolytics improve physical function and increase lifespan in old age. Nat Med. 2018;24(8):1246-1256.
- Techniques to Induce and Quantify Cellular Senescence. J Vis Exp. 2017;(123).
- The essence of senescence. Genes Dev. 2010 Nov 15;24(22):2463-79.
- Small molecule compounds that induce cellular senescence. Aging Cell. 2016; 15:999-1017.
- Quantitative assay of senescence-associated beta-galactosidase activity in mammalian cell extracts. Anal Biochem. 2005;343:329–334.
- A biomarker that identifies senescent human cells in culture and in aging skin in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 1995;92(20):9363-7.
- Colorimetric detection of senescence-associated beta galactosidase. Methods Mol. Bio. 2013; 965: 143-156.
- Protocols to detect senescence-associated beta-galactosidase (SA-betagal) activity, a biomarker of senescent cells in culture and in vivo. Nat Protoc. 2009;4(12):1798-806.
Products availableInterested in learning about other products or reading about other topics for flow cytometry? Read more Behind the Bench blog posts for Flow Cytometry here.
For Research Use Only. Not for Use in Diagnostic Procedures.
|DNA synthesis measurement||Click-iT™ EdU Cell Proliferation Flow Cytometry Kits|
|Dye dilution assay||CellTrace™ Cell Proliferation Kits|
|Fixed cell cycle assay||FxCycle™ stains|
|Oxidative stress assay||CellROX™ Flow Cytometry Kits|
|Mitochondrial localization||Invitrogen™ MitoTracker Deep Red reagent|
|CellEvent™ Senescence Green Flow Cytometry Assay Kit
|CellEvent™ Senescence Green Detection Kit | https://www.thermofisher.com/blog/behindthebench/senescence/ | fineweb | 12,732 | 3.171875 |
Meet Ada Lovelace
It'sssssss Tuesday, We Can Zone, and that means we're bringing you the second post in our Meet ____ series! In case you've forgotten since last week, this series is all about meeting cool people in STEM. For the next few weeks, our focus is going to be on figures from the computing world. This week, the person you get to meet is very near and dear to our hearts, as she was one of the earliest women in tech! Meet Ada Lovelace, the "first computer programmer."
Ada was a friend of Charles Babbage, who you all got to meet last week, and was integral to taking his work to the next level. After building the Difference Engine, Charles went on to build the Analytical Engine, which was meant to be more of a general mechanical computation device. Ada realized that the machine had the potential to do things way bigger than just solving math problems, and she told Charles so! In the quest to show what the machine could do, she wrote the very first algorithm. What's an algorithm, you ask? It's simple! An algorithm is a chain of actions that follow each other, ending in some task being accomplished. If you've ever followed along on one of our Scratch tutorials, you've written an algorithm! For example, last week we wrote an algorithm to tell Sprite the cat how to follow along with our mouse movements - check it out here.
So why's that important? Well, algorithms are one of the foundations of computer programming - so Ada really set the tone for years of innovation and building to come with her work! We think that's pretty awesome. Hopefully you enjoyed meeting her, and we encourage you to go out and learn more, and write some algorithms of your own! Or, to simplify things, just check back in here every Thursday, and we'll help you out with a handy dandy tutorial :) Before you know it, you'll be experts!
That's all for today, folks - we'll be back tomorrow with some links we're loving. See you all soon! | https://www.thewecan.zone/blog/2017/4/11/meet-ada-lovelace | fineweb | 1,939 | 3.03125 |
The Month of January
January is the first month of the year, has 31 days, and is named after the two-faced Roman god Janus.
January Is Janus’ Month
January is named after the Roman god of doors, Janus, because this month is the door to the year. Janus represents all beginnings and possesses the ability to see all things past and future.
- Middle English - Januarie
- Latin name - Ianuarius
- French - Janvier
- Saxon - Wulf-monath - wolf month
History of January
The months of January and February did not feature in earlier versions of the Roman calendar, which divided the year into 10 months and left 61 days unaccounted for in the winter. They were added around 700 BCE.
January and February were initially the last months of the calendar year, which began in March (Martius). However, in 450 BCE, the beginning of the year was moved to January 1.
January originally consisted of 30 days when it was added to the 10-month Roman calendar. However, a day was added making it 31 days long in 46 BCE by Julius Caesar.
January is considered the coldest month of the year in most of the Northern Hemisphere and the warmest month of the year in most of the Southern Hemisphere.
January starts on the same day of the week as October and ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years. During leap years, January starts on the same day of the week as April and July, and ends on the same day of the week as July.
Birth Flower and Stone
January's birth flower is the Dianthus caryophyllus or Galanthus.
The birthstone for January is the garnet which symbolizes constancy. | https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/months/january.html | fineweb | 1,593 | 3.28125 |
Did you know that Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada is the Daffodil capital of North America?
The Niagara Parks Commission plants approximately 30,000 Daffodils every year along the Niagra River with the greatest concentra
tion in the Queen Victoria Park. The City of Niagara Falls declared the Daffodil as its official flower back in June 1967.
The Niagara Parks Commission is known for it's beautiful gardens along the Niagara Parkway; a splendid enhancement to the world famous American and Canadian Horseshoe Falls. Springtime in Niagara Falls is so beautiful that people flock to Niagara Falls to see 'what's in bloom' in Niagara Parks. In fact Niagara Parks has dedicated a page so that you can coordinate your visit with the unfolding of blossoms.
Niagara Parks is also known for its beautiful Magnolia Trees, the Floral Clock and hte Centennial Lilac Garden.
This article is brought to you by the Clifton Hill district located in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada.
OTHER RELATED ARTICLES
- Onguiaahra the Niagara Falls Sound & Laser Light Show
- Holidays in Niagara Falls
- Niagara Falls Illuminations & Fireworks
- Dufferin Islands - Free Thing to do in Niagara Falls
- Top Reviewed Things to do - Clifton Hill district Niagara Falls
- Canada 150 In the Falls
- Must See Fall Colours in Niagara Falls
This spring fun fact brought to you by the Clifton Hill district in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. | https://www.topofcliftonhill.com/news/niagara-falls-daffodil-capital-of-north-america-1708/ | fineweb | 1,403 | 2.75 |
Automatic Identification System (AIS) is a system used to enhance maritime safety by providing real-time information such as tracking and monitoring for ships. Since its inception in 2002, it has already been installed in 300,000 vessels across the globe to monitor marine traffic and avoid vessel collisions. The system has also been proven to be useful for accident investigation as well as search-and-rescue (SAR) operations.
This Trend Micro paper introduces AIS and its operations, and provides a general overview of how it works, as well as its benefits. This study also provides a unique angle in evaluating the security issues of these systems by introducing threats that affect both its online implementation and its protocol specifications. Over the course of the research, those that have been identified are categorized into three macrocategories: spoofing, hijacking, and availability disruption. Each threat has been pored over in detail to determine if it is software- or radio frequency (RF)-based or both.
Ship spoofing is the process that involves the crafting of a valid but nonexistent vessel by assigning static information such as ship name, identifiers (MMSI and call sign), flag, ship type, manufacturer, and even dimensions like ship status, position, speed, course, and destination to the fictitious ship.
This kind of attack provides an array of malicious attack scenarios, like making it appear like a particular vessel is with the jurisdiction of an adversarial nation. Ship spoofing could cause issues for automated systems identifying data and making inferences based on collected information from AIS.
Other forms of attacks based both on software and radio frequency are discussed in the full report.
AIS installations on ships require software to provide data to online providers. While useful, there are also security issues with their implementations. The research looked into three popular online AIS providers and found security issues with all three in terms of how they vet sources and authenticate data. A deeper discussion on this can be seen in the full report.
Other forms of radio frequency-based attacks are carefully discussed in the evaluation conducted in the research.
Making full use of a software-based transmitter introduced by Trend Micro researchers, this study discovered and experimentally proved that both AIS’s implementation and the protocol specification are affected by several threats, opening keys to malicious actors to explore attack possibilities. Responsible disclosure notifications have been handed out to involved international organizations to improve overall security given the immense importance of AIS as cyber-physical system in the marine industry.
Like it? Add this infographic to your site:
1. Click on the box below. 2. Press Ctrl+A to select all. 3. Press Ctrl+C to copy. 4. Paste the code into your page (Ctrl+V).
Image will appear the same size as you see above. | https://www.trendmicro.com/vinfo/us/security/news/cybercrime-and-digital-threats/a-security-evaluation-of-ais | fineweb | 2,945 | 2.75 |
National Aboriginal Day: The importance of Indigenous culture and learning at U of T
Language and culture: two areas that go hand-in-hand are also a focus of today’s National Aboriginal Day celebration.
Both subjects, highlighted in The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) of Canada’s Calls to Action, are also key priorities of the University of Toronto’s Indigenous community.
In a time when the country is bringing much needed attention to Indigenous issues, the university is continuing to expand its resources for Indigenous teaching and learning. U of T has a strong focus on the Indigenous community with academic programming and support for cultural initiatives, many of which are supported through the Centre for Aboriginal Initiatives (CAI).
Professor Keren Rice (below), director of CAI, is also a member of U of T’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission Steering Committee and notes that September 2016 will see the return of an academic course on reconciliation. CAI also has a vested interest in the Steering Committee’s upcoming recommendations, including those that pertain to Indigenous languages.
“Language has always been a priority of CAI from the earliest days,” says Rice. “In establishing the undergraduate program in Aboriginal Studies, there was consultation with the Elders Council of Ontario and the Chiefs of Ontario where the importance of language was stressed. Now language is the foundation of many of our academic offerings.”
CAI’s Indigenous Language Initiative supports the university community and the broader community in the study and everyday use of Indigenous languages, including Anishinaabemowin, Haudenosaunee and Inuktitut. Students and community members are offered opportunities to gain insight about the importance of language and culture, as well as new ways of both learning and teaching Indigenous languages.
Underscoring its importance, two new assistant professors with a focus on Haudenosaunee language and culture are joining CAI this year.
“There is so much knowledge to gain from language,” says Rice. “So much that is hard to express in another language. You get a deeper understanding of a culture from speaking the Indigenous language, helping you to see the world through different eyes.”
Julie Blair, a member of Serpent River First Nation, is a fourth-year Aboriginal Studies major undergraduate. She’s also coordinator for the Indigenous Education Network (IEN) at OISE. Despite her busy schedule, Blair still finds time to spend at CAI.
She refers to the Centre as a welcoming space, noting it is one of the only buildings on campus (other than First Nations House, OISE and the Multi-Faith Centre) where she and other Indigenous students can smudge – a ritual cleansing with burning of sacred medicines. Blair also spends time at CAI working on her studies and attending lectures and events.
“Aboriginal Studies are incredibly important for everyone to learn,” says Blair. “It’s a different worldview and perspective that fully encompasses the history of Canada.”
At IEN, Blair helps plan events including drum circles, medicine workshops, film nights and the upcoming Forum on Aboriginal Homelessness on June 22. IEN encourages Indigenous and non-Indigenous people to come together to learn from each other in an experiential way.
“There is a great sense of support for the Indigenous community at U of T,” says Blair. “I’ve learned so much more about my own culture through community gatherings outside of the classroom.”
Now, as U of T celebrates National Aboriginal Day with the City of Toronto, they do so with the Indigenous students and community at the university. “Our students come from all walks of life and the support the university provides them helps pave a way for their future. That’s something worth celebrating.”
For more information about U of T’s Aboriginal Studies and CAI, please visit: http://aboriginalstudies.utoronto.ca/ | https://www.utoronto.ca/news/national-aboriginal-day-u-t | fineweb | 3,916 | 3.15625 |
NEW YORK - Whether it's the story of people risking their lives to free slaves through the Underground Railroad, the dynamic message of Dr. Martin Luther King or the historic Supreme Court case of Brown vs. Board of Education, Black History Month presents a tremendous opportunity for teachers to share these valuable stories with their students.
To assist educators in finding unique and engaging lesson plans and educational resources reflective of Black History Month, which is observed in February, Thinkfinity.org has created a special section on its home page that provides dozens of resources that bring those lessons to life.
Thinkfinity.org is the Verizon Foundation's free comprehensive program and online portal to more than 55,000 educational resources, including grade-specific, K-12 lesson plans, and other student interactives provided in partnership with 11 of the nation's leading educational organizations.
Among the resources in the Thinkfinity.org Black History Month section are:
- An Underground Railroad interactive online activity for students in grades 3-12. This resource, from National Geographic, allows students to take part in an interactive online journey through the eyes of a slave. The student begins his or her trek on the Underground Railroad, selecting different paths or answers that will help lead him or her to freedom, or back to the plantation. In addition, National Geographic's Xpeditions offers lesson plans to for use in conjunction with the interactive. http://www.nationalgeographic.com/railroad/index.html
- Exploring the Power of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Words through Diamante Poetry, a lesson plan for students in grades 9-12. This resource, from the International Reading Association and National Council of Teachers of English's ReadWriteThink.org, allows students to explore how powerful words communicate the concepts of freedom, justice and discrimination in Dr. King's "I Have a Dream" speech. This resource includes links to the video, audio and transcript of the speech. http://www.readwritethink.org/lessons/lesson_view.asp?id=258
- Separate is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education, a collection of classroom activities for students in grades 4-12. This resource, designed by the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History, takes students through an online exhibit that marked the 50th anniversary of the landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision that helped end segregation in public schools. The exhibition features images, videos and objects from the museum's collection. Also included are two virtual field trips, six lesson plans and a bibliography that helps students understand the background of the case. http://americanhistory.si.edu/Brown/index.html
"Technology is a tremendous tool to bring the valuable lessons of the past alive today for all students," said Verizon Foundation President Patrick Gaston. "Through Thinkfinity.org and the wonderful resources provided by the nation's education authorities, teachers have quick access to dynamic resources that will engage and inspire their students."
Content for Thinkfinity.org is provided through a partnership between the Verizon Foundation and 11 of the nation's leading organizations in the fields of education and literacy: the American Association for the Advancement of Science, International Reading Association, the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, National Center for Family Literacy, National Council on Economic Education, National Endowment for the Humanities, National Council of Teachers of English, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, National Geographic Society, ProLiteracy Worldwide and the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History.
The Verizon Foundation, the philanthropic arm of Verizon Communications, supports the advancement of literacy and K-12 education through its signature program, Thinkfinity.org, and fosters awareness and prevention of domestic violence. In 2007, the foundation awarded more than $67.4 million in grants to nonprofit agencies in the United States and abroad. The foundation also matched the charitable donations of Verizon employees and retirees, resulting in $25.1 million in combined contributions. Through Verizon Volunteers, one of the nation's largest employee volunteer programs, Verizon employees and retirees have volunteered more than 3 million hours of community service since Verizon's inception in 2000.
For more information on the foundation, visit www.verizon.com/foundation.
Verizon Communications Inc. (NYSE:VZ), headquartered in New York, is a leader in delivering broadband and other wireline and wireless communication innovations to mass market, business, government and wholesale customers. Verizon Wireless operates America's most reliable wireless network, serving nearly 66 million customers nationwide. Verizon's Wireline operations include Verizon Business, which delivers innovative and seamless business solutions to customers around the world, and Verizon Telecom, which brings customers the benefits of converged communications, information and entertainment services over the nation's most advanced fiber-optic network. A Dow 30 company, Verizon employs a diverse workforce of nearly 235,000 and last year generated consolidated operating revenues of $93.5 billion. For more information, visit www.verizon.com. | https://www.verizon.com/about/news/press-releases/thinkfinityorg-offers-many-free-online-resources-teachers-bring-black-history-month-studies-life | fineweb | 5,351 | 3.96875 |
The tale about Hagar and Ismael
No one knows for sure how this shrine came into existence – but very old legend says that the events started with the following:
God ordered to Ibrahim to leave his wife Hagar and their baby son Ismael in the desert between two hills – Al-Safa and Al-Marwah. In those times, sometimes around 2030 BC, this was empty and lifeless desert. Hagar had only basic provisions and God wanted to test her faith.
Soon Hagar had to look for water. She was weak and thus she left Ismael on the ground.
Hagar at first climbed Al-Safa hill and looked around for water. With no success she ran across the valley and then climbed the other mountain – Al-Marwah. Thus she was running seven times between both hills and finally returned to her son – without any water.
God though assisted them. The small Ismael was kicking the ground with his feet and in this place was created a freshwater spring – Zamzam Well. This was the reward for the patience of Hagar.
According to legend (no one knows – when it happened in reality) Kaaba was built during the lifetime of Ismael, around 2030 BC. Qur’an tells that Kaaba is the first house in the world built to worship Allah – some versions of legends tell that it was built well before Ismael – by Adem, the first human. It is assesed that Kaaba became a place of pilgrimage sometimes around 500 AD.
Local tribes of different faith gathered here and placed sculptures of their idols around Kaaba. It is possible that the dominating religion before Islam was cult of Hubal, possibly brought from the north.
Muhammad and his followers destroyed the statue of Hubal in 630 AD, together with 360 other idol statues. Since 630 AD Kaaba is the main shrine of Muslims – and only Muslims.
Mecca was announced as violence free place and warfare was not allowed withing 32 km around Kaaba. Elsewhere in Arabia tribes were constantly fighting each other – but Mecca was a place of peace and due to this it became an important centre of trade.
Nevertheless violence has taken place in Kaaba – it was partly destroyed in 683, 692 (rebuilt in present form in 693 AD), and in 930 AD, when the Black Stone was stolen and returned only in 952 AD.
Kaaba has been rebuilt numerous times, but it is possible that for most part it was similar to contemporary cuboid building.
Height of this cuboid (not an exact cube, but similar to it) is 13.1 m. It is built from locally mined granite and stands on a marble base.
Corners of the building roughly point at four cardinal directions – to the north, south, east and west.
Kaaba has room inside, which is partly clad with marble, containing Qur’anic inscriptions. 300 kg heavy door from gold (made in 1979) leads into this room.
Twice per year Kaaba is opened for the ceremony of cleaning, where a small number of high ranked people are invited. They get brooms and clean Kaaba with a mix of Zamzam water and Persian rosewater.
Kaaba is covered with ornate black and gold silk fabric – Kisva (Kiswah). This is enormous, 670 kg heavy cloth, which may contain up to 15 kg of gold. Kisva is replaced every year during the Hajj.
It is possible that this tradition started before Islam – a silken veil over a local shrine has been mentioned aready before the Christian era – and already then it was replaced once per year.
Black Stone of Kaaba
Outside, into the eastern corner of Kaaba is built the Black Stone (Al-Ħajaru l-Aswad).
This is black stone, 20 by 16 cm large, polished by millions of hands. Earlier it was considered that this is meteorite, also some local traditions see the stone as a link between heaven and earth. Lately though many specialists think, that this is not meteorite but rather very dark agate or other local material. Stories tell that stone floats in water.
This mysterious stone was brought here as a sacred, very important relic of some earlier religions. Most likely it was revered similar to the reverence to many unusual natural objects – old trees, powerful springs, large stones and unusual rock formations.
According to Muslim legend the Black Stone was brought to the shrine in Mecca sometimes around 2130 BC by an angel, who told that this stone fell from the sky in the nearby Abu Qubays hill.
It was built into the wall of Kaaba earlier – but it is known that also Muhammad built it into the eastern corner of Kaaba in 605 AD, during the repairs.
Stone disintegrated into smaller pieces – reportedly during the warfare in 683 AD or during the fire earlier in the late 6th or the early 7th century.
Masters solved this problem by making a silver frame around the stone and fastening all pieces with silver nails. It is not known whether all is visible or there are more pieces inside the cement.
Some 20 m east from Kaaba is located the purported miraculous spring – Zamzam Well. Muslims believe that the spring is miraculously created by God thousands of years ago (see above the legend about Hagar and her son Ismail).
Zamzam Well is artificially excavated, approximately 30 m deep well, with a diameter of 1 – 2.66 m. It is laid with stones, the deeper part goes through the bedrock. Groundwater supply to this well is abundant, natural level of water is 3.23 m below the surface.
Water from Zamzam Well is tested daily and is definitely suitable for drinking. It has distinct, salty taste.
At the beginnings of Islam this was simple well with stone fencing around it. A dome was built over it in 771 AD, many more reconstructions and rebuildings followed in coming centuries.
As the number of piligrims increased with every year, gathering of people around the well disturbed those who were circling around Kaaba. In 1915 the building above the well was removed and water from the spring is pumped with electrical pumps to the eastern part of Masjid al-Haram and is available in separate places for women and men.
Formally it is prohibited to sell Zamzam water outside Saudi Arabia but somehow it is available in many countries. Origins of such water are unclear and it may not be clean and healthy.
The largest mosque in the world – Masjid al-Haram – is built around all these sacred places.
First mosque was built here in 692 AD, numerous rebuildings and extensions have taken place since then. Construction activities seem to be eternal here – all the time around the sacred sites are seen numerous construction cranes.
Nowadays mosque has an area of 35.7 ha and can accomodate up to four million piligrims. It has nine, up to 89 m tall minarets.
This is one of few mosques, where men and women worship together.
The giant Masjid al-Haram includes also both sacred hills, where Hagar was looking for water – Al-Safa and Al-Marwah. Distance between the hills is approximately 450 m and Muslims should walk seven times forth and back between the hills, starting from Al-Safa. This walking should be done in the same day when Tawaf (seven circles around Kaaba) is done.
The fate of contemporary pilgrims though is much easier than the fate of Hagar. The walk between both hills today leads through a long, air conditioned gallery.
The last of the Five Pillars of Islam requires that every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to the sacred places in Mecca at least once in lifetime.
Most Muslims come here during the Hajj – certain time of Islamic calendar. As the globalization continues, more and more people are able to come here and in recent years Mecca experiences unseen numbers of piligrims: many millions of people.
When piligrims enter the enormous square around Kaaba, they have to walk seven times counter-clockwise around Kaaba (ritual of Tawaf) and – if possible to access – kiss the Black Stone each time. Now, when the square is filled with many thousands of believers, they are allowed just to point with a hand towards the Black Stone.
According to legends, Tawaf is very ancient tradition which started well before Muhammad – may be even thousands of years earlier.
Kaaba is remembered every day almost anywhere on the globe – five times per day Muslims around the world are praying in the direction of Kaaba.
|Coordinates:||21.4225 N 39.8262 E|
|Categories:||Islamic shrines, Ancient shrines, Sites of legends|
|Values:||Art, Architecture, History|
|Rating:||(5 / 5)|
|Address:||Asia, Saudi Arabia, centre of Makkah|
|Alternate names:||Ka’aba, al-Kaʿbah l-Mušarrafah (The Noble Cube), al-Baytu l-ʿAtīq (The Primordial House), al-Baytu l-Ḥarām (The Sacred/Forbidden House)|
|Name in Arabic:||الكعبة|
Many landmarks in Saudi Arabia are little known to the outside world, and, unfortunately, many amazing attractions are deliberately destroyed.
Nevertheless some Saudi Arabian landmarks are world renowned and one – Kaaba in Masjid al-Haram, Makkah – is one of most important places in world.
Initially, in the 7th century mosques were unpretentious, large halls for gatherings. Over the time, as Islam was spreading, there developed diverse, locally adapted architectural forms of mosques.
Secret Realities of Hajj features invaluable teachings and spiritual insight into the Islamic holy pilgrimage of Hajj. From the historical references of holy prophets to the remarkable scientific explanations of the circumambulation, this book provides a deeper understanding of this important pillar of faith.
Muhammad’s was a life of almost unparalleled historical importance; yet for all the iconic power of his name, the intensely dramatic story of the prophet of Islam is not well known. In The First Muslim, Lesley Hazleton brings him vibrantly to life. | https://www.wondermondo.com/kaaba-and-masjid-al-haram/ | fineweb | 9,486 | 3.125 |
Definition - What does Matcha mean?
Matcha is a powdered form of green tea that serves as a powerful antioxidant and is believed to offer numerous other benefits. It has become a popular drink among Western yogis for its calming, yet energizing, properties.
Use of matcha dates back to 7th century China. It eventually became a ritual of the Zen Buddhists to prepare and drink the tea. The Japanese -- first the Buddhists and eventually the Japanese in general -- adopted matcha for their traditional tea ceremony, which is a meditative spiritual practice that involves preparing, serving and drinking the tea.
Yogapedia explains Matcha
Matcha is made from green tea plants that are grown in the shade for three weeks just before harvesting. Because of the shade, the green tea plants produce more caffeine and theanine, which is believed to promote the calming energy.
Matcha is available in several grades, from the expensive and high-quality ceremonial grade to culinary grade, which may be slightly bitter and is typically used in cooking rather than as a beverage.
For a metabolism-boosting beverage, the powdered matcha is prepared by adding a teaspoon to half of a cup of hot water or milk. In addition to its use as a beverage and a base or additive for lattes, iced drinks and smoothies, matcha is added to desserts for flavor and color. | https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/10610/matcha | fineweb | 1,346 | 2.609375 |
Definition - What does Shakyamuni Mantra mean?
The Shakyamuni mantra is the mantra of the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama. Shakyamuni means “sage of the Shakyan clan,” and the man who became the Buddha was born into that clan in the late Vedic period. The mantra represents the Buddha's sacred heart essence; so, by reciting it, the yogi is thought to absorb this essence.
The Shakyamuni mantra is considered one of the greatest of the Buddhist mantras, and it is one of the most popular among Tibetan Buddhists. It's not unusual for a Buddhist to recite this mantra daily.
Yogapedia explains Shakyamuni Mantra
In Sanskrit, the Shakyamuni mantra – also called the Heart Mantra of the Great Sage – is chanted as:
Om muni muni mahamuni Shakyamuni svaha
Om represents the cosmic vibration of the universe, while muni translates as “sage” and maha means “great.” The mantra, therefore, is typically translated as “Om wise one, wise one, greatly wise one, wise one of the Shakyans, hail!”
It is also believed that the Shakyamuni mantra clears all negative karma accumulated throughout the kalpas, or eons. | https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9276/shakyamuni-mantra | fineweb | 1,106 | 2.59375 |
Video editing is the process of editing segments of motion video footage, special effects and sound recordings. Motion picture film editing is a predecessor to video editing and, in several ways, video editing simulates motion picture film editing, in theory and the use of non-linear and linear editing systems. Using video or film, a director can communicate non-fictional and fictional events. The goals of editing is to manipulate these events for better or for worse communication. It is a visual art.
We are quicker, less expensive, more flexible and saves time and money when compared to others. Due to all these features and the introduction of new technologies in digital video editing, We are fast replacing the others. | https://www.zincksoft.com/video-editing.html | fineweb | 729 | 3.234375 |
We can’t all spend the money for highest top quality care from your dentist, but we could adjust our own diet to boost our overall health. By steering clear of sugary things and taking on fruit, greens and green tea, you will help fight corrosion and periodontal disease.
Any dental office will inform you that everything you put within your mouth can be as important as everything you brush or perhaps floss from the jawhorse. Good food items promote good teeth’s health while negative foods can give rise to the destruction of your otherwise healthful and great smile. While it’s ok to have pleasure in the infrequent bite regarding saltwater taffy, avoiding these foods and making certain you share in healthful hygiene habits can assist you improve your current oral well being.
Several teas, mostly black and also green kinds, are bacterias fighters. They’ve got the natural power to break upwards plaque and also discourage bacterias buildup that will later generate dangerous acids. To incorporate a extra oral enhance, use fluoride infused h2o to brew the tea (almost all taps and lots of bottles oceans contain fluoride, which usually helps combat cavities). Fluoride will be another issue which can be gaining fascination with the health-related community, but while there is certainly controversy above its performance, it remains considered just about the most important community health contributions inside the history of the usa.
Fruits and also Vegetables
Besides being perfect for improving general health and weight reduction, fruits and also veggies certainly are a natural security against enamel decay and also gum condition. Crunchy kinds, such since apples, green beans, and celery will help clean the outer lining of tooth, removing plaque. The vitamin supplements within these foods also aid strengthen enameled surface, generate saliva which can be vital regarding neutralizing mouth acids, and builds calcium and also minerals which usually fortifies the particular structure with the teeth.
A dentist could have his perform cut out there for your pet yanking taffy and also bubblegum away from teeth pursuing Halloween. Sticky sweet like caramel, toffee, and also gum provides two hits against it—sugar and also longevity. Some other candy, although nonetheless not perfect for your tooth, won’t typically get found between tiny spaces. The particular stickier the particular candy, nonetheless, the more inclined it can be wedged tightly inside the teeth, resisting a good vigorous scrubbing, which signifies the glucose has longer to take in away with tooth enameled surface than point out a chocolates bar would certainly. Sticky foods also can pull and also loosen fillings, braces, or perhaps other tooth apparatus. Hard sweets don’t fare greater either due to the fact refined glucose without excess fat will stay longer. Biting in to a jawbreaker (which can be so correctly named) or perhaps lollipop also can crack any tooth, creating great soreness and revealing the enamel to corrosion.
Another enamel killer will be dyed fizzy carbonated refreshments. While rejuvenating, the acids covered within can erode enamel enamel overtime and may even even stain the surface of the teeth. In the event you can’t withstand a fizzy beverage, try one thing without dim dye, for instance a clear soft drinks or carbonated fruit juice. If you adore a excellent cola, a dental office may recommend employing a straw whenever feasible to decrease direct experience of the enameled surface surfaces of one’s teeth.
After ingesting any food which could compromise your teeth’s health, it is very important to remember to brush and floss. In the event you can’t and possess to waitArticle Lookup, rinsing orally out together with some water to eliminate extra sugar are a good idea and reduce injuries associated together with decay. | http://1sthealthportal.com/dental-care/just-what-your-dental-office-wants-one-to-eat-and-what-things-to-avoid.html | fineweb | 3,853 | 2.625 |
Disappointing is the only word to describe the world of orchids in the Anglesea district at the present time.
If you look hard enough, you could possibly find many of our orchid species in flower, but the number of flowers is very low, and their size means that they can easily be overlooked.
Parson’s Bands Eriochilus cucullatus, which were once very common orchids in our area, have managed to produce a few flowers in a number of areas. Although the flowers are very small, they are worth a close look. The pink or white, lateral sepals, which resemble the bands on a parson’s collar, are the key features of the flower. They are much larger than the other segments, and project forwards – indeed the petals and dorsal sepal are reduced in size, and almost inconspicuous. The fleshy labellum is covered with small stiff hairs, and has a sharply recurved tip. The flowers, one to three, are delicately perfumed. The leaves appear after the flowering time, and remain well after the flower has withered.
There are other treasures to find, Tiny Greenhoods Pterostylis parviflora and Brown Tipped Greenhoods P. sp. aff. parviflora have the smallest flowers of all our Greenhood species.
As their names suggest, the main difference is the brownish markings on the Brown Tipped Greenhood.
Other orchids observed during April have been the attractive Fringed Hare Orchids Leporella fimbriata, one or two Autumn Bird Orchids Chiloglottis reflexa, and one flowering Mosquito Orchid, Acianthus pusillus. Leaves of the Autumn Greenhood Pterostylis sp. aff revoluta indicate that the tubers are healthy, despite not producing flowers this year.
The recent rains are encouraging growth of our winter orchid species. Rosettes of Banded Greenhoods P. sanguinea and Nodding Greenhoods P. nutans are appearing in good numbers. Here’s hoping for a good season.
Note that all these species are documented in Orchids of the Anglesea District available from ANGAIR, and please share your orchid finds with us, as it helps to develop the bigger picture. | http://angair.org.au/activities/local-nature-reports?id=191 | fineweb | 2,034 | 2.640625 |
Dark period of Parthian History. Doubtful succession of the Monarchs. Accession of Sanatrceces, ab. B.C. 76. Position of Parthia during the Mithridatic Wars. Accession of Phraates III. His relations with Pompey. His death. Civil War between his two sons, Mithridates and Orodes. Death of Mithridates.
The successor of Mithridates II. is unknown. It has been argued, indeed, that the reigns of the known monarchs of this period would not be unduly long if we regarded them as strictly consecutive, and placed no blank between the death of Mithridates II. and the accession of the next Arsaces whose name has come down to us. Sanatrodoeces, it has been said, may have been, and may, therefore, well be regarded as, the successor of Mithridates. But the words of the epitomizer of Trogus, placed at the head of this chapter, forbid the acceptance of this theory. The epitomizer would not have spoken of "many kings" as intervening between Mithridates II. and Orodes, if the number had been only three. The expression implies, at least, four or five monarchs; and thus we have no choice but to suppose that the succession of the kings is here imperfect, and that at least one or two reigns were interposed between those of the second Mithridates and of the monarch known as Sanatroeces, Sinatroces, or Sintricus.
A casual notice of a Parthian monarch in a late writer may supply the gap, either wholly or in part. Lucian speaks of a certain Mnasciras as a Parthian king, who died at the advanced age of ninety-six. As there is no other place in the Parthian history at which the succession is doubtful, and as no such name as Mnascris occurs elsewhere in the list, it seems necessary, unless we reject Lucian's authority altogether, to insert this monarch here. We cannot say, however, how long he reigned, or ascribe to him any particular actions; nor can we say definitely what king he either succeeded or preceded. It is possible that his reign covered the entire interval between Mithridates II. and Sanatroeces; it is possible, on the other hand, that he had successors and predecessors, whose names have altogether perished.
The expression used by the epitomizer of Trogus, and a few words dropped by Plutarch, render it probable that about this time there were contentions between various members of the Arsacid family which issued in actual civil war. Such contentions are a marked feature of the later history; and, according to Plutarch, they commenced at this period. We may suspect, from the great age of two of the monarchs chosen, that the Arsacid stock was now very limited in number, that it offered no candidates for the throne whose claims were indisputable, and that consequently at each vacancy there was a division of opinion among the "Megistanes," which led to the claimants making appeal, if the election went against them, to the arbitrament of arms.
The dark time of Parthian history is terminated by the accession—probably in B.C. 76—of the king above mentioned as known by the three names of Sanatroeces, Sinatroces, and Sintricus. The form, Sanatroeces, which appears upon the Paithian coins, is on that account to be preferred. The king so called had reached when elected the advanced age of eighty. It may be suspected that he was a son of the sixth Arsaces (Mithridates I.), and consequently a brother of Phraates II. He had, perhaps, been made prisoner by that Scythians in the course of the disastrous war waged by that monarch, and had been retained in captivity for above fifty years. At any rate, he appears to have been indebted to the Scythians in some measure for the crown which he acquired so tardily, his enjoyment of it having been secured by the help of a contingent of troops furnished to him by the Scythian tribe of the Sacauracae.
The position of the Empire at the time of his accession was one of considerable difficulty. Parthia, during the period of her civil contentions, had lost much ground in the west, having been deprived by Tigranes of at least two important provinces. At the same time she had been witness of the tremendous struggle between Rome and Pontus which commenced in B.C. 88, was still continuing, and still far from decided, when Sanatroeces came to the throne. An octogenarian monarch was unfit to engage in strife, and if Sanatroeces, notwithstanding this drawback, had been ambitious of military distinction, it would have been difficult for him to determine into which scale the interests of his country required that he should cast the weight of his sword. On the one hand, Parthia had evidently much to fear from the military force and the covetous disposition of Tigranes, king of Armenia, the son-in-law of Mithridates, and at this time his chosen alley. Tigranes had hitherto been continually increasing in strength. By the defeat of Artanes, king of Sophene, or Armenia Minor, he had made himself master of Armenia in its widest extent; by his wars with Parthia herself he had acquired Gordyene, or Northern Mesopotamia, and Adiabene, or the entire rich tract east of the middle Tigris (including Assyria Proper and Arbelitis), as far, at any rate, as the course of the lower Zab; by means which are not stated he had brought under subjection the king of the important country of Media Artropatene, independent since the time of Alexander. Invited into Syria, about B.C. 83, by the wretched inhabitants, wearied with the perpetual civil wars between the princes of the house of the Seleucidae, he had found no difficulty in establishing himself as king over Cilicia, Syria, and most of Phoenicia. About B.C. 80 he had determined on building himself a new capital in the province of Gordyene, a capital of a vast size, provided with all the luxuries required by an Oriental court, and fortified with walls which recalled the glories of the ancient cities of the Assyrians. The position of this huge town on the very borders of the Parthian kingdom, in a province which had till very recently been Parthian, could be no otherwise understood that as a standing menace to Parthia itself, the proclamation of an intention to extend the Armenian dominion southwards, and to absorb at any rate all the rich and fertile country between Gordyene and the sea. Thus threatened by Armenia, it was impossible for Sanatroeces cordially to embrace the side of Mithridates, with which Armenia and its king were so closely allied; it was impossible for him even to wish that the two allies should be free to work their will on the Asiatic continent unchecked by the power which alone had for the last twelve years obstructed their ambitious projects.
