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data/part_3/0012643aa33c6d3df497119f6f3b0743.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0012643aa33c6d3df497119f6f3b0743","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/901f4942-ff2a-44ff-a5f4-2a22cb93f94c/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Leucaena in Latin American Farming Systems: Challenges for Development","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"The genus Leucaena is native to the New World and extends from Southern United States through middle South America. Presently, there are 22 species identified (Bray et al. 1997); however L. leucocephala (Lam) de Wit is the species more investigated and utilized (Casas and Caballero 1996), followed by L. diversifolia (Schlecht) Benth (Salazar 1986). For centuries indigenous people of the American tropics, have used Leucaena species as a source of edible pods, as forage for domestic animals, as poles for construction, as firewood and as shade in permanent plantations. But despite the diverse uses of leucaena, and the convinced research results that show significant increases in animal products, improvement of the soil through nitrogen fixation and the possibilities of using this legume in alley cropping systems, there is not an intensive use of leucaena in the region. In this review we discuss the present status of leucaena in the region and comment on some of the reasons for the poor adoption of the legume in a wide and intensive scale; the potential and recommendations for future developments is also presented."}]},{"head":"Traditional use of Leucaena","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The species presently recognize of Leucaena have a long history of human use by indigenous communities of Mexico and Central America. Usually the Leucaena species are protected in traditional agroforestry systems (Hughes 1993), for example five taxa are reported to be utilized by Indian groups of Mexico, these are L. lanceolata, L. confertiflora subsp. adenotheloidea, L. esculenta subsp. paniculata, L. esculenta subsp. esculenta, L. leucocephala subs. leucocephala and L. leucecephala subsp. glabrata (Casas and Caballero 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":308,"text":"The more widely cultivated species of Leucaena in Mexico by indigenous people are L. esculenta subsp. esculenta and L. leucocephala subsp. glabrata. The former is called guaje rojo (red guaje) and local people, mainly of the Mixtec group, gather pods, seeds and young leaves for human consumption. The seeds are eaten raw, roasted, cooked in stews or milled and added to traditional chilli sauces (Casas and Caballero 1996). The cultivation of leucaena is not intensive; edible parts are gathered from individuals planted in home gardens, from wild populations or from selected individuals spared in crop lands. L. leucocephala is widely distributed in the region; the subsp. glabrata has naturalized in Honduras. Other species native to this country are L. salvadorensis, L. diversifolia, L. shannonii subsp. shannonii and L. lempirana (Ponce 1995). Indigenous people of Honduras have also managed the leucaena trees for a long time and use them as a source of edible pods, as forage for pigs, rabbits and cattle, for firewood, for construction, as living fences, as shade and as green manure. Similar use of leucaena is practiced by small farmers of Guatemala (Arias 1994), Costa Rica (Camacho 1989) and in other countries of the region. A more detailed used of Leucaena species by local people is presented in Table 1. However, it needs to be clarified that this use of leucaena is part of a diversified practice for family subsistence of indigenous people that take advantages of all available plant resources in the local environment to fill particular needs, it does not mean that presently exists an intensive use of leucaena in the region. The interspecific crosses between L. leucocephala and L. diversifolia, to obtain hybrids tolerant to acid soils, continues in Brazil (Schifino-Wittmann et al. 1995); however, although superior acidity-tolerant phenotypes have been selected, no cultivar has been released up to date (Hutton 1995)."}]},{"head":"Utilization in production systems","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":264,"text":"Leucaena -particularly L. leucocephala -has the potential to be used in a diversity of production systems of the region, either leucaena-based pastures (Faría-Mármol and Morillo 1997) or in crop production activities such as shade in perennial crops, for erosion control planted as hedges in hillsides, as mulch and green manure, for wood, firewood and fence posts. However, the reality is that despite positive research findings that show the potential that leucaena has to improve different agropastoral production systems of the region, its use by farmers is limited. In Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Mexico and countries of Central America and the Caribbean, L. leucocephala is planted in small scale as forage plant (protein banks or associated with grasses) mainly as part of a research or development project, and in few cases planted by the own initiative of the farmer; figures of the total area planted are not available. L. leucocephala planted on strips into existing grasses in Campo Grande (Brazil) has increased beef production threefold (P. Rayman pers. comm.); however, no more than 500 ha are presently planted and farmers show little interest in this technology for reasons listed below. In the Cerrados and Northwest of Brazil leucaena has been promoted to be used as windbreak and protein bank among small farmers, but it is use only in small scale (M. Soter and C. T. Karia pers. comm.). Similarly occurs around the Maracaibo Lake in Venezuela with the use L. leucocephala (D. Urbano pers. comm.), in the Cauca Valley of Colombia (Shultze -Kraft 1994) and in the State of Chiapas in Mexico (I. Carmona pers. comm.)."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"L. diversifolia is used and prefered over other species by local farmers of Guatemala as firewood, because it splits easily, burns slowly and produces little smoke. The hardwood is used to make axe handles and to built attics for drying tabacco. Also L. leucocephala is used in a small scale by farmers of Nicaragua as windbreak planted together with Tecoma stands and Eucalyptus camaldulensis, thus offering a better foliar surface for wind control (CATIE 1986)."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Regional projects, such as Madeleña (CATIE -ROCAP) and COHDEFORD in Honduras have encouraged during the last years the use of leucaena (mainly native lines) in agroforestry systems and as live fences among indigenous people (Ponce 1995); however, statistics on the degree of success are not available. Similarly, CATIE has researched the use of leucaena in ally cropping systems in Nicaragua and Costa Rica (Viques 1995), but the utility and advantages of the system are not known nor it is a popular practice among farmers."}]},{"head":"Limitations to Adoption","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Research and promotion in the region have centered on L. leucocephala, which is known by its deficient cold tolerance, heavy defoliation during prolonged dry periods, poor growth on acid soils, heavy pod production, low wood durability and susceptibility to a defoliating psyllid (Hughes 1993), although its high forage quality is well recognized. Therefore, there are inherent factors to the species that limit its adoption, but there are additional ones that merit to be mentioned:"},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"• There are not well supported transfer programs to promote the utilization of leucaena in the region. • Farmers do not understand or are not fully aware of the benefits of using leucaena as a fodder plant or in agroforestry systems. • Traditionally for a cattle farmer a pasture is formed by pure grass only and has difficulties accepting a pasture formed by trees. • Technical information on establishment at low cost and management methods to regenerate plantations is scarce. • Leucaena-based pastures need intensive management under rotation, a practice that is not generalized among cattle farmers of the region. • Ants and termites are a problem during the establishment phase of L. leucocephala in areas like the Cerrados of Brazil. • There are not studies that show the economic impact of using leucaena at the farm and community level, and the contribution of the legume to the cycling of nutrients and improvement of the soil."}]},{"head":"Potential and Recommendations for Development","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"With the present technology available, large areas of the Latin American tropics could be planted with L. leucocephala, particularly areas of the region with medium to good fertility soils and a well defined dry season. According to Lascano et al. (1995), these areas are present in the southern part of Mexico, in some island of the Caribbean, along the Pacific coast of Central America, parts of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, northern Argentina and east and northeast of Brazil. Generally, these areas hold already a high population of beef and dual purpose cattle."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"To this areas we need to add millions of hectareas of very acid oxisol and ultisols with pH < 5 and Al saturation of 47-87 percent that cover around 55 percent of South America and 68 percent of Brazil (Hutton 1995). These areas could be planted with acid-tolerant hybrids of L. leucocephala x L. diversifolia that are well advanced in Brazil (Schifino-Wittmann et al. 1995), or with newly identified species presently under evaluation (Argel and Pérez 1996). However, for this potential to be realized a series of problems and limitations need to be overcome with relation to the present available lines of leucaena:"},{"index":3,"size":203,"text":"• Improve the growing methods, focusing on establishment and soil nutritional requirements of L. leucocephala. Farmers have to wait too long from planting to the first grazing. Appropriate planting techniques are needed, together with the selection of robust genotypes of faster growth. • Organize and establish transfer programs that incentive farmers participation in the planting, growing and management of leucaena. A government incentive may be considered such as one that is presently in place in Mexico, where the state covers to a farmer around 60 percent of the cost of establishment of a new pasture (usually the seed cost of a grass). • Improve the dissemination of technical information on the potential and limitations of leucaena-based systems to farmers, extension agents and policy makers. This can be assisted by establishing a regional network to share germplasm, experimental results and experiences with farmers. The present chain of experiments already underway in Latin America with new species of leucaena supported by the Oxford Forestry Institute in collaboration with CIAT, may be the base for a future regional network. • Incentive programs to identify new lines tolerant to high Al saturation and low Ca soil concentration either by breeding or selection from new species of leucaena."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Leucaena species are utilized for different uses by indigenous people of Latin America as part of a diversified practice that takes into account all plant resources available for subsistence in the local environment. L. leucocephala is the species more widely distributed and researched, however there is no wide utilization of this species in agropastoral system of the region. New species of leucaena are still in an early phase of evaluation. The potential of leucaena to increase animal production, as well as to contribute to more sustainable crop practices, is enormous, but there are several factors that limit adoption (lack of effective transfer programs, farmers traditions, slow establishment, poor growth in acid soils), that need to be resolved if an intensive use in different production systems of this important legume, is to be achieved in the near future."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Main use of native Leucaena species by indigenous people of Mexico and Central America (Adapted from Hughes 1993). Species Main use SpeciesMain use  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Growth and regrowth yields of L. diversifolia in La Garita de Alajuela, Costa Rica (Adapted formSalazar et al. 1987).  Regrowth harvests  Regrowth harvests Variables First harvest* 1 st 2 nd Total production VariablesFirst harvest*1 st2 ndTotal production  (2.6 years) (0.8 yrs) (1 yr)** (4.4 years) (2.6 years)(0.8 yrs) (1 yr)**(4.4 years) Total height (m) 6.0 5.3 5.3 - Total height (m)6.05.35.3- dbh (cm) of main stem 4.7 2.9 2.8 - dbh (cm) of main stem4.72.92.8- Foliar DW (mton/ha) 13.9 10.3 18.9 43.1 Foliar DW (mton/ha)13.910.318.943.1 Firewood DW 23.4 14.9 7.6 45.9 Firewood DW23.414.97.645.9 (mton/ha)     (mton/ha) DW standing 37.3 25.2 26.5 89.0 DW standing37.325.226.589.0 biomass (mton/ha)     biomass (mton/ha) Specific gravity 0.54 0.54 - - Specific gravity0.540.54-- (g/cm3)     (g/cm3) * Harvest of the original stand     * Harvest of the original stand ** Harvest of regrowth at 10 to 12 month intervals    ** Harvest of regrowth at 10 to 12 month intervals  "}],"sieverID":"106ba2d6-a045-4b21-af35-931da74ba7fb","abstract":"Different species of Leucaena have been used traditionally by indigenous people of Mexico and Central America, as part of their subsistence activities that take advantages of all plant resources available in the natural environment; however, this does not implies an intensive use of leucaena in their farming systems. L. leucocephala is the species more widely used, but it has limitations such as slow growth during establishment, deficient cold tolerance, poor growth on acid soils and susceptibility to defoliating psyllid. These inherent problems of leucaena added to deficient transfer programs, poor diffusion of technical information and farmers tradition, are some of the reasons for the poor farmer adoption in a wide scale. With the present technology available on L. leucocephala productivity of large areas of the region can be improved either by incorporating leucaena in grazing systems or into crop lands, however, to realize this potential technical and transfer problems must be solved."}

data/part_3/0058021879e25399ab5840c26cc34fae.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0058021879e25399ab5840c26cc34fae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fd0fb421-5818-4618-90bd-b88832adcf86/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"25 million African Farming Families by 2025","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Science-Development Partnerships for","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Scaling Climate-Smart Agriculture"}]},{"head":"CSA Targets","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The P4S project is developing an interactive web-based application to show targets for number of farming households to target for CSA adoption in countries and districts through out Africa."}]},{"head":"Stakeholder Engagement","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Financing Mechanisms  "}]},{"head":"Indicators","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Situation Analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"AU-NEPAD Vision 25x25","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" The data, tools, and lessons learned will be built into an open source platform that stands to become the clearinghouse for CSA decision-support. CSA project is providing support to a wide range of stakeholders, including COMESA, ECOWAS, NEPAD, & the Cross-Sectorial Africa CSA Alliance (ACSAA), among others.CIAT-CCAFS CSA Prioritization FrameworkThe Climate Wizard provides an easy-to-use web-based application to explore and access future climate change information. Look at how climate is projected to change for specific areas throughout Africa.Visit the Climate Wizard at: http://climatewizard.ciat.cgiar.org/AfricaCSA  Investment appraisal  Barriers and constraints analyses  Cost-benefit analysis  Spatial targeting of implementation activities  Business models for scaling CSA  Learning guidelines, agenda, tools, and approaches Challenges for monitoring CSA  Multi-Objective Complexity: productivity, resilience, mitigation  Scale of Impact: farm to continent  Multi-Institutional Coordination: government, CSOs, NGOs, farmers organizations, private sector, donors, etc. Financing is critical as a basis for reaching 25 million farmers, and technical support is need for both the development and implementation of different funding opportunities. In particular, results-based financing mechanisms are being developed which need clear indicators and metrics for measuring success. Indicators and metrics are an integral part of CSA-PLAN which are used throughout all of the core components from Situation Analysis through to Monitoring & Evaluation "},{"text":"& Prioritizing Partnerships for Scaling CSA Science and technical support is needed to help AU-NEPAD and its partners achieve this goal. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is developing a collaboration with AU-NEPAD to provide support to Vision 25x25. This poster describes some of the ways CCAFS is working to provide this support.The primary P4S outcome will be more effective CSA programming, which will ultimately increase CSA adoption by farmers and return on CSA investments by donors. Working through partnerships, this project is mainstreaming the use of sciencebased approaches for targeting, prioritizing, and scaling CSA. The African Union-New Partnership for African Development (AU-NEPAD) has set a goal of 25 million farming families practicing Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) by 2025 (Vision 25x25). This Vision 25x25 came out of the African Union Leaders \"Malabo Declaration\" of 2014 that set a path forward for African agricultural development over the next decade. Flagship Project of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). P4S is solidifying partnerships between CCAFS and key African institutions to sup-Targeting Partnerships for Scaling Climate Smart Agriculture (P4S-CSA) is a port the scaling of CSA. The African Union-New Partnership for African Development (AU-NEPAD) has set a goal of 25 million farming families practicing Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) by 2025 (Vision 25x25). This Vision 25x25 came out of the African Union Leaders \"Malabo Declaration\" of 2014 that set a path forward for African agricultural development over the next decade.Flagship Project of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). P4S is solidifying partnerships between CCAFS and key African institutions to sup-Targeting Partnerships for Scaling Climate Smart Agriculture (P4S-CSA) is a port the scaling of CSA.  "}],"sieverID":"01fc58e1-d86f-4f15-98bb-a4ed27c5ff28","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0094df5364e425c124cac8084a7615b0.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0094df5364e425c124cac8084a7615b0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c25bf722-8351-439f-8cb9-e5981df09d17/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Efficacy of Oryza sativa husk and Quercus phillyraeoides extracts for the in vitro and in vivo control of fungal rot disease of white yam (Dioscorea rotundata Poir)","keywords":["Dioscorea rotundata","Agroecological zones","Pathogens","Biopesticide","Post-harvest rot"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"Yam is mainly cultivated as a staple crop across the humid and semi-humid tropics, especially in West Africa which accounts for about 90% of world yam production (Aboagyne-Nuamah et al. 2005). There are over 150 species of yam grown throughout the world (Purseglove 1985). White yam (D. rotundata) is the most predominant yam species and it constitutes about 80% of total yam produced worldwide [ (Titteh and Saakwa 1994;Ejechi and Souzey 1999). Although the main constituent of the yam tuber is carbohydrate, it also contains an appreciable amount of proteins, vitamins and minerals (Babaleye 2003). It serves as an important source of income to many people. The tuber is of economic value and is the most important part of the crop. It can be eaten in different forms such as roasted, boiled, fried or better still made as pounded yam or as flour which is a delicacy in Nigeria. Yam is a very important and revered crop, especially in southern Nigeria where it has cultural importance exemplified by the annual new yam festival (Arua 1981;Okorji 1992). Water yam (D. alata) becomes an alternative only when the white yam is out of season or very costly."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"Pests and diseases are the major limitation to cultivation; hence demand has always exceeded its supply in yam producting countries like Nigeria (Coursey 1983). Yam tubers are liable to infection by pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes at various stages of its growth in the field. In most cases, infection starts in the field through injuries to the yam tubers and in transit to the market or barn for storage (Yoshida et al. 2000). Rot is an important factor affecting post-harvest shelf life of yams and losses can be very high. Losses of over 60% of D. rotundata tubers rot stored for six months have been reported (Ikotun 1983a(Ikotun , 1989)). The yield loss ultimately reduces farmers' income, available food supply and yam setts for the next growing season. (Amusa et al. 2003;Aidoo 2007). Besides the decrease in quantity, rot also reduces the quality of yam tubers thereby making them unattractive to prospective buyers. Yams are attacked by several diseases; fungi are, however, the major cause of post-harvest rot of yam tubers (Noon 1978;Dania 2012). Fungal pathogens such as Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani, Penicillium oxalicum, and Sclerotium rolfsii are commonly associated with rotting of yam tubers (Ikotun 1989;Aidoo 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Peasant farmers often quickly sell off their harvested yam tubers in order to avoid losses due to microbial decay. This action has adversely affected yam production, availability and utilization. Yam producers are always concerned with tuber quality from cultivation on the farm to storage in order to guarantee high price for their produce. The quality of yam setts for the next growing season is also very important to producers in order to ensure perpetuation of the crop and guarantee continuous supply. This, therefore, emphasizes the need for disease control."},{"index":4,"size":168,"text":"Synthetic fungicides had been very popular in the control of agricultural pests and pathogens because of their ease of application, effectiveness and storage (Prakash and Rao 1994). However, in recent times, their use in crop protection programmes has come under increased criticisms worldwide for some obvious reasons. Their use results in adverse effects on the environment, persistence, pathogen resurgence due to resistance development, mammalian toxicity, elimination of beneficial soil micro and macro-organisms (GOAN 1999). There is, therefore, a need to search for cheap and eco-friendly control measures in the management of post-harvest rot of yam. Several authors have suggested the use of botanicals as an alternative to the hazardous effects of synthetic pesticides (Enikuomehin et al. 1998;Amadioha 2000;Hycenth 2008). However, most of the efforts with botanicals to control yam pathogens do not go beyond the in vitro trials. Hence this study investigated the potential of Oryza sativa husk and Quercus phillyraeoides extracts for the control of post-harvest fungal rot and extension of the shelf life of white yam."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Collection and isolation of associated fungi from rotted yam tuber samples Rotted tuber samples of D. rotundata were collected from different locations across three agroecological zones (AEZ): Humid rainforest, Derived savanna and southern Guinea savanna. Fifteen tubers showing rot symptoms were collected from fourteen locations across the three AEZ. A total of 210 rotten tubers were collected and evaluated for fungal rot pathogens. Each rotten sample was washed in running tap water and cut to expose the fresh necrotic tissues. From the areas in advance of the necrosis, tissue pieces were surface-sterilized with 10% sodium hypochlorite for 2 minutes, and rinsed in five changes of sterile distilled water (SDW) before plating on potato dextrose agar (PDA). The inoculated plates were incubated in the dark in a Gallenkamp incubator operating at a temperature of 28°C for 3 to 4 days and examined for fungal growth from the tissue pieces. Identification of the isolates was carried out using standard procedure (Barnett and Hunter 1998)."}]},{"head":"Preparation of inoculum","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Pure cultures of the pathogens were subcultured from different stock cultures. These were placed on PDA for 7-10 days depending on the pathogen, to allow full sporulation. This was then scooped out into a Warring blender containing one litre of SDW; a drop of Tween 20 (Polyoxyethylene sorbitan mono-oleat) detergent was added to aid the dislodgment of the spores from the medium. The spores were then strained off the mycelia fragments using a double layer of cheese cloth placed inside a sterile funnel. An aliquot of 0.1 mL spore concentration was then placed on an hemacytometer slide and the spores were quantified under a compound microscope. The final spore count and concentration was determined by using this method:"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Where: C 1 = Initial inoculum concentration, V 1 = Initial volume of water used in streaking the culture plate C 2 = Final inoculum concentration desired, V 2 = Final volume of water added to obtain desired concentration."}]},{"head":"Preparation of cold water extracts","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Fresh Oryza sativa husks were washed thoroughly under running tap water and air-dried at a temperature of 28°C for 7-10 days until they became crisp. The dried plant husks were pulverized by blending using a high speed blender (Waring Commercial, Springfield, MO, USA) to form a fine powder while the bark of Quercus phillyraeodes (Oak plant) was dried in a Gallenkamp oven at 80°C for two days and crushed to a coarse powder in a mortar. Ultraviolet light (UV) was used to surfacesterilize the botanicals to prevent fungal and bacterial contaminants. Cold water extract was prepared by adding the powder to 100 mL of sterile distilled water in a 250-mL beaker. This was stirred vigorously and allowed to stand for 24 hours before filtering the extract through folds of sterile cheese cloth. Five different extract concentrations were prepared by blending 0.5 g, 1.0 g, 1.5 g, 2.5 g, and 3.5 g of each plant part in 100 mL of sterile distilled water to produce 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.5%, and 3.5% extract concentrations, respectively."}]},{"head":"Measurement of mycelial growth inhibition","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"This involved creating a four equidistant section on each Petri dish by drawing two perpendicular lines at the reverse bottom of the plate, the point of intersection indicating the center of the plate. This was done before dispensing PDA into each of the plates. An aliquot of 1 mL each of the extracts was separately introduced into the Petri dish containing 15mL PDA. A 5-mm cork borer was used to inoculate a disc of the pathogen culture and placed on the medium containing extract just at the point of intersection of the two previously drawn lines at the bottom of the Petri dish in three replicates. Control experiments were set up without the addition of any plant material. Inhibitory effect of the extract was expressed as percentage inhibition and calculated using the formula:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Where: XC = Average diameter of control YT = Average diameter of fungal colony with treatment"}]},{"head":"Determination of the efficacy of extracts for control of tuber rot","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"The experiment was a 2 × 3 × 6 factorial in a randomized complete block design with three replicates. Both extracts that had earlier proved effective in the in vitro inhibition of the pathogens were used for the trials against the virulent fungal pathogens. Clean, healthy tubers of yam genotype TDr 95-18544 were washed under running tap water to remove adhering soil and surfaceborne microflora. Eighteen tubers were inoculated per pathogen with three replicates in two batches. The first batch of nine tubers consisting of three sets of tubers in each treatment, were separately scratched, wounded, and bored, respectively. The tubers were inoculated with the test pathogens, the surface area treated with 1 ml of the extract and then exposed. Similarly, the second batch of nine tubers was scratched, wounded, bored, prior to inoculation and treated with the extract and covered with black polyethylene sheets. For scratched treatments, the tuber periderm was removed with a scapel up to 0.1 cm; wounded tubers were cut to a depth of 0.5 cm. Bored treatments were inoculated to a depth of 1 cm, using a 5-mm cork borer. The tubers were inoculated with the test pathogens 48 h before the application of the extracts and stored at room temperature (28 ± 2°C) in the yam barn for 6 months. Tubers were inoculated with a spore concentration of 10 6 conidia/mL of the test pathogen. Control tubers were scratched, bored, wounded, and dipped in SDW and inoculated with test pathogen only. Percent rot inhibition was determined using the method:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Rot inhibition ¼ % decay in control−% decay in treated tuber % decay in control"}]},{"head":"Phytochemical screening of plant extracts","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"Fresh samples of O. sativa husk and Q. phillyraeoides bark extracts were prepared as previously described and were concentrated using a rotary evaporator. Chemical tests were carried out on the extracts for the qualitative determination of phytochemical constituents using standard procedures (Sofowora 1993). Mayer's and Draggendoff's reagents were used for test and confirmation of the presence of alkaloids in the extracts. The formation of a cream colour and reddish brown precipitate with Mayer's and Draggendoff's reagent respectively was regarded as the confirmatory test for the presence of alkaloids. The amount of total phenolics in extracts was determined with the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Gallic acid was used as a standard and the total phenolics were expressed as mg/g gallic acid equivalents (GAE). The formation of blue colour upon reaction with Folin-Ciocalteu reagent was the confirmatory test for the presence of phenols in the plant extract samples. Similarly, the formation of a red precipitate when the extract was boiled with 1% aqueous hydrochloric acid indicated the presence of phlobatannins."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Other bioactive constituents such as saponins, tanins, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoides, anthraquinones etc. were also determined using standard procedures."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"All numerical data were statistically analysed using generalized linear model (GLM) of SAS. Means were separated using Least Significant Difference Test (LSD) and standard error was determined where applicable at 5% level of significance."}]},{"head":"Results","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mycelial growth inhibition of test pathogens in vitro","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Mycelial growth inhibition of the test pathogens ranged between 0% to 39.2% for OSH and 0% to 46.6% for QP extracts at 0.5% w/v concentration (Table 1). However, both extracts effectively inhibited growth of the pathogens at 3.5% w/v concentration (>70% inhibition). The result also shows that OSH could not completely inhibit A.niger in vitro at concentrations ≤ 2.5% w/v. There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in the control of L. theobromae and A. niger at 0.5% w/v concentration for both OSH and QP extracts. However, the efficacy of both extracts differed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) at concentrations ≥1.0% ≤ 2.5% w/v. There was no significant difference in the efficacy of OSH and QP against S. rolfsii and F. oxysporum at 3.5% w/v concentration. The minimum inhibitory concentration for both extracts varied between 0.5% to 1.5% w/v depending on the test pathogen and extract."}]},{"head":"Efficacy of extracts for control of tuber rot","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":269,"text":"Rot development was significantly reduced (P ≤ 0.05) in tubers of D. rotundata inoculated with six virulent fungal pathogens 48 h before the application of O. sativa husk extract (Table 2). Rot initiation in replicate tubers that were scratched, inoculated with R. solani, P. oxalicum and F. oxysporum and treated with O.sativa extract was completely inhibited. Rot inhibition was more effective in inoculated tubers that were either scratched or wounded and treated with the extracts than the bored treatments. However, the extract was more effective in tubers that were bored than those that were wounded, inoculated with L. theobromae and treated with the extract where rot was reduced to 17.4% and 18.8% respectively. Comparatively, rot was very pronounced in control treatments that were either wounded or bored and inoculated with the same pathogen but without extract application (52.2% to 78.2% rot). There was significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) in rot incidence between all the extract applied treatments and the control tubers that were inoculated with the test pathogens only. Replicate tubers that were inoculated with L. theobromae and R. solani and treated with extracts differed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) except for treatments that were bored and exposed. Rot initiation also differed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) between treatments that were inoculated and exposed and those that were inoculated and covered. The extract was most effective in rot inhibition in tubers inoculated with S. rolfsii where rot was reduced to ≤ 13.0% and least effective in suppressing A. niger rot (≤ 18.8%). Lasiodiplodia theobromae and A.niger were most virulent in control tubers without extract application with 78.2% and 82.75% rot respectively."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Quercus phillyraeoides extract effectively inhibited rot in all the replicate treatments of R. solani that were scratched, inoculated and exposed (Table 3), but could not totally inhibit the pathogen rot in treatments that were wounded, bored and exposed or covered. However, the extract significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced rot of all the other pathogens relative to the control treatments in the in vivo trials. The extract was least effective against rot development in tubers that were bored, inoculated and either exposed or covered."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The extract was most effective in rot suppression in tubers inoculated with P.oxalicum where rot was reduced to ≤ 14.9% and least effective in inhibiting L. theobromae (≤ 20.9% rot). Sclerotium rolfsii and A. niger were most virulent in control tubers with 81.7% and 78.3% rot respectively. There was significant difference Means with the same letter along a column are not significantly different (P = 0.05)."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Legend: OSH = Oryza sativa husk, QP = Quercus phillyraeoides. Means with the same letter along a column are not significantly different (P = 0.05)."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"in the control of rot development between the rotcausing fungi in tubers that were inoculated and exposed and those inoculated and covered (P ≤ 0.05). There was no significant difference in the effect of Q. phillyraeoides on rot initiation in treatments that were wounded and exposed (P > 0.05), except for tubers inoculated with L. theobromae and A. niger and S. rolfsii which showed significant difference (P ≤ 0.05). The efficacy of Q. phillyraeoides in the control of rot in tubers that were bored, inoculated and exposed differed significantly (P ≤ 0.05)."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Similarly, there was a significant difference among all treatments that were either wounded or bored and exposed (P ≤ 0.05). All treatments were significantly different from the control set up in all trials (P ≤ 0.05)."}]},{"head":"Phytochemical screening of plant extracts","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Phytochemical analysis of Oryza sativa husk and Quercus phillyraeoides extract revealed the presence of various active constituents (Table 4). Both extracts were found to contain alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, phenol and anthraquinone. However, Phlobatanins and ferulic acid were lacking in Q. phillyraeoides extract. Similarly, pyroligneous acid was absent in Oryza sativa husk extract."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Naturally, there are many plants for use in natural crop protection in order to ensure safe and healthy environment. These botanicals provide a viable alternative to synthetic pesticides because they are harmless to beneficial soil microorganisms such as symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, they are cheap and readily available, and they do not accumulate in the food chain. Oryza sativa extract used in this study completely inhibited the mycelial growth and conidia production in A. niger, P. oxalicum, and F. oxysporum at 3.5% w/v concentrations in vitro as revealed in Table 1. Comparatively, control plates showed distinct morphological features such as cluster of conidiospores borne in sterigmata and phaliades for A. niger, and P. oxalicum, respectively under microscopic examination. Fusarium oxysporum had spindle-shaped conidia. Similarly, they effectively inhibited the production of pycnidia in L. theobromae and the formation of sclerotia in R. solani and S. rolfsii. These results agree with the findings of Abiala 2008 who reported the potential of O. sativa husk extract for the in vitro control of the black sigatoka pathogen, Mycosphaerella fijiensis Also, Dhaliwal et al. (1993) found extracts from several rice varieties to be effective in inhibiting R. solani."},{"index":2,"size":335,"text":"The potential of plant extracts in the control of plant pathogens is facilitated by the presence of active ingredients in the form of secondary metabolites. Ferulic acid and Pyroligneous acid are the active ingredients found in O. sativa husk and Q. phillyraeoides extracts respectively (Yoshida et al. 2000). These compounds are biodegradable, do not incite pathogen resistance and are not toxic to man and livestock. It must be stressed, however, that these active ingredients are not solely responsible for fungitoxicity of the extracts to the test pathogens in this study as revealed in Table 4. The existence of a synergy between the active ingredients and other secondary metabolites such as alkaloids and phenols in plant extracts enhances their potential in plant disease control. Similarly, alkaloids have been implicated in the control of phytopathogenic bacteria (Olugbade and Odebiyi 1992). The ability of the extracts to effectively inhibit the mycelial growth of all the rot-causing fungi in vitro is an indication of their broad-spectrum activity. Means with the same letter along a column are not significantly different (P = 0.05). The success of botanicals in the control of plant pathogens can be determined by the medium of extraction. Some authors have reported that organic solvents such as ethanol extract active ingredients in plant extracts better than water and that they are more effective in controlling plant pathogens (Fuerhake 1984;Lale and Abdulrahaman 1998). However, organic solvents are chemicals and the implication of chemical control in our natural ecosystem cannot be over emphasized. Consequently, aqueous extracts were used in both the in vitro and in vivo trials in this study which are easy to prepare, cheap and are not toxic. The efficacy of plant extracts is also influenced by the part of the plant that is used for extraction. The active ingredients are often more concentrated in plant storage organs such as roots, tubers, fruits, rhizomes and seeds. Peluola (2005) reported that the concentration of azadirachtin active ingredient was comparatively higher in neem seeds than the leaves or bark."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"The presence of secondary metabolites in O. sativa and Q. phillyraeoides extracts caused the inhibition of radial growth and spore germination of the test pathogens in vitro, which confirms the report of previous workers (Dhaliwal et al. 1993;Ejechi and Souzey 1999). The difference recorded in the efficacy of the extracts may be due to the solubility of their active ingredients in water."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"The concentration of these extract metabolites is also an important determinant of their ability to inhibit pathogens. Some pathogens have the ability to biodegrade phenols of some botanicals; this reason is responsible for their inability to control such pathogens. Oryza sativa husk extract significantly reduced tuber rot in vivo at lower concentration as shown in Table 2. These results are consistent with the findings of (Abiala 2008) who reported lower inhibitory concentration ≤ 5% w/v for this extract in the in vitro control of M. fijiensis."},{"index":5,"size":280,"text":"Injury to yam tubers in the form of wounds enhances the entry of fungal pathogens. This normally occurs during weeding, harvesting, through the feeding lesions of nematodes and insects or while in transit to the market. Rot development was influenced by the degree of injury done to the tubers in this study. Tables 2 and 3 showed that tubers that were bored and inoculated with test pathogens had higher rot incidence than those that were wounded or scratched and inoculated. This result agrees with the findings of (Ogaraku and Usman 2008) who reported a direct relationship between the degree of damage to yam tubers and rot incidence. However, disease incidence and development are primarily facilitated by the presence of a virulent pathogen, susceptible host, and favourable environment (Manjula et al. 2005). There was significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) between the extracts in the control of rot between inoculated tubers that were covered and those that were exposed. They were more effective in controlling rot in tubers that were inoculated and exposed, while rot control was less effective among inoculated tubers that were covered. The higher rot values obtained in replicate tubers that were inoculated and covered could be attributed to the high relative humidity present in the covered treatments, which favours disease development. Conversely, the reduced rot recorded in inoculated and exposed tubers may be attributed to the low relative humidity which discourages fungal infection. Generally, fungal biodeterioration increases at relative humidity greater than 60%, and their virulence diminishes with decreasing relative humidity below this level. These results agree with the findings of Ikotun (1983a) who reported high relative humidity as an important factor in rot initiation of yam tubers."},{"index":6,"size":181,"text":"Post-harvest biodeterioration of ware yam largely starts from the field, resulting from the injuries on yam tubers before storage. The invading fungal pathogens are subsequently carried from the field to the yam barn. In most cases, these infections are latent and only become noticed after incubation and the infected tubers start to rot. However, besides human activities, insects pests, rodents and nematodes that predispose yam tubers to rot, other factors such as sprouting, tuber respiration, temperature and the degree of resistance or susceptibility of yam genotypes to invading pathogens also influence yam storage. Cultural practices such as continuous cropping also encourage the persistence of yam pathogens and enhance their transition from the previous cropping season to the next season. Temperature influences yam storability. Yams store best at 28 ± 2°C in Nigeria. Although storage at lower temperaturs reduces microbial rotting, it causes chilling damage to yam tubers. Storage at temperatures higher than 30°C increases the incidence of xerophilic fungi like Aspergillus niger and Penillium oxalicum. Therefore, correct manipulation of temperature during storage can also prolong the shelf life of ware yam."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Tuber wound is the major factor that predisposes pre and post-harvest yam to fungal biodeterioration. The depth of injury to the yam tubers influenced the degree of rot by the test pathogens in this study. Treatments that were bored and inoculated with rot-causing fungi exhibited the highest degree of rot, followed by the wounded and then the scratched tubers. A vital inference and advice to peasant farmers, who are the target beneficiary of this research, therefore, is for them to try as much as possible to avoid or reduce injury to yam tubers during harvest to the barest minimum to prevent losses from yam pathogens. The promising potential of both O. sativa and Q. phillyraeoides extracts in rot inhibition in this study recommends their development as prospective biopesticide formulation for tuber rot control of white yam."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 Effect of Oryza sativa husk and Quercus phillyraeoides extracts on the mycelial growth of six virulent fungi after 7 days   Mycelial growth inhibition   Mycelial growth inhibition  Extract 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.5 3.5 Extract 0.51.01.52.53.5 L. theobromae OSH 0.0e 100a 100a 100a 100a L. theobromae OSH0.0e100a100a100a100a  QP 0.0e 0.0e 11.1e 62.2 cd 86.1bc QP0.0e0.0e11.1e62.2 cd 86.1bc A. niger OSH 5.6 cd 11.1cde 70.0bc 77.8c 100a A. nigerOSH5.6 cd11.1cde 70.0bc 77.8c100a  QP 6.7fcd 22.3c 33.3d 61.7 cd 77.4c QP6.7fcd22.3c33.3d61.7 cd 77.4c S. rolfsii OSH 12.2c 22.2c 55.9 cd 89.2b 100a S. rolfsiiOSH12.2c22.2c55.9 cd 89.2b100a  QP 0.0e 17.3 cd 65.4c 100a 100a QP0.0e17.3 cd 65.4c100a100a P. oxalicum OSH 23.1abc 24.4c 67.2c 83.1bc 100a P. oxalicumOSH23.1abc 24.4c67.2c83.1bc 100a  QP 30.0bc 52.3abc 100a 100a 100a QP30.0bc 52.3abc 100a100a100a R. solani OSH 4.4 cd 100a 100a 100a 100a R. solaniOSH4.4 cd100a100a100a100a  QP 0.0e 0.0e 16.4de 88.0b 93.8b QP0.0e0.0e16.4de 88.0b93.8b F. oxysporum OSH 39.2b 63.2bc 100a 100a 100a F. oxysporumOSH39.2b63.2bc100a100a100a  QP 46.6a 70.6b 90.6b 100a 100a QP46.6a70.6b90.6b100a100a Std deviation  16.2 36.0 32.8 14.6 7.3 Std deviation16.236.032.814.67.3  "},{"text":"Table 2 Rot inhibition in tubers inoculated with six virulent fungi 48 h before the application of O. sativa extract stored for 6 months    Tuber rot (%)   Tuber rot (%) Fungus Inoculated and exposed Inoculated and covered FungusInoculated and exposed Inoculated and covered  Scratch Wound Bore Scratch Wound Bore Scratch Wound BoreScratch Wound Bore L. theobromae 5.5bc 10.4 cd 12.0d 18.8de 18.8d 17.4d L. theobromae 5.5bc10.4 cd 12.0d18.8de 18.8d17.4d Control 12.8a 15.8bc 33.7bc 17.6bc 52.2a 78.2b Control12.8a15.8bc 33.7bc 17.6bc 52.2a78.2b R. solani 0.0 cd 5.6de 11.8d 7.9e 11.2de 15.9de R. solani0.0 cd5.6de11.8d7.9e11.2de 15.9de Control 10.2b 9.5 cd 22.4bc 10.2de 49.4b 35.6 cd Control10.2b9.5 cd22.4bc 10.2de 49.4b35.6 cd A. niger 9.1b 12.7d 14.7 cd 12.1c 14.5d 18.8d A. niger9.1b12.7d14.7 cd 12.1c14.5d18.8d Control 12.3a 18.9b 34.3bc 19.7b 47.8b 82.7a Control12.3a18.9b34.3bc 19.7b47.8b82.7a P. oxalicum 0.0 cd 7.5d 10.6d 12.3c 14.1d 13.2e P. oxalicum0.0 cd7.5d10.6d12.3c14.1d13.2e Control 6.1bc 10.2 cd 27.1d 22.4a 44.0bc 65.9abc Control6.1bc10.2 cd 27.1d22.4a44.0bc 65.9abc S. rolfsii 3.9c 7.1d 8.3de 8.5e 9.8e 13.0e S. rolfsii3.9c7.1d8.3de8.5e9.8e13.0e Control 8.8b 13.5c 39.3b 14.8abc 28.3 cd 73.7bc Control8.8b13.5c39.3b14.8abc 28.3 cd 73.7bc F. oxysporum 0.0 cd 3.4e 8.7de 8.6e 9.1e 15.4de F. oxysporum 0.0 cd3.4e8.7de8.6e9.1e15.4de Control 5.4bc 21.9a 44.7a 15.9abc 38.7c 53.7c Control5.4bc21.9a44.7a15.9abc 38.7c53.7c Std deviation 4.6 5.5 13.1 4.8 17.2 28.4 Std deviation 4.65.513.14.817.228.4  "},{"text":"Table 3 Rot inhibition in tubers inoculated with six virulent fungi 48 h before the application of Q. phillyraeoides extract stored for 6 months    Tuber rot (%)   Tuber rot (%) Fungus Inoculated and exposed Inoculated and covered FungusInoculated and exposed Inoculated and covered  Sratch Wound Bore Scratch Wound Bore Sratch Wound BoreScratch Wound Bore L. theobromae 9.9bc 14.0 cd 16.7bcd 13.8bc 17.1de 20.9de L. theobromae 9.9bc14.0 cd 16.7bcd 13.8bc 17.1de 20.9de Control 17.7a 29.8a 63.6a 19.5a 74.4a 69.8bc Control17.7a29.8a63.6a19.5a74.4a69.8bc R. solani 0.0e 11.5d 13.3d 10.5c 14.0cde 15.6e R. solani0.0e11.5d13.3d10.5c14.0cde 15.6e Control 5.8 cd 16.5c 39.7abc 12.0bc 52.5 cd 45.2e Control5.8 cd 16.5c39.7abc 12.0bc 52.5 cd 45.2e A. niger 7.5c 13.1 cd 19.6 cd 7.2 cd 20.6d 20.8de A. niger7.5c13.1 cd 19.6 cd 7.2 cd20.6d20.8de Control 14.6b 25.6b 48.9bc 13.4bc 55.1c 78.3b Control14.6b 25.6b48.9bc 13.4bc 55.1c78.3b P. oxalicum 7.8c 10.7d 11.1de 8.3 cd 13.9cde 14.9e P. oxalicum7.8c10.7d11.1de 8.3 cd13.9cde 14.9e Control 13.3b 22.3bc 32.4c 15.5b 48.2c 44.8 cd Control13.3b 22.3bc 32.4c15.5b48.2c44.8 cd S. rolfsii 4.7 cd 7.5e 11.3de 7.5 cd 17.3de 24.6d S. rolfsii4.7 cd 7.5e11.3de 7.5 cd17.3de 24.6d Control 10.2bc 21.4bc 50.2b 19.8a 64.6b 81.7a Control10.2bc 21.4bc 50.2b19.8a64.6b81.7a F. oxysporum 5.4 cd 11.5d 14.4d 10.5c 13.2cde 19.7de F. oxysporum 5.4 cd 11.5d14.4d10.5c13.2cde 19.7de Control 9.8bc 21.1c 47.6bc 16.6b 58.8bc 57.7abc Control9.8bc21.1c47.6bc 16.6b58.8bc 57.7abc Std deviation 4.8 6.9 18.6 4.3 23.4 25.3 Std deviation 4.86.918.64.323.425.3  "},{"text":"Table 4 Phytochemical analysis of plant extractsFerulic acid had the highest concentration of 5.69 mg/ml amongst the bioactive compounds contained in Oryza sativa husk extract, while pyroligneous acid had the highest concentration of 7.74 mg/ml in Quercus phillyraeoides extract. Exract concentration mg/ml   Exract concentration mg/ml Phytochemical O. sativa Q. phillyraeoides PhytochemicalO. sativaQ. phillyraeoides Alkaloids 2.16 ± 0.15 1.07 ± 0.03 Alkaloids2.16 ± 0.151.07 ± 0.03 Flavonoids 0.17 ± 0.20 0.187 ± 1.42 Flavonoids0.17 ± 0.200.187 ± 1.42 Saponins 3.30 ± 0.23 1.99 ± 0.02 Saponins3.30 ± 0.231.99 ± 0.02 Tannins 0.77 ± 0.11 0.17 ± 0.01 Tannins0.77 ± 0.110.17 ± 0.01 Phlobatanins 0.35 ± 0.01 0.00 Phlobatanins0.35 ± 0.010.00 Ferulic acid 5.69 ± 0.08 0.00 Ferulic acid5.69 ± 0.080.00 Terpenoids 0.71 ± 0.43 0.38 ± 0.05 Terpenoids0.71 ± 0.430.38 ± 0.05 Phenol 3.21 ± 0.04 2.59 ± 0.01 Phenol3.21 ± 0.042.59 ± 0.01 Anthraquinone 0.07 ± 0.01 0.45 ± 0.05 Anthraquinone0.07 ± 0.010.45 ± 0.05 Pyroligneous acid 0.00 7.74 ± 0.12 Pyroligneous acid0.007.74 ± 0.12  "}],"sieverID":"6121f72c-e3bf-4447-ae38-b1ce072134a3","abstract":"Tuber rot disease is a major constraint to white yam (Dioscorea rotundata) production, accounting for 50-60% of annual yield losses in Nigeria. The main method of control using synthetic fungicides is being discouraged due to human and environmental health hazards. The potential of Oryza sativa husk (OSH) and Quercus phillyraeoides (QP) extracts for the in vitro and in vivo control of six virulent rot-causing fungal pathogens, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Aspergillus niger, Rhizoctonia solani, Penicillium oxalicum, Sclerotium rolfsii, and Fusarium oxysporum was evaluated, using five different extract concentrations of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.5%, and 3.5% w/v. These fungi were isolated from rotted tubers of D. rotundata, across three agroecological zones in Nigeria-the Humid rainforest, Derived savanna, and southern Guinea savanna. All treatments were subjected to three methods of inoculation 48 hours before the application of both extracts and stored at 28 ± 2°C for 6 months. Radial mycelial growth of the test pathogens was effectively inhibited at concentrations ≤ 3.5% w/v in vitro for both OSH and QP extracts. Rotting was significantly reduced (P ≤ 0.05) to between 0 to 18.8% and 0% to 20.9% for OSH and QP extracts respectively. The extracts significantly (P ≤ 0.05) inhibited percent rot of the test pathogens at 3.5% concentration w/v in vivo. Rot incidence was, however, lower in replicate tubers that were inoculated, treated with extracts and exposed than treatments that were covered. Phytochemical analysis of OSH and QP extracts revealed the presence of secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, ferulic acid, phlobatanins, Terpenoids, phenols, anthraquinone and pyroligneous acid. The efficacy of both extracts in reducing rot in this study recommends their development as prospective biopesticide formulation and use in the management of post-harvest rot of yam tubers."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00dcde723958cd000bac8e6dac7a540b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/DQGK1E/IJ6AEM"},"pageCount":47,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Egypt's food subsidy system currently covers four items: bread, flour, oil and sugar. The system, which accounts for 5.5 percent of government expenditures, significantly enhances household food security by assuring low-cost supplies of calories and protein. However, the system is not specifically targeted to low-income groups and some 15-20 percent of the subsidy benefits leak-the commodities do not reach the intended consumers at subsidized prices."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"In this paper, a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model is used to explore the short-run equilibrium effects of a set of alternative options for the operation of Egypt's food subsidy system. The options covered involve targeting, and reducing and/or reorganizing the subsidy system. The economy-wide perspective of the analysis makes it possible to consider the broader economic repercussions of different policy options. The analysis highlights not only the effects of policies on the micro level (for example, changes in household welfare), but also on the macro level (for example, on the government budget) as well as the tradeoffs involved."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Section 2 provides a brief background, focusing on the role of Egypt's food subsidy system in the national economy. In Section 3, the CGE model and its data base are presented. Section 4 is devoted to simulations, while Section 5 summarizes the results and extracts the policy implications. The appendix includes additional data and simulation results as well as a mathematical statement of the CGE model."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"The description of Egypt's food subsidy system draws on Ahmed, Bouis, and Ali (1998) 1 and Gutner, Gomaa, and Nasser (1998). 2"}]},{"head":"FOOD SUBSIDIES IN THE EGYPTIAN ECONOMY 1","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Since the 1940s, Egypt's government has operated a system of food subsidies. In the 1970s, the system expanded in terms of commodity coverage and rates of subsidization. At its peak, in 1980-81, it covered more than a dozen items. Food subsidy spending accounted for 14 percent of total government spending and corresponded to 12.8 percent of total private consumption (Ahmed, Bouis, and Ali 1998, p. 71;IMF 1995, p. 349). Since the early 1980s, the government has gradually cut spending in this area, primarily by reducing the number of subsidized commodities. In 1996-97, the system covered four commodities: bread, flour, cooking oil, and sugar and represented 5.5 percent of government spending and 1.9 percent of total private consumption. Given that these commodities are tradable (Egypt is a net importer of wheat products, edible oils, and sugar), the subsidy cost is sensitive to changes in world prices."},{"index":2,"size":255,"text":"Subsidized bread is available from bakeries for virtually every household in Egypt at a fixed price in unlimited quantities. The geographical coverage of warehouses selling fixed-price subsidized flour (all of which has an 82 percent extraction rate) is more limited, with no presence in Egypt four major metropolitan areas. However, for most consumers with access to subsidized flour, the quantities that they can purchase are unrationed. Oil and sugar are made available to consumers in monthly quotas through ration cards, covering, in 1996-97, close to 70 percent of the population. There are two types of ration cards, red and green. Red cards, which cover 7 percent of the ration-card holding population, are aimed at people in higher income professions and offer the commodities at higher fixed prices (i.e., with lower subsidy rates). The remaining 93 percent of the covered population have green cards with lower prices (higher subsidy rates). In practice, there is no strong correlation between household income and access to subsidies through the ration card system (Ahmed, Bouis, and Ali 1998, p. 30). The consumption pattern for oil and sugar is relatively undistorted, given that, for these commodities, most consumers supplement the subsidized quantities with market purchases. From the perspective of the households, the subsidy benefit from consumption of these commodities differs little from a cash transfer. On the contrary, the bread and flour subsidy generates not only an income transfer, but also excessive consumption; i.e., bread is consumed beyond the point where its marginal value to the consumers equals its economic price."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"In 1996, the government started a trial program substituting a wheat-maize flour blend (with a 20 percent maize share) for all-wheat flour in the production of subsidized bread (United States Department of Agriculture, 1996, pp. 9, 18-19;Financial Times, December 5, 1996). This policy leads to reduced government spending for two reasons: the flour extraction rate is higher for maize than for wheat flour and, for a typical year, the maize price is lower than the wheat price-in 1996-97, it was 77 percent of the wheat price (Ministry of Agriculture 1998, pp. 142 and 235)."},{"index":4,"size":326,"text":"Tables 1 and 2 summarize data on the food subsidy system in 1996-97. Table 1 shows that bread, which is subsidized at the highest rate, accounts for more than 60 percent of the total subsidy cost. Out of the total food subsidy, some 18 percent is leaked (in the sense that the subsidized commodities do not reach the households but are diverted to other uses). The leakage rate is lower for bread than for the other commodities. The information in Table 2 indicates that per capita consumption is lower in rural than in urban areas. In terms of the absolute level of per capita benefits, the rural population gains less from subsidies than does the urban population. If benefits are measured as a share of consumption expenditures, the gains experienced by the rural population are similar to those experienced by the urban population. Within each region, absolute per capita benefits are similar across the different quintiles; however, in urban areas, subsidy benefits are slightly more targeted to low-income groups. At the disaggregated commodity level, the main difference is that flour is relatively more important in rural areas while bread is relatively less important. In sum, the food subsidy system is in practice untargeted and subject to substantial leakage. This paper uses an economy-wide general-equilibrium model to explore the impact of a set of alternative options for the operation of Egypt's food subsidy system. The options covered involve targeting, and reducing and/or reorganizing the subsidy system. The microeconomic and political-economy aspects of most of these options have been analyzed in Ahmed, Bouis, and Ali (1998) and Gutner, Gomaa, and Nasser (1998). The economy-wide perspective of the analysis in this paper makes it possible to consider the broader economic repercussions of different policy  options, including the consequences of alternative uses of government budgetary savings from reduced subsidy spending and reduced leakage. Before presenting the simulations, we will first turn to a description of the model and its database."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"See Löfgren (1994b) for a survey of CGE models of Egypt.   (Löfgren and Kherallah 1998). It is in the tradition of trade-focused CGE models of developing countries described in Dervis, de Melo, and Robinson (1982). However, compared to this earlier generation of models, it includes a wider range of features that are tailored to the structure of the economy that is modeled. The distinguishing features of the current model include a detailed treatment of households, agriculture, and food processing, including food subsidies and the benefits they provide to households."}]},{"head":"Model Structure 3","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Disaggregation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Table 3 shows the disaggregation of institutions, factors, and activities in the model."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Among the factors, labor and capital are used by all sectors, while water, summer land, and winter land are used only by agricultural crop activities. The crop activities are differentiated according to period of land occupation into winter crops, summer crops, and perennial crops."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"Outside agriculture, there is a one-to-one mapping between activities (the producing sectors) and commodities (the outputs produced). Inside agriculture, the two berseem activities and the two vegetable activities are both assumed to produce the same commodity (berseem and vegetables, respectively). Given the quality difference between domestic maize (some 95 percent white maize) and imported (yellow) maize, the latter is a separate imported commodity without any domestic production. Moreover, several crop activities produce byproducts that are used as animal feed. This disaggregation of agriculture makes it possible to capture direct links between crop and animal activities: crop outputs (most importantly berseem, maize, and various crop byproducts) are used as inputs in the animal activity; animal outputs (manure and animal labor) are used as inputs in crop activities. "}]},{"head":"Factors and Production","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"In crop agriculture, it is assumed that, apart from agronomic and institutional restrictions (described below), the factors land (summer and winter), water, and capital (primarily agricultural machinery) are mobile across crops and allocated so as to equalize the marginal returns to each factor in all relevant crops. In animal agriculture, capital use (primarily animals)"},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Given that the quantity of water stored in the High Dam at Aswan is high, the water 4 supply is set at a level that is above the quantity demanded for any of the simulations presented in this paper. Hence, land is always in scarce supply. For water, the model records consumption by crop at a scarcity value of zero."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"For labor, wage gaps between activities may be linked to differences in job security, 5 educational requirements, status of job, and physical (dis)comfort. In agriculture, recorded monetary returns to land may differ as crops differ in required skills, monitoring, riskiness, and impact on soil fertility."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"is fixed and specific to this sector. For two factor types, land and water, excess supply is possible; if so, the price is zero. The other factors-agricultural labor, crop capital, and animal capital-are fully utilized with flexible market-clearing wages and rents. 4"},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"Outside of agriculture, capital quantities are fixed by activity; flexible rents assure that these quantities are fully employed. Nonagricultural labor, the market of which is separate from the agricultural labor market, is mobile across nonagricultural sectors. Labor employment is fixed at the level observed in 1996-97 while a flexible wage also clears this part of the labor market."},{"index":6,"size":68,"text":"For selected factors (summer and winter land, and nonagricultural labor), the prices (the rents or the wages) are differentiated across the demanding activities on the basis of fixed ratios (calculated from base-year data). This is a reflection of real-world phenomena that are not modeled explicitly. When the (aggregate) factor price changes, this is accompanied by 5 proportional changes in the differentiated activity-specific prices of the factor in question."},{"index":7,"size":119,"text":"The production technologies are summarized in Figure 1  The model accounts for two major agronomic area constraints: the area of short berseem (a crop that precedes cotton) is constrained to equal the cotton area, and the cotton area is limited to a maximum of one third of the land not covered by perennial crops. Given the relatively shortrun time frame of the analysis, we fix the areas of perennial crops and, as noted above, the size of animal stock. Agricultural intermediate input coefficients are flexible in the context of producer minimization of intermediate input costs subject to a limited degree of input substitutability (given by a CES function) and a fixed aggregate input requirement per unit of the activity."},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"Agriculture deviates from the more standard treatment for other sectors to avoid rigid links between crop and animal activities in Egypt's agriculture, as crop activities supply the animal activity with the bulk of its intermediate feed inputs. 6"},{"index":9,"size":47,"text":"See Table A1 for the structure of household factor incomes according to the SAM for 7 1996/97. Low-income households rely more heavily on labor income, in rural areas, from work in agriculture; high-income households receive the bulk of their incomes from capital and, in rural areas, land."},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"For a discussion of these functional forms, see Deaton and Muellbauer (1980)."},{"index":11,"size":53,"text":"Two nonagricultural sectors are given special treatment. For the oil activity, the quantities of output and factor use are fixed at the 1997 level (treating these decisions as exogenous to the model). For electricity, a flexible capital supply (reflecting surplus capacity) assures that the nontraded electricity commodity is sold at a fixed price."}]},{"head":"Domestic Institutions: Households and Government","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":272,"text":"The model captures the circular flow of incomes in the economy. The income of each factor, generated by the production activities or transferred from the rest of the world (fixed in foreign currency), is split among the domestic institutions in fixed factor-specific shares. In The treatment of food subsidies is of particular importance. The subsidized food items are disaggregated into subsidized bread, subsidized flour (purchased by consumers and used as an input in the production of subsidized bread), and other processed food (representing oil and sugar). Subsidized bread and flour are available to consumers at fixed prices in nonrationed quantities. Flexible subsidy rates assure that the consumer price remains unchanged also when market conditions change. Given that subsidized oil and sugar are rationed and, for most households, supplemented by market purchases, the subsidy on other processed food has little direct impact on the quantities consumed of these commodities. Hence, it is treated as a cash transfer from the government to the households, with the value received by each household corresponding to the benefit it received from the oil and sugar subsidy in 1996-97. As a result of leakages, part of the subsidy does not reach the households through the intended channels. In the model, the part of the subsidy benefit that is leaked is distributed to households in the same way as nonagricultural capital incomes. This is compatible with the assumption that, at some point in the marketing channel, the subsidized items are sold at full market prices, generating profits for retailers and traders, i.e., owners of capital in the nonagricultural part of the economy (a relatively high-income part of the population)."}]},{"head":"The Rest of the World, Foreign Trade, and Commodity Markets","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"In addition to transferring money which adds to or deducts from the incomes of domestic institutions, the rest of the world supplies imports and demands exports. For vegetables and services, exports are demanded according to constant-elasticity demand curves -the lower the export supply price, the larger the quantity exported. For all other commodities, Egypt is able to export or import any quantity it desires at international prices that are fixed in foreign currency."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"For imports of wheat and exports of rice and oil, it is assumed that domestic output sold domestically and traded (exported or imported) commodities are perfect substitutes. As a result, if these commodities are traded, the domestic price is determined by the domestic-currency export or import price (transformed from the foreign currency price via the exchange rate and adjusted for any taxes or subsidies)."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Apart from the above-mentioned special treatment for wheat, rice and oil, imperfect substitutability or transformability is assumed for foreign trade. The Armington assumption is Government savings are invariably positive given that they refer to the difference between 9 current revenues and current spending, excluding items on the government capital account."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"To provide a simple illustration (with fictional numbers), if a cut in direct tax collection 10 is needed to maintain unchanged government savings, the tax rate may, for example, fall by 2 percentage points across all household groups, from 10 percent to 8 percent for an urban highincome group and from 4 percent to 2 percent for a rural low-income group."},{"index":5,"size":125,"text":"used to capture the choice between imports and domestic output under imperfect substitutability: if a commodity is imported, all domestic demands-household and government consumption, investment demand, and intermediate demand-are for the same composite commodity, with the mix between imports and domestic output determined by the assumption that domestic demanders minimize cost subject to imperfect substitutability, captured by a CES aggregation function. Similarly, the allocation of domestic output between exports and domestic sales is determined on the assumption that domestic producers maximize profits subject to imperfect transformability between these two alternatives, expressed by a constant-elasticity-oftransformation (CET) function. These assumptions-imperfect substitutability and transformability-grant the domestic price system a certain degree of independence from international prices and dampen export and import responses to changes in the producer environment."