Datasets:

Hieuman
/

wikitext-103-filtered

Dataset card Viewer Files Files and versions Community

Split (1)

train · 717k rows

query stringlengths 71 5.31k
Kirby 's Block Ball is a 1995 action video game , a spin @-@ off from the Kirby series for the Game Boy portable console . It is a Breakout clone ; the player controls paddles along the screen 's edge to knock a bouncing ball , Kirby , into destructible bricks . The game 's 55 levels include power @-@ ups , bonus rounds , and minigames . Kirby 's Block Ball was developed by HAL Laboratory and Nintendo R & D1 . The team spent half a year revising the gameplay to match Kirby 's signature characteristics . Kirby 's Block Ball was published by Nintendo first in Japan in 1995 , later in Europe , and last in North America in 1996 .
Reviewers considered the game an improvement on the Breakout formula and praised its gameplay craftsmanship and incorporation of the Kirby series . It was included in multiple top Game Boy game lists and was later emulated on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console .
The player controls paddles along the screen 's edges to knock a bouncing ball , Kirby , into destructible bricks . The player loses a life if Kirby hits the edge of the screen . Each of the game 's eleven stages include five rounds of increasingly complex block patterns for Kirby to clear . The ten different block types vary in durability and points value . A well @-@ timed hit of the paddle gives Kirby a powerful bounce to break through harder blocks . Another block type turns the remaining blocks into a bonus round that rewards the player for clearing the screen in the least amount of time . The player can find warp stars that lead to minigames , such as air hockey , where the player can earn extra lives . The rounds also include enemies to attack and avoid . Some enemies contain bonus items . Each stage ends in a boss fight .
With stone , needle , flame , and spark power @-@ ups , Kirby can transform to interact with blocks differently . For instance , the spark power @-@ up lets Kirby break through otherwise indestructible blocks , and the needle lets Kirby hit spikes once without losing a life . The game has a themed frame and uses a wide palette of colors in @-@ game when played with the Super Game Boy .
The game was developed by HAL Laboratory with Gunpei Yokoi 's Nintendo R & D1 , and published by Nintendo . At one point in development , HAL decided that the game did not feel like a Kirby game . The team spent six months completely revising the game under explicit instructions on how Kirby should move . Kirby games contain elements of unrestricted , creative movement as a general theme . Kirby 's Block Ball was released for the Game Boy first in Japan in 1995 and later in Europe ( 1995 ) and North America ( May 1996 ) . It was later emulated on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console , and released first in Japan ( October 2011 ) and later in Europe ( February 2012 ) and North America ( May 2012 ) .
On release , the four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly applauded Kirby 's Block Ball for modifying the Breakout formula to create a new and enjoyable game . They especially praised the unique power @-@ ups , though Crispin Boyer and Sushi X also felt the game was too short and easy . Nintendo Power said they enjoyed Block Ball and its number of stages , but wondered how its eight megabits of memory were being used . The magazine found the parts where Kirby eats the unbreakable blocks to be innovative . All six of the magazine 's reviewers recommended the game .
IGN wrote that the game was primarily remembered as " an Arkanoid or Breakout clone skinned with the Kirby franchise " . IGN calculated an average reviewer score of 7 @.@ 4 / 10 . The Kirby series became known for its number of non @-@ platformer spin @-@ offs , of which Block Ball was one , like Kirby 's Pinball Land and Kirby 's Dream Course . Kirby 's spherical shape lent itself towards ball @-@ like roles . IGN wrote that Block Ball was the first " truly out there " Kirby spin @-@ off , but that the game was too short .
Planet Game Boy called it one of the original Game Boy 's ten " all @-@ time classics " and GamesRadar placed it among the top 25 Game Boy games released . They considered Kirby 's Block Ball an improvement upon Alleyway , a Game Boy launch title and Breakout clone . IGN recommended the game upon its 3DS rerelease both in general and for Breakout fans . Nintendo World Report recommended the game to players who like score attack games and called it the best version of Breakout released . Retrospective reviewers found the game enjoyable and praised the craft behind the gameplay and Kirby themes . Alternatively , Kirby 's Block Ball received the lowest rating on Tim Rogers 's 2004 " Yamanote Scoring System for Portable Games " ( a metric by which he played a game while counting stops on the circular Yamanote train line until he lost interest ) with a score of " one " stop . He called it " too damned bland " .
In a retrospective review , Jeuxvideo.com had high praise for the level design , graphics , and animations . They also found the music excellent in comparison to the annoying and repetitive soundtrack of most Breakout clones . The magazine also liked how the game fit the Kirby universe , apart from its increased difficulty — Jeuxvideo.com occasionally had trouble hitting the slow @-@ paced ball with precision .
Hannah Dodd ( born 27 April 1992 ) is an Australian Grade IV equestrian and 2 @.@ 0 point wheelchair basketball player who represented Australia in equestrian at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , coming 11th and 12th in her events . Switching to wheelchair basketball , she made her debut with the national team at the Osaka Cup in February 2015 .
In 2008 , Dodd was the Australian national Grade IV para @-@ equestrian champion . She was runner @-@ up in 2009 , and won the Australian national championships again in 2011 , along with the Oceania Championships and the National Titles team events . By 2012 , she was the top @-@ ranked Australian competitor in her event and class .
After the London Paralympics , Dodd took up wheelchair basketball . She started playing for the Sydney University Flames in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League in 2013 , made her debut with the national team at the Osaka Friendship Games in Osaka in February 2015 , winning bronze , and was part of the Under 25 team at the 2015 Women 's U25 Wheelchair Basketball World Championship in Beijing in July 2015 , winning silver .
Hannah Dodd was born on 27 April 1992 , and is from Arcadia , New South Wales . She has sacral agenesis and spina bifida with upper limb dystonia , and is missing four vertebrae in her back . When she was about a year old , her kidneys started failing . Her entire renal system needed to be reconstructed . She has two older brothers . She can walk with the aide of a caliper , and also uses a wheelchair . As of 2012 , she is a horse riding teacher and student at the University of Western Sydney where she is majoring in sports and exercise science .
Dodd is a Grade IV equestrian competitor , coached by Peter Turner . Due to her sacral agenesis , when she rides her horse , she dislocates several bones every time , but as a result of anti @-@ doping rules , she has had to find alternative ways of coping with pain associated with riding .
Dodd has been around horses since she was four months old , and was able to ride on her own by the time she was two years old , before she learned to walk . The sport gave her a degree of independence . She started competing in 2005 , and first represented Australia in 2006 , winning her first test in England that year.In 2008 , she became the youngest @-@ ever winner of the Australian national championships . She finished first at the March 2009 inter @-@ schools cup at the St Ives Showground , and second at the 2009 Australian national championships , but her horse , Lucifer 's Dream , was injured in 2009 . In 2009 and 2010 , she searched for another horse to assist her in getting through Paralympic qualification . She won the Australian national championships again in 2011 , along with the Oceania Championships and the National Titles team events . By 2012 , she was the top @-@ ranked Australian competitor in her event and class .