On the other hand, there was already among the Asiatic princes generally a deep distrust of Rome—a fear that in the new people, which had crept so quietly into Asia, was to be found a power more permanently formidable than the Macedonians, a power which would make up for want of brilliancy and dash by a dogged perseverance in its aims, and a stealthy, crafty policy, sure in the end to achieve great and striking results. The acceptance of the kingdom of Attalus had not, perhaps, alarmed any one; but the seizure of Phrygia during the minority of Mithridates, without so much as a pretext, and the practice, soon afterwards established, of setting up puppet kings, bound to do the bidding of their Roman allies, had raised suspicions; the ease with which Mithridates notwithstanding his great power and long preparation, had been vanquished in the first war (B.C. 88-84) had aroused fears; and Sanatroeces could not but misdoubt the advisability of lending aid to the Romans, and so helping them to obtain a still firmer hold on Western Asia. Accordingly we find that when the final war broke out, in B.C. 74, his inclination was, in the first instance, to stand wholly aloof, and when that became impossible, then to temporize. To the application for assistance made by Mithridates in B.C. 72 a direct negative was returned; and it was not until, in B.C. 69, the war had approached his own frontier, and both parties made the most earnest appeals to him for aid, that he departed from the line of pure abstention, and had recourse to the expedient of amusing, both sides with promises, while he helped neither. According to Plutarch, this line of procedure offended Lucullus, and had nearly induced him to defer the final struggle with Mithridates and Tigranes, and turn his arms against Parthia. But the prolonged resistance of Nisibis, and the successes of Mithridates in Pontus, diverted the danger; and the war rolling northwards, Parthia was not yet driven to take a side, but was enabled to maintain her neutral position for some years longer.
Meanwhile the aged Sanatroeces died, and was succeeded by his son, Phraates III. This prince followed at first his father's example, and abstained from mixing himself up in the Mithridatic war; but in B.C. 66, being courted by both sides, and promised the restoration of the provinces lost to Tigranes, he made alliance with Pompey, and undertook, while the latter pressed the war against Mithridates, to find occupation for the Armenian monarch in his own land. This engagement he executed with fidelity. It had happened that the eldest living son of Tigranes, a prince bearing the same name as his father, having raised a rebellion in Armenia and been defeated, had taken refuge in Parthia with Phraates. Phraates determined to take advantage of this circumstance. The young Tigranes was supported by a party among his countrymen who wished to see a youthful monarch upon the throne; and Phraates therefore considered that he would best discharge his obligations to the Romans by fomenting this family quarrel, and lending a moderate support to the younger Tigranes against his father. He marched an army into Armenia in the interest of the young prince, overran the open country, and advanced on Artaxata, the capital. Tigranes, the king, fled at his approach, and betook himself to the neighboring mountains. Artaxata was invested; but as the siege promised to be long, the Parthian monarch after a time withdrew, leaving the pretender with as many troops as he thought necessary to press the siege to a successful issue. The result, however, disappointed his expectations. Scarcely was Phraates gone, when the old king fell upon his son, defeated him, and drove him beyond his borders. He was forced, however, soon afterwards, to submit to Pompey, who, while the civil war was raging in Armenia, had defeated Mithridates and driven him to take refuge in the Tauric Chersonese.
Phraates, now, naturally expected the due reward of his services, according to the stipulations of his agreement with Pompey. But that general was either dissatisfied with the mode in which the Parthian had discharged his obligations, or disinclined to strengthen the power which he saw to be the only one in these parts capable of disputing with Rome the headship of Asia. He could scarcely prevent, and he does not seem to have tried to prevent, the recovery of Adiabene by the Parthians; but the nearer province of Gordyene to which they had an equal claim, he would by no means consent to their occupying. At first he destined it for the younger Tigranes. When the prince offended him, he made it over to Ariobarzanes, the Cappadocian monarch. That arrangement not taking effect, and the tract being disputed between Phraates and the elder Tigranes, he sent his legate, Afranius, to drive the Parthians out of the country, and delivered it over into the hands of the Armenians. At the same time he insulted the Parthian monarch by refusing him his generally recognized title of "King of Kings." He thus entirely alienated his late ally, who remonstrated against the injustice with which he was treated, and was only deterred from declaring war by the wholesome fear which he entertained of the Roman arms.
Pompey, on his side, no doubt took the question into consideration whether or no he should declare the Parthian prince a Roman enemy, and proceed to direct against him the available forces of the Empire. He had purposely made him hostile, and compelled him to take steps which might have furnished a plausible casus belli. But, on the whole, he found that he was not prepared to venture on the encounter. The war had not been formally committed to him; and if he did not prosper in it, he dreaded the accusations of his enemies at Rome. He had seen, moreover, with his own eyes; that the Parthians were an enemy far from despicable, and his knowledge of campaigning told him that success against them was not certain. He feared to risk the loss of all the glory which he had obtained by grasping greedily at more, and preferred enjoying the fruits of the good luck which had hitherto attended him to tempting fortune on a new field. He therefore determined that he would not allow himself to be provoked into hostilities by the reproaches, the dictatorial words, or even the daring acts of the Parthian King. When Phraates demanded his lost provinces he replied, that the question of borders was one which lay, not between Parthia and Rome, but between Parthia and Armenia. When he laid it down that the Euphrates properly bounded the Roman territory, and charged Pompey not to cross it, the latter said he would keep to the just bounds, whatever they were. When Tigranes complained that after having been received into the Roman alliance he was still attacked by the Parthian armies, the reply of Pompey was that he was willing to appoint arbitrators who should decide all the disputes between the two nations. The moderation and caution of these answers proved contagious. The monarchs addressed resolved to compose their differences, or at any rate to defer the settlement of them to a more convenient time. They accepted Pompey's proposal of an arbitration; and in a short time an arrangement was effected by which relations of amity were re-established between the two countries.
It would seem that not very long after the conclusion of this peace and the retirement of Pompey from Asia (B.C. 62), Phraates lost his life. He was assassinated by his two sons, Mithridates and Orodes; for what cause we are not told. Mithridates, the elder of the two, succeeded him (about B.C. 60); and, as all fear of the Romans had now passed away in consequence of their apparently peaceful attitude, he returned soon after his accession to the policy of his namesake, Mithridates II., and resumed the struggle with Armenia from which his father had desisted. The object of the war was probably the recovery of the lost province of Gordyene, which, having been delivered to the elder Tigranes by Pompey, had remained in the occupation of the Armenians. Mithridates seems to have succeeded in his enterprise. When we next obtain a distinct view of the boundary line which divides Parthia from her neighbors towards the north and the north-west, which is within five years of the probable date of Mithridates's accession, we find Gordyene once more a Parthian province. As the later years of this intermediate lustre are a time of civil strife, during which territorial gains can scarcely have been made, we are compelled to refer the conquest to about B.C. 39-57. But in this case it must have been due to Mithridates III., whose reign is fixed with much probability to the years B.C. 60-56.
The credit which Mithridates had acquired by his conduct of the Armenian war he lost soon afterwards by the severity of his home administration. There is reason to believe that he drove his brother, Orodes, into banishment. At any rate, he ruled so harshly and cruelly that within a few years of his accession the Parthian nobles deposed him, and, recalling Orodes from his place of exile, set him up as king in his brother's room. Mithridates was, it would seem, at first allowed to govern Media as a subject monarch; but after a while his brother grew jealous of him, and deprived him of this dignity. Unwilling to acquiesce in his disgrace, Mithridates fled to the Romans, and being favorably received by Gabinius, then proconsul of Syria, endeavored to obtain his aid against his countrymen. Gabinius, who was at once weak and ambitious, lent a ready ear to his entreaties, and was upon the point of conducting an expedition into Parthia, when he received a still more tempting invitation from another quarter. Ptolemy Auletes, expelled from Egypt by his rebellious subjects, asked his aid, and having recommendations from Pompey, and a fair sum of ready money to disburse, found little difficulty in persuading the Syrian proconsul to relinquish his Parthian plans and march the force at his disposal into Egypt. Mithridates, upon this, withdrew from Syria, and re-entering the Parthian territory, commenced a civil war against his brother, finding numerous partisans, especially in the region about Babylon. It may be suspected that Seleucia, the second city in the Empire, embraced his cause. Babylon, into which he had thrown himself, sustained a long siege on his behalf, and only yielded when compelled by famine. Mithridates might again have become a fugitive; but he was weary of the disappointments and hardships which are the ordinary lot of a pretender, and preferred to cast himself on the mercy and affection of his brother. Accordingly he surrendered himself unconditionally to Orodes; but this prince, professing to place the claims of patriotism above those of relationship, caused the traitor who had sought aid from Rome to be instantly executed. Thus perished Mithridates III. after a reign which cannot have exceeded five years, in the winter of B.C. 56, or the early spring of B.C. 55. Orodes, on his death, was accepted as king by the whole nation. | http://annourbis.com/ancient-civilizations/Parthia/chapter10.html | fineweb | 17,712 | 3.125 |
Using the Serial monitor
The serial monitor is a feature of the Arduino IDE that shows us information sent from the Arduino. It is helpful for de-bugging and for learning what values a sensor or variable resistor produces. To open the Serial Monitor, click the button at the top of the Arduino IDE.
When we open the serial monitor, we see a window that displays responses from the Arduino. and a drop down menu that controls the rate of communication, or baud rate, between our computer and the Arduino. As we said before, the baud rate is the rate of communication that the computer and Arduino use to talk to each other. By default, the baud rate of your serial monitor will be set to 9600, which matches the value we set in the serial.begin() function in our setup code, so you shouldn’t have to make any adjustments.
The Arduino and computer must use the same rate of communication: the value set in Serial.begin()
Here’s what the serial monitor window looks like when running this sketch:
Now that we understand where to find our serial monitor, we can talk about our use of serial in the loop code.
Looking at the serial code
The Serial library has 2 functions for sending information to our computer: Serial.print() and Serial.println(). Our sketch uses both of these functions in order to format the information on the computer screen. The serial code in our loop includes the four lines below:
All four of these lines of code together print the single line in the serial monitor which includes the words “sensor =”, the value of our sensor, a tab, the text “output = “ and the mapped value. Here’s an example of a line of output this code will display in the serial monitor.
Sending words to the serial monitor: Strings
If we look at the first serial.print line, we see words and quotation marks around them. In order to send words to our serial monitor, we use something called a string.
A string is a representation of text in a programming language. Any letters, numbers or other alphanumeric characters (including spaces and punctuation marks) are represented by strings in our code.
Why do we need strings? Computers normally only work with the value of numbers. Sometimes you need to use text in your code, to pass along textual information, or to give context to other data. We will see how this works as we look more closely at our code in the next couple of pages.
How do we use strings in our code? We place quotation marks around a string to identify it. The quotation marks enclose the full group of characters including all of the letters, the spaces, and the punctuation.
Text is represented by strings in our code. Any alphanumeric character, including spaces and punctuation marks, are represented by strings.
Printing to the Serial monitor
Now we’ll take a closer look at how each line of code prints to the Serial monitor. We know that any text inside of quotation marks is a string and will be represented as text. We also see our variables referenced in the code. Let’s look at how these work together with Serial.print()
Everything inside the quotation marks will be printed to the serial monitor including spaces and punctuation
The first line of the code prints out the string sensor = (including the spaces before and after the equals sign.
The second line of serial.print() will print out the value of the variable sensorValue, which is a number. Without quotation marks, the Arduino will print out the numeric value stored in the variable, rather than the name of the variable.
The third line for our serial loop code uses quotation marks again, so we know that we are going to print a string . However, we also have a new symbol: What does that “\t” mean? The \t tells the Arduino serial monitor to include a tab, a set of spaces, in your printed output.
The fourth line prints the value of our outputValue variable. But instead of Serial.print(), we use Serial.println(), which will print a line break. We’ll look at this more closely on the next page.
Remember, the values for sensorValue and outputValue you see in your serial monitor will look different than in this screenshot, and will change as you turn your potentiometer.
We have seen that our final line of serial code uses Serial.println() rather than Serial.print(). We learned that Serial.println() automatically adds a line break; how does this affect the way our code appears in the Serial monitor?
The line break means that the next time we print something to the serial monitor (including the next time through our loop code) the printed serial information will appear on a new line.
The only difference between Serial.print() and Serial.println() is that line break, which can make it easier to read the information in the serial monitor.
Serial.println() includes a line break which makes the serial info easier to read
Don’t forget, the numeric values for sensorValue and outputValue will look different in your serial monitor when you run the code and turn the potentiometer.
And because this code is in loop, the lines will appear over and over again. The values of the variables will change if we turn the potentiometer.
What do those values mean and how do they relate to the scales of numbers we looked at before? sensor is the value derived from reading the voltage (0-5) on pin A0 and setting it to a range from 0 – 1023 with the analogRead() function. output is the value of sensor mapped to a range from 0-255 by the map() function to be used by pin 9.
the final loop code line: delay()
Here is the final step in our sketch:
5. Wait a short amount of time (2 milliseconds) before our next reading
This is accomplished with a single line of code including the delay() function we have seen in past chapters.
a short delay at the end of sketch keeps our code running smoothly and our sensor readings accurate
This delay pauses the the program for just a short moment so that there is enough time to take another sensor reading. There is a limit to how many accurate sensor readings can be taken every second, so the delay helps to space out our sensor readings just long enough to maintain good readings.
As we’ve seen, our loop code reads an analog value from an analog input pin, scales that value down to a smaller number, writes the analog value out to a PWM pin, and prints the results from all of those steps to our serial monitor so that we can see a readout of how the value changes.
The analog output value –which can be any number between 0V (off) and 5V (fully on) –changes the brightness of our LED. At an intermediate point such as 3.5V the LED will be less bright than at 5V. What else can we modulate in this way? Next we will hook up the speaker and change the notes that comes out in a more dynamic way than we did in chapter 5.
Q: Are there other functions in the Serial library besides Serial.begin(), Serial.print() and Serial.println()?
A: Yes, there are quite a few, including Serial.write() and Serial.read(), which are also used to communicate with our computer. We will see how these work later.
Q: Why do we bother using the special character “\t” to create a tab? Are there other special characters I need to know?
A: Using “\t” makes the output in our Serial Monitor much easier to read, that’s the only reason we use it. There are many special characters: one that can sometimes be useful is “\n”, which creates a new line. This formats the text in a similar way to using Serial.println(), it adds a line break
Q: I’ve heard of strings before, they are a way of describing text in other programming languages, right?
A: Yes, alphanumeric characters, including spaces and punctuation, are called strings in many programming languages.
Think about this…
What other information might you want to send from your Arduino to your computer to help you in de-bugging your projects?
We have sent analog sensor readings in the past, but you can also print strings (to check if something happens, like a button press) or digital readings.
We’ve seen how our potentiometer can give us a range of values when hooked up to an analog input, and how to map those values in our sketch to get values we can use with a PWM output pin. Now let’s add a speaker to our circuit to create a theremin. | http://arduinotogo.com/2017/02/28/chapter-6-using-the-serial-monitor/ | fineweb | 8,218 | 3.828125 |
Why do we need Speed Controls?
Our company was one of the original companies who started to develop a ‘Speed Limiter’ in the late 1970s. Heavy Goods Vehicle manufacturers originally used to fit mechanical governors, which restricted the vehicle’s speed proportional to engine revolutions. With the advent of increased weight that a vehicle could carry, larger engines were required so the mechanical governor could no longer be fitted. Vehicle manufacturers contacted companies like ourselves to supply a relevant product. The basic function of a Speed Control system is to limit the maximum speed of the vehicle to a pre-set level whilst the throttle (accelerator) pedal is fully addressed, without a noticeable variation in the speed.
The British Standards Institution (BSI) developed a standard for ‘Speed Limiters’ in 1987, and Gerald Gray served on this committee. This was the basis for the ‘EC’ standard, and many other national standards now in existence worldwide. Many Governments have implemented ‘Speed Limiter’ law for various vehicles to improve safety and the environment by controlling the top speed of vehicles, thus reducing serious accidents and pollution.
The World Health Organisation and The Global Road Safety Partnership in their publication “Speed Management, a Road Safety Manual for Decision-Makers and Practitioners”, recommend that all countries should introduce Speed Limiters as the method of reducing the maximum speeds of vehicles on their roads in the pursuit of improved road safety.
[Ref: Speed Management, A Road Safety Manual for Decision-Makers and Practitioners, 2008, Section 3.5, “The Use of Speed-Limiting Technology & Intelligent Speed Adaptation. pp 81-3. ISBN 978-2-940395-04-0. Available athttp://www.who.int/roadsafety/projects/manuals/speed_manual/speedmanual.pdf]
All of our products have been developed to improve the efficiency and operation of vehicles whilst – at the same time – reducing the operational cost. Safety and saving lives has also been one of our main considerations, and that of the governments worldwide who have implemented Speed Control legislation. | http://autokontrol.co.uk/development-history/ | fineweb | 2,120 | 3.375 |
Is The Military Dirigible Doomed? (May, 1935)
Is The Military Dirigible Doomed?
by WING COMMANDER S. K. UHLER
Royal Air Force, Great Britain, Retired Editor’s Note: The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official views or opinions of the armed forces of His Majesty, the King of England.
SINCE Count Zeppelin built and flew the first large, rigid airship, approximately 150 such lighter-than-air craft have been built and flown. Practically all of them, built by Germany, Great Britain, France and America have exploded in mid-air, burned or crashed with disastrous loss of life. There have been 19 major, peacetime dirigible disasters during the past 23 years. These crashes have wasted 350 lives and a sum of money roughly twenty million pounds ($100,000,000). It would seem the time has come to admit the dirigible a failure, a plaything of the winds and a potential flying mausoleum.
The writer would like to have seen lighter-than-air aviation succeed. I had high hope for it some years ago even when it seemed that every great airship was foredoomed to destruction. My hope rose to new levels when the discovery of helium promised to produce dirigibles free from the perils of fire and explosion. Unfortunately, however, the use of helium has not justified the predictions of lighter-than-air enthusiasts. My hope for ultimate success in lighter-than-air craft has been dashed with each major dirigible disaster until, at last, I find myself forced to admit that the principles of lighter-than-air flight are fundamentally unsound and can never be made otherwise.
The aerial buoyancy of helium is slightly less than hydrogen while the weight of air that must be displaced to make a dirigible float is governed by the unalterable laws of physics. This means that an airship to attain maximum lifting power and minimum wind resistance must be flown with hydrogen, and if we use hydrogen we retain the hazards of fire and explosion.
The loss of the Shenandoah, Akron, and Macon has proved that the hope of a safe and reliable helium airship is an idle dream. In order to utilize helium and attain the speed, cruising range and lifting power demanded in these ships it was necessary to build them to unprecedented size. This subjected them to stresses and strains that no metal within given weight limits can stand.
Many of the world’s leading military and naval authorities are also convinced the dirigible is too easy a target and too vulnerable for any practical military use. One would have a jolly time gathering up the pieces of any dirigible that is ever fired upon by a modern anti-aircraft battery.
After a series of disastrous experiences with dirigibles England abandoned them several years ago in favor of aeroplanes for both military and commercial purposes. Italy soured upon the dirigible when Signor Umberto Nobile executed his infamous but tragic comedy of errors in the Arctic with the airship Italia during the summer of 1928. France’s faith in the dirigible went down the chute with the loss of the Dixmude. No doubt the crashes of the Akron and Macon will settle the hash of the dirigible in America. Germany is the only nation still attempting to carry on —trembling in her boots for fear of what may happen any day to the Graf Zeppelin, an old bag of hydrogen, the dying hope of lighter-than-air enthusiasm.
by LIEUTENANT JOHN E. HOGG
U. S. Naval Reserve Editor’s Note: The views and opinions expressed in this article arc those of the author and should not be construed as reflecting the official views or opinions of the United States Navy Department.
SOME years ago an American by the name of Holland invented the submarine. The United States recognized its military possibilities but developed a bad case of cold feet after several of Mr. Holland’s early, experimental craft submerged permanently. So, we abandoned the submarine, let Germany pioneer the thing, and use it against us to our untold disadvantage in the World War.
As if we had learned nothing by that blunder the future of lighter-than-air craft development now hangs in the balance insofar as the United States is concerned. Because three of the four helium airships we have owned and operated have crashed from structural failures, a considerable demand has arisen that we spend no more money and risk no more lives in the attempted development of a type of aircraft now termed by many—a demonstrated impracticability.
If the mob psychology bred of the Shenandoah, Akron, and Macon disasters leads us to abandon further dirigible development, even temporarily, the results may be far-reaching and inimical to our national hopes and ambitions. We may repeat our mistake with the submarine. Some more far-seeing and less-easily-discouraged nation will undoubtedly carry on from the point where we leave off. To that nation we may surrender future naval supremacy and commercial advantages of incalculable value.
The history of dirigible pioneering has admittedly been disastrous, but there is nothing in it to indicate that successful lighter-than-air craft are impossible of attainment. The use of hydrogen, an explosive gas, as the agent of aerial buoyancy has been responsible for the loss of most of the dirigibles built prior to 1920, and the loss of several built and flown with hydrogen by foreign governments in more recent years. Since helium became available the United States government has owned and operated four helium airships, three of which have crashed from structural failures or a combination of structural failure and unskilled handling.
Our brief experience in the field of dirigible development has proved nothing more than these three things—(1) That the use of helium has eliminated the peril of fire and explosion in lighter-than-air craft. (2) That we have not yet mastered the engineering problems of building dirigibles that are structurally safe. (3) That we have not developed the necessary skill to operate them.
Those maintaining dirigibles are a failure forget that Zeppelin passenger service was inaugurated in Germany in 1910 with luxuriously-appointed dirigibles, and that these airships, flown with hydrogen, made 760 flights carrying 14,000 passengers about half a million miles up to the World War. They forget the German Graf Zeppelin, which flying with hydrogen has met every requirement of a successful airship for ten years.
There is nothing new about those persons now advocating adandonment of further dirigible development. They’re the modern version of unimaginative men who jeered Robert Fulton and his steamboat. They thought the Wright Brothers were madmen. Their taunt to the stranded motorist of 1904 was—”Get a horse!” | http://blog.modernmechanix.com/is-the-military-dirigible-doomed/ | fineweb | 6,742 | 2.875 |
This morning, many parts of the Earth (but not North America) were able to see an eclipse of the sun, and a lucky few people were able to see a total eclipse of the sun, where the moon blocked out the bright disk of the sun for nearly four minutes.
Total eclipses of the sun are rare, occuring about once every 1.6 years, and only visible from a thin ribbon of the Earth's surface. On average, every part of the Earth will see an eclipse every 300+ years, though sometimes a given spot may get lucky and see a total eclipse twice in a short span, or another spot may be unlucky and go for several centuries without an eclipse. During each total eclipse, much of the rest of the Earth can see a partial eclipse of the sun.
Yours truly tried to see a total eclipse from Germany in 1999. A friend and I traveled to Saarbrucken, on the border of Germany and France, and we climbed a small hill (I think the hill was actually in France) to watch with a crowd. We viewed the eclipse until it was about two-thirds of the way to totality (here is a picture I took through my telescope), a thunderstorm rolled in. We all got soaking wet but hoped for a break in the clouds. Unfortunately, at the exact time of totality, it was still cloudy. In a matter of a few seconds, it went from light to nearly dark, and two minutes later, the lights came up again, all while the sky was overcast. What a shame!
For those of us in the continental U.S., the next total solar eclipse on our soil will not be until August 21, 2017. Until then, you'll have to travel! The next total solar eclipse is not until August 1, 2008, and will only be visible if you are a polar bear, a Siberian, Mongolian, or visiting China. | http://blog.professorastronomy.com/2006/03/everything-under-sun-is-in-tune-but.html | fineweb | 1,693 | 2.78125 |
Major has been
a military rank in the Canadian Army throughout the 20th Century.
The rank of Major was originally, in English, a term used to suffix
to other military positions, in order to denote a more senior status
than others of the same position. The term appears to have been in
use as early as 1643, when the term "Sergeant Major" was used to
identify the third in command of a regiment. The term was previously
in use in other European militaries, however, particularly naval
services, with a "Pilot Major" being the senior deck officer of a
vessel (in contrast to the "Captain General", usually an Army
officer with no seafaring knowledge, who commanded the mission a
ship was on but not the ship itself).
Major became a separate rank in the Army by the time of the English
Civil War, generally held by mid-level staff officers tasked as
aides-de-camp to generals.
The term Major was also used in the rank of Major-General during the
1700s, itself a shortening of the rank Sergeant Major General.
By the 1800s, the
rank of Major was commonly used in modern European armies, having
developed into both a senior staff rank, the first such rank to
occupy the ground between battalion command and the company (or
"company grade") ranks of 2nd Lieutenant, Lieutenant and Captain.
The term Major was used as a suffix for many ranks and appointments
in the Canadian Army from before 1900 and through the 20th Century,
such as Drum Major, Pipe Major, etc.
From November 1902
until Unification the rank of Major was designated by a single
crown. After unification, the rank was designated by two thick rows
of rank braid, with a thin row of braid in the middle.
The rank of Major was commonly held by both staff officers and field
officers, generally by those commanding company sized sub-units or
acting as second in command of battalion sized units. Some units
have actually had Major as the prescribed rank for their command.
were addressed by rank and name; thereafter by subordinates as "Sir" | http://canadiansoldiers.com/ranks/major.htm | fineweb | 1,997 | 3.515625 |
Buying, selling and exchange of goods and services across national borders is called international trade. Economics deals with the proper allocation, efficient and effective use of scare resources. Similarly international economics is also concerned with the proper allocation of economic resources between the countries. Such allocation in the world global markets can be possible by the international trade.
In these markets, the best products are produced and sold in a free and highly competitive markets, which enables the availability of best quality and low price products to the people all over the world. Such a benefit helps in buying the goods from a country which has the lowest price and selling those goods in the countries which has the highest price. This is good for both buyers as well as sellers, and this leads to the opportunity in the economic development of both less developed and developing countries.
International trade serves as a platform for globalization. The production and consumption of goods and services would be limited, if every country produces their own products for their own needs. As every country has lack of few resources, the allocation of these resources among the countries can balance the economic resources around the globe, and this can be done only by the international trade. This results in increase in the standard of living of people all over the world which again leads to the increased level of customer satisfaction. | http://current-trends-now.com/2011/11/importance-of-international-trade/ | fineweb | 1,475 | 3.296875 |
Prevalence and factors associated with rotavirus infection among children admitted with acute care diarrhoea in Mulago hospital
Nakawesi, S. Jane
MetadataShow full item record
BACKGROUND: Rotavirus remains the most common cause of severe dehydration diarrhoea among children worldwide. By five years of age, almost all children will have had an episode of rotavirus gastroenteritis. Children in developing countries die more because of severe factors including poorer access to hydration therapy and greater prevalence of malnutrition. The magnitude of rotavirus disease in Uganda is not known. OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence and factors associated with rotavirus infection among children 3-59 months admitted with acute diarrhoea to Acute Care Unit (acu) of Mulago hospital METHODS: Three hundred ninety children, aged between 3-59 months with acute diarrhoea were recruited consecutively after consent by the caretakers. Records of clinical history, sociodemographic characteristics, physical examination and laboratory investigations were recorded on a precoded questionnaire. Stool samples were tested for presence of rotavirus antigens using the EIA kit (DAKO IDELA) rotavirus EIA detection kit) STUDY RESULTS: The prevalence of rotavirus infection was 45.4%. On multivariate analysis rotavirus was significantly associated with a higher education (above secondary) level of caretaker (p=0.003), more than 4 people in the house (p=0.025) and breast feeding (p=0.017). Age was significantly associated with rotavirus on bivariate analysis but this association disappeared on multivariate analysis. No significant association was found between rotavirus infection and nutritional status, HIV status and attendance of day care or school. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Rotavirus infection is highly prevalent among children with acute diarrhoea admitted to ACU Mulago Hospital. A rotavirus vaccine is therefore recommended and a community based study to identify the type of rotavirus strains circulating in Uganda is needed so that an appropriate vaccine can be used if a decision to give the vaccine is made. | http://dspace.mak.ac.ug/handle/10570/441 | fineweb | 2,121 | 2.828125 |
Scandinavian loanwords in Old and Middle English, and their legacy in the dialects of England and modern standard English
(Written: 2000; Updated 15 October 2011)
green = Old Norse (ON) and Old English (OE); red = Modern English; maroon = Middle English (ME); blue = Modern English dialect; purple = cognates in Modern Scandinavian and German
* Old English examples cited are given in an Early West Saxon form unless stated.
** Modern Scandinavian parallels are given where these seem appropriate, and are represented in Modern Norwegian form. This means Norwegian Bokmål unless stated otherwise, i.e. in such cases where Nynorsk or even Danish forms are closer to the ON than the Bokmål ones.
Some ON words
were already beginning to find
their way into Old English, mostly due to Viking raids and later
the Danelaw) in
It is, however, true to say the language of the speakers of the Danelaw did more to directly change English than did the Norman Conquest of 1066. This was because the two languages – ON and OE – resembled one another enough for the learning of a second language to not be necessary. OE and ME could quite comfortably admit loans from Norse and the reverse was presumably the case.
An example to
show the complexity of the issues
at hand would be the Northern dialect and Scots bairn which means
"child" in Standard English. It
may come from ON barn(it) and exists in
Modern Nordic languages (Norwegian and Danish barn, Icelandic and
Faroese barn etc.). Old
English also had a version of this word,
i) The Old
English usage was
well rooted and familiar enough to remain in use despite standardising
tendencies from southern English.
ii) The Old English word was declining until the Norse users maintained its existence by using an identical or very similar word from their tongue.
iii) The Old English word died out completely, and was re-introduced (perhaps unwittingly) by the Norse speakers in the occupied districts.
gave us a good number of words that
are in everyday use and a fundamental element of the everyday
English. Many of the words which came in through Norse were those
with the sea, law and local administration - as will be seen from the
made below. Everyday Norse words in English are, for example: law, fellow, get, take, anger, sky, skin, wrong, same, as well as,
most remarkably, the pronouns they, their and
them, which ousted
the OE equivalents hîe, heora and
him. They also
gave us the present meanings of words like
meaning “bit, piece,
meaning “joy”), earl
meaning “warrior; hero”), dwell (original
meaning “go astray, tarry”)
restricted the meanings of words like holm (original
meaning “sea, ocean, water”) and starve
meaning “die”). Borrowing of
pronouns is a very rare phenomenon and
illustrates both the intimate relations and deep effect Norse had with,
early English. Most loans would have found their way into the language
9th 11th centuries, but they do not start appearing in quantities until
written records of the 1200s i.e. Early Middle English. Norse words
relatively slow to show themselves in written verse, but when they did,
beginning in the North and
The effects of Norse speech can be appreciated from the fact that East and West Mercian developed into considerably different dialects in Middle English. There must have been areas of particularly dense Danish settlement for the local Saxons to need to acquire at least a basic understanding of the settlers’ language due to their numbers and social and commercial importance. Moreover, to Nordic cross-border linguistic interference and a form of creolized Old English can to a large measure be attributed the inflexional-levelling which occurred in English from c.1100-1350 AD. This process has to a greater or lesser extent happened in all Germanic languages, but the need for the Saxon English and Norsemen to communicate, in languages whose vocabulary but not inflexional endings were very similar, very likely accelerated this process in English. However, not everyone now agrees with this view (advanced, among others, by Jespersen). Robert Burchfield, writing in his The English Language, argues:
"This view [i.e. the creolized, flexionless English], which supposes a period, however temporary, of creolized and virtually illiterate speech, cannot be sustained. It is much more likely that the linguistic changes of the period 900 to 1200 result from an increasing social acceptance of informal and unrecorded types of English ....These informal types of English emerged because of the instability of the Old English declensional system itself ..." (p.14).
He continues to point out that the OE case system contained too few clearly distinguishable inflexions required to reflect the relationships between words in a sentence. Therefore the inflexional system, since it was an imperfect linguistic tool - perhaps to the point of hindering communication - was gradually scaled down (to a few easily distinguishable forms) in favour of a system which expressed syntactic relationships more clearly, i.e. prepositions. These, as Burchfield notes, were "powerful but insufficiently exploited". His argument certainly has the force of logic behind it. In defence of the views of Jespersen and others, it is instructive to note, as he points out (p.76):
"So when we find that the wearing away and levelling of grammatical forms in the regions in which the Danes chiefly settled was in a couple of centuries in advance of the same process in the more southern parts of the country, the conclusion does not seem unwarrantable this acceleration of the tempo of linguistic simplification is due to the settlers, who did not care to learn English correctly in every minute particular...".
of the OE case system began in
precisely those areas where Saxon and Dane lived side by side.
our attention to the situation in
The reasoned conclusion arrived at from all this is that the OE case system was already breaking down, and the inflexional levelling that occurred during the late OE period and Early ME period was no doubt accelerated (especially in the Danish settled regions) by Norse influence, but not caused by, Norse influence on the English language. Loss of the case system was essentially a native phenomenon, clearly influenced by, but independent of, the Scandinavian settlements.
written about 1200 in the north-east
The Middle English words rad “afraid”, leyten “seek”, occ “and”, rowst “voice”, ros “praise”, summ “as”, ro “peace”, usel “wretched”, gal “mad”, skil “divide” and allesamen “together” seem entirely foreign to us but a Dane would immediately recognize them as his own. None of these words made it into modern Standard English.
Middle English poems of King Horn
and Havelok the Dane
considerable Scandinavian features at the level of lexis - the former
In Laghamon’s Brut we find the first use of the words leg (ON leggr) and Thursday (ON Þórsdagr) instead of Saxon shank (OE) and Thundersday (OE Þunresdæge). Chaucer was to use some 25 Scandinavian words in his later Canterbury Tales.
From the 1200s onwards scores of Norse words start to appear in English texts, often replacing words of native origin. Of these could be mentioned the replacement of werp by cast, halse by neck, eyethirl by window, swester by sister, ire by anger, snith by cut. In some cases synonymous or near-synonymous word pairs arose, e.g. craft/skill, sick/ill, rear/raise, bâ/both (both of course eventually became the word in Standard English).
which in Anglo-Saxon England denoted a minor official was elevated in
to a high-ranking nobleman due to the influence of Norse jarl. Theonest, tithande and brydlop are
all attested in ME, but only tidings has
survived in the modern standard language. Thou
art and they
Some 400 items whose origins are demonstrably Scandinavian are still alive in the modern standard language, and they are one of the cornerstones of the basic word-stock, representing some of the most common and everyday words of the language. If we add the Norse terms in the English dialects, a figure of well over 2,000 items can be arrived at.
Baugh and Cable arrive at a rather larger number for the standard language:
“That number, if we restrict the list to those for which the evidence is fully convincing, is about 900…To this group we should probably be justified in adding an equal number in which a Scandinavian origin is probable or in which the influence of Scandinavian forms has entered.” (p.105)
The following list of nouns, adjectives and verbs includes some of the most common words in the language: awkward, bag, bait (vb.), band, bank, bask, birth, boon, brink, bull, cast (vb.), clip (vb.), crave, crawl, crook, dirt, down (feathers), dregs, drip, droop, drown, egg, egg (on), fellow, flat, flit, fog, gait, gap, gape, gasp, gaze, girth, glint, glitter, guess, hap, ill, keel, kid (noun), kindle, leg, lift (vb.), link, loan, loose, low (adj.), lug, lurk, meek, mire, muck, muggy, nag, odd, prod, race, raise, rake (vb.), ransack, rid, rift, root, rotten, rug, rugged, scab, scare, score (noun), scowl, scrap, screech, seat, seemly, sister, skill, skin, skirt, skull, sky, slaughter, slouch, sly, snare, snub, sprint, stack, steak, swain, take, tangle, tattered, thrift, thrive, thrust, tidings, tight, trust, want, weak, whisk, window. Possibly of Norse origin are sag, scrub, and toss.
Norse words which reached us via Norman French are flounder, faggot, frown, equip, blemish, target, tryst, scutch, jolly, elope, brawl, waive (after Geipel).
OE scyrte gives rise to modern shirt, while the corresponding ON term skyrta gives us skirt. Similarly, retention of the hard sounds of k and g in such words as kid, get, give and egg is telling of Norse origins. In OE plough meant a measure of land, but in Norse it referred to the agricultural implement.
The following, according to Geipel, are used over an area stretching from Shetland to East Anglia and Northampton: havers “oats”, bigg “barley”, addle “earn”, clegg “horsefly”, scarn “cow dung”, ewer “udder”, lea “scythe”, skellum “rascal”, kenspeck “easily recognisable”, scrat “goblin”, howk “to dig”, aye “always”, ket “carrion”, nay “no”, toom “empty”, steg “gander”, mun “mouth”, waur ”worse”, smoot “narrow passage”, hoast “cough”, laithe “barn”, ing “meadow”, beck “brook”, sprot “twigs”.
So thorough was the integration of Norse elements in English that many words remained undetected until linguists began to investigate English using the comparative method in the second half of the 1800s. It is reasonable to assume that if a form is not recorded in OE but is found in Scandinavian, and it is recorded in ME from the Danelaw or other areas heavily settled by Scandinavians, it is likely to be a loan. Interestingly enough it is thought that the lexical convergences between Norse and Northumbrian Anglian dialects – i.e. just in those areas where the Norse presence was the strongest – would have been particularly plentiful, something which probably assisted the uptake of Norse loans into those same dialects. ME texts in the Northumbrian dialect are particularly rich in Norse loans.