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"With the above-mentioned exceptions-partially fixing prices of bread, flour, and electricity and linking domestic wheat, rice and oil prices to international levels-domestic prices of domestic outputs and composite commodities are all flexible, performing the task of clearing relevant markets in a competitive setting where both suppliers and demanders are price-takers."}]},{"head":"Macro System Constraints","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The macro system constraints (or macro closures) determine the manner in which the accounts for the government, the rest of the world, and savings-investment are brought into balance."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Government savings (also called the current government surplus) are invariably fixed. For 9 most simulations, a change in the direct tax rate (an equal change in the rate for every household group) assures that government savings are maintained at the predetermined level. In the 10 balance of the rest of the world, foreign savings (the current account deficit) are similarly fixed;"},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"Savings from nonhousehold sources -the government and the rest of the world -are not free to equilibrate aggregate savings-investment. Given that real investment, (foreign currency) foreign savings, and government savings are all fixed, the changes in household savings rates are very small. 13 the exchange rate (the price of foreign exchange) is the equilibrating variable. Given that all nontrade items (transfers to or from domestic institutions or factors) are fixed, fixing foreign savings is equivalent to fixing the trade deficit. On the spending side of the savings-investment balance, aggregate investment is fixed in quantity terms. On the savings side, uniform changes in the savings rates of each household category are used to generate a level of total savings needed to finance aggregate investment. 11"},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"The model is homogeneous of degree zero in prices; to assure that only one solution exists, a price normalization equation, in this case fixing the aggregate consumer price index (CPI), has been added. Hence, all endogenous price changes are relative to CPI."}]},{"head":"Data Sources","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"The bulk of the model data is based on a disaggregated SAM (an 85x85 matrix) for 1996-97. This year was selected since it is the year for IFPRI's Egypt Integrated Household Survey (EIHS). It was constructed on the basis of data from various official publications including national accounts, government budget, and trade data as well as Egypt's most recent official Social Accounting Matrix (Central Bank 1995 and1998;CAPMAS 1996aCAPMAS , 1996bCAPMAS , and 1998;;IMF 1998). The EIHS and IFPRI research documents based on the EIHS were the primary source for data on household consumption and benefits from food subsidies. Data in Kherallah et al. (1998) were used for flour production. Information from these and other sources were brought together in one matrix, the disaggregation of which parallels the disaggregation of the current model. Underlying the construction of such a SAM is an attempt to make the best possible use of available scattered data. Inevitably imbalances appear when data from different sources and years are integrated in one framework; a SAM-Entropy program, developed at IFPRI, was used to generate a balanced model SAM that retains as much as possible of the information contained in the original data set (Robinson, Cattaneo, and El-Said 1998;Thissen and Löfgren 1998)."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"For each of the ten households, income and price elasticities for disaggregated foodstuffs and aggregated nonfood consumption are from Yohannes and Bouis (1999). A variety of sources Selected values used are given in Table A5 in the appendix. Consumption elasticities are 12 available on request from the authors. See also Löfgren (1994a)."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"For GAMS, see Brooke, Kendrick, and Meeraus (1998). Rutherford (1995) provides "}]},{"head":"SIMULATIONS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The simulations are divided into two sets. The first addresses the consequences of targeting or eliminating food subsidies. The second set investigates two issues: the impact of using 20 percent maize in subsidized flour and of cracking down on leakage without other changes in subsidy policy. Unless otherwise noted, we assume that the government uses the savings that result from the changes in subsidy policy to reduce direct taxes (with an equal percentage cut in the tax rate for every household group)."}]},{"head":"Targeting or Eliminating Food Subsidies","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The simulations are defined in Table 4 and the results are summarized in Table 5."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"(Appendix Tables A2-A4 present additional simulation data for factor incomes, foreign trade, and production quantities.) In the first two simulations, subsidy benefits are targeted to the needy, defined as the bottom two quintiles (40 percent) of the population in both rural and urban areas."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"In the last three, parts of or all of the food subsidy program is eliminated.  According to IFPRI estimates, the one-time cost of training and materials needed for 14 targeting is around LE 14 mn, an insignificant amount corresponding to 0.4 percent of the total annual food subsidy budget (or 0.005 percent of GDP)."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Real household consumption (at base prices) is used as welfare indicator. Given that the 15 population is fixed, percentage changes in total and per capita consumption are identical. 17"}]},{"head":"Targeting Oil and Sugar Subsidies to Needy Households (Simulation 1)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"In the first simulation, we target oil and sugar subsidies (representing 23 percent of total food subsidy spending) to the needy in rural and urban areas while eliminating these subsidies for the top three quintiles. The latter groups continue to have access to these commodities but at full market prices. Given that these commodities are distributed via red and green ration cards, this may in practice involve eliminating the red cards and limiting the green cards to the targeted population. IFPRI research shows that targeting can be achieved at a minimal cost, in particular since current staff at the Ministry of Trade and Supply could manage the targeting without any need for new hiring. We assume that the oil-sugar subsidy leakage declines in proportion to the 14 reduction in subsidy spending."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"In economic terms, given that the ration-card subsidy is treated as inframarginal (i.e., it is nondistorting, having no direct impact on the quantities consumed of oil and sugar), the subsidy cut is equivalent to a withdrawal of cash benefits from nonneedy ration cardholders. In addition, a cash benefit is withdrawn from those who benefitted from the subsidy leakage."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"The reductions in total and oil-sugar food subsidy spending are around 14 percent and 62 percent, respectively. This spending cut permits the government to reduce income tax collection by 3.5 percent (via an equal cut in the percentage tax rate for all households) while keeping government savings constant. Given that the subsidy was nondistorting, there is no efficiency gain: aggregate household consumption does not change. In both regions, the two bottom 15 quintiles enjoy small gains (since they receive the tax cut without any subsidy withdrawal)."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Quintiles three and four lose slightly (the tax cut does not fully compensate for the subsidy loss)"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"whereas the top quintile is unaffected (the tax cut and the subsidy loss were of equivalent cash value)."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"Most of the simulations of this paper involve changes from price subsidies (a negative indirect tax) to direct taxes (i.e., shifts from a government tool that works through the price system to one that does not). Following Robinson and Thierfelder (1999, p. 2), it is clear that such changes invariably generate declines in real factor returns that confuse the welfare analysis."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"For this reason, we report computed changes in the distribution of factor incomes rather than absolute levels of factor incomes."},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"See Table A1 for the structure of household factor incomes according to the SAM for 17 1996/97 and for the base simulation."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"18"}]},{"head":"Targeting All Food Subsidies to Needy Households (Simulation 2)","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"In Simulation 2, targeting is extended to all subsidized items, also including bread and flour (representing the remaining 77 percent of food subsidy spending). Leakage is also reduced for bread and flour. As expected, the effects are stronger. Since bread and flour subsidies are not inframarginal (they influence the quantities consumed of bread and flour), an efficiency gain leads to a slight increase in aggregate consumption."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Food subsidy spending declines by 64 percent. The spending cut permits a significant reduction in income tax collection (by 16 percent). The redistribution of incomes in favor of the needy that follows from subsidy targeting generates increased demand for food and agricultural commodities, increased factor incomes in agriculture, and reduced incomes in nonagricultural sectors."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"The final impact is a significant gain for the needy, especially in rural areas."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"16 17"},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"However, not only the needy but also the top rural quintile sees its position improve. In every quintile, the rural population does better than its urban counterpart. The major losers are the urban third and fourth quintiles who suffer significantly from the subsidy cut and receive the bulk of their incomes from nonagricultural sources."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"Higher prices for bread and flour reduce Egypt's wheat and flour imports (by 7 percent) but, because of substitution toward other products and higher incomes for households with higher food budget shares, other food imports increase while food exports decrease. The ultimate decline in net food imports is less than 2 percent. The exchange rate appreciates slightly to maintain the total (food and nonfood) trade deficit fixed in foreign currency at the initial level."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"(Cf. discussion of macro system constraints in Section 3 of this paper.)"}]},{"head":"Eliminating Oil and Sugar Subsidies (Simulation 3)","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"In this simulation, we eliminate oil and sugar subsidies (including leakage). After the change, the whole population pays full market prices for these commodities. In practice, this involves eliminating the ration card system (at least for its current purposes). As shown in Table 5, this policy reduces subsidy spending by 23 percent while income tax revenue declines by 6 percent. Aggregate consumption does not change (since the oil-sugar subsidy is nondistorting). In both regions, the distributional shift is small but unambiguously regressive: as opposed to the nonneedy, the needy lose more from the subsidy (including leakage) elimination than they gain from the tax cut."}]},{"head":"Eliminating All Food Subsidies (Simulations 4 and 5)","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"According to Simulation 4, the elimination of all food subsidies permits a cut in direct taxes by around 25 percent (reducing direct tax revenue by a value similar to the subsidy savings). The aggregate welfare gain is marginal but positive (similar to the change for Simulation 2). The impact is strongly regressive: in both regions, the higher the household quintile, the more positive the impact. As a result, consumption increases by 0.5 percent for nonneedy households and falls by 1.1 percent for the needy. The pattern of change is, however, strongly pro-rural -rural consumption increases by 0.6 percent while urban consumption declines slightly."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"The main reason for the pro-rural pattern is that, due to the subsidy cut for bread and flour, households shift their demand from products based on wheat grain (a commodity without quality differences between imports and domestic production and, therefore, with perfect alignment between domestic and international prices) toward other food products (for which there are quality differences between domestic output sold at home and traded commodities). As a result, the prices of agricultural commodities for which demand increases are boosted without a decline in the prices of agricultural commodities for which demand decreases. Higher agricultural prices and incomes disproportionately benefit rural households who, in turn, have higher budget shares for food. This causes a significant multiplier effect."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"The outcome is regressive as a result of the combined impact of changes in subsidies, agricultural prices and factor incomes. Firstly, the needy lose relatively strongly from the subsidy"},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"In the preceding simulations, it was assumed that leakages decline in proportion to the 18 decline in subsidies reaching the consumers. 20 cut since initial subsidy benefits represent a relatively large share of their total consumption."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"Secondly, higher agricultural prices have a more negative impact on the needy due to their relatively high consumption shares for foodstuffs. Finally, among rural households, the pattern of change in factor incomes (larger gain for agricultural land and capital than for agricultural labor) reinforces this regressive pattern. However, for urban households, that rely almost exclusively on non-agricultural incomes, the impact of the changes in factor incomes is progressive: the nonneedy suffer most from the decline in the share of capital in non-agricultural factor incomes."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"The shift in demand from wheat-based commodities that, on the margin, are imported toward other commodities necessitates an appreciation of the exchange rate (by 1.4 percent) to maintain the fixed current account and trade deficits. While wheat and flour imports decline significantly (by 7 percent), net food imports decline by much less."},{"index":7,"size":145,"text":"The regressive distributional change for Simulation 4 suggests that full subsidy elimination is not an attractive option unless accompanied by measures that directly benefit the needy. In Simulation 5, the savings from eliminating the subsidies are used to fund a transfer program targeted to the needy. According to the simulation, the transfer program receives more than LE 3.6 bn. (i.e., close to the value of the full subsidy program). The distributional impact inside each region is reversed as a result of the transfer. On the aggregate level, needy households gain 4.2 percent in real consumption while nonneedy incur a loss of 1.0 percent. The pro-rural pattern is reinforced, compared to the above simulation because of the food-intensive demand pattern of the needy households who benefit from the transfer program. In foreign trade, the higher foodimport-intensity in demand is reflected in roughly unchanged net food imports."}]},{"head":"Wheat-Maize Flour Mix and Leakage Cuts","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The second simulation set analyzes the impact of (1) substituting a wheat-maize flour blend for all-wheat flour in the production of subsidized flour, used for producing subsidized bread or sold directly to consumers; and (2) cracking down further on leakages in the food subsidy system. In Tables 6 and 7, we present the simulations and summarize the results."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"21"},{"index":3,"size":391,"text":"Wheat-Maize Flour Mix  These simulations explore the impact of a policy shift according to which 100 percent wheat flour is replaced by a wheat-maize mix with a 20 percent maize share. The government uses the resulting savings to cut direct taxes. This policy is relatively broad since it introduces mixed wheat-maize flour not only for the flour used for subsidized bread but also for the subsidized flour that is sold directly to consumers. Technically, the policy shift is represented by changed input coefficients in the production of subsidized flour so that 20 percent of the wheat grain is replaced by maize. It is assumed that household demand behavior is not affected by the introduction of maize, i.e., there is no significant difference in taste. A higher maize flour extraction rate (97 percent compared to 82 percent for this type of wheat flour) and a lower maize grain price (in the base year 23 percent below the wheat price) give rise to government savings (Khalil 1999, p. 123;Ministry of Agriculture 1998, pp. 135, 142). The initial effect of the policy shift is that 20 percent of the wheat demanded for use in production of subsidized flour is shifted to maize at 65 percent of the initial cost, raising the Maize area (mn. feddans) 2.0 11.6 11.6 0.0 0.0 Note: Percent change in all columns except \"Base\". In mn. LE in all columns. a demand for maize with a resulting increase in maize production (by almost 12 percent). This leads to reduced subsidy spending, reflecting a decline in the per-unit subsidy needed to maintain fixed prices for subsidized bread and flour. In Simulation 6, total food subsidy spending declines by 6 percent. The resulting government savings permit a decline in direct tax collection by 1.3 percent. The shift of agricultural demand from a traded commodity (wheat) toward a nontradable leads to a slight increase in agricultural factor incomes which, at the household level, benefits rural households. Net food imports decline substantially (by 6 percent), a reflection of resource savings (the maize flour requires fewer resources than the wheat flour for which it substitutes) Simulation 7 looks at the impact of combining the introduction of the wheat-maize flour mix with an elimination of leakages for subsidized bread and flour. The rationale for this simulation is the difficulty of diverting mixed flour to unintended uses."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"Because of the addition of the leakage cut, the decline in spending on bread and flour subsidies and the direct tax cut are almost tripled, i.e., from the perspective of saving government resources, the main impact of the maize-wheat flour program may come from the fact that it makes leakage more difficult, not from a lower cost of maize flour. Incomes decline for nonagricultural capital, the recipient of leaked subsidy benefits. The net impact is a small but progressive impact on income distribution. Other effects are very minor."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"In Egypt, there is considerable potential for raising maize yields (Harrison 1996, p. 241;Khalil 1999, p.121), possibly annulling the need to increase the maize area in the face of increased demand for white maize for use in subsidized bread and flour products. Simulation 8 poses the following questions: What is the increase in maize yields needed to avoid an increase in the maize area in the context of the shift to a wheat-maize flour mix and elimination of subsidized bread and flour leakage? What are the broader economic repercussions of such yield change? Technically, the simulation is implemented by fixing the maize area while endogenizing maize land productivity."},{"index":6,"size":185,"text":"As shown in Table 7, an 11 percent yield increase is required (very close to the relative area increase for Simulation 7). The resulting shift in the supply curve for maize reduces the maize price, further cutting the government subsidy bill. There is an increase in agricultural and rural incomes, bringing about a multiplier process that boosts demand for agricultural products, including crops competing with maize. At the new equilibrium, consumption is higher for every household category, with the largest gains for needy households and a slightly larger aggregate gain in rural areas. However, due to the income redistribution to rural households (who pay smaller income shares in direct taxes), the direct tax cut declines slightly compared to Simulation 7. Increased productivity of land in maize production (and a return of the maize area to the base level) gives rise to changes in agricultural resource allocation, including a shift toward wheat and away from cotton and short berseem. The result is a significant decline in wheat and flour imports and an overall decline in net food and agricultural imports (by 11 percent for the latter)."}]},{"head":"Leakage Cuts (Simulation 9)","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The fact that almost 18 percent of Egypt's food subsidies leak to unintended beneficiaries suggests that leakage reductions may permit considerable government savings that can be allocated to other purposes. At the same time, it is possibly costly to intensify efforts to minimize leakage further. It is also important to keep in mind that leaked subsidies also benefit \"somebody\" although the (little known) beneficiaries differ from those intended. As noted earlier, the model data base assumes that the initial benefits from leakage are distributed in the same way as nonagricultural capital incomes."},{"index":2,"size":239,"text":"To explore the impact of leakage cuts in isolation from the introduction of mixed wheatmaize flour, Simulation 9 considers the extreme case of full elimination of the food subsidy leakage with the savings allocated to direct transfers to the needy (see Tables 4 and 5). The analysis does not consider the (unknown) costs of reducing leakages and transferring benefits to the needy. The subsidy spending cuts (close to 18 percent on the aggregate level) reflect the initial leakage pattern. Close to LE 600 mn are allocated to the needy (as cash or cash-equivalent transfers). The distributional impact is strongly pro-needy and marginally pro-rural. As indicated by the small changes in foreign trade, the broader repercussions are limited, a reflection of the fact that the existing food subsidy program remains in place. In an additional simulation (not reported here), the savings were used to reduce income tax collections. Under this assumption, the distributional change is negligible (for the different households, real consumption changes by 0.1 percent or less). The pattern of change was similar but the impact even smaller when leakage elimination was limited to oil and sugar benefits. In sum, given that the simulation applies to a relatively extreme case, it seems that the broader economic impact of a crackdown is unlikely to be significant unless the savings are carefully targeted. When considering the desirability of intensifying its anti-leakage crackdown, the government also needs to consider the costs involved."}]},{"head":"SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"In this paper, an economy-wide model of the Egyptian economy has been used to quantitatively explore the short-run equilibrium effects of alternative cost-saving scenarios for the food subsidy system. The simulated impact of targeting or fully eliminating oil and sugar subsidies is relatively small, reflecting the limited size of this program. The savings permit a reduction in income taxes of 4-6 percent. The impact on disaggregated household welfare is also small (changes in real consumption for the different household types are between 0.2 percent and -0.3 percent). It is progressive if the subsidy is targeted to the needy and regressive if it is eliminated."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"When similar measures are simulated for the entire food subsidy system, the impact is predictably much stronger, including important indirect effects. Nevertheless, although the current bread and flour subsidy program distorts consumer decisions, only very minor efficiency gains follow from targeting or eliminating these subsidies."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"In tandem with a direct tax cut, the targeting of all food subsidies has pro-needy and prorural effects. It raises the total consumption of the needy by 0.5 percent with little change for the rest of the population. The strongest gains are recorded for the two lowest quintiles in rural areas, whose consumption goes up by around 1.0 percent. Only the urban households in the third and fourth quintiles lose significantly, by 0.5-0.8 percent. This outcome is influenced by the redistribution of buying power in favor of needy households who allocate larger shares of their consumption to food. Increased demand for food items (other than wheat) raises agricultural prices and the incomes of the rural population in general and the poor in particular."},{"index":4,"size":148,"text":"The distributional consequences of a full elimination of food subsidies in combination with a tax cut (reducing direct tax revenues by 25 percent) remain pro-rural; aggregate rural and urban consumption change by 0.6 percent and -0.2 percent, respectively. However, the pattern of welfare change is regressive. The nonneedy households enjoy a consumption increase by 0.5 percent while the needy suffer a loss of 1.1 percent. On the other hand, if the savings from fully eliminating food subsidies instead are used for transfers to the needy, the household impact is drastically different. In addition to the transfer benefit, the rural needy gain strongly from demand shifts to and within agriculture, raising the consumption of the two lowest rural quintiles by 6-7 percent. On a more aggregate level, consumption increases by 1.2 percent for rural households and by 4.2 percent for needy households. Urban and nonneedy households register small losses."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"The targeting or elimination of food subsidies has a significant impact on Egypt's foreign trade if the entire subsidy system is covered by the policy shifts. The declines are by 6-7 percent for wheat and flour imports but, due to substitution effects on the consumption side, much smaller for total net food and agricultural imports."},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"Subsidy costs are reduced significantly when maize substitutes for 20 percent of the flour used to produce subsidized bread and flour, especially if leakage can be eliminated. Imports of wheat and flour and total net imports of food and agricultural items decline, especially if maize yields increase. If so, the gains in household well-being may also be noteworthy; if not, the impact is pro-rural but negligible."},{"index":7,"size":149,"text":"What are the policy implications of these results? Some of the simulated policy changes seem attractive assuming that the government is looking for ways of reducing food subsidy spending without hurting the needy. A first and relatively easy step is to target ration cards for oil and sugar subsidies to needy households while using the savings to reduce direct taxes. The gains for the needy would obviously be larger if the savings were instead used to fund programs that provide benefits to the needy (for example cash or cash-equivalent transfers). Experience from targeting these subsidies and developing programs for the needy may make it easier to introduce similar changes for the bread and flour subsidy programs. The program of using mixed maize and wheat flour in the production of subsidized bread reduces subsidy spending, permitting the allocation of government resources to other uses, including targeted programs for the needy."},{"index":8,"size":135,"text":"Against this background, expanding this program geographically and extending it to subsidized flour sold directly to the consumers are attractive possibilities.   tq c @( PD c @QD c % PM c @QM c ) % j a0A ta a @PA a @QA a % j c0C tm c @pwm c @QM c % tr gov, row EG ' j c0C PQ c @qg c % j h0H shrgdp h , gov @GDP % tr row, gov @EXR % j  WFDIST is fixed. Exceptions include the aggregate land-water factor (for which WF is fixed while WFDIST is flexible for all land-water crop activity pairs), and factors or activities with special treatment (activity-specific capital for noncrop activities and special assumptions for the oil and electricity activities. 4. Complementary constraints are shown in brackets in the equation column."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"TABLES 1 - FIGURES "},{"text":"Figure 1 - Figure 1-Production technology "},{"text":"7 addition to factor incomes, households receive transfers from the government and the rest of the world (fixed in foreign currency). Household income is used to pay direct taxes, save and consume. Direct taxes and savings are fixed and flexible shares of household income, respectively. (The reason for the flexible savings share is discussed below.) Disaggregated consumption is determined by a nested demand system. On the top level, the Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) generates demand for disaggregated food items and an aggregated nonfood item. At the lower level, Linear Expenditures System (LES) demand functions splits aggregated nonfood demand into disaggregated items.8   Besides factor incomes, government revenue consists of transfers from the rest of the world (fixed in foreign currency) and taxes -direct taxes from households, indirect taxes from domestic activities, sales tax revenues, and import tariffs. All taxes are ad valorem. Transfers from the government to households and aggregate government consumption are fixed shares of nominal GDP. The government buys fixed quantities of commodities in the government consumption basket. In addition, the government subsidizes part of household consumption of foodstuffs, transportation, and electricity. For the two nonfoods, the subsidy is a fixed share of the price paid by the consumer. "},{"text":" 13 more information on PATH and MILES. 14 were used for other elasticity estimates needed for the household nonfood LES functions as well as the functions for import aggregation (Armington), domestic output transformation (CET), production (CES), and (constant-elasticity) export-demand. 12 Mathematical Model Structure, Base Run, Validity, and Time Frame CGE models are typically formulated and solved as systems of simultaneous equations exclusively made up of strict equalities. However, to permit the inclusion of inequality constraints for resource markets and agronomic constraints, the Food CGE model is formulated and solved as a mixed complementarity problem (MCP), consisting of a set of simultaneous equations that are a mix of strict equalities and inequalities. The latter are linked to bounded (price) variables associated with agricultural resources and labor. The GAMS modeling software is used both to generate the disaggregated SAM and to implement the model. The model may be solved with PATH or MILES, two solvers for mixed complementarity problems.13   The base solution of the model is calibrated to exactly replicate the disaggregated 1996-97 SAM. The simulation results indicate the short-run equilibrium responses to changes in policies and exogenous shocks. Each new solution represents a new equilibrium since agents (producers and consumers) have fully adjusted themselves to new prices and incomes. It refers to the short run since capital stocks outside crop agriculture are fixed by sector: the time span is too short for current investment to lead to changes in installed capital or for capital to move between noncrop sectors (cf.Hazell and Norton 1986, p. 300). "},{"text":" (1 & ó c ) @QH ch % j c0C PQ c @qinv c % j c0C PQ c @qdst c % j c0C PQ c @qg c % j c0C pwe c @QE c @EXR & j c0C pwm c @QM c @EXR QQ c ' QINT c % j h0H QH ch % qg c % qinv c % qdst c "},{"text":"Table 1 -Food subsidies by commodity, 1996-97   Budgetary cost Allocation  Subsidy share in Budgetary costAllocationSubsidy share in  Value Share Households Leakage Total production cost ValueShareHouseholds LeakageTotalproduction cost  (LE bn.) ( percent) a ( percent) ( percent) ( percent) ( percent) b (LE bn.) ( percent) a( percent) ( percent) ( percent)( percent) b Baladi bread 2.3 61.7 88.5 11.5 100.0 56.9 Baladi bread2.361.788.511.5100.056.9 Flour 0.6 14.9 70.4 29.6 100.0 43.1 Flour0.614.970.429.6100.043.1 Edible oil 0.4 10.3 72.2 27.8 100.0 54.1 Edible oil0.410.372.227.8100.054.1 Sugar 0.5 13.1 74.7 25.3 100.0 62.1 Sugar0.513.174.725.3100.062.1 Total 3.7 100.0 82.3 17.7 100.0  Total3.7100.082.317.7100.0 Source: Ahmed, Bouis, and Ali (1998), pp. 71 and 87-92.    Source: Ahmed, Bouis, and Ali (1998), pp. 71 and 87-92. US$1 = LE 3.39 (1996-97 average).     US$1 = LE 3.39 (1996-97 average).  "},{"text":"Table 2 -Food subsidies and the household economy, 1996-97   Annual subsidy Annual household Benefit as share of Subsidy benefit by commodity Annual subsidyAnnual householdBenefit as share ofSubsidy benefit by commodity  benefit consumption consumption   Oil and  benefitconsumption consumptionOil and  (LE/capita) (LE/capita) ( percent) Bread ( percent) ( percent) ( percent) ( percent) Flour sugar Total (LE/capita) (LE/capita)( percent)Bread ( percent) ( percent) ( percent) ( percent) Flour sugar Total Rural households (by quintile)       Rural households (by quintile) 1 40.3 1272.7 3.2 59.7 18.7 21.6 100.0 140.31272.73.259.718.721.6100.0 2 41.6 1676.6 2.5 51.9 25.2 22.8 100.0 241.61676.62.551.925.222.8100.0 3 47.7 2141.6 2.2 59.1 20.8 20.1 100.0 347.72141.62.259.120.820.1100.0 4 45.6 2687.5 1.7 54.5 23.4 22.1 100.0 445.62687.51.754.523.422.1100.0 5 52.1 4585.1 1.1 56.0 22.7 21.3 100.0 552.14585.11.156.022.721.3100.0 Average 45.5 2472.7 2.1 56.3 22.2 21.6 100.0 Average45.52472.72.156.322.221.6100.0 Urban households (by quintile)      Urban households (by quintile) 1 64.9 1736.3 3.7 77.4 5.0 17.7 100.0 164.91736.33.777.45.017.7100.0 2 69.2 2492 2.8 75.5 4.9 19.5 100.0 269.224922.875.54.919.5100.0 3 63.8 3416.1 1.9 79.1 1.9 19.0 100.0 363.83416.11.979.11.919.0100.0 4 63.4 4726.8 1.3 77.6 2.1 20.3 100.0 463.44726.81.377.62.120.3100.0 5 50.3 9628.4 0.5 70.1 3.6 26.3 100.0 550.39628.40.570.13.626.3100.0 Average 62.3 4399.9 2.0 75.9 3.5 20.6 100.0 Average62.34399.92.075.93.520.6100.0  "},{"text":"Table A6   "},{"text":"THE EGYPT FOOD CGE MODEL: STRUCTURE AND DATA Background CGE models may be defined as economy-wide models the solutions to which depict a simultaneous general equilibrium in all markets of the economy. They are widely applied to policy analysis in developing countries and have a comparative advantage in the analysis of tax and subsidy policies, in particular when there is a need to consider links between different producing sectors, links between the macro and micro levels, and the disaggregated impact of changes in policies and exogenous shocks on sectoral structure, household welfare, and income  "},{"text":"Table 3 -Disaggregation of factors, institutions, and activities  Set Elements  SetElements Institutions (12) Households (rural and urban, both disaggregated by quintile) Institutions (12)Households(rural and urban, both disaggregated by quintile)  Government  Government  Rest of the world  Rest of the world Factors of production (5) Capital (agricultural and nonagricultural) Factors of production (5)Capital(agricultural and nonagricultural)  Labor (agricultural and nonagricultural) Labor(agricultural and nonagricultural)  Water  Water  Summer land  Summer land  Winter land  Winter land Activities (28) Winter crops (wheat, legumes, long berseem, short berseem, Activities (28)Winter crops(wheat, legumes, long berseem, short berseem,   winter vegetables, other winter crops) winter vegetables, other winter crops)  Summer crops (cotton, rice, maize [including sorghum], summer Summer crops(cotton, rice, maize [including sorghum], summer   vegetables, other summer crops) vegetables, other summer crops)  Perennial crops (fruits, sugarcane) Perennial crops(fruits, sugarcane)  Other agriculture and (animal agriculture, subsidized bread, Other agriculture and (animal agriculture, subsidized bread,  food processing unsubsidized bread, subsidized flour, food processingunsubsidized bread, subsidized flour,   unsubsidized flour, other food processing) unsubsidized flour, other food processing)  Other (oil, cotton ginning, textiles, other industry, Other(oil, cotton ginning, textiles, other industry,   electricity, construction, government services, electricity, construction, government services,   transportation, other services) transportation, other services)  "},{"text":"Table 4 -Targeting or eliminating food subsidies: Simulation assumptions  -1- -2- -3- -4- -5- -1--2--3--4--5- Targeting Targeting Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating Targeting Targeting Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating oil-sugar total food oil-sugar total food total food oil-sugartotal foodoil-sugartotal foodtotal food subsidy + subsidy + subsidy + subsidy + subsidy + subsidy + subsidy +subsidy +subsidy +subsidy + income income income income transfer to incomeincomeincomeincometransfer to tax cut tax cut tax cut tax cut needy tax cuttax cuttax cuttax cutneedy   percent change   percent change  "},{"text":"Table 5 -Targeting or eliminating food subsidies: Summary of simulation results    -1- -2- -3- -4- -5- -1--2--3--4--5-   Targeting Targeting Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating Targeting Targeting Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating  Base oil-sugar subsidy + subsidy + total food oil-sugar subsidy + total food subsidy + total food subsidy + Baseoil-sugar subsidy + subsidy + total foodoil-sugar subsidy +total food subsidy +total food subsidy +   income income income tax income tax transfer to incomeincomeincome taxincome taxtransfer to   tax cut tax cut cut cut needy tax cuttax cutcutcutneedy    percent change from Base  percent change from Base Real per capita household consumption at 1996-97 price     Real per capita household consumption at 1996-97 price Rural households (by quintile) 2459.1 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.6 1.2 Rural households (by quintile)2459.10.00.40.00.61.2 1 1269.3 0.2 0.9 -0.3 -0.7 7.4 11269.30.20.9-0.3-0.77.4 2 1670.2 0.2 0.8 -0.2 -0.2 5.6 21670.20.20.8-0.2-0.25.6 3 2130.9 -0.2 -0.2 -0.1 0.5 -0.8 32130.9-0.2-0.2-0.10.5-0.8 4 2672.1 -0.1 0.0 0.0 0.7 -0.8 42672.1-0.10.00.00.7-0.8 5 4552.9 0.0 0.5 0.1 1.2 -0.1 54552.90.00.50.11.2-0.1 Urban households (by quintile) 4326.3 0.0 -0.1 0.0 -0.2 -0.7 Urban households (by quintile)4326.30.0-0.10.0-0.2-0.7 1 1713.5 0.2 0.1 -0.2 -2.3 2.8 11713.50.20.1-0.2-2.32.8 2 2456.5 0.2 0.2 -0.1 -1.4 1.7 22456.50.20.2-0.1-1.41.7 3 3361.2 -0.1 -0.8 0.0 -0.6 -2.4 33361.2-0.1-0.80.0-0.6-2.4 4 4647.0 -0.1 -0.5 0.1 -0.2 -2.0 44647.0-0.1-0.50.1-0.2-2.0 5 9453.2 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.7 -0.8 59453.20.00.30.10.7-0.8 Needy households 1734.1 0.2 0.5 -0.2 -1.1 4.2 Needy households1734.10.20.5-0.2-1.14.2 Nonneedy households 4279.7 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.5 -1.0 Nonneedy households4279.70.00.00.10.5-1.0 Average household 3261.5 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 Average household3261.50.00.10.00.20.1 Government budget items (mn LE at 1996-97 prices)     Government budget items (mn LE at 1996-97 prices) Spending on food subsidies 3741.6 -14.4 -64.2 -23.4 -100.0 -100.0 Spending on food subsidies3741.6-14.4-64.2-23.4-100.0-100.0 Spending on bread and flour 2867.0 0.0 -64.9 0.0 -100.0 -100.0 Spending on bread and flour2867.00.0-64.90.0-100.0-100.0 Spending on oil and sugar 874.6 -61.6 -61.6 -100.0 -100.0 -100.0 Spending on oil and sugar874.6-61.6-61.6-100.0-100.0-100.0 Income tax revenue 14592.0 -3.5 -16.4 -5.7 -25.4 -1.0 Income tax revenue14592.0-3.5-16.4-5.7-25.4-1.0 Cash transfers to needy a      3642.5 Cash transfers to needy a3642.5 Food and agriculture trade (bn $)       Food and agriculture trade (bn $) Net imports 1962.8 0.0 -1.8 0.0 -1.2 -0.4 Net imports1962.80.0-1.80.0-1.2-0.4 Wheat and flour imports 1100.4 0.0 -6.9 0.0 -7.1 -5.9 Wheat and flour imports1100.40.0-6.90.0-7.1-5.9 Exchange rate 1.0 0.0 -0.6 0.0 -1.4 -1.2 Exchange rate1.00.0-0.60.0-1.4-1.2 (LE per unit of foreign currency)       (LE per unit of foreign currency)  "},{"text":"Table 6 -Introducing wheat-maize flour and cutting leakage: Simulation assumptions  -6- -7- -8- -9- -6--7--8--9- Wheat- Wheat- Wheat-maize Leakage Wheat-Wheat-Wheat-maizeLeakage maize maize flour flour + elimination maizemaize flourflour +elimination flour + + income income tax + transfer to flour ++ incomeincome tax+ transfer to income tax cut + cut + leakage needy incometax cut +cut + leakageneedy tax cut leakage cut cut + yield  tax cutleakage cutcut + yield   increase  increase  percent change  percent change  "},{"text":"Table 7 -Introducing wheat-maize flour and cutting leakage: Summary of simulation results   -6- -7- -8- -9- -6--7--8--9- Base Maize- Maize- Maize-wheat Leakage BaseMaize-Maize-Maize-wheatLeakage  wheat flour wheat flour flour + income elimination wheat flour wheat flour flour + incomeelimination  + income + income tax cut + + transfer to + income+ incometax cut ++ transfer to  tax cut tax cut + leakage cut + needy tax cuttax cut +leakage cut +needy   leakage cut yield increase  leakage cutyield increase  "},{"text":"Table A1 -Structure of household factor incomes in SAM for 1996-97 (percent)    Rural households   Urban households Rural householdsUrban households  1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1234512345 Labor 43.9 39.9 31.9 22.5 17.7 56.6 53.8 47.9 35.0 28.3 Labor43.939.9 31.9 22.517.756.653.847.935.028.3 Agriculture 19.8 16.7 10.4 6.3 4.2 3.1 2.8 2.3 1.3 0.7 Agriculture19.816.7 10.46.34.23.12.82.31.30.7 Nonagriculture 24.1 23.2 21.5 16.2 13.5 53.5 50.9 45.6 33.8 27.6 Nonagriculture24.123.2 21.5 16.213.553.550.945.633.827.6 Capital 42.6 45.4 51.0 57.8 61.4 41.8 44.6 50.5 63.4 70.1 Capital42.645.4 51.0 57.861.441.844.650.563.470.1 Agriculture 7.4 8.0 9.2 10.6 11.2 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 Agriculture7.48.09.2 10.611.20.90.90.90.90.9 Nonagriculture 35.3 37.5 41.8 47.2 50.1 40.9 43.8 49.6 62.4 69.2 Nonagriculture35.337.5 41.8 47.250.140.943.849.662.469.2 Land 13.5 14.7 17.1 19.7 21.0 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 Land13.514.7 17.1 19.721.01.61.61.61.61.6 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100 Total100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0100.0 100.0 100.0100.0100 Source: Model SAM for 1996/97.        Source: Model SAM for 1996/97.  "},{"text":"Table A2 -Simulation results: distribution of factor incomes    -1- -2-  -3- -4- -5- -1--2--3--4--5-   Targeting Targeting Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating TargetingTargetingEliminatingEliminatingEliminating  Base a oil-sugar subsidy + total food subsidy +  oil-sugar subsidy + total food subsidy + total food subsidy + Base aoil-sugar subsidy +total food subsidy +oil-sugar subsidy +total food subsidy +total food subsidy +   income tax income tax income tax income tax transfer to income taxincome taxincome taxincome taxtransfer to   cut cut  cut cut needy cutcutcutcutneedy    change from Base  change from Base Agriculture 17.3 0.0 0.3  0.0 0.6 0.7 Agriculture17.30.00.30.00.60.7 Labor 4.7 0.0 0.1  0.0 0.2 0.3 Labor4.70.00.10.00.20.3 Land and Capital 12.7 0.0 0.3  0.0 0.4 0.5 Land and Capital12.70.00.30.00.40.5 Nonagriculture 82.7 0.0 -0.3  0.0 -0.6 -0.7 Nonagriculture82.70.0-0.30.0-0.6-0.7 Labor 27.2 0.0 -0.1  0.0 -0.2 -0.3 Labor27.20.0-0.10.0-0.2-0.3 Capital 55.5 0.0 -0.2  0.0 -0.4 -0.4 Capital55.50.0-0.20.0-0.4-0.4 Total 100.0 0.0 0.0  0.0 0.0 0.0 Total100.00.00.00.00.00.0   -6- -7-  -8-  -9- -6--7--8--9-   Wheat-maize Wheat-maize  Wheat-maize flour Leakage Wheat-maizeWheat-maizeWheat-maize flourLeakage   flour + flour + transfer + transfer to needy elimination flour +flour + transfer+ transfer to needyelimination   transfer to to needy +  + leakage cut + + transfer to transfer toto needy ++ leakage cut ++ transfer to   needy leakage cut  yield increase needy needyleakage cutyield increaseneedy    change from Base  change from Base Agriculture  0.1 0.1  0.1  0.1 Agriculture0.10.10.10.1 Labor  0.1 0.1  0.0  0.0 Labor0.10.10.00.0 Land and Capital  0.1 0.1  0.1  0.1 Land and Capital0.10.10.10.1 Nonagriculture  -0.1 -0.1  -0.1 -0.1 Nonagriculture-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.1 Labor  0.0 0.0  0.1  0.1 Labor0.00.00.10.1 Capital  -0.1 -0.1  -0.2 -0.1 Capital-0.1-0.1-0.2-0.1 Total  0.0 0.0  0.0  0.0 Total0.00.00.00.0  "},{"text":"Table A3 -Simulation results: foreign trade    -1- -2- -3- -4- -5- -1--2--3--4--5-   Targeting Targeting Cutting oil-Cutting total Cutting total TargetingTargetingCutting oil-Cutting total Cutting total  Base a oil-sugar subsidy + total food subsidy + sugar subsidy + food subsidy + food subsidy + Base aoil-sugar subsidy +total food subsidy +sugar subsidy +food subsidy +food subsidy +   income tax income tax income tax income tax transfer to income taxincome taxincome taxincome taxtransfer to   cut cut cut cut needy cutcutcutcutneedy    percent change from Base  percent change from Base Food and agriculture       Food and agriculture Net imports 1962.8 0.0 -1.8 0.0 -1.2 -0.4 Net imports1962.80.0-1.80.0-1.2-0.4 Imports 2333.6 0.0 -2.6 0.0 -2.4 -1.8 Imports2333.60.0-2.60.0-2.4-1.8 Wheat and flour 1100.4 0.0 -6.9 0.0 -7.1 -5.9 Wheat and flour1100.40.0-6.90.0-7.1-5.9 Exports 370.8 0.0 -6.9 0.1 -8.8 -8.9 Exports370.80.0-6.90.1-8.8-8.9 Other goods and services       Other goods and services Net imports 161.8 -0.2 22.3 0.5 14.6 4.9 Net imports161.8-0.222.30.514.64.9 Imports 15962.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Imports15962.00.00.00.00.00.0 Exports 15800.1 0.0 -0.3 0.0 -0.3 -0.1 Exports15800.10.0-0.30.0-0.3-0.1    -6- -7- -8- -9- -6--7--8--9-    Wheat- Wheat- Wheat-maize Leakage Wheat-Wheat-Wheat-maizeLeakage    maize flour maize flour flour + elimination maize flour maize flourflour +elimination    + transfer + transfer to transfer to + transfer to + transfer+ transfer totransfer to+ transfer to    to needy needy + needy + needy to needyneedy +needy +needy     leakage leakage cut +  leakageleakage cut +     cut yield increase  cutyield increase     percent change from Base  percent change from Base Food and agriculture       Food and agriculture Net imports   -6.0 -6.0 -10.9 0.1 Net imports-6.0-6.0-10.90.1 Imports   -5.9 -5.9 -9.3 0.0 Imports-5.9-5.9-9.30.0 Wheat and flour   -12.7 -12.7 -19.8 0.1 Wheat and flour-12.7-12.7-19.80.1 Exports   -5.5 -5.5 -0.5 -0.4 Exports-5.5-5.5-0.5-0.4 Other goods and services       Other goods and services Net imports   72.5 72.4 132.5 -1.7 Net imports72.572.4132.5-1.7 Imports   0.1 0.1 0.3 0.0 Imports0.10.10.30.0 Exports   -0.7 -0.7 -1.1 0.0 Exports-0.7-0.7-1.10.0 Notes: Changes smaller than 0.05 percent are set at zero. For all simulations total net imports (the trade Notes: Changes smaller than 0.05 percent are set at zero. For all simulations total net imports (the trade deficit) are fixed at $2124.6 mn.     deficit) are fixed at $2124.6 mn. Units for Base: million $ at 1996-97 prices.     Units for Base: million $ at 1996-97 prices.  "},{"text":"Table A4 -Simulation results: real production   -1- -2- -3- -4- -5- -1--2--3--4--5-  Targeting Targeting Cutting oil- Cutting Cutting TargetingTargetingCutting oil-CuttingCutting Base a oil-sugar total food sugar total food total food Base aoil-sugartotal foodsugartotal foodtotal food  subsidy + subsidy + subsidy + subsidy + subsidy + subsidy +subsidy +subsidy +subsidy +subsidy +  income tax income tax income tax income tax transfer to income taxincome taxincome taxincome taxtransfer to  cut cut cut cut needy cutcutcutcutneedy   percent change from base  percent change from base  "},{"text":"Table A5 -Elasticity values used in the model  a0A    CET CES z0Z Export demand Armington Intermediate a0ACETCES z0ZExport demandArmingtonIntermediate  Winter crops     Winter crops Wheat Legumes a0ACR (d A)  0.5 0.3 0.3 f0F (d Z)  0.3 0.3 Wheat Legumes a0ACR (d A)0.50.3 0.3 f0F (d Z)0.3 0.3 c0C  Long berseem Short berseem  0.3 0.3 f0FSUB  0.3 0.3 c0CLong berseem Short berseem0.3 0.3 f0FSUB0.3 0.3   Winter vegetables 0.8  0.3 3.0 0.3 0.3 Winter vegetables0.80.33.00.30.3 c0CF Other winter crops  0.3 i0I (dZ)  0.3 c0CFOther winter crops0.3 i0I (dZ)0.3 Summer crops Cotton c0CNF (d C)  0.3 h 0H (dI)  0.3 Summer crops Cotton c0CNF (d C)0.3 h 0H (dI)0.3   Rice    0.3  0.3 Rice0.30.3   Maize    0.3  1.6 0.3 Maize0.31.60.3 cpi  Summer vegetables 0.8 qg c 0.3 3.0 0.3 0.3 cpiSummer vegetables0.8qg c0.33.00.30.3 cwts c  Other summer crops  qinv c 0.3  0.3 cwts cOther summer cropsqinv c0.30.3  Perennials      Perennials fsav  Fruits Sugarcane 0.8 0.3 0.3 shrgdp h,gov  0.3 0.3 0.3 fsavFruits Sugarcane0.80.3 0.3 shrgdp h,gov0.30.3 0.3 gsav Animal agriculture  shry i f 0.3  0.3 1.2 gsavAnimal agricultureshry i f0.30.31.2 Nonagriculture Petroleum ica ca  ta a 0.1  2.0 Nonagriculture Petroleum ica cata a0.12.0 ifa f a Subsidized bread Nonsubsidized bread  tm c 0.6 0.6  ifa f aSubsidized bread Nonsubsidized breadtm c0.6 0.6 mps h Subsidized flour Nonsubsidized flour  tq c 0.6 0.6  3.0 mps hSubsidized flour Nonsubsidized flourtq c0.6 0.63.0  Other processed food 2.0  0.6  0.3 Other processed food2.00.60.3 pwe c Cotton ginning  tr z z ) 0.6  pwe cCotton ginningtr z z )0.6  Textiles  2.0  0.6  0.3 Textiles2.00.60.3 pwm c Other industry 2.0 0.6 trsub z, gov  0.3 pwm cOther industry2.00.6 trsub z, gov0.3  Electricity    0.4  Electricity0.4 qdst c Construction  ty h 0.6  qdst cConstructionty h0.6 qfs f Government services Transportation 2.0 ã a c 0.5 0.6 1.0 0.3 qfs fGovernment services Transportation2.0ã a c0.5 0.61.00.3  Other services 2.0  0.6 1.0 0.3 Other services2.00.61.00.3 Note: For a brief survey of elasticities of CGE models, see Löfgren (1994a). Abbreviations: qfssub f ó c Note: For a brief survey of elasticities of CGE models, see Löfgren (1994a). Abbreviations: qfssub f ó c CET Elasticity of transformation between exports and domestic sales in CET function; CETElasticity of transformation between exports and domestic sales in CET function; CES Elasticity of factor substitution in CES value-added functions; CESElasticity of factor substitution in CES value-added functions; Armington Elasticity of substitution between imports and domestic goods in CES aggregation function; Armington Elasticity of substitution between imports and domestic goods in CES aggregation function; Intermediate Elasticity of substitution between intermediate inputs in agriculture. Intermediate Elasticity of substitution between intermediate inputs in agriculture.      37   37  "},{"text":"Table A6 -Mathematical Statement for the Egypt Food CGE Model 1,2 @WFDIST f a @QF f a % trsub f, gov f0FYIF i f ' shry i f (YF f & tr row, f @EXR) ' ( 1 & mps h )@( 1 & ty h )@YH h & tr row, h @EXR h 0H QH c h ' AIDS ( [( 1 & ó c )@PQ c , EH h ] c0CF h0H PQ n&f ' LES ( [ (1 &ó cnf )@PQ cnf ] QH c h ' LES ( [( 1& ó c ) @PQ c , PQ n&f @QH n&f ,h ] c0CNF h0HYG ' YIF gov, f % j  Table A6-(con't)  Table A6-(con't) SETS VARIABLES Table A6-(con't)  SETS VARIABLES Table A6-(con't) EG EQUATIONS EH h # Equation YF f ' j activities government expenditures household consumption expenditures QF f a QFSUB f a institutions [households, government demand for factor f from activity a (= gov), rest of the world (= row)] and factors demand for subfactor f from activity a Domain Description EG EQUATIONS EH h # Equation YF f ' jactivities government expenditures household consumption expendituresQF f a QFSUB f ainstitutions [households, government demand for factor f from activity a (= gov), rest of the world (= row)] and factors demand for subfactor f from activity a Domain Description crop activities disaggregated commodities disaggregated food and nonfood exchange rate (units of foreign currency per unit of domestic currency) nominal GDP at market prices PM c ' pwm c @( 1% tm c )@EXR EXR GDP Price Block PE c ' pwe c @EXR 1 2 YH h ' j % trsub h, gov f0F YIF h f % shrgdp h,gov @GDP % tr h, row @EXR QH c h QINT c i0I f0F c0C c0C h 0H factors [labor & capital factors, land-water ( = l-w)] subfactors (summer and winter land, water) domestic institutions (households and consumption demand for c from household h intermediate input demand for c import price in domestic currency export price in domestic currency crop activities disaggregated commodities disaggregated food and nonfood exchange rate (units of foreign currency per unit of domestic currency) nominal GDP at market prices PM c ' pwm c @( 1% tm c )@EXR EXR GDP Price Block PE c ' pwe c @EXR 1 2 YH h ' j % trsub h, gov f0F YIF h f % shrgdp h,gov @GDP % tr h, row @EXRQH c h QINT ci0I f0F c0C c0C h 0Hfactors [labor & capital factors, land-water ( = l-w)] subfactors (summer and winter land, water) domestic institutions (households and consumption demand for c from household h intermediate input demand for c import price in domestic currency export price in domestic currency 3 PA a PQ c ' EH h aggregate disaggregated nonfood output revenue per unit of activity a ( PD c @QD c %PM c @QM c ) QQ c (1 %tq c ) QM c c0C government) households imports of c average demand price of composite commodity 3PA a PQ c ' EH haggregate disaggregated nonfood output revenue per unit of activity a ( PD c @QD c %PM c @QM c ) QQ c (1 %tq c )QM cc0Cgovernment) households imports of c average demand price of composite commodity 4 5 PARAMETERS PD c PE c PX c ' ( PD c @QD c %PE c @QE c ) consumer price index price of domestic output sold domestically price of exports QX c weight of commodity c in PM c price of imports PA a ' j c0C ã a c @PX c QQ c QX c W f c0C a 0A supply of composite commodity c average producer price of commodity c total output of commodity c government consumption fixed investment demand for c wage of factor f gross activity price (=unit revenue) 4 5PARAMETERS PD c PE c PX c ' ( PD c @QD c %PE c @QE c ) consumer price index price of domestic output sold domestically price of exports QX c weight of commodity c in PM c price of imports PA a ' j c0C ã a c @PX cQQ c QX c W fc0C a 0Asupply of composite commodity c average producer price of commodity c total output of commodity c government consumption fixed investment demand for c wage of factor f gross activity price (=unit revenue) consumer price index foreign savings (foreign currency) government savings intermediate input c per unit of activity a quantity of subfactor f per unit of land-water aggregate for activity a price of composite good activity value-added (net) price average producer price for commodity c level of activity a domestic sales of domestic output Supply and Trade Block PQ c PVA a PX c QA a QD c 6 7 8 PVA f0F WFDIST f a WFSUB f YF f YG YIF i f a0A 9 3 nominal GDP share transferred from government to household h share of domestic institution i in income of factor f indirect tax rates for activity a import tariff rate (incl. sales tax) wage distortion factor wage of subfactor income of factor f government income income of domestic institution i from factor f activity value added (net) price land-water rent by crop activity level of production activity demand for factor f from activity a consumer price index foreign savings (foreign currency) government savings intermediate input c per unit of activity a quantity of subfactor f per unit of land-water aggregate for activity a price of composite good activity value-added (net) price average producer price for commodity c level of activity a domestic sales of domestic output Supply and Trade Block PQ c PVA a PX c QA a QD c 6 7 8 PVA f0F WFDIST f a WFSUB f YF f YG YIF i f a0A 9 3nominal GDP share transferred from government to household h share of domestic institution i in income of factor f indirect tax rates for activity a import tariff rate (incl. sales tax) wage distortion factor wage of subfactor income of factor f government income income of domestic institution i from factor f activity value added (net) price land-water rent by crop activity level of production activity demand for factor f from activity a 10 QE c QINT c ' j a0A share of post-tax income of household h to savings exports ica ca @QA a YH h c0C rate of sales tax income of household h intermediate input demand 10QE c QINT c ' j a0Ashare of post-tax income of household h to savings exports ica ca @QA aYH hc0Crate of sales tax income of household h intermediate input demand 11 world price of exports (foreign currency) constant elasticity of substitution QFSUB f a ' ifa f a @QF l&w,a Functions CES(•) LES(•) transfer to institution/factor z from institution/factor z' linear expenditure system f0FSUB a0ACR demand for subfactor f from crop activity a 11world price of exports (foreign currency) constant elasticity of substitution QFSUB f a ' ifa f a @QF l&w,a Functions CES(•)LES(•)transfer to institution/factor z from institution/factor z' linear expenditure system f0FSUB a0ACR demand for subfactor f from crop activity a 12 13 world price of imports (foreign currency) constant elasticity of ã a c @QA a stock change for commodity c transformation QX c ' CET [QE c , QD c ] CET(•) QX c ' j a0A AIDS(•) c0C c0C subsidy transfer to institution/factor z almost ideal demand system output of commodity c (for rationed commodity or leakage) direct tax rate for household h function transforming output to exports and domestic sales 12 13world price of imports (foreign currency) constant elasticity of ã a c @QA a stock change for commodity c transformation QX c ' CET [QE c , QD c ] CET(•) QX c ' j a0AAIDS(•)c0C c0Csubsidy transfer to institution/factor z almost ideal demand system output of commodity c (for rationed commodity or leakage) direct tax rate for household h function transforming output to exports and domestic sales 14 QE c QD c supply of factor f PD c ' CET ( PE c  c0C yield of commodity c per unit of activity a FOC for output transformation 14QE c QD csupply of factor f PD c ' CET ( PE cc0Cyield of commodity c per unit of activity a FOC for output transformation     supply of subfactor f  rate of household consumption subsidy supply of subfactor frate of household consumption subsidy 15 QQ c ' CES[ QM c , QD c ]  c0C for commodity c function aggregating imports and domestic sales to composite supply 15QQ c ' CES[ QM c , QD c ]c0Cfor commodity c function aggregating imports and domestic sales to composite supply 16 QM c QD c PM c ' CES ( PD c  c0C FOC for commodity aggregation 16QM c QD cPM c ' CES ( PD cc0CFOC for commodity aggregation      38 39 38 39  "},{"text":"Table A6 -(con't) The following notational convention is used: Subscripts are set indices. Variables are written with upper-case Latin letters. Parameters appear as Greek letters or as lower-case Latin letters. 2. The mathematical statement is simplified. (See Section 3 for a fuller verbal model description.) The following aspects have been suppressed: (i) perfect substitutability/transformability between exports, imports and domestic output for selected commodities (in place of imperfect substitutability/transformability); (ii) constant-elasticity demand curves for selected export commodities (in place of fixed foreign-currency export price); (iii) domain controls (limiting equations and variables to subsets of the sets indicated); (iv) price-responsiveness of selected intermediate input coefficients; (v) agronomic constraints;(vi) flexing of subsidy rate and fixing of total consumer price, , for subsidized commodities with a fixed consumer price. 3. CES , CET , AIDS and LES indicate relationships derived from the respective functions. In general, WF is flexible and Table A6-(con't)  Table A6-(con't) Institution block j c0C pwm c @QM c % j z0Z 30 17 gsav ' YG & EG 31 tr row , z ' j c0C pwe c @QE c % j z0Z tr z, row % fsav current account balance (in foreign currency) income of factor f government savings constraint Institution block j c0C pwm c @QM c % j z0Z 30 17 gsav ' YG & EG 31tr row , z ' j c0Cpwe c @QE c % j z0Ztr z, row % fsavcurrent account balance (in foreign currency) income of factor f government savings constraint 18 32 j h0H ' j c0C mps h @( 1 & ty h )@YH h % gsav % EXR@fsav PQ c @(qinv c % qdst c ) income of domestic institution i from factor f household income savings-investment balance 18 32j h0H' j c0C mps h @( 1 & ty h )@YH h % gsav % EXR@fsav PQ c @(qinv c % qdst c )income of domestic institution i from factor f household income savings-investment balance 19 33 cpi ' j c0C cwts c @( 1& ó c ) @PQ c consumer price index (numéraire) 19 33cpi ' j c0Ccwts c @( 1& ó c ) @PQ cconsumer price index (numéraire) 20 1.     household consumption expenditure 20 1.household consumption expenditure      household consumption demand for household consumption demand for 21     disaggregated food and aggregated 21disaggregated food and aggregated      non-food non-food 22     consumer price index for non-food 22consumer price index for non-food 23     (1&ó c ) @PQ c disaggregated non-food household consumption demand for 23(1&ó c ) @PQ cdisaggregated non-food household consumption demand for      government income government income 24     24      government expenditure government expenditure 25     25      nominal GDP nominal GDP 26     26 System Constraint Block  System Constraint Block 27     market equilibrium for composite commodity (S=D) 27market equilibrium for composite commodity (S=D) 28     market equilibrium for factors (S=D) 28market equilibrium for factors (S=D) 29 4     market equilibrium for subfactors (S$D) 29 4market equilibrium for subfactors (S$D)      41 41  "}],"sieverID":"6b9518bd-72aa-4de7-bb3c-3facf25c7d60","abstract":"Egypt's food subsidies (in 1996/97 5.5 percent of government expenditures or US$1.1 bn.) cover rationed oil and sugar (23 percent of subsidy cost) and unrationed bread and flour (77 percent). The subsidies enhance food security but are nontargeted and have substantial leakages. This paper uses a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model to simulate the short-run effects of alternative food-subsidy scenarios. Savings from reduced subsidy spending are used to reduce direct taxes uniformly for all household types. The model uses a 1996/97 database with detailed household information. The simulated impact of targeting or eliminating oil and sugar subsidies is small: disaggregated real household consumption changes by ±0.3 percent. It is progressive if the subsidy is targeted to \"the needy\" (the bottom two quintiles in rural and urban areas) and regressive if it is eliminated. The targeting of all food subsidies is pro-needy, in part due to important indirect effects. It raises the consumption of the needy by 0.5 percent with, on average, little change for the nonneedy. The strongest gains are recorded for the rural needy (consumption increase by 1.0 percent). Food subsidy elimination is regressive: the needy suffer a consumption loss of 1.1 percent. If the government savings instead are transferred to the needy, the impact is reversed: consumption increases by 4.2 percent for needy households while the nonneedy register a small loss. The overall policy implication of the paper is that there is scope for reducing food subsidy spending without hurting the low-income groups."}