Dodd was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London in equestrian events with her horse Waikiwi . These Games were her first , and she was the youngest Australian equestrian competitor . A fund raiser was organised by Arcadia , New South Wales , residents . While her own costs and the cost of her horse were covered by Australian Paralympic Committee and Equestrian Australia , funds were required for her coach . She was placed 12th in the Individual Championship Test – Grade IV , and 11th in the Individual Freestyle Test – Grade IV and Team Test – Grade IV .
After the London Paralympics , Dodd took up wheelchair basketball . She started for the Sydney University Flames in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League in 2013 . She has to strap her fingers and wrists , and usually dislocates a shoulder during a game . " I 've had a few bangs and scrapes and been tipped out of my chair a few times , " she concedes , " but it 's really fun . The fast pace really gives you an adrenalin kick and the girls I play with are awesome . " " If I have chose between my two sports for Rio , " she said , " I will go with basketball . " She made her debut with the national team , known as the Gliders , at the Osaka Cup in Osaka in February 2015 . The Gliders won bronze . In June 2015 , Dodd was selected as part of the under 25 team ( known as the Devils ) for the 2015 Women 's U25 Wheelchair Basketball World Championship in Beijing in July . The Devils won silver . By this time her health had deteriorated . She had to use a wheelchair much of the time , and her classification had dropped to a 2 @.@ 5 point player . In 2015 , she was reclassified a 2 @.@ 0 .
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission ( CWGC ) is an intergovernmental organisation of six independent member states whose principal function is to mark , record and maintain the graves and places of commemoration of Commonwealth of Nations military service members who died in the two World Wars . The Commission is also responsible for commemorating Commonwealth civilians who died as a result of enemy action during World War II . The Commission was founded by Fabian Ware and constituted through Royal Charter in 1917 named the Imperial War Graves Commission . The change to the present name took place in 1960 .
The Commission , as part of its mandate , is responsible for commemorating all Commonwealth war dead individually and equally . To this end , the war dead are commemorated by name on a headstone , at an identified site of a burial , or on a memorial . War dead are commemorated uniformly and equally , irrespective of military or civil rank , race or creed .
The Commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1 @.@ 7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries . Since its inception , the Commission has constructed approximately 2 @,@ 500 war cemeteries and numerous memorials . The Commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23 @,@ 000 separate burial sites and the maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide . In addition to commemorating Commonwealth military service members , the Commission maintains , under arrangement with applicable governments , over 40 @,@ 000 non @-@ Commonwealth war graves and over 25 @,@ 000 non @-@ war military and civilian graves . The Commission operates through the continued financial support of the member states : United Kingdom , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , India and South Africa . The current President of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission is Prince Edward , Duke of Kent .
On the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Fabian Ware , a director of the Rio Tinto Company , found that at 45 years old he was too old to join the British Army . He used the influence of Rio Tinto chairman , Viscount Milner , to become the commander of a mobile unit of the British Red Cross . He arrived in France in September 1914 and whilst there was struck by the lack of any official mechanism for documenting or marking the location of graves of those who had been killed and felt compelled to create an organisation within the Red Cross for this purpose . In March 1915 , with the support of Nevil Macready , Adjutant @-@ General of the British Expeditionary Force , Ware 's work was given official recognition and support by the Imperial War Office and the unit was transferred to the British Army as the Graves Registration Commission . The new Graves Registration Commission had over 31 @,@ 000 graves of British and Imperial soldiers registered by October 1915 and 50 @,@ 000 registered by May 1916 .
When municipal graveyards began to overfill Ware began negotiations with various local authorities to acquire land for further cemeteries . Ware began with an agreement with France to build joint British and French cemeteries under the understanding that these would be maintained by the French government . Ware eventually concluded that it was not prudent to leave the maintenance responsibilities solely to the French government and subsequently arranged for France to purchase the land , grant it in perpetuity , and leave the management and maintenance responsibilities to the British . The French government agreed under the condition that cemeteries respected certain dimensions , were accessible by public road , were in the vicinity of medical aid stations and were not too close to towns or villages . Similar negotiations were started with the Belgian government .
As reports of the grave registration work became public , the Commission began to receive letters of enquiry and requests for photographs of graves from relatives of deceased soldiers . By 1917 , 17 @,@ 000 photographs had been dispatched to relatives . In March 1915 , the Commission , with the support of the Red Cross , began to dispatch photographic prints and cemetery location information in answer to the requests . The Graves Registration Commission became the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries in the spring of 1916 in recognition of the fact that the scope of work began to extend beyond simple grave registration and began to include responding to enquiries from relatives of those killed . The directorate 's work was also extended beyond the Western Front and into other theatres of war , with units deployed in Greece , Egypt and Mesopotamia .
As the war continued , Ware and others became concerned about the fate of the graves in the post @-@ war period . Following a suggestion by the British Army , the National Committee for the Care of Soldiers ' Graves was appointed by the British government in January 1916 , with Edward , Prince of Wales agreeing to serve as president . The National Committee for the Care of Soldiers ' Graves was created with the intention of taking over the work of the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries after the war . The government felt that it was more appropriate to entrust the work to a specially appointed body rather than to any existing government department . By early 1917 a number of members of the committee believed a formal imperial organisation would be needed to care for the graves . With the help of Edward , Prince of Wales , Ware submitted a memorandum to the Imperial War Conference in 1917 suggesting that an imperial organisation be constituted . The suggestion was accepted and on 21 May 1917 the Imperial War Graves Commission was established by Royal Charter , with the Prince of Wales serving as president , Secretary of State for War Lord Derby as chairman and Ware as vice @-@ chairman . The Commission 's undertakings began in earnest at the end of the First World War . Once land for cemeteries and memorials had been guaranteed , the enormous task of recording the details of the dead could begin . By 1918 , some 587 @,@ 000 graves had been identified and a further 559 @,@ 000 casualties were registered as having no known grave .
The scale , and associated high number of casualties , of the war produced an entirely new attitude towards the commemoration of war dead . Previous to World War I , individual commemoration of war dead was often on an ad hoc basis and was almost exclusively limited to commissioned officers . However , the war required mobilisation of a significant percentage of the population , either as volunteers or through conscription . An expectation had consequently arisen that individual soldiers would expect to be commemorated , even if they were low @-@ ranking members of the military . A committee under Frederic Kenyon , Director of the British Museum , presented a report to the Commission in November 1918 detailing how it envisioned the development of the cemeteries . Two key elements of this report were that bodies should not be repatriated and that uniform memorials should be used to avoid class distinctions . Beyond the logistical nightmare of returning home so many corpses , it was felt that repatriation would conflict with the feeling of brotherhood that had developed between serving ranks .