When we find English words with an occlusive rather than palatalised g or k before a front vowel, a feature that was preserved in Old Norse, we may suspect a Norse loan or at least Norse influence. So there are the Norse forms garn, kista, skömm, skruð besides native cognates yarn, chest, shame and shroud. So words like get, kid and skin are loans, while the words give and kettle were clearly influenced by Norse (had they not been, the modern forms of their OE cognates would be *yive and *chettle).
Our word loose descends from the Norse form lauss and not its OE cognate lêas. Likewise weak is derived from ON veikr and not OE wâc. The archaic word swain is from ON sveinn and not OE swân.
The -sk in bask and busk is a relic of the Norse reflexive form (ON baðask and búask). Also a relic is the -t in scant, athwart and want from ON skammt (the neuter form of skammr “short while”), þvert (the neuter form of þverr “perverse”) and vant (the neuter form of vanr “defective”).
In some cases both the OE and Norse words have survived with a difference of meaning or use, as in the following pairs (English word first): no-nay, whole-hale, rear-raise, from-fro, craft-skill, hide-skin, sick-ill.
1 - OLD ENGLISH
1016 – and thus before the reign
of Knud den Store (Canute) – are a
small number of words relating specifically to Danish or Danelaw
sailing barða, cnearr, floege, scegð, æsc, mercantile
matters ôran, marc,
battle and the court dreng, hold, social,
administrative and legal matters liesing, grið,
bonda, lagu, wæpengetæc, socn, hâmsocn, sâclêas, withermal, stefnan,
toft. These terms
are not common in
Æsc, the name of a Viking ship (ON askr), is attested in the Chronicle as early as 893.
Hûsbônda was first in general use around 1000.
Eorl was influenced by Norse iarl. After 1017 eorl replaced the old title ealdorman, which does not completely disappear, but no longer denotes the highest office in the state of the king. In 1036 Godwine eorl is mentioned in the Chronicle. This is the first time eorl is used instead of ealdorman about an Englishman outside the Danelaw.
Terms connected with the reign of Canute and his sons are liðsmen, hûscarl and nîðing. Hûscarl lived alongside native hîredman. Also associated with Canute are gærsuman “treasures” (ODan. gørsum).
During the late 1000s and the first half of the 1100s about thirty Norse terms appear in English manuscripts for the first time, and around half of these survive in modern standard English: knife, root, rag, score, skin, snare, haven, die, hit, take, crooked, they, them, their (in the case of the personal pronouns the Norse forms probably triumphed because the Saxon forms could be confusing). More Danelaw terms appear during this period: hird, hofding, fylcian, manslot, sceppe, tapor-æx. Also during this period deyja replaced sweltan, skin replaced fell, root replaced wyrt, and taka replaced niman. (The first appearance of take is in 1072 in the Chronicle: ond þa men ealle he tóc). The words both and till make an appearance during this period (in the Peterborough Chronicle), while birth, gape, cast and want appear soon after.
Scandinavian loans in Old English poetry are confined to the accounts of heroic battles against the Norse and others in The Battle of Brunanburh and The Battle of Maldon. Warfare and trade are two principal ways in which loans can come into languages and the Anglo-Saxons and Norsemen regularly participated in both - especially war. It comes therefore as no surprise that the lexis derived from the ON which appears in these poems is entirely martial in nature.
In Maldon we have: dreng "Viking warrior" (where it only appears here before 1066) - ON drengr "bold man, warrior" etc. (Norwegian dreng, Danish dreng; the OE equivalent was ceorl, with a shift of meaning in modern churl); griþ "truce, peace, cessation of hostilities" (OE word for a general condition of peace was friþ, and it sometimes appears with griþ in ME in the expression griþ and friþ) - ON griþ "truce, peace" (archaic Danish grid "peace", historical Norwegian grid "mercy"; note also griþlêas "violated" - ON griðalauss "truceless" - this latter word is the first known Norse loan into English); gârræs "attack" (lit. "spear-rush") - ON geirrás "spear-rush" (the compound appears to be Norse derived); ceallian “to call” where it appears as a synonym to native clypian - ON kalla. Also in this poem we have what appears to be a conscious echo of a Norse legal idiom selja sjálfdœmi "deliver self-judgement" in the OE on hyra sylfa dôm "on their own reckoning". Byrhtnoð, the tragic hero of the poem, is called an eorl in the full Nordic sense of the word.
And in Brunanburh we find the Norse word knörr "merchant ship" twice in the OE loan cnearr "(small) ship" (cf. Norwegian knarr "sailboat").
vocabulary is much less prone to survive language
change and decay, and cnearr
never had, to my knowledge, anything more than a short life within Old
poetic diction. But dreng did
survive longer, appearing in Early Middle English poems from the North
Loans in Old English prose are more numerous and frequently met. Here is a list of many of them, some of which are easily recognisable as common everyday words in Modern English, such as husband, law, and outlaw. Loans from ON into OE are sometimes for concepts or things peculiarly Scandinavian, or those things in OE for which Anglo-Norse contact altered the conception. But most simply define or describe everyday objects or concepts for which the early English already had words. The vast majority of such Norse loans are found in the late texts after 1000 AD, especially The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, where we find such Norse loans as orrest "battle", griþ (1002) "truce, cessation of hostilities" and nîðing "villain", among a number of others. Some are, however, found in earlier texts such as Alfred's Laws (880-90). Naturally many required adaptation to the OE sound and inflexional systems:
æsc "ash" - with the sense "warship" - ON askr "ash-tree; small ship"; bâtswegen "boatswain" - OE bât + ON sveinn; bôtlêas (late loan) "unpardonable" - ON bótlauss "without remedy, irreparable" (cf. Modern English bootless); brýdlôp "bridal" (the first element is native) - ON brúðlaup "bridal, wedding feast" (cf. Norwegian bryllup "wedding"); bûnda - "householder" - ON bóndi "farmer, householder"; bûtsecarl (1052 ASC) "sailor (in royal fleet), seaborne merchant" - ON buza "boat" and karl "man"; bý "dwelling" (found occasionally in ME) - ON bý "farm, homestead"; cann "cognizance" (legal term) - ON kanna; carlmann "male, man" - ON karlmaðr "man, vigourous man"; ceallian (Maldon) "call" - ON kalla (ousted OE hâtan, clipian "call, yell"); cnearr "(small) ship" - ON knörr "merchant ship"; cnîf "knife" - (probably ) ON knífr (OE used seax "short sword, knife"); crafian "demand" (late loan) - ON krefja "crave, demand, request" (cf. English crave, Norwegian kreve); crôcod (once in late 1100s) "crooked" must derive from unrecorded OE *crôk < ON krókr "hook, barb" (Serjeantson); dîegan, dêgan (late OE, Anglian) "die" - ON deyja "die" (ousted OE sweltan "die" and altered OE steorfan "die, perish" which now only denotes "starve"; ON deyja once had an OE cognate which may have given rise to ME deien but forms from 1000 onward very likely stem only from the ON form, according to Serjeantson); efne "material, matter" - ON efni "material" (cf. Norwegian emne); farnian "prosper" - ON farnast "succeed"; fêolaga (1016 ASC) "colleague, mate" - ON félagi "partner; fellow, mate"; flege (rare) "little ship" - ON fley "swift ship"; fylcian (e.g. 1066 ASC) "(to) marshal" - ON fylkja "array, marshal"; genge "troop" - ON gengi "help, support"; gærsume (1035 ASC; survived into Early ME (Serjeantson)) "treasure" - ON gørsemi "costly thing, jewel, treasure"; hâ (once, 1039 ASC) "rowlock" - ON hár; hâmele (once, 1040 ASC) "rowlock" - ON hamla; hâmsocn "the offence of attacking someone in his home" - ON heimsókn "attack on someone's home"; hâsæta "oarsman" - ON háseti; hofding (1076 ASC) "leader, ringleader" (has the latter meaning in ASC (Serjeantson)) - ON höfðingi "leader, chief"; hittan (one instance in OE meaning "come upon" in 1066 ASC Ða com Harold ure cyng on unwær on þa Normenn, and hytte hi begeondan Eoferwic) - ON hitta "hit upon, meet; strike"; hold (921 ASC) "vassal" - ON höldr (a kind of higher yeoman); hûsbûnda "householder" - ON húsbóndi "master of the house"; hûscarl (1036 ASC) "a member of the royal bodyguard" - ON húskarl "manservant; member of the royal bodyguard"; hûsting (1012 ASC) "meeting, tribunal" - ON húsþing (i.e. a thing held in a building); lagslit "breach of law" - ON *lögslit "breach of law"; lahbryce "breach of law" - ON lögbrot "breach of law"; lagu "law" (one of the most common and important ON loans) - ON *lagu, lög (npl.) - (the OE word was æ); landcop, landceap "tax paid on a land purchase" - ON landkaup "purchase of land"; lîesing (Laws) "freed man" - ON leysingi "freed man" (survives only in modern dialect as leising); lið (1052 ASC) "fleet" - ON lið "troops, host, following, crew" (OE form was lid); liðsmenn (ASC 1036) "sailors" - ON liðsmenn "troops"; loft (found once with meaning "air") - ON lopt (native OE equivalent was lyft); læst (1000s) "fault, sin" - ON löstr "fault, flaw; vice"; mâl (e.g. 1086 ASC) "suit, case, pleading; agreement" - ON mál "suit, action, case" (the word later occassionally appears in ME and appears in Modern English as -mail, e.g. as in blackmail); manslot "portion of land granted the householder" - apparently ON manns-hlutr; nîðing (c.1000; 1049 ASC se cing þa and eall here cwædon Swegen for niðing) "villain, evil man, niggard, wretch" (the word is also fairly common in ME) - ON níðingr "villain, scoundrel"; ôran plural of ôra (Danish coin) - ON aurar, OSwed. öre (cf. Norwegian øre); orrest (1096 ASC) "battle" - ON orrosta "battle" (also appears once in ME Ormulum, c.1200: orrest); rân "robbery, rapine" - ON rán "robbery; plunder, spoils"; rôt (first in 1127 ASC compound rôt-fæst) "root" - ON rót; ræfter "beam" (modern raft) - ON raptr; saclêas "innocent" - ON saklauss "innocent"; sala (one instance) "sale" - ON sala "sale"; sang (does not survive into ME) "bed" - ON sæng "bed" (cf. Norwegian seng); scægþ "warship" - ON skeið "warship, galley"; scægþmann "seaman; Viking, pirate" - ON skeiðmaðr; sceppe (reappears in 1400s (Serjeantson)) "measure of grain or malt" - ON skeppa "dry measure"; scinn (1075 ASC) "skin" - ON skinn (OE used fell and hýd "hide" to denote both animal and human skin); scoru (late OE) "a score, notch" - ON skor (cf. ON skora "score, make a notch, tally", related to OE verb scieran "incise, score with a point"); snacc "small vessel, war-ship" - ON snekkja "swift ship"; sparrian "bar" (ME sparren, sperren) - ON sparra "spar, bar"; stefnian "summon" - ON stefna "summon, call"; tacan "take" (1072 ASC) - ON taka (ousted OE niman "take" during the ME period); taper-æx (e.g. ASC 1071) "small axe" - ON tapor-øx "small axe"; targe (late OE) "small shield, buckler" - ON targa "small round shield"; tîdung "news, tidings" - ON tíðindi "news, events, tidings"; til (Northumb.) "till" - ON til; þênest, þegnest "service" - ON þjónusta "service" (cf. Norwegian tjeneste, German Dienst); þêonestmen "retainers" - ON þjónostumenn "retainers, servants"; þîr "female servant" - probably ON þírr "female slave, maidservant"; þriðing "third part (of a county), riding" - ON þriðjungr "third, third part"; þræl "thrall, slave" - ON þræll; ðweng "band" - ON þveng "thong"; unlagu "violation of law, injustice" - ON úlög "breach of law"; ûtlaga "outlaw" (common term in later OE) - ON útlagi (note derived OE verb ûtlagian "to outlaw"); wælrêaf "plunder from the slain" - (probably) ON valrof, valrauf "plunder from the slain"; wæpengetæc (Laws) "wapentake" (division of a riding) - ON vápnatak "the grasping or brandishing of weapons"; wîcing "pirate, viking" - ON víkingr "man of the fjords"; wiþermâl (1052 ASC) "counter-plea" - ON *viðr-mál "counter-plea"; witter (once in 1067 ASC; common in ME) "wise" - ON vitr "wise"; wîtword "written evidence, proof" : ON vitorð "knowledge, privity";
Serjeantson makes a fascinating observation which is worth mentioning here. She points out that in OE þæge, we may be seeing the first appearence of ON þeir "they" in English. The word appears in two OE texts, for example, in the Late West Saxon Gospels as sume ðæge wæron hæðene "some of them were heathens".
When we bear in mind that Old English was remarkable for the small amount of loanwords in its vocabulary, the number of loans from Old Norse at this stage seems quite significant; it informs us of the close links between the two linguistic communities, which were not always hostile. Indeed, the borrowing of pronouns and particles from one language to another seldom occurs, and yet perhaps OE and certainly ME borrowed these elements from Old Danish or Old West Norse. When we recall that in they are both the pronoun and verb form are Scandinavian (ousted OE (West Saxon) hie syndon), we realize how intimately the language of the Norse invaders affected English.
2 - MIDDLE ENGLISH*
i) Everyday words
a (ME) "river, stream" : ON á "river" (cf. Norwegian å "river"; form argues against derivation from OE êa "river"); addlen (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "earn" : ON öðlask "gain, procure" (survives in dial. addle "earn, procure" - see below); algate "in every way" (ME c.1225: algate, other forms allegate, algates) : ON alla götu "always" (-s adverbial suffix is native); allesamen (ME) "altogether, everyone together" : ON allir saman "all together" (cf. Norwegian alle sammen "everyone"); aloft (ME Ormulum, c.1200: o loft) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON á lopti "above, aloft"; anger (ME c.1250 anger, angre) : Scandinavian source corresponding to ON angr "grief, sorrow"(ousted OE words grama and irre); attlen (Brut, c.1250) "think, intend; go" (now only in dial. ettle) : ON ætla "intend, propose"; awe (ME c.1200: aghe, 1250: age): ON agi "fear; unrest" (ousted OE ege "awe, fear"); awkward (ME pre-1400: awkward, awkwart) : ON öfug- "reversed, facing the wrong way" + Eng. -ward; axle (ME 1290, in the compound axeltre "axletree", ME 1368: axle) eaxl "shoulder" is known in OE but the modern word is probably from the ON loan öxultré (hence axeltre above) from öxull "axis, axle" and tré "tree"; bag (ME pre-1200: bagge) : ON baggi "pack, bundle"; bait (n) "food to entice animals" (ME c.1300: bait) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON beita "food, especially that which entices prey, bait", beit "pastureland"; the verb dates from c. 1300 (Barnhart); band "strip of material" (ME 1126: band, a dialectal variant of bond) - this was a combination of a Scandinavian word corresponding to ON band "bond, fetter; cord" and Old French bande "strip", originally from Germanic (Barnhart); bank (ME c.1200: banke) : probably from ON banki, bakki "bank, ridge, mound"; bark "outer layer of a tree" (ME c.1300: bark) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON börkr "bark", Mainland Scandinavian bark "bark"; bask (ME 1397: basken "wallow in warm water") : ON reflexive baðask "bathe oneself"; bennk, binc (ME; now only in dial. benk, bink - see below) "bench, shelf" : ON bekkr "bench" (preservation of the -k proves this ME and dial. form to be Scandinavian and not derived from OE benc, from which the Modern Standard English form derives); bî (ME c.1315) "town" : ON býr "farm, homestead"; bigg (ME early 1300s) "dwell; build" : ON byggja "colonise, populate, dwell, settle" (now only dial. bigg); birth (ME 1170: burth, 1200: burthe, burde): ON byrð "birth, descent" (ME ibirde from OE gebyrd was ousted); bleak (ME 1300: bleike): ON bleikr "pale, whitish" (blâke from OE blâc is found in ME but gives way to the Scandinavian form); bloom (ME 1200: blom, blome): ON blómi (native were OE blôstm, blôstma > blossom); bloute (ME Havelok, c.1275) "soft" : ON blautr "soft"; bondeman (ME and eModE) "male slave" : ON bóndamaðr (with a different meaning to the ME word; cf. Norwegian bonde "farmer, peasant", (archaic) "master, husband"); boon (ME bôn) "prayer, boon" : ON bón "request, petition" (cf. OE bên "request, prayer"); booth (ME 1200: bothe (recorded earlier in ME place-names)): ON búð "shop"; booty (ME 1474: botye) : ON býti "share" (býta "divide"); both (1124: bathe, 1225: bothe): ON báðir; bound for "ready to go" (ME Ormulum c.1200: bûn, pre-1400: bownde) : ON búinn "prepared, ready", ODan. bôen "ready, prepared"; brâþ (ME c.1315) "violently" : ON bráþr "sudden, hasty"; bread (by ME c.1200 bread had the modern meaning) : ON brauð (OE brêad meant "crumb, fragment" - OE used hlâf to denote bread); brennen (1137) "burn" : ON brenna "burn" (cf. OE bærnan, biernan "burn"; cf. Norwegian brenne); brô (ME c.1250) "eyebrow" : ON brá; brodd (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "spike" : ON broddr "point, spike"; brink (ME 1225: brinke) : ODan. brink (ON brekka) "verge, brink"; brunie (ME; Brut, c.1250: brunie; - now only found in archaic Scots. byrnie) "corslet, mailshirt" - ON brynja (OE form was byrne); boulder (ME Havelok, c.1275 bulder(ston)) "stone" : cf. Swedish bullersten "stone in a stream which makes a roaring noise from the rushing water" - compound of bullra "roar" and OE stân "stone" (Barnhart) ; bull (ME bule) "bull" : OEast Norse bule; bulæxe (ME) - ON bol-øx "wood-axe"; bylaw "secondary law" (ME 1257: birelage, 1280: bilage, 1370: bilawe) : ON býjar-lög "local ordinance" (modern meaning appeared in 1541); cake (ME c.1220: kake "flat cake, flat loaf") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON kaka "cake", Modern Norwegian kake, Modern Danish kage "cake"; calf (ME pre-1325: calf) "hind of the leg below the knee" from ON kálfi "calf of the leg"; call (ME 1200: callen, kallen) : ON kalla (ousted OE hâtan, clipian); carl(e) (known in OE in compounds and post-ME period only in English dialects meaning "rustic" - see below) "man, chap" : ON, ODan. karl "man, man of the people" (cf. Norwegian kar, Swedish karl "fellow, chap"); carling, carline "fore-and-aft beam in a vessel, used for supporting the deck" from ON kerling "old woman, hag"; carp (ME c.1225: carpen "talk, converse") now "complain, find fault" is a Scandinavian loan, cf. ON karpa "boast", karp "boasting, bragging"; cast (ME c.1200: casten) : ON kasta "throw" (ousted OE weorpan "throw, cast" cf. German werfen, Dutch werpen but was later largely pushed out by throw from OE þrâwan); clip "trim, cut" (not "fasten") (ME Ormulum, c.1200: clippen) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON klippa "clip, cut", Modern Icelandic, Modern Swedish klippa "cut, shear", Norwegian klippe "cut, clip"; coupe (ME Havelok, c.1275) "buy, purchase" : ON kaupa "buy" (cf. OE ceapian "bargain, trade, buy", Norwegian kjøpe); crawl (vb.) "move slowly along the ground on one's hands and knees" (ME c.1200: crewlen, pre-1400: crawlen) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON krafla "make a pawing movement with the hands", Modern Danish, Norwegian kravle "crawl, creep; swarm"; crook (ME pre-1200: crôk "evil device") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON krókr "hook, bend", Norwegian and Swedish krok, Danish krog "hook, bend, curve, nook"; cut (ME pre-1300: cutten, kitten and early dial. forms cutte, kitte, kette point to OE *cyttan, probably a Norse loan) : cf. Icelandic kúti "small knife", Norwegian kutte "cut" (Norse word ousted OE snîðan "cut, slice" and partly ceorfan which survives as carve); cweld (ME) "evening" : ON kveld "evening" (cf. Norwegian kveld "evening"); derf (ME c.1250) "bold" : ON djarfr "bold, daring"; dil (ME c.1315) "conceal" : ON dylja "hide" (cf. Nynorsk dylje, dølje, Norwegian dølge); dirt (ME pre-1300: drit, drytt, 1425: dert, 1434: dyrt) : ON drítr "dirt, dung" (cf. Norwegian drit "rubbish"); dirty (ME c.1425: dyrty, from earlier dritty (pre-1400), from ME drit + y) - see dirt above; down "soft feathers" (ME 1345-49: doune) : ON dúnn "down, bed of down"; drag (late ME 1440: draggen "draw, pull") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON draga "pull, draw, drag", but possibly a dialectal variant of ME drawen "draw" from OE dragan "draw, drag"; dream (ME 1250: drem) : ON draumr "dream" (OE drêam meant "joy"); dregs (ME 1378: dregges) : ON dregg “sediment”; dreng (ME; Brut, c.1250: dring, Havelok, c.1275: dreng) known from late OE - see above) "doughty young man" : ON drengr "bold man; fellow; attendant" (cf. Danish dreng "boy", Norwegian dreng "farmhand", (archaic) "brave young man"); drepen (ME Havelok, c.1275) "kill" either from ON drepa "kill, strike, beat" or OE drepan "strike, kill"; drip (ME c.1300: drippen “drop down”) : cf. ON dreypa “let fall in drops”; droop (ME 1300: drupen, 1333-52: droupen) : ON drúpa "droop (from sorrow)"; drown (ME c.1325 drounen, drunen) : may be from a Danish equivalent to ON drukna "drown"; egg (ME 1340: eg, 1366: egge) : ON egg (defeated OE parallel æg which appeared in ME as ei); egg "to incite" is according to Serjeantson already known in the OE loan from Norse eggian but I cannot corroborate this. Other authorities have ME c.1200: eggen from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON eggja "incite, whet"; farcost (ME) "boat; circumstances" : ON farkostr "vessel, ship"; fellow (ME 1250: felawe) : ON félagi "partner, comrade" (already recorded in OE as fêolaga); fîken (ME c.1225) "hurry about" : ON fíkjast "desire, yearn for"; fisk (ME) "fish" : ON fiskr (cf. Norwegian fisk; Modern English form derives from OE fisc, cf. German Fisch); flat (ME 1300: flat) : ON flatr "flat, level"; flit (ME pre-1200: flutten “convey, move, take”, flitten ME King Horn (c.1225) "flit about") : ON flytja "carry, convey”; fo, fa (ME) "get, obtain, attain" : ON fá "take; get gain, win" (cf. Norwegian få); fog (1554 but clearly much older) probably from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON fok "snow flurry", fjúk "drifting snow storm", Norwegian fokk "drift", Danish fog "drift, drifting snow"; frastys (ME early 1300s) "tempt" : ON freista "tempt"; frest (ME Havelok, c.1275) "delay" : ON frest "delay, respite"; fro (only in phrase to and fro; ME 1325: fra, fro) : ON frá "from"; frost (ME pre-1475: forst, frost) : ON frost; froþe (ME c.1300) "froth" : ON froða "froth"; gain (ME 1473: gayne) : ON gagn "advantage, profit"; gait (late ME c.1450: gait, gate “walking, departure, journey”) : cf. ON gata “way, road, path”; gaite (ME) "goat" : ON geit "goat" (cf. Norwegian geit; Modern Standard English form comes from OE gât as indicated by the dipthong); gal (ME) "mad, foolish, crazy" : ON galinn "mad, wild; bewitched" (cf. Norwegian gal); gap (ME c.1325: gap) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON gap "chasm, empty space" (related to ON gapa "gape"), Modern Norwegian gap "wide open mouth; gap, chasm"; gape "stare with mouth open, yawn" (ME 1250: gapen) : ON gapa "gape"; garen, geren (ME c.1250) "prepare, do, cause" : ON gøra "do, make"; gasp (ME 1393: gaspen) : ON geispa "yawn"; gaze (ME c.1395: gazen “stare”) : cf. ON gá to heed; gere (ME early 1300s) "equipment, army" : ON gørvi "gear, apparel"; gestning (ME c.1250) "entertainment, feast" : cf. OSwed. gästning; genge (ME Havelok, c.1275) "retinue, household) : ON gengi "help, support"; get (ME 1200: geten) : ON geta "be able to" (OE cognate gietan only occurred in compounds in OE); gêten (ME Havelok, c.1275) "watch, guard" : ON gæta "watch, take care of, guard"; gift (ME 1250: gift) : ON gipta "gift; good fortune" (OE form would given modern *yift); gill (mainly Northern dialect) "ravine, gorge" : ON gil; girth (ME c.1300: gerth "belt used in husbandry") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON gjörð "girdle, belt"; the modern meaning first appears in 1664 (Barnhart); give (ME c.1200: gifen (pre-1130: yiven, yeven is from the native OE source West Saxon giefan "give" (OE c.725))) the gutteral g in the form of 1200, the form from which the modern word is descended is the result of Scandinavian influence, cf. ON gefa, Old Swedish giva "give, grant", whose form spread from the north during the ME period; glint alteration of earlier c.1380 glenten “gleam, flash” : cf. Swedish dial. glinta “slip, shine”; glitter (vb.) (ME c.1375: gliteren "flash, sparkle") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON glitra, glita "glitter, gleam"; greiþen (ME) "prepare" : ON greiða "make, get ready"; guess (ME 1303: gessen) : cf. OSwed. gissa, ODan. gitze, related to ON geta "be able to, get, guess" (cf. ON noun geta "guess, conjecture"); gæte(læs) (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "careless" : ON gæta "heed, attend to"; hansel (ME early 1300s) "gift" : ON handsal "handshake binding an agreement"; happy (ME 1380: happy "lucky") : ON happ "good luck" (survived in ME as hap "luck, success"); haven (ME 1200: haven, from OE hæfen "haven, harbour", probably from the ON word, and therefore the only ON nautical loan to survive into ME) : ON hafn; hâwer (ME c.1225) "skilful" : ON hágr "handy, skilful"; helder (ME - now only dial.) "preferably, rather" : ON heldr "more, rather" (cf. Norwegian heller); heþen (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "hence" : ON heðan "hence"; hething (ME early 1300s) "scorn" : ON hæðing "derision, scorn"; hilen (ME c.1250) "hide, conceal" : ON hylja "hide, cover"; hit (ME pre-1200: hitten; also found once in late OE - see above) : ON hitta "hit upon, meet; strike"; hærnes (1137) "brains" : ON hjarni "brain, skull"; ill (ME 1150: ille "morally evil") : ON illr "evil, ill, bad" (OE used yfel "evil"); immess (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "variously" : ON ýmiss "various, sundry"; keel (1338: kelle, 1410: kele) : ON kjólr; ket (ME c.1250) "flesh" : ON kjöt "meat, flesh"; kettle (ME 1338: ketil, ketel) : ON ketill (replaced ME chetel from OE citel); kevel (ME Havelok, c.1275) "gag" from ON kefli also "gag"; kid "young goat" (ME Ormulum c.1200: kide) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON kið "young goat", Modern Mainland Scandinavian kid "kid"; kick (ME 1384 kiken) : possibly derived from a cognate to ON kikna "bend backwards, bend at the knees"; kindle (ME c.1200 kindelen, kindeln) : cf. ON kynda "kindle", OSwed. quindla "kindle"; laire (ME c.1315) "clay" : ON leir "clay, loam"; leg (ME c.1275: leg) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON leggr "leg; hollow bone", Modern Norwegian legg "calf, lower leg", Modern Swedish lägg "shin"; lift (ME c.1200: liften) : ON lypta "raise"; ling (date?) "heather" (ME ling) : ON lyng "heather"; link (ME c.1415: lynke "section of a cord or rope", c.1443: "link of a chain") from a Scandinavian source, cf. Old Swedish lænker "chain, link", Modern Swedish länk, Modern Norwegian lenke "chain, fetter", ON hlekkr "link"; (vb.) (ME c.1385: linken) probably derived from the noun; lîre (ME) "face, skin" : ON hlýr "cheek"; lit (now only dial.) "colour, hew" : ON litr "hew, colour" (cf. Norwegian lød); loan (ME 1175: lân, pre-1250: loan) : ON laun "reward, recompense" (cf. Norwegian lønn "wages"); loft (ME c.1225: loft) : ON lopt "loft; air, sky" (found once in OE - see above); loghe (ME Ormulum; c.1200: lôwe; word Northern/Midland ME only) "fire" : ON logi "flame"; loose (adj.) "not firm" (ME pre-1200: lowse, c.1350: loos) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON lauss "loose" (OE form was lêas); (vb.) "set free, release" (ME c.1200: lowsen, c.1325: loosen) derived from the adjective (Barnhart); low (ME 1175: lah, 1280: low) : ON lágr "low, low down, short"; lug (vb.) "pull, drag" (ME c.1375: luggen "move heavily", c.1390: loggen "pull, drag") from a Scandinavian source, cf. Modern Swedish lugga, Modern Norwegian lugge, both "pull by the hair"; lurk (ME 1300 lurken, lorken, older *lusken) : cf. Danish luske "slink, sneak about, prowl" from MLG lûcshen "lie hidden"; mâl (ME Ormulum, c.1200: ) "speech, payment" : ON mál "suit, action, case"; may (ME Brut, c.1250) "maiden" : ON mey "girl" (also OE mæg "kinswoman"; Norwegian mø); meek (ME 1200: mêok) : ON mjúkr "soft, mild" (cf. Swedish mjuk "soft"); mire (ME 1300: muir, 1338: myre) : ON mýrr "bog, marsh"; muck (ME c.1250: muc “filth”) : ON myki “cow dung”; muggy "humid" (ME 1390: mugen "to drizzle") : ON mugga "mist"; mun (ME) "mouth" : ON munnr "mouth" (cf. Norwegian munn); myn (ME early 1300s) "remember" : ON minna "remember, recall"; mynnyng (ME c.1300) "remembrance" : ON minning "memory, remembrance"; nag : cf. ON nagga “complain, groan, grumble”, dial. Norwegian nagga “gnaw; irritate”; naken (ME) "naked" : ON nøktr (cf. Danish nøgen; Modern Standard English form is from OE nâcod); naþe (ME) "grace, favour, mercy" : ON náð "grace, mercy" (cf. Norwegian nåde); nevenen (ME King Horn, c.1225; later nevnen) "name" : ON nefna "name, mention"; occ (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only; now only dial.) "and" : ON ok "and, also" (cf. Norwegian og); odd (ME 1280: odde) : ON oddi "odd number"; ôr (ME c.1250) "before" : ON âr "before"; outlaw (ME 1300: outlawe) : ON útlagi; prod 1535, developed from ME brodden (c.1475) “goad, urge” from ealier brode “pointed instrument” : cf. ON broddr “shaft, spike”; race (ME c.1300: ras) : ON rás "race; course, channel" (cf. OE ræs "onrush, attack; jump, leap"); radd (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "afraid" : ON hræddr "afraid, frightened" (cf. Norwegian redd); rag (ME 1325: ragge) : ON rögg "tuft, shagginess"; raid (ME c.1425) "military excursion" (originally on horseback) either from ON reið "ride, riding" or a Scandinavian influenced northern English form of OE râd "ride, riding, journey; raid" with an extension of meaning - which has otherwise given us "road"; raise (ME 1200: reysen, c.1250: reisen) : ON raisa "cause to rise"; rake (vb.) "gather in, sweep" (ME c.1250: raken "gather, rake") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON raka "scrape, rake"; rake "dissolute man" (ME rakel "rash" > eModEng. rakehell (1554) > rake) : cf. ON reik "strolling, wandering", Icelandic reikall "vagabond"; ran (ME; - known in OE (see above) with meaning "robbery") "spoils, plunder, loot, booty" : ON rán "robbery, plunder; spoils" (cf. Norwegian ran "robbery; booty"); ransack (ME 1250: ransaken) : ON rannsaka "search a house"; rapelike (ME c.1250) "hastily" : ON hrapeliga "hurredly, hastily"; rapen (ME c.1250) "hasten" : ON hraða "hasten"; râþ (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "counsel" : ON ráð "counsel, advice"; reef "section of a sail that can be taken in or let out" (ME c.1390: riff, emodE 1667: reef) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON rif "reef of a sail"; usage probably derived from ON rif "ridge, reef" from which our word reef (1584: riffe, riff) "narrow, rocky ridge" comes, via Early Modern Dutch (Barnhart); reindeer (ME c.1400: rayne-dere, 1408: reyndere) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON hreindýri (hrein itself meant "reindeer" while dýr denotes "animal"); OE hrân "reindeer" is identical but was ousted by the Norse form; rid (ME 1200: ruden, rudden, c.1250: ridden) : ON ryðja "clear, free up"; rift (pre-1325) “a split, act of splitting” : cf. ON ript “breach”; rig (ME Havelok, c.1275) "back" : ON hryggr "back, spine"; rô (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "quiet, peace" : ON ró "rest, calm"; roose "to praise", ros "praise" (ME; - now only in dial roose) : ON hrósa, hrós "(to) praise" (cf. Norwegian rose, ros); root (ME 1127: rot) : from ON rót “root”; roþen, râþen (ME) "counsel" : ON ráða "advise, rule, govern, command" (cf. Norwegian råde); rotten (ME pre-1300: roten) : ON rotinn "rotten, putrid" (the verb rot is however from OE rotian "rot, putrefy"; cf. ON rotna also "rot, putrefy" (Norwegian Bokmål råtne, Nynorsk rotne)); rowst (now only dial.) "voice" : ON raust "voice" (cf. Norwegian røst); rug (1551-2) “coarse fabric” : cf. Norwegian dial. rugga “coarse coverlet”, ON rögg “shaggy tuft”; rugged (ME 1300 or earlier rugged) : ON rugr cf. Nynorsk rugga "large, heavy person"; sacrabar (ME) "plaintiff" - ON sakaráberi "plaintiff"; sag (ME 1392: saggen) : possibly borrowed from Scand.: cf. Norw. sakke “slow down, lag behind”, Swed. sacka “sink down”; same (ME c.1200: same) : ON sami; sammtale (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "agreed" : cf. ON samtala "conversation" (Norwegian samtale "conversation"), að samtala "agree"; scab (ME 1275: scab) : ON skabb "mange, scab, scratch" (note also derived adjective scabby, a direct equivalent to native English shabby, which derives from OE cognate scæb); scale (ME c.1300: scale) : ON skál "(measuring) bowl"; scant (ME c.1350: scant) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON skamt, the neuter singular of adjective skammr "short, brief"; scar "skerry, cliff" (ME 1395: scar) : ON sker "skerry" (cf. ON skera "cut"); scare (ME 1200: skerren) : ON skirra "avoid"; ON skjarr "timid"; scathe (ME c.1200: scathen) : ON skaða "harm, damage, injure" (cf. Norwegian skade or ska); scôgh (ME early 1300s) "wood, forest" : ON skógr "wood, forest" (cf. Norwegian skog); scorch (ME skorken, pre-1325: scorchen) : probably from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON skorpna "be shrivelled"; scot "shot" (now only dial.) : ON skot "shot, shooting; missile"; scot (ME mid-1300s), skat (late ME/eModE dialect) "tax" : ON skattr "tribute, tax" (cf. Norwegian skatt "tax"); scowl (ME 1340: scoulen) : probably ODan. skula "scowl"; scrap : ON skrap "clatter"; scrape (ME 1225: skrapen) : ON skrapa "scratch out"; scream (ME 1175: scræmen) : possibly ODan. skræmme, ON *skræma "frighten, scare"; screech (ME 1250: schrichen, early 1300s skrîken) : ON skrækja "screech, shriek"; scrub (c. 1303) “scratch or rub oneself” : could be from Middle Low German but cf. Norwegian and Danish skrubbe to scrub; seat (ME c.1200: sete) : ON sæti "seat"; seem (ME c.1200: semen) : perhaps ON sóma "beseem", from sæmr "befitting" (cf. related OE sêman "reconcile"); seemly "proper, fitting" (ME c.1200: semlich) : ON sæmiligr "becoming"; sêr (ME Ormulum, c.1200: ) "separate" : ON sér "for or by oneself, separately"; serk (ME; - now only in Scots. sark) "shirt" : ON serkr "sark, shirt" (cf. Danish and Norwegian serk "shift, chemise"; ON word has reinforced OE cogante serc); silt (ME c.1440: silt) from a Scandinavian source, cf. Modern Danish sylt "salt marsh"; Barnhart argues for Middle Low German or Middle Dutch silte, sulte "salt marsh" - either is possible; sister (ME c.1250: sister) : ON systir (ousted OE form sweostor which appeared in ME as swuster); skath (ME c.1300) "injury" : ON skaði "harm, damage"; skemten (ME) "joke, jest" - ON skemta "amuse, entertain" (cf. Norwegian skjemte "banter, jest", Icelandic skemmta "amuse, entertain"; note also ME skenting "amusement"); skere "clear, pure" (ME; - obsolete dial. skir, skeer "sharp") : ON skírr "clear, bright, pure" (cf. Nynorsk skir, Norwegian skjær "pure, sheer"); skid (1610) "beam or plank on which something rests" from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON skíð "stick of wood" (also "ski"); skill (ME 1175: skil "skill, discrimination") : ON skil "distinction" (cf. ON skilja "separate"; - skil ousted descendant of OE cræft "skill, art" in this sense); skirt (ME 1325: skirt) : ON skyrta "shirt" (competed with OE scyrte); skulk (ME c.1200: skulken) : probably ON skolla "skulk away, remain aloof", (cf. ODan. skulkæ; Norwegian skulke "shirk"); skull (ME pre-1200: sculle) : ON skalli "bald head, skull"; sky (ME pre-1200: sky) : ON ský "cloud" (cf. Norwegian sky "cloud" - ON word marginalised OE hêofon "sky, heavens" to religious/lyrical use and OE wolcen "cloud" (cf. German Wolke) fell out of use (except in poetic and archaic welkin "sky, heavens")); slaughter (ME 1303: slaghter) : ON slátr "fresh meat" (cf. OE slieht "slaughter, murder; animals for slaughter"); slouch (1515) “awkward, slovenly or lazy man” : cf. ON slókr “a slouching fellow”; sly (ME 1200: sleh, 1303: slye) : ON slægr "cunning"; smile (ME c.1303: smylyng) probably from a Scandinavian source, cf. Swedish smila, Danish smile "smile, smirk, grin" but perhaps from Middle Low German *smîlen; snare "trap" was already loaned from Norse in Old English times (OE snearu) from ON snara "snare, noose"; in ME we find pre-1100: snear, c.1300: snare, while the corresponding verb appears c.1395: snaren - a derivation from the noun (Barnhart); snub (vb.) (ME c.1250: snibben "rebuke", c.1340: snubben) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON snubba "curse, reprove, chide"; sprint (1566) “spring, dart”, prob. an alteration of ME sprenten (c. 1325) to leap or spring : cf. ON spretta “to jump up”; squall (modE. 1719: squall) : probably related to ON skella "make a noise; break out, burst out, strike" (cf. Nynorsk skjelle "cold wind", Swedish skvala "pour, gush"); stack (n) "hayrick" (ME c.1300: stac "pile, heap") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON stakkr "haystack", Norwegian stakk, Danish stak "rick, stack"; stagger (ME c.1434: stageren, a variant of c.1355: stakeren "stagger") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON stakra, staka "push, shove; stagger", Modern Danish stavre "dodder, totter"; steak (ME 1440: steyke) - ON steik "steak"); sterne (ME) "star" : ON stjarna "star" (cf. Norwegian stjerne; Standard English form derives from OE steorra); stôr (ME; now only dial.) "strong, great" : ON stórr "big, great" (Norwegian stor); stro, stra (ME) "straw" : ON strá (cf. Norwegian strå; Modern Standard form is from OE strêaw); summ (ME Ormulum, c.1200: ) "as" : ON sum "as, like" (cf. Norwegian sum "as"); swain "(arch.) a male lover; a country youth, a rustic lad" (ME pre-1160: swein "young man, attendant") from a Scandinavian source (Scand. form ousted ME variant swon from OE swân "herdsman, peasant; youth, swain"), cf. ON sveinn "boy, servant, attendant", Modern Danish svend "fellow; swain; shop assistant", Modern Swedish sven "swain, page", Modern Norwegian svenn "youth, squire, page; journeyman" - as a personal name, Svend, Sven is still popular in Mainland Scandinavia; the now archaic or poetic sense in English of "lover, wooer" first appears c.1585 (Barnhart); swîðen (ME c.1250) "burn" : ON sviþa "singe, burn, roast" (now only in dial. swithen - see below); take (ME c.1200: taken) : ON taka (ousted OE niman "take, get, seize" (cf. German nehmen, Dutch nemen) which still occurred in the forms nimen, nemen during ME period); tangle (ME pre-1340: tangilen, variant of tagilen "entangle") probably from an OScand. source, cf. Swed. dial. taggla (Barnhart); tarn (ME) "pool, pond" (now only dial. tarn) : ON tjörn "small lake, pool" (cf. Norwegian tjørn, tjern "small lake, pond"); tattered (ME c.1340: tatrid “wearing ragged clothes”) : cf. ON töturr “rag”; their (ME 1303: theyr) : ON þeira; them (ME c.1300: them): ON þeim; theonest (ME) "service" (already loaned into OE as þênest, þegnest) : ON þjónusta "service" (cf. German Dienst); þerne (ME Havelok, c.1275) "serving wench" : ON þerna "maidservant" (cf. poetic Danish terne "handmaiden", archaic Norwegian terne); they (ME c.1200: thei) : ON þeir; though (ME 1200: thohh, c.1378: thowgh) : ON þó, þauh "yet, though, nevertheless" (cf. OE ðêah, ðêh); tînen (ME c.1250) "lose" : ON týna "lose"; tît (ME c.1315) "quickly" : ON tít adverb formed from tíðr "frequent, usual"; thrift (ME pre-1300 “prosperity, profit, savings” from ME thriven “to thrive”) : prob. influenced by ON thrift, variant of thrif “prosperity”; þrinne (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "three" : ON þrinnr "three"; thrive (ME c.1200: thrifenn, c.1300: thriven) : ON þrífa "grasp", middle voice þrífast "thrive, prosper" (cf. Norwegian trives "prosper, thrive", (dial.) trive "grab, seize"); thrust (ME 1175: thrusten "push with force") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON þrýsta "thrust, force". The noun appears in 1513 (Barnhart); Thursday (ME pre-1250: thursdei; from OE c.1000 Thurresdæg, probably a contraction influenced by the ON form) : ON Þórsdagr (OE had Þunresdæg, which would have become *Thundersday in Modern English - cf. German Donnersdag); thwart (ME c.1200: thweart) : ON þvert, neuter of þverr "athwart, converse, adverse" (Norwegian tvert "crosswise, athwart"); tight (ME 1325: tigt) : ON þéttr "tight" (cf. Norwegian tett); toss (ME pre-1450: tossen “pitch or throw about”) : possibly Scand.: cf. dial. Swedish and Norwegian tossa “to strew, spread”; trust (n) "faith, confidence" (ME c.1200: truste) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON traust "help; confidence", Norwegian trøst "comfort, solace"; (vb.) "have faith, confidence in" (ME c.1200: trusten) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON treysta "trust; make firm"; uggen (ME c.1250) "fear" : ON ugga "fear"; ugly (ME c.1250: uglike, c.1325: ugli "horrible, fearful"; modern sense not until into 1300s) : ON uggligr "frightful" (cf. uggr "fear", OE ege "awe, fear"); tome (ME; - now only in dial. toom - see below) "empty, idle" : ON tómr "empty, vain, idle" (cf. Norwegian tom); umme (ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "about" : ON umb "around, about"; wandraþ (ME) "suffering" : ON vandræþi "difficulty"; want (ME c.1200: wanten) : ON vanta "lack"; wassail (Early ME 1140: wes heil, c.1200: wæshail, later: wasseyl, wassayl) : ON ves heill "be thou hale!" (could be OE wes hâl) note the derived verb ME Havelok, c.1275 wesseylen "drink healths"; waythe (ME early 1300s) "hunting" : ON veiðr "hunting, fishing"; weak (ME c.1300: wayke, c.1325: weke) : ON veikr "weak, feeble" (OE equivalent was wâc - this would have become *woak or *woke in Modern English); whisk (ME 1375: wisk, wysk “quick sweeping movement”) : ON visk “wisp”; window (ME c.1200: window) : ON vindauga (lit. "wind-eye"; Norse word ousted OE êagþyrel lit. "eye-opening"); wing (ME c.1175: wenge, c.1200: whing, 1390: winge) : ON vængr "wing" (OE used feþera); witerr (ME Ormulum, c.1200: ) "wise" (a common word during the ME period) : ON vitr "wise"; witnen (ME) "witness" : ON vitna "witness, attest"; wrô (ME early 1300s) "corner" : ON *wrá "corner, nook"; wrong (ME pre-1200: wrang "twisted, crooked", c.1250: wrong, 1325: wrong "bad, immoral") : ON vrangr "injustice, wrong"; wyterly (ME) "plainly; indeed" : ON vitrligr "wise, sensible, judicious" (cf. Norwegian vitterlig "known, obvious").