data/part_3/00f7b899094a4db5b6f704a17e7b4c41.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"00f7b899094a4db5b6f704a17e7b4c41","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9638497f-4857-4e9a-bd4c-30f6e90a706c/retrieve"},"pageCount":46,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The Africa RISING project in the Ethiopia highlands reached more than 55,746 households and covered 43,136 ha of land during the cropping season June-September 2021. Of the total beneficiaries, 16.4% were female-headed households (HHs)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"The research for development (R4D) trials of feed and forage included desho-vetch intercropping, desho-tree lucerne intercropping, tree lucerne harvesting management, multi-cut oat variety trial and fodder beet seed multiplication. The scaling support revolved around providing logistical support to scaling partners and strengthening the informal/local seed system in the Africa RISING sites. Basic seeds of oat, vetch, alfalfa, and fodder beet have been sourced and provided. The seeds have been distributed for multiplication using model farmers, farmer training centres (FTCs) and cooperatives. A total of 6,550 HHs have benefited through the scaling initiative."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"Participatory variety selection-belg (short) season trials were conducted using cultivars released by different research centres for main cropping season. In addition, community-based seed production and scaling of validated crop technologies are implemented in the cropping season. The project provided early generation seeds under a revolving seed scheme to farmers in the four intervention zones. Scaling of crop technologies were done together with partners mainly with the bureau of agriculture in different districts. As a result, 38,570 farm HHs benefited from the scaling initiative."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"A total of 13 faba bean and 20 durum wheat varieties have been evaluated by 600 farmers through crowdsourcing approach in two sites with the objectives of enhancing the diversity, popularizing best varieties selected by farmers through pre-scaling up and training, and developing a community-based seed system."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"Landscape-based site-specific fertilizer recommendations and best-bet Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) practices of wheat are under validation in Basona and Lemo Africa RISING sites. Four farmers were selected per landscape position (four at hillslope, four at mid-slope and four at foot slope position) for both fertilizer and ISFM validation trials. The validation work will enable to generate information and develop fertilizer decision support tools in the country."},{"index":6,"size":85,"text":"The mechanization work in the current reporting period aimed at establishing on-farm trials at different sites, monitoring and backstopping the management of on-farm trials and service provision, finalizing a technical report on lessons learnt in the promotion of mechanization technologies, developing and sharing a technical brief on lessons learnt from the process of promoting small mechanization in rural Ethiopia, and finalize the adoption survey questionnaire. Over 801 farmers received harvesting, threshing, shelling and transport services from two-wheel tractor (2-WT) based activities in different project sites."},{"index":7,"size":71,"text":"The landscape management work focussed more on assessing impacts of land restoration practices on different ecosystem services including soil, carbon, soil moisture, soil erosion and biodiversity and modelling solutions; finalizing the Landscape Doctor Toolbox -a toolbox that is designed to facilitate land assessment, technology targeting and impact assessment; developing scaling strategy using exante and modelling analysis and prepare compendium of technologies for various areas; and engaging in capacity development of stakeholders."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"The Africa RISING project in the Ethiopian highlands managed to conduct different capacity development programs while adhering to the COVID-19 control measures imposed by the government."},{"index":9,"size":47,"text":"The capacity development activities carried out to include training, field visits, field days, workshops and meetings. In this regard, the program engaged with over 4,491 beneficiaries during the current reporting period. The project has also benefited 6 MSc and 9 PhD students through its research attachment schemes."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"The Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) program comprises three research for development projects supported by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) as part of the US government's Feed the Future initiative."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"In its second phase, the Africa RISING project in the Ethiopian Highlands is seeking to elaborate the generic research questions presented in the program umbrella document for issues identified largely during phase I (2011-2016). The research questions addressed by our five (see below) specific activities will contribute insights from specific sustainable intensification-related activities and geographic areas within the country."}]},{"head":"Trade-offs and synergies","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Umbrella research questions: What are the environmental, economic, human and social impacts of productivity-enhancing interventions?"}]},{"head":"Adaptation and adoptability","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Umbrella research question: How are these interventions aiming at increasing productivity and improving environmental conditions to benefit diverse farmer typologies in the target areas?"}]},{"head":"Livelihoods","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Umbrella research question: How do changes in the management of specific activities or a combination of activities within a farm (e.g. a field or a livestock unit) affect overall livelihood conditions for different farmer typologies?"}]},{"head":"Enabling environments","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Umbrella research question: How do enabling conditions affect the nature (variety, agro-inputs, complexity and diversity) of promising interventions moving towards sustainable intensification (SI)?"}]},{"head":"Equity","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Umbrella research question: How does social capital affect community productivity, cooperation and well-being along with the scaling up of SI innovations?"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Africa RISING in Ethiopia is led by scientists from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in partnership with scientists from other CGIAR centres, the Ethiopian national agricultural research system and local communities."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"In its second phase (2016-2021), the project has been targeting 0.7 million households with SI technologies. So far, after five cropping seasons, the project has managed to reach and benefit more than 378,527 HHs with its validated technologies (equates to a land area of 189,704 ha) and 31,899 beneficiaries through capacity building initiatives. The geographical and administrative coverage of the project has also increased from four to more than 36 woredas and from four to 11 zones. In the remaining one year of the project, we will seek to generate wider evidence for the benefits of the novel R4D techniques adopted in the project, synthesize the lessons learned and deliver the tools required to support wider employment of these approaches."}]},{"head":"Highlights from the current reporting period","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The Africa RISING project in the Ethiopia highlands reached more than 55,746 households and covered 43,136 ha of land during the cropping season June-September 2021. From the total beneficiaries, 16.4% were female-headed households. Feed and forage innovations"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"The feed and forage development and scaling work of Africa RISING has played an important role in validating context specific feed technology solutions and promoting to thousands of farmers in the project sites over the past few years. Results from controlled trials and feedbacks from farmers indicated a considerable improvement in livestock productivity due to the improved forage production and utilization practices. The collaboration with development partners and the partnership with the local extension system has played an important role in the implementation of research and development activities. Through this process, the capacity of local development actors has improved in the delivery of feed and forage technologies to end users. However, there are still gaps that need to be addressed to ensure the continuity of the project efforts to improve livestock productivity and hence the livelihood of smallholder farmers. The gaps that need attention in the current physical year include augmenting dataset compiled for some of the R4D trials conduct in the last two years, strengthening the local forage seed system and supporting training needs of development partners. Filling these gaps would help to generate adequate research evidence and to strengthen the fodder value chain. Therefore, the objective of the current physical year include:"},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":" Completing R4D trials for which additional data are needed,  Support the informal/local seed system to sustain the availability of revolving seeds and planting materials in the project sites,  Fill capacity needs of development partners to sustain the momentum in the scaling of validated technologies."}]},{"head":"Research methodologies/approaches","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Research for development activities:"},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"On-farm trials were implemented in three of the four Africa RISING project sites (Basona, Lemo and Sinana) during the current main rainy season. The research for development (R4D) trials include a) desho-vetch intercropping; b) desho-tree lucerne intercropping; c) tree lucerne harvesting management; d) multi-cut oat variety trial; and e) fodder beet seed multiplication (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Desho-vetch intercropping","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":224,"text":"Desho grass is an important forage as a source of good quality forage and for soil and water conservation practices. An important limitation of this grass when grown on separate plots has been the declining productivity through time due to nutrient mining. Intercropping desho grass with vetch has been experimented to assess if the practice can contribute to maintaining soil fertility (especially soil N) through nitrogen fixation by the legume forage while producing higher biomass of better nutritional quality. The trial was repeated this season to augment the data that has been collected in the previous year. The experiment had the following treatments: i) desho-vetch intercropping at a 12 kg/ha seed rate for vetch, ii) at 9 kg/ha seed rate for vetch, iii) at h 6 kg/ha seed rate for vetch, iv) sole desho grass, and v) sole vetch forage (at 30 kg/ha rate). The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Fifteen plots of 6m 2 each (2×3 m 2 ) were prepared at one experimental location per project site. The plots in each block were randomly assigned to one of the five treatments. Variables measured include forage biomass yield (by forage type), forage quality, soil fertility before and after harvest. A graduate student has been recruited and attached to conduct thesis research under this research activity."}]},{"head":"Desho-tree lucerne intercropping","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"This trial has the same objective as the desho-vetch intercropping. Tree lucerne (TL) offers a good opportunity to produce a protein-reach feed supplement in cool highland areas. Both tree lucerne and desho grass grow well on soil and water conservation structures and on separate plots. The treatments for this trial included the following: i) Desho grass sole planting, ii) Desho grass + TL (9 trees/plot) planted in 1 m interval, iii) Desho grass + TL (6 trees/plot) in 1.5 m interval, and iv) Desho grass + TL (3 trees/plot) in 2.0 m interval. Variables of interest include soil nutrient content before planting and during forage harvesting times, forage biomass yield (by forage type), forage quality."}]},{"head":"Tree lucerne harvesting management","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"This trial is conducted to generate additional data on optimal cutting height and cut frequency for tree lucerne under on-farm management conditions. New replicated tree lucerne plots have been established in each site. The tree plants are subjected to different cutting heights (1m; and 1.5m) and cutting intervals (3, 4 and 6 months interval) when the plants reach 2 metres height after 9 months of growth. Agronomic data including plant height, total biomass yield, leaf to stem ratio are being collected. Foliage nutritional quality and soil fertility trends are also determined. A graduate student has been recruited and attached to conduct thesis research under this activity."}]},{"head":"Dual-purpose oat evaluation trial","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"This is trial is conducted to evaluate the performance of oat and triticale varieties when subjected to different singling management practices: one time cutting at maturity or two cuts (at 45/60 days of growth and at maturity). The forage yield and quality; straw yield and quality; grain yields are measured and evaluated."}]},{"head":"Fodder beet seed multiplication","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Demand for fodder beet seed is growing following the successful demonstration and introduction of the tuber crop as an alternative high energy fodder supplement of ruminants. During the main rainy season fodder beet, basic seeds have been distributed and planted for seed multiplication in the fields of farmer training centres, model farmers and university campuses. Producers have been guidance on how to manage fodder beet plots distained for tubber production and for seed production. "}]},{"head":"Facilitating scaling initiatives","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"In the current physical year, the scaling support revolved providing logistical support to scaling partners and strengthening the informal/local seed system in the respective sites. Basic seeds of oat, vetch, alfalfa, and fodder beet have been sourced and provided. The seeds have been distributed for multiplication under different modalities depending on the local condition: model farmers; farmer training centres (FTCs); and cooperatives are considered (Table 3). "}]},{"head":"Research methodologies/approaches","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"Participatory variety selection-belg season: The participatory varietal selection (PVS) trials were conducted using cultivars released by different research centres for the main cropping season. The action research was conducted in the Basona Worana district (North Shewa Zone) and Sinana district (Bale Zone). In North Shewa, field pea ( Cvs. Megeri, Weyib, Gume, Hortu) and lentil (Beredu, Derash, Alemaya, and DZ-2012-L) varieties and local checks were evaluated at farmer field (Mush) and research sub-station (Bakelo) with supplemental irrigation due to shortage of belg season rain. In Bale zone, field pea cultivars (Bilalo, Bursa, Woyib, Urgi and Hortu); lentil cultivars (Alemaya, Beredu, Derash, DZ-2012-L and Local), common bean cultivars (DZ-2, Tatach, SER-119, KAT-B9 and Awash-2) and fenugreek (Hunda-01, Ebisa, Chala, Burka and Bishoftu) were tested at two farmer fields in Selka village. Each genotype of all crops at both locations were planted on a 25 m 2 plot and evaluated were made by male and female farmers at physiological maturity of the crops."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Community based seed production and scaling project validated crop technologies: The project provided early generation seeds under a revolving seed scheme to farmers in the four intervention zones. Community based seed multiplication will help to produce enough seeds to scale crop technologies. Scaling of crop technologies were done together with partners mainly with the Bureaus of Agriculture (BoAs) in different districts."}]},{"head":"Status of the research","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Action Research-Belg season: In North Shewa, farmers selected field pea (Cvs. Adi and Burkitu) and lentil (DZ-2012-L and Derash) varieties that provide average productivity of 1.5 t/ha for field pea and 2.1 t/ha for lentil (Photo 1)."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Photo 1. Belg season participatory variety selection of field pea and lentil in North Shewa in 2021."},{"index":3,"size":196,"text":"In Bale Zone, farmers (male and female farmers) selected two varieties (Cvs. Urgi and Bursa) of field pea and another two varieties of lentils (cvs. DZ-2012-L and Derash). The average productivity of the selected field pea varieties was about 0.6 and 0.7 t/ha, respectively. The maximum productivity of field pea and lentils were 1.1 t/ha and 1.2 t/ha, respectively. The average productivity was low due to late rainfall during the season. The productivity of lentil and field pea was higher in Basona site than in the Selka research kebele due to application of supplemental irrigation in the former than the latter. In both locations, farmers selected the same lentil varieties for short rainy season production. Common bean and fenugreek have been introduced in the highlands of Bale zone as an alternative crop for the short rain season to provide more options for farmers (Photo 2). As a result, farmers selected early maturing common bean (Cvs. Awash-2, SER-119) and fenugreek (Cvs. Burka and Chala) varieties. The productivity of common bean was about 0.4t/ha due to shortage of rainfall. Yield data was not taken for fenugreek since the season was too short for the varieties to reach maturity."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Photo 2. Performance of field pea, lentil, common bean and fenugreek at Selka village in 2021."},{"index":5,"size":132,"text":"Main season early generation seed production through R4D: A total of 34.5 tons of bread wheat (2 cultivars), durum wheat (one cultivar) and faba bean (3 cultivars) were purchased from three seed producing farmer unions, and public seed enterprises (Table 4). In most sites the seed production followed cluster approach to better manage farms and enable farmers share experiences (Photos 3 and 4). With project R4D, the improved crop technologies covered 324 ha of land and 742 HHs (13% female HHs) are direct beneficiaries of the interventions (Table 5).  Scaling of technologies through partners: A total of 3,857 households (17% female HHs) were benefited from the community seed production scheme. Abou 34,931 ha of land was covered with farmer preferred cereal and food legumes varieties in the four intervention zones (Table 6)."},{"index":6,"size":230,"text":"Table 6. Technologies and respective beneficiaries through partner scaling.  13513 1 9 7 2 15484 14905.3 2 7 9 6 9 9 1 3 7 8 7 1 5 5 8 . 6 7 8 9 9  0 8 7 9 4 0 6 Durum wheat 1372 4 6 0 1832 1715 8 1 9 3 0 0 1119 417.25 3 8 8 8 4 4 7 2 1 7 7 7 8 6 1 6 9 9 5 5 3 7 2 1 1 5 3 2 1 4 7 7 0 . 2 5 2 5 1 4  2 2 9 3 5  The key element of R4D is helping farmers to select technologies, multiply and scale to bring impact at scale. Hence there is a clear increase in using project promoted crop technologies such as bread wheat in the four intervention zones. In this report, a preliminary assessment was done based on the season number of beneficiaries to see the change in diversifying crops and varieties. In north Shewa, the dominant bread wheat cultivars promoted by the extension system is cv. Hidasie, which is high yielding but susceptible to stem and yellow rusts. The project promoted bread wheat cvs. Wane and Deka. The result showed that farmers are increasingly diversifying their bread wheat varieties and other crops like durum wheat, faba bean and malt barley (Figure 1)."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Figure 1. Trends of the project promoted bread wheat and other crop varieties in north Shewa."},{"index":8,"size":59,"text":"In the Bale zone the popular bread wheat varieties are Hidasie and Hulluka. The Africa RISING project promoted varieties are Wane, Lemu and Deka. During the cropping season, only 13% of the farmers planted popular varieties in the three intervention districts (Figure 2). In Hadiya zone, planted only Africa RISING project promoted bread wheat varieties (cvs. Lemu and Wane)."}]},{"head":"Capacity development","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Short-term training, field days, visits and other capacity development efforts have been undertaken related to improved crop varieties and management practices and included in the current report. In addition, three PhD students are attached and conducting their research on key food legume diseases."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Lessons learned and problems encountered "}]},{"head":"Crowdsourcing and seasonal food availability assessment Introduction","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"To satisfy the demand of an expanding population, agriculture faces the challenge of delivering safer, high quality, and health-promoting food and feed in an economic, environmentally sensitive, and sustainable manner. The challenges of future food production are related to climate change coupled with the maintenance of local agricultural production. A sustained effort is thus required to generate crops with higher and more stable yields across diverse and changing environments."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Bioversity International has successful experience in the Seeds for Needs Initiative which uses existing genetic diversity to identify traits for adaptation to climate change. Since 2010, Bioversity International has researched the name of seeds for needs together with Ethiopian and international partners to understand and study the potential of these varieties in marginal areas and to increase the resilience of communities where these varieties are cultivated. The main goal was to offer variety that allowed farmers to adapt to climate change. Seeds for Needs is a participatory approach that works with farmers, in particular women farmers, to identify a set of crops and varieties to be further tested under their farming conditions through a crowdsourcing approach."},{"index":3,"size":197,"text":"Among the most significant results of this research are the registration of two varieties in the Tigray region, their adoption by the smallholder farmers in Tigray, Amhara and Oromia and a series of scientific publications that highlight the most significant characteristics of these varieties: among these are the high grain and biomass yield in marginal environments, resistance to diseases and the adaptability to climatic conditions that change from Year to Year. In 2017 Bioversity together with local partners began to test these varieties in high-potential environments such as Gojam, Arsi and Chefe donsa. Similarly, in collaboration with Africa Rising, we initiated the demonstration of barley local varieties through crowdsourcing approach in North Shewa, Basona district. These experiments justified that, the yields of some of these varieties were very interesting and increase the diversity of varieties through crowdsourcing approach. However, this approach is mostly implemented in durum wheat and a few parts of the country. Therefore, this experience will be implemented in faba bean and durum wheat in new intervention areas of Oromia, Amhara and SNNP regions to enhance seed system and cultivar diversity to foster productivity and manage climate-related risks. The objectives of the study are to:"},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":" Enhance the diversity, availing adapted varieties through crowdsourcing approach, and maintain and multiply selected varieties for further trials in unaddressed potential areas;  Popularize best varieties selected by farmers through pre-scaling up and training; and  To develop a community-based seed system."}]},{"head":"Research methodologies/approaches","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"To address the above objectives, the project team is characterizing 13 selected faba bean varieties for genetic diversity, agro-morphological and disease resistance through crowdsourcing approach. These varieties of faba bean were collected from different agricultural research centres. One district/woreda from Hadiya and another district from the North Shewa zone were selected for the implementation of the research. A total of 8 villages were selected in both districts. Similarly, fourteen farmers' selected variety sets of durum wheat available in Bioversity international stock and six improved varieties, a total of 20 varieties, are under evaluation for genetic diversity, agro-morphological, disease resistance and pasta making quality in major wheat producer districts of Bale, Oromia in four villages through crowdsourcing approach. Crowdsourcing approach enable farmers to test sets of varieties within their farm using their production methodology. Field evaluation methods, number of varieties tested, sites and other details are elaborated below:"},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Faba Bean: it is under evaluation in two locations (Basona and Lemo), 400 farmers (50 farmers per Village) are engaged, 8 villages selected for field evaluation, plot size is 6.4m 2 (4 m length * 4 rows * 0.4m), seed rate per plot is 0.128 kg (200 kg/ha), design of the experiment is Tricot (3 plots per farmer) and number of varieties identified for the field evaluation are 13 (Table 7). "}]},{"head":"Soil fertility management Introduction","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"Land degradation and soil fertility depletion are critical challenges for Ethiopian agriculture and sustainable crop production. Low crop response to fertilizers is a major concern despite the consistent increase in fertilizer supply and usage in the country. The effectiveness of matching fertilizer types to soil fertility problems rests on the ability to identify limiting factors, characterize sites, and develop appropriate recommendations. Approaches for identifying nutrient management zones require the collection and interpretation of spatial data (yield, elevation, soil nutrient maps, and farmers' classification criteria). In Ethiopia, there has been a great effort to test and recommend balanced fertilizers for increased crop yield and quality. The replacement of nitrogen and phosphorus containing di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) fertilizer with balanced blended fertilizers containing multiple nutrients, such as NP and S (sulfur) and/or zinc (Zn) and boron (B) has been under progress. The basis for formulation of these fertilizers was an analysis of data collected under the EthioSIS project, which identified S, Zn, and B as the most extensively deficient nutrients in Ethiopian soils. Wheat yields significantly responded to landscape positions where wheat yield was higher by 50-300% in foot slopes than in hillslopes, depending on location and input level. There was a decrease in crop fertilizer response with increasing slope due to a significant decrease in soil organic carbon, clay content and soil water content."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) is an approach to improve yields of crops while preserving sustainable and long-term soil fertility through the combined application of fertilizers, recycling of organic resources, use of responsive crop varieties, and improved agronomic practices, which minimize nutrient losses and improve the nutrient-use efficiency of crops. Yield benefits were more apparent when fertilizer application was accompanied by crop rotation, green manuring, or crop residue management. For example, the combined application of organic and inorganic fertilizers could increase wheat yields by 50-100%, whereas crop rotation with grain legumes could increase cereal grain yields by up to 200%. Although organic residues are key inputs for soil fertility management, about 85% is used for livestock feed and energy sources. The main incentive for farmers to adopt ISFM practices is economic benefits. Therefore, the objectives of this research were to:"},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":" validate landscape-based site-specific fertilizer recommendations for wheat in selected major wheat producing areas of Basona Worena and Lemo Woreda;  generate information on fertilizer that will help develop fertilizer decision support tools in the country; and  validate best-bet ISFM practices for wheat production and generate information on ISFM that could help develop fertilizer DST (decision support tool) in the country."}]},{"head":"Research methodologies/approaches","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":212,"text":"The validation trial was conducted on farmers' fields of Lemo Woreda in Hadiya zone of the South region and Basona Worena Woreda in North Shewa zone of Amhara region. Four farmers were selected per landscape position (four at hillslope, four at mid-slope, and four at foot slope position) for both fertilizer and ISFM validation trials. To characterize each landscape position, slope percentage was used as a key criterion. Accordingly, landscape position with < 5, 5-15, and 15-30 are characterized as foot slope, mid-slope, and hillslope position, respectively. The three treatments were landscape-based sitespecific fertilizer recommendations, model generated rate and the current blanket or extension fertilizer rate applied for wheat across all landscape positions at each implementing woreda/district (Table 9). For the ISFM validation trial on wheat in Lemo Woreda, the sites were selected based on severity of soil fertility depletion, soil acidity and landscape position in collaboration with woreda Agriculture Office. Vetch (Vicia sativa L.) was grown as a short-term green manure crop during a small rainy season and the shoot and root biomass of the green manure was incorporated in the field. The amount of lime applied ha -1 was determined based on the exchangeable acidity of the soil. Lupin was grown as a green manure crop. The treatments included: i."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Green manure + 65% of the recommended N fertilizer rate + the recommended rate of other nutrients (P, S, and micronutrients). ii."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"50% of the recommended N fertilizer rate (N) + 50% of the recommended organic fertilizer (compost) as N equivalent + the recommended rate of other nutrients (P, S and micronutrients). iii."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"The recommended rate of inorganic fertilizer alone."},{"index":5,"size":280,"text":"The treatments were arranged in RCBD and replicated four times at each landscape (hill, mid-and foot slope) position on four farmers' fields on a plot size of 10 m by 10 m (100 m 2 ). The appropriate wheat variety for each area was sown for both validation trials. Other recommended agronomic practices for wheat production were uniformly applied to all plots. The validation trials will be evaluated by farmers, extension agents and experts during the appropriate growth stages of the trial crop. The required agronomic data such as total biomass of the and grain yield of wheat will be collected. A field visit made by ICRISAT researchers in collaboration with regional research centres in the first week of September 2021 in Basona Worena and Lemo woredas has shown that crop management and followup activities have been regularly performed for validation trial fields at each landscape position. Field operations such as weeding and the second split N fertilizer applications have been done properly, following the recommended crop management practices (Photo 6 and 7). Comments were given under field condition during the field visit to take corrective measures for trial fields showing poor crop management practices, such as weeding and split N application. Development agents are also actively participating in the field activities and follow-up of trial fields in collaboration with the respective researchers from Debre Berhan and Areka agricultural research centers. In Basona Worena Woreda, poor growth of wheat plants and yellowish colour was observed in some waterlogged sites because of high rainfall. Overall, the crop management and follow-up activities by the research centres are going very well and the status of the trials in both woredas is quite good."}]},{"head":"Status of the research work","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mid-Slope","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Foot Slope Photo 6. Performance of wheat under different fertilizer treatments and landscape positions at Lemo Woreda of Hadiya zone."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"Measurement of soil moisture content: It has been hypothesized that one of the key factors for differences in crop growth and yield among different landscape positions is variation in soil water content associated with differences in soil organic matter content. Thus, we are measuring soil moisture content periodically under different landscape positions (hill, mid and foot slope) using a TDR 300 portable soil moisture probe. As shown in Figure 4, soil moisture content measurements were higher booth at foot and mid-slope positions at Basona Worena Woreda, with no significant variation between the two landscape positions (Figure 4). In contrast, variable soil moisture contents were recorded at Lemo Woreda of Hadiya zone, which will be verified by repeated measurements (Figure 5). The measurement of the second soil water content will be done in October."}]},{"head":"Foot Slope","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Mid-Slope Hill-Slope  "}]},{"head":"Capacity building","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Trainings were given to farmers who have hosted the validation trials, development agents working in the trial sites and experts working in the project implementing Woredas. There have been meetings with researchers and technical assistants from Debre Berhan and Areka Agricultural Research centres before the implementation of the validation trials. Training was given for 94 men women farmers, 25 extension agents and supervisors before the implementation of the validation trials. About 75 experts and farmers have made field visits at the different crop growth stages of the crop. Field days will be organized to evaluate the trials under field conditions with farmers, development agents, woreda and agricultural officers in collaboration with the research centres and agricultural offices."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Lessons learned and problems encountered"},{"index":3,"size":181,"text":"• The partnerships that have been created with research and development institutions have played key roles in implementing our research plans and delivering project outputs in this difficult time of 2021. The progress made so far has been possible through the joint efforts of our project partners. • Security problem -the conflicts and security risks in the country have been the serious problem to plan field trips and executing activities. The validation trials in Endamehoni were cancelled due to the continuous conflicts in Tigray and neighbouring regions. • Budget problem: The fertilizer validation trial planned in Sinana Woreda was not implemented because of the budget problem and inability to find personnel to implement the trial under field conditions. We requested Sinana Research Center with the ILRI-Africa Rising project site coordinator to handle this trial, but they demanded a separate and immediate budget release that should be allocated to this work before implementing the trial. I also discussed with the Africa Rising project site coordinator at Sinana to support the field work, but he declined to do so because of other tasks."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"In addition, since mechanized farming is the dominant farm operation in Sinana Woreda, most farmers are not willing to rent their farmlands and manage such field trials. Essentially, if ICRISAT and the implementing research centres did not allocate some financial resources, the trials would not be also implemented in the two Woredas. The budget has not been yet released. • Covid-19 -the constant spread of this pandemic has been the major threat in the country, hindering the movement and follow-up of activities under field conditions."}]},{"head":"Agricultural mechanization Introduction","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Appropriate mechanization technologies adapted to the smallholder farming conditions are being promoted in different parts of the Ethiopian highlands. The mechanization technologies are value chain focussed covering crop production, irrigation, harvesting, post-harvest processing as well as transportation services on smallholder farms. The two-wheel tractor technologies that are being promoted in Ethiopia increase opportunities to free up available farm labour to pursue other on-farm and off-farm income generating activities within and outside the rural communities. Activities were implemented in project sites during the April to September 2021 period. The activity objectives during the reporting period were to:  establish on-farm trials in Amhara and Oromia regions,  monitor and backstop management of on-farm trials and service provision,  finalize technical report on lessons learnt in the promotion of mechanization technologies,  develop and share a technical brief on lessons learnt from the process of promoting small mechanization in rural Ethiopia, and  finalize the adoption survey questionnaire."}]},{"head":"Research methodologies/approaches","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"During the April to September 2021 period, field and office work were conducted to achieve some of the project deliverables for the current project cycle. During the June-July 2021 period, on-farm trials were established and are currently being monitored during technical backstopping visits which are being conducted to project sites. As part of scaling out mechanization technologies, service providers offered services to farmers during the reporting period. Office work involved the development of a questionnaire for the upcoming adoption survey scheduled for October 2021, writing of a technical report on lessons learnt in the process of promoting mechanization technologies in Ethiopia, and development and publishing of a technical brief on lessons learnt.  (iii) Scaling mechanization technologies through service provision As part of scaling out mechanization technologies to farmers, service providers offered ploughing, planting, transport, shelling and threshing services in project communities (Table 10). A total of 10.75 ha was ploughed by 2-WT disc plough at the onset of the 2021 growing season. Direct planting of maize and wheat using 2-WT was done on 1.4 ha at the onset of the 2021 growing season. (v) Adoption of survey questionnaire An assessment of adoption will be conducted in the communities where scaling activities have been implemented over the past 4-6 years of mechanization activities in Ethiopia. A survey questionnaire was drafted during August 2021 and is currently being programmed into Kobo Collect in preparation for the survey which will be conducted in October 2021."}]},{"head":"Status of the research work","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Capacity building","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Farmers were visited during the crop planting (May-July) and during the crop monitoring (August-September) periods. During the monitoring visits, agriculture experts from the woreda offices also took part in visiting on-farm trial sites. A meeting was also held with agriculture experts and mechanics who are involved in servicing 2-WT equipment whenever there are breakdowns. A total of 30 local partners benefited from meetings and visits organized during the reporting period."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Lessons learned and problems encountered"},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"The major challenge encountered during the reporting period was unstable security situation in project sites. Monitoring trips to Gudeya-Billa project sites in September 2021 were cancelled due to security concerns. In Amhara region, there were concerns in September 2021 when the project team was visited by unknown persons who claimed to be 'community security members' in Machakel. On the trial plots, waterlogging and Septoria fungal disease on wheat plants were noted and these are being caused by incessant rains that have recently been experienced in the wheat growing parts of the Amhara region (Photo 10)."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Photo 10. Septoria fungal disease on wheat plants and waterlogging in trial plots in Machakel project sites. (September 2021)."}]},{"head":"Water lifting and delivery Introduction","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":218,"text":"Since 2013, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) team collaborated with other partners and stakeholders to test, validate and scale water management technologies and practices to increase water productivity under irrigated conditions. Number of water lifting technology, irrigation application, and agronomic practice have been validated as the best-fitted packages for scaling of irrigation technologies, practices and services. These packages include, for example, different water lifting technologies (solar, rope and washer [R&W], tractor mounted pump), better application (drip) and irrigation scheduling (wetting front detectors) coupled with agronomic practices for irrigated fodder, avocado and vegetable value production. Despite their suitability to the local agricultural production, scale these packages to reach impact at the scale is challenged by limited market access and marketing channels as well as poor supply chain of seeds and water lifting technologies. Addressing these challenges, during 2019-2020, IWMI team, together with farmers and actors of the irrigated agricultural value chains in the various woredas, researched co-identification of value chain scaling pathways for these best-fitted packages. In Lemo, the private-led pathway was co-identified to further facilitate the scaling of these packages along with the irrigated vegetable and fruit value chains. This research proposal aims to operationalize the private-led scaling pathway by establishing scaling partnerships led by irrigation supply and output off-taker companies to strengthen farmers' access to irrigation."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Research methodologies/approaches IWMI and Greenpath have prepared a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to formalize the partnership to establish an avocado supply chain from Lemo. Further, IWMI and Greenpath have developed joint activity plan for 2021-2022 detailing key steps to the establishment of the global GAP avocado supply chain."},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"In September 2021, IWMI implemented a rapid assessment to identify potentials for the establishment of the supply chain. Together with Agricultural Development Division, five kebeles in Lemo woreda were identified for the rapid assessment, including Hayse, Shurumo, Upper Ghana, Dubancho and Jawe. These kebeles were selected as they have a high potential for commercial production. The assessment was administered to 200 households in the five kebeles (when) and data has been organized and prepared for analysis. While the data prioritized avocado production, information on other crops of interest such as garlic and chili was also collected. Interviews with additional stakeholders and information sources was also undertaken with Meki-Batu Cooperative Union at Meki town to understand how they implement GGAP project and create market linkages for irrigated products, and Lemo woreda agriculture office."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"A half day workshop was held on July 30, 2021 at Hosanna town, where 36 persons (5 women) participated. Representatives from Lemo agriculture extension office, farmers, cooperatives, and irrigation supply actors attended the workshop. The objective of the workshop was to:"},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":" create awareness about the project, objectives and planned activities;  introduce the concept of contract /agreement-based certified production, and  explain basics of GGAP practices and requirements for certification; and  get feedback and assess interest from key actors."},{"index":6,"size":105,"text":"The participants also discussed how their current production practices align with Good Agricultural Practices and pointed out challenges such as access to inputs, technical and skill gaps, water access, and finance which are discussed in the next section. Also, participants expressed high interest to learn more about certified production and supplying products for high-end markets. Regarding the best way to supply, responses included: being organized and focusing on avocado production, using improved varieties that are high yielding and that have market demand, enhancing production and productivity through improved agronomic inputs and practices, increased water access for irrigation, and creating linkages with other value chain actors."}]},{"head":"Progress of the research work","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"Initial assessment indicates a good potential for establishing an avocado supply chain in partnership with Greenpath foods -which operates with facilities at Butajira town which is located about 100km from Hosanna and Lemo areas. Opportunities to materialize this include high avocado production potential in the assessed areas including for (Hass) varieties with high market demand, presence of one avocado producing cooperative, high interest in organized commercial production, use of mostly ecofriendly and good agricultural practices, and practical experience by Greenpath foods in a similar setting. Potential limitations are limited access and high cost of key inputs, skill gaps in avocado management, limited irrigation application and use (leading to one round of production/year instead of potentially two harvests), and uniformity of products -as usually a mix of varieties are grown in single plots with a low level of commercialization. In addition, further investigations will be necessary from Greenpath foods to better understand logistics and transportation, cold chain facility requirements, and the suitability of production systems and products to the different consumer markets."}]},{"head":"Capacity building","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Activities related to capacity development focus more on surveys and a consultative workshop. A total of 239 beneficiaries were able to engage in the consultative workshop and survey activities."}]},{"head":"Lessons learned and problems encountered","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":309,"text":"Challenges were identified from observations, surveys, key informant interviews, and the stakeholder consultation workshop summarized as below:  Access-related challenges: Availability and cost of seedlings and materials for seedling production, propagation and multiplication -only few private businesses, trained farmers, and occasionally local agriculture office supply seedlings for a price of ETB 55-125 /seedling, but most are sourced from neighbouring towns and regions. Especially nursery materials are sourced from long distance markets in Debre Zeit and Addis Ababa. In addition to access, a major production constraint given is the high cost of these inputs and materials Water availability (during dry season) and access to technologies for water lifting and application, cost of digging shallow wells and boreholes (about ETB700/metre) were also mentioned by farmers in addition to limited availability of credit services for acquiring inputs and water resource development.  Technical challenges: There are technical skill/information gaps when it comes to avocado production, irrigation requirements, estimating yield, tree management practices and crop protection measures. There is also a lack of local standards for good agricultural practices and product quality. There are also challenges when it comes to irrigation technologies. Lack of awareness, trained manpower, availability of pumps, and services were mentioned regarding solar pumps even though there is a preference for the technology. For treadle pumps, low quality and performance, and high labour demand are challenges.  Production related challenges: At household level, avocado production is mainly for consumption and some for local markets. Most households that participated in the survey had few avocado trees, usually less than 10 trees. These consist of a mix of improved and local varieties, which may be challenging when it comes supplying required volume of uniform variety of products -especially for the export market. Although the region has a high potential for increasing of avocado production, it is still at a low commercial level."}]},{"head":"Success stories","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Cropping systems, avocado production and farm management: Generally, crop production is dominated by cereals, root crops and fruits and vegetables (main crops are Avocado, Maize, Wheat, Teff, Barley, Beans, Peas, Vegetable, Enset and other fruits). Avocado production was introduced to the kebeles under different projects including the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) /Africa RISING. Avocado production is a mix of local and improved varieties are grown across farmlands and within farm-lands. Most common varieties are Hass, Itinger, Fruiti, Nabal and Red 30. Farmers practice crop rotation and inter cropping system. Common system is agroforestry/mixed cropping of tree crops like avocado coffee and inset with cereals and root and leafy vegetables. When it comes to fertilizers for fruit production, most producers use a mix of organic fertilizers to maintain soil fertility such as animal and plant residues and compost (even though inorganic fertilizers are used for cereal and some vegetable production). The majority also do not use inorganic crop protection chemicals for fruit production. This could be due to low commercialization of fruit production from these farms and also low disease incidences so far."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"Most farmers have access to water for irrigation (shallow wells, rivers) and use manual (water buckets) to irrigate fields, only few have access different types of pumps. Irrigating avocadoes is common in the first 1-2 years of planting, afterwards irrigation is very limited or not undertaken in most cases to save labor and prioritize other crops. Water has been mentioned as key factor in productivity of avocado as those who irrigate harvest two times per year while non-irrigators harvest once. There is no significant land use change in recent history. While most farmers keep mental records of the key farm activities, keeping written records is not common. Overall, most of the farm management and cropping practices are environmentally friendly and seem sustainable."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Market: Most products including avocado are primarily sold to local traders, wholesale and retail markets (in village/kebele markets and the larger markets in Hosanna town). Cooperatives and farmers have limited roles of brokers in the marketing channel. Farmers also mentioned general increases in the market demand and price trend for products including avocado (although sometimes fluctuates)."},{"index":4,"size":157,"text":"Plans/aspirations: While every farmer has the interest to make changes to improve production, productivity, and income, they are not clear how to achieve it (need guidance and support on technical, financial and market aspects). Further, there is a lack of experience and understanding of 'contract' farming, most are highly interested to know more and engage as long as it is legal, and that they get the necessary supports to meet required standards for such arrangements. There is one Farmers Cooperative in Hayse kebele which produced avocadoes for commercial purposes. There is a willingness to switch to different (high value) crops and production systems as long as there is a guarantee, economic benefit is demonstrable, and the risk is minimal. There is also interest to acquire irrigation equipment and increasing productivity. However, there are questions when it comes to investing in equipment. Some expect to get access through some projects, others through long-term credit and some through purchase."}]},{"head":"Integrated landscape management","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Ex-ante, scaling and visualization dashboard: As a part of ex-ante, scaling, and visualization tool to identify the most important and best-bet technologies, we have developed similarity recommendation units (SRUs). SRUs are areas where similar land management practices can be recommended because they have similar environmental space in soil, topography, climate, and other features. We used kmeans clustering algorithms to divided landscapes in Ethiopia into homogeneous units. An Elbow method is used to define the optimal number of clusters to be used (Figure 6). In parallel, we have been shortlisting the best-bet SLM and good agronomic practices to upscale from the selected cases to regional and national scales."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"In the next couple of months, we will combine SRUs maps with ex-ante modelling of the best-bet technologies to generate a list of recommended technologies and practices for given SRUs. The final maps will be validated at a national workshop with different stakeholders working on natural resource management and forages. Once the maps are produced and validated, we will package and develop an interactive dashboard and visualization tool for users to enable them to extract the best-bet technologies at their area of interest. We will work on this in collaboration with federal and regional agricultural offices. "}]},{"head":"Status of the research work","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Figure 7 shows preliminary results attained two ecosystem values for three sites in the Amhara region. Detailed analysis is being done for five representative sites and results will be reported until March 2022. The analysis results will provide quantitative evidence on restoration impacts both in ecosystem service and livelihood options. In addition, monitory valuation of these benefits will be estimated."}]},{"head":"A B","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The LandDoc toolbox, as outlined in the previous report, when completed, will provide an automated approach to guide planning, execution, and monitoring of restoration efforts in the country and beyond."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"As the tool will be built to assess landscape situations in near real-time and suggest optimal management methods, there is a need to build the system using different modules. The 'hotspot mapping to prioritize areas of intervention' is completed and the scenario-based analysis of allocation restoration options for the defined hotspots is underway. Data and protocol are being prepared to develop the module that will calculate the performances of those interventions and analyse potential trade-offs. Until mid-2022, we expect to finalize the end-to-end pipeline of the toolbox and develop the prototype toolbox."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"We have published this scientific paper on the spatial estimation of soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration due to sustainable land management, in four watersheds in the highlands of Ethiopia. We have used in-situ data and advanced Machine learning approach to estimate the amount of SOC sequestration and the potential available for sequestration to evaluate the impacts of SLM practices on SOC. The SOC stock in 2010 (before intervention), 2018 (after SLM intervention), target SOC, and achievable SOC have been mapped spatially (Figure 8), which is useful to guide location specific intervention within the landscape. Overall, achievable SOC sequestration potential shows 'a positive gap' in most SLMP watersheds indicating that there is still potential for improvements in terms of retaining more SOC (Figure 8). Details are available in the specified link above.  Capacity building "}]},{"head":"Lessons learned and problems encountered","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Most of the SLM practices can provide multifunctional services. However, these services are not quantitatively evaluated and documented comprehensively. This undermines understanding the overall co-benefits of SLM practices and underestimates the gains that can be attained due to landscape restoration efforts. We are thus working to assess the multifunctional benefits that can be enjoyed as a result of SLM practices to inform decision makers and promoting scaling methods and tools."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"COVID-19 and the war in the Northern part of the country have undermined some of our workrestricted travelling, restricted workshops/meetings and limited institutional visits. However, we tried to adapt by focusing on activities that do not require travelling and also worked with our local partners to coordinate activities on the ground."}]},{"head":"Capacity development at the project level","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The Africa RISING project in the Ethiopian highlands managed to conduct different capacity development programs including training, field visits, field days, workshops and meetings and reached over 4491 beneficiaries in the current reporting period (Table 11). Two PhD and 2 MSc new students were attached to the project during this reporting period, while two students (1 PhD and 2 MSc) graduated. The project has currently 15 students (Table 12). "}]},{"head":"CGIAR centres","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"22 July 2021: Africa RISING project in the Ethiopian highlands, project coordination team and site coordinators discussed field update on crop development R4D and scaling activities -Virtual."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Africa RISING sites Amhara "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Photo 4 . Photo 4. Community based early generation seed multiplications of faba bean varieties in the intervention sites in 2021. "},{"text":"8 Field were not selected by farmers "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Trends of project promoted bread wheat and other crop varieties in Bale Zone In South Tigray, partner scaling was done in three districts. Cultivar Danfe was the preferred bread wheat cultivar of BoA in southern Tigray. The project promoted varieties (cvs. Ogolcho, King bird and Wane) were planted during the main rainy season of the current reporting period. Participating farmers "},{"text":" Photo 5. Performance of wheat under different fertilizer treatments and landscape positions at Basona Worena Woreda of North Shewa zone. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Volumetric soil moisture content of wheat fertilizer trial fields in Basona Worena Woreda at 3 landscape positions. Note: FS = Foot slope, MS = Mid-slope; the abbreviations linked with the landscape are farmers' names. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Volumetric soil moisture content of wheat fertilizer trial fields in Lemo Woreda at 3 landscape positions. "},{"text":" Photo 7. Direct seeded maize crop in Gudeya-billa woreda. (July 2021). "},{"text":"( Photo 9. Monitoring visit to service provider Getnet in Goshebado, Debre Birhan. (May 2021). "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. The number of clusters using the elbow method in K-means clustering (above) and examples of clusters (SRUs) with three different number of classes (below). "},{"text":"AFigure 7 . Figure 7. Spatially aggregated ecosystem service value A) total carbon and (B) pollinator abundance in three watersheds in Amhara region. "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Spatial distribution of SOC stocks (Mg/ha) in 2018 (after SLMP practice interventions), target SOC sequestration level, and achievable SOC sequestration potential in A) Adi Tsegora, B) Yesir, C) Gafera, D) Azuga shuba watershed. "},{"text":"14 - 15 June 2021: Africa RISING Basona site organized training on \"Crowd Sourcing\" (On-farm testing at scale) for farmers from four Kebeles of Basona Worena Woreda. The objective of the training was to equip farmers on the concept of crowdsourcing and how to practically implement the trial on the ground. The training comprises both theoretical and practical sections. A total of 200 farmers from Gudo Beret, Adisgie, Keyite and Wushawshegne Kebeles have participated in the training.6 June 2021: Africa RISING Basona site effectively organized an experience sharing visit on fodder technologies at Angolela Kebele. Development Agents from 14 Kebeles and experts of Basona Worena woreda (district) have participated in the experience sharing visit. Participants visited feeding trough, fodder beet, phalaris grass, elephant grass, tree lucerne and alfalfa fodder related technologies at the backyard of Gebeyehu Tadesse. Most of the DA's were impressed by the integrated feed development practice at the host farmer and promised to replicate the practice on their Kebele.5 September 2021: Africa RISING Basona site and Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center jointly organized a field day on potato seed multiplication and seed treatment for faba bean gall disease control. The potato seed multiplication activity is a continuation from last year which we use 4.7 tons of tissue culture-originated potato tuber seed. A total of 35 farmers participated on 2.35 hectares of land covered by the technology. Following this participant visited Nobel chemical seed treatment for the control of faba bean gall. office of agriculture, cooperative office, Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center, Debre Birhan University, district union, Tegulet union, zonal seed inspection authority, experts from eight district offices of agriculture, farmers, DA's attended the field day. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" AcronymsAfrica RISING Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region SNNPRSouthern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region SOC Soil Organic Carbon SOCSoil Organic Carbon TAAT Technologies for African Agricultural Transformation (program) TAATTechnologies for African Agricultural Transformation (program) BoA TL Bureau of Agriculture Tree lucerne BoA TLBureau of Agriculture Tree lucerne CCAFS ToT CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Training of Trainers CCAFS ToTCGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Training of Trainers CIAT 2-WT International Centre for Tropical Agriculture Two-wheel tractor CIAT 2-WTInternational Centre for Tropical Agriculture Two-wheel tractor CIMMYT USAID International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center United States Agency for International Development CIMMYT USAIDInternational Maize and Wheat Improvement Center United States Agency for International Development DAP Di-ammonium Phosphate DAPDi-ammonium Phosphate DST Decision Support Tool DSTDecision Support Tool ETB Ethiopian birr ETBEthiopian birr FTC Farmers training centre FTCFarmers training centre ha hectare hahectare HHs Households HHsHouseholds ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas ICARDAInternational Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre ICRAFWorld Agroforestry Centre ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ICRISATInternational Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IFPRIInternational Food Policy Research Institute ILRI International Livestock Research Institute ILRIInternational Livestock Research Institute ILSSI Innovation Lab for Small-Scale Irrigation ILSSIInnovation Lab for Small-Scale Irrigation ISFM Integrated Soil Fertility Management ISFMIntegrated Soil Fertility Management IWMI International Water Management Institute IWMIInternational Water Management Institute Mg Megagram MgMegagram MOU Memorandum of understanding MOUMemorandum of understanding MSc Master of Science MScMaster of Science NGO Non-governmental organization NGONon-governmental organization PhD Doctor of Philosophy PhDDoctor of Philosophy PVS Participatory varietal selection PVSParticipatory varietal selection R&W Rope and Washer R&WRope and Washer R4D Research for development R4DResearch for development RCBD Randomized Complete Block Design RCBDRandomized Complete Block Design RHoMIs Rural Household Multi-Indicator Survey RHoMIsRural Household Multi-Indicator Survey SLM Sustainable land management SLMSustainable land management SLMP Sustainable Land Management Program SLMPSustainable Land Management Program  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Table 1 gives details of the beneficiaries by region and household. The project's development partners, based on the research evidence presented from Phase I and 2, coinvested in the scaling initiatives jointly designed around the validated technologies. Africa RISING supported research and capacity development activities but a large share of investment in the scaling process came from development partners. Scaling and R4D initiatives in the 2021 cropping season. Region Zone Number Technology type Male- Female- Total Area RegionZoneNumberTechnology typeMale-Female-TotalArea   of  headed headed HHs (ha) ofheadedheadedHHs(ha)   woredas  HHs HHs   woredasHHsHHs Tigray Southern Tigray 4 Crop, livestock, NRM 4,895 1,447 6,342 2,409 TigraySouthern Tigray4Crop, livestock, NRM4,8951,4476,3422,409 Amhara N Shewa, E and W Gojjam, S Wollo 15 Crop, livestock, NRM 19,406 3,020 22,426 16,148 AmharaN Shewa, E and W Gojjam, S Wollo15Crop, livestock, NRM19,4063,02022,42616,148 Oromia Bale, E Bale, Arsi, E Wolega 9 Crop, livestock, NRM 16,803 4,099 20,902 18,900 OromiaBale, E Bale, Arsi, E Wolega9Crop, livestock, NRM16,8034,09920,90218,900 SNNP Hadiya, Kembata 8 Crop, livestock, NRM 5,475 601 6,076 5,679 SNNPHadiya, Kembata8Crop, livestock, NRM5,4756016,0765,679 Total 11 36 Crop, livestock, NRM 46,579 9,167 55,746 43,136 Total1136Crop, livestock, NRM46,5799,16755,74643,136  "},{"text":"Table 2  . Technologies and respective beneficiaries from R4D     . Technologies and respective beneficiaries from R4D Region Technology type Men HHs Women HHs Total HHs Area (ha) RegionTechnology typeMen HHsWomen HHs Total HHs Area (ha) Amhara Tree lucerne management trial 2 0 2 0.0525 AmharaTree lucerne management trial2020.0525  Oat variety trial 1 0 1 0.0253 Oat variety trial1010.0253 Oromia Desho vetch intercropping 1 0 1 0.0144 OromiaDesho vetch intercropping1010.0144  Desho tree lucerne intercropping 1 0 1 0.0156 Desho tree lucerne intercropping1010.0156  Fodder beet seed production 1 0 1 0.002 Fodder beet seed production1010.002  Oat variety trial 1 0 1 0.0253 Oat variety trial1010.0253  Tree lucerne management trial 1 0 1 0.0125 Tree lucerne management trial1010.0125 SNNP Desho vetch intercropping 0 1 1 0.0144 SNNPDesho vetch intercropping0110.0144  Desho tree lucerne intercropping 0 1 1 0.0156 Desho tree lucerne intercropping0110.0156  Fodder beet seed production 15 3 18 0.18 Fodder beet seed production153180.18  Oat variety trial 1 0 1 0.003 Oat variety trial1010.003 Total  24 5 29 0.3606 Total245290.3606  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Technologies and respective beneficiaries from scaling Technology Amhara   Oromia   SNNP   TechnologyAmharaOromiaSNNP types Men Women Area Men Women Area Men HHs Women Area typesMenWomenAreaMenWomenAreaMen HHs WomenArea  HHs HHs (ha) HHs HHs (ha)  HHs (ha) HHsHHs(ha)HHsHHs(ha)HHs(ha) Oat-vetch 751 38 33.13 889 218 25.00 935 45 9.5 Oat-vetch7513833.13 88921825.00 935459.5 mixture          mixture Fodder beet 63 12 1.42 44 6 0.29 22 8 0.24 Fodder beet63121.424460.292280.24 Feed trough 893 204 1.32 0 0 0 0 0 0 Feed trough8932041.32000000 Vetch 16 0 5.38 264 83 13.82 0 0 0 Vetch1605.382648313.82 000 Tree lucerne 1529 66 101.1 264 83 13.82 0 0 0 Tree lucerne152966101.12648313.82 000    4       4 Alfalfa 0 0 0 91 26 3.72 16 5 0.12 Alfalfa00091263.721650.12 Total 3252 320 142.4 1552 416 56.65 957 53 9.74 Total3252320142.4 155241656.65 957539.74  "},{"text":"seed growers through provision of early generation seeds to ensure future access   "},{"text":"Table 4 . Early generation seeds provided to community seed producers using a revolving seed scheme. Intervention sites Crops Varieties Seed sources Seed Seed quantity Intervention sites CropsVarieties Seed sourcesSeedSeed quantity     class (t) class(t)  Bread wheat Kingbird Ethiopian Seed Enterprise Basic 5 Bread wheat Kingbird Ethiopian Seed EnterpriseBasic5 Maichew Bread wheat Wane Zereta Union Basic 3.5 MaichewBread wheat WaneZereta UnionBasic3.5 Maichew Faba bean Gora Tuka katar C1 5 MaichewFaba beanGoraTuka katarC15 North Shoa Bread wheat Wane Zereta Union Basic 1.5 North ShoaBread wheat WaneZereta UnionBasic1.5 North Shoa Faba bean Numan Tuka katar C1 5.5 North ShoaFaba beanNumanTuka katarC15.5 Bale Bread wheat Wane Zereta Union Basic 2 BaleBread wheat WaneZereta UnionBasic2 Bale Faba bean Numan Tuka katar C1 3 BaleFaba beanNumanTuka katarC13 Bale Durum Bulala Tegulet Union Basic 1.5 BaleDurumBulalaTegulet UnionBasic1.5  wheat     wheat Hosana Faba bean Tumsa Zereta Union Basic 4 HosanaFaba beanTumsaZereta UnionBasic4 Hosana Bread wheat Wane Zereta Union Basic 3.5 HosanaBread wheat WaneZereta UnionBasic3.5 Total 3 6 3 2 34.5 Total363234.5  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Technologies and respective beneficiaries from R4D. Region Technology Male HHs Female HHs Total HHs Area (ha) RegionTechnologyMale HHsFemale HHsTotal HHsArea (ha) Amhara Bread wheat 57 10  29.19 AmharaBread wheat571029.19  Faba bean 70 9  31.5 Faba bean70931.5  Malt Barley 6 1 6 3.5 Malt Barley6163.5 Tigray Bread wheat 135 43 178 58.63 TigrayBread wheat1354317858.63  Faba bean 96 14 110 24.93 Faba bean961411024.93 SNNP Bread wheat 38 5  51.5 SNNPBread wheat38551.5  Faba bean 69 8  30.75 Faba bean69830.75 Oromia Bread wheat 32 4  33.67 OromiaBread wheat32433.67  Durum wheat 70   10 Durum wheat7010  Malt barley 32 0  29.35 Malt barley32029.35  Food barley 5 0 5 3.33 Food barley5053.33  Faba bean 35 3  17.5 Faba bean35317.5 Total 4 645 97 742 323.85 Total464597742323.85  "},{"text":"• It was possible to select food legume varieties released for long rains seasons where some genotypes showed flexibility in their adaptations.• Use of zonal and district level project focal persons was critical in implementing and getting data during the COVID-19 pandemic. • Delayed onset of the short rain in north Shewa and Bale zones affected yield of the tested crop varieties. • Difficulty accessing early generation seeds from research centres (pre-basic and basic seeds).• Faba bean gall disease on faba bean in North Shewa and southern Tigray • High experts turn over at zonal and districts level  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Lists of faba bean varieties introduced through crowdsourcing. ToT) on crowdsourcing research approach, its implementation, and data collection techniques have been conducted at ILRI campus in Addis Ababa for all enumerators who are assigned in each project village. Those trained participants provided training to all farmers at their respective kebeles. In general, 12 enumerators directly and 600 farmers through enumerators abled to receive training. The major objective of the training was to introduce crowdsourcing approach, planting design, data collection, self, and group evaluation techniques. Similarly, it was possible to train enumerators on how to use and apply an open data kit (ODK) for data collection using a smartphone. For this purpose, Bioversity International bought 12 smartphones and delivered them to all enumerators. Delayed release of funds to on timely purchasing of inputs Assigned Varieties Project AssignedVarietiesProject code   code 1 Tumsa Africa RISING 1TumsaAfrica RISING 2 Gebelcho Africa RISING 2GebelchoAfrica RISING 3 Didea Africa RISING 3DideaAfrica RISING 4 Dosha Africa RISING 4DoshaAfrica RISING 5 Numan Africa RISING 5NumanAfrica RISING 6 Ashebeke Africa RISING 6AshebekeAfrica RISING 7 Walki Africa RISING 7WalkiAfrica RISING 8 Gora Africa RISING 8GoraAfrica RISING 9 Hachalu Africa RISING 9HachaluAfrica RISING 10 Moti Africa RISING 10MotiAfrica RISING 11 Dagim Africa RISING 11DagimAfrica RISING 12 Ashenge Africa RISING 12AshengeAfrica RISING 13 Jama local Africa RISING 13Jama localAfrica RISING Durum wheat: it is under evaluation in one location (Sinana), 200 farmers (50 per Village) are engaged, Durum wheat: it is under evaluation in one location (Sinana), 200 farmers (50 per Village) are engaged,  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Summary of treatments based on landscape position for wheat Woreda/ Woreda/ district district  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Number of farmers that received harvesting, threshing, shelling and transport services from 2-WT based activities in different project sites. Documenting lessons learnt and technical brief on mechanization An array of appropriate mechanization has been tested and are now being promoted in different parts of Ethiopia through partnerships involving CIMMYT, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, equipment manufacturing and importing companies, microfinance institutions, and NGOs. During the implementation of projects various lessons were learnt and these have been documented into a technical report submitted to ILRI and a technical brief (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/114524). Region District Farm operation Female Male Total farmers RegionDistrictFarm operationFemaleMaleTotal farmers    farmers farmers  farmersfarmers Amhara Debre Birhan Threshing 21 37 58 AmharaDebre BirhanThreshing213758 Amhara Machakel Harvesting 0 5 5 AmharaMachakelHarvesting055   Threshing 61 243 304 Threshing61243304   Transport 31 16 47 Transport311647 Oromia Gudeya-Billa Shelling 98 227 325 OromiaGudeya-BillaShelling98227325   Transport 8 20 28 Transport82028   Ploughing 1 4 5 Ploughing145   Planting 0 4 4 Planting044 SNNP Hosanna Threshing 10 15 25 SNNPHosannaThreshing101525 Total  230 571 801  Total230571801 (iv)      (iv)  "},{"text":"B Even though the extent of the exercise was affected by COVID-19, key training sessions were organized involving partners at the AR sites and other scaling areas. As a result, various capacity building sessions were organized for local experts and farmers. For instance, there was training given to farmers on irrigation technologies, irrigation agronomy and other ranges of issues such as production quality, productivity, marketing strategies, and the role of unions. In Basona Worena and Doyogena woreda, in collaboration with the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), we have given training on sustainable land management and climate-smart agricultural practices for about 400 farmers. In collaboration with EIA initiative, we have conducted a workshop to capacitate the local experts on good agronomic practices such as fertilizer recommendations and pest management. In collaboration with CCAFS, we have conducted various survey using GeoFarmer tool, the Rural Household Multi-Indicator Survey (RHoMIs), and gender survey tools. A total of 2421 local partners benefited from training, field day, workshop and survey activities. As far as long-term training attachment is concerned, 7 PhD and 1 MSc student have been supported through the landscape project.  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Africa RISING capacity development for 2020 (1 April-30 September 2020) Communications and knowledge sharing The main communication channels supported are:  Wiki internal workspace: http://africa-rising-wiki.net/Home  Project updates on the program website: africa-rising.net/category/countries/ethiopia/  A Yammer network with internal updates  Photos: https://www.flickr.com/photos/africa-rising/sets  Repository: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/16500 Events from our sites, coordination office and CGIAR partners Coordination office 5 September 2020: Africa RISING project in the Ethiopian highlands, project coordination team and site coordinators discussed data collection and the way forward -Virtual. 6 September 2021: Africa RISING project in the Ethiopian highlands, project coordination team and site coordinators discussed progress update and the way forward -Virtual. 19 July 2021: Africa RISING project in the Ethiopian highlands, project coordination team and site coordinators discussed field updates on feed and forage development activities -Virtual. AR Site Name Activity Farmers Farmers Experts Experts Others Others Total AR Site Name ActivityFarmersFarmersExpertsExpertsOthersOthersTotal   (M) (F) (M) (F) (M) (F)  (M)(F)(M)(F)(M)(F) Basona Field days 127 26 91 23 5 1 273 BasonaField days12726912351273  Meetings 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Meetings0000000  Surveys 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Surveys0000000  Training 182 18 8 2 0 0 210 Training182188200210  Visitors 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 Visitors0060006  Visits 0 0 9 7 0 0 16 Visits00970016  Workshop 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Workshop0000000 Basona Total  309 44 114 32 5 1 505 Basona Total309441143251505 Endamehoni Field days 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Endamehoni Field days0000000  Meetings 0 0 12 2 1 0 15 Meetings001221015  "}],"sieverID":"3fc3e8a7-eb73-4543-a603-016d913c17ef","abstract":"Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING is creating opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01124ffad214d90bbd4b4a7adcb8de43","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/584e2cea-090f-4f33-854e-fd59011708df/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Common and Fuscous Blights","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Common blight ca u sed by Xanthomonas phaseoli (E.F.Sm.) Dows. and fuscous blight caused by X. phaseoli var. fuscans (Burk.) Starr and Burk. are major bacteria! diseases of dry beans. The two organisms are found frequently in association and are reported to occur in many bean production regions of the world (13, 26, 27, 47, 51 , 62, 81 , 92)."