An article in The Times on 17 February 1919 by Rudyard Kipling carried the Commission 's proposal to a wider audience and described what the graves would look like . The article entitled War Graves : Work of Imperial Commission : Mr. Kipling 's Survey was quickly republished as an illustrated booklet , Graves of the Fallen . The illustrated booklet was intended to soften the impact of Kenyon 's report as it included illustrations of cemeteries with mature trees and shrubs ; contrasting the bleak landscapes depicted in published battlefield photos . There was an immediate public outcry following the publication of the reports , particularly with regards to the decision to not repatriate the bodies of the dead . The reports generated considerable discussion in the press which ultimately led to a heated debate in Parliament on 4 May 1920 . Sir James Remnant started the debate , followed by speeches by William Burdett @-@ Coutts in favour of the Commission 's principles and Robert Cecil speaking for those desiring repatriation and opposing uniformity of grave markers . Winston Churchill closed the debate and asked that the issue not proceed to a vote . Remnant withdrew his motion , allowing the Commission to carry out its work assured of support for its principles .
Three of the most eminent architects of their day , Sir Herbert Baker , Sir Reginald Blomfield , and Sir Edwin Lutyens were commissioned to design the cemeteries and memorials . Rudyard Kipling was appointed literary advisor for the language used for memorial inscriptions .
In 1920 , the Commission built three experimental cemeteries at Le Treport , Forceville and Louvencourt , following the principles outlined in the Kenyon report . Of these , the Forceville Communal Cemetery and Extension was agreed to be the most successful . Having consulted with garden designer Gertrude Jekyll , the architects created a walled cemetery with uniform headstones in a garden setting , augmented by Blomfield 's Cross of Sacrifice and Lutyens ' Stone of Remembrance . After some adjustments , Forceville became the template for the Commission 's building programme . Adjustments were required because all three experimental cemeteries went over budget . To ensure future cemeteries remained within their budget the Commission decided to not build shelters in cemeteries that contained less than 200 graves , to not place a Stone of Remembrance in any cemetery with less than 400 graves , and to limit the height of cemetery walls to 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) .
At the end of 1919 , the Commission had spent £ 7 @,@ 500 , and this figure rose to £ 250 @,@ 000 in 1920 as construction of cemeteries and memorials increased . By 1921 , the Commission had established 1 @,@ 000 cemeteries which were ready for headstone erections , and burials . Between 1920 and 1923 , the Commission was shipping 4 @,@ 000 headstones a week to France . In many cases small cemeteries were closed and the graves concentrated in larger ones . By 1927 , when the majority of construction had been completed , over 500 cemeteries had been built , with 400 @,@ 000 headstones , a thousand Crosses of Sacrifice , and 400 Stones of Remembrance .
The Commission had also been mandated to individually commemorate each soldier who had no known grave , which amounted to 315 @,@ 000 in France and Belgium alone . The Commission initially decided to build 12 monuments on which to commemorate the missing ; each memorial being located at the site of an important battle along the Western Front . After resistance from the French committee responsible for the approvals of memorials on French territory , the Commission revised their plan and reduced the number of memorials , and in some cases built memorials to the missing in existing cemeteries rather than as separate structures .
Reginald Blomfield 's Menin Gate was the first memorial to the missing located in Europe to be completed , and was unveiled on 24 July 1927 . The Menin Gate ( Menenpoort ) was found to have insufficient space to contain all the names as originally planned and 34 @,@ 984 names of the missing were instead inscribed on Herbert Baker 's Tyne Cot Memorial to the Missing . Other memorials followed : the Helles Memorial in Gallipoli designed by John James Burnet ; the Thiepval Memorial on the Somme and the Arras Memorial designed by Edwin Lutyens ; and the Basra Memorial in Iraq designed by Edward Prioleau Warren . The Dominions and India also erected memorials on which they commemorated their missing : the Neuve @-@ Chapelle Memorial for the forces of India , the Vimy Memorial by Canada , the Villers @-@ Bretonneux Memorial by Australia , the Delville Wood Memorial by South Africa and the Beaumont @-@ Hamel Memorial by Newfoundland . The programme of commemorating the dead of the Great War was considered essentially complete with the inauguration of the Thiepval Memorial in 1932 , though the Vimy Memorial would not be finished until 1936 , the Villers @-@ Bretonneux Memorial until 1938 and stonemasons were still conducting work on the Menin Gate when Germany invaded Belgium in 1940 .
The only memorial created by the Commission that was not in the form of a monument or cemetery was the Opththalmic Institute at Giza , Egypt — complete with library , and bacteriology and pathology departments — as its memorial to men of the Egyptian Labour Corps and Camel Transport Corps . Its erection was agreed with local political pressure .
From the start of the Second World War in 1939 , the Commission organised grave registration units and , planning ahead based on the experience gained from the First World War , earmarked land for use as cemeteries . When the war began turning in favour of the Allies , the Commission was able to begin restoring its First World War cemeteries and memorials . It also began the task of commemorating the 600 @,@ 000 Commonwealth casualties from the Second World War . In 1949 , the Commission completed Dieppe Canadian War Cemetery , the first of 559 new cemeteries and 36 new memorials . Eventually , over 350 @,@ 000 new headstones were erected . Many were made from Hopton Wood stone . The wider scale of World War II , coupled with manpower shortages and unrest in some countries , meant that the construction and restoration programmes took much longer . Following the war , the Commission implemented a five @-@ year horticultural renovation programme . The horticultural neglect was largely addressed by 1950 but there were necessary structural repairs to be made . These , together with the backlog of maintenance tasks from before the war , took a further 10 years to complete and the programme was not completed until the 1960s .
With the increased number of civilian casualties compared with the World War I , Winston Churchill agreed to Ware 's proposal that the Commission also maintain a record of Commonwealth civilian war deaths . A supplemental chapter was added to the Imperial War Graves Commission 's charter on 7 February 1941 , empowering the organisation to collect and record the names of civilians who died from enemy action during the Second World War , which resulted in the creation of the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour . The roll eventually contained the names of nearly 67 @,@ 000 civilians . The Commission and the Dean of Westminster reached an agreement that the roll would eventually be placed in Westminster Abbey but not until the roll was complete and hostilities had ended . The Commission handed over the first six volumes to the Dean of Westminster on 21 February 1956 ; the final volume was added to the showcase in 1958 .
Following World War II the Commission recognised that the word ' Imperial ' within its name was no longer appropriate . In the spirit of strengthening national and regional feelings the organisation 's name was changed to Commonwealth War Graves Commission in 1960 .