*Note that these words were merely first recorded in ME literature but no doubt were more ancient in spoken English.
**They are given in their modern forms with ME forms in brackets, where known. Some forms have not survived into Modern English and are given in their recorded ME forms.
ii) Scots, Northern and
result of the Norse input into the English
language is the large number of words in the dialects beginning sc-
The northern dialects often have [k] where Standard English has [t] and [g] where Standard English has [dj], for example thack “thatch” (ON þak), kirk “church” (ON kirkja), brig “bridge” (ON briggja).
The fact that such a frequent and fundamental part of speech as an auxiliary verb mun “must” made into the dialect vocabulary provides some idea of just how deeply Norse penetrated into early English.
The Scandinavian influence has left an indelible mark on the pronunciation of Scots and northern English. In some areas one can still hear forms such as garth “yard”, garn “yarn”, kist “chest”, kirn “churn”, skift “shift”, skelf “shelf”, skrike “shriek” and scrood “shroud”.
It is ON -au- that we find in dialectal rowk “reek” and nowt “cattle” not the OE cognates with -êa-. Norse medial -ei- contributed to the retention in northern dialects of such forms as stain “stone”, hame “home”, mair “more”, ain “own” and aik “oak”. The -oo- sound familiar in such dialect words as oot, hoose and doon (feathers) may well have been reinforced by the same sound in the Norse cognates. The lack of a medial guttural -h- (cf. knight, right) sound in Norse probably accelerated the shedding of this feature in medieval English – spellings such as dowter and rite are attested from the late 1300s onward in areas most densely settled by the Danes. Native Norse terms not attested in early English at the time of their borrowing are drengr “bold man”, gríss “pig”, kjót “flesh”, lyng “heather”, sild “herring” and elska “to love”. All these words can be found in the dialects. The words barn “child” (cf. Norwegian barn), cwen “woman” (cf. Norwegian kone), wynstra “left” (cf. Norwegian venstre), gamol “old” (cf. Norwegian gammel), gnidan “to rub” (cf. Norwegian gni, gnide), tygle “bridal” were once common to both OE and ON, but are now only found in modern Scandinavian and some of the English dialects.
According to Xandry, Westmoreland, County Durham, Cumberland, Lancashire, and Northumberland have best preserved the Norse idiom in their local dialects, followed some way away by Cheshire, Derbyshire, Rutland, Nottinghamshire, Northamptonshire and Suffolk.
Of the 1617 words which Joseph Wright labeled as Scandinavian in origin in his Dialect Dictionary, Xandry calculates that 40% can be traced back to ON, 24% are to be found in Norwegian dialects, while 9% and 5% are found in Danish and Swedish respectively. Of these words, Xandry reckons 220 (13.6%) are agricultural expressions, 202 (12.5%) are to do with sailing and fishing, 155 (9.6%) relate to tools, 85 (5.3%) are names of animals, 52 (3.2%) refer to people, children etc., 35 (2.2%) refer to parts of the body, and 25 (1.5%) are plant names.
Many northern words in English dialects (and Scots) only occur in isolated regions or individual counties, so it is not possible to give an exhaustive list here. Some are also obsolete. But an attempt is made below to include dialectal terms from Norse which have at least a fairly wide currency.
addle "earn, procure" : ON öðla, öðlask "gain, procure"; air "sandbank" : ON eyrr "sandbank", MDan. ør (Norwegian øyr); algate "in every way" (ME c.1225: algate, other forms allegate, algates) : ON alla götu "always" (-s adverbial suffix is native); and "breath" (ME c.1315 and) : ON andi "breath; soul, spirit" (cf. Norwegian ånd); arr "scar" : ON ørr "scar"; aund "fated, forewarned" : ON auðinn "destined" (Norwegian auden, Swedish öen); awns "chaff" : ON agnar (sing. ögn) "chaff, husks" (Danish avner, Norwegian agner); aye "always" (ME ay) : ON ei, ey "always, ever" (OE â "ever" > ME ô); bain "flexible, ready, direct" (ME early 1300s bein, bain) : ON beinn "straight, direct" (note Yorksh. bainsome "helpful, at hand", Norwegian beinsam); bairn "child" (ME 1150: barn) : ON barn "child" (partly OE bearn) "child"; bait "graze, send to pasture" : ON beita "cause to bite" (Norwegian beite); bask "thrash, beat severely" : ON (probably from Middle Low German batschen) "thrash, beat" (cf. Norwegian baske "slap", Standard English bash probably derives from the Norse form); batten "thrive" : ON batna "improve"; beck "stream" : ON bekkr "brook, stream" (Norwegian bekk); bigg “barley” : ON bygg, cf. Norwegian bygg “barley”; big, biggen "build" : ON byggja, byggva "inhabit; build" (Norwegian bygge, Nynorsk byggje); birr "force, impetus" : ON byrr "favourable wind"; blowt "soft, weak" : ON blautr "soft, weak; wet" (Norwegian bløt); brae, bree (mainly Scots.) "hillside, slope, bank; an upland area" (ME 1300s: brâ, brea) : probably from ON brá "eyebrow" or related (cf. Norwegian Nynorsk brå "eyelid", English brow < OE brû); brat "steep; sudden" : ON bráðr "sudden, hasty" (Nynorsk brå "abrupt, sudden", Norwegian bratt "steep; sudden"); brenn "burn" : ON brenna "burn" (Norwegian brenne); bro "footbridge" : ON brú "bridge"; busk "dress oneself" : ON búask "get oneself ready"; cair "drive" (ME kairen, cairen) : ON keyra "drive, thrust; ride" (Norwegian kjøre); car "pond, swamp, pool" : ON kjarr "thicket, copsewood" (Danish kær, Norwegian dialect kjerr "bog"); carle "rustic, peasant" : ON karl "man, fellow" (Norwegian kar, Swedish karl "fellow, chap"); carlin, carline (Scots., dial.) "old woman, hag, witch" first recorded in 1300s ME , from ON kerling "old woman, hag" (therefore identical in origin with carling above), cf. Modern Danish kælling "hag, crone; old woman", Modern Swedish kärring "old woman; crone", Modern Norwegian kjerring "old woman"; chaft “jawbone; mouth” (in pl.) : ON kjaptr (cf. Norwegian kjæft); cled "clothes, apparel" : ON klæði "cloth, garment" (Nynorsk klede, Norwegian klær); clegg “gadfly” : ON kleggi; crake "raven, rook" : ON krákr "crow, raven" (Norwegian kråke "crow"); dag "dew" : ON dögg "dew" (Norwegian dugg, dogg); drucken “drunken” : ON past participle drukinn; ea “island” : ON ey “island” (cf. Norwegian øy); elding "fuel" : ON eldsneyti, eldviðr "wood, material for burning"; elt "slush, mud, quagmire" : from ON verb elta "knead, squeeze" (Norwegian elte "mess, quagmire"); ert "pea" : ON ertr "pea" (Norwegian ert); ettle "intend, propose" : ON ætla "intend"; ewer "udder" : ON júgr "udder" (Danish yver, Norwegian jur); far "sheep" : ON fé "cattle, sheep; money" (Norwegian får "sheep"); feal "hide" : ON fela "hide, conceal"; fell "hill, mountain" (ME fell) : ON fell, fjall "hill, fell, mountain" (cf. Norwegian fjell); flit "move" : ON flytja "carry, convey, move" (Norwegian flytte); force "waterfall" (ME fors) : ON fors, foss (cf. Norwegian foss); frae "from" : ON frá (Nynorsk frå, Norwegian fra); frosk "frog" : ON froskr (cf. Norwegian frosk); gain "convenient, handy" : ON gagn "advantage, benefit, profit"; gape "yawn" (ME 1250: gapen) : ON gapa "gape, stare with the mouth open"; gar "make" : ON gera, gørva "make, do, construct" (Norwegian gjøre); garn, gairn vb. "to darn" and noun "yarn" : ON garn (ME garn; standard English yarn probably derives from OE gearn); garth "field, yard" : ON garðr "fence, enclosure; dwelling" (Norwegian gård; cf. modern yard < OE geard); gate "way, street, road" : ON gata "path, way, road"; gaum "heed" : ON gaumr "attention, heed" (Nynorsk gaum; cf. also English gormless from ON gaumr); gawk "cuckoo" : ON gaukr (Norwegian gauk); glatten, gladden "smooth, polish, soften" : ON *gletta (?) (cf. Norwegian glatte, Norw. dial gletten "smooth, slippery", Danish glat "smooth", Middle Dutch glad, glat); gleg "small window" : ON gluggr "window" (Norwegian glugg "small window"); glegg "clear-sighted, sharp" : ON gløggr "sharp, clear" (Nynorsk gløgg); goadick "mystery, riddle, puzzle" : ON gáta "riddle" (Norwegian gåte); gool "yellow, fallow" : ON gulr "yellow" (Norwegian gul); grice "pig" : ON gríss "hog, pig" (Norwegian gris); grum "angry, surly" : ON gramr "wroth, angry" (cf. OE gram "angry, cruel, fierce"); haaf "open sea" : ON haf "sea, ocean"; hag "to hew" : ON höggva "strike, smite, hew" (cf. Nynorsk hogge, Norwegian hugge); haver "oats" : ON hafre (cf. Norwegian havre); helder "rather" : ON heldr "more, rather" (cf. Norwegian heller); henstee "chicken runway" : ON hönsstígr (?) (Norwegian hønsestige); heppen "tidy" : ON heppinn "lucky, happy" (Nynorsk heppen); hill "cover up, wrap" : ON hylja "hide, cover"; hoast "cough" : ON hósti "cough" (Norwegian hoste); how "hillock" : ON haugr "mound" (Norwegian haug, Danish høj); ing "meadow" : ON eng "meadow, pasture"; intake “new enclosure” : ON in+taka; keek in "peep in" : late ON derived from MLG kîken (cf. Norwegian kikke); kelda "spring" : ON kelda "well, spring" (Norwegian kilde); kenning "knowledge" : ON kenning "teaching, doctrine; hallmark"; ket "carrion" : ON kjöt "meat" (Norwegian kjøt); kirk "church" (ME 1200: kirke) : ON kirkja; kirn "churn" : ON kjarni "kernel" (Norwegian kjerne, Nynorsk kinne); kist "chest" : ON kista "chest, coffin"; kittling "chicken" : ON kjúklingr "chick" (Norwegian kylling); laik, lake "to play, sport" : ON leika "play" (cf. Norwegian leike, leke); lait "search" : ON leita "seek, search" (Norwegian leite); lathe "barn" : ON hlaða "store-house, barn"; lax "salmon" : ON lax (cf. Norwegian lax, German Lachs); lea "scythe" : ON ljár, lé (Norwegian ljå); leising "freed man" : ON leysingi "freed man"; lift "air, sky" : ON lopt "air, sky; loft"; lig "lie (down)" : ON liggja "lie (down)" (Nynorsk liggje, Norwegian ligge); ling "heather" : ON lyng "heather" (Norwegian lyng); lit "to dye" : ON lita "dye"; lithe, lythe (ME lîþen; now only obsolete dial. form) "listen" : ON hlýða "listen, obey" (cf. Norwegian lytte "listen"); lop (ME loppe) "flea" : ODan. loppæ "flea" (Norwegian loppe); loup "leap, run with strides" : ON hlaupa "run" (Norwegian løpe, løype, ME loupen, Standard English lope, all from hlaupa, English cogate was OE hlêapan, modern leap); meal “sandbank” : ON melr “sandhill”; mense (ME mensk) "honour, respect, good manners" : OSwed. mænska "goodness"; mickle "great, large" : ON mikill "great, large; much" (Norwegian Bokmål meget, mye, Nynorsk mykje); min "less" : ON minnr "less" (cf. Norwegian mindre "less"); minne "lesser" : ON minni (cf. Norwegian mindre "less"); mirk "dark" : ON myrkr "darkness" (cf. Norwegian mørke; this mainly dialect word may in fact derive from OE mirce "darkness, murk"); mun "mouth" : ON munnr "mouth" (cf. Norwegian munn); mun "must" : ON munu "shall, will, must" (cf. Norwegian må "may, must"); mug "fog" : ON mugga "drizzling mist"; naut (Scots), nowt (North. Eng.) "cattle" : ON naut "cattle, livestock" (OE parallel was nêat, found in Shakespeare - now obsolete; Norwegian naut, Jutlandic dialect nød); nay "no" (ME 1325: nai) : ON nei; neave, neive "fist" : ON hnefi "fist" (Norwegian neve "fist, handful"); near, niere, nyre “kidney” : ON nýra (cf. Norwegian nyre); oast "cheese" : ON ostr "cheese" (Norwegian ost); oc "and" : ON ok "and, also" (cf. Norwegian og "and"; OE ac "but, and"); ouse "bale out" : ON ausa "to pump, bale" (cf. Nynorsk ause, Norwegian øse); ownly "lonely, dreary" : ON aumligr "wretched" (cf. Nynorsk aumleg "wretched", OE earm "poor, wretched"); quey, quee "heifer" (ME cwie) : ON kvíga "heifer" (cf. Norwegian kvige "heifer", kveg "cattle"); raun, rown “a female fish, esp. the herring or salmon” : ON hrogn (cf. Dan. rogn); rawk “sea fog, fog” : cf. Swed. rök, Danish røg “smoke”; red up "tidy, clear" : ON reiða "shift, convey; lift" (Norwegian rede opp); rig "rye" : ON rugr (Danish ryg, Norwegian rug); roose "praise" : ON hrós "praise"; roose " to praise" : ON hrósa "praise" (cf. Norwegian ros, rose); sammen "together" : ON saman "together, in common" (cf. Norwegian sammen, German zusammen); scar, sker “skerry” : ON sker “skerry”; scarn, skarn "dung, filth" : ON skarn "dung" (Norwegian skarn "dirt, filth, dung", Swedish skarn "dung, filth"); scrat “goblin” : ON skratti “devil, demon”; seng "bed" : ON sæng (found once in OE - see above; Norwegian seng); skep "basket" : ON skeppa "a measure" (archaic Norwegian skjeppe "dry measure"); skoal (Scots - recorded from 1600 onwards) "hail! cheers!" : ON skál "bowl, vessel" (cf. Norwegian skål "bowl" and also "cheers!"); skrellin "weakling, wretch" : ON skræling "native inhabitant of Greenland" (Norwegian skræling "weakling, wretch"; cf. Modern Icelandic skrælingi "barbarian"); slem "mud, sludge, ooze" : cf. Norwegian slam "mud, ooze, sludge, slime", Swedish slem "slime, phlegm"; sniggle "snail" : ON snigill (Nynorsk snigel, Norwegian snegl); spae "foretell" : ON spá "predict, prophesy" (Norwegian spå); spear "ask, enquire" : ON spyrja "ask" (Nynorsk spørje, Norwegian spørre); stang "stake, pole" : ON stöng "staff, pole" (Danish stænge "bar, pole, rod, shaft"); stithy, stiddy "anvil" (ME steþe, steþi, stiþi) : ON steði "anvil" (Norwegian ste); stive "dust, smoke" : late loan in ON from MLG stof (Norwegian støv, Danish støv); stor "large, big" (ME stôr "strong, great") : ON stórr "big, great" (Norwegian stor); stud "steer, bullock" (ME 1200: stod) : ON stútr "stud" (Norwegian stut); sum "as" : ON sem "as, which, like" (Norwegian som "as, which"); swawl "swallow" : ON svelja (Nynorsk svelgje, Norwegian svelge; Modern Standard English swallow is descended from OE swelgan); swip "likeness" : ON svipr "look, appearance" (cf. Nynorsk svip "resemblance, appearance"); swithen (also swidden and swizzen) "burn superficially, shrivel up, singe, scorch" : ON sviðna "be singed" (also nouns swidden, swivven "place in a moor cleared by burning"; cf. Nynorsk svide "burn, scorch"); tang “spit of land” : ON tangi; tarn (ME 1380: terne) "pool" : ON tjörn "small lake, pool" (cf. Norwegian tjørn, tjern "small lake, pond"); tine "to lose" : ON týna "lose, destroy" (cf. Nynorsk tyne "plague, torment; kill, destroy"); toft "homestead" : ON topt "homestead"; toom "empty" : ON tómr "empty, idle, vain" (Norwegian tom); trigg "safe, secure" : ON tryggr "faithful, true" (Norwegian trygg); udal : ON óðal "ancestral property, inheritance" (Norwegian odel; cf. OE eðel "ancestral home"); ug "fear" : ON uggr "fear, apprehension"; veesick "show" : reflexive of ON vísa "show" (Norwegian vise); wale "choose" : ON velja "choose, select, pick out" (Nynorsk velje, Norwegian velge); wath "ford" : ON vað (cf. Norwegian vad "ford", OE wæð "wade, ford"); waur "worse" (ME werre) : ON verr "worse" (Norwegian verre); wick "creek" : ON vík "bay, inlet" (cf. ON víkingr); will "bewildered" : ON villr "bewildered, astray, wild" (cf. Norwegian vill "savage, fierce; unruly"); yammer "moan; bewail, lament" : ODan. iæmre from MLG jâmeren (cf. Norwegian jamre).
Charles: The English Language: A
Historical Introduction. (
Robert, K.: Chambers Dictionary of
English Etymology, Chambers Harrap
Baugh, A.C. & Cable, T.: A History of the English Language. London: Routledge, 2003.
J.A.W & Smithers, G.V.: Early
Middle English Verse and Prose,
Björkman, Erik: Scandinavian Loan-words in Middle English, Scholarly Press, M.I., 1978;
Dialects (The Language Library).
History of the English Language (The Language
Burchfield, Robert: The English Language,
Clark, J.M.: Early English, Andre Deutsch,
Clark-Hall, J.R.: A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary,
Freeborn, Dennis: From Old English to Standard English. 2nd revised and enlarged edition. London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1998;
Geipel, John: The Viking Legacy: the Scandinavian Influence on the English Language. Newton Abbot: David Charles, 1971.
skandinavischen Sprachen. Eine
Einführung in ihre Geschichte. Hamburg: Helmut
Buske Verlag, 1984.
Haugen, Einar: Norsk-engelsk Ordbok, Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1993;
Leiv, Hødnebø, Finn
& Simensen, Erik: Norrøn
Det Norske Samlaget, Oslo, 1997;
Hoad, T.F. (ed.): The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology.
Hofmann, D.: Nordisch-Englische Lehnbeziehungen der Wikingerzeit. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1955.
Hughes, Geoffrey: A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2000;
Hutterer, Claus Jürgen: Die germanischen Sprachen: Ihre Geschichte in Grundzügen Akademiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1998;
Otto: Growth and Structure of the
i England: sproglige spor, København: Akademisk
Landrø, M. & Wangensteen, B. (eds.): Bokmålsordboka - Definisjons- og rettskrivningsordbok, Olso: Universitetsforlaget, 1997;
Lester, G.A.: The Language of Old and Middle English Poetry, Macmillan, London, 1996;
Nielsen, Niels Åge: Dansk Etymologisk Ordbog, København: Gyldendal, 1989;
Serjeantson, M.S.: A History of Foreign Words in English, London, 1935; (ch.4 "The Scandinavian Element");
Vemund: Norsk Språkhistorie
Skeat, Walter W.: The Concise Dictionary of English Etymology, Wordsworth Reference, Herts., 1993;
Skeat, Walter W.: English Dialects from the Eighth Century until the Present Day, Cambridge University Press, 1912;
J. (ed.): The
Thorsen, Per: An Inquiry into the Scandinavian Elements in the Modern English Dialects (part I of the series "Anglo-Norse Studies"),
Trudgill, Peter: The Dialects of England.
Vinterberg, H. & Bodelsen, C.A.: Dansk-engelsk ordbog, (Gyldendals store røde ordbøger), Gyldendals, København, 1990;
de Vries, Jan: Altnordisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Zweite verbesserte Auflage. Leiden: Brill, 2000;
M. O’C. Introduction to the
Languages. (The Language Library). London: Andre
Wright, E.E.: Rustic Speech and Folk-Lore, Oxford University Press, London, 1913;
Wright, Joseph: An Elementary Middle English Grammar, Oxford U.P., 1973;
Wyld, H. C.: The Historical Study of the Mother Tongue, Maskell House Pub., N.Y., 1968;
skandinavische Element in den neuenglischen Dialekten.
Zoëga, Geir T.: A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic, London: Oxford University Press, 1961.
© Edward Smith 2011 | http://germanic.eu/Scandinavian-loanwords-in-Old-and-Middle-English-and-their-legacy-in-the-dialects-of-England-and-modern-standard-English.htm | fineweb | 71,151 | 3.515625 |
Tribal and National Identity in Germanic Place-Names
(Written: July 2002; Last update: 23 March 2015)
Font Colour Key:
maroon = modern names of regions and nations;
blue = modern individual settlement names;
green = medieval forms of place-names and words
(Old English, Old Norse, Old Danish, Middle High German, etc.).
In Germany, particularly, ethnic names or the names of tribes have later taken on territorial connotations and become the names of individual geographic or political regions and states, e.g. Sachsen, Schwaben, Franken. The OHG tribal name in the dative plural often refers to the territory or land occupied by that tribe, e.g. (800s) hier in Vrankôn ("here among the Franks, in the Franks' territory"), 1195: ze Swâben ("among the Swabians, in their territory"), c.1200 (Nibelungenlied): dâ zen Burgonden, so was ir lant genant ("there among the Burgundians, which their land was also called"). Singular forms of the Länder names begin to appear around 1250, where forms like MHG Swâbin (modern Schwaben) start to be used.
Names of Nations and Regions
ENGLAND: "land of the Angles" (c.890: Englaland, 1000: Englaland) from OE Engle "Angles" (later "English") in genitive plural Engla and land. England came to mean "land of the English" rather than merely "land of the Angles" as far back into OE times as 880, when the adjective Englisc meant "English" and not merely "Anglian". Other compounds found in OE found denoting "England" are Angelcynn and Angelþêod (both meaning "the nation of the English") from 880 onwards.
Essex: "the East Saxons" (later coming to denote the territory settled by them) (894: East Seaxe, 904: East Sexe, 1086: Exsessa; OE êast + Seaxe "Saxons").
Sussex: "the South Saxons" (later coming to denote the territory settled by them) (607: Suð Seaxe, 722: Suþ Seaxe, 773: Suþ Seaxna lond, 895: Suð Seaxum, 1086: Sudsexe; OE sûð + Seaxe "Saxons").
Wessex (now only in historical usage): "the West Saxons" (later coming to denote the territory settled by them - the OE kingdom was centred on Winchester) (709: West Seaxna lond, 871: West Seaxe; OE west + Seaxe "Saxons").
Middlesex: "the Middle Saxons" (later coming to denote the territory settled by them) (704: Middelseaxan, 767: Middil Sæxum, 1086: Midelsexe; OE middel + Seaxe "Saxons").
Norfolk: "the northern folk" (1043-5: Norfolk, 1075: Norðfolc, 1086: Nordfolc; OE norð + folc "people"). This name separated them from the "southern folk", i.e. those of Suffolk. In the Old English Bede, Norþfolc is used to refer to dwellers north of the Humber.
Suffolk: "the southern folk" (895: Suthfolchi, 1055: Suðfolc, 1086: Sudfulc, 1095: Sudfolka; OE sûþ + folc "people"). This name separated them from the "northern folk", i.e. those of Norfolk.
Surrey: "the southern district" (but see below) (722: Suþrige, 871-89: Suþregum, 1011: Suðrig, 1086: Sudrie; OE sûþer-gê, where gê means "district"). The context of a form from 823, Suþrige, and the Suðrigena land (i.e. "land of the dwellers in the south") which is found in Bede, suggests at least a partial derviation from an OE term for "folk, people". This supposes that the second element of the form in Bede is an element derived from OE gê and means "inhabitant of a district", thus giving a possible meaning of "inhabitants of the southern district" which later became the name of the region (cf. Gothic gauja).
Northumberland: "land north of the Humber" (867: Norþhymbre, 985: Norðhymbraland). OE Norþhymbre originally meant "Northumbrians, those of the Angles who live north of the Humber" and the OE forms reflect a time when the area covered by the name was much larger than is the case today. Northumbria is now only used in an historical sense. Northumberland is first recorded in its modern sense in 1130, after English territory in the Lowlands had been ceded and York and Durham had been granted their own district territories.
Mercia: "boundary dwellers" (OE Merce) - probably refers to this Midlands kingdom's boundary with Wales but may alternatively refer to the border with Deria to the north. Mercia bordered all the original OE kingdoms except Kent and Sussex.
East Anglia: is a Latinisation of OE Êast Engle "the East Angles". Such was originally a folk-name, covering at least the Angles of Norfolk and Suffolk, which later became the name of the district they lived in. The term today unofficially covers Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire and (illogically) Essex.
DANMARK: "boundary of the Danes" (i.e. against the Saxons in the south) and the folk-name underlying it was first recorded in 551 in the Latin name of the tribe Dani. From the late 800s, we have the first recorded form of the country itself in OE Denamearc (from Wulfstân's account of his trade route to Hedeby in King Alfred's adaptation of Orosius), compounding the genitive of Dene "Danes" and mearc "boundary, border". OHG Denemarca is also recorded and the later ON Danmörk from the folk-name Danir "Danes". We have to wait until the first of two great runestones erected at Jelling in Jylland to get a native version of the name. On Jelling I (c.935 AD), erected by Gorm the Old, we read tanmarkar (in the genitive singular) and on Jelling II (c.985 AD), raised by son Harald Bluetooth, a tanmaurk is carved. No attempt will be made here to go into the etymology of the stem word.
Jylland (English Jutland): "territory of the Jutes" - the name "Jute" is known first from OE sources of the 6th century (Êotas, Iotas) and possibly had an original meaning of "man" from a supposed *jótr (cf. ON ýtar). The Jutes numbered among the tribes who took part in the Anglo-Saxon invasions of Britain in the 5th century. Later forms include OE Gotland (890s), 1075: ODan. Jutland, Iutland (from ODan. Iûtar "Jutes"), ON Jótland (from ON Jótar "Jutes, Danes"). Adolf Noreen has linked the name to the first element in the Swedish lake names Juten, Jutern and therefore postulated the alternative interpretation "waterland" (de Vries).
Himmerland (an area between Ålborg and Hobro): "(home-)land of the Cimbrians" (1231: Himbersysel, 1268: Ymbersusyl, 1450: Himmerland) - the first element is probably from an inhabitant-name connected to the Cimbrians, a tribe who early in the 2nd century BC migrated to Rome. However, the name still remains somewhat shrouded in mystery. Noreen has linked the tribal name to the bird name ON himbri, Nynorsk imbre "the great northern diver" (de Vries).
Hardsyssel (Ringkøbing amt): "district of the forest dwellers" - (c.1187: Hartesyssel, 1231: Harthæsysæl) includes the old folk-name harderne which contains ODan.*harth "forest" and hence the folk-name ODan.*harthar means "the forest dwellers", just as ON hörðar are preserved in Hordaland. ODan.*harth is only known in Danish place-names but recorded as an independent active word in Old Saxon and Old High German.
Angeln (a former region of Denmark between the river Schlei and the Flensburger Förde in eastern Schleswig, now part of Landkreis Schleswig-Holstein, Germany): may be a derivation from an ON adjective öngr "narrow, tight" and give the noun *angul, *ængil which answers well to small watercourses. If this is correct, the regional name probably stems from the name of the local fiord. German linguist Dieter Berger prefers a German view, rather than a Scandinavian one, and derives the name from the Old Saxon adjective engi "narrow, thin" (cf. OHG engi, older angi). These Scandinavian and West Germanic offerings clearly go back to a common Germanic root and either may be the source for Angeln. It is well to remember that Danish eng "narrow, tight" (early modern Danish eng) is a loan from German anyway and the Scandinavian solution given by Jørgensen assumes an unrecorded form in Old Danish. For that reason, I prefer the German-based interpretation of the name.
This regional name is mentioned because it clearly recalls the name of one of the West Germanic tribes who took part in the Germanic conquest of eastern and southern Britain in the 500s AD, i.e. the Angles (OE Engle). Roman historian Tacitus mentions them in his Germania (Latin Anglii, Angli) but does not state their location. The Anglo-Saxon historian Bede, writing in the first part of the 8th century, claims that the region had been deserted since the migration of the Angles to England (c. 450 AD, possibly before) and his own time: "… is þæt land ðe Angulus is nemned … and is sæd of ðære tide þe hî ðanon gewiton oð tôdæge þæt hit wêste wunige". The region was under the control of Swedish vikings about 900 AD (King Olaf and sons Gnupa, Gurd and Sigtryg ruled in Hedeby until 934), and in the 1200s was a possession of the Danish crown. It later became the seat of the Holsteinish nobility.