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Yield losses due to each pathogen are difficult to estímate because their symptoms are similar. Common and fuscous blight bacteria frequently occur together in a field and probably on the same plant, increasing the difficulty of associating yield losses with a specific pathogen. 1 n 1967, at \\east 75% of Michigan's 650,000 acres of Navy beans were damaged by common and fuscous blights, with 10-20% yield reductions (2)."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Wallen and Jackson (82) reported a 38% yield loss in Ontario, Canada dueto common and fuscous blight in two years of field trials. Aerial infrared photographic surveys suggested that losses for the bean crop grown in Ontario ranged from 1252 tons in 1970 to 218 tons in 1972 (39,82). Yield losses estimated at 22% and 45% have been obtained by natural and artificial infections, respectively, in Colombia (88). Economic surveys, based upon field observations in the same region, estimated yield losses of 13% due to common and fuscous blight bacteria (50)."}]},{"head":"•-.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Hosts include Phaseo/us vulgaris, P. coccineus, P. mungo, P. aureus, P. acutifolius, P. aconitifolius, P. angularis, LAblab niger, Strophosty /es helvula, Glycine max, Stizolobium deeringianum, Lupinus p olyphyllus, and Vigna sinensis (77,92)."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Common names frequently used for common bacteria! blight in Latin America include bacteriosis, añublo bacteria! comun, tizón comun and crestamento bacteriano."}]},{"head":"Etiology","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Laboratory ísolations and purifications are necessary to distinguish the two organísms. The only sígníficant character whích dístínguishes X. phaseo/i from X. phaseo/i var. fuscans is the productíon of a díffusíble brown pígment (melanín) by the latter on a medium containing tyrosine (36). Pígment-producing ísolates tend to be more virulent than those unable to produce the pígment (6); however, the pígment may not be essentíal for pathogenícíty. Dye (30) concluded that there was líttle justíficatíon for separatíng X. phaseoli from X. phaseolivar.fuscans, sínce pígment productíon is common in Xanthomonas species not pathogenic to beans and may not even be a stable character (4)."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Xanthomonas phaseoli has been described accordíng to the following biochemical, physical and physiological characteristícs: It produces single cells which are straíght rods and motile by means of a polar flagellum. It is gram negatíve and strictly aerobic. It produces a yellow pigment due toa non-water soluble eacotenoid and a mucoid growth on nutrient glucose agar. A cid is produced as a metabolic by-product when ce lis grow on medía containing arabinose, glucose, mannose, galactose, trehalose or cellabiose. lt also causes proteolysis of milk (31)."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Both organisms grow well on potato dextrose, nutrient and yeastextract-dextrose calcium carbonate agars. The latter medium is used most commonly and consists of 10 g yeast extract, 10 g dextrose, 2.5 g calcium carbonate and 20 g agar in lliter distilled water (56). A relatívely selective medium has been developed for isolating Xanthomonas sp. ( 40) and X. campes tris (60), but X. phaseoli and X. phaseoli var.fuscans grow only in these media when mass-streaked onto the plate."}]},{"head":"Epidemiology","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"X. phaseoli and X. phaseoli var. fuscans are warm temperature pathogens in contrast to Pseudomonas phaseolicola which is a cool .• temperature pathogen (34). Common and fuscous blight bacteria cause . -• more severe damage to plants at 28°C than at lower tempera tu res ( 44. 49). X. phaseoli grows best in vitro at 28°-32°C, and growth declines gradually as temperature is lowered. At l6°C little growth occurs. Detailed meteorological and microclimatological data are not avaílable to determine the factors that influence development of bacteria! blíght epídemics. In general, however, common blight epidemics are (avored by high temperature and high hurnídity (75)."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Plant pathogenic bacteria can survive adverse environmental condit10ns and extended absence of host plants in the field by severa! means. One of the most effective means is on or within infected bean seed. Seed transmission of X. phaseoli has been known since 1872 (66,69). Bacteria have been recovered from three (5), lO (92) and 15 (71 , 72)-year old bean seed. Such seed-borne isolates normally are viable and virulent when recovered from seed (56,57,59,70)."},{"index":3,"size":220,"text":"Seed lots can be assayed for the presence of bacteria by incubation in water or a liquid medium which then is inoculated into susceptible plants by injection, watersoaking (67) or vacuum infiltration (80). Saettler and Perry (59) assayed lO 1 Navy bean seed lots for interna! contamination with X. phaseo li and X. phaseolivar.fuscans. Approximately 35% ofthese were contaminated with X. phaseoli, 13% with X. phaseoli var.fuscans and 52% with both organisms. Wallen et al. (83) sampled 23 seed lots from O otario, Canada and isolated virulent cultures of X. phaseo li var. fuscans from more than 50% of the samples. The mínimum leve! of primary inoculum required to incite an epidemic is not known but should be detennined for various cultural and environmental conditions. Short tenn survival within healthy-appearing bean plants can occur during a growing season (76), and bacteria! numbers can increase on symptomless lea ves (86). Both X. phaseoli and X. phaseoli var.juscans can survive between growing seasons in temperate zones within infested bean debris (64,69). Survival occurs in bean debris placed on top ofbut not 20 . cm below the soil surface, and survival is greater under dry than under moist environmental conditions. Bacteria are recovered from the soil up to six weeks after burial, but Schuster (64) speculated that survival occurred in infested plant debris."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"Sutton and Wallen (75) could not isolate X. phaseo/i from soil in which infected plants had been grown. Schuster and Coyne (70) believe that survival in the tropics may be greater than in temperate zones because of the opportunities to continually increase populations and to possibly survive as epiphytes on perennial hosts. Studies are needed to determine the extent of X. phaseoli and X. phaseo/i var. fuscans survival in infested plant debris and soil under tropical conditions."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"Although plant pathog~nic bacteria do not form spores, many are tolerant to desiccation and can survive extended dry conditions X. phaseoli produces an extracellular polysaccharide in culture and in the host plant ( 42). It can survive in this ex.udate for prolonged periods under varied environmental conditions (87)."},{"index":6,"size":89,"text":"The bacteria obviously can be disseminated quite effectively on and within bean seed. Plants grown from infected seed frequently bear lesions on the cotyledons, nodes or primary leaves which serve as initial centers for pathogen spread during favorable environmental conditions (92). r nfected seed or infested plant debris may be present within bean cull piles and can serve as initial si tes for disease development (7). 1 nfested bean straw residue present in fields can provide another locus from which bacteria may be disseminated to susceptible plants ( 69)."},{"index":7,"size":93,"text":"Secondary spread of common and fuscous blight bacteria is made easier with rain accompanied by wind (92), wind-blown soils ( 11 ), possibly by irrigation water (74), and by insects such as the white fly (55). Common and fuscous blight bacteria can survive on the bodies of insects and be transmitted to wounds caused by leaf-feeding insects such as Díaprepes abbreviata and Cerotoma ruficornis ( 41 ). Sorne bacteria! pathogens such as Pseudomonas glycinea are spread within aerosols (79), but this has not been reported for X. phaseoli or X. phaseoli var. fuscans."}]},{"head":"Plant Infection and Symptomatology","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Xanthomonas phaseoli and X. phaseoli var. fuscans induce identical symptoms on leaves, stems, pods and seeds. Leaf symptoms initially appear as water-soaked spots on the undersides of lea ves or leaflets (Fig. 1 ). These spots then enlarge irregularly, and adjacent lesions frequently coalesce. lnfected regions appear flaccid , are encircled by a narrow zone oflemonyellow tissue, later turn brown and necrotic (Fig. 2) and may be so extensive (Fig. 3) as to cause defoliation or stem girdle (92)."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Blight bacteria enter leaves through natural openings such as stomata and hydathodes, or through wounds (92). The bacteria then invade intercellular spaces, causing a gradual dissolution of the middle lamella. The bacteria may enter the stem through stomata of the hypocotyl and    epicotyl and reach vascular elements from infected leaves or cotyledons. Presence of a sufficient number of bacteria in the xylem tissue may cause plant wilting by plugging the vessels or disintegration of the cell walls. X. phaseoli does not induce systemic infection in all Phaseolus vulgaris cultivars (35). Stem girdle or joint rot may develop at the cotyledonary node, especially in plants that originated from infected seed, and cause the plant to break (92) (Fig. 4)."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"Pod lesions appear as water-soaked spots which gradually enlarge, become dark and red and slightly sunken. lf infection occurs duríng pod and seed development, infected seed may rot or shrivel (Fig. 5). Common and fuscous blight bacteria are harbored both within the seed and on the seed coa t. They enter pod sutures from the vascular system of the pedicel and pass into the funiculus through the raphe leading into the seed coat. The micropyle also may serve as a point of entry into the developing seed. Direct penetration through the seed coat has not been reported, but it may occur. If bacteria enter through the funiculus, only the hilum may become discolored. Seed infection is difficult to see when seeds are dark in color, but it is evident as butter-yellow spots on white or light-colored seeds (59,92). Seedlings which develop from infected seed may sustain damage to the growing tip and be killed (snake head) or stunted (92)."},{"index":4,"size":155,"text":"A bean plant may be more susceptible to infection by common blight bacteria if previously infected by another pathogen. Panzer and Nickeson (48) demonstrated that common blight is more severe in the presence of bean common mosaic virus, particularly late in the season. Hedges (37) found that the virus persisted in cultures of X. phaseoli for six weeks. Diaz Polanco (28) also showed that a synergistic effect existed between X. phaseoli and Macrophomina phaseo/ina infection of bean leaves. Symptoms of X. phaseoli are not significantly different from those caused by X. phaseoli var.fuscans. Zaumeyer and Thomas (92) observed that X. phaseoli var.fuscans m ay cause a slight hypertrophy and darkening of the stem at the point of artificial inoculation of young seedlings. Severe plant symptoms can occur from inoculations offuscous blight bacteria (33,92). However, inoculations with mixed inocula of fuscous and common blight bacteria can induce more severe symptoms than observed with individual inoculations (32)."}]},{"head":"Control by Cultural Practices","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Cultural practices often utilized to reduce common blight are the use of pathogen-free seed, proper crop rotation and deep plowing (92). Clean or certified seed can be produced in a region free of the pathogen or where environmental conditions are unfavorable for disease development. Crop rotation with plants not susceptible to blight can reduce or eliminate blight bacteria in bean debris within a field. Such recommendations can, however. prove difficult for Latin American producers with small land holdings and limited economic resources."}]},{"head":"Control by Chemicals","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Various chemicals have been applied as a seed treatment or foliage protectant to control common blight before moderate to severe infection is apparent. They have controlled foliage infection effectively, although yield increases have been minimal. Such compounds include basic Copper Sulfate (29). Copper Hydroxide and potassium (hydroxymethyl) methyldithiocarbamate or Bunema (85). Streptomycin has given marginal control in the laboratory and field and is translocated within the plant but not into developing seeds (45, 46. 54). However. antibiotics should not be foliarly applied since resistant bacteria! mutants may be induced."}]},{"head":". -. Common and Fuscous Blights","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Control by Plant Resistance","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Isolates of X. phaseoli ha ve been shown to differ in virulence within and between geographical locations from which they were collected (68). Schuster and Coyne (65) found isolates from infected bean seed from Colombia were much more virulent than standard North American isolates. Other isolates from Uganda were found to be about as virulentas the Colombian isolates (72). lsolates with even greater virulence ha ve since been identified (33,89). H owever, these differences may be complicated by variations in inoculation methods, age of isolates, and other factors. Differences in pathogenicity also can exist between sub-isolates taken from individual stock cultures of X. phaseoli ( 12,73). Pathogenic variation occurs also in X. phaseoli var. fuscans isolates (33)."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Various methods of inoculation have been used and include: sticking the cotyledon or cotyledonary node with a needle or scalpel dipped in inoculum (3,8) rubbing the second trifoliate Jea ves with a cotton swab soaked with a carborundum-inoculum mixture (12) soaking leaves with water-inoculation at high pressure (3,63) using vacuum infiltration on leaves (80) pricking lea ves with a multiple needle cushion (1 , 53) clipping Jeaves with scissors dipped in inoculum (32,84)."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"1 noculum concentrations can influence the disease reaction. Optimum concentrations are reported to be in the range between 10 7 to JOS cells/ ml (24,32,53)."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"Phaseolus vulgaris cultivars and breeding ma(erials have been noted to vary in their reaction to infection by common and fuscous blight bacteria (Fig. 6). Immunity to infection has not been found , but many lines are resistant (referred to as tolerant by earlier workers) to infection, with little if any yield loss. However, bacteria can survive in this resistant tissue 1-'ig. 6-Variation shown by Phaseo lus vulgaris germplasm for its resistance to infection by common blight bacteria (susceptible left. resistan! right)."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"without inciting disease symptoms (6 1). In general, beans are more susceptible to infection after the start of the blossoming or reproductive stage of plant development ( 17,20,24). M ost workers inocula te plants during flowering and evaluate three to four weeks later. However, inoculations at three to four weeks after planting may be more effective in the tropics if germplasm is quite variable for its maturity, growth ha bit and adaptation (10,84). In addition, Coyne and Schuster (18) reported a differential Ieaf and pod reaction to infection by X phaseoli which was \" conferred by different genes. Therefore, time of evaluation and disease rating scales must be designed carefully to account for the previously mentioned factors (58)."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"Schuster (63) first reported that Phaseolus acutifolius (tepary bean) was resistant to X phaseoli. Ho nma (38) then used the tepary bean as a source of resistance to incorporate in Phaseo/us vulgaris. Coyne and co-workers ( 16,22) surveyed more than 1,000 plant introduction (P.I.) lines for resistance to common and fuscous blight infection in the field."},{"index":7,"size":220,"text":"The following Phaseo/us vu/garis lines and cultivars hada high degree of resistance: P.I. 163117 (accession from India), P.I. 167399 and P.I. 169727 (accessions from Turkey), P.l. 197687 (accession from Mexico), P.I. 207262 and ICA-Guali (accessions from Colombia) and Great Northern (G.N.) Nebraska No. 1 selection 27. Yoshii et al. (90) reported that P .l. 282086 and P .I. 313343 had resistant foliage, but the former had susceptible pods. P. acutifolius \"Tepary Buff' ( 16) and P.I. !69932(90) had high degrees of resistance with no symptoms observed. Sorne P. coccineus lines a1so were quite resistant, but less so than Tepary (16). These resistant materials have been tested at various locations and exposed to more virulent bacteria! isolates than originally used. Thus, while G.N. Nebraska No. 1 selection 27 and P.I. 207262 also were resistant to Brazilian isolates of X phaseoli and X phaseoli var. fuscans (9), the former was susceptible to Colombian and Ugandan isolates of X phaseoli (65, 7 1). P.I. 207262 also was susceptible toa Colombian isolate of X phaseoli and moderately susceptible to sorne X phaseoli var. fuscans isolates (33). P oor plant adaptation to tropical growing conditions in Colombia inhibited the expression of resistance by Jules and P.I. 207262 -• ( JO, 84), until their resistance was transferred to agronomically adapted • . • and susceptible backgrounds."},{"index":8,"size":78,"text":"1 nheritance of commo n blight resistance recen ti y has been reviewed ( 17, 43, 9 1). Honma (38) made the interspecific cross between resistant Phaseolus acutifolius \"Tepary 4\" and susceptible P. vulgaris and found that resistance was quantitatively inherited. Coyne et al. (23) further studied inheritance of the resistant selections crossed toan early-maturing susceptible cultivar G.N. 1140. The resistant reaction was inherited quantitatively and linked to delayed flowering under a long photoperiod and high temperature (24)."},{"index":9,"size":171,"text":"The late-maturing G.N. Tara and Jules ( 14,15) and early-maturing Valley ( 19) cultivars were derived from the cross with G .N . 1140. They possess resistance to common blight in temperate regio ns of the United '-States. G .N. Starr in an early maturing cultivar derived from six backcrosses of P.l. 165078 (tolerant to Corynebacteriumflaccumfaciens) to G.N. Nebraska # 1 sel. 27 (tolerant to X. phaseo/i), resulting in resistance to both bacterial pathogens (21). Coyne et al. (24,25) report that the cross between G.N . 1140 and G.N. Nebraska #1 sel. • 27 exhibited partial dominance for susceptibility. This inheritance also was reported by Pompeu and Crowder (52) for similar crosses between G N. Nebraska #1 se l. 27 and susceptible parents. Crosses between resistant P . l. 207262 and susceptible cultivars such as G.N. 1140 revealed that the resistant reaction was completely dominant in the F¡ (20). Transgressive segregation has been observed in these crosses (24,25,52,78) and should allow breeders to increase the levels of resistance within promising germplasm."},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"•-."},{"index":11,"size":2,"text":"• .."},{"index":12,"size":1,"text":"-J"},{"index":13,"size":5,"text":"• . < • ."},{"index":14,"size":1,"text":"•."},{"index":15,"size":1,"text":"•"},{"index":16,"size":4,"text":"Common and Fuscous Blights"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 - Fig. 1-Water-soaked spots caused by leaf infection o f common a nd fu scous blight. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 - Fig. 2-Commo n blight lesions showi ng lemon yellow a nd necrotic sympto ms. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 - Fig. 3-Scv~re foliage infection by common bacteria! bhght. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 - Fig. 4-S tc m girdlc a nd brca kagc ca u sed by common bactc nal blight. "},{"text":"Fig. 5 - Fig. 5-Pod and ;ced infectio n by commo n bacte ria! blight. "}],"sieverID":"a3f3aab2-00d9-4b80-9f8e-814b623adf69","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0168dfb06bf4f949c1c514dca09084e4.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0168dfb06bf4f949c1c514dca09084e4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1feda967-0771-4318-9718-45d026ef0464/retrieve"},"pageCount":70,"title":"El Instituto Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos (IPGRI) es una organización científica autónoma de carácter internacional que funciona bajo los auspicios del Grupo Consultivo sobre Investigación Agrícola Internacional (GCIAI). La condición de internacional se confirió al IPGRI mediante un acuerdo de establecimiento firmado en marzo de 1997 por los gobiernos de los siguientes países: Argelia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"PREFACIO","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"La lista de Descriptores para el ñame (Dioscorea) es una revisión de la publicación original del IBPGR titulada \"Descriptores para el ñame (1980)\". La lista de 1980 se basó en la labor del Comité Regional para el Asia Sudoriental; los números de sus descriptores figuran entre paréntesis al lado del descriptor de la revisión para facilitar la referencia. La presente lista de descriptores, que fue revisada por la Dra Perla Hamon y el Dr Grahame Jackson, incluye extensas modificaciones específicas del ñame africano y del ñame del Asia y el Pacífico. Posteriormente se envió un borrador en el formato del IPGRI, aceptado internacionalmente, a varios expertos conocidos a nivel mundial para que comentaran y modificaran esta lista. Los nombres y direcciones de los expertos que intervinieron figuran en la sección \"Colaboradores\"."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"El IPGRI promueve la recolección de datos sobre las cuatro primeras categorías de esta lista -Pasaporte, Manejo, Sitio y medio ambiente, Caracterización -y ha establecido que los datos contenidos en estas categorías son los que deberían estar disponibles para cualquier accesión. Sin embargo, el número de cada tipo de descriptor correspondiente a la sección de sitio y medio ambiente que se utilice dependerá de la importancia que tenga para la descripción del cultivo. Los descriptores que se encuentran en la categoría de Evaluación permiten una descripción más detallada de las caracteres de la accesión, pero generalmente requieren repetidos ensayos de tiempo y lugar."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"En el Anexo I figuran descriptores mínimos altamente discriminantes para los ñames comestibles más importantes. Estos descriptores ayudarán a los responsables de colecciones a detectar duplicaciones en las colecciones grandes; no tienen por objeto sustituir todos los descriptores pertinentes de las secciones 7 y 8."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Si bien este sistema de codificación no debe considerarse definitivo, este formato representa un importante instrumento para un sistema de caracterización normalizado y el IPGRI lo promueve a nivel mundial."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"Esta lista de descriptores tiene la finalidad de ser general para los descriptores que contiene. Este enfoque ayuda a la normalización de las definiciones de los descriptores. No obstante, el IPGRI no pretende que cada encargado realice la caracterización de las accesiones de su colección utilizando todos los descriptores dados. Estos se deben utilizar cuando son útiles para el encargado en el manejo y la conservación de la colección y/o para los usuarios de los recursos fitogenéticos."},{"index":6,"size":112,"text":"Esta lista de descriptores se presenta en un formato internacional, y por ello proporciona un \"lenguaje\" comprensible universalmente para los datos sobre los recursos fitogenéticos. La adopción de este sistema para la codificación de los datos, o por lo menos la producción de un método de transformación para convertir otros sistemas al formato del IPGRI, permitirá disponer de un medio rápido, fidedigno y eficaz para almacenar, recuperar y comunicar la información y ayudará en la utilización del germoplasma. Por lo tanto, se recomienda el uso de los descriptores especificados al registrar la información, tomando en cuenta: el orden y número de los descriptores, y utilizando los especificados, así como los estados recomendados."},{"index":7,"size":80,"text":"En muchas oportunidades, los responsables de las colecciones se darán cuenta de las diferencias existentes entre las especies del ñame y serán capaces de agrupar las accesiones en la debida forma. Cuando ello no ocurra, serán necesarias claves botánicas. En el Anexo II figura una clave para las especies más importantes del ñame, y se basa en la publicada previamente por Purseglove (1972) conjuntamente con una guía práctica (Wilson 1988), para la identificación de especies de las islas del Pacífico."},{"index":8,"size":62,"text":"El Anexo III contiene descriptores de pasaporte para cultivos múltiples, preparados conjuntamente por el IPGRI y la FAO, a fin de suministrar sistemas coherentes de codificación para los descriptores de pasaporte comunes de los distintos cultivos que sean compatibles con las futuras listas de descriptores de cultivos del IPGRI y el Sistema de información y alerta mundial (SIAM) sobre los recursos fitogenéticos."},{"index":9,"size":16,"text":"Cualquier sugerencia o modificación sobre esta lista será bien recibida por el IPGRI y el IITA."}]},{"head":"Prefacio v","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DEFINICIONES Y USO DE LOS DESCRIPTORES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Actualmente el IPGRI utiliza las siguientes definiciones en la documentación de recursos fitogenéticos:"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Descriptores de pasaporte: proporcionan la información básica que se utiliza para el manejo general de la accesión (incluido el registro en el banco de germoplasma y cualquier otra información de identificación) y describen los parámetros que se deberían observar cuando se recolecta originalmente la accesión."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Descriptores de manejo: proporcionan las bases para el manejo de las accesiones en el banco de germoplasma y ayudan durante su multiplicación/regeneración. Descriptores del sitio y el medio ambiente: describen los parámetros específicos del sitio y ambientales que son importantes cuando se realizan pruebas de caracterización y evaluación. Pueden ser importantes para la interpretación de los resultados de esos procesos. Se incluyen también en esta categoría los descriptores del sitio de recolección del germoplasma."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"Descriptores de caracterización: permiten una discriminación fácil y rápida entre fenotipos. Generalmente son caracteres altamente heredables, pueden ser fácilmente detectados a simple vista y se expresan igualmente en todos los ambientes. Además, pueden incluir un número limitado de caracteres adicionales considerados deseables por consenso de los usuarios de un cultivo en particular. Descriptores de evaluación: muchos de los descriptores de esta categoría son susceptibles a las diferencias ambientales, pero son generalmente útiles en la mejora de un cultivo, y otros pueden involucrar la caracterización bioquímica o molecular. Incluyen rendimiento, productividad agronómica, susceptibilidad al estrés y caracteres bioquímicos y citológicos."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"La caracterización es generalmente responsabilidad de los encargados de las colecciones, mientras que la evaluación debería hacerse en otra parte (posiblemente por un equipo multidisciplinario de científicos). Los datos de evaluación se deben enviar al banco de germoplasma donde se mantendrá un archivo de datos."},{"index":6,"size":162,"text":"Las normas aceptadas internacionalmente para la toma de datos, codificación y registro de los estados de los descriptores son las siguientes: a) se utiliza el sistema internacional de unidades (Système International d'Unités, SI). es la expresión de un carácter. Los autores de esta lista a veces han descrito sólo una selección de los estados, por ejemplo 3, 5 y 7, para dichos descriptores. Cuando ha ocurrido esto, la gama completa de códigos está disponible para su uso, utilizando la ampliación de los códigos dados o mediante la interpolación entre ellos, por ejemplo, en la Sección 10 (Susceptibilidad al estrés biológico, 1 = susceptibilidad muy baja y 9 = susceptibilidad muy alta); e) cuando se registra un descriptor utilizando una escala del 1 al 9, como en d), se registrará \"0\": i) cuando el carácter no esté expresado; ii) cuando no sea aplicable un descriptor. En el ejemplo siguiente, se registrará \"0\" si una accesión no tiene el lóbulo central de la hoja: "}]},{"head":"PASAPORTE 1. Descriptores de la accesión","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"1.1 Número de accesión Este número sirve como identificador único para cada accesión y se asigna cuando la accesión se incorpora a la colección. Una vez asignado este número, nunca se reasignará a otra accesión en la colección. Aun cuando se pierda una accesión, no es posible asignar el mismo número a otra. Antes del número de la accesión se utilizarán letras para identificar el banco de germoplasma o sistema nacional (por ejemplo, IDG indica una accesión del banco de germoplasma de Bari, Italia; CGN indica una accesión del banco de Wageningen, Países Bajos; PI indica una accesión del sistema estadounidense)."}]},{"head":"1.2","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Nombre del donante Nombre de la institución o la persona responsable de la donación del germoplasma"}]},{"head":"1.3","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Número del donante Número asignado por el donante a una accesión"}]},{"head":"1.4","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Otros números relacionados con la accesión Cualquier otro número de identificación utilizado en otras colecciones para identificar la accesión en cuestión, por ejemplo el número del inventario de plantas del USDA(no es el número de recolección, véase el descriptor 2.3). Se pueden añadir otros números, como 1.4.3, etc. "}]},{"head":"2.2","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Número del sitio Número asignado por el recolector al lugar físico"}]},{"head":"2.3","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Número de recolección (1.1) Número original asignado por el recolector o los recolectores de la muestra, normalmente compuesto por el nombre o iniciales del recolector seguido de un número. El número del recolector es esencial para identificar los duplicados mantenidos en colecciones diferentes, deberá ser único y siempre debe acompañar las submuestras, dondequiera que se envíen."}]},{"head":"Pasaporte 5 2.4","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Fecha de recolección de la muestra original [AAAAMMDD] (1.3)"}]},{"head":"País de recolección","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"(1.4) N o m b re del país donde se recolectó la muestra. Utilizar las abreviaturas de tres letras del C ó d i g o para los nombres de países, nº 3166, 4 a edición., de la Organización Internacional de Normalización (ISO). Se pueden solicitar copias de esta lista a DIN: Deutsche Institut für Normung e.V., 10772 Berlín, Alemania;Tel. 30-2601Tel. 30- -2860;;Fax 30-2601-1231, Tlx. 184 273-din-d."}]},{"head":"2.6","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Provincia/estado (1.5) Nombre de la subdivisión administrativa primaria del país en el que se recolectó la muestra"}]},{"head":"2.7","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Departamento/distrito Nombre de la subdivisión administrativa secundaria (dentro de una provincia/estado) del país en el que se recolectó la muestra"}]},{"head":"2.8","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Ubicación del lugar de recolección (1.6) Distancia en kilómetros y dirección desde la ciudad, la aldea o el punto de referencia cartográfica más cercano (por ejemplo, CURITIBA7S, significa 7 km al sur de Curitiba)"}]},{"head":"2.9","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Latitud del lugar de recolección (1.9) Grados y minutos seguidos de N (Norte) o S (Sur) (por ejemplo, 1030S). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 10-S)."}]},{"head":"Longitud del lugar de recolección","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Grados y minutos seguidos de W (Oeste) o E (Este) (por ejemplo 07625W). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 076-W)."}]},{"head":"Elevación del lugar de recolección [m]","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"(1.7) Metros sobre el nivel del mar"}]},{"head":"Fuente de recolección","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"(1.10) "}]},{"head":"Tipo de muestra","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"(1.12) Tipo de material vegetal recolectado. Si se recolectaron diferentes tipos de material de la misma fuente, se debe asignar a cada muestra (tipo) un único número de recolección y el correspondiente número único de accesión 1 Tubérculo 7 Semilla y planta 2 Tubérculo aéreo 8 Tubérculo, semilla y tallo/cepa 3 Semilla 9 Rizoma 4 Tallo/cepa 10 Bulbo 5 Tubérculo y semilla 99 Otro (especificar la parte de la 6 Tubérculo y planta planta que se utilice en 2.27 Notas del recolector)"}]},{"head":"Número de plantas muestreadas","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"2.17 Peso de tubérculos/semillas recolectados [g]"}]},{"head":"Flora asociada","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Otras especies de plantas/cultivos dominantes, incluso otras especies de ñame, especies cultivadas, presentes en el lugar de recolección y en sus cercanías  "}]},{"head":"3.2","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Identificación de la población (Pasaporte 2.3) Número de recolección, pedigree, nombre del cultivar, etc., dependiendo del tipo de población"}]},{"head":"3.3","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Dirección del almacenamiento (Ubicación de los depósitos y ubicación del edificio, habitación, número de los estantes en almacenamiento a mediano y/o largo plazo)"}]},{"head":"Fecha de almacenamiento [AAAAMMDD]","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Germinación de semillas en el almacenamiento (inicial) [%]","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"3.6 Fecha de la última prueba de germinación de semillas [AAAAMMDD]"}]},{"head":"Germinación de semillas a la última prueba [%]","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"3.8 Fecha de la próxima prueba de germinación [AAAAMMDD] Fecha aproximada de la próxima prueba de la accesión"}]},{"head":"3.9","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Contenido de humedad a la cosecha [%]"}]},{"head":"Contenido de humedad en el almacenamiento (inicial) [%]","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"3.11 Número de tubérculos en el almacenamiento (Pasaporte 1.9)"}]},{"head":"Cantidad de semillas en el almacenamiento [g o número]","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"(Pasaporte 1.9) "}]},{"head":"5.2","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Sitio (instituto de investigación)"}]},{"head":"Latitud","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Grados y minutos seguidos de N (Norte) o S (Sur) (por ejemplo, 1030S). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 10-S)."}]},{"head":"Longitud","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Grados y minutos seguidos de W (Oeste) o E (Este) (por ejemplo, 07625W). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 076-W)."}]},{"head":"Elevación [m]","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Metros sobre el nivel del mar "}]},{"head":"Características ambientales del sitio","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Utilice los descriptores de la sección 6 desde el 6.1.1 al 6.1.22"}]},{"head":"Fertilizantes","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Especificar el tipo, dosis, frecuencia de cada uno y el método de aplicación"}]},{"head":"Protección de plantas","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Indicar el tipo de plaguicida utilizado, dosis, frecuencia de cada uno y el método de aplicación"}]},{"head":"Notas","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Indicar aquí cualquier otra información específica del sitio La forma del terreno se refiere a la forma de la superficie de la tierra en la zona en la cual se encuentra el sitio. (Adaptado de FAO 1990) 1 Pendiente estimada del sitio"}]},{"head":"Aspecto de la pendiente","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Dirección en la que está orientada la pendiente donde se recolectó la muestra. Describa la dirección con los símbolos N, S, E, O (por ejemplo, una pendiente orientada en la dirección sudoeste tiene un aspecto SO) (Adaptado de FAO 1990) Aser posible, se debe indicar tanto la profundidad en el momento de la descripción como la fluctuación media anual aproximada en profundidad de la capa freática."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"El máximo ascenso se puede deducir aproximadamente de los cambios de color del perfil en muchos suelos, pero naturalmente no en todos. 1 0 -25 cm 2 25,1 -50 cm 3 50,1 -100 cm 4 100,1 -150 cm 5 >150 cm 1 No (como en zonas áridas) 2 Bajo (como en un cultivo prolongado en un ambiente tropical) 3 Medio (como en zonas recientemente cultivadas pero aún no muy agotadas) 4 Alto (como en zonas nunca cultivadas, o en tierras de bosques recién talados) 5 Turboso "}]},{"head":"Clasificación taxonómica del suelo","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Se debe dar una clasificación lo más detallada posible. Se puede tomar de un mapa de estudio de suelos. Indique la clase de suelo (por ejemplo Alfisoles, Spodosoles, Vertisoles, etc.) Evaluación general de la fertilidad del suelo basada en la vegetación existente 3 Baja 5 Moderada 7 Alta"}]},{"head":"Clima del sitio","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Se debe registrar tan cerca del sitio como sea posible"}]},{"head":"Temperatura [°C]","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Indicar la temperatura mensual (media, máxima, mínima) o la estacional (media, máxima, mínima) Especificar la media estacional y la temperatura mínima a la que ha sobrevivido   Observada en 20 hojas adultas. (Véase la Fig. 6) Fig. 6. Medida de la hoja madura  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig Fig. 2. Clases de textura del suelo "},{"text":"FigFig. 5 . Fig 3. Forma de la hoja madura "},{"text":"9. Susceptibilidad al estrés abióticoRegistrada en condiciones artificiales y/o naturales, que se deben especificar claramente. Están codificadas en una escala numérica de susceptibilidad del 1 al 9Indique para cada enzima el tejido analizado y el tipo de zimograma. Cada enzima en particular se puede registrar como 11.1.1, 11.1.2, etc. Ejemplos: Fosfatasa ácida (ACPH); esterasas α y β (EST Ay B); isocitrato deshidrogenasa (ICD); malato deshidrogenasa (MDH); fosfogluconato deshidrogenasa (PGD); fosfoglucosa isomerasa (PGI); fosfoglucosa mutasa (PGM); peroxidasas 11.2 Otros marcadores bioquímicos (Por ejemplo, perfil de polifenoles)12.Marcadores molecularesDescriba cualquier rasgo específico útil o distintivo para esta accesión. Indique la combinación sonda-enzima analizada. A continuación se citan algunos de los métodos básicos más habitualmente utilizados12.1 Polimorfismo de longitud de los fragmentos de restricción (RFLP)Indique la combinación sonda-enzima (puede utilizarse este criterio para genomas nucleares, de cloroplastos o mitocondriales)12.2 Polimorfismo de longitud de los fragmentos amplificados (AFLP)Indique las combinaciones de parejas iniciadoras y el tamaño molecular exacto de los productos (utilizados para genomas nucleares)12.3 Caracterización por amplificación del ADN (DAF); ADN polimórfico amplificado al azar (RAPD); AP-PCR Indique con exactitud las condiciones experimentales y el tamaño molecular de los productos (utilizado para genomas nucleares)12.4 Microsatélites etiquetados por secuencias (STMS)Indique las secuencias iniciadoras y el tamaño exacto de los productos (puede utilizarse para genomas nucleares o de cloroplastos) 12.5 Determinación de secuencias mediante la PCR Indique las secuencias iniciadoras de la PCR y la secuencia de nucleótidos derivada (puede utilizarse para genomas nucleares, de cloroplastos o mitocondriales de copia única) de los cromosomas durante la meiosis Promedio de 50 microsporas madres observadas durante la metafase I 13.4 Otras características citológicas14.Genes identificadosDescriba cualquier mutante específico conocido presente en la accesión "},{"text":" b) las unidades que han de aplicarse aparecen entre corchetes al lado del nombre del descriptor; c) se recomienda vivamente el uso de escalas normalizadas de colores para todos los caracteres de color, como la Royal Horticultural Society Colour Chart, el Methuen Handbook of Colour o las Munsell Color Charts for Plant Tissues, (la escala que se utilice deberá especificarse en la sección donde se usa); d) muchos caracteres cuantitativos que son continuamente variables se registran en una escala d) muchos caracteres cuantitativos que son continuamente variables se registran en una escala del 1 al 9, donde:  del 1 al 9, donde: 1 Muy bajo 6 Intermedio a alto 1 Muy bajo6 Intermedio a alto 2 Muy bajo a bajo 7 Alto 2 Muy bajo a bajo7 Alto 3 Bajo 8 Alto a muy alto 3 Bajo8 Alto a muy alto 4 Bajo a intermedio 9 Muy alto 4 Bajo a intermedio9 Muy alto 5 Intermedio  5 Intermedio  "},{"text":"del lóbulo central de la hoja  i) las fechas se deben expresar numéricamente, usando el formato AAAAMMDD, donde: i) las fechas se deben expresar numéricamente, usando el formato AAAAMMDD, donde: AAAA -dígitos que representan el año AAAA -dígitos que representan el año MM -dígitos que representan el mes MM -dígitos que representan el mes DD -dígitos que representan el día. DD-dígitos que representan el día. 3 Dentado 3 Dentado 5 Elíptico 5 Elíptico 7 Lineal 7 Lineal f) la presencia o ausencia de caracteres se registra de la siguiente forma: f) la presencia o ausencia de caracteres se registra de la siguiente forma: Ausencia/presencia de la hojuela terminal Ausencia/presencia de la hojuela terminal 0 Ausente 0 Ausente 1(o +) Presente 1(o +) Presente g) se reservan espacios en blanco para información aún no disponible; g) se reservan espacios en blanco para información aún no disponible; h) en las accesiones que no son generalmente uniformes para un descriptor (por ej. colección h) en las accesiones que no son generalmente uniformes para un descriptor (por ej. colección mezclada, segregación genética) se registrará la media y la desviación estándar cuando la mezclada, segregación genética) se registrará la media y la desviación estándar cuando la variación sea continua, o varios códigos en orden de frecuencia si el descriptor es de variación sea continua, o varios códigos en orden de frecuencia si el descriptor es de variación discontinua. Se pueden utilizar otros métodos publicados, tales como el de Rana variación discontinua. Se pueden utilizar otros métodos publicados, tales como el de Rana et al. (1991) o el de van Hintum (1993), que establecen claramente un método para registrar et al. (1991) o el de van Hintum (1993), que establecen claramente un método para registrar las accesiones heterogéneas; las accesiones heterogéneas;  "},{"text":"1.4.1 Otro número 1 1.4.2 Otro número 2 1.5 Nombre científico (2.1) 1.5.1 Género 1.5.2 Especie 1.5.3 Subespecie 1.5.4 Variedad botánica 1.6 Pedigree (Genealogía) Parentesco o nomenclatura y designaciones asignadas al material del fitomejorador 1.7 Accesión 1.7.1 Nombre de la accesión   1.7.3 Traducción/transcripción 1.7.3Traducción/transcripción  Anote la traducción al inglés del nombre local de la accesión Anote la traducción al inglés del nombre local de la accesión  1.7.4 Sinónimos 1.7.4Sinónimos  Incluya aquí cualquier identificación previa distinta del nombre actual. Se utilizan Incluya aquí cualquier identificación previa distinta del nombre actual. Se utilizan  frecuentemente como identificadores el número de recolección o el nombre de la frecuentemente como identificadores el número de recolección o el nombre de la  estación recientemente asignado estación recientemente asignado 1.8 Fecha de adquisición [AAAAMMDD] 1.8Fecha de adquisición [AAAAMMDD] La fecha en la que se incorporó la accesión a la colección La fecha en la que se incorporó la accesión a la colección 1.9 Tamaño de la accesión 1.9Tamaño de la accesión Número o peso aproximado de tubérculos, semillas, cultivos de tejido o plantas de una Número o peso aproximado de tubérculos, semillas, cultivos de tejido o plantas de una accesión en el banco de germoplasma accesión en el banco de germoplasma 1.10 Tipo de material recibido 1.10 Tipo de material recibido  1 Embrión cigótico 1 Embrión cigótico  2 Semilla 2 Semilla  3 Planta (incluidas las plántulas) 3 Planta (incluidas las plántulas)  4 Vástago/yema o brote/corte de tallo 4 Vástago/yema o brote/corte de tallo  5 Polen 5 Polen  6 Raíz/tubérculo 6 Raíz/tubérculo  7 Tubérculo/bulbillo aéreos 7 Tubérculo/bulbillo aéreos  8 Cultivo in vitro 8 Cultivo in vitro  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 1.11 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 1.11 Notas) 1.11 Notas 1.11 Notas Especifique aquí cualquier información adicional Especifique aquí cualquier información adicional 2. Descriptores de recolección 2. Descriptores de recolección 2.1 Instituto(s) recolector(es) 2.1Instituto(s) recolector(es) Instituto(s) y/o personas que efectuaron la recolección de la muestra original o la Instituto(s) y/o personas que efectuaron la recolección de la muestra original o la patrocinaron patrocinaron  Designación registrada u otra designación oficial que se da a la accesión Designación registrada u otra designación oficial que se da a la accesión  1.7.2 Idioma local 1.7.2Idioma local  Idioma en el que se da el nombre de la accesión Idioma en el que se da el nombre de la accesión  "},{"text":".27 Notas del recolector) 2.13 Medio ambiente de la fuente de recolección Utilice los descriptores de la sección 6 desde el 6. 3 Mercado 3 Mercado 3.1 Ciudad 3.1 Ciudad 3.2 Aldea 3.2 Aldea 3.3 Zona urbana 3.3 Zona urbana 3.4 Otro sistema de intercambio 3.4 Otro sistema de intercambio 4 Instituto/organización de investigación 4 Instituto/organización de investigación 99 Otro (especificar en 2 99 Otro (especificar en 2 0 Desconocido 0 Desconocido 1 Hábitat silvestre 1 Hábitat silvestre 1.1 Bosque/arboleda 1.1 Bosque/arboleda 1.2 Matorral 1.2 Matorral 1.3 Pastizal 1.3 Pastizal 1.4 Desierto/tundra 1.4 Desierto/tundra 2 Finca 2 Finca 2.1 Campo 2.1 Campo 2.2 Huerto 2.2 Huerto 2.3 Jardín 2.3 Jardín 2.4 Barbecho 2.4 Barbecho 2.5 Pasto 2.5 Pasto 2.1 Almacén 2.1 Almacén  "},{"text":"1.1 al 6.1.22 2.14 Estado de la muestra  (1.11) (1.11) 0 Desconocido 0 Desconocido 1 Silvestre 1 Silvestre 2 Mala hierba 2 Mala hierba 3 Cultivar tradicional/variedad local 3 Cultivar tradicional/variedad local 4 Línea de fitomejorador 4 Línea de fitomejorador 5 Cultivar mejorado 5 Cultivar mejorado 99 Otro (especificar en 2 99 Otro (especificar en 2  "},{"text":".27 Notas del recolector)   "},{"text":"3.13 Número de rizomas en el almacenamiento 3.14 Número de bulbillos en el almacenamiento 3.15 Ubicación de los duplicados en otros sitios  3.16.1 Tipo de explante 3.16.1Tipo de explante  1 Meristema apical o axilar 1 Meristema apical o axilar  2 Esqueje de nudo 2 Esqueje de nudo  3 Embrión cigótico 3 Embrión cigótico  4 Semilla 4 Semilla  5 Hoja 5 Hoja  99 Otro (especificar en descriptor 4.15 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en descriptor 4.15 Notas) 3.16.2 Fecha de introducción [AAAAMMDD] 3.16.2Fecha de introducción [AAAAMMDD] 3.16.3 Tipo de material subcultivado 3.16.3Tipo de material subcultivado  1 Vástago axilar 1 Vástago axilar  2 Callo 2 Callo  3 Suspensión celular 3 Suspensión celular  99 Otro (especificar en descriptor 4.15 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en descriptor 4.15 Notas) 3.16.4 Proceso de regeneración 3.16.4Proceso de regeneración  1 Organoganogénesis 1 Organoganogénesis  2 Embriogénesis somática 2 Embriogénesis somática  99 Otro (especificar en descriptor 4.15 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en descriptor 4.15 Notas) 3.16.5 Número de plantas en el momento del establecimiento 3.16.5Número de plantas en el momento del establecimiento (Número de duplicados) (Número de duplicados) 3.16.6 Fecha del último subcultivo [AAAAMMDD] 3.16.6Fecha del último subcultivo [AAAAMMDD] 3  3  (Pasaporte 1.4) (Pasaporte 1.4) 3.16 Conservación in vitro 3.16 Conservación in vitro  "},{"text":".16.7 Medio usado en el último subcultivo 3.16.8 Número de plantas en el último subcultivo 3.16.9 Ubicación después del último subcultivo 4. Descriptores para la multiplicación/regeneración     Manejo 11 Manejo 11 4.6 Fecha de plantación [AAAAMMDD] 4.6Fecha de plantación [AAAAMMDD] 4.7 Prácticas de cultivo 4.7Prácticas de cultivo  4.7.1 Plantación en el campo 4.7.1Plantación en el campo   4.7.1.1 Distancia entre las plantas en una hilera [cm] 4.7.1.1Distancia entre las plantas en una hilera [cm]   4.7.1.2 Distancia entre hileras [cm] 4.7.1.2Distancia entre hileras [cm]   4.7.1.3 Aplicación de fertilizantes 4.7.1.3Aplicación de fertilizantes 4.8 Estado de la accesión 4.8Estado de la accesión  1 Cosechada todos los años 1 Cosechada todos los años  2 Conservación perenne 2 Conservación perenne 4.9 Viabilidad de la planta/plántula 4.9Viabilidad de la planta/plántula Evaluada 45 días después del brote para los cultivos de semillas y 90 días después del brote Evaluada 45 días después del brote para los cultivos de semillas y 90 días después del brote para los cultivos de tubérculos/rizoma para los cultivos de tubérculos/rizoma  3 Baja  3 Baja  5 Intermedia 5 Intermedia  7 Alta  7 Alta 4.10 Número de plantas establecido 4.10 Número de plantas establecido 4.11 Multiplicación y/o regeneración anterior 4.11 Multiplicación y/o regeneración anterior  4.11.1 Ubicación 4.11.1Ubicación  4.11.2 Fecha de siembra/plantación [AAAAMMDD] 4.11.2Fecha de siembra/plantación [AAAAMMDD]  4  4 4.1 Número de accesión (Pasaporte 1.1) 4.1Número de accesión(Pasaporte 1.1) 4.2 Identificación de la población (Pasaporte 2.3) 4.2Identificación de la población(Pasaporte 2.3) Número de recolección, pedigree, nombre del cultivar, etc., dependiendo del tipo de Número de recolección, pedigree, nombre del cultivar, etc., dependiendo del tipo de población  población 4.3 Número de la parcela en el campo 4.3Número de la parcela en el campo 4.4 Ubicación del sitio de multiplicación/regeneración 4.4Ubicación del sitio de multiplicación/regeneración 4.5 Colaborador 4.5Colaborador  "},{"text":".11.3 Número de parcela 4.12 Fecha de la última regeneración o multiplicación  SITIO Y MEDIO AMBIENTE SITIO Y MEDIO AMBIENTE 5. Descriptores del sitio de caracterización y/o evaluación 5. Descriptores del sitio de caracterización y/o evaluación 5.1 País donde se hizo la caracterización y/o evaluación 5.1País donde se hizo la caracterización y/o evaluación (Véanse las instrucciones en 2.5 País de recolección) (Véanse las instrucciones en 2.5 País de recolección)  [AAAAMMDD] [AAAAMMDD] 4.13 Número de regeneraciones 4.13 Número de regeneraciones (Semillas, tubérculos, cultivos de tejidos, bulbillos y almacenamiento criogénico). Desde (Semillas, tubérculos, cultivos de tejidos, bulbillos y almacenamiento criogénico). Desde la fecha de la adquisición la fecha de la adquisición 4.14 Número de plantas usadas como fuente de semilla para cada regeneración 4.14 Número de plantas usadas como fuente de semilla para cada regeneración 4.15 Notas 4.15 Notas Indicar aquí cualquier información adicional Indicar aquí cualquier información adicional  "},{"text":"6. Descriptores ambientales del sitio de recolección y/o caracterización/ evaluación  6.1 Ambiente del sitio 6.1Ambiente del sitio  6.1.1 Topografía 6.1.1Topografía  Se refiere al perfil de la elevación de la superficie del terreno a escala aproximada. Se refiere al perfil de la elevación de la superficie del terreno a escala aproximada.  La referencia es: FAO (1990) La referencia es: FAO (1990)   1 Llano 0 -0.5% 1 Llano0 -0.5%   2 Casi llano 0.6 -2.9% 2 Casi llano0.6 -2.9%   3 Poco ondulado 3 -5.9% 3 Poco ondulado 3 -5.9%   4 Ondulado 6 -10.9% 4 Ondulado6 -10.9%   5 Quebrado 11 -15.9% 5 Quebrado11 -15.9%   6 Montuoso 16 -30% 6 Montuoso16 -30%   7 Fuertemente >30%, variación moderada de la elevación 7 Fuertemente>30%, variación moderada de la elevación   escarpado escarpado   8 Montañoso >30%, variación grande de la elevación (>300 m) 8 Montañoso>30%, variación grande de la elevación (>300 m)   99 Otro (especificar en la sección Notas correspondiente) 99 Otro(especificar en la sección Notas correspondiente)  6.1.2 Forma del terreno de mayor nivel (características fisiográficas 6.1.2Forma del terreno de mayor nivel (características fisiográficas  generales) generales)  "},{"text":"17.1 Clases según el tamaño de las partículas del suelo El color del material de la matriz del suelo en la zona radicular alrededor de la accesión se registra en condiciones húmedas (o en condiciones secas y húmedas, si es posible) utilizando la notación para el matiz, pureza e intensidad tal como aparecen en las escalas de las MunsellSoil Color Charts (Munsell 1977). Si no existe un color dominante en la matriz del suelo, el horizonte se describe como veteado, se dan dos o más colores y se debe registrar en condiciones uniformes. Las lecturas realizadas a primera hora de la mañana o al final de la tarde no son precisas. Dar la profundidad a la que se hizo la medición (cm). Si no se dispone de escala de colores, se pueden utilizar los siguientes estados. 6.1.14 Valor real del suelo dentro del intervalo de las siguientes profundidades de las pH del suelo 6.1.(Adaptado de FAO 1990) 6.1.14 Valor real del suelo dentro del intervalo de las siguientes profundidades de las pH del suelo 6.1.(Adaptado de FAO 1990) raíces alrededor de la accesión 1 Arcilla < 2 µm  raíces alrededor de la accesión 1 Arcilla < 2 µm  2 Limo fino 2 -20 µm 2 Limo fino2 -20 µm  6.1.14.1 pH a 10-15 cm 3 Limo grueso 21 -63 µm 6.1.14.1 pH a 10-15 cm 3 Limo grueso21 -63 µm  6.1.14.2 pH a 16-30 cm 4 Arena muy fina 64 -125 µm 6.1.14.2 pH a 16-30 cm 4 Arena muy fina64 -125 µm  6.1.14.3 pH a 31-60 cm 5 Arena fina 126 -200 µm 6.1.14.3 pH a 31-60 cm 5 Arena fina126 -200 µm  6.1.14.4 pH a 61-90 cm 6 Arena mediana 201 -630 µm 6.1.14.4 pH a 61-90 cm 6 Arena mediana201 -630 µm  7 Arena gruesa 631 -1250 µm 7 Arena gruesa631 -1250 µm 6.1.15 Erosión del suelo 8 Arena muy gruesa 1251 -2000 µm 6.1.15Erosión del suelo 8 Arena muy gruesa1251 -2000 µm  3 Baja  3 Baja 6.1.18 5 Intermedia Contenido de materia orgánica del suelo 6.1.185 Intermedia Contenido de materia orgánica del suelo  7 Alta  7 Alta 6.1.16 Fragmentos de roca  6.1.16Fragmentos de roca (Adaptado de FAO 1990)  (Adaptado de FAO 1990) Las rocas y los fragmentos minerales grandes (>2 mm) se describen de acuerdo con Las rocas y los fragmentos minerales grandes (>2 mm) se describen de acuerdo con su abundancia.  su abundancia.  1 0 -2%  1 0 -2%  2 2,1 -5%  2 2,1 -5%  3 5,1 -15%  3 5,1 -15%  4 15,1 -40%  4 15,1 -40%  5 40,1 -80%  5 40,1 -80%  6 >80%  6 >80% 6.1.13 Color de la matriz del suelo 6.1.13Color de la matriz del suelo (Adaptado de FAO 1990) 6.1.17 Clases de textura del suelo (Adaptado de FAO 1990) 6.1.17 Clases de textura del suelo (Adaptado de FAO 1990)  (Adaptado de FAO 1990) Para facilitar la determinación de las clases de textura de acuerdo con la siguiente Para facilitar la determinación de las clases de textura de acuerdo con la siguiente lista, se dan las clases de tamaño de las partículas para cada fracción fina de suelo. lista, se dan las clases de tamaño de las partículas para cada fracción fina de suelo. (Véase la Fig. 2)  (Véase la Fig. 2)  1 Arcilla  12 Suelo franco arenoso grueso 1 Arcilla12 Suelo franco arenoso grueso  2 Suelo franco  13 Arena franca 2 Suelo franco13 Arena franca  3 Suelo franco arcilloso  14 Arena franca muy fina 3 Suelo franco arcilloso14 Arena franca muy fina  4 Limo  15 Arena franca fina 4 Limo15 Arena franca fina  5 Arcilla limosa  16 Arena franca gruesa 5 Arcilla limosa16 Arena franca gruesa  1 Blanco 6 Suelo franco limoarcilloso 7 Pardo rojizo 17 Arena muy fina Grisáceo 1 Blanco 6 Suelo franco limoarcilloso 7 Pardo rojizo 17 Arena muy fina Grisáceo  2 Rojo 7 Suelo franco limoso 8 Pardo amarillento 18 Arena fina Azul 2 Rojo 7 Suelo franco limoso8 Pardo amarillento 18 Arena finaAzul  3 Rojizo 8 Arcilla arenosa 9 Amarillo 19 Arena mediana Negro azulado 3 Rojizo 8 Arcilla arenosa9 Amarillo 19 Arena mediana Negro azulado  4 Rojo amarillento 10 Amarillo rojizo 9 Suelo franco arenoarcilloso 20 Arena gruesa Negro 4 Rojo amarillento 10 Amarillo rojizo 9 Suelo franco arenoarcilloso 20 Arena gruesaNegro  5 Pardo 10 Suelo franco arenoso 11 Verdoso, verde 21 Arena (sin clasificar) 5 Pardo 10 Suelo franco arenoso11 Verdoso, verde 21 Arena (sin clasificar)  6 Parduzco 11 Suelo franco arenoso fino 12 Gris 22 Arena (sin especificar) 6 Parduzco 11 Suelo franco arenoso fino 12 Gris22 Arena (sin especificar)  "},{"text":"6.1.22.2 Duración de la estación seca [d] 6.1.22.3 Lluvias [mm]  6.1.22.5.2 Temperatura mínima [°C] 6.1.22.5.2Temperatura mínima [°C] Promedio anual (indicar el número de años registrados) Promedio anual (indicar el número de años registrados) 6.1.22.4 Viento [km/s] 6.1.22.4 Viento [km/s] Promedio anual (indicar el número de años registrados) Promedio anual (indicar el número de años registrados) 6.1.22.4.1 Frecuencia de tifones o vientos huracanados 6.1.22.4.1Frecuencia de tifones o vientos huracanados  3 Baja 3 Baja  5 Intermedia 5 Intermedia  7 Alta 7 Alta 6.1.22.4.2 Fecha del último tifón o viento huracanado 6.1.22.4.2Fecha del último tifón o viento huracanado [AAAAMMDD] [AAAAMMDD] 6.1.22.4.3 Velocidad máxima anual del viento [km/s] 6.1.22.4.3Velocidad máxima anual del viento [km/s] 6.1.22.5 Heladas  6.1.22.5 Heladas 6.1.22.5.1 Fecha de la última helada [AAAAMMDD] 6.1.22.5.1Fecha de la última helada [AAAAMMDD]  "},{"text":".7 Notas) 7.1.5 Ausencia/presencia de cera en el tallo joven  7.1.9 7.1.18 CARACTERIZACION Ausencia/presencia de espinas en el tallo joven Color del tallo maduro 0 Ausente 1 Verde 7.1.9 7.1.18 CARACTERIZACION Ausencia/presencia de espinas en el tallo joven Color del tallo maduro 0 Ausente 1 Verde 7. Descriptores de la planta 1 Presente 2 Verde morado 7. Descriptores de la planta 1 Presente 2 Verde morado   6.1.22.5.3 3 Verde marrón Duración de las temperaturas bajo cero [d] 6.1.22.5.3 3 Verde marrónDuración de las temperaturas bajo cero [d] 7.1 Características del tallo 7.1.10 Ausencia/presencia de mancha de color en la base de la espina 4 Marrón oscuro 7.1Características del tallo 7.1.10 Ausencia/presencia de mancha de color en la base de la espina 4 Marrón oscuro  6.1.22.6 Humedad relativa (Del tallo joven). Observada 30 días después del brote 5 Morado 6.1.22.6 Humedad relativa (Del tallo joven). Observada 30 días después del brote 5 Morado (Tallo joven) 6.1.22.6.1 6.1.22.6.2 1 Presente 0 Ausente 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) Gama de humedad relativa diurna [%] Gama de humedad relativa estacional [%] (Tallo joven)6.1.22.6.1 6.1.22.6.2 1 Presente 0 Ausente 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) Gama de humedad relativa diurna [%] Gama de humedad relativa estacional [%]  7.1.1 7.1.19 Días hasta el brote [d] Número de entrenudos hasta la primera ramificación 7.1.1 7.1.19Días hasta el brote [d] Número de entrenudos hasta la primera ramificación  6.1.22.7 Luz 3 Sombreado Observados 30 días después del brote Número de días entre la plantación y el brote 7.1.11 Ausencia/presencia de trozos cortezudos en el tallo joven Observado en el tallo maduro 6.1.22.7 Luz 3 Sombreado Observados 30 días después del brote Número de días entre la plantación y el brote 7.1.11 Ausencia/presencia de trozos cortezudos en el tallo joven Observado en el tallo maduro  7.1.2 7.1.20 7 Soleado Longitud del tallo joven [cm] 0 Ausente Número de ramificaciones en el tallo maduro (2.4.4) 7.1.2 7.1.207 Soleado Longitud del tallo joven [cm] 0 Ausente Número de ramificaciones en el tallo maduro(2.4.4)  Registrada 20 días después del brote 1 Presente Registrar el número de ramas sobre la superficie Registrada 20 días después del brote 1 Presente Registrar el número de ramas sobre la superficie   6.1.22.8 Duración del día [h] 6.1.22.8 Duración del día [h] Indicar la mensual (media, máxima, mínima) o la estacional (media, Número de entrenudos en el tallo joven (Tallo maduro -antes de la senescencia) 7.1.3 7.1.21 Diámetro del tallo maduro [cm] Indicar la mensual (media, máxima, mínima) o la estacional (media, Número de entrenudos en el tallo joven (Tallo maduro -antes de la senescencia) 7.1.3 7.1.21 Diámetro del tallo maduro [cm]  máxima, mínima) Tipo de planta Contados 20 días después del brote 7.1.12 Medido a 15 cm sobre la base de la planta (2.4.3) máxima, mínima) Tipo de planta Contados 20 días después del brote 7.1.12 Medido a 15 cm sobre la base de la planta(2.4.3)  7.1.4 7.1. Color del tallo joven 1 Enana (2.4.9) 7.1.4 7.1.Color del tallo joven 1 Enana(2.4.9)  2 Tipo arbusto Observado 20 días después del brote 1 Verde 3 Trepadora 2 Tipo arbusto Observado 20 días después del brote 1 Verde 3 Trepadora  7.1.13 7.1.14 2 Verde morado Viabilidad de la planta 3 Verde marrón 3 Baja 4 Marrón oscuro 5 Intermedia 5 Morado 7 Alta Hábito de trepado de la planta 0 No 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 70 Ausente 1 Presente 1 Sí (2.4.1) 7.1.13 7.1.142 Verde morado Viabilidad de la planta 3 Verde marrón 3 Baja 4 Marrón oscuro 5 Intermedia 5 Morado 7 Alta Hábito de trepado de la planta 0 No 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 70 Ausente 1 Presente 1 Sí(2.4.1)  7.1.6 7.1.15 Ausencia/presencia de alas en el tallo joven Modalidad de trepado de la planta (2.4.2) 7.1.6 7.1.15Ausencia/presencia de alas en el tallo joven Modalidad de trepado de la planta(2.4.2)   1 Sentido de las agujas del reloj (trepado hacia la izquierda) 0 Ausente 1 Presente 2 Contra reloj (trepado hacia la derecha) 1 Sentido de las agujas del reloj (trepado hacia la izquierda) 0 Ausente 1 Presente 2 Contra reloj (trepado hacia la derecha)  7.1.7 7.1.16 Color de las alas del tallo joven Altura del tallo maduro 7.1.7 7.1.16Color de las alas del tallo joven Altura del tallo maduro   1 <2 m Observado 20 días después del brote 2 2-10 m 1 Verde 2 Verde con bordes morados 3 >10 m 1 <2 m Observado 20 días después del brote 2 2-10 m 1 Verde 2 Verde con bordes morados 3 >10 m  7.1.17 3 Morado 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) Número de tallos maduros por planta 7.1.173 Morado 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) Número de tallos maduros por planta  7.1.8 Ausencia/presencia de pelos en el tallo joven 7.1.8Ausencia/presencia de pelos en el tallo joven   0 Ausente 0 Ausente   1 Presente 1 Presente  "},{"text":"22 Forma de la sección transversal del tallo maduro en la base   1 Cuadrada 1 Cuadrada  2 Cuadrangular 2 Cuadrangular  3 Octogonal 3 Octogonal  4 Redonda 4 Redonda  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 7.1.23 Longitud de los entrenudos en el tallo maduro [cm] 7.1.23Longitud de los entrenudos en el tallo maduro [cm] Registrada a una altura de 1 m. Promedio de cinco plantas Registrada a una altura de 1 m. Promedio de cinco plantas 7.1  7.1  "},{"text":".24 Ausencia/presencia de cera en el tallo maduro  7.1.27 Color de las alas del tallo maduro  7.1.27Color de las alas del tallo maduro  1 Verde  1 Verde  2 Verde con bordes morados  2 Verde con bordes morados  3 Morado  3 Morado  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas))  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas)) 7.1.28 Ausencia/presencia de cresta en el tallo maduro  7.1.28Ausencia/presencia de cresta en el tallo maduro  0 Ausente  0 Ausente  1 Presente  1 Presente 7.1.29 Pilosidad del tallo maduro (2.4.8) 7.1.29Pilosidad del tallo maduro(2.4.8)  3 Escasa  3 Escasa  7 Densa  7 Densa 7.1.30 Tipo de pelo en el tallo maduro  7.1.30Tipo de pelo en el tallo maduro  1 Radial  1 Radial  2 En forma de T  2 En forma de T  3 Sencillo  3 Sencillo  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas)  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 7.1.31 Superficie rugosa del tallo maduro  7.1.31Superficie rugosa del tallo maduro  0 No  0 No  1 Sí  1 Sí 7.1.32 Ausencia/presencia de hojas escamadas en el tallo maduro  7.1.32Ausencia/presencia de hojas escamadas en el tallo maduro  0 Ausente  0 Ausente  1 Presente  1 Presente 7.1 0 Ausente  7.10 Ausente  1 Presente  1 Presente 7.1.25 Ausencia/presencia de alas en el tallo maduro  7.1.25Ausencia/presencia de alas en el tallo maduro  0 Ausente  0 Ausente  1 Presente  1 Presente 7.1.25.1 Posición de las alas en el tallo maduro  7.1.25.1Posición de las alas en el tallo maduro  1 En la base  1 En la base  2 Sobre la base  2 Sobre la base 7.1.26 Tamaño de las alas del tallo maduro  7.1.26Tamaño de las alas del tallo maduro Registrado a una altura de 1 m  Registrado a una altura de 1 m  1 <1 mm  1 <1 mm  2 1 -2 mm  2 1 -2 mm  3 > 2 mm  3 > 2 mm  "},{"text":".33 Posición de las hojas escamadas en el tallo maduro    Caracterización 27 Caracterización 27 7.1.36 Posición de las espinas del tallo maduro  7.1.36Posición de las espinas del tallo maduro  1 Alas  1 Alas  2 Crestas  2 Crestas  3 Tallo  3 Tallo 7.1.37 Forma de las espinas del tallo maduro  7.1.37Forma de las espinas del tallo maduro  1 Derechas  1 Derechas  2 Curvadas hacia arriba  2 Curvadas hacia arriba  3 Curvadas hacia abajo  3 Curvadas hacia abajo 7.1.38 Longitud de las espinas del tallo maduro  7.1.38Longitud de las espinas del tallo maduro Media de 20 espinas situadas aproximadamente entre 0,5 y 1,5 m de la longitud Media de 20 espinas situadas aproximadamente entre 0,5 y 1,5 m de la longitud del tallo   del tallo  3 Corta  3 Corta  5 Intermedia  5 Intermedia  7 Larga  7 Larga 7.1.39 Ausencia/presencia de espinas coalescentes en el tallo maduro 7.1.39Ausencia/presencia de espinas coalescentes en el tallo maduro  0 Ausente  0 Ausente  1 Presente  1 Presente 7.1.   7.1.  1 Alternadas  1 Alternadas  2 Opuestas  2 Opuestas  3 Ambas  3 Ambas  4 Verticiladas  4 Verticiladas 7.1.34 Espinas en la base del tallo maduro (2.4.6, 2.4.7) 7.1.34Espinas en la base del tallo maduro(2.4.6, 2.4.7)  3 Pocas  3 Pocas  7 Muchas  7 Muchas 7.1.35 Espinas arriba de la base del tallo maduro  7.1.35Espinas arriba de la base del tallo maduro  3 Pocas  3 Pocas  7 Muchas  7 Muchas  "},{"text":"40 Color de la mancha en la base de la espina del tallo maduro   7.2.22 Forma de la hoja madura  7.2.22Forma de la hoja madura  (Véase la Fig. 3)  (Véase la Fig. 3)   1 Oval  1 Oval   2 Cordiforme  2 Cordiforme   3 Cordiforme larga  3 Cordiforme larga   4 Cordiforme ancha  4 Cordiforme ancha   5 Sagitiforme larga  5 Sagitiforme larga   6 Sagitiforme ancha  6 Sagitiforme ancha   7 Hastada  7 Hastada   99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 1  2 5 7 1257   1 Roja  1 Roja   2 Morada  2 Morada   3 Marrón  3 Marrón   99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 7.2 Hojas   7.2Hojas (Hojas jóvenes)   (Hojas jóvenes)  7.2.1 Primer brote de las hojas  (2.5.1) 7.2.1Primer brote de las hojas(2.5.1)   1 Temprano  1 Temprano   2 Tardío  2 Tardío  7.2.2 Número de hojas jóvenes  7.2.2Número de hojas jóvenes   Registrado 30 días después del brote Registrado 30 días después del brote  "},{"text":"7.2.26 Hoja madura doblada hacia arriba a lo largo del nervio medial   3 Poco doblada 3 Poco doblada  7 Muy doblada 7 Muy doblada 7.2.27 Hoja madura arqueada hacia abajo a lo largo del nervio medial 7.2.27Hoja madura arqueada hacia abajo a lo largo del nervio medial  0 No 0 No  1 Sí 1 Sí 7.2  7.2  "},{"text":".28 Lóbulos de la hoja madura doblados hacia arriba, formando una copa  7.2.30 Medida de la hoja madura [cm] (2.5.4) 7.2.30Medida de la hoja madura [cm](2.5.4)  0 No  0 No  1 Sí  1 Sí 7.2.29 Lóbulos de la hoja madura arqueados hacia abajo  7.2.29Lóbulos de la hoja madura arqueados hacia abajo  0 No  0 No  1 Sí  1 Sí  "},{"text":"7.2.31 Posición de la parte más ancha de la hoja madura  1 Tercio superior 1 Tercio superior 2 Medio 2 Medio 3 Tercio inferior 3 Tercio inferior  "},{"text":"7.2.32 Longitud de la punta de la hoja madura  34 Descriptores para el ñame 34 Descriptores para el ñame 7.2.  7.2.  L3 L3  L2 L2  l2 l2  l1 l1  (2.6.5) (2.6.5)  1 <2 mm 1 <2 mm  2 2 -5 mm 2 2 -5 mm  3 >5 mm 3 >5 mm 7.2.33 Color de la punta de la hoja madura 7.2.33Color de la punta de la hoja madura  1 Verde claro 1 Verde claro  2 Verde oscuro 2 Verde oscuro  3 Verde/morado 3 Verde/morado  4 Roja 4 Roja  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 7.2.34 Longitud del pecíolo de la hoja madura 7.2.34Longitud del pecíolo de la hoja madura  1 ≤5 cm 1 ≤5 cm  2 6 -9 cm 2 6 -9 cm  3 ≥10 cm 3 ≥10 cm  "},{"text":"35 Longitud del pecíolo en relación con el limbo de la hoja madura  7.3.2 7.4.3 Días hasta la floración después del brote [d] Posición del fruto (2.7.9) 7.3.2 7.4.3Días hasta la floración después del brote [d] Posición del fruto(2.7.9)  (Véase la Fig. 6) 1 Hacia arriba (Véase la Fig. 6) 1 Hacia arriba 7.3.3 3 Corto (<2) Sexo 2 Hacia abajo (2.7.2) 7.3.33 Corto (<2) Sexo 2 Hacia abajo(2.7.2)   5 Intermedio (=2) 1 Femenino 5 Intermedio (=2) 1 Femenino 7.4.4 7 Largo (>2) 2 Masculino Forma del fruto (2.8.2) 7.4.47 Largo (>2) 2 Masculino Forma del fruto(2.8.2)   3 Femenino y masculino (predominantemente femenino) 1 Longitud y anchura iguales 3 Femenino y masculino (predominantemente femenino) 1 Longitud y anchura iguales  7.2.36 Pilosidad del pecíolo de la hoja madura 4 Masculino y femenino (predominantemente masculino) 2 Alargado 7.2.36Pilosidad del pecíolo de la hoja madura 4 Masculino y femenino (predominantemente masculino) 2 Alargado   3 Escasa 3 Cápsula trilobulada 3 Escasa 3 Cápsula trilobulada 7.3.4 7 Densa Posición de la inflorescencia 7.3.47 Densa Posición de la inflorescencia (En relación con las ramas) 7.4.5 Tamaño del fruto (2.8.3) (En relación con las ramas) 7.4.5 Tamaño del fruto(2.8.3)  7.2.37 Color del pecíolo de la hoja madura 1 Hacia arriba 1 <3 cm 7.2.37Color del pecíolo de la hoja madura 1 Hacia arriba 1 <3 cm   1 Todo verde con la base morada 2 Hacia abajo 2 ≥3 cm 1 Todo verde con la base morada 2 Hacia abajo 2 ≥3 cm   2 Todo verde con la junta de la hoja morada 2 Todo verde con la junta de la hoja morada 7.3.5 7.4.6 3 Todo verde, morado en ambas puntas Número de inflorescencias por planta Pilosidad del fruto (2.7.4) (2.8.5) 7.3.5 7.4.63 Todo verde, morado en ambas puntas Número de inflorescencias por planta Pilosidad del fruto(2.7.4) (2.8.5) 4 Todo verde morado con base morada Observado en 10 plantas 3 Escasa 4 Todo verde morado con base morada Observado en 10 plantas 3 Escasa   5 Todo verde morado con junta de la hoja morada 1 ≤10 7 Densa 5 Todo verde morado con junta de la hoja morada 1 ≤10 7 Densa   6 Todo verde morado, ambas puntas moradas 2 11 -29 6 Todo verde morado, ambas puntas moradas 2 11 -29 7.4.7 7 Verde 3 ≥30 Ausencia/presencia de cera en el fruto (2.8.6) 7.4.77 Verde 3 ≥30 Ausencia/presencia de cera en el fruto(2.8.6)   8 Morado 0 Ausente 8 Morado 0 Ausente 7.3.6 9 Verde marrón Olor de la inflorescencia 1 Presente 7.3.69 Verde marrón Olor de la inflorescencia 1 Presente   10 Marrón 0 No 10 Marrón 0 No 7.4.8 11 Marrón oscuro 1 Sí Ausencia/presencia de manchas oscuras dentro del fruto 7.4.811 Marrón oscuro 1 Sí Ausencia/presencia de manchas oscuras dentro del fruto   99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 0 Ausente 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 0 Ausente 7.3.7 Tipo de inflorescencia 1 Presente 7.3.7Tipo de inflorescencia 1 Presente 7.2.38 (Véase la Fig. 7) Color del ala del pecíolo de la hoja madura 7.2.38 (Véase la Fig. 7) Color del ala del pecíolo de la hoja madura 7.4 1 Verde 1 Espiga 7.41 Verde 1 Espiga   2 Verde con bordes morados 2 Racimo 2 Verde con bordes morados 2 Racimo   3 Morado 3 Panícula 3 Morado 3 Panícula   99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas)  7.2.39 Espinosidad del pecíolo de la hoja madura (2.5.13) 7.2.39Espinosidad del pecíolo de la hoja madura(2.5.13)   3 Escasa 3 Escasa   7 Densa 7 Densa  7.2.40 Ausencia/presencia de estípulas en la hoja madur (2.6.1) 7.2.40Ausencia/presencia de estípulas en la hoja madur(2.6.1)   0 Ausente 0 Ausente   1 Presente 1 Presente 7.3 Floración 7.3Floración 1  2 3 123  7.3.1 Floración 0 Sin floración Fig. 7. Tipo de inflorescencia (2.7.1) 7.3.1Floración 0 Sin floración Fig. 7. Tipo de inflorescencia(2.7.1)   1 Floración en algunos años 1 Floración en algunos años   2 Floración todos los años 2 Floración todos los años  "},{"text":".9 Ausencia/presencia de semillas en el fruto  7.6.   