More recent conflicts have sometimes made it impossible for the Commission to care for cemeteries in a given region or resulted in the destruction of sites altogether . Zehrensdorf Indian Cemetery in Germany was unkempt after the end of World War II and until the German reunification because it was located in an area occupied by Russian forces and was not entirely rebuilt until 2005 . The Six @-@ Day War and War of Attrition resulted in the destruction of Port Tewfik Memorial and Aden Memorial , and the death of a Commission gardener at Suez War Memorial Cemetery . During the Lebanese Civil War two cemeteries in Beirut were destroyed and had to be rebuilt . The maintenance of war graves and memorials in Iraq has remained difficult since Iran – Iraq War in the 1980s , with regular maintenance being impractical since after the Gulf War .
The Commission has , and continues to , also provide support for war graves outside its traditional mandate . In 1982 , the British Ministry of Defence requested the Commission 's assistance to design and construct cemeteries in the Falkland Islands for those killed during the Falklands War . Although these cemeteries are not Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries , the Commission manages the administrative responsibilities of these cemeteries . Since 2005 , the Commission has carried out similar management duties on behalf of the British Ministry of Defence for cemeteries and graves of British and Imperial soldiers who died during the Second Boer War . In 2003 , Veterans Affairs Canada employed the Commission to develop an approach to locate grave markers for which the Canadian Minister of Veterans Affairs has responsibility . As of 2011 , the Commission conducts a twelve @-@ year cyclical inspection programme of Canadian veterans ' markers installed at the expense of the Government of Canada .
In 2008 , an exploratory excavation discovered mass graves on the edge of Pheasant Wood outside of Fromelles . Two @-@ hundred and fifty British and Australian bodies were excavated from five mass graves which were interred in the newly constructed Fromelles ( Pheasant Wood ) Military Cemetery . This was the first new Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in more than 50 years , the last such cemeteries having been built after the Second World War .
The Commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1 @.@ 7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries and approximately 67 @,@ 000 civilians who died as a result of enemy action during World War II . Commonwealth military service members are commemorated by name on either a headstone , at an identified site of a burial , or on a memorial . As a result , the Commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23 @,@ 000 separate burial sites and maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide . The vast majority of burial sites are pre @-@ existing communal or municipal cemeteries and parish churchyards located in the United Kingdom , however the Commission has itself constructed approximately 2 @,@ 500 war cemeteries worldwide . The Commission has also constructed or commissioned memorials to commemorate the dead who have no known grave ; the largest of these is the Thiepval Memorial .
The Commission only commemorates those who have died during the designated war years , while in Commonwealth military service or of causes attributable to service . The applicable periods of consideration are 4 August 1914 to 31 August 1921 for the First World War and 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947 for the Second World War . The end date for the First World War period is the official end of the war , while for the Second World War the Commission selected a date approximately the same period after VE Day as the official end of the First World War was after the 1918 Armistice .
Civilians who died as a result of enemy action during the Second World War are commemorated differently from those that died as a result of military service . They are commemorated by name through the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour located in St George 's Chapel in Westminster Abbey . In addition to its mandated duties , the Commission maintains , under arrangement with applicable governments , over 40 @,@ 000 non @-@ Commonwealth war graves and over 25 @,@ 000 non @-@ war military and civilian graves .
As well as the main Principal Architects for France and Belgium ( Baker , Blomfield and Lutyens ) , there were Principal Architects appointed for other regions as well . Sir Robert Lorimer was Principal Architect for Italy , Macedonia and Egypt , while Sir John James Burnet was Principal Architect for Palestine and Gallipoli , assisted by Thomas Smith Tait . The Principal Architect for Mesopotamia was Edward Prioleau Warren .
As well as these senior architects , there was a team of Assistant Architects who were actually responsible for many of the cemetery and memorial designs . These architects were younger , and many of them had served in the war . The Assistant Architects were : George Esselmont Gordon Leith , Wilfred Clement von Berg , Charles Henry Holden ( who in 1920 became a Principal Architect ) , William Harrison Cowlishaw , William Bryce Binnie , George Hartley Goldsmith , Frank Higginson , Arthur James Scott Hutton , Noel Ackroyd Rew , and John Reginald Truelove . Other architects that worked for the Commission , or won competitions for the Commission memorials , included George Salway Nicol , Harold Chalton Bradshaw , Verner Owen Rees , Gordon H. Holt , and Henry Philip Cart de Lafontaine .
In January 1944 , Edward Maufe was appointed Principal Architect for the UK . Maufe worked extensively for the Commission for 25 years until 1969 , becoming Chief Architect and also succeeding Kenyon as Artistic Advisor . Together with Maufe , the other Principal Architects appointed during and after the Second World War were Hubert Worthington , Louis de Soissons , Philip Hepworth and Colin St Clair Oakes .
Leading sculptors that worked on the memorials and cemeteries after the First World War included Eric Henri Kennington , Charles Thomas Wheeler , Gilbert Ledward , and Charles Sargeant Jagger . Other sculptors , both in the inter @-@ war period and after the Second World War , included William Reid Dick , Ernest Gillick , Basil Gotto , Alfred Turner , Laurence A. Turner , Walter Gilbert , Henry Poole , Vernon Hill , Robert Anning Bell , Ferdinand Victor Blundstone , Joseph Armitage , and Gilbert Bayes .
Structural design has always played an important part in the Commission 's cemeteries . Apart from a few exceptions , due to local geological conditions , the cemeteries follow the same design and uniform aesthetic all over the world . This makes the cemeteries easily recognisable and distinguishes them from war graves administered by other groups or countries .
A typical cemetery is surrounded by a low wall or hedge and with a wrought @-@ iron gate entrance . For cemeteries in France and Belgium , a land tablet near the entrance or along a wall identifies the cemetery grounds as having been provided by the French or Belgian governments . All but the smallest cemeteries contain a register with an inventory of the burials , a plan of the plots and rows , and a basic history of the cemetery . The register is located within a metal cupboard that is marked with a cross located in either the wall near the cemetery entrance or in a shelter within the cemetery . More recently , in larger sites , a stainless steel notice gives details of the respective military campaign . The headstones within the cemetery are of a uniform size and design and mark plots of equal size .
The cemetery grounds are , except in drier climates , grass covered with a floral border around the headstones . There is also an absence of any paving between the headstone rows which is intended to make the cemetery feel like a traditional walled garden where visitors could experience a sense of peace . However , Carter and Jackson argue that the uniform aesthetics are designed to evoke a positive experience which deliberately masks and sanitises the nature of the war deaths .