Bornholm (an island belonging to Denmark in the Baltic): the first recorded form is OE Burgenda land (late 800s) from Old English and means "land of the Burgundians" (cf. OE Burgendas "Burgundians" perhaps meaning the "high-lying"). From ON records of c.1000 AD, we find an at hólme but without any mention of tribal connections. A later ON Borgundarholmr "islet of the Burgundians" does appear. Danish first supplies a Burghændæholm in 1231 and the modern form of the name first appears c.1450, probably owing to Middle Low German influence. The first element of the compound is probably the genitive plural of the folk-name Burgunder "Burgundians" but may alternatively derive from an older name *Burghund for the island itself.
Thy (northwest part of Jutland, between Limfjorden and the Atlantic): possibly "district of the people". Older forms (such as 1075: Thuit, 1231: Thiud, 1253: Thuit) show that the name is in origin identical with ODan.*thiûth "folk, people" (cf. OE þêod, ON þjóð, OS thiod) which expanded in meaning to "folk-area" in other names for districts such as Sveþiuþ "nation of the Svea" in Swedish Uppland. Another interpretation, sees the name of the district derive from a related inhabitant-name, ODan.*thýthir, which corresponds to teuton and accords with a belief that the Teutons originally spread from this area.
SVERIGE "kingdom or realm of the Svea" is already found in OSwed. as Svearike, Sverghe and ON Svíaríki (cf. OE Swêorîce). This name comes from the period after the Svea (i.e. the ancient Swedes - OSwed. svear, ON Svíar, OE Swêon) had moved southwards to conquer those territories which were formerly held by the götar (the ancient inhabitants of present Väster and Öster Götland), thus forming a new kingdom which bore the name of their tribe as conquerors. An older regional name is OSwed. Svethiudh, Sveþiuþ, ON Svíþjóð "nation of the Svea" (cf. OE Swêoþêod), referring in ON and medieval Swedish sources to Swedish Uppland with its centre in Old Uppsala. The name Svealand is quite young and is a large area of Sweden covering modern Uppland, Södermanland, Närke, Dalarna, Västmanland and Värmland, and contains the old tribal name svear. The name svear itself is debated. One suggestion finds in it ComGerm.*swê- "own, belonging to oneself" and therefore the tribal name would have originally meant "their own, belonging to them". Another suggestion is a side-form *siwi- to the ComGerm. root *saiwi- "sea". The svear would have therefore denoted "the people by the sea".
Götaland: comprises a very large region of Sweden, including Västergötland, Östergötland, Småland, Öland, Dalsland, Bohuslän, Halland, Blekinge, Skåne and Gotland (the Baltic island). In the regional name, and in the district names Västergötland (1070: Westragothia) and Östergötland, we have the tribal name OSwed. götar (ON gautar, OE geatas; thence OSwed. Götland, ON Gautland "Götland"). In ablaut form, OSwed. göt "Götalander" also appears in the name of the island Gotland (OSwed. Gotland, OGnutish Gutland), which contains the folk-name gute, plural gutar "Gotlander(s)". The present form with -o- is probably due to Middle Low German influence and confusion with gotar. Etymologically related to götar "Götalanders", and linguistically identical to gutar "Gotlanders", is the name of the Germanic tribe gotar (ON gotar, OE Gotan) "Goths", whose own name for themselves was Gutþiuda "nation of the Goths". Although the linguistic relations have been determined and these have shed a little light on the social and historical relations, the exact relation between the three etymologically related terms and those regions or toponyms named after them is still unclear. It seems for certain that both Gotland and Götaland refer to the Goths but the precise circumstances and relations remain shrouded in mystery.
NORGE, NOREG: the first recorded form denoting Norway comes from Latin of c.840, where Nortuagia is found - surely a Latinisation of a Germanic term. From about 880 AD, we have the first record of the name in a Germanic language, OE norðweg "the North way". This comes from the Norwegian Óttar's (OE Ohthere) account of his trade route from northern Norway towards the south in King Alfred's translation and adaptation of Orosius. In this account, OE Norðmanna land "land of the northmen" is also found (cf. later ON norðmanna land "Norway"). The oldest Scandinavian form comes from the Jelling II runestone from Jutland, Denmark, and is dated c.985 AD. Here it is written that King Harald Bluetooth "conquered all Nuruiak (ODan.*Norwegh) for himself". Swedes and Danes called the inhabitants of Norway norðmenn and so did the Anglo-Saxons. Old Norse literature records two differing forms Norvegr (or Norveghr) and Noregr (or Noreghr) from assumed older *Norðrvegr. The debate then becomes one of which of these is the elder and whether they actually do derive from the older supposed form or have some other derivation. Earlier scholars naturally enough assumed that the second element was ON vegr "way" (cf. the OE name) but recent research in Norwegian dialects has thrown up the possibility instead of ON ríki "kingdom, realm" (cf. ON Svíaríki "kingdom of the Swedes"). It is almost universally agreed that the first element is ON norðr "north" and the name (if we accept the first interpretation) would then mean "the north way" or perhaps "the land which lies to the north" (cf. ON suðrvegr "lands to the south" i.e. Italy, Germany, etc.). Certainly OE Norðweg and later English Norway, German Norwegen, all suggest that the coast of Norway was seen as a guide to sail along to the north, i.e. "the north way". The name probably originally referred to the coastal strips of the west and north of the country and only later to the east and interior of the country. It may have been a term imported from Sweden or Denmark. The current standard term (at least in areas where Bokmål is dominant), Norge, appears to have gained currency via an East Norse influence (i.e. Danish or Swedish) on Norwegian written forms in the Middle Ages and early modern period. The form Norge (/når'ge/) is now almost the norm everywhere, but in the past pronunciation and written form varied a good deal according to region or dialect. Norrig(e) is sometimes found in the poetic language of 1700s and 1800s Dano-Norwegian (and hence accords well with the "ríki" theory of origin). Norig was used in landsmål from about 1850 until the early 1900s (with Noreg as a side-form) and Noreg has been the official Nynorsk term since 1938. The debate still goes on about the original provenance of both forms (i.e. Norge and Noreg) - are they East Norse terms or native forms? - and Norwegian dialect forms, regional forms and their pronunciation have often been brought into the argument. The matter is still not resolved and is too complex to outline here.
Finnmark (the name of a fylke): "mountainous forestland controlled by the Lapps". The name compounds ON finn "Lapp" and mörk "forest". In ON times, Finnmörk was used not only about the present region of Norway but also the Russian, Swedish and Finnish "Finnmarks" and the interior mountainous and wooded regions further south.
Hordaland (the name of a fylke): "land of the hörðar" (ON Hörðaland - compounding the genitive plural of hörðar, the name of a local tribe living around the Hardangerfjord, whose name is congruent with ComGerm.*haruðôz, (cf. OE Hæredas, runic Swedish Haruþs). The stem in compounds *haruð-, probably means "warrior, hero" and must have marked out the tribe as noted for their prowess in war. De Vries however links the stem to the OE word harað "wood" found in place-names and MLG hart "forest".
Rogaland (the name of a fylke): "land of the rygir" - the East Germanic tribal name rugii is first mentioned c.100 AD by Tacitus and then in several younger sources. The rygir are a tribe who probably entered Norway during the Völkerwanderungszeit. The name of the Rogaland fylke compounds the genitive of ON plural rygir + land. In OE sources they were called the Rugas and their tribal identity appears in such personal names as Germanic Rugila and OHG Rugolf (de Vries).
Ryfylke is a province and judicial district in Rogaland and is recorded as ON Rygjafylki, from the folk-name rygir. It thus means "fylke of the rygir"; cf. ON Rygr "man from Rogaland".
Telemark (name of a fylke and a province in ON times) "forest of the teler" (ON Þelamörk, compounding the folk-name þilir in the genitive plural and mörk "forest". The name þilir may have a connection with ON þel "base, bottom" or ON þeli "frost".
(NEDERLAND) Drenthe (province in the northeast of the Netherlands, whose capital is Assen) is recorded in 944 as Thriente. According to Moerman, the complex derivation assumes that the name has been massively syncopated during its lifetime, but it appears noneless to have originally contained a tribal name. Firstly, the initial element can be taken to mean "three" (Dutch drie) and suggests that this region was tripartite at one time. The second element can in part be explained by the Germanic suffix -ante, which appears in tribal names (cf. Twente, whose older form of 797 tuianti clearly shows this suffix). Drenthe has originally been a compound tribal name *tu-ab-ante according to Moerman (the suffix -ab also appears in tribal names; this ab-ante later becomes bant in some place-names e.g. Testerbant, German Sachsenbande) with the word "three" comprising the initial element (later thri-ente). In the Roman period, the Tubantes lived in Twente. I have to admit I still find Moerman's explanation unclear.
Friesland "land of the Frisians" is first recorded in 1285 in a chronicle written in Dordrecht (South Holland) as Vrieselant. It is also found in Jacob van Maerlant: Spieghel Historiael (1288) but begun in 1285; Part one - Van Cycile. XXXIII:
Al Vrieselant verre ende na,
Tusscen der Elven ende Sincval,
Rekent men te Sassen al.
("All Friesland far and near between the Elbe river and the Zwin (in Flanders) is reckoned to Saxony.")
DEUTSCHLAND as a geo-political name has only existed since 1871 and, of course, the name does not refer to a particular Germanic tribe of antiquity. Before the Holy Roman Empire (ended by Napoleon), there were only various Germanic tribes who gave names to the regions in which they lived. However, various similar formulations denoting affinity to the land or tribal states composing the now modern Germany are known long before then. The very first appearence is in the Annolied of c.1100 AD, the oldest known significant historical work in German, in which we meet the expression in diutischemi lande (lit. "in the lands of the folk" (i.e. fellow Germans)), the adjective OHG diutisc "German" (lit. "of the people"; cf. OSax. thiodisc) is also found in this text. From the Kaiserchronik of c.1150 AD we find in Diutisk lant, while other early forms include MHG daz tiusche lant (plural: diu tiuschen lant) and MHG 1400s: Tiutschland. As a compound, Deutschland (in contemporary spelling) does not become the norm however until the 16th century. The adjective modern German deutsch, from which the name Deutschland is derived, stems from West Germanic *þêodisk "belonging to the people", from Common Germanic *þeudô "folk, nation" (cf. OHG diota (from which the adjective is derived), Gothic þiuða, OE þêod, ON þjóð, OSax. thioda, MDu diet "nation, people").
Bayern is a Land in which the core settlers originally were the West Germanic Bajuwaren. Their name stems from Latin Baiochaimai "dwellers of the Boierland", which was one of the homelands of the Bavarians before they emigrated. Boierland is from OHG Beheim "Boier-home", referring to the Celtic peoples conquered by the Germanic Marcomanni.
The province is thus named after a tribe of immigrant settlers who take their name from one of their original homelands, itself named after the original Celtic inhabitants whom they conquered.
Fläming (Upper and Lower) is a sandy ridge of highland ("Landrücken") in the middle Elbe region, southwest in Landkreis Brandenburg, between Belzig and Jüterborg. It was settled in the 1100s by colonists from the Niederrhein and Netherlands, and subsequently named after them (Latin Flamingia) "land of the Flemmings" (here meaning Dutchmen) - cf. MHG Vlæminc "Flemming".
Franken is an historic region in the area of Upper and Middle Main, spanning the Landkreise Bayern and Baden-Württemburg. It now represents only a small part of the once great Frankish kingdom of Charlemagne and his sucessors (Latin Franconia). The name of the region is identical with the tribal name Franken "Franks" (3rd century Latin Franci), OHG Franchun, OE Francan, ON Frakkar (all in the plural), except the geographical name appears in the dative plural OHG Vrankôn (OHG Francôno lant "land of the Franks" in the genitive plural is also recorded). Ôstirvranchin ("East Franconia") appears in the 1200s to refer to the land on the Main. The etymological background behind the Germanic tribal name is slightly obscure but is thought to derive from the supposed Germanic adjective *franka "brave, courageous" (cf. OE fram "bold, strong, active", ON framr "capable; brave").
Niedersachsen first appears as a regional name in the 1300s and then denoted the old territory of the Saxons (cf. OE Eald-Seaxan "old Saxony"), in contrast to the Meissen Saxons. Middle Low German Nêdersassen ("Low Saxony") is recorded and so are the older sassenlant, dat lant to Sassen "land of the Saxons". The present day regional name has developed its cultural and historic consciousness from this once merely geographical name and was formed in 1946 with the union of the then Prussian province of Hannover with neighbouring Braunschweig (Brunswick), Oldenburg and Schaumburg-Lippe.
Ostfriesland (an area of Niedersachsen) is so named from an earldom that was created in 1464 (that of Ostfriesland) which unified the regions of Emden, Aurich, Leer and Norden into one territory. In terms of cultural and linguistic ties, Ostfriesland is considerably closer to the Niedersachsen of which it constitutes a part, than to the Dutch West Friesland or the Frisians in the Schleswig-Holstein.
Hessen is called Hassia in 10th century Latin, which stems from the dative plural of the tribal name Hessen. In 1074 Hessun provinica is recorded, while in MHG we find daz lant ze Hessen (and so distinguishing the tribe from the land which is not now the case). Derivation is thought to be from the still unexplained West Germanic tribal name Chattern (Latin Chatti), which in 750 AD is found as ad Chassos. In Middle Latin the name appears as Hassi, Hessiones (presumably through native influence) and the later earldom of Hessen was already known in 897 AD as Hessa. The modern region was first called Großhessen through the union of the Prussian provinces of Kurhessen and Nassau with the Volkstaat Hessen.
Sachsen the name for the geographical region is a result of medieval political-dynastical developments of the Low Saxon northwest transferred to the central German eastern areas. The old German duchy of Sachsen (Latin Saxonia) arose about 900 in the regions occupied by the Old Saxon tribe comprising modern Westfalen, Ostfalen and Nordalbingen. Modern Sachsen has nothing in common but the name with this ancient duchy, being at least 150 miles southeast in a border region conquered by dukes from Slavic Wends.
Sachsen-Anhalt was one of the two Länder or states created by the Soviets in the German territory occupied by them after the War. The other was Sachsen.
The West Germanic tribal name Sachsen (OHG/OSax. Sahsun, OE Seaxe) is a derivation from the Germanic substantive OHG/OSax. sahs, OE seax, ON sax "knife, short sword" which was a characteristic weapon of the oldest Saxons. Such a sword may have originally been made from stone and the word is related in form to Latin saxum "stone, rock".
Schwaben is an area in southwest Germany between the Black Forest, Lech and the Bodensee. It is the core area of the old tribal duchy of Schwaben. The name stems from Germanic *swêba- probably meaning "free, unbounded", and the name of the tribe is found in OHG Swâba ("erst im 8.Jh. taucht dann der Volksname Schwaben auf" (Berger)), Latin Suêbi. The Swabians were a West Germanic tribe known from Caesar's "Gallic Wars", probably based in the present day Brandenburg region. The modern name descends from forms like MHG ze Swâben (1195), Swâbin (c.1250), which stem from the dative plural of OHG Swâba.
Thüringen was formed in 1920 through the union of four Saxon duchies and named after the historic Thüringen super-regional landgrave. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, this was the most important territorial power in this part of the kingdom. The name goes back to 600s Latin Thoringia, Thuringia (hence the English name) which lay between the Thüringer Wald and the Elbe river. The Thuringians were a Germanic tribe who were absorbed in 531 by the allied Saxons and Franks. Late OHG provides us with 1073: Dyringen, 1074: Duroingen (both representing the dative plural) and MHG Türingen daz lant "land of the Thuringians", derived from the tribal name MHG Duringe (Latin Thuringi is first recorded in the late 300s AD). As concerns etymology, some scholars have seen a Germanic substantive corresponding to ON þori "part, greater part", with the suffixed name forming element -ing. More likely, however, is a corrupted derivation from the Germanic tribal name Hermunderen (Latin Hermundari) who in the first couple of centuries AD occupied the middle Elbe region. Their name stems from Germanic *irmino "great, extensive" (cf. OE eormengrund, ON jörmungrund).
Note: as the OE nouns tûn and hâm and the ON noun bý can have several varying meanings according to the type of settlement denoted, these words are retained in the interpretations of the names, since it cannot be known for certain which meaning they may have had in any particular name. This practice is also often followed in textbooks on place-names.
OE tûn may denote "enclosure", "farmstead", "estate", "village" with an approximate development from the first of these meanings to the latter over the OE period.
OE hâm may denote "village", "manor", "homestead, household".
ON bý may denote "farmstead, individual dwelling", "settlement", "hamlet", "village" (the meanings of by in the various Scandinavian countries across time is complex and controversial and not important here).
Low Germanic Tribes
Friston (ESussex) "tûn of the Frisians" (1086: Frisetuna; OE Frîsatûn), Friston (Suffolk) "tûn of the Frisians" (1086: Frisetuna; OE Frîsatûn), Freston (Suffolk) "tûn of the Frisians" (995: Fresantun; OE Frîsatûn), Friesthorpe (Lincs.) "emigrant settlement of the Frisians" (1086: Frisetorp), Frieston (Lincs.) "tûn of the Frisians" (1086: Fristune; OE Frîsa "of the Frisians" + tûn), Frieston (Lincs.) "tûn of the Frisians" (1086: Fristun; OE Frîsa "of the Frisians" + tûn), Frisby by Galby (Leics.) "bý of the Frisians" (1086: Frisebi OE Frîsa "of the Frisians" + ON bý), Frisby on the Wreak (Leics.) "bý of the Frisians" (1086: Frisebie; OE Frîsa "of the Frisians" + ON bý), East Firsby, West Firsby (Lincs.) "bý of the Frisians" (1086: Frisebi; OE Frîsa "of the Frisians" + ON bý), Firsby (Lincs.) "bý of the Frisians" (1202: Frisebi; OE Frîsa "of the Frisians" + ON bý), Monk Fryston (Barkston Ash Wapentake, WYorks.) "tûn of the Frisians" (c.1030: Fristun, 1166: Munechesfryston; OE Frîsa "of the Frisians" + tûn + munuc added later in relation to Selby Abbey), Water Fryston and Ferry Fryston (Osgoldcross Wapentake, Yorks.) "tûn of the Frisians" (1086: Friston), Frankby (Merseyside) "bý of a Frank (Frenchman)" (1315: Frankeby; OE Franca "Frank, Frenchman" + ON bý; this is disputed and the toponym may compound ODan. Franki, a personal-name), Englebourne (Devon) "stream of the Angles" (1086: Engleborne; OE Engla "Angles" + burna "stream, brook"), Englefield (Berks.) "open land of the Angles" (871: Engla feld), Engleton (Staffs.) "tûn of the Anglians" (1242: Engleton; OE Engla + tûn(?) - probably a settlement of East Anglians in Mercia), Saxham (Suffolk) "hâm of the Saxons" (1086: Saxham, Sexham; OE Seaxe "Saxons" + hâm), Saxondale (Notts.) "valley of the Saxons" (1086: Saxeden, c.1225: Saxendal; OE *Seaxnadenu or *Seaxnadæl), Saxton (Cambs.) "tûn of the Saxons" (c.1080: Sextuna; OE *Seaxtûn), Saxton (WYorks.) "tûn of the Saxons" (1086: Saxtun; OE *Seaxtûn), Exton (Hants.) "tûn of the East Saxons" (940: æt East Seaxnatune, 1086: Essessentune; an East Saxon colony in Wessex), Markfield (Leics.) "open land of the Mercians" (1086: Merchenefeld; OE *Mercnafeld), Markingfield (WYorks.) "open land of the Mercians" (1086: Merchefeld; OE *Mercnafeld), Markington (WYorks.) "tûn of the Mercians" (1030: Mercingatun, 1086: Merchinton), Canterton (Hants.) "tûn of the Kentishmen" (1086: Cantortun; OE *Cantwaratûn; Kentish (Jutish?) settlers in Wessex during OE period), Conderton (Worcs.) "tûn of the Kentishmen" (875: Cantuaretun; OE Cantwaratûn).
Ingleby (Derbys.) "the bý of the English" (1009: Englabi, 1086: Englebi; ON *Englarbý), Ingleby (Lincs.) "the bý of the English" (1086: Englebi; ON *Englarbý), Ingleby Arncliffe (NYorks.) "the bý of the English" (1086: Englebi; ON *Englarbý; Arncliffe means "eagle cliff" OE earn + ON klif), Ingleby Barwick (NYorks.) "the bý of the English" (1086: Englebi; ON *Englarbý), Ingleby Greenhow (NYorks.) "the bý of the English" (1086: Englebi; ON *Englarbý; Greenhow means "green hill" OE grêne "green" + ON haugr "hill, mound"), Inglewood Forest (Cumb.) "wood of the English" (1150: Engleswod; OE *Englawudu; apparently an English settlement in northern Welsh territory).
Flempton (Suffolk) "tûn of the Flemings" (1086: Flemingtuna), Flimby (Cumb.) "bý of the Flemings" (1174: Flemingby; ON Flæmingr + bý).
Flemingaland "open land of the Flemings" (recorded 1075); Frismarsh (EYorks.) "marsh of the Frisians" (probably a post-1086 name; OE Frísa "Frisians" + OFrench mareis "marsh").
Danes and (Irish-)Norsemen
Danby (Langbargh East Wapentake, NYorks.) "the Danes' bý" (1086: Danebi; ON *Danabý), Danby on Ure (Hang West Wapentake, NYorks.) "the Danes' bý" (1086: Danebi; ON *Danabý), Danby Wiske (Gilling East Wapentake, NYorks.) "the Danes' bý" (1086: Danebi; ON *Danabý), Danthorpe (Holderness Wapentake, EYorks.) "the Danes' emigrant settlement" (1086: Danetorp; ODan.*Danaþorp), Denaby "the Danes' bý" (1086: Denegebi; Denigea from OE Dene "Danes"), Upper Denby (WYorks.), Lower Denby (WYorks.), Denby (Derbys.) "the Danes' bý" (1086: Denebi; OE Dena "of the Danes" + ON bý), Denby Dale (WYorks.) "the Danes' bý" (1086: Denebi; OE Dena "of the Danes" + ON bý), Denny (Cambs.) "the Danes's island" (1176: Daneya; found in other forms Deneia, Deneya; OE Dena "of the Danes" + êg "island"), Denver (Norfolk) "the thoroughfare of the Danes" (1086: Danefella; probably a corruption of OE *Denafær), Normanby (Lincs.) "the Norwegians' bý" (1086: Normanebi, 1115: Nordmanabi; ON *Norðmannabýr), Normanby (Langbargh East Wapentake, NYorks.) "the Norwegians' bý" (1050: Norðmannabi, 1086: Normanebi; ON *Norðmannabýr), Normanby (Ryedale Wapentake, NYorks.) "the Norwegians' bý" (1086: Normanbi; ON *Norðmannabýr), Normanby (Whilby Strand Wapentake, NYorks.) "the Norwegians' bý" (1110: Normanneby; ON *Norðmannabýr), Normansburgh (Norfolk) "Norwegian's hill" (1100s: Normanesberht; ON Norðmaðr "Norwegian" (could be a personal-name though)), Normanton (Derbys.) "tûn of the Norwegians" (1086: Normantune; late OE Norðman "Norwegian" + tûn), Normanton (Leics.) "tûn of the Norwegians" (c.1215: Normantona; late OE Norðman "Norwegian" + tûn), Normanton le Heath (Leics.) "tûn of the Norwegians" (1209-35: Normenton; late OE Norðman "Norwegian" + tûn), Normanton (Lincs.) "tûn of the Norwegians" (1086: Normenton; late OE Norðman "Norwegian" + tûn), Normanton (Notts.) "tûn of the Norwegians" (958: Normantun; late OE Norðman "Norwegian" + tûn), Normanton upon Trent (Notts.) "tûn of the Norwegians" (1086: Normentune; late OE Norðman "Norwegian" + tûn), Normanton (Rutland) "tûn of the Norwegians" (1183: Normanton; late OE Norðman "Norwegian" + tûn), Normanton (Agbrigg Wapentake, WYorks.) "tûn of the Norwegians" (1086: Normantone; late OE Norðman "Norwegian" + tûn), Norman Cross (Hunts. - a hundred name; 963: Norðmannescros, 1086: Normannescros) "cross of a Norwegian (or Norseman)" - (probably a Norwegian among Danish settlers), Ferrensby (WYorks.) "bý of a man from the Faroe Isles" (1086: Feresbi, 1239: Feringeby; ON færeyingr "Faroe Islander" + bý).
Irby (Ches.) "bý of the Irish-Norsemen" (1100: Erberia, 1190: Irrebi; ON *Írabý), Irby up on Humber (Lincs.) "bý of the Irish-Norsemen" (1086: Iribi; ON *Írabý), Irby in the Marsh (Lincs.) "bý of the Irish-Norsemen" (1115: Irebi; ON *Írabý), Irby (NYorks.) "bý of the Irish-Norsemen" (1086: Irebi; ON *Írabý), Ireby (Cumb.) "bý of the Irish-Norsemen" (1185: Yrebi; ON *Írabý), Ireby (Lancs.) "bý of the Irish-Norsemen" (1086: Irebi; ON *Írabý), Ireleth (Lancs.) "hill-slope of the Irish-Norse" (1190: Irlid, 1200: Ireleyth; ON Írar "Irishmen" + hlíð "hill-slope"), Kirk Ireton (Derbys.) "tûn of the Irish-Norse" (1086: Iretune; ON Írar + tûn; "Kirke" from ON kirkja "church" added later), Little Ireton (Derbys.) "tûn of the Irish-Norse" (1086: Iretune; ON Írar + tûn; "Little" added later), Irton (Cumb.) "tûn of the Irish-Norse" (1086: Iretune; ON Írar + tûn).
Normanby (Halikeld Wapentake, Yorks.) "the Norwegians' bý" (1086: Normanebi).
Low Germanic tribes
Frisenborg (in Kolstrup, Stepping Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland) "hill (or perhaps "fortified settlement") of the Frisians", Frisenbjærg (natural feature near Kolstrup, Stepping Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland) "hill of the Frisians" (1716-18: Frießen birr; tribal name sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" recorded with German -en plural ending), Frisenlund (Ketting Sogn, Als, Sønderjylland) "grove of the Frisians" (1790: Frisenlund; tribal name sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" recorded with German -en plural ending + Old Danish (?) lund "grove, copse"), Frisbjærg (Spandet Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "hill of the Frisians" (1778-83: Friesbierg, 1912: Frisbjerg; tribal name sønderjysk Fris "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) biargh or perhaps the male personal-name Frise, Frese), Frisbæk (the name of a section of Lobæk, Nørre-Løgum Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "stream of the Frisians" (1704: Friesbeck, 1912: Friisbæk; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) bæk "stream, brook"), Frisbækhoved (Nørre-Løgum Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "Frisians' stream hill" (1704: friesbeck hoi, 1801: Friesbeck Hoiv (-hoved "head" appears to be a later corruption); sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) bæk "brook, stream" + Old Danish (?) høgh "hill, mound"), Frisholm (Nørre-Løgum Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "islet of the Frisians" (1801: freesholm; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) holm), Friskær (Nørre-Løgum Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) either "scrubwood of the Frisians" or (with the newer meaning of kær) "marsh of the Frisians" (1802: Frieskier; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) kiær "scrub, brushwood" but later "marshland"), Frisvad (Nørre-Løgum Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "ford of the Frisians" (1802: Frieswoy, 1912: Friisvoj; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) wath "ford, wade"), Frisvad Høj (Nørre-Løgum Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "Frisians' ford hill" (1531: Frijsway høy; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) wath "ford, wade" + Old Danish høgh "hill, mound"), Frisvad Løkke (Arrild Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "enclosure at the ford of the Frisians" (early modern (?): Friiswaadlykke, 1912: Frisvadlykke; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) wath "ford, wade" + Old Danish lykki "enclosure"), Friskærbæk (Arrild Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "brook at the Frisians' scrubland (or marshland)" (1912: Friiskærbæk; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) kiær "scrub, brushwood" or "marshland" + Old Danish (?) bæk "stream, brook"), Fristoft (Mjolden Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "croft of the Frisians" (1929: Fristoft; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) toft "land for settlement, building"), Frisefenne (Højer Landsogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "paddock or enclosed pastureland of the Frisians" (early modern (?): Frieszfenne; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Middle Low German venne or Old Frisian fenne > Danish fenne "paddock, enclosed marshland"), Frisvad (Tinglev Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "ford of the Frisians" (1800s (?): Friiswoy, 1912: Frisvaj; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) wath "ford, wade"), Frisvej (Burkal Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "road or track used especially by Frisians" (1912: Fritsvei; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) wægh "way, road, track"; Gammel Frisvej in Tinglev Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland is of the same origin), Frismose (Abild Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) "moor of the Frisians" (1855: Friismoosen, 1912: Friesmose; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) mosæ "low lying marshy land, moor"), Frisen (Øster-Løgum Sogn, Åbenråområdet, Sønderjylland) "Frisians or (pertaining to) things Frisian" (1912: Friesen; this was probably formed with the jysk adjective frisisk "Frisian" in analogy with other place-names containing the names of nations), Frisløkke (1 - Rise Sogn, Åbenråområdet, Sønderjylland; 1799: Frieslucke; 2 - Bjolderup Sogn, Åbenråområdet, Sønderjylland) "Frisians' enclosure" (presumably related to the nearby Frisvej), Frisvej (Bjolderup Sogn, Åbenråområdet, Sønderjylland) "road or track especially used by Frisians" (1771: Friese Vey; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) wægh "way, road, track"), Frisvej (Hjordkær Sogn, Åbenråområdet, Sønderjylland) "road or track especially used by Frisians" (1912: Friisvej; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) wægh "way, road, track"), Frisvej (Uge Sogn, Åbenråområdet, Sønderjylland) "road or track especially used by Frisians" (1778-82: vesten Friisveyen, 1782: Friis Veyen, 1912: Frisvej; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) wægh "way, road, track"; the road goes from Lovtrup to Åbenrå, taking in Bolderslev en route), Frismose (Bov Sogn, near Vejbæk, Åbenråområdet, Sønderjylland) "moor of the Frisians" (1798: Nörrfrismoos; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) mosæ "low lying marshy land, moor"), Frisholm (Sønder-Hygum Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland) "islet of the Frisians" (1774-6: Friis Holm; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) holm), Friskær (1 - Branderup Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland, 1772-4: Friiskiær, 1794-1806: Frieskier; 2 - Rurup Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland, 1815: Friskjær (a copse on the road from Branderup to Rurup); 3 - Branderup Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland, 1928: Friskjær; all are sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish (?) kiær "scrub, brushwood" but later "marshland" and therefore either "scrubwood of the Frisians" or (with the newer meaning of kær) "marsh of the Frisians"), Frisgrov is the name of a ditch in Tønder Amt, Sønderjylland, Frisvad (a village northeast of Varde, Esbjergområdet, Jylland) "Frisians' ford (over the Nøgelbæk)" (1502: Friswadh; probably containing the inhabitants' name ODan. Fris(e) + wath "ford, wade"), Fristrup (a village west of Hobro and east of Møldrup, Himmerland, Jylland) "emigrant settlement of the Frisians" (1466: Friisdruup, 1499: Fresdrup; ODan. Fris(e) + þorp "emigrant, daughter settlement"), Fristrup (hamlet south of Aabybro, Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland) "emigrant settlement of the Frisians" (ODan. Fris(e) + þorp "emigrant, daughter settlement"), Fristrup (small settlement north of Brønderslev, Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland) "emigrant settlement of the Frisians" (ODan. Fris(e) + þorp "emigrant, daughter settlement"). These last three place-names may all alternatively contain the male personal-name Fris and this is how Aage Houken views them.
Frisenvænge (northeast of Fåborg, Svendborgområdet, Fyn) looks unlikely to refer to Frisians this far northeast, but it may possibly refer to a immigrant colony. Frislund is a wood south of Langå, Viborgområdet, Jylland and Frisenlund is the same (north of Søllested, Lolland) both of which may contain ODan. Frise "Frisians".
Only Saksborg (Burkal Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland) appears to have any likelihood of containing ODan. Saxæ "Saxons" (1685: Sax borgh, 1799: Saxborg; the second element is ODan. burgh - either "hill" or "fortified settlement"), while identical Saksborg (Ullerup Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland; 1912: Saksborg) may also have the same origin. Alternatives may be the more common referent of saks "sword, knife" (this is the favoured interpretation), the Old Danish personal name Saksi, Saxe (ruled out by the older forms lacking a possessive), while the original meaning of ODan. sax "rock, boulder" renders the compound tautological.
Frisby "settlement of the Frisians" (is according to local tradition, the name of a now lost settlement in Sønderjylland (earlier: Friesby; sønderjysk Frise "Frisians" + Old Danish by "settlement" (cf. ON býr "farm") - names with this element are probably older rather than more recent, although in Denmark the element has been productive from the Viking period down to the modern age; note the English instances of Frisby, Firsby above! The English names' second elements are due to the settlement of Danes in north and eastern England).
Family-name Fris etc.: Frisestoft (Svenstrup Sogn, Als, Sønderjylland; 1770: Frieses Tofft, Frisens Tofft, contains a family-name Fries), Friskær and Fristoft (Fjelstrup Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland) and Fristoft (Skrave Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland) probably contain the family-name Fris.
Man's name Frise: Frisballe (Nordborg Landsogn, Als, Sønderjylland) derives from the man's name ODan. Frise, as does Frisroj (Vedsted Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland; 1789: Friesrey).
Personal-name ODan. Saxe, Saksi: Sakstoft (Tønder Landsogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland), Saksmose (Tønder Landsogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland; 1613: Sachßmoes), Saksbjærg (Notmark Sogn, Als, Sønderjylland; perhaps though from sax "knife"), Sakservej (Bevtoft Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland; 1785: Saxe Veyen), Sakservej (Skrydstrup Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland; 1638: Sauffsewei), Sakstrup (Bjærgby Sogn, north of Hjørring, Vendsyssel, Nørrejylland).
Substantive ODan. sax "knife, short sword" (an implement for hunting is often implied): Saksbæk (1 - Hørup Sogn, Als, Sønderjylland; 2 - Arrild Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland), Saksgaard (Ulkebøl Sogn, Als, Sønderjylland), Sakslund and Saksmark (Ketting Sogn, Als, Sønderjylland), Saksmade (Jegerup Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland), Saksvad (Skrave Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland), Saksholm (1 - Sønder-Hygum Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland; 2 - Gran Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland; 3 - Obbekær Sogn, Tønderområdet, Sønderjylland), Saksholt (Vejstrup Sogn, Haderslevområdet, Sønderjylland), Sakskøbing (a town in Lolland) "marketplace at Sax ford" (i.e. the ford over the river Sax, so named since some part of it reminded of a knife shaft) is how Jørgensen interprets it (although other interpretations read ODan. personal-name Saxi).
Several instances of Saksager and more Saksmose are also irrelevant to the investigation.
A Tyskland (Uge Sogn, Åbenråområdet, Sønderjylland) literally "Germany" appears to be rather young (1798: Teuschland-Aecker) and probably a Danicisation of a name first given by German settlers. There are several other local names containing tysk- but all appear not to be very old.
Svenskby (Västra Nyland) "village of the Swedes" (1451: Swenska bol "settlement of the Swedes"), Finnby (Västra Nyland) "village of the Finns" (1410: Finby, 1540: Finby), Finnby (Strömfors, Östra Nyland) "village of the Finns" (1451: Finneby) - both of these must have been in Swedish dominated areas where Finnish settlements were the exception, Svenskby (Strömfors, Östra Nyland) "village of the Swedes" (1458: Svenskby), Sviby (Jomala) "settlement of the svear" (i.e. Swedes) (1486: Swiaby, 1496: Swiaby; OSwed. Svear "Swedes" and by "settlement"), Suila (Sydösterbotten) is a Finnicized form of earlier 1550: Oluff Swi (apparently "Olaf the Swede"), 1699: Jacob Swij (apparently "Jacob the Swede"), which distinguish the owner of the land as a Swede, Svenskas (a farm name, Kronoby socken, near Gamlakarleby town, Österbotten) was recorded in 1699 as Peer Carlson Swensk "Peter Carlson the Swede" and marking out its owner as an immigrant.
Elsewhere in Finland, we have evidence of German immigrant settlement (presumably the greater part during the Hansa period): "En rätt talrik grupp bevarar minnen om Finlands medeltida förbindelser med Nordtyskland…" (Nordisk Kultur V, p.186). The author of the section, T.E. Karsten, goes on to cite some examples of these place-names: Saksa and Sassi (northern Germans), Friisilä and Frisans (West Frisians), Flander and Flaaminki-Flemming (probably Dutchmen) and adds that there are many more. At present I have no more data for these names and others like them.