7.6.  0 Ausente  0 Ausente  1 Presente  1 Presente 7.4.10 Forma de la semilla  7.4.10Forma de la semilla  1 Alargada-oblonga  1 Alargada-oblonga  2 Redonda  2 Redonda  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas)  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 7.4.11 Estructura del ala de la semilla (2.8.7) 7.4.11Estructura del ala de la semilla(2.8.7)  1 Ala alrededor de todo el embrión  1 Ala alrededor de todo el embrión  2 Ala en uno u otro lado del embrión  2 Ala en uno u otro lado del embrión  3 Ala sólo en un lado del embrión  3 Ala sólo en un lado del embrión 7.4.12 Número de semillas totalmente desarrolladas  7.4.12Número de semillas totalmente desarrolladas  "},{"text":"23 Ausencia/presencia de ampollas en la superficie del tubérculo  Ampollas no aguijinosas en la superficie del tubérculo (es decir, las ampollas son Ampollas no aguijinosas en la superficie del tubérculo (es decir, las ampollas son distintas de las tienen apariencia aguijinosa)  distintas de las tienen apariencia aguijinosa)  0 Ausente  0 Ausente  1 Presente  1 Presente 7.6.24 Ausencia/presencia de grietas en la superficie del tubérculo  7.6.24Ausencia/presencia de grietas en la superficie del tubérculo  0 Ausente  0 Ausente  1 Presente  1 Presente 7.6.25 Espesor de la piel del tubérculo (2.10.7) 7.6.25Espesor de la piel del tubérculo(2.10.7)  1 <1 mm  1 <1 mm  2 ≥1 mm  2 ≥1 mm 7.6.   7.6.  "},{"text":"26 Color de la piel del tubérculo (debajo de la corteza)   8.3.13 Amargor del tubérculo cocinado (2.10.18) 8.3.13Amargor del tubérculo cocinado(2.10.18)   0 No amargo 0 No amargo   1 Amargo 1 Amargo   2 Muy amargo 2 Muy amargo  8.3.14 Dulzor del tubérculo cocinado 8.3.14Dulzor del tubérculo cocinado   0 No dulce 0 No dulce   1 Dulce 1 Dulce   2 Muy dulce 2 Muy dulce  8.3.15 Evaluación general del tubérculo cocinado 8.3.15Evaluación general del tubérculo cocinado   3 Pobre 3 Pobre   5 Intermedia 5 Intermedia   7 Buena 7 Buena 8.4 Notas 1 Marrón claro 8.4Notas1 Marrón claro 2 Marrón oscuro Especificar aquí cualquier información adicional 2 Marrón oscuro Especificar aquí cualquier información adicional   3 Grisáceo 3 Grisáceo   99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.7 Notas)  7.6.27 Porcentaje de germinación [%] 7.6.27Porcentaje de germinación [%]  Registrado después de la cosecha Registrado después de la cosecha   7.6.27.1 Número de meses 7.6.27.1 Número de meses   1 0 -2 meses 1 0 -2 meses   2 2 -4 meses 2 2 -4 meses   3 >4 meses 3 >4 meses Los siguientes descriptores se deberán observar en el momento de la plantación Los siguientes descriptores se deberán observar en el momento de la plantación  7.6.28 Dureza del tubérculo 7.6.28Dureza del tubérculo  (Cuando se corta con un cuchillo) (Cuando se corta con un cuchillo)   1 Duro 1 Duro   2 Blando 2 Blando  "}],"sieverID":"67bb7a39-6c39-4a83-83af-8627155f50cc","abstract":"del IPGRI es realizar avances en la conservación y utilización de los recursos fitogenéticos para beneficiar a las generaciones presentes y futuras. El IPGRI trabaja en colaboración con otras organizaciones, realizando investigación, capacitación, enseñanza y asesoramiento e información científicos y técnicos, y ha establecido un vínculo especialmente estrecho con la"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01de513693b2f93620ceece2ef560dfd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/525c6e3f-e449-4ab1-9d33-7f6440e21529/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Shea butter producers in Mali use ICTs to market their products An ICT cooperative develops rural connectivity in Ethiopia Specialised software improves efficiency of farm inspections in Mexico","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"W orking together in a cooperative has many advantages for farmers. Collating their harvested crops means they can sell in bulk, demand better prices and have greater bargaining powers with buyers. The cooperative can make use of the broad experience and skills of its members. Those with knowledge of marketing, for example, can promote the cooperative's products, while others can share cultivation and harvesting techniques. Pooling resources also creates the opportunity to buy expensive equipment, such as foodprocessing and packaging machinery. Many cooperatives now also invest in communications technology to help train farmers, find new markets, improve management processes and deliver information services to their members."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Coprokazan, a cooperative based in southern Mali, started using ICTs in 2006. Since then, production and profits have more than doubled. With just three computers in their main office, they have built a website to promote their products, contacted new buyers using e-mail, and streamlined their administration procedures so that they can take on and effectively manage more members."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"The cooperative, mostly made up of female shea butter producers, also has a video camera and a few digital photo cameras. They use these to produce training materials to help members improve production and packaging processes. As well as increasing their income, the women of Coprokazan saw that economic development gave them more autonomy and equality with men, who traditionally control household finances."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"Improving quality to increase income is an important goal for the Coffee Growers Association of Oaxaca (CEPCO), in Mexico. Their inspectors use an open source application installed on cell phones to gather data from members' farms. DigitalICS replaces the old handwritten forms previously used, and makes the process of collecting information more reliable and efficient. Inspectors download the data at the main cooperative office, and the software produces automatic reports for evaluators and for external fair-trade certification agencies."},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"Using information gathered on previous occasions, inspectors give farmers specific advice on how to increase coffee production and improve quality in the next growing season. The inspectors also use their cell phones to take photos of the crops to check on progress, and can record audio feedback from farmers. The photos and audio can be used on the website to promote the cooperative's products to consumers, and inform them of community improvements realised from the extra income gained from the premium price paid for fairtrade goods."},{"index":6,"size":93,"text":"In Ethiopia, a broad coalition of individuals, businesses and organisations have worked together to establish an ICT cooperative in the town of Butajira. By buying shares in the new cooperative, members raised enough money to set up a centre with 15 computers, an internet connection, printers and fax machines. The centre provides business services and computer training. Two local cooperatives, serving farmers and residents of the surrounding rural communities, are the main partners of the ICT cooperative. Combined, they have more than 7000 members, who all now have access to the centre's services."},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"Cooperatives have strengthened farming communities for many generations, combining the influence of many individuals to give them greater power in the marketplace, and providing support when harvests fail. ICTs are becoming increasingly indispensible to many cooperatives, enabling them to communicate with members and offer new opportunities to small-scale farmers. ■"}]},{"head":"ICTs boost farmer cooperation","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"As well as increasing their income, the women of Coprokazan saw that economic development also gave them more autonomy and greater equality S mall-scale farmers in many ACP countries have inadequate access to markets. Their lack of access to information and market data leads to inefficiencies, both on the farm and in the marketplace. The result is large differences in what is produced and what is demanded by consumers. This, in turn, results in shortages or surpluses of produce on the market, creating instability in the prices of agricultural goods and consequently farmers' incomes."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Farmers need to know what the market demands in order to determine what, when and how much to produce. They need access to information about prices, trends in the market, and quality standards in order to capitalise on market opportunities, increase incomes and enhance food security. It is imperative that we integrate the production of agricultural commodities with marketing if the farming community is to get the best from its efforts, achieve the maximum use of scarce resources, and realise sustainable livelihoods. from a wide group of farmers and markets spread across a large geographical area, can smooth fluctuations in agricultural produce prices, and link production and marketing information to enable farmers to capitalise on market opportunities."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"An APMIS enables farmers to capture more value through the production and sale of their goods, thereby improving access to markets for farmers, and closing that gap between production and demand. A production planning system also allows farmers' organisations to obtain data on aggregate supply and demand, which can inform strategic decisions, particularly in the event of a surplus or shortfall of fresh produce. The system can show where appropriate action can be taken to mitigate the negative impacts of disparities between supply and demand."}]},{"head":"Reduce risks","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"CaFAN and its members -farmers' associations and cooperatives -help to develop agriculture by building the skills of farmers and strengthening farmers' organisations. Fostering connections, sharing information, and training among farmers puts them in a better position to respond to the challenges facing the agricultural sector, particularly when marketing produce to domestic, regional, tourist and agro-processing markets."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"We have seen that collective action in these areas results in better access to resources such as agricultural inputs, credit, transport and information. It can also reduce financial risks and help in certification processes overseen by external agencies promoting goods to specialised markets, such as fair trade or organic."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"Cooperatives and similar organisations can do a lot to improve food and nutrition security, foreign exchange earnings, and foreign savings. The pooling of resources and the collective marketing of products reduces the high transaction costs that many farmers incur when acting alone. When operating as a group, farmers are able to make the marketing process more efficient and save money that would otherwise be lost along the market chain. ■ Jethro Greene ([email protected]) is coordinator of the Caribbean Farmers' Network (www.caribbeanfarmers.org) and chairman of the Eastern Caribbean Trading and Development Company (ECTAD)"},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Our experience at the Caribbean Farmers' Network (CaFAN) shows that farmers in the region benefit greatly from working in 'clusters' . Clusters are organised either geographically, where the group of farmers live close to each other, or thematically, where they share an interest. The farmers set up and maintain their own clusters, and they involve other individuals, businesses and organisations that are involved in the market chain."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"Through clustering, farmers can cooperate and share technical skills and experiences. They take advantage of, and plan for, new market demands, and develop greater bargaining and lobbying power."}]},{"head":"Group force","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"CaFAN's network comprises 30 member organisations that, in turn, represent over 500,000 farmers in 12 countries. Due to this geographical separation, we rely heavily on Skype (a voice internet application), e-mail, and our website to build and maintain relationships with members, and execute our projects. We use e-mail and our website extensively to post information on upcoming events, best practices and news. As many farmers in the Caribbean region have access to cell phones, we also use text messages as one of the primary ways to communicate directly with farmers. We will soon expand this service to include production information, which will further improve farmers' access to markets."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"We are currently working on an agricultural production and marketing information system (APMIS). This will consist of two databases: a production information system and a marketing information system. These will be linked to each other to allow the collection, analysis, and dissemination of relevant and timely market information. The system will be kept current though the submission of data to CaFAN via text messages or e-mails from farmers and marketing representatives."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"Among other things, the system will store data related to: individual farmers; farm locations; type of crop produced, quantity and date planted; marketing clients and; the crop quantity, and expected price. This system, which gathers information"}]},{"head":"Perspectives","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The bridge between farm and market STr / ANP O ver the last few decades, smallscale coffee farmers have struggled to increase incomes from their crop. In that time, while worldwide coffee production has increased, prices for the commodity have decreased. But small-scale producers can gain an advantage in such competitive markets by highlighting their specialised production techniques. Farmers can, for example, promote the unique features of their geographic location, or publicise the social impact of improved incomes in their community."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"In order to promote the uniqueness of their product, many producers apply for certification, where a third party ensures that the farmers follow socially and environmentally beneficial practices, and offers the farmer a basic minimum price for the sale of the certified product. One example is farmers adopting new sustainable growing practices, and using certification to draw attention to the superior quality of their product."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Certification can be awarded to coffee growers who meet standards of organic production, shade-grown production (where native shade trees are retained on coffee plantations to prevent sun damage and soil erosion) and fair trade, which improves the status of marginalised producers by promoting consumer awareness."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"Farmers have to meet a rigorous set of criteria before their products can be certified. There is often an initial training phase, where farmers learn how to meet the new standards and convert their growing practices and farms to suit the required processes. This can take up to three years for organic farming."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"Many smallholders therefore form cooperatives. Closer collaboration can help farmers to reduce transaction costs, manage quality, increase market access, become engaged in policy discussions, and access the training and technical advice necessary for certification."}]},{"head":"Struggles","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"A cooperative often has an internal control department. This body is responsible for inspecting each member's land and equipment to ensure they meet the required standards, both for external certification processes and for the cooperative's own quality assurances. Internal inspections are carried out by trained inspectors, usually by staff of the cooperative or other experienced farmers. If the inspectors discover any problems, they can advise the farmer on how to get back up to standard or, for repeated violations, sanction or expel them."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"A cooperative's internal control manager aggregates the inspection data to create a record for each farmer, and to prepare yearly reports for the external certification agencies. Data can also be used for operational purposes, such as forecasting the next harvest or providing targeted advice and feedback to farmers. Internal control is a costly, labour-intensive process, consisting of manual data collection, entry, analysis and reporting. In many cooperatives, these processes are not yet automated (or even standardised), making them errorprone and in need of significant manual effort."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"The Coffee Growers Association of Oaxaca (CEPCO) currently works with 33 smaller organisations across the state of Oaxaca, covering a total of 2760 producers, 90% of whom own less than two hectares of land. CEPCO's coffee is certified as organic and fair trade. To improve the efficiency of their certification and inspection processes, CEPCO introduced a new system that uses software called DigitalICS. The program, developed by researchers at University of California, Berkeley, in the USA, automates many of the procedures previously conducted manually and enables mobile data collection, evaluation and reporting."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"CEPCO inspectors used to fill out forms by hand, which was inefficient and very difficult to do practically on the steep slopes of coffee plantations. Inspectors had to reach flatter ground before they could fill out the form, which meant they could forget important details. Data was also lost as dirt or rain obscured the written notes, or illegible handwriting made them difficult to read."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"Evaluators reviewed paper-based inspection reports by hand, reviewing and cross-checking up to six different documents, again requiring significant manual effort. It took several hours to organise these documents before they could begin the evaluation. They commonly found discrepancies between documents that took yet more time to correct, providing the original data was even available or legible."}]},{"head":"Equitable","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"DigitalICS was developed specifically for agricultural cooperatives, and is the first such open-source system to support mobile data collection. With the program installed on cell phones, CEPCO's inspectors can now complete surveys in the field by entering data"}]},{"head":"A standard system","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"The Coffee Growers Association of Oaxaca in Mexico uses DigitalICS, a specially developed software program, to help farmers improve the quality of their coffee. Inspectors use cell phones to gather data, which are then posted to password-protected web pages."}]},{"head":"Feature","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Yael Schwartzman ([email protected]) is country manager of Frogtek in Mexico, Tapan S. Parikh ([email protected]) is an assistant professor in the University of California's School of Information, United States, and Mario Vila (mfernandovila@ gmail.com) is internal control manager at the Coffee Growers Association of Oaxaca, Mexico (www.cepco.org.mx) into their phones rather than onto paper forms. The application prompts inspectors through every step of the survey process, with both text and audio. The latter option compensates for the small screen on the phone, and helps farmers with literacy problems to follow the process. The cooperative can easily customise the surveys to suit new conditions or different languages."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"The survey questions usually have multiple-choice answers, but inspectors can use the phone to record an audio comment to any question, giving the farmer the opportunity to add more information. Inspectors can also capture images to visually document breaches of certification and quality requirements. This reduces the opportunity for producers to claim that they were treated unfairly."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Inspectors are required to photograph the producer on the coffee plantation, and the producer signing the inspection ledger, as proof they actually visited the farm. The inspectors are also required to make an audio recording of the recommendations they made to the farmer. And, in instances where a fairtrade premium has been paid, the inspector can record comments about how the community is using the extra income for social improvements."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"DigitalICS provides a feedback mechanism for producers and inspectors to send an audio message back to CEPCO on any related cooperative business, or even to send suggestions to the software developers on how to improve the technology."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"All captured data, audio and photographs are stored on the phone's external memory card. After completing their surveys, inspectors go back to CEPCO's head office and transfer the files from the cell phone's memory card to the DigitalICS program on the office computer. Limited wireless coverage in the areas where coffee is grown means that data cannot be transmitted directly from the field."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"However, such immediate data communication is not necessary; inspectors have to return to the office anyway to discuss their observations with the internal control manager. Also, sending photos and audio files over the cell phone network is more expensive than simple SMS messages and would, therefore, increase the cost."},{"index":7,"size":91,"text":"After data is transferred to the computers, the software processes the results and posts them to a passwordprotected website using Wordpress, a blog-publishing application. Each post is automatically tagged with a unique code referring to each producer. Users can log in to access the data relating to an individual farm. Evaluators, for example, log in to review the inspection data (including pictures and audio) and enter their recommendations. The software automatically generates the evaluation reports, including all data and recommendations from the completed inspection forms, which the evaluators can print out."},{"index":8,"size":53,"text":"Each farmer receives a document that includes all inspection data, follow-up advice and evaluation results. A single spreadsheet document summarises the inputs used, evaluation outcomes and follow-up comments for the entire cooperative. The cooperative uses the reports for internal control, making supply predictions, preparing funding proposals, and for reporting to the certification agencies."}]},{"head":"Content","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"CEPCO initially tested DigitalICS over a six-month pilot period, starting in June 2008, to inspect half of their producers in the course of the normal internal control cycle. The other half continued to use the previous paper-based system."}]},{"head":"DigitalICS","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The website for the mobile application includes a video of a sample survey, sample inspection reports and a live demo. ➜ http://digitalicslatino.org Frogtek A mobile applications development company involved with the development of DigitalICS. ➜ http://frogtek.org be held responsible for any damage to, or loss of, the phone."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Many producers felt that data collection by cell phone was more secure than on a paper form that anyone could read. Farmers also mentioned that they liked that the inspectors took pictures of them and their crops, as it made them feel more responsible and respected for their work."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Evaluators mentioned that requiring images and audio recordings of producers increased the accountability of inspectors to actually visit the farms, and of producers to follow organic practices. One evaluator commented that it is easier to determine whether the internal inspector has cheated and not visited the coffee plantations."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"While the current system still cannot ensure that inspectors actually visit coffee farms, this issue could be solved in the future by using GPS technology to determine the locations of the farms and the times of the inspectors' visits. One other development would be to give inspectors access to the historical data of each of their farms directly from the cell phone. This would give them a better overview of each farms' production and allow them to tailor their advice accordingly."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"Making the data available onlinetogether with audio, video and photos -could improve product marketing by providing a direct link between producers and consumers. Solar chargers could be used to charge phone batteries in the field, while refinements to the DigitalICS software could reduce its power use."}]},{"head":"Related resources","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Replication","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"It should be noted that CEPCO's earlier internal control system and procedures were already quite advanced, and have received significant external recognition and awards. Other cooperatives may benefit even more from the standardisation and automation provided by DigitalICS. But if the basic organisational and procedural structures are not in place, some cooperatives may not be able to introduce the system without substantial improvements to their current operations."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"The cost analysis may be different for South Asia or Africa, where labour costs are much lower, reducing the financial benefit that can be obtained through efficiency gains. And, in countries where transportation between farms and the cooperatives' offices is expensive, it might be more cost-effective to transmit inspection data via the cell phone network, if possible."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"While DigitalICS saves money on a yearly basis, the system still requires technical support and maintenance for it to be sustainable. A local service provider would have to be willing to provide this service for a reasonable fee."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"The availability of open-source software like DigitalICS greatly increases the opportunities for other cooperatives to introduce such a system. For CEPCO, the outcomes of the trial were so persuasive that they have extended the DigitalICS system to all their producers. The 2010 inspection cycle, beginning in June, will be their second consecutive year of using the software with 100% of their members. ■ The application's developers trained six inspectors over a two-day period."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"A comparison with the 2007 data, collected using paper forms, showed that it was 38% faster to perform one inspection using DigitalICS and 69% faster to perform one evaluation, due to the reduction in time-consuming manual paperwork. Instead, all the data was entered only once in the field, and automatically transferred and consolidated for evaluation and reporting. (The reduction in inspection time is less significant, since much of the inspectors' time is taken up with walking from one plantation to another.)"},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"Preliminary estimates indicate that DigitalICS could save CEPCO more than US$10,000 a year by reducing the time taken for evaluation, inspection and manual data entry, and from printing and stationary costs. Allowing for the investment in software development, the purchase of 10 cell phones (at US$340 each), hardware, and operating expenses, including web hosting, technical support and hardware maintenance (totalling US$600 a year), the costs of installing DigitalICS could be recouped within the first year."}]},{"head":"Feedback","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The evaluators were especially happy with the increased efficiency provided by the automated system. They had been frustrated at having to organise and sort through paper inspection reports and other related handwritten documents used in the previous system. Evaluators felt that the paper-based system led to more errors, due to the manual work required."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"For the inspectors, they found that the phone was easier to carry than lots of paper forms. They complained that the phone battery ran out too quickly, but this was solved in some cases by taking a second battery. The inspectors were also concerned that they would S mallholder farmers operating in cooperatives contribute around 70% of Kenya's total coffee production, with the rest produced by larger plantations and estates. However, Kenya's coffee production has fallen since the glory days of the 1970s, when over 100 tonnes were produced annually; in 2009, just 54 tonnes were produced. Coffee prices have also fluctuated greatly during this time, leaving farmers with an unpredictable income."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Famers are concerned about mismanagement in the factories which process their dried coffee beans. Most factories keep handwritten records, which many farmers find difficult to trust. Kenyan farmers often talk of 'ghost kilograms', where factory clerks are suspected of entering incorrect data, leading to lower payments. In an effort to streamline the management process in the factories, and make sure farmers get the right price for their product, the Kenya Coffee Producers Association (KCPA) looked for a more trustworthy system."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"KCPA, an association working with producer groups, found several software applications that other cooperatives were using, but the license costs to introduce these systems to all its member organisations would have been prohibitive. They then discovered CoopWorks, open-source software that had originally been developed for dairy cooperatives."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"The software is available to download for free and has no licensing costs, and KCPA found funding to pay developers to adapt the system to meet their specific needs. A local company, Flametree Systems Engineering, whose engineers had been involved with the original version of CoopWorks, started customising the software in late 2009."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"CoopWorks tracks all the steps of coffee collection, processing and sales. The system has a member management feature for collecting the data of individual members. It has an accounting module with cash book registers, ledgers and a payroll system. Other features include asset registration, loan management, inventory for the cooperative store and report publication."}]},{"head":"Open accounts","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"When farmers arrive at the cooperative with their coffee beans, they place their delivery on a digital scales. Their name is displayed on the computer screen along with the date and time of delivery. The readings are taken directly from the scales without any human intervention. The clerk simply clicks the 'next' button to capture the data to the system and provide the farmer with a printed delivery receipt."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"With the old manual data entry system, the cooperatives did not know how much coffee the milling factory would produce from their beans, and therefore, did not know what the financial return would be. The new system, however, can convert the coffee bean weight into an estimated value once it goes into the mills. The software also monitors the coffee deliveries based on each cooperative's tracking numbers. Once the coffee is sold, the payment is received into the system and credited to the appropriate cooperative's account."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"If a farmer bought inputs from the cooperative store on credit, such as A program to build trust fertilisers or pesticides, the system books the transactions under the farmer's name. At the end of the season, the farmer's total delivery is added to their account, goods bought from the store on credit are deducted, and the final pay calculated. The member receives a statement detailing all the deliveries made against any goods taken in credit. If the member has loans, the system also tracks these and deducts the amount."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"KCPA has developed its website to deliver information to members on their cell phones via SMS, including coffee and input prices. The association is looking to expand the capabilities of the software by linking it to mobile banking schemes, so that members can check their account and receive payments using their cell phones."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"The system is still new, but KCPA expects that individual members will benefit from increased earnings as a result of operational efficiency and reduced overheads. The credit rating of their associated cooperatives should also rise as a result of automation. The ability to quickly produce accurate reports on cultivation, milling, marketing and sales will improve transparency and accountability. These combined features will settle many farmers' fears and, as trust is restored in the sector, should encourage more people to join their local cooperative. ■ Specially developed software helps Kenyan coffee cooperatives manage their business, and provide their members with accurate accounts and transparent record keeping."},{"index":6,"size":114,"text":"François Laureys ([email protected]) is the country manager for Mali, Bénédicte Penda Marcilly ([email protected]) is knowledge sharing officer, and Ousseni Zongo (ozongo@iicd. org) is capacity development officer at the International Institute for Communication and Development (www.iicd.org) I n southern Mali, it is women who traditionally gather nuts from the shea tree (Butyrospermum parkii). They use the oil for cooking, or process it into a fatty 'butter' which works well as a skin moisturiser. When women in the Zantiébougou area (approximately 200 km south of the capital, Bamako) started to work together, they saw that they could get better prices if they collected together all the shea butter they produced and sold it in larger quantities."},{"index":7,"size":70,"text":"In 1999, they formed Coopérative des Productrices de Beurre de Karité de Zantiébougou, or Coprokazan. As well as organising collection and transport to markets, the cooperative invested in equipment to process the shea nuts and refine the oil on a larger scale. They got support from local and international organisations that helped them improve the quality of the shea butter and find markets outside the local area, particularly in Bamako."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"Coprokazan also developed their packaging processes to make the product look more professional and desirable to consumers."},{"index":9,"size":33,"text":"But the cooperative also wanted to raise their profile, and promote their organisation and products to a wider audience. In 2006, they started working with the International Institute for Communication and Development, with"}]},{"head":"The market spread","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"A cooperative of shea butter producers in southern Mali uses ICTs to market their product, improve management systems, and train members in new processing techniques."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"a view to developing the marketing of their shea nut products."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Although the town of Zantiébougou has good road connections to markets in Bamako and Sikasso, it is not yet connected to the country's main electricity grid. The lack of a reliable power source limited the choice and amount of electrical equipment they could use. The project team decided that three computers, a small video camera, a printer, a projector and a few digital photo cameras -all powered by a solar panel system -would meet their immediate needs."}]},{"head":"Teamwork","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Because of the limited amount of equipment, and due to the distance some people would have to travel to receive training, the team decided that it was not necessary or practical to"}]},{"head":"Case study","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"IICD train all the cooperative's members to use the equipment. The objective was to train a small number of people to produce training materials; they could then take these to the rest of the members, to show them how to process the shea nuts and improve the quality of the butter they produced."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"The project team initially trained a group of members who lived close to the cooperative offices, and who could be available for regular training. The trainees learned to use the cameras, and how to edit photographs and videos using computer software."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"One challenge in the training sessions was that the operating language of most the equipment and computer software was French, but not all the trainees were fluent in the language. The team overcame this by giving the equipment appropriate names in the spoken language of the trainees -names that could be easily understood by anyone using it for the first time. Allocating recognisable words helped to make the equipment more familiar, and be thought of as just another tool to use in their work."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"The new training materials mean the team can train more farmers faster than with previous, more traditional, methods. Video and photographic materials are also useful for training members who have low literacy levels. And visual training aids are often more effective than written materials when introducing new information, especially if those images are of an area, or of people, that are recognisable to the farmer."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"Previously, the women would bring their harvested shea nuts to the cooperative collection point, only to be told that many of the nuts were not suitable for processing. Now the women can quickly compare the nuts they gather to the examples shown in the photographs, saving them costly trips back and forth to the collection centre. The women who have been trained in the new techniques now produce better quality shea butter, while the quantity has also increased since the process is more efficient."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"ICTs have brought many benefits beyond marketing and training."},{"index":7,"size":75,"text":"Coprokazan office staff use the computers for the routine administration and management of the cooperative's business. They record the registration and payment of membership fees, which helps members to see exactly when they paid and when they need to pay again. Staff also produce PowerPoint presentations for the regular cooperative meetings, to give members a clear, visual overview of the yearly accounts and the cooperative's activities. This all helps to improve transparency and gain trust."},{"index":8,"size":72,"text":"Through keeping computer records, the cooperative can see exactly how much shea oil and butter they buy from their members, and can make more accurate estimates of the amounts of products they will have available in the coming year. A sales register helps the cooperative to plan its income, to spread payments and credit schemes more evenly throughout the year, and to prevent times when the cooperative could run short of funds."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"Individual farmers benefit from having a guaranteed income; they know the cooperative will buy their product if it is up to standard. The cooperative will also provide women with a better price than the local market, since it has access to more buyers and has a stronger negotiating position."},{"index":10,"size":65,"text":"The increased revenue has given some members the opportunity to invest in other businesses, reducing their reliance on agriculture for an income. One member, for example, sells meals from her home. She was able to use the extra money from shea butter sales to build a small roof in front of her house, providing extra shelter for customers. She now sells twice as many meals."}]},{"head":"Global","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Since introducing ICTs four years ago, the cooperative's shea butter production and income has increased, and is now nearly three times greater. And the organisation continues to develop rapidly, with a doubling in production and revenue in the last two years. The computer software has improved efficiency in the organisation's management and accountancy procedures, and they can now deal with many more members. From around 370 members in 2006, they expect to have more than 1100 by the end of 2010."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"The equipment Coprokazan currently has is likely to be sufficient to meet the training needs of their new members. The next step could be to sell to more specialised markets, which could offer a better price for the product. There could be interest, for example, in organically produced shea butter. This is likely to involve selling to international markets, however, many of which require strict quality and traceability standards. The cooperative would have to invest in extra equipment, such as GPS tracking technology, plus systems for monitoring and evaluation."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Packaging for their products is already more professional and attractive to consumers, while e-mail and internet access (through a dial-up connection via the existing telephone landline) has put them in touch with several new markets, with orders now coming from Senegal, Burundi, Saudi Arabia, Belgium, the United States and France."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"In the four years since introducing ICTs, Coprokazan has developed many useful techniques for using the technology to train farmers and manage a growing cooperative. The organisation is now helping others in West Africa and beyond to develop and apply these skills to their local situation."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"Coprokazan staff organise and attend meetings to share their experiences with other projects involved in using ICTs for agricultural development. The cooperative has also been very active in sharing their ideas with other organisations working in gender and agriculture, and has produced a short video to demonstrate how they use ICTs in their work. The video was broadcast on national television, which helped to further raise the profile of the organisation within the country. Coprokazan's work has also received praise from government ministries and earned them several national awards. ■"}]},{"head":"Related links","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"Coopérative des Productrices de Beurre de Karité de Zantiébougou Coprokazan works to improve the livelihoods of women producing oil and butter from the seeds of the shea tree. It currently has more than 600 members from 26 villages in the Zantiébougou area of southern Mali. ➜ www.coprokazan.org Individual farmers benefit from having a guaranteed income; they know the cooperative will buy their product if it is up to standard. ICT services require a high initial investment to buy equipment and set up a stable internet connection in a secure, accessible building. By forming a cooperative, however, BICTC raised money by selling shares to its members. Individuals could contribute small amounts of money towards their shares which entitles them, as shareholders, to participate in member meetings, be elected to the board of directors, and take decisions on how the cooperative is run. Members of the 52 associations represented by the two larger investing cooperatives are, therefore, also members and can use the ICT cooperative's services. The centre currently provides internet services through a dial-up system via the telephone landline. Ultimately, BICTC hopes to work with the state-owned Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation (ETC), the only telecommunications operator"}]},{"head":"Mutual benefits","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Collaboration in communication","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"A broad partnership of individuals, businesses, NGOs, and government departments is supporting an ICT cooperative to improve rural connectivity in the butajira area of ethiopia."}]},{"head":"C ommunications Cooperative","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"International (CCI), a US-based not-for-profit organisation, conducted a study to improve rural connectivity in Ethiopia. The study examined ways to bring telephone and internet services to rural communities. The researchers identified the Butajira area as a good place for a pilot project; the main town is relatively close (around 130 km) to the capital, Addis Ababa, which made it easy for officials from government departments and other agencies to visit and learn from the project."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"The initial study showed that Butajira town, the surrounding communities, and members of the two cooperative unions in the district would benefit greatly from better access to ICTs. CCI worked with USAID, the World Bank and the Ethiopian government, and also involved as many people, businesses and organisations as possible. This broad support encouraged the commitment to develop the infrastructure and facilities needed to bring ICTs to the area."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Mebratu Tsegaye ([email protected]) is director of programs at Communications Cooperative International (www.cci.coop) in the country, to provide internet services. The cooperative could then act as a local internet service provider and deliver internet services directly to homes and businesses in Butajira and the surrounding area."}]},{"head":"Telephones","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"ETC currently provides a few landline telephone connections in the town, but these do not yet extend to rural areas. BICTC therefore developed plans and sought permission to build a transmission tower, with repeater devices to extend the signal, to provide a wireless telephone service across the area. With a small antenna on the outside of their building, businesses and individuals would be able to connect to the service and have a telephone in their offices or homes."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"By raising funds from its members and grants, BICTC would make the initial investment to develop the infrastructure to extend ETC services into the area, and deliver the service to more than 250,000 people. The cooperative would buy services wholesale from ETC and sell them on to local customers, making it a beneficial situation for ETC, BICTC and the people of Butajira."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"BICTC has been waiting for government approval for either a provisional or permanent 'providers licence' to run the wireless telephone service. The project team recognise that there is still a lot to be done to provide connectivity to people in the Butajira area, and they are committed to making this happen."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Delivering ICT services through an organisation run on cooperative principles makes it easier to promote the project to existing agricultural, marketing and savings and credit cooperatives. These cooperatives can use the services to promote and expand their own work. Also, since a cooperative is run by the community, the members decide exactly what services they need and when they need them, rather than having to adapt to the services provided by other companies, or waiting for outside agencies to develop the communications infrastructure. ■"}]},{"head":"Case study reINOuT vAN DeN berGh / hh","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"How can small-scale farmers benefit from being involved with a cooperative? ➜ The cooperative has a responsibility to offer its members certain advantages. It can offer farm inputs, such as fertilisers and pesticides, at reduced prices. These can be difficult to buy in remote areas, but the cooperative makes them more easily available to its members."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The main advantage is that farmers can get a better price for their produce without having to wait for a buyer. Cooperative members deliver their crops to their local cooperative society. This smaller, 'primary' cooperative transfers the goods to a larger, secondary cooperative for storage, processing (if necessary), and sale. members, to train them in new techniques and show them how to use technology to access information."}]},{"head":"Is internet use now widespread among cooperatives in ACP countries?","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"➜ The use of computers and the internet is still quite limited in many of the primary cooperatives serving rural areas. Apart from the cost, there are still not enough people within the smaller cooperatives who really know how to make the best use of computers. But the main factor restricting the use of computers is the lack of access to a reliable electricity supply."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Most secondary level cooperatives do use computers. The majority are based in larger towns and cities with better electricity supplies and internet access. They regularly use e-mail to communicate with other cooperatives and umbrella organisations, such as ours. They also use the internet to find buyers and check market prices, and many are building websites to raise their profile and publish their contact details."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"These larger organisations also use computers for administration and management tasks, such as keeping databases of member details, the types of crops and the amounts produced, and financial records."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"It can be very expensive for small cooperatives to invest in computers, cell phones and the internet, but the benefits outweigh the disadvantages."}]},{"head":"How have ICTs influenced your work at TFC?","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"➜ We can now communicate much more effectively with our members. In fact, it's common for us to send an e-mail and follow that up with an SMS to the person to let them know there is an e-mail with more information waiting. We save because we do not have to make long phone calls, and the recipient benefits because they only have to take the time, and money, to check their e-mail when they know they have a message."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Just five or six years ago, it was very expensive to organise a members' meeting. We would have to mail out written invitations. Letters could take a month to reach people, who would have to write back to say whether they were coming -if they even received the invitation in the first place. Now, we just call or send an SMS. They have the message within minutes and can easily reply."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Personally, I can't see how we could work without ICTs anymore; telephones, fax machines, e-mail and the internet have become such an integral part of our everyday work. ■"},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"The secondary cooperative can often get a loan and make special arrangements with a bank. The farmers take receipts for their goods to the local bank branch and receive payment based on the type and amount of crop they delivered to the primary cooperative. The farmers don't have to wait until their produce is actually sold and, since the cooperative is selling in bulk and has greater negotiating power than an individual farmer, the prices are usually higher."}]},{"head":"Can any group of farmers set up a cooperative?","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"➜ There is a process to follow to become a registered cooperative, and every country has its own legislation governing this. People complain about the bureaucracy that is sometimes involved, but in Tanzania we have district cooperative officers who can guide any new group through the process."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Transport remains a major challenge for new cooperatives in rural areas. People in remote areas still have problems finding transport to their nearest cooperative officer, who often also lacks transport and financial resources. Cooperatives are also obliged to cover the costs of bringing members together for regular meetings. The lack of funds severely limits cooperatives' ability to meet members' needs; even simple things like buying enough stationary can be difficult."}]},{"head":"How can ICTs help cooperatives?","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"➜ ICTs help cooperatives keep in touch with similar organisations, where they can get support. If we want to contact the chairperson of a cooperative, we no longer call the office telephone; we send an SMS or call his or her cell phone."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"It remains difficult for cooperatives to get in touch with all of their individual members in rural areas. Cell phones help, especially as mobile networks continue to expand into even very remote regions. But many farmers still don't know how to get the most out of their cell phone. They use it to call and send SMSs, but still don't know how to access market information or get other agricultural advice on it."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Cooperatives are well placed to help introduce new technologies to their members. Every cooperative has at least one meeting a year when all their members are brought together to discuss progress and plan for the future. These provide the perfect opportunity to give information to Q&A Agnes Namuhisa ([email protected]) is director for cooperative development with the Tanzania Federation of Cooperatives (http://ushirika.coop)"}]},{"head":"Cooperating with farmers","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"STr / ANP"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Together, Walta Multipurpose Cooperative Union and Netsanet Fana Union of Savings and Credit Union cooperatives represent 52 smaller associations. These are mainly agricultural cooperatives and credit unions, and serve more than 7000 members. In 2006, CCI brought them together with other local agencies, businesses and individuals to form the Butajira ICT Cooperative (BICTC) -the first ICT cooperative in Ethiopia. "},{"text":" So far, BICTC has established a centre where people can come for ICT training or to use the services. The centre has 15 computers and provides internet services, computer training courses, fax machines, photocopiers and printers. To ensure the centre is financially sustainable, users pay for the training courses and other services. After four years, BICTC now generates sufficient funds to support the business. Butajira has a secondary school, two elementary schools and a technical training institute. Their students are the primary beneficiaries of the training courses. Demand for training is high and the centre also runs training courses at weekends. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"84c09aec-d6c4-40d0-8fc5-171336bd032b","abstract":"TechTip 11 Send updates via SMS Q&A 12 Cooperating with farmers Agnes Namuhisa Editorial Contents http://ictupdate.cta.int This license applies only to the text portion of this publication. ICT Update ICT Update issue 55, June 2010. ICT Update is a bimonthly printed bulletin with an accompanying web magazine (http://ictupdate.cta.int) and e-mail newsletter. Each issue of ICT Update focuses on a specific theme relevant to ICTs for agricultural and rural development in African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries, and includes feature articles and annotated links to related web resources and projects. The next issue will be available in August 2010. Publisher: CTA Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (ACP-EU). CTA is an institution of the ACP Group of States and the EU, in the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is financed by the EU. Postbus 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, the Netherlands."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02473309dc2a62e25862ce21c50545aa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e6ea53cd-f269-453b-b59a-938c5ff3baaa/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Carbon farming in India Case studies from Maharashtra and Telangana","keywords":["Compost culture","Green Manure","Mulching","Vermicomposting","Inter-cropping","Mixed-Cropping","Fodder Cropping","Agri-plantations","Agro-horticulture","Continuous Contour Trench (CCT)","Pits","Gully Plugs","Water Absorption Trench (WAT)"],"chapters":[{"head":"BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECTS Table 1: Overview of Carbon Farming Projects in Maharashtra and Telangana","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"• Project 1 was proposed in Maharashtra's Beed district, to attain water positivity and carbon neutrality."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Project 2 was introduced in Telangana's Janagaon district to reduce methane emissions from paddy production."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"• An overview of the two projects is tabulated below.  • Besides attaining their primary goals of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction and/or carbon sequestration, the ongoing projects also intend to offer benefits for the community and biodiversity."}]},{"head":"PROJECT BENEFITS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"• The benefits are on the lines of increased climate awareness, adaptation and mitigation, improved flora and fauna, higher productivity/income, lowered poverty and gender inequity."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• The potential benefits and their contribution towards relevant sustainable development goals (SDGs) to be achieved by 2030 are tabulated below. "}]},{"head":"DATA AND METHODS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"To understand different perspectives and attitudes of people involved in the afore-mentioned carbon farming projects, a qualitative research design 'Case Study' approach was used. During September 2023, interactions were held with project stakeholders such as the executive of the Project Proponent, the Carbon Consultant, Project Implementation Agency (PIA), village representative (VR) of the project, carbon farmers and non-carbon farmers."}]},{"head":"Project 1: Maharashtra","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Zapewadi village in Beed district was selected for the case study. According to the PIA, it was the best performing village post project implementation."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Telephonic interviews were conducted with the Project Proponent and Carbon Consultant, while a face-to-face interview was held with the PIA. Additionally, focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with 8-9 carbon farmers and non-carbon farmers each."}]},{"head":"Project 2: Telangana","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Katkoor village in Janagaon district was selected for the case study as it actively undertook project activities for sustainable paddy production."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Virtual and telephonic interviews were held with the Project Proponent and the VR of the project respectively. FGDs were held with 4-5 carbon farmers and 5-6 non-carbon farmers. • The carbon credits project was developed based on this existing watershed program. Its objective was to enroll at least 10% of the farmers already participating in the watershed program. Carbon credits generated are not sold and are used to cover the costs of PIA and internal auditing."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"• Following project implementation, there was an increase in water availability leading to an expansion of the area cultivated with Rabi crops. Area under agriculture increased from 40% before 2017 to 60-70% as of now."}]},{"head":"Non-Carbon Farmers","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Initially, there was reluctance due to perceived resource insufficiency, limited awareness of carbon sequestration activities and preference for synthetic fertilizers."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• After learning about the project's benefits, they may now consider participation."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"• Reasons for non-participation:"},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Resistance to change, low selection rates and the belief that Farmer Producer Organization (FPO)-affiliated farmers have a higher chance of selection contributed to their initial non-participation and lack of awareness."}]},{"head":"Implementing Agency","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"• Challenges faced by the PIA included overcoming divisions among villagers based on political groups, addressing farmer apprehension about new agricultural technologies, documentation requirements, and gaining trust due to past fraudulent experiences."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• Additionally, convincing farmers to set aside social differences and encouraging participation in cases where adjacent farmers had hostile relationships presented hurdles, necessitating extensive outreach and capacity building efforts."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"• The PIA's efforts resulted in increased participation of women in fieldwork and adoption of sustainable agriculture practices. • They also oversee project performance and adoption of sustainable ALM practices."}]},{"head":"STUDY FINDINGS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"• Project beneficiaries are chosen from carbon credit awareness meeting attendees in consultation with village leaders."}]},{"head":"Project 2: Telangana Carbon Farmers","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"• The project operates on the principles of a 'shared economy model'. 70-80% carbon farmers joined the project after witnessing the drone application in fellow carbon farmers' fields at the promised discounted price."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"• Initially, AWD was actively practiced by carbon farmers. Few have discontinued AWD due to availability of sufficient water, free electricity and lack of awareness. This raises concerns for permanence of carbon credits generated."}]},{"head":"STUDY FINDINGS Contd. Project 2: Telangana","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Non-Carbon Farmers","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"• Non-carbon farmers initially hesitated to join project due to lack of guaranteed monetary benefits, perception of subjective selection by VR and doubts about the effectiveness of the project's agricultural practices."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Some farmers are willing to participate if they are made aware of its activities and offered incentives."}]},{"head":"Village Representative of the Company","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"• The VR trained by the company, played an important role in disseminating methane reduction practices such as AWD and DSR to farmers."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• VR used the AgriCapita app to provide advice and held regular meetings."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Within 8 months, 60-70% of farmers enrolled in the project, largely motivated by discounts on drone services."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• One challenge was sustaining interest as some farmers reverted to traditional methods for immediate benefits."}]},{"head":"Carbon Company","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Operating under a 'shared economy model,' the company offers discounted drone spraying services to enrolled farmers, attracting participants."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"• The project is in the process of registering with VERRA for carbon credits but faces challenges with low prices and high costs."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• The company generates revenue from drone service rentals and retail stores."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Besides methane reduction, farmers benefit from low input costs, regular crop advisory, access to technology, and higher income."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"• The CEO believes that a regulated market with assured buyers is essential for the sustainability of carbon projects and highlighted the crucial role of the government in this process. • The importance of government intervention in regulating carbon markets for project sustainability is critical."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"• Key steps for a carbon farming project include increasing awareness programs, offering tangible incentives, ensuring inclusivity in project selection, adopting technology for record-keeping and emphasizing effective communication and execution through the Project Implementing Agency or the Project Proponent. "}]},{"head":"AUTHORS","index":14,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" program for internal auditing in Bavi, Jamb, and Zapewadi villages under NABARD's 'Wasteland Agriculture Development Initiative'. All farmers in these villages are part of this watershed development program. "},{"text":"Source: Compiled from the information provided the PIA (Project 1); Company representative (Project 2) Figure note: Figure on Project 1 reports statistics related to carbon farming only. span the project's 20-year duration, including farmer training, emissions estimation, and periodic monitoring, with Permanent Farm Monitoring (PFM) on sample farms. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Flowchart of farmers enrollment to carbon farming project in Telangana "},{"text":" Ananya Khurana, Doctoral Student, Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Pune. Banda Sainath, Scientist, ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region (ICAR-RCER), Patna. Adeeth AG Cariappa, Post-Doctoral Fellow -Environmental and Resource Economist, CIMMYT. SUGGESTED CITATION Khurana, A., Sainath, B., Cariappa, A.G.A. 2023. Carbon farming in India: Case studies of Carbon Credit Projects from Maharashtra and Telangana. TAFSSA Research Note 10. Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia (TAFSSA). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Potential Benefits from Implementing the Projects   "}],"sieverID":"755ae8f6-cbe8-410d-b9b5-3b225f38396d","abstract":"This research brief comprises two case studies about carbon farming projects which are currently running in the Indian states of Maharashtra and Telangana."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0308c651b1b3c065b58b06ade6ff77d6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/18a7ffa3-c370-4d77-be2f-0414cbf88975/retrieve"},"pageCount":52,"title":"Green Manure Cover Crops in Benin and Western Kenya -A Review","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Figures","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Tables "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The purpose of this review is to bring together knowledge on the role of green manure/cover crops (GMCCs) in soil protection and rehabilitation and identify hurdles to adoption by smallholder farmers. The review identifies past and ongoing projects on GMCCs in Benin and Western Kenya, their areas of operation, type of GMCCs and cropping systems involved, adoption status and utilization of such crops as food and soil fertility management."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"Cover crops were as early as 1920s defined as crops grown specifically for providing groundcover to protect both soil erosion and plant nutrient losses through leaching and runoff (Parker, 1920;Pieters and McKee, 1938). More recently, FAO (2010) defined GMCCs as plants sown independently, or in association with other crops, to offer soil cover and improve the soils' physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. As such, for a crop to qualify as a cover crop, the following requirements are important: i) easy to establish; ii) has rapid growth rate to realize fast ground coverage; iii) produces high quantity of dry matter; iv) is disease resistant and does not act as a host for diseases of the associated crops; v) easy to manage; vi) economically viable; vii) deep rooting; vii) has little or no competition for moisture and nutrients with the main crop and ix) has multiple uses (Reeves, 1994;Khan et al., 2002;Gachene and Kimaru, 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"In both countries, as in most of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), soils are characterized by low nutrient content (Gachene et al., 1997;Saïdou et al., 2018) and resultant low crop productivity, food insecurity, and malnutrition, especially under smallholder farming systems (Mugwe et al., 2007;FAO, 2010;UN, 2007). Although the use of mineral fertilizers to increase crop productivity is on the rise (Triberti et al., 2016;Diogo et al., 2017), the majority of smallholder farmers have limited access to cash for fertilizer purchase and practice low-input crop production (Ndakidemi, 2006;Klutse et al., 2018). Such continuous crop production coupled with inadequate use of mineral fertilizers (Diogo et al., 2018) has led to increased rates of soil nutrient mining and contributes to soil infertility (Henao and Baanante, 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"GMCCs are good complements to other soil health improving practices due to their affordability and soil amelioration effects (Chianu et al., 2011;Zoundji et al., 2016). The major GMCC species promoted in both countries include include velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens), joint vetches (Aeschynomene spp.), pencil flower (Stylosanthes spp.), Lablab bean (Lablab purpureus), jack beans (Canavalia ensiformis), sunnhemp (Crotalaria Spp.), Tick clover (Desmodium spp.), and pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). Other regular crops, despite having been utilized for a long time as food crops, have the attributes of green manure cover crops, mentioned above. In this"}]},{"head":"3","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"CIAT Working Paper review, if the primary reason for cultivating such crops is soil fertility improvement through provision of soil cover, increased organic matter through residue retention among other soil benefits, such crops have been considered as GMCCs. Examples of such crops include groundnuts, soybean, and cowpea."