Typically , cemeteries of more than 40 graves contain a Cross of Sacrifice designed by architect Reginald Blomfield . This cross was designed to imitate medieval crosses found in churchyards in England with proportions more commonly seen in the Celtic cross . The cross is normally a freestanding four @-@ point limestone Latin cross , mounted on an octagonal base , and ranging in height from 14 to 32 feet . A bronze longsword , blade down , is embedded on the face of the cross . This cross represents the faith of the majority of the dead and the sword represents the military character of the cemetery , intended to link British soldiers and the Christian concept of self @-@ sacrifice .
Cemeteries with more than 1000 burials typically have a Stone of Remembrance , designed by Edwin Lutyens with the inscription " Their Name Liveth for Evermore " . The concept of the Stone of Remembrance stone was developed by Rudyard Kipling to commemorate those of all faiths and none respectively . In contrast to the Cross of Sacrifice , the design for the stone deliberately avoided " shapes associated with particular religions " . The geometry of the structure was based on studies of the Parthenon . Each stone is 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) long and 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The shape of the stone has been compared both to that of a sarcophagus and an altar . The feature was designed using the principle of entasis . The subtle curves in the design , if extended , would form a sphere 1 @,@ 801 feet 8 inches ( 549 @.@ 15 m ) in diameter .
Every grave is marked with a headstone . Each headstone contains the national emblem or regimental badge , rank , name , unit , date of death and age of each casualty inscribed above an appropriate religious symbol and a more personal dedication chosen by relatives . The headstones use a standard upper case lettering designed by MacDonald Gill . Individual graves are arranged , where possible , in straight rows and marked by uniform headstones , the vast majority of which are made of Portland stone . The original headstone dimensions were 76 centimetres ( 30 in ) tall , 38 cm ( 15 in ) wide , and 7 @.@ 6 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
Most headstones are inscribed with a cross , except for those deceased known to be atheist or non @-@ Christian . In the case of burials of Victoria Cross or George Cross recipients , the regimental badge is supplemented by the Victoria Cross or George Cross emblem . Sometimes a soldier employed a pseudonym because they were too young to serve or were sought by law enforcement ; in such cases their primary name is shown along with the notation " served as " . Many headstones are for unidentified casualties ; they consequently bear only what could be discovered from the body . The epitaph , developed by Rudyard Kipling , that appears on the graves of unidentified soldiers for which no details are known is " A Soldier of the Great War known unto God " . Some headstones bear the text " believed to be buried in this cemetery " when they are believed to be buried in the cemetery but the exact location of the grave is not known . In some cases soldiers were buried in collective graves and distinguishing one body from another was not possible and thus one headstone covers more than one grave . The headstone does not denote any specific details of the death except for its date , and even then only if it is known , and are deliberately ambiguous about the cause of death .
Due to local conditions it was sometimes necessary for the Commission to deviate from its standard design . In places prone to extreme weather or earthquakes , such as Thailand and Turkey , stone @-@ faced pedestal markers are used instead of the normal headstones . These measures are intended to prevent masonry being damaged during earthquakes or sinking into sodden ground . In Italy headstones were carved from Chiampo Perla limestone because it was in more plentiful supply . In Struma Military Cemetery , in Greece , to avoid risk of earthquake damage , small headstones are laid flat on the ground . The smaller size of the markers mean that they often lack unit insignia .
Commission cemeteries are distinctive in treating floriculture as an integral part of the cemetery design . Originally , the horticultural concept was to create an environment where visitors could experience a sense of peace in a setting , in contrast to traditionally bleak graveyards . Recommendations given by Arthur William Hill , the Assistant Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew enabled the Commission to develop cemetery layouts and architectural structures that took into account the placement of suitable plant life . Combining structural and horticultural elements was not unfamiliar to the Commission 's architects . Sir Edwin Lutyens furthered his long @-@ standing working relationship with horticulturist Gertrude Jekyll , whose devotion to traditional cottage garden plants and roses greatly influenced the appearance of the cemeteries . Where possible , indigenous plants were utilised to enhance sentimental associations with the gardens of home .
Variety in texture , height and timing of floral display were equally important horticultural considerations . The beds around each headstone are planted with a mixture of floribunda roses and herbaceous perennials . Low @-@ growing plants are chosen for areas immediately in front of headstones , ensuring that inscriptions are not obscured and preventing soil from splashing back during rain . In cemeteries where there are pedestal grave markers , dwarf varieties of plants are used instead .
The absence of any form of paving between the headstone rows contributes to the simplicity of the cemetery designs . Lawn paths add to the garden ambiance , and are irrigated during the dry season in countries where there is insufficient rain . Where irrigation is inappropriate or impractical , dry landscaping is an ecological alternative favoured by the Commission 's horticulturists , as is the case in Iraq . Drier areas require a different approach not only for lawns , but also to plants and styles of planting . Similarly , there are separate horticultural considerations in tropical climates . When many cemeteries are concentrated within a limited area , like along the Western Front or Gallipoli peninsula , mobile teams of gardeners operate from a local base . Elsewhere , larger cemeteries have their own dedicated staff while small cemeteries are usually tended by a single gardener working part @-@ time .
The affairs of the CWGC are overseen by a Board of Commissioners . The president of the board is Prince Edward , Duke of Kent , the chairman is United Kingdom Secretary of State for Defence Michael Fallon and the vice @-@ chairman Vice @-@ Admiral Tim Laurence . The members are : the High Commissioner for New Zealand to the United Kingdom Lockwood Smith , the High Commissioners of Australia to the United Kingdom Alexander Downer , the Acting High Commissioner of the Republic of South Africa to the United Kingdom Obed Mlaba , the High Commissioner for India to the United Kingdom Ranjan Mathai , the High Commissioner for Canada to the United Kingdom Gordon Campbell , Hew Strachan , Keith Simpson , Kevan Jones , Edward Chaplin , Robert Fox , Ros Kelly and Lieutenant General Bill Rollo . Victoria Wallace is the Director @-@ General of the CWGC and serves as secretary . The board also has an Honorary Artistic Adviser , Peter Inskip .
Northern Europe Area , headed by a director and responsible for Austria , Belgium , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Germany , Hungary , Latvia , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Netherlands , Norway , Poland and Sweden .