Nordmannvik (gard in Kåfjord kommune, Tromsø) "inlet of the Norwegians" where nordmann is used to distinguish Norwegians from Lapps (Sami) and Finns who have always constituted a large part of the local population, Finnsnes (gard and village in Lenvik kommune, Tromsø) "the Finns' headland" (c.1400: Finznes; probably ON *Finnisnes), Finnskogane (stretch of woodland east in Solør, Hedemark) "the Finns' forests" - name taken from the the Finlanders who colonised the area in the 1600s and the locality represents the strongest Finnish influence in southern Norway, Finneid (1 - gard and village in Fauske kommune, Nordland) "gangway of the Lapps" (1567: Finndeid) and (2 - gard in Hemnes kommune, Nordland) "gangway of the Lapps" (1567: Findiedt; both names probably involve finn(ar) "Sami" and ON eið "gangway"), Hordvik (gard in Bergen) "inlet of the Hörðar" (see discussion on Hordaland above) from ON *Horðavík, Hordnes (gard in Bergen) "headland of the Hörðar" (c.1520: Hornes, Horrenes, Hordenes; probably from ON *Horðanes - see discussion on Hordaland above), Trondheim (kommune in Sør-Trøndelag) "dwelling or home of the Trønders" (ON: Þróndheimr, Þrándheimr; first element is probably the tribal or folk-name ON Þrændr (Norwegian Trønder), which is the present participle of ON þróask "grow" - the folk-name perhaps means "the strong, the fertile"), Hardanger (area around Hardanger fiord, Hordaland) probably "ford or inlet of the Hörðar" (ON Harðangr, 1300s: i Harðangre; ON tribal name hörðar (see discussion on Hordaland above) and angr "inlet, fiord"; however, not all scholars interpret it this way).
Low Germanic Tribes
Vreeswijk (Nieuwegein parish, Utrecht) "settlement of the Frisians" (918/48: Fresionwic, 1217: Vresewik; ODu. wic "settlement" + Fresia "of the Frisians"), Vriezekoop (Jacobswoude parish, Zuid-Holland) "purchased land of the Frisians" (1275: Vrisencop, 1316: Vriesencoep; ODu. cope "land obtained by purchase" (cf. OE cêap, ODan. køp) + the tribal name Friesen), Vriezenveen (Vriezenveen parish, Overijsel) "peat moor of the Frisians" (1413: Vrezevene), Engelum, Fris. Ingelum (Menaldumadeel parish, Friesland) one possibility is "home of the Angles" (1335: Anglum, 1399: Anglim, 1439: Yngelim; from ODu.*Angla-haim), Englum (Zuidhorn parish, Groningen) one possibility is "home of the Angles" (1529: Englum; from ODu.*Angla-haim), Sassenheim (Sassenheim parish, Zuid-Holland) "homestead or dwelling of the Saxons" is one interpretation (1100s: Sasheim, Saxheim; from ODu.*Saksa-haim, where the first element means "of the Saxons"), Fransum (Zuidhorn parish, Groningen) "homestead of the Franks" is one interpretation (1285: Franchim, Frenchem; from ODu.*Franka-haim, where the first element denotes "of the Franks"), Frieswijk (Diepenveen parish, Overijsel) "district of the Frisians" (1457: Vriezewijk), Vriezendijk (once an island north of Tolen, Zeeland) "dyke or ditch of the Frisians" (1264: Vrysendyke, 1290: Vriesendike).
Low Germanic Tribes
Sachsenburg (Sachsen) "fortified place of the Saxons" (first known in the 1100s), Sachsenburg (Westfalen) "fortified place of the Saxons", Sachsenburg (near Thumby, River Schlei, Landkreis Schleswig-Holstein) "fortified place of the Saxons", Sachsenbande (southwest of Neumünster, Landkreis Schleswig-Holstein) "district or boundary of the Saxons", Sachsenbande (near Heide, Dithmarschen, Landkreis Schleswig-Holstein) "district or boundary of the Saxons" (both apparently from OSax. bant (cf. OHG banz) "district, boundary, frontier"), Sachsenheim (town northwest of Ludwigsburg, Baden-Württemberg; formed by the union of Großsachsenheim and Kleinsachsenheim in 1971) "home dwelling of the Saxons" (1138-52: Sahsenheim, 1298: Sachsenhein, 1408: Sachsinhein; formed from the tribal name Sachsen, OHG Sachsen and heim "home" therefore *OHG Sachsenheim; this was very likely a settlement of Saxons established by Charlemagne after the Franco-Saxon wars), Sachsenwaldau (near Reinbek, southeast of Hamburg) "wooded island of the Saxons" (compounds MLG wold "wood" or "wooded uplands" with OHG ouwa, auwia, MHG ouwe "island" (cf. OE êg, ON ey, OFris. ei "island") with the tribal name OHG Sachsen "Saxons"), Frankenberg (Sachsen) "fortified place of the Franks" (1214: Vrankenberch, 1350: Frankinberg; Berger comments: "wohl mit dem Volksnamen Franken gebildet wie der Name des benachbarten Ortes Sachsenburg mit dem der Sachsen." (p.109)), Frankenburg-Eder (Hessen) "fortified place of the Franks (on the Eder)" (1243: Frankenberg; from this Berger concludes, we can assume "dass bereits in der Karolingerzeit hier eine fränkische Grenzburg gegen die Sachsen stand." (p.109), Frankenfeld (Westfalen), Frankenhausen (town east of Sonderhausen, Thüringen) "settlement of the Franks" (998: Franconhus, 1100s: Franchenhusen), Frankenthal (town in the Vorderpfalz, Rhineland-Pfalz) "valley (settlement) of the Franks" (772: Franconadal, 792: Frankondal), Frankfurt am Main (city in Hessen) "ford of the Franks" (794: Franconofurd, 888: Frankenfurt), Frankfurt/Oder (a town on the middle Oder, east of Berlin, Brandenburg) "Frankfurt on the Oder" (1253 (MLG): Vrankenvorde, 1258: Vrankinfort, later HG: Franchenvurt, Franckfurt "ist wohl schon durch die ersten Ansiedler von Frankfurt am Main her übertragen worden." (Berger, p.111), Frankenstein (Schlesen), Holzendorf (Mecklenburg-Vorpommern) "village of the Holsteiners", Flemmingen (southwest of Naumburg, Sachsen) "the Dutchmen" (c.1140: Flemmingen; first as an occupant name but by 1161 had become the name of the village - 50 Dutch colonists were settled here before 1140), Friesoythe (town in the north of Oldenburgish Münsterland, Niedersachsen) "region with many islands owned by the Frisians" (?) (1322: Vrysoyte, 1582: Frieß Oitha; the second element appears to be a compound of OSax. -ithi (a collective suffix - here presumably indicating land ownership) and ODu. ô, MDu. ô, ooch "island" and the whole might therefore mean "region with many islands"), Friezenburg (in Deezbüll, Nordfriesland, Landkreis Schleswig-Holstein) "fortified place of the Frisians", Friesenheim (northeast of Bredtstedt, Nordfriesland, Landkreis Schleswig-Holstein) "dwelling of the Frisians", Friesenhof (1 - east of Kiel and south of Schlesen, Landkreis Schleswig-Holstein; 2 - southeast of Sieverstedt, Angeln, Landkreis Schleswig-Holstein; 3 - southwest of Tönning, Eiderstedt, Landkreis Schleswig-Holstein) "large house, dwelling of the Frisians" (tribal name Friesen and OHG hof "house, large dwelling" (cf. etymologically identical but differing in meaning OE hof and ON hof), Friesentreu (small settlement west of Flensburg, Angeln, Landkreis Schleswig-Holstein) "___ of the Frisians", Friesick (village southeast of Wanderup, Angeln, Landkreis Schleswig-Holstein) apparently "settlement, dwelling of the Frisians" (compounding tribal name Friesen and OSax. wîk or OFries. wîc "settlement, dwelling" (cf. OE wîc "settlement, dairy farm"); the name must have marked out the presence of (North) Frisians among their Saxon neighbours and the antiquity of the name is indicated by the second element which is not known in HG).
Sachsenhausen (a district on the left bank of Frankfurt, Hessen) Berger expressly points out, is probably named after a man called Sahso and has (according to Prietze) nothing to do with a local legend that defeated Saxons were transplanted there by Charlemagne after the 782 Massacre of Verden.
Other Germanic Tribes
Düringsdorf (near Halle, Sachsen-Anhalt) "village of the Thuringians", Schwabach (town south of Nürnberg, Bayern) "river of the Swabians" (1021: Suabaha, 1117: Suabach, 1348: Swabach; compound of OHG swâbo "Swabian" and OHG aha from Gmic.*ahwô "flowing water"), Schwoosdorf (near Lausite) "village of the Swabians", Bardowick (north of Lüneburg, Niedersachsen) "village of the (Lango)Bards" (805: Bardaenowic, 800s: Bardunwich, 955: Bardewic, 1124: Bardewich; Bardowick was a suburb of the older Bardengaues - (892: Barthunga, 1006: Bardaga) which was named after resident Langobards before their migratation to the south), Dürkheim (town in Rheinland-Plalz) "home dwelling of the Thuringians" (778: Turincheim, 946: Thuringeheim, 1035: Dorenkheim, 1559: Durckheym, 1847: Dürkheim; it attests to a colony of Thuringians settled by the Frankish king), Dorn-Dürkheim (near Worms, Rheinland-Pfalz) "dry Dürkheim" (825: Thuringoheim, 1299: Durrendurckheim; as Dürkheim above, originally "home dwelling of the Thuringians" with MLG durre "arid, dry" affixed in medieval times), Rheindürkheim (at Worms, Rheinland-Pfalz) "Dürkheim on the Rhine" (812: Durincheim, 1026: Duringeheim; therefore OHG *Thuringoheim "home dwelling of the Thuringians" with Rhein- a much more recent affix), Dörnbach (near Rockenhausen, Rheinland-Pfalz) "brook of the Thuringians" (1315: Duringebach, 1355: Dorngebach; OHG Thuringo "of the Thuringians" and OHG bah, MLG bach "brook"), Türkheim "home dwelling of the Thuringians", Bayreuth (town on Roten Main, Bayern) "clearning of the Bavarians" (1194: Baierute, 1321: Beierreut, 1488: Bayreut, 1633: Bayreuth; compound of the tribal name Bayern, OHG Beiera "Bavarians" and OHG riuti "clearing" (cf. ON ryðning) and Bavarian settlers are supposed to have made the initial clearing).
A Dictionary of English Place-Names by A.D. Mills, Oxford: Oxford U.P., 1998;
Altnordisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch by Jan de Vries, zweite verbesserte Auflage, Leiden: Brill, 2000;
Dansk Etymologisk Ordbog by Niels
Åge Nielsen, København: Gyldendal, 1989;
Das Geheimis der deutschen Ortsnamen. Neue Kunde aus alter Zeit by Hermann A. Prietze, Pähl: Verlag Hohe Warte, 1955;
Die germanischen Sprachen: Ihre Geschichte in Grundzügen by Claus Jürgen Hutterer, Wiesbaden: VMA-Verlag, 4. Auflage, 2002;
Die skandinavischen Sprachen. Eine Einführung in ihre Geschichte by Einar Haugen, Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag, 1984;
English Place-Names by Kenneth Cameron, London: B.T. Batsford Ltd., 3rd ed., 1988;
English Place-Name Elements by A.H. Smith, 2 Vols., English Place-Name Society Vols. 25 + 26, Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 1987;
Geographische Namen in Deutschland: Herkunft und Bedeutung der Namen von Ländern, Städten, Bergen und Gewässern ed. by Dieter Berger, Duden Taschenbücher, Mannheim: Dudenverlag, 1993;
Germanerna. En inledning till studiet av deras språk och kultur by T.E. Karsten, Stockholm: Bökförlaget Natur och Kultur, 1925;
Geschichte der deutschen Sprache: Ein Lehrbuch für das germanistische Studium by Wilhelm Schmidt, Stuttgart: Hirzel, S., 7. verb. Aufl., 1996;
Håndbog i danske stednavne by Houken,
Aage, København: Rosenkilde og Bagger, 1956;
Introduction to the Survey of English Place-names (Vol. 1) ed. Mawer, A. & Stenton, F.M. Part 1: Introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 1925;
Íslensk Orðabók by Árni Böðvarsson, Reykjavík: Menningarsjóður/Mál og Menning, 1996;
Kortfattad Svensk Språk Historia by Gösta Bergman, Stockholm: Prisma Bokförlaget, 1995;
Nederlandse plaatsnamen: een overzicht by H.J. Moerman, Brussel: Naaml. Venn. Standaard-Boekhandel, 1956;
Nederlandse Plaatsnamen. De herkomst en betekenis van onze plaatsnamen by van Berkel, G. & Samplonius, K., Utrecht: Het Spectrum, 1995;
Nordiska: Våra Språk förr och nu by Jóhanna Barðdal, et al., Lund: Studentlitteratur, 1997;
Norsk Språkhistorie by Vemund Skard, Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1977;
Norsk Stadnamngranskning edited by Ola Stemshaug, Oslo: Det Norske Samlaget, 1973;
Norsk stadnamnleksikon by Sandnes, Jørn (ed.) & Stemshaug, Ola (ed.), Oslo: Det Norske Samlaget, 1998;
Ortnamnen i Sverige by Bengt Pamp, Lund: Studentlitteratur, 1970 (a good general textbook);
Ortsnamen. Ihre Entstehung und Bedeutung by Prof. Johannes Feldmann, Halle: Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses, 1925;
Our Forefathers: the Gothonic Nations by Gudmund Schütte, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2 Vols.), 1929;
Place-Name Evidence for the Anglo-Saxon Invasion and Scandinavian Settlements, Nottingham: English Place-Name Society, 1987;
Problems of Place-Name Study (Being a Course of Three Lectures delivered at King's College), by A. Mawer, Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 1920;
The Scandinavian Languages: An Introduction to their History by Einar Haugen, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard U.P., 1976;
Signposts to the Past by Margaret
Gelling, Sussex: Phillimore, 1988;
Stednavne Vol. V of Nordisk Kultur published by Magnus Olsen, København-Oslo-Stockholm, 1939;
Stednavne og Kulturhistorie by Kristian Hald, København: Dansk Historisk Fællesforenings Håndbøger, 2.oplag, 1969;
Stednavnordbog by Bent Jørgensen (Gyldendals små røde ordbøger), København: Gyldendal, 1994;
Sønderjyske Stednavne (Danmarks Stednavne nr. 3) udgivet af Stednavneudvalget, København: G.E.C. Gads Forlag, 19 vols (1931-44);
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names by E. Ekwall, Oxford: Oxford U.P., 1960;
The Origin of English Place-names by P.H. Reaney, London: Routledge & Keegan Paul, 1960;
Vad våra Ortnamn berätta by Jöran Sahlgren, Stockholm: Bonniers Förlag, 1932;
Vore Stednavne by Kristian Hald, København: G.E.C. Gads Forlag, 2. rev. udgave, 1965 (An excellent textbook on Danish place-names in general);
Words and Places by Isaac Taylor, London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1864;
Ættegård og Helligdom by Magnus Olsen, Oslo: H. Aschehoug & Co., 1926. | http://germanic.eu/Tribal-and-national-identity-in-Germanic-place-names.htm | fineweb | 59,302 | 3.984375 |
by Staff | August 12, 2015Health Health Issues
The most common cancer for women of all races in the United States is breast cancer. This includes both invasive and non-invasive types. It affects more than twice as many women as the second most common form, lung cancer.
It is essential that women understand how to prevent breast cancer, how to screen for it, and how to treat it if it is diagnosed.
How to Prevent Breast Cancer
*To prevent cancer, the key is to avoid risk factors and increase protective factors.
Not everything is in your control; for instance, you can’t change your age or family history. You can, however, avoid the following risk factors—and integrate the following protective factors, in order to reduce your chances of getting this disease.
Maintain a healthy weight: Obesity is associated with an increased risk of getting breast cancer. When it is diagnosed, there is a higher chance of aggressive cancer and death if the patient is obese. This may be due to the fact that fat produces and secretes substances, including hormones and growth factors, that affect breast tissue.
Exercise regularly: Getting regular exercise is a protective factor. It reduces your chances of getting breast cancer if you’ve never been diagnosed, especially for post-menopausal women. If you have been diagnosed and treated, exercise lowers your chances of it coming back.
Get enough sleep: There is an association between lack of sleep and some of the most common cancers, including breast cancer. The reason for this association is not well-understood, but it may be due to the reparative effects that sleep has on the body. Sleep is a protective factor, so be sure to get sufficient sleep so that you feel well-rested the next day.
Minimize (or eliminate) alcohol consumption: Excess drinking (for women, more than seven drinks per week or more than one drink per day) significantly increases your chances of getting breast cancer. In fact, even drinking small amounts of alcohol causes a small increase in risk; worse, the more you drink, the higher your risk. Alcohol is a risk factor for breast cancer because it has an effect on estrogen metabolism and increases the amount of estrogen in the body. Estrogen feeds hormone-receptive breast cancers.
Avoid carcinogens: Carcinogens can lead to cancer and, therefore, are risk factors to be avoided. The number of potential carcinogens in our environment is quite large (the American Cancer Society displays a thorough list here). Some specific carcinogens to avoid for breast cancer include alcohol (see above), combination birth control pills, hormone replacement therapy, chemicals in vehicle exhaust, flame retardants, stain-resistant textiles, paint removers, and disinfection by-products in drinking water.
Avoid unnecessary radiation: Imaging studies like CT scans, PET scans, and X-rays are unavoidable in modern medicine. You can, however, minimize their unnecessary usage and only get tests that are needed. This is important because exposure to radiation is a risk factor for getting breast cancer.
Breastfeed your babies: Breastfeeding isn’t just a smart choice for babies; it has also been shown to significantly reduce the risk of breast cancer in women who breastfeed. One of the reasons for this finding is that breastfeeding delays the onset of menstruation after childbirth, thus reducing a woman’s lifetime exposure to estrogen. Breastfeeding for longer periods provides even greater protection.
How to Screen for Breast Cancer
Breast examination: Women should be regularly performing self-examination of the breasts at home. If you are in your reproductive years, do it around the same time each month so that you become familiar with how your breasts feel during that point in your menstrual cycle. Examine each breast and the armpit area with the opposite hand while raising the arm on the same side of the breast over your head. Use a combination of gentle and firm touch. Bring any lumps or hard spots to the attention of your doctor, who can also perform a physical examination in the office.
Mammograms: Regular mammograms are recommended for women beginning at age 45, or at age 40 if desired by the patient. This is a screening test that is essentially an X-ray of both breasts. Mammograms can detect suspicious lesions including tumors and clusters of calcium. They have been found to reduce the mortality from breast cancer, likely because they help catch cancer at an earlier stage. If you are a woman age 45 or older, be sure to get regular mammograms. Talk to your doctor about the risks and benefits if you are between 40 and 44.
Magnetic resonance imaging: Breast MRI is not done on patients with an average risk of breast cancer but is instead generally reserved as a screening test for patients who are at higher risk. These include women with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations or who have a parent, sibling or child with breast cancer. If you are at higher risk of breast cancer, you may benefit from regular screening with both mammography and MRI.
How to Treat Breast Cancer
Breast biopsy: You have gotten a biopsy, and the report comes back: you have breast cancer! There are some questions you need to ask. Is the cancer invasive or non-invasive? What is the grade? Does it express estrogen and progesterone receptors? What about HER2? These questions should all be answered on the pathology report.
Surgery: Surgical removal of the cancer is critical to your treatment. The surgeon will want to make sure that all the cancer is removed and the margins are clear. Some patients will choose to undergo mastectomy or even a double-mastectomy, with the removal of both cancerous and non-cancerous breast tissue. You will need to decide what is the best choice for you.
Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy is a localized treatment that may be recommended after surgery to eradicate any remaining tumor cells in the breast or armpit area.
Chemotherapy: One or more chemotherapy drugs may be used to eliminate any remaining cancer cells or to prevent the cancer from coming back. Especially if you have more advanced disease, such as spread to other parts of your body, you will want to consider chemotherapy.
Hormonal therapy: Hormone therapy is an important part of treatment for breast cancers that express estrogen receptor and progesterone receptor. There are several kinds of therapies; they work by reducing the amount of estrogen in the body or by blocking the effects of estrogen on cancer cells.
By following the above recommendations, women can take charge of their health by taking concrete steps to lower their chances of getting breast cancer, understand how to screen for it (especially if they are over 40 years of age), and understand how to treat it if they are diagnosed. | http://instafo.com/most-common-cancer-in-women/ | fineweb | 6,777 | 3.0625 |
A new study to increase understanding of how conditions in space affect astronauts’ proprioception, or movement sense, will help humans walk on Mars.
Researchers at the University of Canberra are working with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to examine how time in space can dull this sense, making it challenging to stand or walk.
Astronauts are known to suffer a variety of health issues after spending time away from the earth in microgravity.
“When astronauts reach Mars after months of space travel, NASA is going to need them to be able to stand, walk and start their work straight away,” said UC Professor Gordon Waddington.
“We have experts from NASA who will work with us on this project and adapt our findings to their astronaut training.”
The space agency sought out the University for its work on proprioception and has already installed equipment developed in Canberra at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, where astronauts are trained.
“We want to gain a better understanding of how proprioception works, since it’s one of the least understood human senses and it affects so much of our lives, from standing and walking to using tools and machines,” Professor Waddington said.
The project is led by Bachelor of Physiotherapy honours student Ashleigh Marchant, who is looking for research participants.
“This is perhaps the closest many of us will get to contributing to the mission to send humans to Mars and it all stems from understanding a sense we are always using without knowing it,” Ms Marchant said.
Read more about proprioception and the NASA-backed study here. Story credit: University of Canberra newsroom.
Research to help us take the next steps in space is only possible if we support our universities. To keep Australia clever, please sign the petition below. | http://keepitclever.com.au/helping-humans-walk-on-mars/ | fineweb | 1,820 | 3.53125 |
Copyright Kent Past 2010
The History of Kent
Leave your email address to receive Kent Past Times free every month
History of Ashley
Ashley comes from the Old English words ' æsc' meaning 'ash' and 'leah', a meadow;
therefore a ‘meadow with ash-trees’.Ashley is a small hamlet which once housed workers
from the Kent coalfields.
In the 16th century, Baptists, who had escaped persecution in Europe, built a chapel,
in Ashley, associated with the Eythorne church, where they first held meetings
The Butchers Arms, a public house, opened in 1874, although closed in 2007. | http://kentpast.co.uk/ashley.html | fineweb | 568 | 2.71875 |
The question has often been
asked, “Where did the Klyde Morris cartoon come from?” The answer is interesting.
In his youth, cartoonist Wes
Oleszewski was a space-buff and model rocket enthusiast. At age 12, launching
rockets with no one aboard seemed fairly pointless to Wes, after all, there
had to be a crew otherwise what was the fun? With that in mind, the little
6th grader went out into his back yard and selected some common “cornfield
ants” and routinely blasted their helpless little butts into the sky in
balsa wood spaceships. Wes, being the strict non-conformist, never built
his rockets according to the packaged instructions so every flight was
some sort of contrived design that he had dreamed up. Violating every rule
that the manufacturers could print, he tampered with engines and re-rigged
recovery systems, the result being lots of spectacular disasters and lots
of lost ant crews. In 1970, after a series of disastrous launches, Wes
drew a few single-framed cartoons spoofing his wayward rockets. Unfortunately,
these first cartoons have not survived the passing of years.
By early 1975, Wes again felt
the urge to do some cartooning, and it was logical that his ants and their
ant world that exists among, but un-noticed by the humans, would be the
setting. Inspired by the old television series, “Voyage to the Bottom of
the Sea”, Wes began work on “Forage to the Bottom of the Sea” which featured
not only the ants, but Wes’ boyhood best friends Jim and Ken. | http://klydemorris.com/saga1.cfm | fineweb | 1,482 | 2.609375 |
New Mexico’s poverty rate and the portion of its population without health care coverage were among the worst in the nation in 2010, even though the median income earned in the state also increased in the past year from 2009 levels, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.
The ranks of the nation’s poor have swelled to a record 46.2 million – nearly 1 in 6 Americans – as the prolonged pain of the recession leaves millions still struggling and out of work. And the number without health insurance has reached 49.9 million nationally, the most in over two decades.
The figures are in a Census Bureau report, released Tuesday, that offers a somber snapshot of the economic well-being of U.S. households for last year when joblessness hovered above 9 percent for a second year. The rate is still 9.1 percent at the start of an election year that’s sure to focus on the economy and President Barack Obama’s stewardship of it.
New Mexico’s poverty rate was 18.6 percent in 2010, down from 19.3 percent in 2009 but up significantly from pre-recession levels of 14.0 percent in 2007. New Mexico’s poverty rate was 17.5 percent in 2000, the year of the last national census.
New Mexico’s median income of $45,098 in 2010 ranked the state 38th among the 50 states and the District of Columbia. In constant, 2010 dollars, median income in New Mexico was $44,261 in 2009, $46,643 in 2007 and $44,432 in 2000.
Mississippi had the nation’s lowest median income, at $37,985, followed by Arkansas, Tennessee and Louisiana.
The data the Census Department released Tuesday comes from the annual Current Population Survery, which the Census prefers to use for national data. More accurate state level data is due to be released next week in the Census’ American Community Survey, which includes a larger sample of states’ populations.
The nation’s poverty rate climbed to 15.1 percent, from 14.3 percent the previous year, and the rate from 2007-2010 rose faster than for any similar period since the early 1980s when a crippling energy crisis amid government cutbacks contributed to inflation, spiraling interest rates and unemployment. For last year, the official poverty level was an annual income of $22,314 for a family of four.
Measured by total numbers, the 46 million now living in poverty are the most on record dating back to when the census began track in 1959. The 15.1 percent tied the level of 1993 and was the highest since 1983.
Broken down by state, Mississippi had the highest share of poor people, at 22.7 percent, according to calculations by the Census Bureau. It was followed by Louisiana, the District of Columbia, Georgia, New Mexico and Arizona. On the other end of the scale, New Hampshire had the lowest share, at 6.6 percent.
New Mexico had the second highest number of people without insurance by percentage, after Texas. In 2010, 21.6 percent of New Mexico’s population, or 435,000 people, lacked health care coverage. That was up from 20.9 percent of New Mexicans in 2009 but less than the 23.0 percent of the population lacking coverage in 2000.
The uninsured in Texas constituted 24.6 percent of the population in 2010.
— This article appeared on page A5 of the Albuquerque Journal | http://www.abqjournal.com/56352/news/nm-near-bottom-for-poverty-rate.html | fineweb | 3,195 | 2.6875 |
An experiment is an orderly procedure carried out with the goal of verifying, falsifying, or establishing the validity of a hypothesis. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in their goal and scale, but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. A child may carry out basic experiments to understand the nature of gravity, while teams of scientists may take years of systematic investigation to advance the understanding of a phenomenon.
These are public domain, no copyright laws broken.
1. The Videos are meant for Promotional Purposes Only and Their Sole Copyright
Rests With Their Respective Audio Music Company.
2. Buy Original CDs & DVDs to Support Your Favorite Artists.
3. These application Never Hosts Mp3 & Videos Files.
4. DISCLAIMER. This app just provides links to access the videos in an organized way and we are not responsible for any copyright issues as the app gives access to YOUTUBE videos and other links AVAILABLE ON PUBLIC DOMAIN as is. | http://www.appszoom.com/android_applications/entertainment/kids-science_gbyej.html | fineweb | 1,104 | 3.078125 |
Everybody loves the unforgettable, visceral thrill of a rocket launch. Whether it’s the Saturn V with 7.6 million pounds of thrust or a tiny model launched from your backyard, projectile motion can be studied and understood by students of all ages. In fact, many teachers conduct projectile motion demonstrations with water-powered or solid-fuel model rockets.These demos are exciting, but they are not examples of true projectiles! Instead of one initial launch force, they have a timed “burn” while the fuel is spent. With a true projectile, after the initial force, the only thing affecting the flight is gravity. For a pure study of projectile motion, the variables we’re interested in are:
Launch Force - Gravity - Launch Angle
Air resistance does play a role, but we tend to ignore it for the sake of understanding at the elementary and middle school levels. At the high school level, it may be taken into consideration.
This month, we’ve got some fun activities that help explain the forces involved in rocket flight.
For these exercises, the Elasti-Launcher, is a safe, chemical-free projectile that’s ideally suited for exploring projectile motion. Click the link below to learn more. See the video.
Students launch the projectile vertically and time how long it takes for the projectile to complete the trip up and down. This time is then divided in half to get a good time of the upward portion of the projectile flight. You can then calculate the initial velocity of the projectile by multiplying the time by the rate at which gravity affects a falling object (rounded to 10 m/s for quick calculation).
If our round trip flight, up and down was 6.5 seconds our calculation for initial velocity would be (6.5 ÷ 2) x 10 m/s = 32.5 m/s
Since 1981, NASA has been using the Space Shuttle for manned spaceflight.That’s about to change. NASA is developing the next generation of manned space vehicle, and for a variety of reasons: safety, reliability, and cost-effectiveness, they’re going back to a single rocket design.The first Ares test launch is scheduled for July 2009, with a manned mission scheduled to launch in Spring 2015.Learn more...
Arbor Scientific is a leading provider of Physics and Physical Science teaching equipment tested and approved by educators recognized for their expertise. Arbor Scientific works with teachers at all levels to find the ‘Cool Stuff’ – unique demonstration and laboratory tools – and then provides lesson plans, supportive teaching guides and science teaching supplies to make each learning experience fun and effective. | http://www.arborsci.com/cool/projectile-motion-for-everyone | fineweb | 2,569 | 4.15625 |
- SPECIAL REPORTS
The term “small batch” means different things to different people. It depends on the industry and the application. For instance, an automotive engineer would consider a small batch to be 500 parts or less. However, five parts or fewer could mean the same thing to an aerospace engineer.
In welding circles, small batch typically refers to production environments where the parts being joined together vary in lot size, weight or physical dimensions. Equipment often must be stopped and reconfigured in between each batch, creating idle time or downtime.
“Small batch can be defined a few different ways,” says Carol Woten, process engineering manager at Genesis Systems Group. “If a customer has a low volume of parts that it will only build one time, it would be considered ‘small batch.’
“A second definition would be that the volume is low enough to be processed by one or two qualified welders, and they are able to produce those parts in a single shift or less,” adds Woten. “These parts would be built regularly, but may only be built once per week, once per month or even less often.
“A third definition would be for large parts that are made all the time, but the required weld time is very long,” Woten points out. “Examples might be a single order for parts that will never be welded again (this could require production of one day, one week or even one month); a production part that is welded once per month and takes two days to weld for each run; or one part per shift on a large construction equipment component.”
It's a Small WorldNo matter how it’s defined, small batch sizes are becoming more common in many industries today, as customers demand multiple product variations. Manufacturers and job shops need flexibility to easily accommodate part fluctuations, low quantities and frequent changeovers.
However, contrary to popular belief, it’s not always cost-effective to automate small-batch welding. Robots have not been widely used in the past, because they were not economical.
“The size of the part and the volume of welding done are some of the factors for determining whether or not to automate,” says Josh Williamson, channel and market development specialist at ABB Robotics North America. Small manufacturers and job shops have been reluctant to invest in robots for a variety of reasons, such as ”lack of knowledge, fear of investing in capital that will not function correctly, and the fact that some companies are just complacent and naturally default to their existing capabilities,” notes Williamson.
“There is work involved with bringing robotic welding into a company, but the benefits far exceed the initial transition,” claims Williamson. “Many companies just don’t grasp the concept that a little time spent up front will save them greatly for years to come.”
“Traditionally, a majority of batch welding is done manually, because the setup time is proportionally higher than the weld time,” adds Chris Anderson, welding technology leader at Motoman Robotics. “Parts in smaller batches may not warrant the expense of robotic holding or tacking fixtures.”
“To apply a robot, the historical rule of thumb is that the parts need to be repeatable within ±0.02 inch to ensure acceptable weld quality,” says Geoff Lipnevicius, operations manager in the automation division of Lincoln Electric Co., which partners with FANUC Robotics America Inc.
“Repeatable workholding is, therefore, required,” Lipnevicius points out. “However, with high-mix, low-volume, the equipment, fixturing and programming time cannot always be spread over the cost of the job, so manual or semiautomatic welding becomes the default.”
Traditionally, robots are great at repetitive welding tasks, such as assembling a continuous line of minvan bodies, but they are not as flexible as humans when it comes to moving quickly from job to job. That’s starting to change, however. A new breed of compact, flexible robots that feature large work envelopes, quick programming and user-friendly controls make it easier than ever to justify small-batch robotic welding.
For many years, the biggest obstacle to automated small-batch welding has been ease of programming, claims Efi Lebel, CEO of SmartTCP Inc., a company that has developed software that allows robots to be more flexible.
“Robots are built to be flexible, but programming is difficult and time-consuming,” Lebel points out. “With our product, it can take minutes to hours, rather than hours to days, to program tasks, depending on the application.” The software automates complex and tedious robot programming tasks.
“Automating the welding process is good practice, because it saves labor cost, solves quality issues and shortens time to market,” notes Lebel. “However, small-batch fabrication automation is not economically feasible unless you have the right technology.
“To deal with high mix, you need a machine with a large, flexible working envelope and many axes to handle a variety of part shapes and sizes,” says Lebel. “You need adaptive welding that treats each member of the small batch as a one-off, as usually parts are fitted manually and not exactly similar to each other.
“Traditional on-line and off-line programming is time-consuming and doesn’t work for a small number of parts; it is cheaper and faster to weld the few parts manually,” explains Lebel. “You need quick programming to justify robotic welding.”
Cost-Saving BenefitsToday, many small manufacturers and job shops are looking for flexible welding equipment. According to Williamson, they want “lower cost systems or welding cells that are easier to program, and are durable, faster and have a better working envelope. Also, and perhaps most importantly, they are looking for automated welding systems that can handle a wide variety of parts, both in size and geometric composition.”
Robotic welding systems can often do multiple passes on the same seam with minimal interruption. In contrast, manual welding can only complete three to four feet without stopping for the welder to change position. That’s an important consideration for small companies that must join large assemblies, such as earthmoving equipment, locomotives and ships.
Robotics can also help cost-conscious manufacturers and fabricators save money. “A robot will utilize less wire, gas and torch consumables,” notes Woten. “Overwelding of joints is common with [manual operations and companies that employ] less-qualified operators.
Efficiency comes into play, as well. “The system will not call in sick, take a lunch break or have a need for vacation,” Woten points out. “Obviously, there is some routine preventive maintenance involved in a robotic system, but overall efficiency and uptime are vastly improved over an operator.”
“[End users] are looking for a production tool that is reliable and built with existing, reputable off-the-shelf hardware,” adds Lipnevicius. “Ideally, the product should require minimal time for robot teaching and it should enable short-run, flexible production, which lowers overall part costs and reduces lead times.
“Robotics isn’t just for large fabricators,” claims Lipnevicius. “Our focus remains on helping first-time robot users to apply a production tool that pays for itself within months-certainly not beyond a year or two.”
Lipnevicius believes that the primary benefit of automating small-batch production is helping job shops and small manufacturers be more competitive in the marketplace. “It allows manufacturers to swiftly complete small-to-medium-to-large welding work and realize significant gains in consistency, quality and overall productivity,” he explains. “Automation is an ingredient for job shops to secure an advantage when competing against companies without this capability.”
Robots also help address the ongoing shortage of skilled welders. “Ten years ago, most small operations could afford the labor cost associated with doing a job manually,” says Mike Sharpe, material joining engineer at FANUC Robotics. “Today, many of those same companies are lucky if they can find one or two skilled welders.”
The United States is in the midst of a welder shortage that is expected to intensify as baby boomers age and the need for skilled labor grows. According to the American Welding Society, the average welder is in his mid-50s, and many of these people will retire within the next 10 years, creating a tremendous skills gap. In fact, the National Tooling and Machining Association claims that more than one-third of its members are turning away business due to a lack of skilled welders.
Positive Return on InvestmentOne company that has addressed the welder shortage by investing in small-batch automation is NPK Construction Equipment Inc., a leading manufacturer of hydraulic hammers, breaker buckets, grapples and other excavator attachments. Several years ago, the company found it challenging to rely on a manual welding process. To increase its weld capacity and save on labor costs, NPK invested in SmartTCP’s automatic welding system.
“With the company’s high-mix, low-volume production line, conventional robot programming wasn’t an option, as it was too time-consuming,” says Lebel. “SmartTCP’s hardware and software components created a system for small-batch production that allows for extremely accurate, flexible and reliable robotic welding. [Among other benefits], NPK saw the welding of one part reduced from 2.5 hours using the manual method to a 30-minute weld time using the SmartTCP system.”
Midmark Corp. is another manufacturer that has reaped the benefits of small-batch robotic welding. The company makes medical exam tables that come in a wide variety of sizes, with numerous options and configurations. It needs to produce these products in small batches to meet its target three-day lead time. However, manual welding recently became too labor-intensive.
In the past, three individuals produced these batch weldments. One operator would pull the fixtures required and load and unload them with parts, while two other operators would weld the parts in the fixture.
To automate some of its joining applications, Midmark purchased several Motoman robots, including a material-handling robot with a 165 kilogram payload that was paired with an arc-welding robot. The material-handling robot can handle a wide variety of parts fixtures.