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"Cover crops improve the organic matter content that is associated with enhanced water holding capacity in sandy soils (Becker et al., 1995). Besides, GMCCs also provide soil cover that protects the soil against water and wind erosion (Parker, 1920;Pieters and McKee, 1938;Hoorman, 2009) and keeps the soil off weeds (Carsky et al., 2001). They also create enabling conditions that promote diversity and functions of belowground biodiversity involved in soil nutrient transformations and cycling (Midega et al., 2013;Vukicevich et al., 2016) and soil aggregation (Hoorman, 2009;Soti et al., 2016). Some GMCC species, such as Mucuna and Canavalia, reduce nematode prevalence and attack on cereals (Arim et al., 2006). In addition, Canavalia is a potential soil bio-remediator for Sulfentrazole herbicides (Madalão et al., 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"GMCCs play an important role in nitrogen fixation that reach up to 320 kg N ha -1 , depending on the GMCC type, rainfall amount, and soil fertility status (Ojiem et al, 2007). For example, in western Kenya atmospheric nitrogen (N 2 ) fixation declined by 12% from highly fertile to moderately fertile fields and by 22% from moderately fertile to low fertility fields due to seasonal rainfall fluctuations (Ojiem et al., 2007). Mucuna, lablab bean, and groundnut have high N 2 -fixation potential across agroecological zones (AEZs) and soil fertility gradients (Ojiem et al., 2007). Other benefits derived from GMCC include climate change regulation through carbon sequestration (Olson et al., 2014;Lal, 2015), improved cereal yields (Gachene et al., 2000;Maobe et al. 2000;Salako and Tian 2003;Fofana et al., 2004;Kaizzi et al., 2006), and animal fodder (Weber, 1996). However, contradictory results on yield benefits have also been reported in other studies (Mathuva et al., 1998;Giller, 2001;Kaizzi et al., 2006)."}]},{"head":"Benin","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Location and agro-ecological zonation of Benin","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Benin is located between longitude 1° E and 3°40′ E and latitude 6°30′ N and 12°30′ N in West Africa. It covers an area of 112,625 km 2 , of which about one-third is agricultural land. The country has two types of climate: hot and humid/sub-humid in the south and semiarid (Sudanian climate) in the north, with a region of transition in the middle. The south has two rainy seasons (March to July and September to November) while the north has only one (May to October; Sinsin et al., 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"The country has 77 administrative districts divided into eight AEZs (MAEP, 2001) ranging from humid to semi-arid lands (Figure 1 and Table 1)."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Benin is highly dependent on agriculture, which is a source of livelihood for about 80% of its population and contributes about 38% of its gross domestic product (Gollin et al., 2014). The staple food crops include yams, cassava, beans, rice, and maize, while cotton, cashews, shea nut, pineapples, palm, cocoa, and coffee (Minot and Daniels, 2005) are major cash crops. Of the total production in the 18 districts, two crops cover the most area i.e., maize with about 36% and cotton 65-87%. Cotton is also the major export crop of Benin (MAEP, 2015).    "}]},{"head":"GMCC species promoted in Benin","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Common GMCC species adopted and promoted in Benin include: Mucuna, Aeschynomene, groundnuts, soybean, cowpea, pigeon pea, and Stylosanthes. GMCCs already existing in Benin and popularized can be subdivided into two categories: herbaceous legumes used for food (groundnuts, soybeans, cowpea, pigeon pea) and herbaceous legumes used for soil restoration (Mucuna, Aeschynomene, and Stylosanthes). Below some brief information on these GMCCs is provided."}]},{"head":"The species Velvet Bean","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"The species"}]},{"head":"Velvet Bean","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"It is a popular leguminous cover crop introduced in 1987 among some 15 farmers through participatory farmer research in the Mono department of Benin (Vissoh, 2006) with the aim of increasing soil fertility. The crop can do well in areas with an altitude of < 1600 masl and > 1000 mm of rainfall. Two management systems have been developed in the sub-humid zone of southern Benin with the aim of integrating Mucuna into the cropping systems for soil fertility improvement and weed control. These systems include a) Mucuna establishment as a sole cover crop in short fallows for severely degraded fields and, b) Mucuna planted as a relay in maize fields that require less rehabilitation. In the bimodal zone of southern Benin, Mucuna is planted in March and April to maximize biomass accumulation and groundcover. However, the sowing date can be extended to May if rains are late. On average, Mucuna produces between 2 and 10 t ha -1 of dry matter and 200-2,000 kg ha -1 of grains per season (Cook et al., 2005). Mucuna was especially popular among farmers in 1990 due to its ability to suppress Cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica) and striga (Striga hermontica) weeds (Galiba et al., 1998) "}]},{"head":"Mucuna pruriens","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Maize biomass sampling in Western Kenya (photo: CIAT/Michael Kinyua)"}]},{"head":"Porcupine jointvetch","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Porcupine jointvetch","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"A dicot of the Fabaceae family, it is an herbaceous legume adapted to a broad range of soils and climates and thrives also in unfavourable (sandy, infertile, acidic and poorly drained) soil conditions. Introduced from Côte d'Ivoire in 1989, Aeschynomene (A. histrix) was evaluated in the savannahs of northern Benin in 1998 (Ehouinsou and Aboh, 1998). This evaluation focused on cropping techniques, tolerance of diseases and drought, management methods, biomass production, seed production and crude protein content. The result of the study indicated that A. histrix is adapted to the ecology of northern Benin savannahs. A. histrix was introduced to Benin for animal feeding and soil regeneration. The crop not only improves soil fertility but also acts as soil cover and produces large quantity of quality fodder especially during the dry season. A. histrix can produce 2 to 6 tons of dry matter and about 260 kg ha -1 y -1 of grains."}]},{"head":"Soybean","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"It is a grain legume with high productivity of biomass containing about 3.5% N and 0.15% P (Gachene and Kimaru, 2003). Soybean fixes up to 300 kg N ha -1 season -1 (Hungria et al., 2006) and contributes an equivalent of 112 kg N ha -1 to the succeeding crop (Gentry et al., 2001), restores and maintains soil fertility in a sustainable way leading to improved yields (Smaling et al., 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"crops (Galiba et al., 1998). In addition, when used in improved fallows, Mucuna significantly improved the subsequent crop yields. For example, after one-year fallow with Mucuna , increased maize grain yield was observed in both local (500 kg ha -1 ) and improved (800 kg ha -1 ) maize varieties (Versteeg and Koudokpon, 1993). The yield increase is consistent with estimated nitrogen inputs of more than 100 kg N ha -1 year -1 by Mucuna through biological nitrogen fixation (Fofana, 2005)."}]},{"head":"Aeschynomene histrix","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Soybean","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Glycine max","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Continued... "}]},{"head":"Cowpeas","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"They grow and mature within a period of between 60-80 days (Kamara et al., 2018). Cowpea is a stress-tolerant grain legume, vegetable, and fodder crop that is adapted to wide ranging climate conditions. The estimated N fertilizer replacement value of cowpea can range between 5 kg ha -1 (Carsky et al., 1999) and 80 kg N ha -1 year -1 , especially after incorporating cowpea residues or cultivating two legume seasons (Horst and Härdter, 1994). Intercropping cowpeas with cereal crops often reduces legume yields due to shading from the cereal crops (Olufajo and Sigh, 2002). However, a good performance is achieved when cowpea varieties with a spreading cover are cultivated compared to the erect varieties (Ewansiha et al., 2014)."}]},{"head":"Groundnuts","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"They are drought-tolerant nitrogen fixing legumes cultivated as a cash crop in Benin (Carder-Zou, 1999). The maturity stage of groundnuts ranges between 90-120 days depending on the variety planted (Masters et al., 2015). The crop has a self-pollinating characteristic hence seeds remain viable for a long time. In Zone IV of Benin, farmers intercrop groundnuts with sorghum while in Zone III, groundnut monocropping is practiced due to unsuitability of other crops as a result of striga invasion. Farmers in groundnut production do not generally utilize inorganic fertilizers; however, pod rot is evident in soils with low calcium levels leading to reduced pod filling and yields (Masters et al., 2015)."}]},{"head":"Vigna unguiculata","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Arachis hypogaea","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cowpeas Groundnuts","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Photo: CIAT / Michael Kinyua Photo: CCAFS / V. Meadu"}]},{"head":"11","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"CIAT Working Paper"}]},{"head":"Stylo Stylo","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"It is a perennial legume majorly grown for livestock fodder. It is well adopted in regions of < 1500 masl and rainfall of between 500 and 2000 mm (Cook et al., 2005). The crop is drought tolerant and can do well in soils with low fertility (Jones, 2003). On average, Stylosanthes produces about 1-6 t ha -1 season -1 of dry matter and 50-500 kg ha -1 season -1 of grains. Studies have reported Stylosanthes fallows to improve the grain yields of the subsequent cereal crops by 50-100 % as well as fixing > 100 kg N ha -1 annually (Sanginga et al., 1996). The various GMCCs grown in Benin, the year they were introduced, their main uses, and the regions grown are summarized in Table 2 below. "}]},{"head":"Stylosanthes hamata","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Soil fertility in Benin","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"The soils of Benin can be divided into two broad categories: (i) soils developed under a dry two-season and two rainy season climate and under dense bush shrub vegetation from the south; (ii) the soils developed under a one-season climate, a dry season and a rainy season, and under savannah vegetation (Adegbola et al., 2016). Soils of the first category have good physical properties, namely: high permeability, great depth, high resistance to erosion, and good-to-medium structural instability index. However, their water reserve is low. The physical properties of the second category of soils are less good: average permeability, fairly low depth, average erosion resistance, average structural instability index to be raised, and low water reserve. These two categories of soils have a common characteristic namely their low water reserve. This serious deficiency of soils in general in Benin is one of the main causes of poor crop yields as soon as the regularity of rainfall is no longer assured. The soil is drying up rapidly and the plants are wilting."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Apart from this general insufficiency of the Beninese soils, it must be added that those of the Sudano-Guinean zone, of the savannah, have more physical constraints to development (Igué et al., 2013). Their degradation accelerates as soon as they are cultivated, so they must be exploited with greater delicacy by implementing adapted conservation measures (Azontondé, 1991)."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"The major causes of degradation of the soils of Benin include: poor agricultural practices, clearance of marginal land for farming, charcoal processing, overgrazing, and destruction of biomass by recurrent bush fires or burning (Baba et al., 2016). Soil erosion is a big threat to agricultural production and has resulted in about 72% reduction in crop yields (Ziervogel et al., 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Similar to land degradation, issues of land tenure and security have not been adequately addressed by research and extension services (Igué et al., 2000)."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"The uncertainty in tenure security reduces farmers' confidence on long-term benefits from investments done on land improvement. On the contrary, increasing tenure security would result in farmer access to credits that not only promotes greater investment in short-term inputs but also enhances more investment in land conserving technologies (Saïdou et al., 2007)."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"Utilizing fallow periods in crop management enhances organic matter accumulation, which helps in gradual restoration of soil fertility. However, the increasing population and poverty is forcing people to reduce fallow periods without replenishing the soils through application of other soil amelioration strategies (Brabant et al., 1996). In addition, land-use changes that are not accompanied by soil protection and rehabilitation measures have also accelerated soil degradation."},{"index":7,"size":72,"text":"The advantages of using legumes as green manures or cover crops are: (1) they enrich the soil with the fixed biological N 2 , (2) conserve and recycle soil nutrients, (3) provide soil protection to reduce erosion, and (4) require little or no immediate mineral fertilizer. However, at planned intervals, tillage is required to support the establishment, maintenance, and incorporation of these green manures (Franzluebbers et al., 1998, Groot et al., 1998)."},{"index":8,"size":97,"text":"Soils in southern and central Benin have very low cation exchange capacity (Igué et al., 2013). According to this study, 68% of the soils in southern and central Benin have lost their agricultural potential and are in classes III and IV. This phenomenon is due to the nitrogen content, phosphorus, potassium, and the cation exchange capacity in soil. The nitrogen and phosphorus are the most important plant macronutrients whose deficiencies in the soil are limiting crop production threatening rural livelihoods in Benin (Saïdou et al., 2003). About 82% of the soils are ferruginous and associated with high"}]},{"head":"Canavalia ensiformis rotational phase -farmer in Western Kenya (photo: CIAT/Michael Kinyua)","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"P fixation (Fatima et al., 2006). Despite the reported nutrient deficiency in the majority of arable lands, utilization of inorganic fertilizers is mostly limited to cotton production. This is because cotton is the major cash crop that has been stimulated through State intervention in most areas of Benin (Saïdou et al., 2012;Honfoga, 2018). In Benin, maize is both a cash and a staple crop. However, fertilizer applied to maize is marginal and comes from residual effects in cottoncereal rotations (Saïdou et al., 2012). This could be attributed to the market prices for food crops being lower than the expenses incurred from buying fertilizers (Ivo, 2008). Crop response to fertilizer application is also unpredictable, thus reducing their usage by resource poor farmers (Honfoga, 2018). Furthermore, the marketoriented green revolution approach has emphasized on inorganic fertilizer usage while credit to farmers does not allow for employment of site-specific soil fertility management and adoption of mechanisms developed for risk response (Bellwood-Howard, 2014), thus sustainable agricultural intensification has not been achieved."}]},{"head":"Farming systems in Benin","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Crops and livestock farming","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"In Benin, cultivation is mainly subsistence under traditional farming systems (e.g. shifting cultivation), where low-capital inputs such as use of traditional tools, fertilizer, and irrigation are predominant (Mulindabigwi, 2006). Arable farming is practiced in southern, central, and northern regions (Manyong et al., 1996) with different resource endowment."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"While the Sudanian zones base their agriculture around maize on ferralitic and ferruginous soils, it is based on sorghum associated with either groundnut or cowpea. It is strongly recommended that both short-and mediumcycle varieties be introduced for the Sudanian zone."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"Southern Benin: it covers 10% of the country where 60% of the population resides. The area has high potential despite crop yields reducing over the recent years (Baba et al., 2016). The predominant land-use in the region is crop cultivation, where maize, cassava, beans, sorghum, and vegetables are grown. Cash crops include groundnut, oil palm, and cashew. Food crops are mainly intercropped while oil palm and cotton are generally monocropped. Remote fields are used for cotto n and maize cultivation in a bush fallow system (Manyong et al., 2000). Livestock farming in the region involves free grazing in fields after harvesting of the main crop."},{"index":4,"size":153,"text":"On ferralitic soil, two different management systems have been developed for the integration of Mucuna in cropping systems (Manyong et al., 2000). One is a unique fallow cover crop for severely degraded fields. The other is a corn/Mucuna relay crop for fields requiring less rehabilitation. For severely degraded and fields infested by Imperata, Mucuna should be planted in a pure stand at the beginning of the rainy season. Three or four weeks after planting Mucuna, a second cut may be necessary to allow Mucuna seedlings to defeat Imperata because it is a fast-growing weed. Production of 7 to 9 t ha -1 yr -1 of dry matter is generally observed in the bimodal rain zone (Vissoh et al., 1998). In the dry season, Mucuna completes its life cycle leaving a thick mulch free of weeds. This allows a subsequent maize harvest during the long rainy season with little or no preparation or weeding."}]},{"head":"Central Benin:","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"The zone characterized by land pressure due to continuous immigration from the southern region resulting in deforestation of primary forests and conversion into agricultural land for growing cotton, groundnut, and maize. For instance, the yambased cropping system in Zou (Djidja) has resulted in deforestation of the Bokou forest. Cotton cultivation is also expanding; cowpea is its complementary crop. High amounts of fertilizers and other inputs are used (Minot and Daniels, 2005). Livestock farming in the area by pastoralists, especially free grazing after harvest of the main crop, jeopardizes the adoption of GMCCs, e.g. Mucuna fallows, leading to conflicts between arable farmers and the pastoralists."}]},{"head":"Intercropped Mucuna (Mucuna pruriens) climbing on maize (Zea mays) plants -CESUD field staff in Western Kenya (photo: CIAT/Michael Kinyua)","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Northern Benin. The region is also characterized by lower population density than in other zones (Callo-Concha et al., 2012). The farming systems are either based on cotton or livestock production. Cotton production has received a lot of support by the government. However, livestock production is quite established and integrated in the arable farming activities. The increased demand for arable fields has resulted to opening up of more lands in the conserved areas. This has reduced grazing areas leading to over grazing that makes livestock farmers to invade croplands, hence triggering consistent conflicts in land-use (Callo-Concha et al., 2012). On the other hand, the unmet demand for arable land has shortened fallow periods, resulting to continuous cropping, which has increased land degradation (Igué et al., 2000). About 75% of farmers in Northern Benin use inorganic fertilizers, for selected crops, with profitability being achieved mainly in irrigated systems (Laube, 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"GMCCs are grown in pure culture and in combination with annual and perennial plants. In all agro-ecological zones, the association and rotation of corn-Mucuna with maize cultivation every year and planting of Mucuna every two years is noted. Under these conditions, there is no mineral fertilization. Other cropping systems are identical to the first, but with Mucuna planting every year. Maize is sown after rainfall greater than 15 millimeters, usually between April 15 and May 15, at a density of 62,500 plants per hectare at a rate of 2 grains per pocket. Harvesting is done between July 30 and August 30."}]},{"head":"Soil fertility management practices","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Farmers in Benin use several practices to manage the fertility of their land. Previous studies in northern Benin mention this behavior (de Haan, 1997;Wennink et al., 1999), which is also found throughout the Sudano-Sahelian region (Pieri, 1989;McIntire et al., 1992, Jabbar, 1994). The most commonly used practices in the various combinations are crop rotation, direct rotational stocking, mulching, mineral fertilizer inputs or organic fertilizer in the form of manure or compost, and the use of cover crops."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"The evolution of soil fertility management practices and strategies highlights the importance of the sustainable land management (SLM) issue. The diversity of practices also reflects the adaptation of farmers to new situations and also the inadequacy of the solutions provided by research and extension. Fallow land, the incorporation of legume biomass, soil cover, organic and mineral fertilization, and crop rotation are the types of practices that are taking place in all areas. But the intensity of use of practices varies according to land pressure, the importance of cotton growing, and the specificities of each agro-ecological zone. The practices are more diversified when the land pressure is stronger and when the fallow disappears. Diversification of practices is also a function of the level of integration of agriculture and livestock on the farm (Floquet et al., 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"In areas where land pressure is relatively low, crop residues are not used for soil fertility management. In areas where land pressure is high, mulching fields with crop residues, whether or not followed by direct rotational grazing, contributes to the maintenance of soil fertility."}]},{"head":"GIZ and other projects/programs promoting GMCCs in Benin","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"In a bilateral cooperation between the Federal Republic of Germany and the Republic of Benin, an initiative called One World No Hunger (SEWOH) was established. In this initiative, there were five projects: ProSOL, ProCIVA, ProSAR, ProFinA, and ProPFR and their general goal was resilient agriculture in the smallholder farms in Benin."}]},{"head":"Promotion of GMCCs by ProSOL","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"ProSOL (through GIZ) is one of the different SEWOH projects that promotes soil protection and restoration to boost food security in Benin. Its main objectives include implementation of soil rehabilitation, integration of SLM politically and institutionally, and enhancing SLM knowledge management and diffusion (Mulindabigwi, 2015). By targeting smallholder farmers, ProSOL works in 4 departments, 18 communes, and 385 villages (Figure 2)."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The areas were chosen due to low soil fertility, and their selection was based on the following criteria: Indicators of success for ProSOL/GIZ project are:"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"1. Twenty thousand (20,000) hectares of small farmland whose soils were highly degraded or having degradation potential are currently rehabilitated or protected."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"2. Yields of major crops (maize, soybeans, rice, and cotton) have increased on protected or rehabilitated fields compared to the unprotected.   • Sustainable maize production technique on pigeon pea, Mucuna, Aeschynomene, and Stylo through direct sowing using a cane and incorporation of the crop at the end of the season"},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• Sustainable cassava production in a sedentary cropping system with an integration of quickstick (Gliricidia sepium) vegetation and Aeschynomene"},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"• Sustainable production of quality yam in a sedentary cropping system with an integration of Mucuna, Gliricidia, Aeschynomene, and Stylosanthes"},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• Production of yam seed by mini-fragmentation (minissett) incorporating Mucuna as a cover crop"},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"• Sustainable production of yam in direct sowing systems of tropical Kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides) cover.  (Azontondé, 2000). Besides Mucuna, the partners introduced a variety of other GMCCs such as A. histrix and cowpea."}]},{"head":"Adoption of GMCCs in Benin","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Before Mucuna, Stylosanthes cultivation had been introduced in Benin in the late 1970s with the main target being increasing livestock fodder in the sub-humid zones of Benin (Amadji et al., 2003). In contrast to the fast adoption of Mucuna in southwestern Benin, adoption of Stylosanthes by farmers has been relatively low. This was due to low rainfall regime, lack of motivation of livestock keepers, insecure land tenure, limited capability and facilities of extension staff, and unsatisfactory establishment of the crop."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Under the renewed interest in GMCCs observed after 2010, e.g., the GIZ ProSOL project, new perspectives have been introduced, and farmers are changing their farming practices. Previously, crop residues were burned, but not anymore. Currently, cover crops are slashed and left in the field and main crop planted directly without tilling which saves time and labour. Moreover, eco-friendly residue handling technologies such as composting are being promoted."}]},{"head":"Constraints of adoption of GMCCs","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"After completion of various projects on GMCCs in Benin, adoption level of these crops decreases owing to various reasons. The main challenges were: 1) limited access to certified seeds due to poor organization of the seed system; 2) reduced diversity and little knowledge on productivity according to different agro-ecological regions reduced adoption rates (ProSOL, 2015); 3) land tenure system and the difficulty of integrating long-cycle crops such as cassava and yam with GMCCs (Agbokou et al., 2015); 4) high labour demand for maintenance; and 5) poor access to credit and agricultural inputs (Assogba et al., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"According to Vissoh (2006), the most important factors influencing adoption by farmers are weed infestation, land rights, contact with extension services, and other farm-specific variables. On the other hand, Adégbola et al. (2011) showed that the main factors that positively influence the decision of adoption by the producers are the level of formal education, the contact with the extension agents, and the market orientation. Likewise, the voluntary participation of beneficiaries in training actions is a factor that positively influences the adoption of technologies GMCCs (Jasaw et al., 2014). Due to climate variability and risks (Agossou et al., 2012), it becomes imperative for growers to use cover crops to guarantee the sustainable management of their land. Thus, producers' awareness of land degradation (Jasaw et al., 2014) and its impacts on their well-being is a motivating factor for them to adopt the technologies. Declining soil fertility resulting in lower crop yields determines farmers' adoption of GMCCs in their fields."}]},{"head":"Causes of no adoption","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"In Benin, non-adoption of Mucuna is related to difficulties in cropping activities due to high density of mucuna biomass, inedible grain, hosting rodents and reptiles, aggressive plant suppressing other crops if grown in association, highly flammable biomass when dry, and lack of specialization of Mucuna seed production (i.e., no Mucuna seed system in place). Establishing a value chain around seed production could be an alternative. On the other hand, self-pollinating characteristic of groundnuts and prolonged viability of the seeds makes large-scale seed production to be commercially unviable because farmers can replant and harvest their own seeds (Tsigbey et al., 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"With regard to the adoption of pigeon pea, the adoption rate is low in the north of Benin but moderate in the south (Assogba et al., 2017). In general, the main constraints are: grain does not cook easily, animal damage on produced biomass, dry biomass susceptible to fire, low yield and poor seed quality in the 2 nd year of production, lignified stems that are difficult to manage/ decompose and non-existence of technical itineraries."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"The difficulties of implementing technologies that are technically efficient are very restrictive to implement and are demanding, regardless of the technology considered (Akpinfa et al., 2016, Baba et al., 2016). For example, in the extreme northern and northeastern parts of Benin, characterized by agro-pastoral production systems, the biomass of Mucuna is well appreciated by animals and even therapeutic for them. Therefore, conflictual relationships prevail for Mucuna use as green manure and animal feeds."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Livestock farming in the area by pastoralists, especially free grazing after harvest of the main crop, jeopardizes the adoption of GMCCs, e.g. Mucuna fallows, leading to conflicts between arable farmers and the pastoralists."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"Land pressure due to continuous immigration in specific regions, e.g. central Benin, is not only reducing potential for pure GMCCs but also resulting in deforestation of primary forests and conversion into agricultural land for growing cotton, groundnut, and maize."},{"index":6,"size":89,"text":"Weaknesses in outreach strategies: Increasingly, the strategy put in place to promote the adoption of technologies by producers is based on the principle of cascade training (Assogba et al., 2017) Thus, the relay producers rarely return the training received and, given the high number of other potential beneficiaries of the actions of the projects, the technical agents concentrate their effort only on the relay producers. This often limits the scope for the real beneficiaries of the project to few relay producers, thus reducing the expected impact of the projects."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"Late gender considerations: Projects often do not integrate the gender dimension during their conception phase (Assogba et al., 2017). Also, the consideration of gender varies according to various projects. It translates into the involvement of women in production, processing, and marketing activities or in the extension of SLM technologies as model producers, housing demonstration plots."}]},{"head":"Social environment:","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"After great enthusiasm, the use of cover crops in Benin shows limits in the acceptability of these technologies by farmers (Séguy and Bouzinac, 2001). Often, the lack of direct economic return hinders their adoption in a more intensive farming system. The farmer rarely sees long-term fertility conservation as a driver of change (Lynch and Maggio, 2000)."}]},{"head":"Poverty:","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The work by Leach and Mearns (1992) established a theoretical causal relationship between poverty and the state of environmental degradation. It is, therefore, questionable whether poor farmers degrade the environment of the cultivated areas and adopt less practice of improved fallow with legumes. The theory has been applied to the particular situation of Benin."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"The main objective was to determine the influence of farmers' well-being on their production systems and their adoption of agroforestry: the cases of Mucuna and earleaf acacia (Acacia auriculiformis) in southern Benin (Houngbo et al., 2012). It has been shown that the poorer the farmers, the less they adopt Mucuna and then practice soil mining. Although farmers are aware of the positive effects of GMCCs, their adoption rate is generally low. Poorer class farmers adopt less technology than all other farmers. Poverty appears to be a decisive obstacle to the adoption of GMCCs in southern Benin in particular and in Benin in general (Floquet , 1998). Poverty alleviation is, therefore, needed to improve the adoption of sustainable agriculture practices in Benin. This fight can go through the valorization of seeds by producers. Establishing a value chain around seed production could be an alternative."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"Land tenure: For most rural populations in developing countries, apart from the labour force, land is the main factor of production, and often remains the only asset with which wealth can be generated and developed (Vendryes, 2014). The issue of land tenure security is often identified in Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers as a major focus for promoting agricultural growth and hence poverty reduction. This vision is based on theoretical reasons that tenure security promotes agricultural investment, access to credit (because land can be used as collateral), adoption of sustainable soil fertility management practices and agricultural productivity (Besley, 1995;Place and Otsuka, 2001;Abdulai et al., 2011)."}]},{"head":"GMCC context:","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Each GMCC has specific situations in which it can be adopted, and these need to be identified as a pre-condition. For Mucuna and leguminous shrubs, these have been identified as secondary production by the cover crop, high weed pressure to address, soil rich enough to support the main and secondary crop, shorter working time, and positive response of the main crop to the cover crop (Schulz et al., 2001;Hauser et al., 2002)."}]},{"head":"Western Kenya","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The context for GMCC cultivation in Western Kenya","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Western Kenya is a tropical region characterized by altitudinal variability and diverse soil types. Rainfall ranges between 1,000 to 2,000 mm per year and is distributed between two rainy seasons in most areas, with long rains in March to July and short rains from September to November. The predominant soil types in the region are Nitisols, Ferralsols and Acrisols (Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1982)."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Ferralsols are the most inherently nutrient depleted soils in sub-Saharan Africa. They cover extensive areas on generally well drained, flat land, are associated with old geomorphic surfaces, and are thus strongly weathered."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"Similarly, or only little less nutrient depleted are Acrisols. They are distinguished from Ferralsols by the accumulation of low activity clays in an argic (= Lat. for clay) subsurface horizon, and thus drainage may be hampered."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Both soils often have low cation exchange capacities (i.e., the capacity to adsorb and retain nutrients like potassium, calcium, and magnesium), a low soil pH accompanied with toxic amounts of aluminum, and deficient levels of micronutrients (boron, manganese, molybdenum)."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"Nitisols are deep, reddish, and well-drained soils with a nito-argillic (kaolinite dominated) subsurface horizon containing blocky structural elements with shiny faces. They are mainly derived from volcanic ash. The soils are fine textured, rich in iron, but less weathered than ferralsols. Nitisols are generally 'fertile' and unlike ferralsols and acrisols, they have a higher cation exchange capacity despite having low levels of soil available phoshorus."}]},{"head":"Canavalia ensiformis pods sampling in Western Kenya (photo: CIAT/Michael Kinyua)","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"About 68% of the region has high agricultural potential (Tittonell et al., 2008). Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are the major limiting nutrients to food production (Shepherd and Soule, 1998). The average farm sizes are between 0.5 and 2 ha. The region has diversified land-use systems ranging from smallholder subsistence farming to commercial farming along the sugar belt in the northern areas (Rotich et al., 1999). The main staple crops grown include maize, beans, cassava, sorghum, and finger millet, while cash crops include tea, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, coffee, vegetables, fruits, and rice. The main mineral fertilizers used are di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) at planting, and mavuno, calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) and urea for top dressing while triple super phosphate (TSP) and rock phosphate are less used (Tittonell et al., 2005;Sibusisiwe et al., 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Decline in soil fertility is a major factor that impedes crop productivity in Kenyan smallholder farming systems (Mugwe et al., 2009). In Western Kenya, especially, the majority of the smallholder farmers are resource poor and unable to purchase expensive inputs (Marenya and Barrett, 2007)  "}]},{"head":"\"The benefit-cost ratio is often too low to encourage farmers to apply fertilizer, because of the relatively high fertilizer price at farm gate, the low market price of food crops like maize and the high year-to-year variability of the agronomic efficiency of fertilizer applied.","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"An overestimation of the risk of failure to break even when applying fertilizer by farmers adds to the dilemma. Furthermore, fertilizer recommendations developed in the past often ignore differences between soils and are highly incompatible with smallholders' resources."}]},{"head":"Sommer et al., 2013","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Farm yard manure (FYM), alongside being unavailable at the recommended levels, is considered by most smallholder farmers as bulky and labour intensive during preparation and application (Odendo et al., 2006;Ngome et al., 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Intensive mono-cropped cultivation coupled with insufficient fertilizer inputs and short fallows has increased nutrient deficiencies and amplified the prevalence of pests and weeds like striga weed (Khan et al., 2002). Increased striga weed infestation has greatly decimated the agricultural productivity in some areas, occasioning poverty and food insecurity. Farmers, pressed specifically by soil infertility, took up short weedy fallows practiced by 52% of farmers (in about 10-50% total land) for one (24%) or two seasons (35%) to increase the fertility (Swinkels et al., 1997). But green manure cover crops smoothed out striga while also providing an environmentally sustainable yet cheaper route of enhancing soil health."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"In Kenya, GMCCs were introduced by the Legume Research Network Project (LRNP) in 1994 as a technology for curbing soil degradation through provision of soil cover and enhancing soil fertility (Mureithi et al., 2003a). Research on cover crops had initially been focusing on their utilization as livestock fodder with little consideration on their use in soil fertility management (Maobe et al., 1996), yet, their role in agricultural yield improvements was inevitable (Gachene et al., 2000). The major cover crops grown in western Kenya include lablab), jack bean, Crotalaria, velvet bean, Desmodium, groundnut, Stylosanthes, canola (C."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"juncea), siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum), and soybean."}]},{"head":"Canavalia ensiformis rotational phase -farmer in Western Kenya (photo: CIAT/Michael Kinyua)","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Green Manure Cover Crops in Benin and Western Kenya -A Review 22"}]},{"head":"GMCCs and their integration in cropping systems in Western Kenya","index":45,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lablab","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"It is a herbaceous leguminous crop with multiple uses. It grows well between altitudes of 0 and 1,800 masl. Although susceptible to pests and diseases, lablab is drought tolerant. It is a source of food and fodder, and is easily intercropped with cereals such as maize and sorghum. Within such intercropping, it is interseeded 3-4 weeks after maize to reduce competition. The nutrient content in lablab biomass is about 4% N and 0.18% P."}]},{"head":"Mucuna","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"It is an efficient climber and has high soil fertility amelioration potential. It grows at latitudes between 0 and 1,800 masl. In order to reduce competition with the main crop, Mucuna is best established as an intercrop 3-4 weeks after the cereal emergence. The Mucuna nutrient content is about 3.6% N and 0.17% P (Gachene and Kimaru, 2003). However, its utilization as food is limited because it contains anti-nutritional compounds such as phenolics, L-Dopa, tannins protease inhibitors, lectins, etc. (Eze et al., 2017). In addition, there is conflicting information regarding its utility as both food and feed leading to underutilization of the crop (Pugalenthi et al., 2005). Because of its competitiveness during growth, the crop can be used for weed suppression. In addition, Mucuna is a good nitrogen fixer, improves soil fertility, and controls soil erosion."}]},{"head":"Lablab Mucuna","index":48,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lablab purpureus","index":49,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mucuna pruriens","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Photo: CIAT / Michael Kinyua Photo: CIAT / Michael Kinyua CIAT Working Paper"}]},{"head":"Canavalia","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"It grows well at altitudes between 0 and 1,800 masl (Gachene and Kimaru, 2003). The nutrient concentration in Canavalia biomass is about 3.5% N and 0.16% P (Gachene and Kimaru, 2003). It is a useful livestock fodder, good soil cover and ameliorant, tolerant of drought and shade. It is usually sown as a relay crop 4 weeks after maize establishment."}]},{"head":"Crotalaria","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"It is a fast-growing drought-tolerant legume with excellent nodulation (hence effective N fixation capacity) and nematode suppression properties, and is important in rehabilitation of infertile land, especially if planted as a fallow crop. Crotalaria does well at altitudes between 1,300 and 1,800 masl. The legume can be intercropped 3 weeks after planting, matures within 3-4 months, and is adapted to poor soils. Nutrient concentration of Crotalaria biomass is 3.0-3.6% N, 0.13-0.14% P, and 0.9-1.6% K (Gachene and Kimaru, 2003). Crotalaria fallow, as soil fertility management, recycles about 163 kg N ha -1 season -1 and 11 kg P ha -1 season -1 from the biomass and increases total soil C by 1.5-1.6 g C kg -1 compared to systems without GMCCs (Thor-Smestad et al., 2002). Some varieties are edible while others can only be used as fodder before flowering because seeds are highly toxic."}]},{"head":"Crotalaria Canavalia","index":53,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Crotalaria ochroleuca","index":54,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Canavalia ensiformis","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Photo: Genebank CIAT Photo: CIAT / Michael Kinyua"}]},{"head":"Soybean","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"It is a grain legume with high biomass productivity. It is commonly regarded a main cash crop. However, soybean has also been promoted as a green manure legume that provides surface cover, soil amelioration (retention of residues), and nitrogen fixation (Mureithi et al., 2003b;Vanlauwe et al., 2003;Onyango et al., 2004;Misiko et al., 2008). In Western Kenya, soybean is mainly produced in Kakamega, Mumias, Bungoma, Busia, Teso, Lugari, Mount Elgon, and Vihiga. Mumias, Busia, and Bungoma districts are the leading soybean producers out of the eight regions (Chianu et al., 2008). The nutrient content in soybean biomass is about 3.52% N and 0.15% P (Gachene and Kimaru, 2003)."}]},{"head":"Desmodium","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"It is a cover crop that grows well in altitudes between 0 and 1,900 masl. The nutrient content in Desmodium biomass is about 3.4% N and 0.15% P (Gachene and Kimaru, 2003). Desmodium plays an important role in weed management in Western Kenya, where it suppresses striga infestation through allelopathic effects of its root exudates (Midega et al., 2013;Khan et al., 2002). Desmodium, once established, is efficient in N 2 -fixation and soil cover provision."}]},{"head":"Desmodium Soybean","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Desmodium intortum; green leaf"}]},{"head":"Glycine max","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Photo: CIAT / Michael Kinyua Photo: CIAT / Michael Kinyua"}]},{"head":"25","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"CIAT Working Paper"}]},{"head":"Cowpea","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"It is a stress-tolerant grain legume, vegetable, and fodder crop that is adapted to wide ranging climate conditions. In the late 1990s, some 52 cowpea cultivars were screened in Western Kenya for adaptation, biomass yield, and maturity period. Local cultivars are more productive in terms of biomass yield (Saha and Muli, 2000)."}]},{"head":"Groundnuts","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"They are legumes mostly grown in the lower midland (LM1-4) agroecological zones of Western Kenya (MoA, 1996). It is a persistent and drought-tolerant legume though its growth can be retarded if the cumulative monthly rainfall is below 100 mm. In Western Kenya, the crop can produce between 600 and 700 kg/ha/season of grains (Langat et al., 2006) and 2-2.5 t ha -1 season -1 of dry matter."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"A. hypogaea accumulates more nitrogen than Mucuna although the latter is able to fix more N from the atmosphere (Ngome et al., 2011)."}]},{"head":"Cowpea Groundnuts","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Vigna unguiculata L. Walp"}]},{"head":"Arachis hypogaea","index":64,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Photo: CCAFS / V. Meadu Photo: www.tropicalforages.info/ILRI"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The main GMCC cropping systems in Western Kenya can be distinguished into three:"},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Intercropping GMCC with maize: practiced in regions receiving bimodal rainfall with two maize crops per year. The GMCCs are planted either concurrently (single row) with maize or two weeks after planting the main crop. Intercropping has about 30% lower GMCC grain production compared to rotational systems (Okoko et al., 1998, Kipkoech et al., 2007)."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"Relay-cropped GMCC with maize: mainly in regions receiving unimodal rainfall. Maize is mostly planted in April while GMCCs are added in August. To improve insolation of the young GMCC plants, sometimes the lower maize leaves are clipped. Cover crops are left growing after maize is harvested, and are incorporated into the soil at field preparation in the successive season."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"Maize-GMCC rotation: mainly in areas receiving bimodal rainfall but with unreliable second season, or where farmers do not cultivate maize in the second season. GMCCs are planted in September and are incorporated during land preparation in the succeeding year."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"Other emerging cropping systems where GMCCs are integrated by farmers include:"},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":"Intercropped with vegetables: upright growing legumes like Crotalaria, and jack bean can be intercropped with vegetables since they do not entwine the vegetables and leave enough light for the, usually low-growing, vegetables."}]},{"head":"GIZ work in Western Kenya","index":65,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Work by GIZ in Western Kenya can be traced back to early 1990s. In 1993-1998, GTZ in collaboration with the Kenyan government and FAO established a soybean Project (SBP), which was implemented in two phases (1993-1995 and 1996-1998). The focus was to foster development of the soybean sector, variety research i.e., developing soybean varieties for the different agroecological zones with production potential, promoting production, processing, and consumption, and offering market information. The key area of research was establishing trials for experimenting adaptability of the various soybean varieties, germplasm acquisition, and examining responses to fertilizers and rhizobium. Yield prospects from six varieties (of 300 lines) assessed in GTZ SBP project (1993-1998) ranged from 600 to 1,900 kg ha -1 depending on the agro-ecological conditions."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"More recently, GIZ is working on \"Sustainable approaches for the broad-based promotion of soil protection and rehabilitation of degraded soils\" in Western Kenya with MoA through KALRO, acting as their main implementing partner. GIZ has offered intervention in three counties of Western Kenya, namely Siaya, Kakamega, and Bungoma, where about 247,500 smallholder farmers have been reached. About 33,000 hectares of smallholder-cultivated land, which is affected by degradation, is targeted for rehabilitation or protection. A total of 7,384 hectares have already been rehabilitated. Funding has been directed towards supporting smallholder farmers in"}]},{"head":"Stylo","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"It is a perennial legume, mainly adapted to sub-humid and humid regions with altitudes of between 1,000 and 1,800 masl and 1,000-2,200 mm rainfall. It is tolerant to both drought (deep penetrating roots) and shade, hence suitable for intercropped systems. Stylo can produce high volumes of organic matter by shedding its small leaves, an attribute that helps it to survive dry seasons in a deciduous state. The legume has better branch ramification when cut about 15 cm above the ground and can produce a dry matter of up to 3 t ha -1 when harvested after 4 months of establishment (Macharia et al., 2010). GIZ is looking forward to generating a handbook on soil protection that will be used in the provision of action-oriented overview of common practices and their impacts for adaptation to climate change and biodiversity conservation by the agricultural advisory service and farmers. The main challenge to their work in Western Kenya is the exceptional climatic and weather events, which prevent yield increase despite the laid measures to revitalize the soil. GIZ produces contextspecific technological packages and joint operational plans for soil conservation and rehabilitation of degraded lands where 50% of the planned activities in package are implemented in each of the three districts. They also offer special promotion of women-friendly technologies in soil protection e.g. CA and agroforestry."}]},{"head":"Stylo","index":67,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Stylosanthes hamata","index":68,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Besides GIZ, others that worked or are working with GMCCs in Western Kenya are shown in Table 4. "}]},{"head":"The adoption of GMCCs technology in Western Kenya","index":69,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Employing green manure cover technologies in the farming systems can help in increasing cereal yields through improved soil fertility (Fofana et al., 2004;Kifuko et al., 2007). However, adoption of GMCCs by farmers is generally low due to a wide range of biophysical and socio-economic factors that increase the level of complexity and variability of smallholder farming systems (Kipkoech et al., 2007;Ndufa et al., 2007). Utilization of GMCCs in smallholder farming systems has also been associated with several constraints that have hindered or reduced their cultivation in Western Kenya. Some of these constraints include: lack of cultivation knowledge, inaccessibility to seeds, reduced research on new accessions of seeds adaptable to the changing climate, increased labour during cultivation and incorporation, loss of crop season when rotated with food crops, among others. More attention has been given to some of the above mentioned constraints. Identification and address of these constraints is critical to enhance adoption of the GMCC technologies by smallholder farmers."}]},{"head":"Inadequate GMCC cultivation knowledge by farmer","index":70,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Lack of GMCC cultivation knowledge was ranked the top reason why farmers in Bungoma, Siaya, and Teso had low cover crop adoption (Wakhu-Wamunga et al., 2014). In Siaya and Teso, farmers were reluctant to adopting GMCC cultivation and utilization despite the recommendations from agricultural officers. In addition, lack of knowledge on the multiple use of GMCC crops reduced their adoption rates. For example, during a survey in Kakamega and Trans Nzoia regions, farmers had knowledge on a specific Crotalaria species that is utilized as a vegetable but were not aware of species used for soil fertility management (Odendo et al., 2000). This is evident by the existence of projects e.g. \"Scaling up farmer-led seed enterprises for sustained productivity and livelihoods in Eastern and Central Africa\" by ASARECA and other partners who were promoting the crop for vegetable use and not for soil fertility improvement (Karanja et al., 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Because of the few agricultural extension agents in Western Kenya, the small number of farmers accessing the knowledge on utility of green manure legumes for soil fertility are those hosting green manure trials (Ndufa et al., 2007). This could be one of the reasons for the limited GMCC technology diffusion in the region."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"In addition, the majority of farmers implementing the GMCC technology have inadequate knowledge of cultivation, production, seed preservation, and storage, which leads to post-harvest losses that discourage their cultivation (Ndufa et al., 2007)."},{"index":4,"size":164,"text":"On the part of implementers and promoters of GMCCs, there is lack of knowledge on decomposition, mineralization, nutrient demand-supply synchrony, fertilizer equivalence values of GMCCs, and time of residue incorporation in relation to time of planting the main crop. This may hinder their ability to offer proper recommendations to farmers on the type of GMCC species to cultivate, when, and the amount of residues to apply so as to meet the varying nutrient requirements in specific farmer fields. The soil biophysical and economic benefits derived from GMCC technology should be exhaustively exploited so that farmers know the profitability of adopting the various GMCCs. Lack of knowledge on nutritive benefits in some of the cover crops such as Mucuna could be a major drawback for its adoption considering that the crop is unsuitable for utilization as food (Eze et al., 2017). However, the promoters of GMCC (MoA Bungoma, GOPA) are developing appropriate and cost-effective methods of eliminating such antinutritious factors in legume diets (i.e., Mucuna)."}]},{"head":"Inadequate farm labour","index":71,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Over 60% of farmers in Kakamega and Trans Nzoia experimenting with GMCCs pointed out that green manure legumes technology in the trials did not require much labour due to the small sizes of experimental plots. However, the farmers could foresee that much labour would be required in their own larger farms (Odendo et al. 2000). The labour needs resulted from legumes being established concurrently with the main crop at the onset of rains. Secondly, children no longer supplement the limited household labour because they have to report to school. Labour groups that used to help in reducing workloads during farm management are no longer in existence hence the farmer has to pay for casual labour (Ojiem et al., 2007). In most cases, labour shortage results to delayed start of field activities which derail the realization of full potential of the GMCC adoption."}]},{"head":"Accessibility of farm inputs","index":72,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":243,"text":"In as much as a large pool of farmers may want to adopt the GMCC technologies, they are faced with limited legume seed and fertilizer access. In 2018, a scoping mission in Western Kenya revealed that some GMCC seeds have low viability if stored for long, and failure to access fresh seeds affects plant density and establishment. Screening studies on the suitability of different legumes for the varying agro-ecological zones of western Kenya were done for decades and recommendations provided, which in most cases are yet to be applied. For example, in 1998, a survey on 300 lines of soybean recommended Nyala, Duiker, EAI3600, SCSI, Sable, and Gazelle varieties for release as a result of their high grain production potential (Kaara et al. 1998). However, there are very few agro-dealers selling the improved GMCC seeds with the cost of most of the cover crops being higher than farmers can afford (Kiwia et al., 2009). These constraints leave farmers with no option but to recycle the locally available seeds from the previous harvest (Kiptot et al., 2006). A farmer participatory study on groundnut production revealed that grain yields from locally accessed seeds were 30-50% lower than improved seeds (Okoko et al., 1998, Kipkoech et al., 2007). Therefore, if GMCC adoption rate is to increase in the region, a solution has to be provided on the availability and accessibility of improved GMCC varieties that are tolerant of abiotic stresses and adaptable to specific/multiple agro-ecological zones."}]},{"head":"Adaptability of GMCCs to the changing climatic conditions","index":73,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The suitability and performance of the various GMCC species is dependent on the physical environment in which it is cultivated. As the environmental conditions consistently change, crops that were previously grown by farmers become no longer suitable for these areas. For example, Ojiem et al., (2007) reported how farmers in Bondo district experienced changes in cover crop production over time. Cowpea, which they used to plant as relay in maize systems, is no longer suitable with delays in planting increasing the chances for crop failure (Ojiem et al., 2007). In addition, groundnut production has also declined with farmers getting between 30 and 50% of their potential yield (Kidula et al., 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"The changing climate has also resulted to unreliable rainfall and emergence of new pests and diseases, which affect the existing cover crops. Therefore, there is a heightened need for better strategies and improved GMCC accessions that can be integrated into the existing cropping systems while concurrently promoting climate-smart soil protection and rehabilitation."}]},{"head":"Increasing population with decreasing land holdings","index":74,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Western Kenya has been experiencing agricultural intensification that has led to continuous crop production and population growth (Valbuena et al., 2015). However, the average farm holding in the region is continuously reducing, thus limiting the utilization of crop rotation, which accelerates soil degradation (Nambiro, 2008). Utilization of cover crops in cereal rotations could lead to loss of a crop season, particularly if the cultivated legume has anti-nutritional value, e.g. Mucuna. This would lead to farmers considering continuous cereal cropping or cultivating other crops with nutritional value but that does not necessarily improve soil fertility."}]},{"head":"Sustainability of the introduced technologies","index":75,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"After completion of projects promoting the use of GMCC technologies in western Kenya, no strategies are put in place to address on how a critical momentum beyond a project can be maintained in order to sustain the utilization of the introduced technologies. This results to farmer dropping the technologies, hence the expected transformation in smallholder farmer production is not achieved (Okoko, 2000). There is hence a need to plan on how such technologies can be sustained after project completion so as to achieve the ideal objectives of soil rehabilitation and nutrient management."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":76,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"x GMCCs have a positive influence on crop production and soil fertility."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"x In order to continue promoting the GMCCs, there is need to focus on quality GMCC seeds. Improved seeds with high viability should be easily accessible and affordable to farmers. Development of new accessions of leguminous and gramineous cover crops that can tolerate weather variability under different agro-ecological zones and can be utilized in different land use systems."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"x Generation and distribution of seeds which are compatible with the cropping systems, e.g. growth behaviour (upright, minimal competition for light and moisture) should suit utilization as intercrops."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"x Introduction of GMCCs that favor multiple uses encourages farmer adoption since they can be utilized as soil ameliorant, crop protection, fodder, and feed for the animals."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"x There is a need to increase farmer knowledge on cultivation and utilization of GMCC. This could help in eliminating acquired beliefs on some GMCCs that negatively affect their adoption by smallholder farmers."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"x Both economic characterization (post-harvest handling, marketing) and niche identification for GMCCs should also form part of future research."},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"x There should be farmer awareness on improved practices, besides the communal grazing on agricultural fields that causes compaction, and integration of GMCCs in such practices for soil rehabilitation."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"x In Benin, the government should ensure public sensitization on the need for a mutual understanding and co-existence between the conflicting arable farmers and livestock keepers."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"Taking soil water infiltration test in conventional tillage system -WHH and CIAT staff in Western Kenya (photo: CIAT/Michael Kinyua)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 :Figure 2 : Figure 1: Map of agro-ecological zones of Benin ....................................................................................................................... 5 Figure 2: ProSOL intervention zones in Benin ...........................................................................................................................15 "},{"text":"Zone 1 :Figure 1 Figure 1Map of agro-ecological zones of Benin. Source: MAEP (2001). "},{"text":" growth period. Source: LSSEE, Centre of Agricultural Research of Agonkanmey, INRAB (2016). "},{"text":"3. Development of legal texts encouraging the implementation of soil protection and remediation measures with positive impacts on climate change and adaptation have been approved in February 2019 (GIZ, 2015). The different ProSOL sites are characterised by the conditions illustrated in "},{"text":" at the right quantity and time to boost soil fertility(Yawson et al., 2010)  and improve their yields. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Key characteristics of the eight agro-ecological zones of Benin ....................................................................... 6  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Species of GMCCs promoted in different regions of Benin and their main uses .......................................11  "},{"text":"Table 3 : General characteristics of ProSOL sites in Benin ..................................................................................................16  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Other key partners and organizations that have worked on GMCCs in Western Kenya ........................27  "},{"text":"Table 2 Species of GMCCs promoted in different regions of Benin and their main uses ORGANIZATION YEAR PROMOTED GMCC SPECIES USE(S) REGION ORGANIZATIONYEAR PROMOTEDGMCC SPECIESUSE(S)REGION MRD_RAMR; IITA; RTIN 1987 Mucuna pruriens Weed control, green manure, fodder Southern Benin: Zouzouvou MRD_RAMR; IITA; RTIN1987Mucuna pruriensWeed control, green manure, fodderSouthern Benin: Zouzouvou RACRDs; SG 2000 1990-1995 Mucuna pruriens Green manure, fodder Atacora, Atlantique, Borgou, Mono, Ouémé, and Zou RACRDs; SG 20001990-1995Mucuna pruriensGreen manure, fodderAtacora, Atlantique, Borgou, Mono, Ouémé, and Zou INRAB; RD Savè; PADSE; AFD 1998-2004 Mucuna pruriens, Aeschynomene histrix Weed control, fodder, food Collines and Alibori INRAB; RD Savè; PADSE; AFD1998-2004Mucuna pruriens, Aeschynomene histrixWeed control, fodder, foodCollines and Alibori   Gliricidia sepium,   Gliricidia sepium, FAO; INRAB; CRA-Center 2005 Aeschynomene histrix, Mucuna pruriens, Stylosanthes hamata, Arachis hypogea, Vigna Green manure, food Collines region: Miniffi, Gomé, Akpéro, and Ouessè FAO; INRAB; CRA-Center2005Aeschynomene histrix, Mucuna pruriens, Stylosanthes hamata, Arachis hypogea, VignaGreen manure, foodCollines region: Miniffi, Gomé, Akpéro, and Ouessè   unguiculata, and Glycine Max   unguiculata, and Glycine Max  "},{"text":"Intervention by ProSOL in the 18 communes targeted    ProSOL Intervention Zones  ProSOL Intervention Zones DEPARTMENT COMMUNES CLIMATIC ZONES SOILS VEGETATION CROPPING SYSTEM DEPARTMENTCOMMUNESCLIMATIC ZONESSOILSVEGETATIONCROPPING SYSTEM Alibori Borgou Alibori: 85 Kandi: 19 Gougonou: 29 Gogounou, Kandi, Ségbana Sudanian with a single rainy season of 800 to 1,200 mm a year Ségbana: 13 Banikoara: 24 Sudanian with a single Bembèrèkè, rainy season of 900 to Kalalé, Sinendé 1,000 mm per year -Tropical ferruginous soils on crystalline base -High proportion of leached soils and low concretions -Tropical ferruginous soils with highly variable characteristics -Average fertility Borgou: 86 -Maize/millet-based but with reduced millet Acacia sieberiana (thorny) -Shaded shrub with -More developed cotton-and Butyrospermum based and often use of parkii (Shea butter) rotation system -Heavily degraded by -Starting yam-based zone anthropogenic activities -Often use of ridging tillage Sinendé: 24 -Sorghum/yam-based with Bembèrèkè: 40 high extension of cotton/ Kalalé: 22 Tree/shrub savannah maize-based dominated by -Yam used in rotation B. parkii system Alibori BorgouAlibori: 85 Kandi: 19 Gougonou: 29 Gogounou, Kandi, Ségbana Sudanian with a single rainy season of 800 to 1,200 mm a year Ségbana: 13 Banikoara: 24 Sudanian with a single Bembèrèkè, rainy season of 900 to Kalalé, Sinendé 1,000 mm per year-Tropical ferruginous soils on crystalline base -High proportion of leached soils and low concretions -Tropical ferruginous soils with highly variable characteristics -Average fertilityBorgou: 86 -Maize/millet-based but with reduced millet Acacia sieberiana (thorny) -Shaded shrub with -More developed cotton-and Butyrospermum based and often use of parkii (Shea butter) rotation system -Heavily degraded by -Starting yam-based zone anthropogenic activities -Often use of ridging tillage Sinendé: 24 -Sorghum/yam-based with Bembèrèkè: 40 high extension of cotton/ Kalalé: 22 Tree/shrub savannah maize-based dominated by -Yam used in rotation B. parkii system    -Sensitive to leaching  -Often use of weeding-hills -Sensitive to leaching-Often use of weeding-hills  Collines: 64   tillage Collines: 64tillage  Bantè: 18   -No dominant cropping Bantè: 18-No dominant cropping  Savalou: 46   system Savalou: 46system Collines, Zou Bantè, Savalou; Djidja Sudano-Guinean with two rainy seasons in South and one in North 1,000 to 1,200 mm per year -Tropical ferruginous soils on crystalline base -Tropical ferruginous soils on crystalline block with highly variable characteristics Zou: 150 Djidja: 21 Bohicon: 6 Covè: 4 Abomey: 8 Zogbodomey: 25 Tree/shrub savannah dominated by Danifiaohiori Ouinhi: 35 Za-Kpota: 24 Zagnanado: 9 Agbangnizoun: 18 -Use of maize, cowpea, and peanut in second season -Peanut and cotton are very important crops in the area -Cotton is used in rotation Collines, ZouBantè, Savalou; DjidjaSudano-Guinean with two rainy seasons in South and one in North 1,000 to 1,200 mm per year-Tropical ferruginous soils on crystalline base -Tropical ferruginous soils on crystalline block with highly variable characteristicsZou: 150 Djidja: 21 Bohicon: 6 Covè: 4 Abomey: 8 Zogbodomey: 25 Tree/shrub savannah dominated by DanifiaohioriOuinhi: 35 Za-Kpota: 24 Zagnanado: 9 Agbangnizoun: 18 -Use of maize, cowpea, and peanut in second season -Peanut and cotton are very important crops in the area -Cotton is used in rotation      -Use of weeding-hills and -Use of weeding-hills and      ridging tillage ridging tillage      -Primary crops are maize -Primary crops are maize      (used in rotation), peanut (used in rotation), peanut Zou Abomey, Agbangnizoun, Bohicon, Covè, Zagnanado, Za-Kpota Sudano-Guinean two rainy seasons -800 to 1,200 mm per year in West -1,000 to 1,400 mm per year in East -Degraded rhodic ferralsols \"terre de barre\" -Leached soils and easy for cropping -Mostly degraded soils Dense shrubby thicket dominated by oil palm and grasses and cassava. -Disappearance of yam -Abundant presence of oil palm + vineyard palm -Presence of cotton in some dry areas -Flatland cropping system ZouAbomey, Agbangnizoun, Bohicon, Covè, Zagnanado, Za-KpotaSudano-Guinean two rainy seasons -800 to 1,200 mm per year in West -1,000 to 1,400 mm per year in East-Degraded rhodic ferralsols \"terre de barre\" -Leached soils and easy for cropping -Mostly degraded soilsDense shrubby thicket dominated by oil palm and grassesand cassava. -Disappearance of yam -Abundant presence of oil palm + vineyard palm -Presence of cotton in some dry areas -Flatland cropping system      in West and ridge cropping in West and ridge cropping      system in East system in East Zou Zogbodome Sudano-Guinean two rainy seasons 800 to 1,200 mm per year in the West 1,000 to 1,400 mm in the East -Very deep clay and humus soils -Fertile but often hydromorphic and difficult to work Semi-deciduous dense forest with tall trees -Dominated flatland cropping system with maize used in rotation -Maize, cowpea, cassava marshland cropping system ZouZogbodomeSudano-Guinean two rainy seasons 800 to 1,200 mm per year in the West 1,000 to 1,400 mm in the East-Very deep clay and humus soils -Fertile but often hydromorphic and difficult to workSemi-deciduous dense forest with tall trees-Dominated flatland cropping system with maize used in rotation -Maize, cowpea, cassava marshland cropping system  "},{"text":"Table 3 General characteristics of ProSOL sites in Benin DEPARTMENT COMMUNES CLIMATIC ZONES SOILS VEGETATION CROPPING SYSTEM DEPARTMENTCOMMUNESCLIMATIC ZONESSOILSVEGETATIONCROPPING SYSTEM      -Based system = maize -Based system = maize      (used in rotation) + (used in rotation) +     -Grassy Savannah- cowpea and marshland -Grassy Savannah-cowpea and marshland   Sudano-Guinean two -Very fertile alluvial soils Prairie cropping system Sudano-Guinean two-Very fertile alluvial soilsPrairiecropping system Zou Ouinhi rainy seasons 1,000 to -Less fertile sandy soils -Formation of swampy -Dominance of maize/ ZouOuinhirainy seasons 1,000 to-Less fertile sandy soils-Formation of swampy-Dominance of maize/   1,400 mm per year on the coast Raphia cassava-based in no sandy 1,400 mm per yearon the coastRaphiacassava-based in no sandy     -Some mangroves zones -Some mangroveszones      -Cropping on ridge or on -Cropping on ridge or on      flatland flatland Source: Igué et al. (2017).     