Mediterranean Area headed by a director and responsible for Albania , Algeria , Azerbaijan , Azores , Bahrain , Canary Islands , Croatia , Cyprus , Egypt , Gibraltar , Greece , Israel and Palestine , Italy , Jordan , Lebanon , Libya , Macedonia , Madeira , Malta , Mauritania , Morocco , Oman , Portugal , San Marino , Saudi Arabia , Serbia , Spain , Syria , Tunisia , Turkey , United Arab Emirates and Yemen
Australia , managed by the Office of Australian War Graves in the Australian Department of Veterans Affairs on behalf of the CWGC , is responsible for Australia , Norfolk Island , Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands
New Zealand , managed by the New Zealand Ministry of Culture and Heritage on behalf of the CWGC , is responsible for New Zealand , New Caledonia , Samoa , Society Islands , Tonga and Vanuatu
The CWGC 's work is funded predominantly by grants from the governments of the six member states . In the fiscal year 2012 / 13 , these grants amounted to £ 58 @.@ 6 million of the organisation 's £ 66 @.@ 5 million of income . This equates to an approximate cost of C $ 85 per commemorated war dead . The contribution from each country is proportionate to the number of graves the CWGC maintains on behalf of that country . The percentage of total annual contributions for which each country is responsible is United Kingdom 78 @.@ 4 % , Canada 10 @.@ 1 % , Australia 6 @.@ 1 % , New Zealand 2 @.@ 1 % , South Africa 2 @.@ 1 % and India 1 @.@ 2 % .
A project is underway to photograph the graves of and memorials to all service personnel from 1914 to the present day and make the images available to the public . The work is being carried out by The War Graves Photographic Project in conjunction with the CWGC . As of August 2013 , the project has recorded 1 @.@ 7 million photographs for posterity .
Immediately following the First World War , the British Army remained responsible for the exhumation of remains . The Western Front was divided into sectors and combed for bodies by 12 @-@ man exhumation units . Between the Armistice and September 1921 , the exhumation units reburied 204 @,@ 695 bodies . After 1921 , no further widespread search for bodies was undertaken and in February 1921 responsibility of the cemeteries was transferred to the Commission . Despite the rigorous searches , bodies continued to be discovered in numbers . In the three years following the conclusion of the general search 38 @,@ 000 bodies were discovered . In the mid 1920s , 20 to 30 bodies were being discovered weekly .
The discovery of remains of First and Second World War casualties remains a common occurrence with approximately 30 bodies discovered annually . For example , in 2006 eight bodies of Canadian soldiers from the 78th Battalion ( Winnipeg Grenadiers ) , CEF were discovered in a backyard in Hallu , France . In April 2013 , the remains of four British soldiers discovered by a French farmer clearing land with metal detector in 2009 were re @-@ interred at H.A.C. Cemetery near Arras , France . In March 2014 , the remains of 20 Commonwealth and 30 German soldiers were discovered in Vendin @-@ le @-@ Vieil , France with the Commonwealth soldiers being subsequently reburied at Loos British Cemetery .
When the remains of a Commonwealth soldier from the First or Second World War is discovered the Commission is notified and a Commission burial officer tries to collect any associated artifacts that may help in identify the remains . The details are then registered and archived at the Commission 's headquarters. the collection of evidence can include artifacts with the remains , anthropological data and DNA . The archival records of the commission are open to the public to permit individuals to conduct their own research . Investigation of archival records by members of the public periodically result in the identification of previously buried casualties . In December 2013 , it was discovered that Second Lieutenant Philip Frederick Cormack , who was previously commemorated on the Arras Flying Services Memorial , had in fact been buried in a French military cemetery in Machelen , East @-@ Flanders in Belgium . Sergeant Leonard Maidment was identified in 2013 after a visitor to Marfaux British Cemetery discovered a headstone of an unknown sergeant with the Hampshire Regiment killed on 20 July 1918 and was subsequently able to show that only one sergeant from that regiment had been killed in France on that date .
Cemeteries , including those of war dead , are targets for vandalism . The gravestones , cemeteries and buildings of the Commission are no exception . The Commission believes that graffiti and damage to stonework are usually the pursuits partaken by young people , noting the number of incidents increases when schoolchildren are on school holidays . Determined thieves will also steal the bronze swords off the Cross of Sacrifice , which are now replaced with identical ones made in fibreglass .
The vandalism of Commission cemeteries has also been connected to the participation of Commonwealth countries in contemporary conflicts . In the 1970s , in The Troubles , Commission cemeteries in Ireland experienced vandalism . Vandals defaced the central memorial of the Étaples Military Cemetery in northern France with anti @-@ British and anti @-@ American graffiti on 20 March 2003 immediately after the beginning of the Iraq War . On 9 May 2004 , thirty @-@ three headstones were demolished in the Gaza cemetery , which contains 3 @,@ 691 graves , allegedly in retaliation for the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse scandal . On 24 February 2012 , during the Libyan Civil War , an Islamist militia damaged over 200 headstones in the Benghazi war cemetery as well as the central memorial .
Tatwine or Tatwin ( Tatuini or Tadwinus ; c . 670 – 734 ) was the tenth Archbishop of Canterbury from 731 to 734 . Prior to becoming archbishop , he was a monk and abbot of a Benedictine monastery . Besides his ecclesiastical career , Tatwine was a writer , and riddles he composed survive . Another work he composed was on the grammar of the Latin language , which was aimed at advanced students of that language . He was subsequently considered a saint .
Tatwine was a Mercian by birth . His epigraph at Canterbury stated that when he died he was in old age , so perhaps he was born around 670 . He became a monk at the monastery at Breedon @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Hill in the present @-@ day County of Leicestershire , and then abbot of that house . Through the influence of King Æthelbald he was appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury in 731 and was consecrated on 10 June 731 . He was one of a number of Mercians who were appointed to Canterbury during the 730s and 740s . Apart from his consecration of the Bishops of Lindsey and Selsey in 733 , Tatwine 's period as archbishop appears to have been uneventful . He died in office on 30 July 734 . Later considered a saint , his feast day is 30 July .
Bede 's commentary on Tatwine calls him a " vir religione et Prudentia insignis , sacris quoque literis nobiliter instructus " ( a man notable for his prudence , devotion and learning ) . These qualities were displayed in the two surviving manuscripts of his riddles and four of his Ars Tatuini . The Ars is one of only two surviving 8th @-@ century Latin grammars from England , and was based on the works of Priscian and Consentius . The riddles deal with such diverse topics as philosophy and charity , the five senses and the alphabet , and a book and a pen . The riddles are formed in acrostics . The grammar is a reworking of Donatus 's Ars Minor with the addition of information drawn from other grammarians . It was not designed for a newcomer to the Latin language , but is designed for more advanced students . It covers the eight parts of speech through illustrations drawn from classical scholars , although not directly but through other grammatical works . There are also some examples drawn from the Psalms . The work was completed before he became archbishop , and was used not only in England but also on the continent . A recent edition of his works is Tatuini Opera omnia , published in 1968 with some translations into English and German from the original Latin .
The Type UB I was a class of small coastal submarines ( U @-@ boats ) built in Germany at the beginning of the First World War . 20 boats were constructed , most of which went into service with the German Imperial Navy . Boats of this design were also operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) and the Bulgarian Navy . The group is sometimes known as the UB @-@ 1 class after SM UB @-@ 1 , the class leader . In the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , it was called the U @-@ 10 class .