The largest, most complex fixture combines 41 components and requires 84 welds to fabricate a scissor-lift assembly. In the past, Midmark engineers had to limit the size of fixtures because of the ergonomic risks associated with manual handling. But, the robot now allows the company to use larger fixtures that weigh up to 350 pounds.
Midmark also uses a single-station spot-welding robot cell with a fixture that can be adjusted for different configurations. “This cell provides flexibility for easy part changeover at a lower rate while the robot waits for part load-unload,” says Anderson.
The robot cell is tended by a single operator. The skilled welders were moved to other operations in the plant. “Production level is the same as before, but with less labor,” Anderson points out. “Quality is improved and eliminates the chance of missed welds.”
According to Anderson, Midmark achieved payback on its automation investment in 18 months. “The challenge of small-batch welding is wisely matching the robot and cell configuration to your requirements,” he explains. “Some operations can benefit by using the 80/20 rule to automate the higher volume product line.
“It might make sense to use a less expensive robot cell to produce subassemblies and manually finish welding larger assemblies,” Anderson points out. “On the other hand, some job shops may spend more on capability than a current project demands in the hopes that they can market it to get new business.”
One of the biggest challenges to using robots for small-batch welding is overcoming traditional perceptions and classic views of capital equipment. “Many assume that robotic welders are expensive,” says Anderson. “I have seen customers at trade shows shocked to find that robotic welding cells start at less than $100,000. We have taken these prices and used a three-year-lease rate for shift operation to calculate a $6 to $12 dollar-per-hour rate for a robotic welder.
“Classic justification for capital involves an ROI of two years,” argues Anderson. “Robots are flexible and can be redeployed, extending their life into 15 to 20 years. Extending the payback justification numbers over the life of the robot results in a seven-figure return, even with maintenance costs factored in.”
Of course, robots aren’t ideal for all welding applications. Sometimes, cycle time may actually be faster with an operator.
“This can be especially true if the programming and setup time on a small run of parts is complicated and time-consuming,” says Woten. “The number of parts required to dial in the welds may be greater than is feasible for the run of parts required.”
According to Woten, it’s always important to determine the benefit vs. the effort in robotic welding. “Some parts are not automation quality and cannot be cost-effectively made to be,” she explains. “The piece parts which make up an assembly might not be repeatable and the [end user] may not have the ability to control the design of the parts.”
The changeover time between part models may also be time-consuming. “Work balance between the operator and the robot system should be a consideration,” claims Woten. “The operator should be busy during the robot cycle, but it is important for the operator to feel as if he can beat the robot’s cycle time. This could simply amount to having the robot process the long straight welds on a large part and having the operator manually weld the tie-ins.”
Robot manufacturers are addressing those challenges with new machines aimed at small-batch welding applications. For instance, ABB Robotics recently unveiled the compact IRB 2600. It features an ultra-wide working range and a payload capacity up to 20 kilograms.
“It also offers the best accuracy and speed in its class, improving productivity through increased output, faster cycle times and lower scrap rates,” claims Mark Oxlade, arc welding manager at ABB Robotics North America. “With performance benefits like superior path accuracy and positional precision, flexible mounting options, and an increased work envelope, the IRB 2600 is particularly suited for arc welding applications.”
FANUC Robotics recently launched the ARC Mate 100iCe in Japan. It is intended for simple applications that are typically done manually, such as arc welding small workpieces. “It’s a lower-cost solution to small-batch welding that will be available in North America later this year,” says Sharpe. A | http://www.assemblymag.com/articles/88463-automating-small-batch-welding?WT.rss_f=Welding+Assembly&WT.rss_a=Automating+Small-Batch+Welding&WT.rss_ev=a | fineweb | 14,775 | 2.953125 |
Fibroids are benign (non-cancerous) growths of the muscle of the uterus (womb). They are sometimes called myomas, fibromyomas or leiomyomas, but most people call them fibroids. Fibroids are common – around 20% of women get them.
Fibroids are most common in women in their 40s and 50s, towards the end of the reproductive years. They are more common in women of Afro-Caribbean origin, who also tend to be affected at a younger age. Fibroids are more likely to be found in women who have had no children or who only have one child. Obesity (being very overweight) is also associated with an increased risk of developing fibroids. They do not appear to run in families.
Fibroids grow very slowly and tend not to cause any problems or symptoms in younger women. They can cause symptoms as they grow bigger, but even so, at least half of all fibroids cause no problems at all.
Fibroids can be tiny or very large and a woman may have one or many. Their growth is stimulated by the hormone oestrogen, which is released from the ovaries during the reproductive years. Fibroids tend to become smaller after the menopause when oestrogen levels fall.
There are different types of fibroids, named according to where they are found:-
- Intramural fibroids are found within the muscular wall of the uterus.
- Subserosal fibroids grow outwards from the outside wall of the uterus. They can become very large.
- Submucosal fibroids grow from the inner wall of the uterus and can take up space inside the uterus. These account for only 5% of all fibroids.
The problems that fibroids may cause depend on their location. Fibroids are not the same as polyps. Polyps grow from the lining of the uterus (the endometrium) rather than from the underlying muscle (myometrium) as is the case with fibroids.
What are the symptoms?
Up to half of all women with fibroids have heavy periods. In some cases this can lead to anemia. Fibroids do not usually cause other problems with the menstrual cycle, such as bleeding between periods.
Fibroids tend to enlarge the uterus. This may lead to lower abdominal discomfort or backache, or may press on the bladder causing symptoms such as needing to pass urine more often than normal. The uterus may also press on the rectum causing constipation. Some women experience pain or discomfort during sexual intercourse (dyspareunia) because of fibroids.
Problems with fertility
It is estimated that fertility problems are one of the presenting features in about ¼ of women with fibroids. There is a well-established relationship between the presence of fibroids and lower fertility or childlessness. When compared to other causes of infertility, however, they are a relatively uncommon cause, being implicated in only 3% of couples. It may be that a delay in having children (whether voluntary or involuntary) predisposes to the development of fibroids and this is more often an association rather than a causative feature.
Fibroids can affect the shape and internal environment of the uterus. They can make it more difficult to conceive but they only account for about 3% of the total cases of infertility.
Fibroids can cause discomfort because of pressure symptoms. Heavier periods can lead to worse period pains. Severe pain is quite rare but can occur if a fibroid grows on a stalk, which they twists (torsion) or if a fibroid outgrows its blood supply causing it to break down (red degeneration).
Diagnosis of fibroids
A doctor may suspect fibroids if he or she feels an enlarged uterus during a pelvic examination (an “internal”). An ultrasound scan is a useful way of confirming the present of fibroids. Here, a probe is placed on the woman’s lower abdomen and sound save signals are translated into pictures on a screen.
Fibroids can be detected by chance when women have ultrasound scans during pregnancy. Fibroids can also be detected by hysteroscopy, where a small telescope is passed through the cervix to view the inside of the uterus, or by laparoscopy, where a camera is passed into the abdomen through a keyhole incision and the outer wall of the uterus can be seen.
Treatment of fibroids
Fibroids don’t need to be treated if they cause no symptoms, or only mild symptoms, and if the diagnosis is certain. A repeat ultrasound scan may be carried out to ensure that the fibroids are not growing too rapidly.
There are no long-term drug treatments that can “cure” fibroids. However, drugs are available that can help relieve the symptoms.
One group of drugs aimed at reducing the size of fibroids are called gonadotrophin releasing hormone analogues (GnRH analogues). These drugs stop the ovaries from producing hormones. Their effect is sometimes described as a “medical menopause” and they can cause menopausal symptoms such as hot flushes. However, there are increased risks of harmful side-effects such as osteoporosis (thinning of the bones) if they are given for more than six months. They may be used to control symptoms in women who are close to the menopause for whom symptoms may soon be about to improve anyway.
GnRH analogues are sometimes given before surgery on the uterus because shrinking the fibroids makes the operation easier.
- Hysterectomy – this is a major operation to remove the uterus, usually via a “bikini-line” cut in the abdomen or, if the fibroids are not too large, via the vagina.
- Myomectomy – this is the removal of individual fibroids, leaving the uterus intact. It is usually only considered for women who still wish to have a baby. This may be done with through small cuts in the belly, using a laparoscope (keyhole surgery), but may require an open operation.
- Hysteroscopic resection – fibroids within the uterus can sometimes be removed during hysteroscopy using a hot wire loop (diathermy).
- Uterine artery embolisation – this is a new technique in which the blood supply to a fibroid is blocked, causing the fibroid to shrink. It is still undergoing research and is not yet widely available.
Fibroids are often detected at a routine scan during pregnancy. They do not necessarily cause any problems. However, there is an increased risk of miscarriage, premature labor and bleeding in women who have fibroids so it’s important to consider seeking specialist care from an obstetrician.
Most fibroids (around 80%) do not increase in size during pregnancy despite the extra hormones. Fibroids sometimes cause a severe abdominal pain during pregnancy if they break down (this is called red degeneration). The treatment for this is rest and painkillers.
Cancer arising in a fibroid is very rare. However, surgery to remove fibroids may still be recommended if there are symptoms of pain, bleeding and/or rapid growth of fibroids, especially in a post-menopausal woman. | http://www.barbadosivf.com/fertility-resources/female-infertility/female-infertility-fibroids/ | fineweb | 6,731 | 3.5625 |
- Shopping Bag ( 0 items )
From Barnes & NobleOur Review
Water is the essence of life on this planet and perhaps throughout the universe. It has been credited with mystical powers through the ages, and today, science has found that water does indeed have strange powers. Life's Matrix chronicles the history of water from the first hydrogen and oxygen atoms, to water's subsequent distribution on planets, moons, and meteors. It also tells of our changing understanding of water, from its being one of the four elements of Aristotle -- along with earth, air, and fire -- to the discovery of its true structure.
This familiar molecule, which moves so easily from solid to liquid to gas on our planet, is unlike any other. Philip Ball has a knack for explaining the behavior of atoms and molecules. This line of research is officially called "materials science," which may sound staid at first, but it is the science that explains why things are the way they are, and how to create new things that have weird and wonderful properties. In this case, water already possesses some of the weirdest. For example, most substances are heavier in their solid state than in their liquid state for the very simple reason that the molecules are packed more tightly together in a solid. Likewise, molecules are even farther apart in a gaseous state, a nice progression. How then, can ice float on liquid water? This question stumped scientists who preferred to study other liquids that behaved in a more logical manner. Ball gives a vivid explanation of this anomaly. The water molecule is bent. To be more exact, the hydrogen atoms are splayed at an angle of 104.5 degrees. This leaves two lone pairs of electrons in the other corners of what should be water's most stable shape, a tetrahedron (a solid that has triangular sides).
Imagine that you are the water molecule. Stand with your arms raised in a V and your legs spread apart. Your hands are the hydrogen atoms, and your feet are the electron pair. You are tumbling around grabbing the ankles of other molecules while they grab yours, everyone grabbing and letting go as they pass by, bumping into one another. That's liquid water. Now everyone stops and keeps ahold of the ankles. There's more space now in between than when everyone was bumping into each other. That's ice. There's actually a way of making super-dense ice where the interlocked rings cross into the empty spaces, but for life on earth, floating ice has meant that oceans have remained liquid underneath, sheltered and protected instead of being frozen solid. This is just one example of water's properties. Ball describes how water works in living organisms and why it is so good at dissolving, which is essential to the planet's task of recycling needed elements.
Ball ends with an epilogue on water as a scarce resource. It's so ironic that water may supplant oil as the irreplaceable resource humankind would fight for the world over, something, though, that desert-dwelling people have understood for millennia.
--Laura Wood, Science & Nature Editor | http://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/lifes-matrix-philip-ball/1101611612?ean=9780520230088&itm=1&usri=9780520230088 | fineweb | 3,067 | 2.78125 |
Obedience: Is it Virtue or Vice?
by william mcinnes, sj
Of all the events remembered from the long and active life of Father Robert Drinan, SJ, as teacher, civic servant, and priest, none has received more attention than his decision, under orders from his religious superior, to leave the Congress of the
As a longtime associate of Father Drinan and a member of the same religious order (the Jesuits), I offer some observations.
Obedience, notes Webster’s Dictionary, is “the submission of one’s own will to the will—expressed or otherwise—of another or to an impersonal embodiment of authority (e.g. obedience to the State).” Obedience arises out of a fundamental relationship in a community. It is a complex human act. It recognizes authority as well as a respondent to that authority. It includes a mandate and also a compliance.
The word obedience, in fact, is derived from a Latin phrase ob+ obedire—meaning “to hear.” Thus obedience includes a message (or order) sent and a message (or order) received.
The quality of the response of obedience may vary widely, depending on the receptivity of the respondent. Some obey out of duty, some out of force; some soberly after reflection, some recklessly out of thoughtlessness; some out of anger, some out of love.
In its many manifestations, obedience is an integral part of society, especially in a society built on a hierarchical foundation. When it functions well, it enlarges participation of members and fosters self development. It promotes efficiency and accomplishment of high social goals. It draws smoothly on the heritage of the past, recognizes the expertise of the present, and creates the future.
Widespread obedience to the law is one pillar of a just society.
Even in a democracy, which tends to level hierarchy, obedience survives, often as in a deliberate concession to the anonymous authority of public opinion and media exploitation. Obedience offers a sense of direction and a cohesiveness of purpose under duress.
Every society demands followers as well as leaders in order to function.
Obedience, as with every human act, can be abused—by tyrannical leadership or by recalcitrant respondents. When commands are given without concern or received without critical judgment, the result is often tyranny and rebellion, the breakdown of community life.
Obedience is a sibling of human choice. It can lead to good or evil—e.g., in families, the military, or government.
Parents inculcate obedience in their offspring in order to shepherd their way through the uncharted waters of childhood. Children, like missiles, are launched to maturity by learning and following the example and orders of their parents. So when parents require an unreflective and blind obedience from their offspring, they stifle their growth to true responsibility and mature freedom of choice. When children rebel against their parents and reject their authority out of hand, they forfeit the wisdom and experience of history. Obedience is a means to an end that can be good or bad.
Military commanders must demand obedience in order to win wars. Soldiers need to accept commands in order for themselves—and others—to survive. But when the orders are unjust and the response equivocal, the dead-end road leads only to
In society, authority seeks not only to lead but also to empower citizens by its vision to peace and prosperity. The corresponding obedience of citizens to just laws broadens participation and strengthens dialogue. Together law-maker and law-observer promote the common good. But if authority hardens into authoritarianism and obedience moves to non-cooperation and rebellion, then the whole community suffers.
Authentic obedience, therefore, requires genuine leadership on the part of authority and critical judgment on the part of those called to obey. When exercised properly, obedience becomes the training ground for maturity and the flourishing of community life, opening to both personal fulfillment and social progress. When abused, the result is chaos.
The foundations of obedience go deeper than political considerations or even philosophical horizons.
John Adams, himself a public figure, once wrote:
To understand the mystery of obedience one must search beyond the surface of politics and philosophy. Politicians and metaphysicians may dispute forever, but they will never find any other moral principle or foundation of rule or obedience than the consent of governors and governed.—John Adams in
Bob Drinan drank from a deeper well than consensus: his religious faith. It was through his theological reflection and practice that he discovered a deeper meaning. It came into play when he had to decide either to leave Congress or follow the orders of his superiors. He was a witness to the reality of a more profound meaning of obedience—discovered by a faith that reaches beyond reason.
What is the evidence for this appeal to faith?
The theological dimension of obedience illuminates in a special way the reality of obedience. For those who do not acknowledge faith as a path to understanding, this makes no sense. To those who accept faith as an alternate path to understanding (and wonder), the theological dimension of obedience is central.
In a very early chapter of the Bible, the sacred Constitution for believers, there is a command from God to Adam and Eve to obey: “Do not eat of the fruit of the tree” (Gen. 2:16–17). Later in that same book, a concrete model of obedience is presented in the person of Abraham, a leader of the Israelites and man of faith. He was ready to obey God’s command even though it meant the sacrifice of his own son, suggesting that obedience is rooted in mystery as well as sociology (Gen. 22:1–19).
In the Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas and the scholastic theologians of the time tried to fathom this mystery by offering a plausible explanation. They developed a reasonable insight for the necessity and desirability of obedience in social life. Obedience, they argued, is necessary for the functioning of society and “it is a moral virtue proceeding out of the primary virtue of justice through love” (Michael Downey in the New Dictionary of Catholic Spirituality (1993), “Obedience”). For Aquinas, obedience, though not subjugated totally to human reason, is a reasonable act. It is necessary, therefore, to include faith as well as reason to confront the mystery of choice.
Ignatius of Loyola, a former soldier and founder of the Jesuit Order, to which Bob Drinan belonged for more than six decades, made obedience the lodestone of the order he founded. Obedience, according to the New Dictionary of Catholic Spirituality, was to be “the essential requirement for effective cooperation with the saving work of Jesus Christ.” Ignatius proposed that to obey willingly and intentionally was not only a requirement for community cooperation but a personal goal in itself, a means for growing in holiness.
Fortified by religious commitment as well as critical judgment, the decision to obey takes on a special spiritual meaning for the one seeking intentionally to obey.
The secular and anti-monarchical culture of the twenty-first century tends to denigrate obedience and idolize individual autonomy and social freedom. Obedience is not only not admired but is seen an incomprehensible way of acting. In literature as in social life, the development of historical criticism and widespread social criticism have undermined further the theological underpinnings of obedience. Both the thought and practice of obedience are demeaned and dismissed.
Percy B. Shelley, a modern romantic poet, wrote in “Queen Mab”:
Obedience, bane of all genius, virtue, freedom, truth, makes slaves of men and of the human frame a mechanized automaton.
Bob Drinan was not a genius. But he was a human being and a civic servant. He was also a deeply religious man, a believer. Which helps one to appreciate, if not agree with, his choice to obey.
For many years he had immersed himself in that spirituality of obedience, even as he was actively involved in the routine of public policy decisions.
Bob Drinan was a firm believer in the virtue, even the vow, of obedience for his own direction. Perhaps part of his mission was also to give witness of that virtue to others. And to encourage them to live its implications.
He would be the first, I believe, to concede that the exercise of authority and the requirement for obedience would need to be adapted in modern society. Perhaps one of his greatest gifts to succeeding generations was to raise these issues for others.
Q: How can modern leaders exercise authority in a manner that encourages wider acceptance and a more mature insight into the virtue of obedience?
A: He who longs to strengthen his spirit must go beyond obedience and respect. He will continue to honor some laws but he will mostly violate both law and custom.—Constantine Cavafy (1863–1933)
Q: How can citizens be taught the value, the splendor, and the responsibility of obedience in this modern anti-authority society?
A: [The love of the British people and their attachment to their government] infuses into your army and navy that liberal obedience without which your army would be base rabble and your navy but rotten timber.—Edmund Burke, Second Speech on Reconciliation with
Every once in a while in the course of history someone comes along to bear witness to a great truth: Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Dorothy Day. Their presence and obedience may baffle some, irritate others, intrigue many. It might even arouse the curiosity of someone to explore and follow that leadership and practice that obedience.
Bob Drinan’s decision to obey and leave the Congress he so loved was painful. But his appreciation of a deeper significance of obedience—its intentional, fulfilling, and witnessing value—was overriding for him. And it can be for us too.
CONGRESSMAN EDWARD J. MARKEY '72
I had that unique opportunity to see [Father Drinan] both in law school and here on the House floor. And I saw him play the role of the catalyst, of the idealist, of the man who continued to push others when they say they can go no further in trying to strive for excellence and to stand up for an ideal...
When members of Congress are coming here to cast their vote, all of our names are flashed up on a board over the head of the Speaker to vote "aye" or "nay" on the key issues of our time. During the years that Father Drinan was a Congressman, as the members would look up to see how other members of Congress voted, when they looked up at Father Drinan's name, they knew he was not casting a vote looking at the next election, but rather he was looking at the next generation on every vote. And that led to almost every one of his elections being as close as an election can be, because he was not factoring in his own electoral life but rather the life of every person in our society. His vote was true north.
(From a eulogy given in Congress, February 5, 2007, and reported in the Congressional Record) | http://www.bc.edu/schools/law/alumni/magazine/2007/spring/feature16.html | fineweb | 11,015 | 3.015625 |
A recent study from researchers at the University of Wisconsin takes another look at the “carbon debt” models proposed by Searchinger and Fargione in ScienceXpress earlier this year. Searchinger and Fargione argued that biofuel development in the United States and Europe would lead to the destruction of rainforests and grassland in Brazil and other tropical climates, which would of course release massive amounts of carbon into the atmosphere (See earlier posting).
The new study takes into account some factors that other researchers criticized Fargione and Searchinger for ignoring. Bringing crop yields in the developing world up to the production level in the United States would increase biofuels’ carbon recycling benefits by up to 50 percent, according to the study authors. Further, if biofuels displace future production of oil from tar sands, their climate benefit will increase by another 25 percent. The researchers conclude that “future carbon payback times could be substantially shorter with increases in crop yields, changing petroleum sources and improved biofuel technology.”
Biofuels could have immediate benefits, the study authors conclude, if they are grown on degraded farm land. As another recent study from Stanford University shows, there are nearly 1 billion acres of abandoned farm land around the world. Some of this former agricultural land was once pasture grazed by cattle, and some was cropland that was abandoned for greener fields or because of changing needs. The study’s principle author calculates there is enough land in the United States to supply 9 percent of U.S. transportation energy, using current crop yield data. | http://www.biotech-now.org/environmental-industrial/biofuels-climate-change/2008/07/it%E2%80%99s-carbon-payback-time | fineweb | 1,662 | 3.390625 |
The Judgement of Paris Frontispiece
The Fair Helen 30
Achilles Victorious 106
The Princess Threw the Ball 138
The Sorrowing Odysseus 148
The Sirens 176
Penelope Unravelling the Web 221
HOW TELEMACHUS THE SON OF ODYSSEUS WAS MOVED TO GO ON A VOYAGE IN SEARCH OF HIS FATHER AND HOW HE HEARD FROM MENELAUS AND HELEN THE TALE OF TROY
This is the story of Odysseus, the most renowned of
all the heroes the
Greek poets have told us of—of Odysseus, his wars and his wanderings.
And this story of Odysseus begins with his son, the youth who was called
It was when Telemachus was a child of a month old that a messenger came from Agamemnon, the Great King, bidding Odysseus betake himself to the war against Troy that the Kings and Princes of Greece were about to wage. The wise Odysseus, foreseeing the disasters that would befall all that entered that war, was loth to go. And so when Agamemnon’s messenger came to the island of Ithaka where he was King, Odysseus pretended to be mad. And that the messenger, Palamedes, might believe he was mad indeed, he did a thing that no man ever saw being done before—he took an ass and an ox and yoked them together to the same plough and began to plough a field. And when he had ploughed a furrow he sowed it, not with seeds that would grow, but with salt. When Palamedes saw him doing this he was nearly persuaded that Odysseus was mad. But to test him he took the child Telemachus and laid him down in the field in the way of the plough. Odysseus, when he came near to where the child lay, turned the plough aside and thereby showed that he was not a mad man. Then had he to take King Agamemnon’s summons. And Agamemnon’s word was that Odysseus should go to Aulis where the ships of the Kings and Princes of Greece were being gathered. But first he was to go into another country to seek the hero Achilles and persuade him also to enter the war against Troy. | http://www.bookrags.com/ebooks/16867/1.html | fineweb | 1,894 | 3.25 |
India is the world's largest democracy. It is one of the world's oldest civilizations, yet a very young nation. With a 100 million new-registered voters, India’s electorate is five times bigger than the 146 million people who were registered to vote in the 2012 elections in the USA – the world’s second largest democracy.Check Answer
It is a tennis tournament played on outdoor clay courts.It is one of the four grand slams of Tennis.Check Answer
Although the oceans of the earth are all connected and truly one 'World Ocean', most often the world is divided into four major 'oceans' - the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. Some consider there to be five oceans - the fifth being an ocean surrounding Antarctica called the Antarctic Ocean or Southern Ocean.Check Answer
Our solar system officially has nine planets and one star(The Sun). In order from the Sun out, the planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.Check Answer
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet application developed by Microsoft for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS. Excel forms part of Microsoft Office. Microsoft allows for a number of optional command-line switches to control the manner in which Excel starts.
From its first version Excel supported end user programming of macros (automation of repetitive tasks) and user defined functions (extension of Excel's built-in function library).
The basic input/output system(BIOS) is a boot firmware designed to be the first code run by a PC when powered on. The main work of BIOS is to make the computer machine ready to work and it has control on the softwares storedCheck Answer
He was the son of Satyavati and sage Parashara. Vyasa was grandfather to the Kauravas and PandavasCheck Answer
She was the daughter of King Janaka of Mithila and the younger sister of Sita.Check Answer
Kangaroos are marsupials, which means that females carry newborns, or "joeys," in a pouch on the front of their abdomens. They have powerful hind legs and short, thumbless forelimbs.
There are four species commonly referred to as the kangaroo: the red kangaroo, the eastern grey kangaroo, the western grey kangaroo, and the antilopine kangaroo. Kangaroos are grazing herbivores, which means their diet consists mainly of grasses. They can survive long periods without water.
Because of its long feet, a kangaroo cannot walk normally. To move at slow speeds, a kangaroo will use its tail to form a tripod with its two forelimbs. It then raises its hind feet forward, in a form of locomotion called "crawl-walking." | http://www.briskinfo.com/general-knowledge/gk-quiz-questions | fineweb | 2,582 | 2.671875 |
Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article.
Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review.
Iranian fire worship was derived from the cult of the god Ātar, but it was made a central act in Zoroastrianism. Fire worship continues to be practiced among the Parsis (modern Zoroastrians) of India: in temples the sacred fire is maintained by a priest using sandalwood, while his mouth is bound with a purifying shawl; fire in new temples is kindled from the fire of the old temples;...
Of utmost importance was fire. In ancient Iran, fire was at once a highly sacred element and a deity. Thus, the word ātar denoted simultaneously “fire” and “Fire,” every instance of fire being a manifestation of the deity. Since burned offerings were not made, the role of Ātar, like that of his Vedic counterpart Agni, was...
The principal yazatas are mostly ancient Iranian deities reduced to auxiliary status: Ātar (Fire), Mithra, Anahita, Rashnu (The Righteous), Sraosha, and Verethraghna.
What made you want to look up Atar? | http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/40392/Atar | fineweb | 1,092 | 3.203125 |
Poor states reap big demographic dividend Many have celebrated the census revelation that Indias population increased only 17.64% in the last decade, down from 21.54% the previous decade. Yet, the best news relates to kids aged 0-6.Their numbers have actually fallen 3.08%.
Fewer children translate into a demographic dividend that will send per capita income booming in the coming decades. The biggest dividend came in Uttar Pradesh, where the share of the 0-6 age group in the population declined 4.1%.Substantial decreases were recorded in Rajasthan (3.5%), Madhya Pradesh (3.4%), Chhattisgarh (3.1%),and Bihar (2.3%).
What exactly is a demographic dividend When economic development causes mortality to fall, parents have fewer children. Fewer children means the proportion of workers rises, and of dependents (children and old folk) falls. This raises income per head.
Second, countries can divert funds from spending on children to investing in physical capital, job training, and technological progress. Third, declining fertility means more women can join the workforce, reducing the proportion of dependents further. Fourth, the working years 15-64 are prime years for savings, so more workers means more savings, which then fund more investment.
An IMF working paper by Shekhar Aiyar and Ashoka Mody (The Demographic Dividend: Evidence from the Indian States) suggests that up to 40% of higher GDP since the 1980s may be due to the demographic dividend, rather than economic reform or other factors. It calculates that this dividend boosted GDP growth by 1.46% in the 1980s, one reason for the sharp acceleration in that decade although economic reforms were hesitant and very modest. The dividend was 1.34% in the 1990s. The paper predicts it will rise to 1.74% in the 2000s. Record GDP growth and preliminary census data suggest that the prediction may be vindicated. The authors estimate that the dividend will boost all-India growth 1.98% in the 2010s and 2.04% in the 2020s, before tapering off in the 2030s. Incomes per head will tend to rise faster in the poor states.
Most economists say an additional workforce is useless if it is not educated and skilled. Surprisingly, Aiyar and Mody find that government social spending is not statistically significant, while development spending is. Perhaps this is because private education and corporate training programmes are significantly improving skills, something not captured by the researchers.
The authors say the ratio of people of working age 15-60 rose sharply from 53.7% in 1961 to 62.1% in 2001 in three leading states — Tamil Nadu,Karnataka and Gujarat. But in three lagging states — UP, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh the ratio hardly moved,from 53.1% to 53.4%. Thats an important but rarely noticed reason why the leading states accelerated in GDP while the laggards did not. However, falling numbers of children in the laggard states (in north and central India) now mean that they are about to reap the demographic dividend already reaped by southern and western states. This should help reduce regional inequalities.
Last week i wrote, quite incorrectly, that New Delhis social spending had risen from 1.28% of GDP in 1992-93 to 7.27% of GDP in 2008-09. In fact, the latter figure includes spending by the states, and on not just education and health but other welfare services. This combined figure rose from 5.59% of GDP to 7.27% between 2005-06 and 2008-09. Some critics say the governments education spending barely kept pace with GDP over the last two decades. Since GDP itself grew at a record rate in those decades, education spending must have followed suit.
Forget government spending, says Parth Shah of the Centre for Civil Society, the big change has been an explosion in private education spending. Economic reform has increased incomes, so even poor people can afford to switch their children from terrible government schools and colleges to somewhat better private ones. Indicus Analytics, a research firm, estimates that private spending on education, tuition, books, newspapers and journals was 1.2% of GDP in 2009-10.This could be an important reason why literacy rose in the last decade, notably in Bihar (up 16.82 percentage points), UP (11.45 points), Jharkhand (16.07 points) and Orissa (10.37 points).
Moreover,poor states in the last decade hired huge numbers of teachers and parateachers on contract. Bihar alone hired two lakh contract teachers. They were paid one fifth or less than regular teachers, yet researcher Karthik Muralidharan found they improved learning outcomes, boosting the educational bang per fiscal buck.
The demographic dividend will steadily reduce the number of schoolchildren in the next three decades, easing the teacher shortage and reducing class sizes. But thats no excuse for avoiding radical reforms to improve teacher accountability and performance in government schools. | http://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/poor-states-reap-big-demographic-dividend | fineweb | 4,897 | 2.78125 |
Issue No.10 - Oct. (1974 vol.7)
David A. Levine , International Computing Company
Horse racing and breeding is an old European tradition that came to the United States with the early colonists. George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Andrew Jackson — all land owners — participated in the breeding and racing of horses. Although bets were made, it was the race that was most important. This changed with the coming of the bookmakers.
David A. Levine, "Computers at the racetrack", Computer, vol.7, no. 10, pp. 20-28, Oct. 1974, doi:10.1109/MC.1974.6323329 | http://www.computer.org/csdl/mags/co/1974/10/020028-abs.html | fineweb | 556 | 2.640625 |
Did the Hafele and Keating Experiment Prove Einstein Wrong?
V. Bobblehead Productions, 2013
Hafele and Keating performed an experiment in 1971 to test Einstein's predictions regarding the dilation of time in clocks moved at some velocity with respect to a stationary clock. In the opening statement of the first of two papers on the subject, the authors refer to the debate surrounding the "twins paradox" and how an experiment with macroscopic clocks might provide an empirical resolution. In Hafele and Keating's experiment, they flew cesium clocks around the world in opposite directions near the equator, and then measured how much time they have gained or lost when they return to the start point as compared to a stationary cesium clock to which they were originally synchronized. The experiment of Hafele and Keating (HK) actually differs from the twins paradox in some important ways - firstly, in the paradox, the traveling twin moves in a straight line to a distant point then turns around and comes back, with a series of accelerations and decelerations. In the HK experiment, the journey is circular and the clocks never leave the earth’s influence. In following a circular path, the HK experiment becomes a Sagnac effect experiment where it is clocks that are moving rather than beams of light.
From the perspective of the observer on the ground, the moving clocks of Hafele and Keating have experienced similar motions with respect to the stationary earth bound clock. If their motions were truly "relative", then by the rules of SR both should arrive back at the starting point having experienced the same amount of time dilation in the same direction. The actual result was that the westward travelled clock increased in its time rate (more time had elapsed) and the eastward travelled clock decreased in its time rate. The result was as follows from their 1972 paper in Table 1:
The expected time dilation on clocks used by Hafele and Keating is shown below in Fig. 2. This consisted of a height term gh/c^2, a velocity time dilation term v^2/2c^2, and a third term RΩvCos(θ)/c^2 which will herein be referred to as the “Sagnac term”. The height and velocity terms were predicted by Einstein in 1907 and 1905 – however the Sagnac term was unknown to Einstein when he wrote his papers on special relativity, so this effect was never anticipated by Einstein. This effect became incorporated awkwardly into Hafele and Keating’s relativistic calculations with the following comment:
“Because the earth rotates, standard clocks distributed at rest on the surface are not suitable in this case as candidates for coordinate clocks of an inertial space. Nevertheless, the relative timekeeping behavior of terrestrial clocks can be evaluated by reference to hypothetical coordinate clocks of an underlying non-rotating (inertial) space (6). “ In note (6) they further explain: “It is important to emphasize that special relativity purports to describe certain physical phenomenon only relative to (or from the point of view of) inertial reference systems, and the speed of a clock relative to one of these systems determines its timekeeping behavior. [G. Builder, Aust. J. Physics 11, 279 (1958)]. Although inertial systems are highly specialized, they have an objective physical relationship with the universe because they have no acceleration or rotation relative to the universe. “ (my itallics added).
The clarification comes from Builder's "Ether and Relativity" as follows:
"The relative retardation of clocks, predicted by the restricted theory of relativity, demands our recognition of the causal significance of absolute velocities. This demand is also implied by the relativistic equations of electrodynamics and even by the formulation of the restricted theory itself. The observable effects of absolute accelerations and of absolute velocities must be ascribed to interaction of bodies and physical systems with some absolute inertial system. We have no alternative but to identify this absolute system with the universe. Thus in the context of physics, absolute motion must be understood to mean motion relative to the universe, and any wider or more abstract interpretation of the "absolute" must be denied. Interactions of bodies and physical systems with the universe cannot be described in terms of Mach's hypothesis, since this is untenable. There is therefore no alternative to the ether hypothesis. "
We say “awkwardly” because in order to incorporate this Sagnac term, Hafele, Keating and Builder make some categorically un-relativistic statements, namely:
1) Inertial motion can only be referenced to the physically privileged frame of the “universe” which is an absolute inertial system.
2) The “absolute velocities” must mean motion with respect to this absolute frame of reference.
3) There is no alternative to the ether hypothesis.
We will return to these issues later, but let’s continue to address the Hafele and Keating equation and apply it to low speed motions on our terrestrial sphere. The equation is displayed below:
Since we are calculating time dilation on a rotating sphere we also have to add a term to correct for direction, since if a plane or train goes west its velocity subtracts from earth’s rotational velocity, if it goes east it adds. This version is shown below:
Applying the Hafele and Keating equation to Einstein’s trains:
Now, if we apply this equation to the predictions Einstein’s made in his special relativity theory (SR) about time dilation in clocks on moving trains, we discover that his original predictions would appear to be in error. We will restrict ourselves in this discussion to the case where the trains travel at the same sea level altitude, so gravitational time dilation need not be considered.
As can be seen from the above figure, the total amount of time dilation experienced by each train travelling at the same speed depends on the cardinal direction. The clock on the train travelling east counted slower compared to the stationary clock at To. The clock on the train travelling west counter faster. The time lost on the eastbound train was 20X higher than that lost on the north and southbound trains.
Einstein Prediction 2: "If one of two synchronous clocks at A is moved in a closed curve with constant velocity until it returns to A, the journey lasting t seconds, then by the clock which has remained at rest the traveled clock on its arrival at A will be 1/2 t v^2/c^2 second slow. Thence we conclude that a balance-clock at the equator must go more slowly, by a very small amount, than a precisely similar clock situated at one of the poles under otherwise identical conditions. See " On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies 1905 p. 11.
This prediction is actually disproved by the Hafele and Keating experiment proper, since the travelled clock obeys equation (2) above. As a consequence, the travelled clock experiences either a gain or a loss of time depending on whether it travels west or east, and this amount is more than the 1/2 t v2/c2 value predicted by Einstein.
Einstein Prediction 3: “If the principle of relativity were not valid we should therefore expect that the direction of motion of the earth at any moment would enter into the laws of nature, and also that physical systems in their behavior would be dependent on the orientation in space with respect to the earth.” Ref: A. Einstein, Relativity, the Special and General Theory, 1920, P. 17-18.
As shown in Fig. 2, we can see that “the direction of motion of the earth” actually does figure in the calculation, in the form of the angular velocity of the earth W. Further, the “orientation in space with respect to the earth” also figures in the calculation, via Cos(f), since the amount of time dilation depends on whether the trains is travelling North, South, East or West along the earth.
Einstein Assertion 4: “The introduction of a “luminiferous ether" will prove to be superfluous inasmuch as the view here to be developed will not require an “absolutely stationary space" provided with special properties, nor assign a velocity-vector to a point of the empty space in which electromagnetic processes take place.” See " On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies 1905 P.1.