Source: Igué et al. (2017).  "},{"text":"2 Other organizations working on GMCCs in Benin The National Institute of Agricultural Research of Benin (INRAB) is the public institution responsible for scientific and technical research. In 2016, GIZ collaborated with INRAB and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) to promote the cultivation of a number of GMCCs and was able to produce a Technical and Information Document on analysis of research and innovation work for sustainable land management in Benin. The document shows a number of technologies the institution has promoted from 1996 to 2015. Notable work by INRAB includes introducing 10 cowpea varieties, studies on Mucuna (which took the forefront), and promotion of the following cropping systems:  "},{"text":"2.6.1 History of the adoption of GMCCs in Benin In  More implementing partners joined in GMCCs More implementing partners joined in GMCCs technology transfer process for increased soil technology transfer process for increased soil rehabilitation and fertility in different regions of Benin. rehabilitation and fertility in different regions of Benin. For example, Benin's Regional Action Centers for For example, Benin's Regional Action Centers for Rural Development (RACRDs) in close collaboration Rural Development (RACRDs) in close collaboration with Sasakawa Global 2000 (SG 2000) accelerated this with Sasakawa Global 2000 (SG 2000) accelerated this spontaneous adoption process in six departments, spontaneous adoption process in six departments, namely Atacora, Atlantique, Borgou, Mono, Ouémé namely Atacora, Atlantique, Borgou, Mono, Ouémé and Zou. According to Manyong et al. (1998), Mucuna and Zou. According to Manyong et al. (1998), Mucuna adoption in Mono province would result to savings of adoption in Mono province would result to savings of about 6, about 6,  "},{"text":"Table 4 Other key partners and organizations that have worked on GMCCs in Western Kenya PARTNERS YEAR GMCC TYPE OBJECTIVES/CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED PARTNERSYEARGMCC TYPEOBJECTIVES/CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED Rockefeller Foundation and    Rockefeller Foundation and KALRO through Sustainable Community Oriented Development Programme 2005-2009 Soybean -Soybean increase, commercialization and marketing of soybean KALRO through Sustainable Community Oriented Development Programme2005-2009Soybean-Soybean increase, commercialization and marketing of soybean (SCODP)    (SCODP) BIOTA-subproject and KALRO 2007 Desmodium -Effect of combined organic and inorganic inputs on maize growth BIOTA-subproject and KALRO2007Desmodium-Effect of combined organic and inorganic inputs on maize growth Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation 2008-2010 Soybean -Focusing productivity in drought-prone areas (Butere, Mumias, Migori, Teso, and Busia) Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation2008-2010Soybean-Focusing productivity in drought-prone areas (Butere, Mumias, Migori, Teso, and Busia)    -Maize grain yield after intercropping desmodium varieties -Maize grain yield after intercropping desmodium varieties German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) 2009-2010 Desmodium -Varying Desmodium cutting regimes impacts on maize production and Striga German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD)2009-2010Desmodium-Varying Desmodium cutting regimes impacts on maize production and Striga    -Economic viability of Desmodium spp. and cutting regimes -Economic viability of Desmodium spp. and cutting regimes KALRO, Cornell University    KALRO, Cornell University (USA), University of Nairobi,    (USA), University of Nairobi, Egerton University, Appropriate    Egerton University, Appropriate Rural Development Agriculture    Rural Development Agriculture Program (ARDAP), Rural Energy    Program (ARDAP), Rural Energy and Food Security Organization    and Food Security Organization (REFSO), and AVENE Community    (REFSO), and AVENE Community Development Organization    Development Organization  "},{"text":"- Integrate promising multipurpose grain legumes into farming system (Nandi, Vihiga, and Busia Counties) -Develop, refine, and scale out promising legume options for improved system productivity  "}],"sieverID":"3c182f81-afe3-48a8-8221-b78802279e0b","abstract":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) is a CGIAR research center. CIAT works in collaboration with multiple partners to make farming more competitive, profitable, and sustainable through research-based solutions in agriculture and the environment. We help policymakers, scientists, and farmers respond to some of the most pressing challenges of our time, including food insecurity and malnutrition, climate change, and environmental degradation. Our global research contributes to several of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. Headquartered in Cali, Colombia, CIAT conducts research for development in tropical regions of Latin America, Africa, and Asia. www.ciat.cgiar.org CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future, dedicated to reducing poverty, enhancing food and nutrition security, and improving natural resources."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"032f0d950d53e4afee9571e8bb5899de","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H042257.pdf"},"pageCount":7,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Six low-cost smallholder solutions developed by local communities in India and Nepal have improved the livelihoods and food security of poor farmers across South Asia. With funding from DFID, IWMI evaluated the six practices used by these communities over a three year period, beginning in April 2000. Local development organizations worked directly with smallholders at grassroots level to implement the practices, which are all environmentally acceptable. The good news is that these technologies can be replicated in other areas with similar conditions. The six solutions included:"},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":" Reviving paals to harvest rainwater In Alwar, Rajasthan, farmers restored paals, which are traditional water harvesting structures constructed across seasonal water courses (nalas). These paals capture water during periods of heavy rainfall. During the period of massive irrigation development, many existing paals fell into disuse but the practice was revived by the PRADAN (Professional Assistance for Development Action), a local NGO. The paal revival has generated more income for farmers, and considerably improved livelihoods and food security within the community. Paals can be built in locations where constructing a dam or building a surface reservoir is not possible, or is too costly."}]},{"head":" Storing water using Five Percent Pit Technology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Farmers in the Purulia district of West Bengal face uncertain weather patterns which put their crop yields at risk. 'Five Percent Technology', promoted by the PRADAN, helps eliminate the risks. A pit representing five percent of the total area of a farmer's land is dug at the most upstream part of the plot. This pit collects runoff water and stores it for use during dry spells. Each pit is around 1.5 metres deep and water is lifted manually and applied to crop fields. This technology improves water availability, minimizes soil erosion and improves land productivity during times of low rainfall."}]},{"head":" Integrating land and water management practices for better livelihoods","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Farming communities in arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan are severely affected by land degradation, frequent droughts and scarcity of water for drinking and for agriculture. In Udaipur, Rajasthan, less than 20% of the land is cultivated. Remaining land belongs to the State but supports farming communities by supplying fodder, grazing land and wood for fuel. The Seva Mandir, a community-based NGO, integrated rainwater harvesting with afforestation, rejuvenation of grazing lands and improved watershed treatment. More reliable supplies of water resulted in better land quality and improved crop yields."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":" Rejuvenating ooranis for drinking and domestic water Ooranis are traditional village tanks dug below ground level and used for collecting rainwater and runoff. They are a major source of water for drinking and domestic use, where groundwater is not available in adequate quantities, or not potable. The DHAN Foundation, a local development organization helped to restore previously defunct tanks, in Tamil Nadu. Before the restoration, women walked long distances for water and children missed school because they had to collect water. In villages where ooranis were restored, families have saved 45 working days per household per year."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":" Using wastewater in a safe and productive way Along the Musi River in India, between Hyderabad and Secunderabad, an estimated 100,000 acres of land is irrigated with domestic and industrial wastewater flowing from these cities. Although wastewater carries health risks, poor farmers depend on it as it is nutrient-rich. There are ways of using it in a more safe and sustainable way. Farmers have successfully switched from rice to growing non-edible cash crops like para grass (a type of fodder) which require little attention. Wastewater is also used for jasmine and banana leaf cultivation, for livestock, fisheries and toddy production, which bring in more income and improve the livelihoods of the poor."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":" Increasing water savings, food security and household income with lowcost drip irrigation In Nepal and India, numerous farmers are growing crops using low-cost irrigation kits. These systems were developed by International Development Enterprise (IDE). The drip systems are divisible and sold in kits that farmers can install and maintain themselves. They are also expandable so that farmers can start small and scale up as their income increases. As a result of this technology, many farmers, especially women, are growing high value crops for sale. The impacts of this technology are seen in higher household incomes, better nutrition, improved standards of living and education opportunities. Crops irrigated by drip, show water savings of up to 50 percent and yield increases of 30 to 50 percent."}]},{"head":"Sustainable Groundwater Management in India","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The irrigation systems that once saved millions of rural poor in Asia from droughts and famines are now not only based on surface water but also on a scattered system of tubewells that draw groundwater without restraint. While many poor communities have benefited from groundwater, overexploitation threatens the resource. IWMI together with the Sir Ratan Tata Trust in India, founded the IWMI-Tata Water Policy Program (ITP), a partnership which focuses on practical solutions to protect the massive welfare gains that groundwater has created, while minimizing the costs associated with its intensive use. Groundwater research is carried out in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, China and more recently, in Africa."},{"index":2,"size":176,"text":"Several success stories have emerged. Farmers in Uttar Pradesh, India, for example, channel monsoon water through earthen canals to irrigate wet-season crops. Seepage water from the canals and fields recharges underground aquifers. With the additional water provided by recharge, farmers have expanded the irrigated area from 1,251 hectares to 35,798 hectares in less than 10 years and reduced pumping costs. In December 2006, IWMI presented some ideas from their groundwater research to the Finance Minister offering a program to take advantage of some 9 million farmer-owned dugwells as recharge structures in 100 of India's most groundwater-stressed districts. This encompassed 7 western and peninsular states. The Finance Minister accepted the proposal in principle. Thereafter, IWMI scientists worked with the Government of India's Ministry of Finance and the Central Ground Water Board to develop a scheme with an outlay of Rs 18 billion (US $ 450 million at 2006 exchange rates ) which the Finance Minister announced in March 2007 as part of Government of India's union budget. The Scheme is now in the first year of implementation.\""}]},{"head":"3.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"RIPARWIN The project findings are relevant to catchments in developing countries where there is competition for water by different users. By improving irrigation efficiency, it was possible to free up water for other uses. The project showed that water should be treated as both an economic and a social good. It was successful in improving community involvement in water management through Water User Associations. These associations built on local water management approaches that enhanced the services provided and reduced conflicts. Although much progress has been made since the Hyderabad Declaration of 2002, significant challenges remain, to make the use of wastewater and excreta in agriculture safe, economically viable and sustainable. In October 2008 a group of top experts from 30 international , regional and national research institutes, multi-lateral and bilateral bodies and universities based in 17 countries, met in Accra, at the invitation of IWMI, the IDRC and WHO. They discussed wastewater -related risk assessment, risk reduction and wastewater governance. This meeting was also attended by the Gates and Google Foundations."}]},{"head":"The Accra","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Strongly influenced by the results and outputs of those projects which IWMI is either leading or participating in (15 of the 27 presentations), the participants agreed on a consensus statement to support policy makers around the world. This would help them to make informed decisions leading to cost-effective interventions that improve public health, promote sustainable sanitation, protect the environment and support food security and economic development. The Consensus is a follow-up to the Hyderabad Declaration of 2002, which strongly influenced several international guidelines such as those of WHO and USAID, on wastewater use."}]},{"head":"5.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Improving Irrigation Performance in Africa (IPIA / APPIA) IWMI and national partners in Ethiopia and Kenya developed and implemented the APPIA / IPIA project from 2003-2007. They developed a methodology named PRDA (Participatory Rapid Diagnosis and Action Planning) for improving performance of farmer-managed irrigation schemes. This methodology was field-tested in 18 pilot irrigation schemes in Ethiopia and Kenya. Data showed that one of the tremendous achievements of the project was achieving much success with less resources, when compared with other irrigation investments in the region. This was attributed to good collaboration with stakeholders on the ground. It also noted the considerable benefits for farmers within the schemes, compared to those outside."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"In particular, the report highlighted the following: downward production trends were reversed in most sites, and post-intervention data showed significant increase in yields in most of the schemes, including a three-fold increase in one site. There was improved water application enabling profitable crop diversification and significant technical and institutional capacity building, leading to improved performance of water user associations. Moreover, field level results have convinced the Kenyan government to use the APPIA approach in other centrally managed schemes to improve performance, and to incorporate APPIA's approach in the new (and first) national irrigation policy prepared by the Ministry of Water & Irrigation in 2007."}]},{"head":"6.","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Promoting the Multiple Use water Services approach at local and global scales","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"IWMI introduced 'multiple-use water services' (and coined its widely used abbreviation of 'mus') as an innovative approach to use water for poverty alleviation and gender equity in rural and peri-urban areas. Research conducted by IWMI offers many illustrations of how water infrastructure can be planned to facilitate multiple uses of water. For example, a system designed for a single use, like irrigation, often ends up being used for other purposes like washing, bathing and fishing. Designing a multiple use water service or MUS opens up new opportunities to provide better, more efficient water services and creates livelihood opportunities for people. As lead institution of the first global comparative study on implementing and upscaling 'mus' under the Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF), IWMI and partners compiled over 100 national and international outputs, including IWMI Research Report 98. Pro-active debates on these outputs in district-and national-level workshops in Bolivia, Colombia, India, Nepal, South Africa, Ethiopia, Thailand and Zimbabwe led to several outcomes, tracked by the project team. (See www.musproject.net.)"},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"In Ethiopia 'mus' was adopted by Catholic Relief Services (CRS) as its \"core strategy\" for promoting integrated water resource management, and partnership with IWMI has led to the spread of 'mus' across CRS regions and country programs. In South Africa 'mus' was adopted in the local government's Integrated Development Plan for Bushbuckridge Ward 16; national guidelines for municipalities on 'Provision of water for small-scale multiple use systems', Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF); the Water for Growth and Development initiative; and research on 'mus' initiated by the Water Research Commission. Influence on DWAF's national guidelines is supported by explicit reference to IWMI in the Guidelines."}]},{"head":"Rejuvenating degraded soils in northeast Thailand with bentonite clays","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"IWMI research is helping to reverse soil degradation in Asia through clay-based technologies that rejuvenate degraded soils. The research, carried out by IWMI and partners in structured field trials, focused on the use of bentonite clay by farmers in Northeast Thailand. This environmentally-friendly technology dramatically reversed soil degradation and resulted in positive economic impacts, with higher yields and higher output prices. Several studies carried out by the research team during the research phase conclusively demonstrated that introducing clay-based materials such as bentonite and termite mound materials have a significant and persistent impact on the productivity of degraded, light-textured soils."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Following the field trials, estimates showed that some 200 and 400 farmers in NE Thailand and Cambodia adopted the technology and a further 20,000 farmers were exposed to it in those countries. In addition, it generated interest among bentonite producers in South Africa and Australia. In 2008, to quantify the impacts of this intervention, IWMI and partners completed an ex-post impact assessment three years after the research ended. From an agronomic perspective the average output price for farmers using clay technologies was 18% higher than that for non-clay users."}]},{"head":"Reversing low productivity in Central Asia through \"Bright Spots\"","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Conditions for crop production in Central Asia have deteriorated considerably, It is estimated that 289,000 hectares are affected by medium to high salinity levels. This has led to crop yield losses exceeding 30%. In 2005, the Asian Development Bank began funding a project called \"Enabling communities in the Aral Sea basin to combat land and water resources degradation through creation of \"Bright\" Spots\". These \"Bright Spots\" are areas where land degradation and low productivity have been successfully reversed through soil remediation technologies and best practices. The Bright Spots project covered three countries of the Aral Sea region, namely Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. The project was implemented by IWMI, ICARDA and ICBA, in partnership with NARES, and came under the scope of Regional Technical Assistance Programs."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Declining agronomic productivity associated with salinization and elevated water tables have also contributed to the development of endemic poverty in rural agrarian-based communities in the region. These poor communities have to grapple with reduced incomes and livelihood insecurity. Since 2005, the project has adopted innovative local practices at 28 \"bright spots\", testing 12 technologies at field trials and conducting several training courses. These innovations were successfully tested in controlled environments and the project adapted knowledge sharing methods, based on farmers' participation."}]},{"head":"Helping the Ferghana Valley countries in Central Asia share water resources","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"In Central Asia's Ferghana Valley ,shared by Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, thousands of farmers, water user groups and rural households have benefited from Integrated Water Resources Management IWRM) -based reforms. IWMI and its major regional project partner, SIC-ICWC successfully developed and introduced IWRMbased reforms to the valley. In the past, water management in Central Asia has been deeply rooted in the centralized management systems of the former Soviet Union. The effects of poor water management were evident in a deteriorating and ineffective irrigation infrastructure, water scarcity and land degradation There was also a lack of proper institutional frameworks for managing water resources."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"The project was put in action, adopted and promoted for wider dissemination in each country at three major operational levels: farmer, water user association and main canal."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"With entire pilot canals and their structures re-shaped, IWMI and its project partner have employed the principles of integrated water resources management to meet the specific needs of each project country, This won the firm support of the governments and their respective ministries responsible for water management. As a result, the project's approach to IWRM is now very much known among the valley's decision makers and major international donors. Through intensive capacity building, the provision of Management Information Systems (MIS) tools, concepts, and best practices for improving water management, the project maximized opportunities for improving land and water productivity within existing resources, and provided guidance for policy makers."}]},{"head":"IWMI's water scarcity map for the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture (CA)","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Water scarcity is high on the development agenda. IWMI's work through WaterSim for the Comprehensive Assessment on Water Management in Agriculture (CA) on \"Future water scenarios defined and explored\", influenced this agenda by creating greater awareness on water scarcity, both within and outside the water community. In particular, a global map depicting water scarce areas, with statistics on people in water scarce basins and suggestions for tackling water scarcity, provided a geographical context and focus to dialogues and development agendas. For example, the theme of the UN World Water Day in 2007 was 'coping with water scarcity', and IWMI's water scarcity map featured prominently in its main brochure"},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The map and the CA messages also featured in top national and international media, during the World Water Week and thereafter. In addition to the water and development sectors, several newspapers, news websites, and radio/TV broadcasts featured in-depth articles on water scarcity using IWMI's work. IWMI's reprint request process, by granting copyright permission to potential user requests, also indicates how the broader awareness created by the media coverage is being adopted by a diverse group of users to reach an even more diverse audience from policy makers to research institutions and from other educators to the private sector, at global and national scales."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Consensus: promoting the safe and sustainable use of wastewater in agriculture Rapid urbanization, escalating water scarcity and mounting demands for food and livelihood needs are driving the increasing demand for using untreated wastewater and excreta in agriculture. IWMI's research, in part funded by the Challenge Program Water and Food (CPWF), assessed and validated several practices which mitigate the risks of wastewater irrigation in developing countries. IWMI works closely with the International Development Research Center (IDRC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in this initiative. "},{"text":": Reviving the Great Ruaha for irrigation, people, and biodiversity RIPARWIN (Raising Irrigation Productivity and Releasing Water for Intersectoral Needs) was a four -year action research project launched to investigate water management in the water stressed catchment of the Great Ruaha River in Tanzania. The Great Ruaha river is one of Tanzania's most important waterways. It flows through the country's main rice growing area which produces up to 24% of the nation's rice. Water from the Ruaha provides 50% of Tanzania's installed hydropower capacity. The river also flows through an important wetland in the Usangu Plain and through a national park. The main objective of the project was to improve understanding of water competition, management and productivity in the Great Ruaha basin and determine how the Government of Tanzania could keep its promise made in 2001, to return the river to year-round flow by 2010. This project was implemented by the Soil Water Management Research Group, University of Sokoine, Tanzania, the Overseas Development Group, University of East Anglia, U.K. and IWMI. It was funded by DFID and IWMI. The project also worked closely with local partners including the Basin Water Office.  "}],"sieverID":"12dfe5d0-49fe-4f24-82f2-68d098a439a8","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"036b737c83d79b64a7323e5dccb1f926","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6eaf6bc4-c346-43ac-8d58-1127e75a5d49/retrieve"},"pageCount":58,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Table 5."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Regularly consumed foods, by types of consumer markets (% of respondents) Table 6."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Frequency of consuming foods (% of respondents)"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Table 7."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Reasons for regularly consuming foods (% of respondents) Table 8."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Constraints to regularly consuming foods (% of respondents) Table 9."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"Proportion monthly income spent of foods (% of income composition)"},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"Table 10. Frequency in purchases of foods (% of respondents) Table 11. Most common sources to buy foods (% of respondents)"},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"Table 12. Nutritional quality as reason for choosing the livestock-based market chatnnel to buy foods (% of respondents)"},{"index":10,"size":29,"text":"Table 13. Reason for choosing the market channel to buy livestock-based foods (% of respondents) Table 14. Challenges with the livestock-based food products as being sold (% of respondents)"},{"index":11,"size":10,"text":"Table 15. Market organization for livestock sales (% of respondents)"},{"index":12,"size":11,"text":"Table 16. Infrastructure at markets for livestock sales (% of respondents)"},{"index":13,"size":12,"text":"Table 17. Ownership of market infrastructure for livestock sales (% of respondents)"},{"index":14,"size":10,"text":"Table 18. Fees collected at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":15,"size":12,"text":"Table 19. Use of fees collected at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":16,"size":10,"text":"Table 20. Advertising medium for livestock sales (% of respondents)"},{"index":17,"size":11,"text":"Table 21. Sale information advertised for livestock sales (% of respondents)"},{"index":18,"size":11,"text":"Table 22. Main livestock buyers at livestock sales (% of respondents)"},{"index":19,"size":10,"text":"Table 23. Peak sale months for livestock sales (% responses)"},{"index":20,"size":12,"text":"Table 24. Months with peak prices for livestock sales (% of respondents)"},{"index":21,"size":10,"text":"Table 25. Livestock markets that reward quality (% of respondents)"},{"index":22,"size":10,"text":"Table 26. Quality criteria at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":23,"size":11,"text":"Table 27. Quality determination mechanisms at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":24,"size":10,"text":"Table 28. Measures to improve livestock quality (% of respondents)"},{"index":25,"size":11,"text":"Table 29. Food safety rewarded at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":26,"size":11,"text":"Table 30. Food safety criteria at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":27,"size":11,"text":"Table 31. Food safety mechanism at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":28,"size":13,"text":"Table 32. Measures to improve food safety at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":29,"size":10,"text":"Table 33. Welfare rewards at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":30,"size":11,"text":"Table 34. Animal welfare criteria at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":31,"size":11,"text":"Table 35. Animal welfare mechanism at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":32,"size":14,"text":"Tables Table 36. Measures to improve animal welfare at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":33,"size":9,"text":"Table 37. Theft at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":34,"size":12,"text":"Table 38. Root causes of theft at livestock markets (% of respondents)"},{"index":35,"size":10,"text":"Table 39. Theft control at livestock markets (% of respondents) "}]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Zimbabwe is currently in the process of strengthening its efforts to support the livestock sector's contribution to economic development, food security and nutrition especially in the most vulnerable parts of the country. Using a mixed set of tools, a market assessment of selected urban (Bulawayo, Harare, Masvingo) and rural markets (Beitbridge, Buhera, Gwanda, Nkayi, Tsholotsho), representing different livestock catchment areas was done to explore perceptions of consumers, off-takers (private and institutional markets) and key participants who are critical segments in the livestock value chains."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"The study found that consumers across all income levels attribute high importance to livestock-based foods."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"But the rural and low-income urban consumers cannot afford to regularly consume livestock based-foods. More than two thirds of the consumers value livestock products for being nutritious, but they determine diet composition primarily by affordability. The majority of those surveyed consume meat up to once a week or once a month, and consume milk, eggs and fruits less frequently. Many households spend more than 40% of their income on food, the majority on staple foods, which restricts the consumption of livestock-based foods, especially among low-income households. Technologies to improve animal production, husbandry, health and quality product processing (e.g., value addition of goat meat and milk) need to be emphasized. At the same time, well-integrated technology packages could also improve goat productivity and reduce mortality, and avail more goats of better quality for sale and ultimately consumption. Markets need to be improved for livestock-based foods to be available and farmer investments to be profitable."},{"index":4,"size":160,"text":"In terms of livestock market facilities and their operations, the results showed that markets effectiveness differs in rural and urban areas, and market structures limit the transfer of information and incentives to smallholder farmers. Livestock sales peak between November and April when farmers are in dire need of cash to balance food deficits and buy inputs for the next growing period, which also coincides with school fees payment periods. With the replenishing of pastures, livestock conditions also improve. Market planning and implementation should consider the seasonality of livestock sale, to ensure that farmers, including those who sell few animals, benefit during this critical period. Improving access to quality livestock market and processing infrastructure in rural areas is a critical entry point to motivate farmers to improve livestock production. It would also strengthen bargaining power of farmers, and encourage women and youth to engage in market opportunities. Implementing transparent pricing and grading systems at rural and urban markets is also important."},{"index":5,"size":111,"text":"In terms of off-taker and retailer priorities when buying livestock from smallholder farmers, more than two thirds of off-takers and retailers perceived increasing or unchanging t income from buying and selling livestock products. They confirmed a nuanced business environment, with cattle being more price sensitive than goats. Price margins between rural and urban areas were larger for goats, and were mostly adsorbed by traders. Aspects such as product quality expressed in body conditions and weight were critical for all offtakers and are the most commonly used quality criteria when buying livestock. Integrated technologies need to improve these parameters, and ensure that they also focus on small ruminants and not only cattle."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"Better structured markets and price information systems will enhance the uptake of technologies, and thereby the supply of livestock products leading to quality improvements based on market criteria. At the same time, measures to lower transaction costs for traders and reduce inefficiencies at farm level will be a win-win for traders and farmers."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"1."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"In Zimbabwe's semi-arid areas, integrated and diversified crop-livestock production is relied upon by farmers' for income, livelihoods, food and nutrition security, and livestock are critical to helping households adapt to the vagaries of climate change (Herrero et al. 2010;Blummel et al. 2013;Descheemaeker et al. 2016;Homann-Kee Tui et al. 2021a). The country recognizes the urgency to invest in and strengthen the livestock sector. The Livestock Growth Plan (MLAWRR 2020b) calls on the government, private sector and development agencies to address the multiple challenges in the livestock sector to contribute to economic growth and food security. This is in view of contributing to the national Vision 2030 and shift the economy towards inclusive business for smallholder farmers."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"Despite a large livestock herd and an increasing demand for livestock products, livestock production in Zimbabwe has remained below its potential (MLAWRR 2020b). The livestock herd has remined stagnant since the 1980s and currently has about 5.4 million cattle, 4.4 million goats and 0.5 million sheep. Today, most livestock owners are communal smallholder farmers who keep about 90% of the national cattle herd and 97% of the national goat flock. Many of these farmers use cattle for draught power, rather than for commercial purposes. They face challenges to participate in livestock value chains, as they lack access to well-functioning markets, information, and support services. High cost of production and livestock markets not transferring adequate benefits to smallholder farmers, contributes to the low productivity, and hence low incomes."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Livestock market development and functional value chains have a critical role to transform the livestock sector to higher levels of productivity and income. Participation in markets is expected to stimulate more market-oriented behaviour, increased off-take and quality products providing more capital and stimulating re-investment in improved management and inputs, improving productivity and resource use efficiency."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Market-oriented behaviour would enable smallholder farmers to make use of improved technologies such as feed, health and breeds, as increased incomes provide the capital needed for investing in farm enterprises, boost overall economic development, and improve livelihoods, food security and nutrition."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"For farmers to benefit from participation in livestock markets, there is need to improve the market environment, infrastructure and quality price mechanism, coordinated transactions and human resources."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"Extension and support systems need to understand market trends and consumer-specific demand (urban, rural, high and low income), quality, food safety, animal welfare requirements, and synchronize livestock production with market demand. They need to capacitate smallholder farmers in critical knowledge gaps, notably technical knowledge on practices to improve livestock production (feed, health, husbandry, breeding), as well as market relevant knowledge (markets, quality requirements, price determinations, food safety, animal welfare)."},{"index":7,"size":113,"text":"Extension and support services need to recognize farm types with different resource endowments and the distribution of herd ownership within communities, and tailor their support strategies to these different constellations, instead of focusing on compliant farmers only. Priorities in districts like Beitbridge and Gwanda, which have owners of large cattle and goat herds regularly supplying livestock markets, along with many farmers owning few or no livestock, might be different to those of districts such as Chiredzi and Nkayi, where herd sizes are smaller and less heterogeneous, or districts where farming is more oriented towards crop production, such as Buhera and Mutoko, and where sales of livestock are less regular (Baudron et al. 2021)."}]},{"head":"Study objectiveS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"This assessment sought to document the state of current livestock market systems, to inform the Livestock Production Systems Zimbabwe (LIPS-Zim) project entry points for improving livestock markets and technical interventions to enhance livestock productivity, quality and off-take and thereby increase farm incomes, and improve food security and nutrition outcomes."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"It carried out three surveys:"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"y Consumer survey: To explain access and affordability, quality preferences and income spent on livestock products and other food groups among consumers at rural and urban markets in Zimbabwe."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"y Market survey: To characterize cattle, goat and sheep marketplaces and structures, sales volumes, prices and quality, challenges and opportunities particularly for women and youth, and their potential to increase off-take."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"y Off-taker and retailer survey: To assess off-takers (private and institutional markets) requirements and interest to buy from smallholder farmers."}]},{"head":"LiveStock popuLation trendS and market characteriSticS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Livestock population growth trends have tended to stagnate in Zimbabwe over the past 20 years (FAO 2021). While the total cattle population declined by 11%, the goat population increased by 50% between 2000 and 2019 (Figure 1). Sheep and chicken populations followed a downward trend, estimated at 50% between 2000 and 2019. Recent investments in livestock projects and programmes aim at addressing the gaps in the livestock sector, and raising productivity, production and incomes, through capacitating the national support systems (Table 1). "}]},{"head":"covid-19 impLicationS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"The assessment was carried out from May to September 2021, under COVID-19 restrictions. Clearance and authorization for data collection was provided by heads of government departments. Data was collected with minimal exposure to the disease, using digital collection tools."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"COVID-19 restrictions, however, affected data collection and its quality in the following ways."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"y Inaccessibility of survey sites: It was not possible to implement the surveys in Kwekwe City, due to an areawide COVID-19 outbreak that restricted movement to the area. As a result, institutional markets in the areas were largely inaccessible and due to restrictions on market operations, some enumerators could not visit to the markets that were operational."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"y Reservations by respondents: Respondents at formal and informal markets and government institutions were generally reluctant to provide information. Given the COVID-19 restrictions, people working from home, and limits in accessing some areas, many respondents were not comfortable to divulge financial information and were sceptical about how the information would be used. Respondents from important organizations such as institutional markets, schools and universities, which had closed due to COVID-19 did not participate in the assessment."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"y It was particularly difficult to collect data on revenues and costs, hence various components of the off-taker and retailer survey had to be dropped from the analysis."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"In addition, COVID-19 restrictions affected livestock value chains as verified by a COVID-19 impact survey in Southern Zimbabwe by Homann-Kee Tui et al. (2021b). In particular, the survey showed that the pandemic resulted in the following negative impacts on the agriculture sector:"},{"index":7,"size":76,"text":"y Poor harvests: The economic hardships in the country compounded the impacts of COVID-19 restrictions and the consequences of previous drought years. In addition, pests and diseases, as well as reduced availability of veterinary drugs and feed for livestock and currency shortages meant that many farmers had already sold livestock as a coping strategy. Livestock sales prices declined by up to 40% due to feed shortage and diseases, while grain prices increased by more than 36%."},{"index":8,"size":65,"text":"y Restricted livestock output market access: Livestock market activities had been restricted, as part of travel restrictions. These increased the costs of transport, led to closure of markets and trade activities, resulting in low sales, a decline in farmers' incomes as well as limited supply of meat products, with price implications. Goat, sheep and poultry products, which rely more on informal markets, were most affected."},{"index":9,"size":40,"text":"y Restricted livestock input market access: Movement restrictions prevented farmers from buying veterinary drugs and treatment (e.g., use dipping pools). Furthermore, farmers had difficulty in accessing animal feed, which increased animal mortality and reduced animal productivity, which was already low."},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"2."}]},{"head":"Methods of data collection and analyses","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"methodS and tooLS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"A mixed methods approach was used to characterize consumer behaviour with regards to livestock-based food, the market operations and how off-takers and retailers engage in livestock markets. The approach included the following elements:"},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"y Consumer assessment (Table 2): Importance attributed to livestock-based foods in rural and urban markets, food consumption and purchase patterns, motivation and constraints. Women consumers, as key decision makers over food and nutrition, were randomly interviewed at respective markets. In urban areas, markets were strategically targeted in both high-income and low-income neighbourhoods. In rural areas markets were predominantly frequented by low-income consumers."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"y Market survey (Table 3): Live cattle and goat/sheep market structures and operations, seasonality in supply, price mechanisms, control of livestock theft affecting supply of livestock to markets, challenges and opportunities for women and youth, potential for improving these markets. Market participants were interviewed at the marketplace."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"y Off-taker and retailer assessment (Table 4): Inventory of off-takers (private and institutional markets), their requirements and interests to buy from smallholder farmers. Off-takers had been identified at the marketplace, and were interviewed individually."}]},{"head":"SiteS for data coLLection","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The assessment was implemented at rural and urban markets at sites near (<15km) and far (>15m) from business centres."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"y Rural districts: Beitbridge, Buhera, Gwanda, Nkayi, Tsholotsho, y Urban centres: Bulawayo, Harare, Masvingo Data was collected by a team of agricultural extension staff based in the rural and urban areas. The data was collected using tablets in Open Data Kit (ODK) format. The data collection instruments were revised at the training held 3-6 May 2021 in Bulawayo. Market and off-taker data was collected May to June 2021. The consumer data was collected August to September 2021."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Data analysis was through descriptive statistics using Stata. Enumerators provided feedback on data collection and the influence of COVID-19 restrictions on the process."}]},{"head":"3.","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Importance of livestock products for consumers","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"This section describes the importance consumers attribute to livestock-based foods in their diets, and what motivates and what hinders more regular consumption of livestock-based foods."}]},{"head":"food conSumption","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Rural and urban consumers interviewed consumed vegetables regularly, on a daily basis (Table 5 and Table  6; and Table 65 and Table 66 in the Annex). They consumed livestock-based products such as meat, eggs, milk on a weekly basis. Pulses and fruits were consumed less. Rural and low-income urban households less frequently consumed livestock-based products and fruits."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Nutrition was distinctively the most common argument for regularly consuming foods. Many consumers also cited preferences as determining their food choices (Table 7). For rural consumers energy provision and availability were other important criteria. For urban consumers easiness to prepare was more important. For meat consumption, affordability was the most important criteria."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Livestock-based foods were considered the most nutritious. Rural consumers seemed to consume livestockbased products and fruits less often compared to their urban counterparts. Consumption of goat meat was, however, more common among rural as compared to urban consumers."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"Affordability was seen as the single most common constraint for regular consumption of nutritious foods and restricted the consumption of livestock-based foods (Table 8). This was also reflected in the fact that rural and urban low-income households less frequently consumed livestock-based foods as compared to urban highincome households. Rural households were more exposed to seasonal availability of fruits, vegetables and pulses. Urban households found accessibility and seasonal price fluctuations as an issue. For rural and urban households, product quality seemed less important as compared to affordability and accessibility, which might have implications on the importance attributed to quality. "}]},{"head":"food purchaSe","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Consumers spent almost half their income on food (46% and 41%, respectively, in rural and urban areas)."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"They spent most of their income on staple foods, which they bought monthly. They also spent substantial income on livestock-based products, even though these were consumed less often by both urban and rural consumers. Urban low-income consumers seemed to purchase staples and beef more frequently than highincome consumers, likely related to their lack of access to storage facilities (Table 9, Table 10; and Table 67 and Table 68 in the Annex)."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Supermarkets and stores were the most common market channels for livestock-based foods in urban areas."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Vendors were important suppliers of poultry and eggs (Table 11). In rural areas the open markets were more important. Stores also supplied milk and eggs."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Nutritional quality was the most important factor when choosing market channels for buying livestock-based foods, and was more distinguished in urban than in rural areas, for all income types (Table 12 and Table 69 in the Annex)."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"The main reason for choosing food markets in rural areas was convenience, which might relate to accessibility. In urban areas good quality of the food products was rated as more important (Table 13)."},{"index":7,"size":53,"text":"Affordability was confirmed as a main challenge for livestock-based foods being sold (Table 14) in rural areas particularly for eggs, poultry and milk, and in urban areas more for beef and poultry. Quality was an issue in rural areas for beef, perhaps reflecting the lack of local processing and cold storage facilities. 4."}]},{"head":"Livestock market characteristics","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"This section describes the livestock markets for cattle and goats/sheep, how they operate, the sales flows and opportunities to improve them. Markets reporting information on poultry (n=11), pigs (n=3) and fish (n=1) was limited, hence these were excluded in the presentation of results. These commodities are mostly sold by producers through processors and retailers to consumers."}]},{"head":"LiveStock market organization","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"market organization","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The organization of cattle and goat/sheep markets varied (Table 15). Markets in urban areas were better organized than in rural areas and markets for cattle were better organized than for goats and sheep. Urban markets operated daily, rural markets operated weekly on declared days, based on sales volumes, as traders from wider rural catchment areas aggregate and move livestock to urban consumer markets. Cash payment was more common for cattle in rural areas and for goats in urban areas, in comparison to barter trade in both areas."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Few respondents attributed transparent and quality-based pricing to livestock markets, suggesting weaknesses in implementation of these markets, which seem to restrict the transfer of information and rewards to producers. Urban markets seemed better equipped than rural markets in terms of health and animal welfare control, grading procedures, sales record-keeping and quality-based pricing. These attributes were mentioned more often for cattle markets than for goats markets."}]},{"head":"market infraStructure","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Market infrastructure was widely established for cattle, including sale pens with roofed areas and loading ramps (Table 16). Improved facilities such as water, ablution areas and holding pens were mostly mentioned at urban markets. Weighing facilities were not often mentioned. Rural District Councils (RDC) and farmer organizations own the cattle sale pens in rural areas (Table 17). In urban areas private companies own the sale pens."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Goat marketing infrastructure seemed better established in rural areas. In urban areas goats were traded mostly through makeshift holding pens. RDCs owned most of the goat sales facilities. Private sector investment seemed less for goats than for cattle."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Fees for using market infrastructure were collected in both urban and rural markets (Table 18). In urban markets, more respondents believed the fees were being used for maintaining and upgrading the market infrastructure (Table 19). In the rural areas, however, most respondents seemed to not know how the fees were used."}]},{"head":"market information","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Cattle sales were advertised more at urban than rural markets through diverse media including newspapers, traders, farmers, farmer organizations, veterinary offices and radio (Table 20 and Table 21) to a wide customer base. Agricultural extension offices and development organizations were not engaged in advertising cattle sales. Goat sales were less advertised in rural areas and were mostly based on farmer-tofarmer information sharing. Mass media did not feature as instrument for advertising goat markets."}]},{"head":"type of buyer at LiveStock marketS","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"The buyers at the livestock markets also varied (Table 22). At cattle markets, traders were the most buyers; middlemen participated in rural markets; institutional buyers played a greater role at urban markets. At goat markets, traders were the most buyers too, yet consumers were more at rural markets, middlemen predominated in urban markets. Urban livestock markets seemed to reward quality products more than rural markets and had more refined quality criteria (Table 25). At cattle markets weight and disease-free status were important quality criteria, while at goat and sheep markets the condition and sex were more important (Table 26). In rural areas age was the most important quality criteria for cattle, goats and sheep. The instruments to determine quality were also more refined at urban livestock markets, through body scoring and weighing scales, whereas at rural markets quality was mostly determined by visual appraisal (Table 27)."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"A few respondents suggested measures for improving livestock quality (Table 28). Mostly mentioned was improved feeding and livestock health. At urban markets, price incentives were mentioned to stimulate farmer to improve livestock quality."}]},{"head":"food Safety rewardS","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Food safety was also more rewarded at urban markets, more in cattle markets than in goats and sheep markets (Table 29). For cattle, the most cited criteria were animal health and hygiene. Fewer respondents provided criteria for goats (Table 30). Eye-based mechanisms and safety standards were cited as options to control food safety in urban cattle markets (Table 31). Knowledge about how to improve food safety seemed limited, given few options provided (Table 32)."}]},{"head":"animaL weLfare","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Animal welfare was also more rewarded at urban markets, more at cattle markets than at goats and sheep markets (Table 33). Animal health, condition, welfare standards and being free of bruises were listed as criteria (Table 34). For rural markets and goats few respondents provided the criteria for assessing animal welfare."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Eye-based evaluation was used to assess animal welfare at cattle markets (Table 35). Knowledge on improving animal welfare seemed limited, given few responses provided by participants. (Table 36)."}]},{"head":"LiveStock theft","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Theft of goats stood out as a problem especially in rural goat markets than theft of cattle at rural cattle markets (Table 37). The main causes for theft seem to be a combination of destitution and poor control (Table 38)."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Control measures seemed less effective in rural areas, depending mostly on local prosecution and local neighbourhood watch (Table 39). At urban markets, formal control procedures and more effective persecution resulted in more effective theft control (Table 40). Cross-border trade did not influence livestock sales in significant ways (Table 41). "}]},{"head":"opportunitieS in LiveStock marketS for women and youth","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Enabling women and youth to participate in cattle, goat and sheep markets was seen as the most important opportunity (Table 42). Market participation would empower women and youth at rural and urban markets."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Better market access was an important precondition for participating in and benefiting from livestock markets. In urban markets, women were primarily restricted by social norms and insecurity issues (Table 43). At rural markets, poor negotiation power and poor access were the most important barriers to women and youth market participation."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"More respondents saw a high potential for improving livestock off-take at urban than at rural markets, and more saw a high potential at cattle markets than at goat and sheep markets (Table 44). Two areas stood out for improving livestock off-take for cattle, goats and sheep at urban and rural markets (Table 45). The implementation of a grading and pricing system, and strengthening farmers bargaining power were seen as most critical. Product labelling was not considered important. LaBELLInG LIVESToCk ProDUCTS For FooD SaFETy 0 0 0 20 5."}]},{"head":"Off-taker characteristics","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"This section deals with t off-takers and retailers, and their priorities and requirements when buying livestock from smallholder farmers. Information about institutional markets was not assessed due to COVID-19-related restrictions."}]},{"head":"enterpriSe characteriSticS","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"off-takerS and retaiLer activitieS","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Off-takers and retailers in rural areas mostly buy livestock directly from smallholder farmers. In urban areas they also buy through other agents (Table 46). They often vertically integrate multiple value chain activities (Table 47). In rural areas, they engage in buying live animals and at the same time, produce livestock and crops. In urban areas, retailers focus more on selling meat. Cattle-related activities make up a major share of income for rural and urban entrepreneurs, whereas goats and poultry, especially in urban areas, are more combined with other sources of income generation (Table 48)."}]},{"head":"trendS in buying and SeLLing LiveStock productS","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Prospects for buying and selling livestock and meat were seen as positive (Table 49 and Table 50). The majority perceived increasing trends in buying livestock and selling meat products. Sale of processed meat was less pronounced (Table 51).  34) 40 ( 24) 13 ( 16) 18 ( 18) 16 ( 14) "}]},{"head":"SuppLy period","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Off-takers and retailer confirmed the peak of sale of cattle, goat and sheep around January and February (need for cash) and for chicken November to December (increased consumption) (Table 52). This was more pronounced in rural than in urban areas. Their information on prices suggest cattle marketing is more sensitive to seasonal price fluctuations. Contrary to market participants, the off-takers saw cattle prices plummeting during the peak season. Price levels were similar in rural and urban areas (Table 53 and Table  54). Goat prices were seen as less sensitive to seasonal changes, and were distinctively higher in urban than in rural areas. This could be a reflection of transport costs per unit goat, and low prices for goats traded in rural areas. Chicken prices were similar across seasons, rural and urban areas."}]},{"head":"market QuaLity","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Off-takers and retailers confirmed that the quality of livestock is important (Table 55). They specified criteria that affect the prices for buying livestock. Body condition was a common determinant for all types of livestock. Weight was also important for cattle. For goats and sheep, age was most important in rural areas, and weight in urban areas. Weight was important for chickens (Table 56). Mechanisms for quality inspection and rewarding quality products, for cattle, goats and sheep, were seen in urban more than in rural areas (Table 57). Disease status and body condition were most important in determining the prices of livestock (Table 58)."}]},{"head":"demand for high-QuaLity animaLS","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Off-takers and retailers recommended smallholders to sell healthier animals and more during the peak season (Table 59). Cattle in rural areas should be sold in fatter condition, goats in urban areas at a younger age, and chicken should be of larger size. These recommendations indicate important gaps in the current supply of livestock products, opportunities for greater benefits from livestock."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Table 52. diSTribuTion of peak Supply monThS from Small-Scale farmerS (% of reSpondenTS) "}]},{"head":"acceSS to information and innovation","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"buSineSS capacity","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Livestock off-takers in rural areas saw themselves operating largely at business capacity. Capacity in urban areas was underutilized (Table 60)."}]},{"head":"acceSS to information","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Information about demand and supply and the influence on price levels is critical for off-takers to plan their business. The feedback from off-takers and retailers suggests that most off-takers do not organize as associations and use contractual arrangements to cost effectively access information and structure their livestock businesses (Table 61). Their main source of information is own market observations, and to some extent their interactions with traders and retailers."}]},{"head":"conStraintS for SucceSSfuL SaLeS","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Feedback from off-takers indicates gaps in the livestock business (Table 62). Uncertainty over costs and costs being considered high, reflects possible inefficiency in the livestock value chain, which hinders businessoriented planning. Low consumer demand suggests that the information on the actual demand does not translate to off-takers, and might be confounded by consumers' low purchasing power."}]},{"head":"opportunitieS for SaLe","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The opportunities for sale reflect a situation where off-takers aim at low purchase prices, which, however, affect producer incentives and their ability to invest in improved livestock enterprises (Table 63). The solution lies in recognizing the demand, promotion of new products, especially at urban markets, and structuring livestock marketing to become more cost efficient for greater financial benefits of both producers and offtakers (Table 64). 6."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Livestock-based products are critical for nutritious diets in the study area. However, their affordability restricts their consumption especially in rural areas where households, as net buyers of food, already spend a large part of their income on staple foods. It is therefore critical to improve access to rural livestock markets and increase the numbers of animals for sale which will boost rural incomes and make livestock and livestockbased products affordable."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"As shown in earlier studies, encouraging farmers to participate in livestock markets exposes them to knowledge and market information. Implementation of appropriate market infrastructure, grading and pricing mechanisms, linked with technology packages and inputs that allow farmers to producing livestock according to market requirements are critical preconditions so farmers benefitting from their investments in livestock. Fair prices and improved productivity translating to higher incomes from livestock sales will improve farmers' capacity to invest in their farm businesses. These, in turn, will avail more livestock to markets, enhance livestock off-take, sale and consumption of better-quality products. Investment in inclusive livestock value chains is a critical pathway to improve incomes and nutrition in rural and urban areas of Zimbabwe."}]},{"head":"7.","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Recommendations for improving participation in livestock markets"}]},{"head":"functionaL market Structure","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Structured markets, market infrastructure and market information are critical to ensure that price quality information translates into adequate income from livestock sales for farmers. Urban livestock markets provide good examples for ensuring quality, food safety, animal welfare standards and theft control. In rural areas, and notably for goats, sheep and poultry, there is need to revitalize and improve existing market infrastructure with transparent operations, information and price quality systems. Clear ownership and management structures are required between farmer organizations, the private sector and support services to ensure that facilities are being used and price quality mechanisms implemented."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"In particular, there is need to promote abattoir infrastructure, aggregation, pricing and grading systems for small ruminants, supported by tailored technology packages (e.g., in feed and health), to increase livestock off-take and make animal-source foods affordable for consumers in rural areas."}]},{"head":"market-oriented behaviour","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"This is a change towards market-oriented production systems, use of improved technologies and commercial inputs and increased offtake involving farmers, stakeholders and support services. To achieve this, knowledge gaps need to be addressed and how they interrelate regarding market demand, market information, appropriate technologies. Transparent livestock markets are also needed to transfer information about market demand to farmers, especially women. Farmers investing in feed must have access to appropriate agronomic practices to reduce production risks. Support services must be well integrated to build capacity to speak to market requirements, policies and governance structures to facilitate appropriate business conditions. Output markets must be linked to input markets to drive investments in increased productivity, quality products and off-take."