Built to meet the need for small maneuverable submarines able to operate in the narrow , shallow seas off Flanders , the vessels were intended to be quickly constructed , then shipped by rail and assembled at their port of operation . The design effort began in mid @-@ August 1914 and by mid @-@ October the first 15 boats were ordered from two German shipyards . The German Imperial Navy subsequently ordered an additional pair of boats to replace two sold to Austria @-@ Hungary , who ordered a further three boats in April 1915 . A total of 20 UB Is were built . Construction of the first boats for Germany began in early November 1914 ; all 20 were completed by October 1915 . Several of the first boats underwent trials in German home waters , but the rest were assembled and tested at either Antwerp or Pola . The German boats operated primarily in the Flanders , Baltic , and Constantinople Flotillas . The boats were about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displaced 127 tonnes ( 125 long tons ) when surfaced and 142 tonnes ( 140 long tons ) while submerged . All had two bow torpedo tubes and two torpedoes , and were equipped with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun .
In 1918 four of the surviving German boats were converted into coastal minelayers . Of the seventeen boats in German service , two were sold to Austria @-@ Hungary , one was sold to Bulgaria , and nine were lost during the war . One of the five Austro @-@ Hungarian boats was sunk and another mined and not repaired . The five surviving German boats , the four surviving Austro @-@ Hungarian boats , and the Bulgarian boat were all turned over to the Allies after the end of the war and were broken up .
In the earliest stages of the First World War the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast found the German Imperial Navy without submarines suitable to operate in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . By 18 August 1914 , two weeks after the German invasion of Belgium , the planning of a series of small coastal submarines had already begun .
The German Imperial Navy stipulated that the submarines must be transportable by rail , which imposed a maximum diameter of 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) . The rushed planning effort — which had been assigned the name " Project 34 " — resulted in the Type UB I design , created specifically for operation from Flanders . The boats were to be about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and to displace about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two bow torpedo tubes .
Boats of the Type UB I design were built by two manufacturers , Germaniawerft of Kiel and AG Weser of Bremen , which led to some variations in boats from the two shipyards . The eight Germaniawerft @-@ built boats were slightly longer at 28 @.@ 10 metres ( 92 ft 2 in ) length overall , while the twelve Weser @-@ built boats came in 22 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) shorter than their counterparts . All were 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . The boats all displaced 127 tonnes ( 125 long tons ) while surfaced , but differed slightly in displacement submerged . The slightly longer Germaniawerft boats displaced 142 tonnes ( 140 long tons ) while submerged , as they weighed 1 tonne ( 0 @.@ 98 long tons ) more than the Weser boats .
The drivetrain of the boats consisted of a single propeller shaft driven by a Daimler ( Germaniawerft ) or Körting ( Weser ) diesel engine on the surface , or a Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel . The Weser boats were capable of nearly 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) on the surface and a little more than 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) submerged . The Germaniawerft boats were about 1 knot ( 1 @.@ 9 km / h ; 1 @.@ 2 mph ) slower than their Bremen @-@ made counterparts . The boats were equipped with two 45 @-@ centimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and carried two torpedoes . They were also armed with a single 8 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun affixed to the deck .
The German Imperial Navy ordered its first fifteen Type UB I boats on 15 October 1914 . Eight boats — numbered UB @-@ 1 to UB @-@ 8 — were ordered from Germaniawerft of Kiel , and seven boats — numbered UB @-@ 9 to U @-@ 15 — from AG Weser of Bremen . After two of the class , UB @-@ 1 and UB @-@ 15 , were sold in February 1915 to ally Austria @-@ Hungary ( becoming U @-@ 10 and U @-@ 11 in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ) , the German Imperial Navy ordered UB @-@ 16 and UB @-@ 17 from Weser . A further three for Austria @-@ Hungary — U @-@ 15 , U @-@ 16 , and U @-@ 17 — had been ordered from Weser by April , bringing the total number constructed to 20 .
UB @-@ 1 and UB @-@ 2 were laid down on 1 November 1914 at the Germaniawerft yard at Kiel . UB @-@ 1 was launched on 22 January 1915 , just 75 working days later . UB @-@ 2 's launch followed on 13 February . Among the Weser boats , UB @-@ 9 was laid down first , on 6 November 1914 , and launched on 6 February 1915 , a week ahead of UB @-@ 2 . These first three boats launched underwent trials in home waters , but most of the other members of the class were shipped via rail and underwent trials at their assembly point .
The process of shipping the submarines by rail involved breaking the submarines down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . Type UB I boats destined for service with the Flanders Flotilla made a five @-@ day journey to Antwerp for the two- to three @-@ week assembly process . After assembly at Antwerp the boats were towed by barge to Bruges for trials . Boats selected for service in the Mediterranean were sent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian port of Pola for assembly . The total time from departure of the railcars from the shipyard to operational readiness for the boats was about six weeks .
During their trials the Type UB Is were found to be too small and too slow and had a reputation for being underpowered ; one commander compared his Type UB I to a " sewing machine " . According to authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast in their 1931 book The German Submarine War , 1914 – 1918 , the UBs did not have enough power to chase down steamers while surfaced and lacked the endurance to spend any extended amount of time underwater , exhausting their batteries after little over an hour 's running . In @-@ service use revealed another problem : with a single propeller shaft / engine combination , if either component failed , the U @-@ boat was almost totally disabled .
Another reported problem with the Type UB Is was the tendency to break trim after the firing of torpedoes . The boats were equipped with compensating tanks designed to flood and offset the loss of the C / 06 torpedo 's 1 @,@ 700 @-@ pound ( 770 kg ) weight , but this system did not always function properly ; as a result , when firing from periscope depth the boat could broach after firing or , if too much weight was taken on , plunge to the depths . When UB @-@ 15 torpedoed and sank Italian submarine Medusa in June 1915 , the tank failed to properly compensate , forcing the entire crew to run to the stern to offset the trim imbalance .
Despite the problems , the " tin tadpoles " , as the Germans referred to them , were in active service from March 1915 through the end of the war , with half of the 20 boats lost during the war . Boats of the class served in three navies : the German Imperial Navy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , and the Bulgarian Navy . In German service , they served primarily in the Flanders Flotilla , the Baltic Flotilla , and the Constantinople Flotilla .
The first Type UB I to enter service was UB @-@ 10 , which formed the nucleus of the Flanders Flotilla , on 27 March 1915 . By the end of April five more Type UB I boats had become operational . UB @-@ 10 was eventually joined in the Flanders Flotilla by UB @-@ 2 , UB @-@ 4 , UB @-@ 5 , UB @-@ 6 , UB @-@ 12 , UB @-@ 13 , UB @-@ 16 , and UB @-@ 17 ; of these , only UB @-@ 2 made the journey to Flanders by sea rather than rail .