Definition of a preferred frame of reference: A frame is said to be physically privileged, when there is some essential physical difference between it and the others. In most historical aether theories, the essential physical difference is that it is the only frame where the speed of light is constant.
Einstein Assertion 5: "We will raise this conjecture (the purport of which will hereafter be called the Principle of Relativity") to the status of a postulate, and also introduce another postulate, which is only apparently irreconcilable with the former, namely, that light is always propagated in empty space with a definite velocity c which is independent of the state of motion of the emitting body." See " On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies 1905 P.1.
A consequence of this is that the measured speed of light for the return journey of the beam from the source to the detector will never be C, but will actually be a variable speed of light, which depends on the direction the beam travels, the radius R of the light path loop and W*cos(f) of the earth similar to the situation of fig. 2.
For example, if we use the values above of a vertical loop of length = 1 meter and the table and observer are at the equator with a counter-clockwise beam, the speed of light is measured as C – 0.0115 mm/s. If the beam goes clockwise, the light beam will be measured to have exceeded the speed of light! We conclude from this experiment that the measured speed of light is not constant. Further, if we consider the two paths A and B to be members of a set of closed paths enclosing an area = x, then path A represents the condition where x = 0, but path B represents every other possible value of x up to infinity. So path A, where the relativistic prediction is met, is the exception, whereas generally, all other possible members of the set will be measured to have a variable speed of light C’ in the laboratory frame – which frankly is the frame that most often matters. This is similar to the situation of Fig. 2, where Einstein’s prediction is only approximately true when the train travels exactly North or South.
The argument usually goes that the setup on the right encloses an area and therefore experiences the Sagnac effect due to the rotation of the earth, and thereby the table is not an inertial frame. However, the two setups share the same frame of reference - so either both setups are invalid for SR, or both are valid. If an argument is going to be made that a speed of light test is invalid because the frame is rotating, or the observer is rotating, then we have to discard all speed of light tests to date since every place that humans have performed a test on the earth or in near space have always been experiencing some form of rotation, either diurnal or orbital, which in modern times has become readily visible. As Hafele and Keating say in their paper, inertial motion must be referenced to a universal reference frame.
Another common argument is to say that the path length has changed due to the rotation and this is why the speed of light is not measured to be C. But for our figure 3B the path length does not change for our laboratory observer since the loop is stationary in his frame. In fact, all observers anywhere on the earth would observe some degree of variable speed of light in the loop except an observer at the earth's pole** – but if we choose this singular position as the only valid observer, i.e. the only one who measures a path change sufficient that C = C’, are we not establishing the pole as a preferred frame of reference over all others? A singular frame where the speed of light is constant, just like in aether theories? Relative inertial frames of reference existed only to the extent that we could not detect their rotation – now that we can routinely detect diurnal rotation in our optical instruments and clocks, can we really say that a purely inertial frame of reference still exists independent of the non-rotating universe?
Fig 4: A Sphere of contradiction.
If the speed of light is constant for inertial observers, and inertial motion is referenced to an absolute inertial system, then the speed of light is only constant in an absolute reference system or in some restricted motion with respect to it. The Hafele and Keating experiment would appear to oblige relativity to adopt the same definition as many ether theories - i.e. the speed of light is constant in a preferred reference frame similar to the ideas of Lorentz.
Although the Hafele and Keating experiment did confirm the gravitational time dilation effect on clocks predicted by Einstein, the velocity time dilation predictions of special relativity (1905) at low velocities would seem to have been proven wrong, since the Sagnac term was not accounted for. I personally do not consider the Sagnac effect relativistic simply because it involves time dilation - the concept of time dilation was not conceived of by Einstein, but rather by Lorentz and Larmor. Further, time dilation can be construed as simply an error in clock readings, as discussed here. The Sagnac term is at odds with a fundamental tenet of relativity theory by requiring an absolute frame of reference for both rotational and inertial motion, defining the latter as relative to a non-rotating universal frame. Why then has the Sagnac effect been rebranded as “relativistic”? Some have cited Max van Laue as discussing the effect (after the proposal of Michelson in 1904, before Einstein was even known) in terms of special relativity in 1911. What he actually says of it is that “it's not possible to decide between the theory of relativity and the stationary aether theory by the proposed experiment.” This sentiment was continued by Silberstein, who was involved in getting Michelson to perform the Michelson-Gale Experiment (via A.C. Lunn). This is what Silberstein said about relativity and the Sagnac Effect:
”The special relativity theory is wholly incompetent to deal with the problem of light propagation in a rotating system rigorously, simply because it has nothing to do with any reference systems other than the Galilean or inertial ones, i.e. the fixed star system S*.” Silberstein further said of the general relativity treatment of the Sagnac effect: “…the relativity theory is unable to construct the required line element on its own great principles, and is content to transcribe it from the Galilean line element…”
So relativity theory would appear to contribute little to understanding the effect. However in the mid-80’s the Hafele and Keating experiment began to be referred to as a “relativistic Sagnac experiment”, attributed to Allan, Weiss and Ashby. They said that the principle of the constancy of the speed of light leads to a prediction of the Sagnac effect in rotating systems; this is an interesting comment since the constant speed of light in their example is in the non-rotating frame of reference - i.e. the frame of the fixed stars just as in Fig. 4 above. This underlines the extent to which "relativistic" has become interchangeable with "absolute."
* Note – the first reference we can find mentioning that the Sagnac effect is rotation with respect to the “fixed stars” for both aether and relativity theories, is L. Silberstein’s paper from 1921.
** Even this doesn’t solve the problem, since a pole observer will still be rotating with respect to the fixed stars.
Redefining Motion after the
Hafele and Keating Experiment
Redefining Motion after the Hafele and Keating Experiment
The following description would seem to be implied from the
explanation of Hafele, Keating and Builder. Shown below is a drawing of
our earth and sun moving through space. "Absolute space " is assumed
for convenience herein to be the frame of the microwave background
radiation (CMBr), although it could be some other unknown frame.
We first define our non-rotating inertial observer in
space, who is stationary with the CMBr. This is the
shown below holding the red loop.
The red arrows represent "absolute velocities" (as defined
by Builder) in straight lines with respect to this frame of
reference. This observer is the one referred to as an
observer". If he measures the speed of light around his loop
will be equal to C. If he sends clocks around the loop, their
of time will be slower in either direction. This should also be true if
he moves in a straight line from his stationary position at some
absolute velocity. However, this observer
is unrealistic - a realistic observer would be on a planet or
inside a solar system. Let's place such an observer on the
(shown with the green
This observer is non-inertial since he is experiencing three different
rotations with respect to the CMBr - diurnal, solar, and galactic.
Because of this, no matter how he orients his loop, the measured speed
of light around it will never be exactly C, and will differ in each
direction. His clocks moving around the loop will count
slower depending on their direction. Placing the observer at the
pole of the earth in a position such that he is not rotating with
respect to the fixed stars, doesn't change the speed of light but makes
visible a path difference such that C = C' This
approximates the frame of the observer with the red loop.
The following description would seem to be implied from the explanation of Hafele, Keating and Builder. Shown below is a drawing of our earth and sun moving through space. "Absolute space " is assumed for convenience herein to be the frame of the microwave background radiation (CMBr), although it could be some other unknown frame. We first define our non-rotating inertial observer in stationary space, who is stationary with the CMBr. This is the observer shown below holding the red loop. The red arrows represent "absolute velocities" (as defined by Builder) in straight lines with respect to this frame of reference. This observer is the one referred to as an "inertial observer". If he measures the speed of light around his loop it will be equal to C. If he sends clocks around the loop, their rate of time will be slower in either direction. This should also be true if he moves in a straight line from his stationary position at some absolute velocity. However, this observer is unrealistic - a realistic observer would be on a planet or in space inside a solar system. Let's place such an observer on the earth (shown with the green loop). This observer is non-inertial since he is experiencing three different rotations with respect to the CMBr - diurnal, solar, and galactic. Because of this, no matter how he orients his loop, the measured speed of light around it will never be exactly C, and will differ in each direction. His clocks moving around the loop will count faster or slower depending on their direction. Placing the observer at the pole of the earth in a position such that he is not rotating with respect to the fixed stars, doesn't change the speed of light but makes visible a path difference such that C = C' This approximates the frame of the observer with the red loop. | http://www.conspiracyoflight.com/Hafele/HafeleKeating.html | fineweb | 19,300 | 3.421875 |
A hammertoe is a contracture—or bending—of the toe at the first joint of the digit, called the proximal interphalangeal joint. This bending causes the toe to appear like an upside-down V when looked at from the side. Any toe can be involved, but the condition usually affects the second through fifth toes, known as the lesser digits. Hammertoes are more common to females than males.There are two different types:
These are less serious because they can be diagnosed and treated while still in the developmental stage. They are called flexible hammertoes because they are still moveable at the joint.
This variety is more developed and more serious than the flexible condition. Rigid hammertoes can be seen in patients with severe arthritis, for example, or in patients who wait too long to seek professional treatment. The tendons in a rigid hammertoe have become tight, and the joint misaligned and immobile, making surgery the usual course of treatment.
A hammertoe is formed due an abnormal balance of the muscles in the toes. This abnormal balance causes increased pressures on the tendons and joints of the toe, leading to its contracture. Heredity and trauma can also lead to the formation of a hammertoe. Arthritis is another factor, because the balance around the toe in people with arthritis is so disrupted that a hammertoe may develop. Wearing shoes that are too tight and cause the toes to squeeze can also be a cause for a hammertoe to form.
The treatment options vary with the type and severity of each hammertoe, although identifying the deformity early in its development is important to avoid surgery. Podiatric medical attention should be sought at the first indication of pain and discomfort because, if left untreated, hammertoes tend to become rigid, making a nonsurgical treatment less of an option.
Your podiatric physician will examine and X-ray the affected area and recommend a treatment plan specific to your condition.
Often this is the first step in a treatment plan. Padding the hammertoe prominence minimizes pain and allows the patient to continue a normal, active life. Taping may change the imbalance around the toes and thus relieve the stress and pain.
Anti-inflammatory drugs and cortisone injections can be prescribed to ease acute pain and inflammation caused by the joint deformity.
Custom shoe inserts made by your podiatrist may be useful in controlling foot function. An orthotic device may reduce symptoms and prevent the worsening of the hammertoe deformity.
Several surgical procedures are available to the podiatric physician. For less severe deformities, the surgery will remove the bony prominence and restore normal alignment of the toe joint, thus relieving pain.
Severe hammertoes, which are not fully reducible, may require more complex surgical procedures.
Recuperation takes time, and some swelling and discomfort are common for several weeks following surgery. Any pain, however, is easily managed with medications prescribed by your podiatric physician.
Remember that foot pain is not normal. Healthy, pain-free feet are a key to your independence. At the first sign of pain, or any noticeable changes in your feet, seek professional podiatric medical care. Your feet must last a lifetime, and most Americans log an amazing 75,000 miles on their feet by the time they reach age 50. Regular foot care can make sure your feet are up to the task. With proper detection, intervention, and care, most foot and ankle problems can be lessened or prevented. Remember that the advice provided in this pamphlet should not be used as a substitute for a consultation or evaluation by a podiatric physician.
Your podiatric physician/surgeon has been trained specifically and extensively in the diagnosis and treatment of all manner of foot conditions. This training encompasses all of the intricately related systems and structures of the foot and lower leg including neurological, circulatory, skin, and the musculoskeletal system, which includes bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, muscles, and nerves. | http://www.ctfoot.com/hammertoes.html | fineweb | 4,049 | 3.1875 |
Gandhi Goes to Champaran to Investigate Conditions of Local Farmers
Bhumihar Brahmins in Champaran had earlier revolted against the conditions of indigo cultivation in 1914 (at Pipra) and 1916 (Turkaulia). Then Pandit Raj Kumar Shukla persuaded Mahatma Gandhi to visit Champaran and the "Champaran Satyagraha" began.
At around the same time the Indian National Congress in December 1916 passed at Lucknow a resolution requesting the Government to appoint a committee of both officials and non-officials to inquire into the agrarian trouble facing the district.
Gandhi's historic visit to Champaran was opposed by the British rulers. An order asking him to leave Champaran was served upon him as soon as he arrived at Motihari. Gandhi defied the order. Of the several prominent persons who rallied round him, mention may be made of Dr. Rajendra Prasad,Acharya Kriplani, Mahadeo Desai, C. F. Andrews, H. S. Pollock, Dr. Anugrah Narayan Singh, Raj Kishore Prasad, Ram Nawami Prasad and Dharnidhar Prasad. After considerable struggle the Government was compelled to lift the ban on Gandhi's stay here. For the first time on Indian soil Satyagraha (Non-Violence) was successfully put to the test. Eventually a committee of inquiry was appointed by the Government under the chairmanship of Frank Shy. Gandhi was also made one of the members of the committee. On the basis of valued recommendations of the committee, the Champaran Agraria Law (Bihar and Orissa Act I of 1918) was passed.
In 1920, Gandhi made an extensive tour of Bihar before launching the non-co-operation movement, which earned full support in the district as well. In 1929, a group of volunteers from Champran district came to demonstrate against the Simon commission. In the same year the 21st session of the Bihar students conference was held at Motihari.
As a reaction against the failure of the round table conference held in 1932 there was a popular gathering at Motihari to take the pledge for Independence. Police fired upon the gatherings and charged the demonstrators, armed with lathis.
In course of time, the development of synthetic dyes made the cultivation of indigo redundant.
The fact that he was committed to abstention from political agitation during the war did not prevent Gandhi from championing just grievances which could not brook delay. In the summer of 1917, he went to the indigo-growing district of Champaran and took up the cause of the tenants against the European planters. The same year he led the textile workers of Ahmedabad in a strike against the mill-owners. The following year, he agitated for reduction of land tax in Kaira district where crops had suffered from the failure of rains. The local officers were perturbed by Gandhi’s activities but the Government was anxious not to precipi9tate a show-down. Gandhi himself took care to localize these conflicts and sought solutions which secured a modicum of rustice to the workers and peasants without creating a national crisis. | https://worldhistoryproject.org/1917/4/gandhi-goes-to-champaran-to-investigate-conditions-of-local-farmers | fineweb | 2,980 | 2.734375 |
What happened to the Hohokam? This issue of Archaeology Southwest explores initial results of the Center’s long-term research on the dramatic population decline that occurred in the southern Southwest almost a century before the arrival of the Spaniards. Contributors discuss the impact of migration on demographic change, as well as the methodologies they employ to address this complex research problem. Patterns are described for each of five study areas: the lower Salt River Valley, Perry Mesa, the lower San Pedro Valley, the Tonto Basin, and the Safford Basin. The issue closes with a summary of preliminary conclusions and ongoing avenues of inquiry. | https://www.archaeologysouthwest.org/product/immigrants-and-population-collapse-in-the-southwest-22-04-hardcopy/ | fineweb | 658 | 2.75 |
Penny licks were England’s most nefarious ice cream paraphernalia. As the name suggests, a few licks of ice cream cost just a penny. Contracting tuberculosis was free.
Ice cream began to achieve widespread popularity in the England in the mid 1800s. Before the invention of the cone, ice cream vendors, or Jacks, served scoops in cups called penny licks. They hawked ice cream in ha’penny (half penny) and tu’penny (two penny) licks, too. But the standard penny lick was most popular.
These small glasses were designed especially for ice cream. Their bottom-heavy build kept them stable as Jacks paddled peaks of frozen cream on top, and their conical shape and the thick glass obscured the magnitude of their contents. Even the tiniest dollop of ice cream appeared bountiful.
During the penny lick’s day, Englishmen had little conception of germs. After finishing their ice cream, customers handed back their well-licked penny lick, and the next customer ate from the same cup. Because of the conical openings, Jacks couldn’t keep the narrow point clean if they tried. Penny licks became the perfect vessel for transmitting disease.
As tuberculosis swept the nation, the medical community pointed at ice cream vendors. A 1879 English medical report blamed a cholera outbreak on the reuse of glassware, and fear of tuberculosis led the city of London to ban penny licks in 1899. Some undeterred ice cream vendors used the unsanitary serving cups until they were more widely banned in the 1920s and 1930s. By that time, a new ice cream vessel reigned supreme. Waffle cones nudged the penny lick from the public’s hands, and they remain a safe, single-use crowd pleaser to this day.
Next time you’re enjoying a cone on the street, remember: That melting scoop of frozen cream didn’t always come free of infectious disease.
Need to Know
Penny licks are a rare collectible these days. Wash well before using.
Visit England with Atlas Obscura Trips
Folklore and Magic of Southern England
Mythical castles and ancient witchcraft, ecological biomes and fairy-tale forests, sea tractors and flaming tar barrels—all this awaits you on our one-of-a-kind exploration of southern England's historic haunts and eccentric traditions. | https://www.atlasobscura.com/foods/penny-lick-ice-cream | fineweb | 2,219 | 3.046875 |
Date: January 2017
Duration: 0 hours 15 minutes
LibriVox volunteers bring you 15 recordings of Petals by Amy Lowell. This was the Weekly Poetry project for November 27, 2011.
Amy Lawrence Lowell (February 9, 1874 - May 12, 1925) was an American poet of the imagist school from Brookline, Massachusetts who posthumously won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1926. Lowell was born into Brookline's prominent Lowell family, sister to astronomer Percival Lowell and Harvard president Abbott Lawrence Lowell.
She never attended college because her family did not consider that proper for a woman, but she compensated with avid reading and near-obsessive book collecting. She lived as a socialite and travelled widely, turning to poetry in 1902 after being inspired by a performance of Eleonora Duse in Europe. In the post-World War II years, Lowell, like other women writers, was largely forgotten, but with the renaissance of the women's movement in the 1970s, women's studies brought her back to light. According to Heywood Broun, however, Lowell personally argued against feminism. Her poem, "Petals" is published in her collection A Dome of Many-Colored Glass (1912). (Summary adapted from Wikipedia by Bob Gonzalez) | https://www.audiobooks.com/audiobook/petals/307791 | fineweb | 1,214 | 3.109375 |
You’ve probably heard the advice hundreds of times: “Brush your teeth after every meal.” While I agree with that wisdom to protect your oral health, I’d like to share a caution for those who rise from the table and go directly to the sink.
Foods and beverages create an acid attack in the mouth. While this acid helps to break food down so the digestive system can begin processing it more efficiently, it can also cause damage to teeth by eroding enamel.
Some foods and beverages even amplify the effects of this acid. Citrus, for example, when part of this acid attack, causes a more severe attack on teeth. Just as worse are colas, anything with sugar, pickled and vinegar-based foods, tomato-based foods, are only a few items that can accentuate the damage to tooth enamel.
By all means, BRUSH after each meal, but wait about 30 minutes. This allows time for oral saliva to ‘rinse’ the mouth as the acid attack subsides. If you’re at work and find it difficult to delay brushing after a meal, consider swishing with water followed by chewing sugarless gum.
It’s our goal to help you prevent problems from occurring in the first place and avoid the time and expense for repairs. Enjoy healthy meals and brush and floss – just pace things to an optimal advantage for your smile! | https://www.banrbarbatdds.com/pace-tooth-brushing-after-eating-to-protect-enamel/ | fineweb | 1,280 | 2.703125 |
Biology GCSE & IGCSE Question Bank, with Exercises and Discussions
Sections 1-5 correspond to the sections in GCSE Biology and IGCSE Biology. Sections 6 and 7 are drawn from Chapters 30-39.
Exercises and Discussions. These questions are more demanding and test Interpretation of data (I), Hypothesis formulation and design (H), Experimental design (E), Application of biological information (A), Comprehension of scientific articles (C) as well as simple recall (R).
The documents are offered in Word format. If you do not have Microsoft Word installed you can download Word Viewer free here. The documents can be viewed or downloaded individually, or complete sections can be downloaded in a zip file with the All zipped links.
Interactive questions. The interactive multiple choice questions correspond to the multiple choice questions in GCSE and IGCSE exam papers. They are in PowerPoint format and should be run as a slideshow. Each set contains approximately 20 questions. Correct answers are indicated as well as explanations of the reasons for rejecting the alternatives. We recommend that you download the PowerPoints and run them from your disk. If you do not have PowerPoint installed you can download PowerPoint Viewer free here.
Section 1. Principles of biology
Section 2. Flowering plants
Section 3. Human physiology
Section 4. Genetics and heredity
Section 5. Organisms and their environment
Section 6. Living organisms
Section 7. Disease transmission and control
Exercises and Discussions
Interactive questions (PowerPoint)
|Search this site|
|Search the web|
© Copyright 2004 - 2017 D G Mackean & Ian Mackean. All rights reserved. | http://www.biology-resources.com/biology-questions.html | fineweb | 1,647 | 3.75 |
From History of Southwest Virginia, 1746-1786, By Lewis Preston Summers, copyright 1903, p. 106
[I]n the year 1769, the House of Burgesses of Virginia passed an act for the division of Augusta county, and all that part of Augusta county lying south and west of the North river, near Lexington, Va., was given the name of Botetourt county, and thus a new county was formed, which included all that part of Virginia in which we live and about which I write.
The act establishing Botetourt county provided that from and after the 31st day of January next ensuing, 1770, the said county and parish of Augusta be divided into two counties and parishes by a line beginning at the Blue Ridge, running north 55 degrees west to the confluence of Mary's creek, or the South river, with the north branch of James river, thence up the same to the mouth of Carr's creek, thence up said creek to the mountain, thence north 55 degrees west as far as the courts of the two counties had it extended, and further.
Whereas the people situated on the waters of the Mis- sisippi in the said county of Botetourt will be very remote from their courthouse and must necessarily become a separate county as soon as their numbers are sufficient, which probably will happen in a short time, be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid that the inhabitants of that part of said county of Botetourt which lies on the said waters shall be exempted from the payment of any levies to be laid by the said county court for the purpose of building a courthouse and prison for said county.
It will thus be seen that the organization of the county of Bote- tourt was intended to be temporary only. | http://www.botetourthistory.com/2009/05/botetourts-beginnings.html | fineweb | 1,664 | 2.71875 |
Now is about the time many people begin the yearly chore of digging out all those receipts and other papers needed to complete their tax returns.
This can be a painful, if unavoidable, exercise. But it's also useful, as it allows us to figure out exactly just how much tax we pay.
So how highly are Australians taxed compared with people in other countries?
In short, not very. However, it's unlikely this comparatively light level of taxation can last over the longer term.
Australia was the sixth least-taxed country of the 34 members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, latest figures show.
Total taxes revenue was worth 26 per cent of gross domestic product in 2010, compared with an OECD average ratio of 33.8 per cent.
What this means for individuals clearly varies depending on how much they earn. People who made more than $180,000 in 2011-12, for instance, pay a marginal rate of 45c in the dollar - higher than several OECD countries.
But overall, the tax burden on Australian wage earners is lower than most wealthy countries, and has been falling for the past decade.
The question is, can this last?
Until recently, we were accustomed to receiving regular income-tax cuts.
The ratio of tax to GDP fell from more than 30 per cent in 2000 to 26 per cent today, helped in part by back-to-back income-tax cuts during the Howard years and the early years of Labor's present government.
Further cuts in income tax, however, appear unlikely for now. That's because other sources of revenue are no longer growing like they used to.
The slump in house prices and sharemarkets has smashed capital gains tax revenue and the housing boom looks increasingly unlikely to return.
As well, miners are unlikely to pay huge amounts of tax any time soon because they are spending so much on new mines, which gives them big deductions.
For the longer term, the growing cost of caring for an ageing population is also likely to require more taxation, not less.
So, while today we pay relatively low levels of tax compared with other countries, this situation might not last forever. | http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/money/tax/insight-tax-20120723-22lol | fineweb | 2,100 | 2.671875 |
Musée Mémoire 39/45
Calais’ geographical assets have attracted them all...the Romans, Napoleon, Nazi Germany... At very different periods in history, armies have massed along the Côte d’Opale with just one ambition: to invade Britain! During the Second World War, the German occupiers identified the Pas de Calais as a potential site for the Allied landings.
As a result, Calais and its surrounding areas was one of the key sectors of the Atlantic Wall, the system of coastal fortifications which extended from Norway to the French/Spanish border. If you travel through the area (and venture more deeply into it), you can still find the remains of a large number of concrete constructions of all sizes: observation posts, anti-aircraft and anti-tank defences, coastal batteries etc. Many different type of fortifications, of varying sizes, are still scattered around the region, some in good condition and others damaged or displaced by the movement of the dunes. Of the mighty coastal batteries in the Calais area, the Lindemann Battery, to the west, has disappeared but the Oldenburg Battery, to the east, gives us some idea of what these concrete fortresses were like.
The Second World War proved particularly difficult for the Calais region, which suffered huge devastation: 73% of Old Calais (what is now the Calais Nord quarter) was destroyed. In the Calais region, there a number of museums which document this period of history. Most of them, including the Musée Mémoire 1939-1945 in Calais, have been set up in buildings from the period.
Captured by the German army after a fierce battle (22-26 May 1940), Calais was, four years later, one of the pockets of German resistance on the French coast. The city was finally liberated by the Canadian Army on 30 September 1944.
Calais’ Musée Mémoire was the “Mako”, the German Kriegsmarine’s command bunker in the sector. With its 21 exhibition halls, it is the place to learn about the Second World War’s impact on Calais.
One of the halls focuses on General de Gaulle, leader of the Free French... and also the husband of Calais-born Yvonne Vendroux.
Within a radius of 50 kilometres or so of Calais, you can visit a number of museums and fortresses which serve as a reminder of the occupying power’s omnipresence in the region. These include V2 and V3 secret weapons bases, a reconstructed V1 launch ramp and the remains of flying bomb installations. The Blockhaus (bunker) in Eperlecques, the Fortress of Mimoyecques, La Coupole in Helfaut and the Ambleteuse and Audinghen Museums are some of the best of the remembrance sites with which the region abounds.
Now, as we mark the Centenary of the Great War, it is worth recalling how Calais played a role in that conflict, as an important Inter-Allied base, with a major logistical function. As early as August 1914, Calais, with its port facing its ally Britain and its proximity to its beleaguered Belgian neighbour, was involved in the conflict. Tens of thousands of soldiers stayed in or passed through Calais... forcing the German Air Force, employing mainly Zeppelins, to bomb the city. Now, Commonwealth, Belgian, German and French war cemeteries, and war graves in civilian cemeteries, serve as reminders of the toll which the First World War took on the Calais region. The Office de Tourisme Intercommunal Calais Côte d’Opale has produced a brochure chronicling Calais’ involvement in the Great War. It can be downloaded free from their website: | http://www.calais-cotedopale.co.uk/discovering/eventful-history/atlantic-wall | fineweb | 3,458 | 3.0625 |
Advanced Binders for High-Tech Applications
Since the 1930s, ceramists have attempted to develop novel ceramic plate and film forming processes and techniques that would support the growing trend toward miniaturization within the electronic components sector. The first generation of ceramic slips based on resins such as polyvinyl chloride co-polymers required high levels of solvent to generate the necessary low viscosity. Additionally, they contained low levels of ceramic oxide pigment, and the binders did not burn out very efficiently. Successive generations of ceramic slips evolved to incorporate polymers based on vinyl and acrylic chemistry that were suitable for thin-film ceramic tape processing. The major difference between the two polymer classes is the way each degrades in an oxidative environment. Polyacrylates (acrylics) tend to unzip, while polyvinyls (such as polyvinyl butyral [PVB] and polyvinyl alcohol [PVOH]) tend to degrade through elimination and dehydration reactions during binder burnout.
Over the past several decades, an increasing number of electronic component manufacturers have begun using polyvinyl butyral as the temporary binder. With its efficient pigment wetting capabilities, tightly controlled molecular weight distribution, clean endothermic burnout and high oxide ceramic pigment binding capacity, polyvinyl butyral provides opportunities for further advances in oxide ceramic-based passive fabrication technology.
History of High-Tech BindersThe trend toward miniaturization began when the interruption of the international maritime commercial trade routes, which were used for export trade from mineral rich countries such as India during World War II, led to a shortage of capacitor-grade mica. A private/public sector research consortium was established during the 1940s to develop alternatives to mica-based passives. In 1948, Glenn N. Howatt, while working for the consortium, published a major technological breakthrough that paved the way for the formation of thin ceramic plates via a continuous belt.1
During the 1950s, Warren J. Gyurk teamed with Glen Howatt at Glenco Corp. in Metuchen, N.J., to develop some of the earliest prototype passives based on BaTiO3, ferrite and lead zirconate titanate (PZT).2 Afterwards, Gyurk joined the staff at Radio Corp. of America, Inc. (RCA) to collaborate on a military project called the Army Module Program. While working for RCA, he developed several application patents for laminating BaTiO3 films in multiple layers of 25.4 microns each.3 The slip formulation used to produce the ceramic film used a vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate copolymer as the binder. The new manufacturing process would serve as the foundation for the production of a new class of passives—multilayer ceramic capacitors (MLCCs).
During the 1960s, John L. Park, a researcher from the Chattanooga, Tenn.-based American Lava Corp., advanced the work of Howatt with the proposal to discharge the ceramic slip through a small orifice in a pool onto a flexible supporting tape. The patent suggested that the supporting tape could be based on polytetrafluoroethylene or glycol terephthalic acid polyester. Park was one of the first scientists to publish information about ceramic slip formulations based on polyvinyl butyral for use in tape casting applications.4
Today, thin ceramic films that use polyvinyl butyral as the temporary binder are incorporated into MLCCs, low temperature co-fired ceramics (LTCCs), lithium-ion membranes, metal brazing strips, bioceramics, solid oxide fuel cells, thick-film printable polymer insulator pastes, and many other electronic component fabrication processes. As many product engineers have discovered, polyvinyl butyral provides a host of benefits in these and other advanced ceramic applications.
Polyvinyl Butyral DevelopmentPolyvinyl butyral belongs to a class of chemicals called polyvinyl acetals. Starting in 1922, Dr. Willy O. Hermann published a series of patents that described the invention of polyvinyl acetals while working for Consortium fuer Elektrochemishe Industrie GmbH in Munich, Germany.5,6,7 The advances in the field of acetal chemistry made by Hermann and his team at the Consortium—which is now the corporate research facility of Wacker-Chemie GmbH—are commercially available today as advanced polyvinyl butyral resins.*
Polyvinyl butyral is a thermoplastic resin manufactured through a three-step condensation reaction. First, vinyl acetate is polymerized to poly (vinyl acetate). The poly (vinyl acetate) is then saponified to poly (vinyl alcohol), and the alcohol is reacted with butyraldehyde to form polyvinyl butyral. For this reason, polyvinyl butyral should be considered a ter-polymer with functional pendant hydroxyl groups. When used as the main binder in the formulation of ceramic slips, polyvinyl butyral acts as a secondary dispersing agent for the ceramic particle. The polymer exhibits good solubility in low-cost alcohol and glycol ether solvents due to the presence of pendant hydroxyl groups on the polymer chain backbone. It is also soluble in most aromatic and aliphatic solvents.
Advantages in Ceramic ApplicationsLeading-edge researchers of passive components are actively involved in the development of fabrication processes for ceramic tapes yielding film thickness less than 1 µm. To support the advancement of these technologies, manufacturers of ceramic particles and organic binders must develop products with improved performance. The widespread use of submicron ceramic particles has stimulated a new round of research by polyvinyl butyral manufacturers to develop resins with an improved pigment wetting capability, a higher pigment binding capacity and tighter control over the molecular weight distribution. Compared to acrylic and cellulose-based systems, polyvinyl butyral offers broader compatibility with the additives and solvent blends that are often required to support the higher ceramic density of the film upon firing. Typically, as the solids loading increases, drying-related defects in the ceramic film—such as shrinkage, cracking and film porosity—decrease with the use of polyvinyl butyral.
In a submicron particle size environment, it is important that the binder adequately coat the large surface area of the particles to ensure that they are adequately separated within the green ceramic body. The thermolysis of the ceramic green body within a temperature range above the thermal degradation temperature of polyvinyl butyral (T = 170 degrees C), but well below the classical sintering temperature of 1000 degrees C, reveals that the concentration of the degradation products from polyvinyl butyral rises rapidly and then diminishes as the binders diffuse to the surface of the green body. The propensity of a binder to exhibit clean burnout is extremely important to prevent the development of flaws and to minimize carbon residues that may inhibit sintering. The minimization of carbonaceous residue within the ceramic body is especially important when the ceramic is co-fired with an oxidizing metal such as copper, since the reducing conditions may aggravate carbon formation. Systems based on polyvinyl butyral are known to exhibit clean burnout characteristics in low temperature co-firing systems with metallization.
In thin-film tape casting applications, both degradation reactions and volatile transport occur simultaneously during thermolysis; therefore, it is important to control the molecular weight of the polymer to improve the probability that the degradation byproducts will diffuse uniformly to the surface of the green body. During the manufacture of polyvinyl butyral, care is taken to ensure that the acetalization process of polyvinyl alcohol and butryaldehyde occur within a defined temperature range to generate a targeted molecular weight and distribution. Such control over the molecular weight distribution is necessary to ensure excellent solvent solubility at the individual polymer particle level and uniform burnout during pyrolosis.
Polyvinyl butyral can decompose by a cyclic-elimination mechanism to release butyraldehyde, with associated chain breakage, leaving aldehyde and unsaturated end-groups.8 In the late stages of this process, various products, including crotonaldehyde and unsaturated hydrocarbons, form by breakage at adjacent sites. Masia et. al. studied the effect of oxides on the burnout of binders.9 They concluded that the surface chemistry of oxides in a polyvinyl butyral ceramic oxide film has a strong catalytic effect on the activation energy and, hence, the decomposition rate of the polyvinyl butyral resin. In LTCC applications, a shift to the left of the polymer’s decomposition temperature profile can provide a ceramist more formulation latitude to incorporate more exotic metal compositions during the metallization process.
In addition, Masia found that selected polyvinyl butyral-containing ceramic green bodies undergoing thermolysis in an oxidative environment yield three decomposition phases, and that the degradation temperature of polyvinyl butyral shifts to lower temperatures depending on the type of ceramic used. Therefore, upon fabrication of the ceramic tape to a component, the burnout schedule should match the polymer/oxide ceramic combination to ensure a low probability for sintered part defects due to bubbling and warpage.
Expanding OpportunitiesThe rapid increase in the demand of passive components used in wireless communications, automobiles and computer products has, in turn, generated a significant level of interest in the use of polyvinyl butyral for the fabrication of low dielectric constant LTCC packages. These dielectrics are designed to address the need for higher signal propagation speed, good reliability and easy fabrication. Recent advances in glass-ceramic composites10 will only further reinforce the popularity of polyvinyl butyral in this field, due to its excellent adhesive and wetting properties to glass surfaces.
Polyvinyl butyral resin suppliers are devoting an increasing proportion of their overall research and development expenditures to developing the next generation of polyvinyl butyral resins that meet the higher mechanical and electrical requirements for use in specialized passive component applications. The push toward miniaturization of passive components through the use of submicron ceramic particles and the incorporation of crystallizing and filled glass particles into the ceramic matrix has re-established polyvinyl butyral as a leading binder of choice in critical, high-performance thin-film ceramic tape applications.
For more information:For more information about polyvinyl butyral resin developments, contact Wacker Polymer Systems, L.P., 3301 Sutton Rd., Adrian, MI 49221; (517) 264-8160; fax (517) 264-8137; or e-mail [email protected] (U.S.) or [email protected] (Germany).
References:1. G. N. Howatt, “Method of Producing High Dielectric Constant High Insulation Ceramic Plates,” U.S. Pat. No. 2,582,993, 1948.
2. R.E. Mistler, “Tape Casting: Past, Present, Potential,” October 1998, www.ceramicbulletin.org/months/Oct98/cast2.html
3. W. J. Gyurk, “Methods for Manufacturing Monolithic Ceramic Bodies,” U.S. Pat. No. 3,192,086, 1965.
4. J. L. Park Jr., “Manufacture of Ceramics,” U.S. Pat. No. 2,966,719, 1961.
5. W.O. Hermann, GB Pat. No. 182,459, 1922.
6. W.O. Hermann, GB Pat. No. 184,442, 1922.
7. W.O. Hermann, GB Pat. No. 185,107, 1922.
8. F. Bakt, Pakistan J. Sci. Ind. Res. 26 (1), 1983, p. 35.
9. S.Masia, P.D. Calvert, W.E. Rhine, and H.K. Bowen, “Binder Burnout: The Effect of Surface Chemistry on Carbon Residue Elimination,” J. Mater. Sci., 24, 1907 (1989).
10. K. Niwa, N. Kamehera, H. Yokoyama and Kurihara, “Multilayer Ceramic Circuit Board with Copper Conductor,” Westerville, OH, 1986, p. 4.
*These resins are commercially available as PIOLOFORM, a registered trademark of Wacker Polymer Systems, L.P., Adrian, Mich. | http://www.ceramicindustry.com/articles/86424-advanced-binders-for-high-tech-applications | fineweb | 11,976 | 3.015625 |
Subsets and Splits