UB @-@ 4 departed on the first patrol from Flanders on 9 April , and was responsible for sinking the first ship sent down by the flotilla . The Type UB I boats of the Flanders Flotilla originally patrolled the area between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands , but began patrolling the English Channel after UB @-@ 6 pioneered a route past British antisubmarine nets and mines in the Straits of Dover in late June .
Over the Type UB Is ' first year of service , UB @-@ 4 and UB @-@ 13 were both lost , and UB @-@ 2 and UB @-@ 5 were transferred to the Baltic Flotilla . In March 1917 , UB @-@ 6 ran aground in Dutch waters and was interned for the rest of the war , along with her crew . The four remaining Type UB Is in Flanders — UB @-@ 10 , UB @-@ 12 , UB @-@ 16 , UB @-@ 17 — were all converted to minelayers by 1918 , having their torpedo tubes removed and replaced with chutes to carry up to eight mines . All but UB @-@ 10 were lost in 1918 ; UB @-@ 10 , in poor repair and out of service , was scuttled in October 1918 when the Germans evacuated from Flanders .
UB @-@ 9 was initially assigned to the Baltic Flotilla , and was joined by UB @-@ 2 and UB @-@ 5 in early 1916 . All three became training boats at Kiel in 1916 , joining UB @-@ 11 in that duty . Little information is available about the Type UB I boats operating in the Baltic .
Four of the German Imperial Navy boats — UB @-@ 3 , UB @-@ 7 , UB @-@ 8 , and UB @-@ 14 — were selected for service with the Constantinople Flotilla . All were sent to Pola for assembly and trials there as part of the Pola Flotilla before sailing on to join the Constantinople Flotilla . UB @-@ 3 disappeared en route to Constantinople in May 1915 , but the other three arrived there by mid @-@ June .
The three Type UB I boats of the Constantinople Flotilla seem to have patrolled primarily in the Black Sea . UB @-@ 8 was transferred to the Bulgarian Navy in May 1916 , and UB @-@ 7 disappeared in the Black Sea in October 1916 , leaving UB @-@ 14 as the sole remaining German Type UB I in the flotilla ; she was surrendered at Sevastopol in November 1918 to French armies stationed there during the Russian Civil War .
UB @-@ 1 and the still incomplete UB @-@ 15 were sold to the Austria @-@ Hungary in February 1915 ; both were dismantled and shipped to Pola in May . After one cruise under the German flag , each boat was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The pair — renamed U @-@ 10 and U @-@ 11 , respectively — were joined by U @-@ 15 , U @-@ 16 , and U @-@ 17 in October . Known as the U @-@ 10 or the Okarina ( English : Ocarina ) class as a part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the five boats operated primarily in the Adriatic in patrols off Italy and Albania . U @-@ 10 ( ex UB @-@ 1 ) hit a mine in July 1918 and was beached , but had not been repaired by the end of the war . U @-@ 16 was sunk after she torpedoed an Italian destroyer in October 1916 , and the remaining three ( and the unrepaired U @-@ 10 ) were ceded to Italy at the end of the war .
After UB @-@ 8 was transferred to the Bulgarian Navy in May 1916 , she was renamed Podvodnik No. 18 ( in Cyrillic : Пoдвoдник No. 18 ) . She was Bulgaria 's first submarine , and was engaged primarily in coastal defense duties off Bulgaria 's main Black Sea port of Varna . Podvodnik No. 18 survived the war and was ceded to France after the Treaty of Neuilly @-@ sur @-@ Seine .
20 Type UB I submarines were built , 17 for the German Imperial Navy and three for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Two of the German submarines — UB @-@ 1 and UB @-@ 15 — were sold to Austria @-@ Hungary and commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as U @-@ 10 and U @-@ 11 , respectively . Those two and a further three built by AG Weser comprised the virtually identical U @-@ 10 class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Another of the German submarines , UB @-@ 8 , was sold to Bulgaria in May 1916 , becoming Podvodnik No. 18 .
In the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy the Type UB I boats were known as the U @-@ 10 class , which consisted of two former German Type UB I boats and three built specifically for Austria @-@ Hungary .
In addition , four of the German Type UB Is assigned to the Pola Flotilla based at the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's main naval base at Pola were assigned Austro @-@ Hungarian designations .
Germany and Bulgaria negotiated the purchase of two UB I boats for the Bulgarian Navy , UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 , in 1916 . Two crews of Bulgarian sailors were sent to Kiel for training . Before the purchase could be completed , UB @-@ 7 was sunk , leaving only one boat for Bulgaria . On 25 May 1916 , UB @-@ 8 was officially transferred to Bulgaria for the remainder of the war .
The military history of Gibraltar during World War II exemplifies Gibraltar 's position as a British fortress since the early 18th century and as a vital factor in British military strategy , both as a foothold on the continent of Europe , and as a bastion of British sea power . During World War II , Gibraltar served a vital role in both the Atlantic Theatre and the Mediterranean Theatre , controlling virtually all naval traffic into and out of the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean .
In addition to its commanding position , Gibraltar provided a strongly defended harbour from which ships could operate in both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean . Force H , under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral James Somerville was based in Gibraltar and had the task of maintaining naval superiority and providing a strong escort for convoys to and from the besieged island of Malta . During the course of the war , Gibraltar came under aerial bombardment from Vichy French aircraft and from aircraft of the Italian Royal Air Force ( Regia Aeronautica ) based on Sardinia . Additionally , the fortress was the focus of underwater attacks by the Italian Royal Navy ( Regia Marina ) commando frogman unit ( Decima Flottiglia MAS ) and their human torpedoes . This Italian unit was based on the interned Italian ship SS Olterra in the nearby Spanish harbour of Algeciras . A number of attacks were also carried out by Spanish and Gibraltarian agents acting on behalf of the German Abwehr .
Inside the Rock of Gibraltar itself , miles of tunnels were excavated from the limestone . Masses of rock were blasted out to build an " underground city " . In huge man @-@ made caverns , barracks , offices , and a fully equipped hospital were constructed , complete with an operating theatre and X @-@ ray equipment .
Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of French North Africa in November 1942 , was coordinated from the " Rock " . General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who was given command of the operation , set up his headquarters in Gibraltar during the planning phases of the operation . Following the successful completion of the North African campaign and the surrender of Italy in 1943 , Gibraltar 's role shifted from a forward operating base to a rear @-@ area supply position . The harbour continued to operate dry docks and supply depots for the convoy routes through the Mediterranean until V @-@ E Day in 1945 .