}]},{"head":"enhanced LiveStock productivity","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"It is critical for interventions to concurrently address feed gaps, animal health control and improved husbandry to enhance and not compromise the vitality of existing livestock breeds. Enhancing livestock productivity requires better integrated farming systems that support efficient resource use, and reduce losses, wastage and mortalities. Increased productivity, more healthier animals available for sale, and supply of livestock products to markets will make livestock products more available and affordable."}]},{"head":"co-deSigning market and technoLogy deveLopment","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Improving livestock market participation in a way that responds to farming systems' specific challenges and priorities, and is socially inclusive, will enable farmers at different levels of resource endowment, women and youth, to benefits more from livestock-related enterprises."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"There is hence need for strategies that support the majority of farmers who own few animals, are cash constrained, thus tend to sell to solve urgent needs, and together dispose of large volumes livestock compared with the few farmers with large herd sizes and who can afford to invest in technologies and inputs and deliver quality livestock products regularly."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"To come up with more context-specific recommendations for investing in and supporting the livestock value chain, we draw also on the LIPS-Zim project baseline and innovation platform reports, and own observations characterizing production systems and distribution of farm types and herd ownership (See Boudron, F., 2021; Boudron, F. and Homann-Kee Tui, S., 2021)."}]},{"head":"LiveStock oriented SyStemS: beitbridge and gwanda","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"Here markets are more commercialized, targeting high-income markets in Harare. Farmers with large herd sizes are important as they establish regular supply of quality animals, predominantly to primary markets. Price quality mechanisms (auction sales, holding infrastructure, weighing facilities) exist, their distribution and functionality needs to be verified and root cause for transferring low prices to farmers assessed. Local abattoirs for small ruminants need be expanded to cater to local consumers, given most livestock tends to be traded to urban high-income markets. Feed production, processing and feedlot technologies as well as health management are more advanced in areas closer to sale pens and higher livestock off-take. Individual farmer initiatives in improving livestock production provide opportunities to create farmer interest groups and associations, which are critical to unite farmers in input procurement and output marketing. Farmers with few or no animals can benefit from these market linkages and off-farm opportunities to establish local feed processing and animal health services, and supply to commercializing livestock farmers."}]},{"head":"mixed crop-LiveStock SyStemS: chiredzi and nkayi","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Livestock production in these areas is less market-oriented. Market flows are towards local markets and fast-growing secondary cities. Farmers practice crop-livestock farming, disposing off cattle is restricted by the need for draught power, and less attention is given to small ruminants. Livestock body frame and quality are naturally less favourable and herd sizes are smaller. Entry points here should be to promote improved livestock markets, and local abattoirs and butcheries to sell meet to nearby residents to entice farmer groups to raise off-takes. Cattle need to be released from mostly providing draught power by promoting no tillage technologies. Opportunities to multiply forages and produce and process feed need to be developed, given the high biomass availability in the region. Veterinary services should also support efforts to enhance productivity through interventions that empower farmers groups."}]},{"head":"crop-oriented SyStemS: buhera and mutoko","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Given the focus on crop production and limited land in Buhera and Mutoko herd sizes and offtakes are also low and zero-grazing systems are more common. Households with livestock fatten a few animals for market."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Local markets for livestock are not developed. Introducing abattoirs and butcheries would make available more meat for local consumption. Feed rations from local raw materials can enable farmers to add value to their products while reducing feed costs. Veterinary services need to be more accessible to farmers."}]},{"head":"reQuirementS for programS and poLicieS","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"y Lack of policy implementation is a key barrier to functional livestock markets. Policymakers need to ensure implementation of enabling livestock market and business environments that incentivize farmers to make market-oriented decisions. Access to livestock markets is also a key driver for improved support services, including extension, finance and insurance. Root causes for poor implementation of functional market infrastructure and organization need to be understood and addressed."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"y Given livestock markets are a pathway out of poverty, more investment is required in social protection programs around livestock markets and making livestock-based foods available to vulnerable consumers. Restocking and pass-on schemes are a way to support vulnerable households in rearing livestock; they also need to be linked to markets to become sustainable. The county's move towards boosting livestock productivity and restocking poor households supports this process."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"y Local knowledge-based systems, e.g., farmer field schools, must be revitalized and include marketing, business and entrepreneurship and women/youth empowerment as central components in learning. Markets need to be included as key drivers to determine technology packages and to stimulate higher off-takes."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"y Regional research stations, extension support services and private sector engagement must ensure that the basic preconditions for productive and profitable livestock production are met, business innovation supported by integrated feed and health technologies, and monitoring consistent implementation of livestock policies y Development programs should allocate more resources to strengthen livestock market development as a key driver for livelihood and food security, and nutrition improvement. This must address the strategic gaps of transparent and rewarding price quality mechanisms in livestock markets to ensure fair prices for producers."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"y Research is needed to provide more evidence for the drivers and motivations for farmers and market actors' behaviour in a high-risk trading environment and how these related to competing objectives. Cross linkages between markets and production investments and links to farm income, food security and nutrition, human health, and education need to be better understood."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"y The requirements for complementary interventions need to be understood, including collective action business models and information networks and market actors' influence on institutions and processes. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Livestock population trends (head) in Zimbabwe, between 2000 and 2019 "},{"text":"Table 1 . Summary of market characteristics for major livestock species in Zimbabwe Table 2. Consumers interviewed at rural and urban markets (%) Table 2.Consumers interviewed at rural and urban markets (%)  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Market actors interviewed handling cattle and goat/sheep in rural and urban areas (n)  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Distribution of value chain actors interviewed in rural and urban areas (n)  "},{"text":"Table 40 . Effectiveness of theft control at livestock markets (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 41 . Cross border trade affecting livestock sales (%)  "},{"text":"Table 42 . Women and youth's opportunities at livestock markets (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 43 . Women and youth deterrence at livestock markets (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 44 . Potential for improving livestock off-take (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 45 . Area to improve livestock off-take (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 46   "},{"text":"Table 59 . What smallholder farmers should change (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 60 . Business capacity (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 61 . Main sources of information, for cattle, goats/sheep and chickens (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 62 . Constrains for successful sale (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 63 . Opportunities for sale of livestock (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 64 . Innovation in livestock marketing (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 65 . Regularly consumed foods, by types of consumer markets (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 66 . Frequency of consuming foods (% of respondents)  "},{"text":"Table 67  Figures Figures Figure 1: Livestock population trends (head) in Zimbabwe, between 2000 and 2019 Figure 1: Livestock population trends (head) in Zimbabwe, between 2000 and 2019  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Summary of markeT characTeriSTicS for major liveSTock SpecieS in Zimbabwe MarkETS anD VaLUE ChaInS  Developed markets operations, infrastructure and auctions, through the Developed markets operations, infrastructure and auctions, through the commercial sector and in communal areas. commercial sector and in communal areas. Implementation of transparent sales, however, varies by location Implementation of transparent sales, however, varies by location Largely informal, poor market infrastructure and price quality mechanisms Largely informal, poor market infrastructure and price quality mechanisms Large-scale industrial, many smallholders Large-scale industrial, many smallholders Large-scale industrial, many smallholders Large-scale industrial, many smallholders  "},{"text":"ProDUCTIon anD TEChnICaL know-how   Targeted for improved feed, health and breeding technologies Targeted for improved feed, health and breeding technologies  Productivity gaps, limited technical support Productivity gaps, limited technical support  Private and public sector support Private and public sector support  Supported by PIB, wide networks Supported by PIB, wide networks  Stronger policy and institutional support Stronger policy and institutional support PoLICy anD InSTITUTIonaL Largely informal, individual private sector initiatives Private sector organized, as well as informal, initiatives PoLICy anD InSTITUTIonaLLargely informal, individual private sector initiatives Private sector organized, as well as informal, initiatives  Private sector-organized Private sector-organized  ZAGP, BEST, TranZDVC, ZRBF, LSFP ZAGP, BEST, TranZDVC, ZRBF, LSFP Major LIVESToCk SPECIFIC VALUE, ZRBF, LSFP Major LIVESToCk SPECIFICVALUE, ZRBF, LSFP SUPPorT ProGraMS ZAGP, IPVC, ZRBF, LSFP SUPPorT ProGraMSZAGP, IPVC, ZRBF, LSFP  VALUE VALUE NB: Data is from authors own information, review of policy and development program documents. NB: Data is from authors own information, review of policy and development program documents.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . conSumerS inTerviewed aT rural and urban markeTS (%)    (n=269)  (n=246)r (n=269)(n=246)r  hIGh InCoME Low InCoME hIGh InCoME Low InCoME hIGh InCoMELow InCoMEhIGh InCoMELow InCoME ConSUMErS 7 93 36 64 ConSUMErS7933664  "},{"text":"Table 3 . markeT acTorS inTerviewed handling caTTle and goaT/Sheep in rural and urban areaS (n)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP MarkET aCTorS 36 14 15 15 MarkET aCTorS36141515  "},{"text":"Table 4 . diSTribuTion of value chain acTorS inTerviewed in rural and urban areaS (n)   CaTTLE   GoaTS/ShEEP  ChICkEnS CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEPChICkEnS rETaILEr 23 19 10 8 11 15 rETaILEr23191081115 InSTITUTIonaL BUyErS 0 5 1 0 0 3 InSTITUTIonaL BUyErS051003 InPUT SUPPLIErS 0 4 1 0 0 6 InPUT SUPPLIErS041006  "},{"text":"Table 5 . regularly conSumed foodS, by TypeS of conSumer markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)  ToTaL χ 2 (P-VaLUE) ToTaLχ 2 (P-VaLUE)  "},{"text":"Table 6 . frequency of conSuming foodS (% of reSpondenTS)   DaILy  wEEkLy  MonThLy SEaSonaLLy oCCaSIonaLLy DaILywEEkLyMonThLySEaSonaLLyoCCaSIonaLLy STaPLES 92 91 4 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 STaPLES929149000000 VEGETaBLES 78 68 16 26 1 2 0 0 4 4 VEGETaBLES78681626120044 PULSES 6 5 61 66 16 19 3 0 12 11 PULSES6561661619301211 EGGS 13 32 66 51 7 6 1 1 12 9 EGGS133266517611129 BEEF 12 22 67 70 7 4 1 0 11 3 BEEF122267707410113 GoaT 5 2 26 8 24 22 5 6 30 53 GoaT522682422563053 PoULTry 7`12 43 70 34 13 2 0 13 4 PoULTry7`124370341320134 FrUITS 0 0 48 69 21 10 6 1 25 1 FrUITS004869211061251 MILk 35 51 49 36 9 3 3 0 3 5 MILk35514936933035  "},{"text":"Table 7 . reaSonS for regularly conSuming foodS (% of reSpondenTS)   nUTrITIoUS PrEFEraBLE EnErGy aVaILaBLE EaSy To PrEParE aFForDaBLE ConVEnIEnT nUTrITIoUSPrEFEraBLEEnErGyaVaILaBLEEaSy To PrEParEaFForDaBLEConVEnIEnT STaPLES 53 33 17 31 74 53 35 24 14 21 38 17 5 9 STaPLES53331731745335241421381759 VEGETaBLES 65 49 16 32 19 8 42 29 13 27 8 28 5 14 VEGETaBLES6549163219842291327828514 PULSES 82 49 15 27 20 15 20 10 2 11 6 11 4 3 PULSES824915272015201021161143 FrUITS 93 62 17 38 24 6 9 11 1 11 1 8 1 18 FrUITS9362173824691111118118 EGGS 90 56 19 32 14 3 7 16 31 41 5 22 7 17 EGGS905619321437163141522717 MEaT 82 57 38 64 18 4 28 24 15 29 50 29 10 18 MEaT825738641842824152950291018 MILk 93 75 16 38 30 9 5 13 12 28 13 11 4 23 MILk9375163830951312281311423  "},{"text":"Table 8 . conSTrainTS To regularly conSuming foodS (% of reSpondenTS) aFForDaBILITy aCCESSIBILITy SEaSonaL aVaILaBILITy SEaSonaL PrICE QUaLITy  STaPLES 78 69 7 22 18 12 19 13 10 9 STaPLES786972218121913109 VEGETaBLES 67 55 10 33 45 22 15 8 9 4 VEGETaBLES67551033452215894 PULSES 79 69 15 26 43 22 18 14 5 5 PULSES796915264322181455 EGGS 94 75 18 20 5 10 4 19 2 7 EGGS9475182051041927 BEEF 95 79 16 18 0 2 7 14 4 10 BEEF9579161802714410 GoaT 85 59 33 46 5 16 5 20 5 2 GoaT8559334651652052 PoULTry 96 82 13 21 1 2 5 14 3 8 PoULTry968213211251438 FrUITS 87 77 31 27 40 31 21 18 4 5 FrUITS877731274031211845 MILk 90 83 13 14 13 10 2 15 5 5 MILk90831314131021555  "},{"text":"Table 9 . proporTion monThly income SpenT of foodS (% of income compoSiTion)  (P-VaLUE) (P-VaLUE)  "},{"text":"Table 10 . frequency in purchaSeS of foodS (% of reSpondenTS)   DaILy  wEEkLy  MonThLy SEaSonaLLy oCCaSIonaLLy DaILywEEkLyMonThLySEaSonaLLyoCCaSIonaLLy STaPLES 11 14 8 16 72 64 1 0 2 STaPLES11148167264102 VEGETaBLES 39 50 26 33 3 3 1 6 11 VEGETaBLES39502633331611 PULSES 2 1 26 47 34 40 4 14 10 PULSES212647344041410 BEEF 7 5 59 45 19 46 1 12 3 BEEF75594519461123 GoaT 1 1 17 2 13 15 1 21 52 GoaT11172131512152 PoULTry 1 1 19 50 40 43 1 13 3 PoULTry11195040431133 FrUITS 4 13 53 64 17 8 3 21 13 FrUITS413536417832113 MILk 12 28 55 54 23 9 2 3 9 MILk12285554239239  "},{"text":"Table 11 . moST common SourceS To buy foodS (% of reSpondenTS)   SUPErMarkET rUraL MarkET VEnDor FarMGaTE whoLESaLEr CITy MarkET SUPErMarkETrUraL MarkETVEnDorFarMGaTEwhoLESaLErCITy MarkET BEEF 18 76 31 1 2 0 4 10 6 7 1 1 BEEF1876311204106711 GoaT 3 30 16 18 10 2 5 6 1 4 0 6 GoaT3301618102561406 PoULTry 5 40 25 1 14 29 5 13 1 6 0 4 PoULTry54025114295131604 MILk 72 84 4 0 5 3 1 4 5 7 0 2 MILk72844053145702 EGGS 36 31 10 1 4 32 15 15 1 9 2 8 EGGS363110143215151928  "},{"text":"Table 12 . nuTriTional qualiTy aS reaSon for chooSing The liveSTock-baSed markeT chaTnnel To buy foodS (% of reSpondenTS)  ToTaL χ 2 (P-VaLUE) ToTaLχ 2 (P-VaLUE)  "},{"text":"Table 13 . reaSon for chooSing The markeT channel To buy liveSTock-baSed foodS (% of reSpondenTS)   ConVEnIEnT GooD QUaLITy TrUST  Low PrICE  ConVEnIEnTGooD QUaLITyTrUSTLow PrICE BEEF 50 13 16 48 14 27 17 11 BEEF5013164814271711 GoaT MEaT 27 16 10 29 24 12 18 18 GoaT MEaT2716102924121818 PoULTry 55 23 10 28 15 20 12 27 PoULTry5523102815201227 MILk 60 16 15 44 12 32 5 6 MILk60161544123256 EGGS 55 26 12 20 15 17 10 34 EGGS5526122015171034  "},{"text":"Table 14 . challengeS wiTh The liveSTock-baSed food producTS aS being Sold (% of reSpondenTS)   aFForDaBILITy  QUaLITy  aVaILaBILITy  aFForDaBILITyQUaLITyaVaILaBILITy BEEF 32 72 60 22 8 6 BEEF3272602286 GoaT MEaT 18 45 49 23 33 32 GoaT MEaT184549233332 PoULTry 56 65 32 25 12 10 PoULTry566532251210 MILk 54 49 37 33 9 20 MILk54493733920 EGGS 64 49 30 35 7 15 EGGS64493035715  "},{"text":"Table 15 . markeT organiZaTion for liveSTock SaleS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE   GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP DECLarED DayS 69 50 93 13 DECLarED DayS69509313 EVEryDay oPEraTIon 25 50 7 87 EVEryDay oPEraTIon2550787 CaSh PayMEnT 56 36 7 53 CaSh PayMEnT5636753 PrICES nEGoTIaTED 28 21 20 47 PrICES nEGoTIaTED28212047 anIMaL hEaLTh ConTroL 31 43 7 7 anIMaL hEaLTh ConTroL314377 CoMPETITIon aMonG BUyErS 31 29 7 20 CoMPETITIon aMonG BUyErS3129720 anIMaL wELFarE ConTroL 11 50 0 7 anIMaL wELFarE ConTroL115007 TranSParEnT GraDInG SySTEM 25 29 0 13 TranSParEnT GraDInG SySTEM2529013 anIMaLS SorTED By GraDES 6 36 0 20 anIMaLS SorTED By GraDES636020 rECorDS oF PrICES oF aVaILaBLE LIVESToCk 0 43 0 13 rECorDS oF PrICES oF aVaILaBLE LIVESToCk043013 TranSParEnT PrICE nEGoTIaTIonS 25 21 0 7 TranSParEnT PrICE nEGoTIaTIonS252107 SaLES BaSED on InForMaL aSSESSMEnT 3 14 0 33 SaLES BaSED on InForMaL aSSESSMEnT314033 rECorDS oF aVaILaBLE LIVESToCk 3 29 0 7 rECorDS oF aVaILaBLE LIVESToCk32907 FooD SaFETy 11 14 7 0 FooD SaFETy111470 PrICES PUBLICLy aVaILaBLE 3 14 0 7 PrICES PUBLICLy aVaILaBLE31407 PrICInG aCCorDInG To QUaLITy 6 14 0 0 PrICInG aCCorDInG To QUaLITy61400 MarkETInG CoMMITTEE 11 0 0 0 MarkETInG CoMMITTEE11000  "},{"text":"Table 16 . infraSTrucTure aT markeTS for liveSTock SaleS (% of reSpondenTS) CaTTLE GoaTS/ShEEP  SaLE PEnS 81 57 100 13 SaLE PEnS815710013 rooFED arEaS 53 64 73 13 rooFED arEaS53647313 LoaDInG raMPS 53 43 60 7 LoaDInG raMPS5343607 aBLUTIon FaCILITIES 36 50 20 13 aBLUTIon FaCILITIES36502013 IMProVED hoLDInG PEnS 17 50 33 13 IMProVED hoLDInG PEnS17503313 MakEShIFT hoLDInG PEnS 28 7 0 67 MakEShIFT hoLDInG PEnS287067 TranSParEnT wEIGhInG FaCILITIES 19 36 27 7 TranSParEnT wEIGhInG FaCILITIES1936277 waTEr FaCILITIES 11 57 7 13 waTEr FaCILITIES1157713 VEnDInG STaLLS 11 7 7 20 VEnDInG STaLLS117720 rEFrIGEraTIon FaCILITIES 3 36 0 0 rEFrIGEraTIon FaCILITIES33600  "},{"text":"Table 17 . ownerShip of markeT infraSTrucTure for liveSTock SaleS (% of reSpondenTS)  CaTTLE GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP  "},{"text":"Table 18 . feeS collecTed aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP FEES CoLLECTED 64 79 40 70 FEES CoLLECTED64794070  "},{"text":"Table 19 . uSe of feeS collecTed aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP Don'T know 42 43 60 7 Don'T know4243607 InFraSTrUCTUrE MaInTEnanCE 19 43 27 33 InFraSTrUCTUrE MaInTEnanCE19432733 SaLarIES 14 7 13 7 SaLarIES147137 UPGraDInG 0 29  27 UPGraDInG02927 PoLICE SErVICES 6 7  0 PoLICE SErVICES670 GraDInG SErVICES 3 7  0 GraDInG SErVICES370  "},{"text":"Table 20 . adverTiSing medium for liveSTock SaleS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP PoSTEr 31 29  20 PoSTEr312920 FarMErS 19 43 40 20 FarMErS19434020 TraDErS 8 43 27 13 TraDErS8432713 nEwSPaPEr 3 56  20 nEwSPaPEr35620 VET 6 29  13 VET62913 FarMEr orGanIZaTIon 0 36  13 FarMEr orGanIZaTIon03613 raDIo 0 36  20 raDIo03620 ExTEnSIon 6 0  0 ExTEnSIon600 nGo 0 0  0 nGo000  "},{"text":"Table 23 . peak Sale monThS for liveSTock SaleS (% reSponSeS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP DECEMBEr 44 50 47 73 DECEMBEr44504773 aPrIL 53 7 60 53 aPrIL5376053 noVEMBEr 44 43 47 27 noVEMBEr44434727 janUary 44 14 67 7 janUary4414677 MarCh 53 0 73 0 MarCh530730 FEBrUary 36 7 67 7 FEBrUary367677 jUnE 25 29 33 20 jUnE25293320 aUGUST 28 7 7 53 aUGUST287753 May 28 14 40 7 May2814407 oCToBEr 36 21 20 0 oCToBEr3621200 jULy 22 21 20 13 jULy22212013 SEPTEMBEr 25 0 13 0 SEPTEMBEr250130  "},{"text":"Table 24 . monThS wiTh peak priceS for liveSTock SaleS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP DECEMBEr 53 43 60 73 DECEMBEr53436073 noVEMBEr 50 36 47 27 noVEMBEr50364727 oCToBEr 36 7 67 47 oCToBEr3676747 MarCh 47 0 67 0 MarCh470670 May 33 21 53 7 May3321537 aPrIL 25 29 27 13 aPrIL25292713 jUnE 25 7 40 7 jUnE257407 FEBrUary 44 14 20 0 FEBrUary4414200 janUary 22 7 33 7 janUary227337 jULy 8 7 0 53 jULy87053 SEPTEMBEr 14 14 7 7 SEPTEMBEr141477 aUGUST 19 0 7 0 aUGUST19070  "},{"text":"QuaLity rewardS, food Safety and animaL weLfare 4.3.1. QuaLity rewardS   "},{"text":"Table 25 . liveSTock markeTS ThaT reward qualiTy (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP QUaLITy rEwarDED 47 86 27 53 QUaLITy rEwarDED47862753  "},{"text":"Table 26 . qualiTy criTeria aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP aGE 42 64 20 33 aGE42642033 ConDITIon 31 64 13 47 ConDITIon31641347 wEIGhT (MEaSUrED) 17 79 13 27 wEIGhT (MEaSUrED)17791327 DISEaSE FrEE 31 71 13 20 DISEaSE FrEE31711320 SEx 31 50 7 40 SEx3150740 CaSTraTED 25 57 13 27 CaSTraTED25571327 BrEED 25 43 20 33 BrEED25432033 SIZE 28 43 0 33 SIZE2843033 FrEE oF BrUISES 19 50 13 13 FrEE oF BrUISES19501313 FaTnESS 8 36 13 27 FaTnESS8361327 PELT ConDITIon 14 36 0 7 PELT ConDITIon143607 wEIGhT (aPParEnT) 11 7 0 7 wEIGhT (aPParEnT)11707 GraDE oF CarCaSS 6 14 0 0 GraDE oF CarCaSS61400 PELT CoLoUr 11 7 0 0 PELT CoLoUr11700  "},{"text":"Table 27 . qualiTy deTerminaTion mechaniSmS aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP VISUaL aSSESSMEnT 47 50 27 47 VISUaL aSSESSMEnT47502747 wEIGhInG SCaLE 8 64 7 20 wEIGhInG SCaLE864720 BoDy SCorE 3 71 0 53 BoDy SCorE371053 PrEDETErMInED CaTEGory 3 21 0 8 PrEDETErMInED CaTEGory32108  "},{"text":"Table 28 . meaSureS To improve liveSTock qualiTy (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE   GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP IMProVED FEEDInG 28 21 27 13 IMProVED FEEDInG28212713 IMProVED hEaLTh CarE 25 21 20 7 IMProVED hEaLTh CarE2521207 IMProVED hanDLInG In TranSPorT 11 14 0 13 IMProVED hanDLInG In TranSPorT1114013 PrICE InCEnTIVE 6 21 0 7 PrICE InCEnTIVE62107 awarEnESS CrEaTIon 8 0 7 13 awarEnESS CrEaTIon80713 CaPaCITy DEVELoPMEnT 11 0 7 7 CaPaCITy DEVELoPMEnT11077 IMProVED hanDLInG DUrInG MarkET ProCESSES 14 7 0 0 IMProVED hanDLInG DUrInG MarkET ProCESSES14700 ParTICIPaTory QUaLITy GUaranTEE STraTEGy 3 0 0 0 ParTICIPaTory QUaLITy GUaranTEE STraTEGy3000  "},{"text":"Table 29 . food SafeTy rewarded aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)  CaTTLE GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP  "},{"text":"Table 30 . food SafeTy criTeria aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP anIMaL hEaLTh 6 50 33 anIMaL hEaLTh65033 hyGIEnE 3 50 0 hyGIEnE3500 ConTaMInaTIon FrEE 0 29 7 ConTaMInaTIon FrEE0297  "},{"text":"Table 31 . food SafeTy mechaniSm aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)  CaTTLE GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP  "},{"text":"Table 32 . meaSureS To improve food SafeTy aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP VaCCInaTIon 6 7 0 VaCCInaTIon670 FooD SaFETy SUrVEILLanCE 3 7 0 FooD SaFETy SUrVEILLanCE370 anIMaL hEaLTh SUrVEILLanCE 3 7 0 anIMaL hEaLTh SUrVEILLanCE370 DISInFECTIon 0 7 0 DISInFECTIon070 BInDErS For anIMaL FEED 3 0 0 BInDErS For anIMaL FEED300 awarEnESS CrEaTIon 3 0 0 awarEnESS CrEaTIon300 CaPaCITy DEVELoPMEnT 3 0 0 CaPaCITy DEVELoPMEnT300 PrICE InCEnTIVE 3 0 0 PrICE InCEnTIVE300 PEnaLTy 0 7 0 PEnaLTy070 ParTICIPaTory ConTroL STraTEGy 3 0 0 ParTICIPaTory ConTroL STraTEGy300 rEPorTInG FaCILITIES 0 0 0 rEPorTInG FaCILITIES000  "},{"text":"Table 33 . welfare rewardS aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)  CaTTLE GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP  "},{"text":"Table 34 . animal welfare criTeria aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS) CaTTLE GoaTS/ShEEP  FrEE oF DISEaSES 31 79 7 33 FrEE oF DISEaSES3179733 ConDITIon 19 64 7 33 ConDITIon1964733 FrEE oF BrUISES 22 50 7 27 FrEE oF BrUISES2250727 wELFarE STanDarDS 6 57 7 20 wELFarE STanDarDS657720  "},{"text":"Table 35 . animal welfare mechaniSm aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)  CaTTLE GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP  "},{"text":"Table 36 . meaSureS To improve animal welfare aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)  CaTTLE GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP  "},{"text":"Table 37 . ThefT aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP ThEFT 42 14 93 ThEFT421493  "},{"text":"Table 38 . rooT cauSeS of ThefT aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP DESTITUTIon 25 14 47  DESTITUTIon251447 Poor ConTroL 11 0 33 7 Poor ConTroL110337 GrEED 3 14 7  GrEED3147  "},{"text":"Table 39 . ThefT conTrol aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP LoCaL ProSECUTIon 69 36 80 LoCaL ProSECUTIon693680 nEIGhBoUrhooD waTCh 53 21 27 nEIGhBoUrhooD waTCh532127 ForMaL ProCEDUrES 39 50 20 ForMaL ProCEDUrES395020 InForMaL ProCEDUrES 3 7 7 InForMaL ProCEDUrES377  "},{"text":"Table 40 . effecTiveneSS of ThefT conTrol aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP EFFECTIVE 50 93 0 93 EFFECTIVE5093093 ThIEVES noT ProSECUTED 36 0 67  ThIEVES noT ProSECUTED36067 ThIEVES noT CaUGhT 25 0 40  ThIEVES noT CaUGhT25040 CoLLUSIon In ThE ProSECUTIon ProCESS 0 7 7  CoLLUSIon In ThE ProSECUTIon ProCESS077  "},{"text":"Table 41 . croSS border Trade affecTing liveSTock SaleS (%)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP CroSS-BorDEr TraDE 14 7 0 7 CroSS-BorDEr TraDE14707  "},{"text":"Table 42 . women and youTh'S opporTuniTieS aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)  CaTTLE GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP  "},{"text":"Table 43 . women and youTh deTerrence aT liveSTock markeTS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP SoCIaL norMS 28 36 27 80 SoCIaL norMS28362780 SECUrITy ISSUES 17 36 7 86 SECUrITy ISSUES1736786 Poor nEGoTIaTIon PowEr 47 29 27 27 Poor nEGoTIaTIon PowEr47292727 Poor aCCESS To PrICE InForMaTIon 19 21 27 40 Poor aCCESS To PrICE InForMaTIon19212740 ChaLLEnGES on TranSPorT 11 29 20 33 ChaLLEnGES on TranSPorT11292033 Poor aCCESS To ThE MarkETS 33 7 0 27 Poor aCCESS To ThE MarkETS337027 ThE way PayMEnTS arE MaDE 6 21 0 0 ThE way PayMEnTS arE MaDE62100  "},{"text":"Table 44 . poTenTial for improving liveSTock off-Take (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE  GoaTS/ShEEP  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP hIGh 19 57 40 47 hIGh19574047 aVEraGE 47 14 20 20 aVEraGE47142020 Low 25 7 33 13 Low2573313 VEry hIGh 3 21 7 20 VEry hIGh321720 VEry Low 6 0 4 0 VEry Low6040  "},{"text":"Table 45 . area To improve liveSTock off-Take (% of reSpondenTS)  CaTTLE GoaTS/ShEEP CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEP  "},{"text":"Table 46 . percenTage of reTailerS and off-TakerS purchaSing liveSTock from Smallholder farmerS   CaTTLE (n=23)  GoaTS/ShEEP (n=19)  ChICkEnS (n=27) CaTTLE (n=23)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=19)ChICkEnS (n=27) 85 28 100 33 45 19 8528100334519  "},{"text":"Table 47 . acTiviTieS of reTailerS and off-TakerS in liveSTock value chainS (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE   GoaTS/ShEEP  ChICkEnS CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEPChICkEnS SELL MEaT 100 100 100 100 100 100 SELL MEaT100100100100100100 BUy LIVE anIMaLS 90 29 100 38 82 27 BUy LIVE anIMaLS9029100388227 CaTTLE ProDUCTIon 45 35 70 25 55 27 CaTTLE ProDUCTIon453570255527 PoULTry ProDUCTIon 45 18 50 13 73 20 PoULTry ProDUCTIon451850137320 GoaT ProDUCTIon 30 12 60 50 36 13 GoaT ProDUCTIon301260503613 ProCESSInG 10 53 10 50 10 50 ProCESSInG105310501050 CroP ProDUCTIon 40 18 50 13 36 20 CroP ProDUCTIon401850133620 BUy MEaT 10 29 10 38 18 40 BUy MEaT102910381840 SUPPLy InPUTS 15 18 20 25 18 20 SUPPLy InPUTS151820251820 FoDDEr ProDUCTIon 10 12 22 13 10 7 FoDDEr ProDUCTIon10122213107 SELL LIVE anIMaLS 15 0 10 0 18 0 SELL LIVE anIMaLS150100180  "},{"text":"Table 48 . proporTion of income (mean) from buying and Selling liveSTock producTS CaTTLE (n=) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=) ChICkEnS (n=24)  BUy LIVE anIMaLS 47 (7) 64 (12) 45 (19) 17 (20) 26 (18) 19 (5) BUy LIVE anIMaLS47 (7)64 (12)45 (19)17 (20)26 (18)19 (5) SELL MEaT 38 (27) 48 (     SELL MEaT38 (27)48 (  "},{"text":"Table 49 . change in Share of income (%) buying liveSTock    CaTTLE (n=23) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=13)  ChICkEnS (n=24) CaTTLE (n=23)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=13)ChICkEnS (n=24) InCrEaSInG 56 40 50 33 33 53 InCrEaSInG564050333353 no ChanGE 28 40 40 33 44 27 no ChanGE284040334427 DECrEaSInG 17 20 10 33 22 20 DECrEaSInG172010332220  "},{"text":"Table 50 . change in Share of income (%) Selling meaT    CaTTLE (n=36) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=15) ChICkEnS (n=24) CaTTLE (n=36)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=15)ChICkEnS (n=24) InCrEaSInG 35 47 43 38 n/a n/a InCrEaSInG35474338n/an/a no ChanGE 41 32 43 25 n/a n/a no ChanGE41324325n/an/a DECrEaSInG 24 21 14 38 n/a n/a DECrEaSInG24211438n/an/a Table 51.       Table 51. change in Share of income (%) proceSSing meaT     change in Share of income (%) proceSSing meaT   CaTTLE (n=36) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=15)  ChICkEnS CaTTLE (n=36)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=15)ChICkEnS InCrEaSInG 25 17 43 38 n/a n/a InCrEaSInG25174338n/an/a no ChanGE 75 50 43 25 n/a n/a no ChanGE75504325n/an/a DECrEaSInG 0 33 14 38 n/a n/a DECrEaSInG0331438n/an/a 5.2.       5.2.  "},{"text":"SuppLy voLumeS and QuaLity   "},{"text":"Table 53 . mean peak volumeS (n per monTh) and priceS (uSd per n, (STd)  janUary   80 80  22  9 13  janUary808022913 FEBrUary   80 80  0  18 6  FEBrUary80800186 MarCh   40 40  22  18 0  MarCh404022180  aPrIL   40 40  22  18 6  aPrIL404022186  May   40 50  11  18 0  May405011180  jUnE   40 50  0  18 6  jUnE40500186  jULy   40 40  0  18 0  jULy40400180 aUGUST   20 30  0  18 13  aUGUST203001813 SEPTEMBEr   20 30  0  18 0  SEPTEMBEr20300180 oCToBEr 0  20 20  0  18 0  oCToBEr020200180 noVEMBEr   20 20  0  27 6  noVEMBEr20200276 DECEMBEr   40 20  0  27 13  DECEMBEr402002713   CaTTLE   GoaTS/ShEEP    ChICkEnS  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEPChICkEnS (n=17)  (n=5)  (n=10)  (n=9)  (n=5) (n=3) (n=17)(n=5)(n=10)(n=9)(n=5)(n=3) VoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICE VoLUMEPrICEVoLUMEPrICEVoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICEVoLUMEPrICE 20 295  287 53 36 170 59 46 6 3,700 5 202952875336170594663,7005 (23) (71) (4) (197) (46) (8) (199) (27) (36) (0.8) (5,456) (0.9) (23)(71)(4)(197)(46)(8)(199)(27)(36)(0.8)(5,456)(0.9)  "},{"text":"Table 54 . mean peak volumeS (n per monTh) and priceS (uSd per n),(STd)    CaTTLE   GoaTS/ShEEP    ChICkEnS  CaTTLEGoaTS/ShEEPChICkEnS (n=17)  (n=5) (n=10)  (n=9)  (n=5)  (n=3) (n=17)(n=5)(n=10)(n=9)(n=5)(n=3) VoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICE VoLUME PrICE VoLUMEPrICEVoLUMEPrICEVoLUMEPrICEVoLUMEPrICEVoLUMEPrICEVoLUMEPrICE 12 374 10 334 25 32 151 61 13 6 2,800 5 12374103342532151611362,8005 (6) (116) (8) (273) (19) (7) (2,150) (7) (10) (1.1) (4,158) (0.5) (6)(116)(8)(273)(19)(7)(2,150)(7)(10)(1.1)(4,158)(0.5)  "},{"text":"Table 55 . qualiTy imporTanT when buying liveSTock (% of reSpondenTS)    CaTTLE (n= 23) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=13)  ChICkEnS (n=13) CaTTLE (n= 23)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=13)ChICkEnS (n=13) yES 94 80 90 100 100 100 yES948090100100100  "},{"text":"Table 56 . imporTanT facTorS affecTing priceS when buying liveSTock (% of reSpondenTS)    CaTTLE (n=23) GoaTS/ShEEP (=13)  ChICkEnS (n=) CaTTLE (n=23)GoaTS/ShEEP (=13)ChICkEnS (n=) aGE 39 0 80 33 0 0 aGE390803300 wEIGhT 33 60 30 100 33 50 wEIGhT3360301003350 BoDy ConDITIon 89 80 60 67 67 0 BoDy ConDITIon89806067670 BrEED 11 20 40 33 11 25 BrEED112040331125 SEx n/a n/a 40 0 33 25 SExn/an/a4003325 CoMPETITor LEVEL 11 20 10 0 0 0 CoMPETITor LEVEL112010000 DEManD LEVEL 11 0 10 0 10 0 DEManD LEVEL110100100 DELIVEry PoInT 11 0 0 0 11 0 DELIVEry PoInT11000110  "},{"text":"Table 57 . STandardS inSpecTionS and reward mechaniSmS when buying liveSTock (% of reSpondenTS)     CaTTLE (n=23) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=13) ChICkEnS (n= 13) CaTTLE (n=23)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=13)ChICkEnS (n= 13) STanDarD QUaLITy 33 40 60 67 33 0 STanDarDQUaLITy33406067330 InSPECTIon FooD SaFETy 72 80 30 33 56 25 InSPECTIonFooD SaFETy728030335625 (% yES) anIMaL wELFarE 72 60 20 0 56 0 (% yES)anIMaL wELFarE7260200560 PrICE MEChanISMS QUaLITy 11 80 60 67 0 50 PrICE MEChanISMSQUaLITy11806067050 To rEwarD QUaLITy FooD SaFETy 11 60 30 33 0 50 To rEwarD QUaLITyFooD SaFETy11603033050 (%) anIMaL wELFarE 17 80 30 67 0 100 (%)anIMaL wELFarE178030670100  "},{"text":"Table 58 . imporTanT qualiTy criTeria when pricing (% of reSpondenTS)    CaTTLE (n=23) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=13) ChICkEnS (n=13) CaTTLE (n=23)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=13)ChICkEnS (n=13) DISEaSE 62 40 60 33 10 33 DISEaSE624060331033 BoDy ConDITIon 42 40 40 33 100 100 BoDy ConDITIon42404033100100 aGE 62 40 40 0 56 25 aGE62404005625 wEIGhT 19 40 0 0 33 50 wEIGhT1940003350 SIZE 43 20 40 0 33 25 SIZE43204003325 CarCaSS 29 20 10 0 0 0 CarCaSS292010000 SEx 33 20 20 0 0 0 SEx332020000 BrEED 5 40 30 0 0 0 BrEED54030000  "},{"text":"Table 59 . whaT Smallholder farmerS Should change (% of reSpondenTS)    CaTTLE (n=23) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=13) ChICkEnS (n= 13) CaTTLE (n=23)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=13)ChICkEnS (n= 13) SELL hEaLThIEr anIMaLS 89 60 60 100 67 25 SELL hEaLThIEr anIMaLS8960601006725 SELL MorE In DECEMBEr 89 40 60 33 100 50 SELL MorE In DECEMBEr8940603310050 SELL MorE In noVEMBEr 50 40 40 33 67 50 SELL MorE In noVEMBEr504040336750 SELL MorE In SEPTEMBEr 17 60 30 67 44 25 SELL MorE In SEPTEMBEr176030674425 SELL MorE In aPrIL 39 20 60 0 67 50 SELL MorE In aPrIL39206006750 SELL MorE In MarCh 39 40 50 0 56 50 SELL MorE In MarCh39405005650 SELL MorE In oCToBEr 22 60 30 67 22 25 SELL MorE In oCToBEr226030672225 SELL LarGEr anIMaLS 17 20 33 0 67 75 SELL LarGEr anIMaLS17203306775 SELL MorE In aUGUST 28 40 60 0 56 25 SELL MorE In aUGUST28406005625 SELL MorE In FEBrUary 33 60 30 0 33 50 SELL MorE In FEBrUary33603003350 SELL MorE In May 28 40 60 0 22 50 SELL MorE In May28406002250 SELL FaTTEr anIMaLS 61 20 30 33 22 25 SELL FaTTEr anIMaLS612030332225 SELL yoUnGEr anIMaL 17 40 30 67 0 25 SELL yoUnGEr anIMaL17403067025 SELL MorE In janUary 28 40 30 0 22 50 SELL MorE In janUary28403002250 SELL MorE In jUnE 17 20 50 0 22 50 SELL MorE In jUnE17205002250 SELL MorE In jULy 17 20 40 0 22 50 SELL MorE In jULy17204002250 SELL MorE anIMaLS 17 20 10 33 0 25 SELL MorE anIMaLS17201033025  "},{"text":"Table 60 . buSineSS capaciTy (% of reSpondenTS)    CaTTLE (n=23) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=19)  ChICkEnS (n=13) CaTTLE (n=23)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=19)ChICkEnS (n=13) oPEraTE aT FULL CaPaCITy 75 33 90 44 73 44 oPEraTE aT FULL CaPaCITy753390447344  "},{"text":"Table 61 . main SourceS of informaTion, for caTTle, goaTS/Sheep and chickenS (% of reSpondenTS)    CaTTLE (n=23) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=19)  ChICkEnS (n=13) CaTTLE (n=23)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=19)ChICkEnS (n=13) MEMBEr oF aSSoCIaTIon 5 28 0 33 0 31 MEMBEr oF aSSoCIaTIon528033031 ConTraCT USED n/a n/a 0 22 9 25 ConTraCT USEDn/an/a022925 MaIn SoUrCES oF       MaIn SoUrCES oF InForMaTIon       InForMaTIon MarkET oBSErVaTIonS 80 50 70 20 90 56 MarkET oBSErVaTIonS805070209056 TraDErS 60 44 80 33 55 31 TraDErS604480335531 rETaILErS 20 50 10 55 18 44 rETaILErS205010551844  "},{"text":"Table 62 . conSTrainS for SucceSSful Sale (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE (n=17) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=6) ChICkEnS (n=12) CaTTLE (n=17)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=6)ChICkEnS (n=12)  (n=5) (n=12) (n=1) (n=5) (n= 3) (n=9) (n=5)(n=12)(n=1)(n=5)(n= 3)(n=9) UnCErTaInTy oVEr CoSTS 20 17 100 0 33 11 UnCErTaInTy oVEr CoSTS201710003311 Low ConSUMEr DEManD 60 8 0 20 33 11 Low ConSUMEr DEManD6080203311 hIGh oThEr CoSTS 0 17 0 20 0 22 hIGh oThEr CoSTS017020022 Poor aCCESS To SaLES MarkET 20 0 - - 0 33 Poor aCCESS To SaLES MarkET200--033 ProCESSor SkILLS knowLEDGE BEhaVIoUr 0 8 0 20 0 11 ProCESSor SkILLS knowLEDGE BEhaVIoUr08020011 VarIaBILITy In SaLES PrICES 0 8 0 20 0 11 VarIaBILITy In SaLES PrICES08020011 CoMPETITIon FroM IMPorTS 0 17 - - 0 22 CoMPETITIon FroM IMPorTS017--022 ConSUMEr SkILLS knowLEDGE BEhaVIoUr 0 8 0 20 - - ConSUMEr SkILLS knowLEDGE BEhaVIoUr08020-- hIGh PUrChaSE PrICES 0 17 - - 0 11 hIGh PUrChaSE PrICES017--011  "},{"text":"Table 63 . opporTuniTieS for Sale of liveSTock (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE (n=17) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=6) ChICkEnS (n=12) CaTTLE (n=17)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=6)ChICkEnS (n=12)  (n=5) (n=12) (n=1) (n=5) (n=3) (n=9) (n=5)(n=12)(n=1)(n=5)(n=3)(n=9) Low PUrChaSE PrICES 20 42 100 20 33 56 Low PUrChaSE PrICES2042100203356 hIGh ConSUMEr DEManD 40 8 0 20 33 22 hIGh ConSUMEr DEManD4080203322 BETTEr CoST PLannInG 20 17 0 40 0 22 BETTEr CoST PLannInG2017040022 TraDEr SkILLS, knowLEDGE 20 8 - - 33 11 TraDEr SkILLS, knowLEDGE208--3311 ConSUMEr SkILLS knowLEDGE 0 8 0 20 - - ConSUMEr SkILLS knowLEDGE08020-- InCrEaSInG SaLE PrICES 0 8 - - - - InCrEaSInG SaLE PrICES08---- rEDUCInG oThEr CoSTS 0 8 - - - - rEDUCInG oThEr CoSTS08----  "},{"text":"Table 64 . innovaTion in liveSTock markeTing (% of reSpondenTS)   CaTTLE (n=38) GoaTS/ShEEP (n=19) ChICkEnS (n=27) CaTTLE (n=38)GoaTS/ShEEP (n=19)ChICkEnS (n=27)  (n=20) (n=18) (n=10) (n=9) (n=11) (n=16) (n=20)(n=18)(n=10)(n=9)(n=11)(n=16) nEw ProDUCT 20 17 60 22 27 19 nEw ProDUCT201760222719 nEw InPUTS 5 6 20 11 18 6 nEw InPUTS562011186 orGanIZE BUSInESS 10 11 10 11 0 6 orGanIZE BUSInESS1011101106 nEw way oF ProDUCInG 0 17 0 0 0 19 nEw way oF ProDUCInG01700019  "},{"text":"Table 66 . frequency of conSuming foodS (% of reSpondenTS)    hIGh InCoME Low InCoME ToTaL χ 2 (P-VaLUE) hIGh InCoMELow InCoMEToTaLχ 2 (P-VaLUE) STaPLES DaILy wEEkLy 87 13 93 7 9 ns STaPLESDaILy wEEkLy87 1393 79ns  DaILy 67 68   DaILy6768 VEGETaBLES wEEkLy MonThLy 31 1 24 2 2 ns VEGETaBLESwEEkLy MonThLy31 124 22ns  oCCaSIonaLLy 0 5 4  oCCaSIonaLLy054  DaILy 4 5 5  DaILy455 PULSES wEEkLy MonThLy 74 16 63 19  ns PULSESwEEkLy MonThLy74 1663 19ns  oCCaSIonaLLy 6 13   oCCaSIonaLLy613  DaILy 54 18   DaILy5418 EGGS wEEkLy MonThLy 38 4 59 7 6 *** EGGSwEEkLy MonThLy38 459 76***  oCCaSIonaLLy 1 12 8  oCCaSIonaLLy1128  DaILy 34 16   DaILy3416 BEEF wEEkLy MonThLy 63 0 74 7 4 *** BEEFwEEkLy MonThLy63 074 74***  oCCaSIonaLLy 1 4 3  oCCaSIonaLLy143  DaILy 5 0 2  DaILy502  wEEkLy 10 6 8  wEEkLy1068 GoaT MonThLy SEaSonaLLy 26 2 18 8 6 ns GoaTMonThLy SEaSonaLLy26 218 86ns  oCCaSIonaLLy 49 56   oCCaSIonaLLy4956  nEVEr 5 8 7  nEVEr587  DaILy 18 10   DaILy1810 PoULTry wEEkLy MonThLy 72 9 69 14  ns PoULTrywEEkLy MonThLy72 969 14ns  oCCaSIonaLLy 1 6 4  oCCaSIonaLLy164  wEEkLy 86 61   wEEkLy8661 FrUIT MonThLy SEaSonaLLy 8 0 11 2 1 * FrUITMonThLy SEaSonaLLy8 011 21*  oCCaSIonaLLy 5 25   oCCaSIonaLLy525  DaILy 66 42   DaILy6642 MILk wEEkLy MonThLy 26 3 49 3 3 ** MILkwEEkLy MonThLy26 349 33**  oCCaSIonaLLy 4 6 5  oCCaSIonaLLy465  "},{"text":"Table 67 . proporTion monThly income SpenT of foodS (mean % of income compoSiTion)  ToTaL (P-VaLUE) ToTaL(P-VaLUE)  "},{"text":"Table 68 . frequency in purchaSeS of foodS (% of reSpondenTS)    hIGh InCoME Low InCoME ToTaL χ 2 (P-VaLUE) hIGh InCoMELow InCoMEToTaLχ 2 (P-VaLUE)  DaILy 14 14 14  DaILy141414  wEEkLy 5 23 16  wEEkLy52316 STaPLES MonThLy 75 58 64 *** STaPLESMonThLy755864***  SEaSonaLLy 4 2 3  SEaSonaLLy423  oCCaSIonaLLy 4 1 2  oCCaSIonaLLy412  DaILy 49 51 50  DaILy495150 VEGETaBLES wEEkLy MonThLy 34 5 33 1 33 3 ns VEGETaBLESwEEkLy MonThLy34 533 133 3ns  oCCaSIonaLLy 10 12 11  oCCaSIonaLLy101211  DaILy 0 1 1  DaILy011  wEEkLy 40 51 47  wEEkLy405147 PULSES MonThLy 46 38 41 ns PULSESMonThLy463841ns  SEaSonaLLy 4 0 1  SEaSonaLLy401  oCCaSIonaLLy 8 11 10  oCCaSIonaLLy81110  DaILy 3 6 5  DaILy365 BEEF wEEkLy MonThLy 27 66 55 35 46 46 *** BEEFwEEkLy MonThLy27 6655 3546 46***  oCCaSIonaLLy 4 3 3  oCCaSIonaLLy433  DaILy 0 2 1  DaILy021  wEEkLy 0 3 2  wEEkLy032 GoaT MonThLy 27 6 15 ** GoaTMonThLy27615**  "},{"text":"Table 69 . nuTriTional qualiTy aS reaSon for chooSing The liveSTock-baSed markeT channel To buy foodS (% of reSpondenTS)  hIGh InCoME Low InCoME ToTaL χ 2 (P-VaLUE) hIGh InCoMELow InCoMEToTaLχ 2 (P-VaLUE)  "}],"sieverID":"d35173ae-4f78-46d3-a5fa-0427b6e91212","abstract":""}

data/part_3/041e5864df7a5fbff17a5009cb30ef47.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"041e5864df7a5fbff17a5009cb30ef47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/774faea7-bc7f-4f65-84b5-8f7adc1d7ce5/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Growing evidence of the use and utility of climate services for smallholder farmers A summary of recent findings from the CCAFS flagship on climate services and safety nets","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Climate services -which provide timely, tailored climate information to improve decision makinghave the potential to help these farmers manage risk and adapt to change. To date, however, evidence regarding the effectiveness of climate services for smallholder farmers in the developing world has been scarce. Over the last ten years, and consistent with CCAFS overarching theory of change, the climate services flagship of CCAFS has worked to fill this gap, conducting a number of projects designed to explicate the extent to which farmers use and benefit from climate services. Among other topics, these projects asked:"},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"• How and to what extent do farmers access and use agricultural climate services to inform their decision making? • What impact does the use of those services have on farmers' livelihoods? • How do the design and implementation of agricultural climate services influence their effectiveness?"},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"This brief presents evidence generated in projects conducted in Africa and Latin America to answer these questions. Instead of an exhaustive review, this brief offers an exploration of evidence generated by a few projects. While this evidence is useful for investments in areas the specific projects studied, it can also help improve other actions -for instance, the implementation of services in other areas; investment in National Meteorological Services; defining an appropriate balance of investment in the production, translation, transfer and use of climate information; and shaping the role that climate services play in national adaptation and climate finance planning, among other things."}]},{"head":"CCAFS flagship on climate services","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"All of the work in this brief is drawn from CCAFS's Flagship 4 -which is focused on climate risk management with a specific theme on climate services and safety netsand affiliated projects. This theme comprised a number of projects that worked to generate evidence regarding the use and utility of agricultural climate services for smallholder farmers in the developing world. This brief looks at evidence from a small set of projects, described in the relevant references."}]},{"head":"Climate services increase farmers' access to climate information","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The projects have explored how and whether climate services improve farmers' access to and understanding of climate information. These projects generated convincing evidence that farmers who are able to access weather and climate services choose to do so -and that this access improves farmers' confidence in their understanding and ability to use climate knowledge to improve their decision making."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"One example comes from Rwanda, where Birachi et al (2020) report that a high percentage of farmers who are aware of climate information sources access them. The authors also show that participation in Radio Listening Clubs (RLCs) and/or a structured participatory training approach called Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) increases the rate at which farmers access information -e.g., that 89% of the households that participated in both services chose to access seasonal forecasts, compared to 76% of households who were aware of seasonal climate forecasts but did not participant in the abovementioned projects."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"The results of this study also support the notion that RLCs and PICSA increase people's ability to understand climate information -with 70% of farmers who did not participate in these services (and 90% of those that did) indicating they felt they had a good understanding of the information (Birachi et al 2020). In addition, qualitative work in this area found that women and men favor different communication channels for weather and climate information, and that men access a greater range of channels. This work also showed that people's understanding of information improved when they participated in the services listed above (Gumucio et al 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"In This is similar to evidence generated in Senegal, where Chiputwa et al 2020 showed that the use of seasonal forecasts is associated with a higher proportion of farmers using improved seed, fertilizers and manure, but negatively associated with crop diversification, within MWG locations. The authors also found that participation in an MWG increased farmers reported use of forecasts by 10% (Chiputwa et al 2020). In Latin America, Giraldo et al report that 40% of farming families that receive information from an LTAC transformed their practice -for instance, by changing when they plant; by when and how they treat/prevent pests; by returning to ancestral farming practices; rotating crops; and/or making alternate decisions about seed varieties (Giraldo et al 2019)."}]},{"head":"Use of climate services improves farm-level outcomes","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Critically, CCAFS research has done more than ask farmers whether and how they use climate information; it has also attempted to generate evidence regarding the impact that these decisions have made on farmers lives and livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Particularly since efforts to evaluate climate services in this way are still relatively rare, the work CCAFS researchers have done in this regard is critical to helping develop a picture of the potential productivity and financial gain that can inform discussions of return on investment from climate services."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"Having shown that participation in PICSA and RLCs encouraged Rwanda farmers to use climate information for decisions, Birachi et al also found that relative to the control group, PICSA participation increased the value of crop production by 24%; it also increased income from the sale of crops by 30%. Relatedly, the combination of PICSA and RLCs was associated with a 47% increase in the value of crop production and a 56% increase in income from crops (Birachi et al 2020). Relatedly, Ingabire identified women in RLCs as more likely than women who did not participate in these groups (and men whether or not they participated in these groups) to record changes in income and social standing resulting from use of climate information (Ingabire 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"In Ghana, Djibo et al 2021 evaluated the impacts of a pilot project that introduced weather and climate information services on the \"technical efficiency\" (i.e., the ratio between the actual and potential output of a production unit) and productivity of sorghum farming, looking at 92 users and 118 nonusers of climate services in the Upper West Region. The analysis showed a 6% increase in technical efficiency and a 35% increase in yield. It also found that improving technical efficiency has a higher payoff among users than nonusers of climate services, resulting in increased sorghum productivity of 5% (Djido et al 2020)."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"Meanwhile, in Senegal, where Chiputwa et al did a multi-year study to understand the impact of the multi-disciplinary working groups, results show that the use of weather and climate information increased the value of crop production by between 10 and 25% for farmers with access to an MWG. Specifically, the authors found that for farmers exposed to the MWG, the use of seasonal and daily forecasts significantly increased the value of crop income from groundnuts, maize and millet by between 10% and 25%, compared to farmers with no access to the MWG. (Chiputwa et al 2020)."},{"index":6,"size":122,"text":"In addition, this analysis found that the impact of the climate service varies according to the sex of the farmer and the type of the crops. For instance, both men and women who used climate services gained an average of 158 kg/ha for millet and 140 kg/ha more for rice than non-users did. At the same time, the authors found that the benefit associated with the use of seasonal forecasts is greater for men than for women who farm millet (202.7 kg/ha for men vs. 16.7 kg/ha for women) and rice (321.33 kg/ha for men vs. −25.3 kg/ha for women). Conversely, women benefit more from the use of seasonal forecasts when farming maize (210 kg/ha vs. −105 kg/ha) (Chiputwa et al 2020)."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"Importantly, the analysis found that the value of the main crops produced by users of weather and climate services in Senegal was higher than that produced by non-users. "}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"The evidence summarized here contributes to the small but steadily growing body of evidence that well-designed climate services are an effective way to improve farmers' yields, income and well-being. Indeed, this evidence shows that climate services increase farmers' access to climate information by as much as 20%; that farmers use climate information to make a range of farm-level decisions; and that the use of climate services improves farmlevel outcomes, including productivity, technical efficiency, and the income generated from crop production."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"In this way, CCAFS has added to the body of work that shows that the provision of tailored climate services helps farmers to make better decisions, and is associated with improved crop productivity and income, which can help reduce poverty and increase food security. In the context of a variable and changing climate, this is very promising."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"The evidence also points to two specific factors that influence the effectiveness of climate services. These are:"},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"• Participation -Coordinated platforms, including multi-disciplinary working groups, local technical agroclimatic committees, radio listening clubs, and structured participatory training approaches (e.g., PICSA) have been instrumental fostering farmers' confidence in the information, and in their ability to effectively use it to their gain."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"• Gender -Participation in these kinds of activities mentioned above has also been shown to remove disparities awareness, access and use of climate information that exist between women and men smallholder farmers. In this context, closing the existing gender gap by supporting women's farmer organizations appears to be a central avenue to scale out the adoption of CIS to communities not yet reached Another synthesis exercise that interviewed CCAFS project team leaders about their knowledge and experience regarding climate services good practices (Born 2021) similarly generated recommendations around gender and participation."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"In that review, the need for continued investment in participatory methods to further support farmers' capacity of farmers to understand and use climate information was widely noted. Regarding gender, project leaders noted efforts that had been made in CCAFS projects to include considerations of gender, such as strategies to make training more accessible to women, nonetheless noting that further progress is needed to address some of the systemic issues around gender that may reduce climate services impacts and exacerbate inequality."},{"index":7,"size":139,"text":"While the overall goal of CCAFS is to impact rural livelihoods, some outcomes are less quantifiable and more difficult to document than others. Indeed, CCAFS has highlighted many challenges in documenting the outcomes and impacts associated with its work (Born 2020). Nevertheless, the efforts above show that it is possible for projects to generate quantitative evidence regarding the extent to which climate services contribute to changes in access, use and benefits associated with climate information. Moving forward, similar projects should include efforts to conduct evaluations on how end-users employ advisories and information in their decision-making. This can take the form of ex post evaluations that can substantiate project impacts. This kind of evidence is critical in helping to develop the evidence base to improve our sense of good practice in the use of climate services for CCAFS lofty goals."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Senegal, Chiputwa et al 2020 assessed the effectiveness of Multi-disciplinary Working Groups (MWGs) in serving farmers needs for climaterelated decision making. These groups bring farmers, farmer organizations, climatologists, agricultural scientists, extension agents and other inform their decisions. In Rwanda, for instance, inform their decisions. In Rwanda, for instance, Birachi et al 2020 show that farmers use climate Birachi et al 2020 show that farmers use climate services when deciding what crops to grow (75%); services when deciding what crops to grow (75%); what varieties to plant (58%); the timing of planting what varieties to plant (58%); the timing of planting and land preparation (75%); and when and how to and land preparation (75%); and when and how to prepare land (65%). prepare land (65%). In addition, participation in PICSA and RLCs, alone In addition, participation in PICSA and RLCs, alone and in combination, is associated with a substantial and in combination, is associated with a substantial increase in the proportion of farmers that report increase in the proportion of farmers that report changing crop, livestock and livelihood management changing crop, livestock and livelihood management practices in response to weather and climate practices in response to weather and climate information. There is evidence that women farmers information. There is evidence that women farmers may use climate information less than men, though may use climate information less than men, though participation in RLCs and PICSA enabled women's participation in RLCs and PICSA enabled women's increased incorporation of climate information into increased incorporation of climate information into their management decisions, narrowing the gender their management decisions, narrowing the gender equity gap in use (Gumucio et al 2020; Ingabire equity gap in use (Gumucio et al 2020; Ingabire 2021). 2021). and and farmers together to share climate and agricultural farmers together to share climate and agricultural information and to make risk-informed information and to make risk-informed recommendations regarding farm management. In recommendations regarding farm management. In 2019, Giraldo et al characterized the outcomes 2019, Giraldo et al characterized the outcomes associated with 25 LTACs located in 10 countries associated with 25 LTACs located in 10 countries (Honduras, Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, El (Honduras, Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Panama, Paraguay, Mexico, Ecuador, and Salvador, Panama, Paraguay, Mexico, Ecuador, and Chile). Similar to conclusions drawn about the Chile). Similar to conclusions drawn about the MWGs in Senegal, researchers found compelling MWGs in Senegal, researchers found compelling evidence that farmers who were involved in LTACs evidence that farmers who were involved in LTACs showed enhanced knowledge, understanding of, showed enhanced knowledge, understanding of, and confidence in agro-climatic information (Giraldo and confidence in agro-climatic information (Giraldo et al 2019). et al 2019). Farmers use climate information to make Farmers use climate information to make farm-level decisions farm-level decisions CCAFS researchers have found evidence not just CCAFS researchers have found evidence not just that farmers with access to climate services learn that farmers with access to climate services learn from them, but that they use those services to from them, but that they use those services to  "}],"sieverID":"b48e3024-1c08-44b6-88f2-e706e1e4ab3e","abstract":"Key messages ◼ Climate services increase farmers' access to climate information by as much as 20% ◼ Farmers use climate information to make a range of farm-level decisions ◼ Use of climate services improves farm-level outcomes, including productivity, technical efficiency, and the income generated from crop production ◼ Participatory platforms and services are instrumental in improving farmer outcomes, and in mitigating gender disparities in the access, use and benefit associated with climate information The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) works to promote climate smart agriculture, food systems and landscapes. It specifically seeks impacts in three dimensions including the reduction of poverty; food security; and natural resource systems. CCAFS organizes its efforts around a theory of change that includes (1) building of evidence; (2) developing capacity; (3) coordinating policies; and (4) strategic investment to reach scale. In this context, CCAFS has a particular interest in improving outcomes for smallholder farmers in the developing world, who are particularly vulnerable to climate variability and change."}

data/part_3/04932288c2deb0c0a8612e473b4531a5.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04932288c2deb0c0a8612e473b4531a5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/12ce928d-e5ab-4861-bc21-beb0be2cd710/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Adaptation of new species of Leucaena in Costa Rica, Central America. Preliminary results","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"There are 17 species of Leucaena identified that are all native to the New World; however, the more researched and utilized species worldwide continues to be L. leucocephala (Lam) de Wit, that is known by its high forage quality, but deficient cold and drought tolerance, poor growth on acid soils, heavy pod production, low wood durability and susceptibility to a defoliating psyllid (Hughes 1993). Other species of Leucaena are little known despite that indigenous people, particularly of Mexico and Central America, have utilized them for centuries as sources of food, firewood, timber for construction and feed for domestic animals."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"In 1996 CIAT agree to collaborate with the Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI) of England to evaluate the adaptation and potential use of new species of Leucaena along the tropics of Latin America. OFI provided experimental seed of 18 new lines of Leucaena, supplied the inoculum and the experimental methodology for evaluation. During the last year, seed has been distributed to collaborators in Costa Rica, Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, Belize, Panamá, Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil. The trials are coordinated from a regional CIAT office located at the headquarters of the Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA) in San José, Costa Rica. Preliminary results of the first trial established in Costa Rica are presented."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"The experimental site is located at the Escuela Centro Americana de Ganadería (ECAG) in Atenas, Costa Rica. This locality is placed at 9º 58' lat N and 84º 23' long W at 200 m.a.s.l.; it is classified as subhumid tropical forest with 23.7 ºC mean temperature and 1600 mm of annual rainfall distributed from May to November. The soils are inceptisols of medium fertility that have the following characteristics: pH 5.9 (H 2 O); 7.6 % OM; 3.6 ppm of P; 9.5, 6.0 and 0.24 meq/100 g respectively of Ca, Mg and K; the Al content is negligible. Seed of 18 species of Leucaena were scarified with sand paper, inoculated and planted directly in the field placing two seeds per site. Plants were thinned lately to one per site for a total of 10 plants per plot spaced at 0.50 m between plants. Checks were made of one line selected by CIAT of L. leucocephala (CIAT 17263), one introduction of Calliandra callothyrsus from Australia (CPI 115690) and the shrub Cratylia argentea (CIAT 18668). Each species was replicated four times. Measurements of plant height and diameter, foliar retention and plant mortality were taken 3.5 months after planting at the end of the dry season. Plant height was measured again 9.8 months after planting, before the uniformity cut made at 0.50 m height. At this age the form and growth habit of the different accessions was ranked using a scale suggested by OFI."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Evaluation cuts at 0.5 m height have been carried out at 8 weeks of regrowth during the period of the rains; the material harvested is separated in edible component (leaves and thin stems) and woody parts. Dry weight is taken after drying the samples for 48 hours in a forced air oven. Psyllid damage has been monitored at monthly intervals."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":468,"text":"Considerable variation has been observed in growth vigour between Leucaena species as indicated by plant height, stem diameter, foliar retention and plant mortality at the end of the 6 months dry period (Argel and Pérez 1997). Most Leucaena species showed strong apical dominance, with the exception of L. pallida 79/92, L. leucocephala CIAT 17263 and L. hybrid 1/95. Table 1 indicates that plant height increments varied from 0.49 m to more than 1.5 m 9.8 months after planting, with ten lines reaching more than 1 m height. The best growth was recorded in L. collinsii 52/88, which outyielded 3 times the poorest species (L. multicapitulata 81/87). Other outstanding lines up to this date were L. salvadorensis 17/86, L. diversifolia subspp. stenocarpa 53/88 and diversifolia 83/92, L. leucocephala subsp. glabrata 34/92 (K 636) and L. macrophylla subsp. nelsonii 47/85. These observations are in agreement with those reported by Karachi and Lefofe (1997) in a different environment at Morale, Botswana; however, none of them has showed adaptation to acidic ultisols (pH = 4.7) with Al saturation of 49 % ( Castillo et al. 1997). Foliar retention and plant survival is very important in environments like Atenas with 6 months dry season. L. shannonii subsp. magnifica 19/84, L. leucocephala subsp. glabrata 34/92 (K 636) , L. macrophylla subsp. nelsonii 47/85 and L. hybrid 1/95, all combined both, over 60 % foliar retention and nil or very little plant mortality under the conditions of the trial. On the other hand, L. multicapitulata 81/87, an introduction from Los Santos (Panamá) and the check C. calothyrsus DPI 115690 had high plant mortality. Considerable variation has been recorded in individual plant dry matter yield. Table 2 indicates that there is significant variation within and between species of Leucaena. L. diversifolia subsp. stenocarpa 53/88, L. collinsii 52/88, L. hybrid 52/87 and L. pallida 14/96 are among the best yielders; meanwhile that L. diversifolia subsp. diversifolia 83/92 and L. collinsii subsp. zacapana 56/88 have yielded significantly much less (P<0.05). Other species of poor yields have been the check L. leucocephala CIAT 17263, L. lempirana 6/91, L. trichodes 61/88 and L. multicapitulata 81/87. However, all lines have produced a high proportion of edible forage. 3.4 3.5 2.8 3.1 1.9 1.9 2.9 4.0 3.5 3.1 4.4 4.1 2.5 3.1 3.4 3.9 4.0 2.5 3.8 2.9 4.5 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 14 1 0 1 1 6 0 11 0 * Measurements taken 3.5 months after planting. ** Measurements taken 9.8 months after planting and before the uniformity cut at the end of the dry season 1997. Foliar retention scale: 1= less than 20% foliar retention; 2=20 -40%; 3 = 40 -60%; 4= 60 -80% and 5 >80% foliar retention. *** Plant mortality at the end of the 6 months dry season."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"The shrub C. argentea CIAT 18668 is placed between the best Leucaena species in terms of DM yields and foliar retention during the dry season (Table 1 and 2). This plant develops a kind of 'climbing branches' that makes it difficult to determine a clear pattern of growth; under cutting it produces multiple branches that replace the main stem. L. leucocephala CIAT 17263 is within the intermediate group of Leucaena species with comparable yields to C. calothyrsus DPI 115690, although with better plant survival (Table 1). "},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"* Mean of 4 ratings at monthly intervals. Scale used: 1= no damage; 2 = young leaves moderately curled; 3 = tips and young leaves curled and yellow; 4 = tips and young leaves severely curled, yellow and covered with sap; 5 = loss of up to 25% of young leaves; 6 = loss of up to 50% of young leaves; 7 = loss of up to 75% of young leaves; 8 = loss of up to 100% of young leaves and darkening of older leaves, and 9 = stained stems and loss of total foliage. ** Means followed by similar letters are not significantly different (P < 0.05) *** Between brackets the percent edible DM relative to total, DM yield."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"The psyllid insect has been present during the period of the observations; however, plant damage has been mild up to date. Table 2 shows that the lower yielding species of Leucaena have been slightly more affected by psyllid, but producing only curled young leaves and tips; however, in any case the defoliation of young leaves has been more than 25 per cent. L. diversifolia subsp. stenocarpa 53/88, L. pallida 14/96 and L. pulverulenta 47/87 have showed less susceptibility to the psyllid insect. This insect has natural enemies in the area that make an effective biological control; however, it has been mentioned that it could become a problem if the area planted with leucaena continues to expand (Schultze-Kraft 1994)."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Mild attacks of the fungus Camptomeris leucaenae have been recorded, particularly in old leaves of Leucaena species. This fungus is particularly severe in species of L. leucocephala, but it has been reported that the species L. diversifolia, L. esculenta, L. lanceolata, L. macrophylla and L. trichodes are not affected (Moreno et al. 1988)."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"This trial will continue for another growing season."}]},{"head":"Conclusions (preliminary)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Considerable variations have been recorded between Leucaena species in terms of plant height and vigour, foliar retention during the dry period, plant mortality and DM yields. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Plant height, diameter, foliar retention and plant mortality of Leucaena and other species planted for evaluation in Atenas, Costa Rica. (Adapted fromArgel and Pérez 1997). Plant * Plant ** Plant *Plant **  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Psyllid damage and dry matter (DM) yields of Leucaena and other species established in Atenas, Costa Rica (Mean of 2 evaluations cuts after 8 weeks of regrowth during the wet season). Species Species  "},{"text":" Most Leucaena species showed strong apical dominance as habit of growth. L. diversifolia subsp. stenocarpa 53/88, L. collinsii 52/88, L. hybrid 52/87, L. pallida 14/96 and L. leucocephala subsp. glabrata 34/92 (K636) are among the best yielders, meanwhile that L. lempirana 6/91, L. collinsii subsp. zacapana 56/88, L. trichodes 61/88 and L. multicapitulata 81/87 have produced poor DM yields as an indication of poor adaptation to the climatic and soil conditions of the trial. Only mild attacks of the psyllid insect have been recorded.  "}],"sieverID":"cb6087a8-12b3-474c-bf50-d00a34bacc20","abstract":""}

data/part_3/057b378af044bae1be175bb3b267e413.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"057b378af044bae1be175bb3b267e413","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/ID0MPE/3GV4QI"},"pageCount":29,"title":"Alive & Thrive -Maternal Nutrition Study in UP","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"K26. The people in the community value my efforts to improve their lives. K27. I am contributing to improving the conditions of the communities I am working in. K28. I have a lot of pressure as an AWW. K29. It really seems like the workload keeps increasing K30. I find my work as an AWW to be motivating, and I like to do it. K31. I feel confident that I am performing very well as an AWW."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"MODULE A: IDENTIFICATION Name Code A1. Name of AWW: ........................................................................ [__][__][__] A2. Na me of AWC:…………………………………………… A3. Village (sample village):........................................................... [__][__][__] A4. Panchayat: ................................................................................... Block: ........................................................................................ [__][__] A7. District: ...................................................................................... No Question Respond Code NoQuestionRespond Code B30. MCP card  B30. MCP card B31. ICDS MIS Register (Pregnancy register no. 5)  B31. ICDS MIS Register (Pregnancy register no. 5) B32. Home visit register no. 8  B32. Home visit register no. 8 B33. Job aid or reminder card/brochure on nutrition  B33. Job aid or reminder card/brochure on nutrition B34. Furniture -chairs, tables and mats  B34. Furniture -chairs, tables and mats B35. Examination table for ANC  B35. Examination table for ANC B36. Privacy screen for examining pregnant or postnatal women  [__] B36. Privacy screen for examining pregnant or postnatal women[__] B37. Waiting area with chairs or place to sit  B37. Waiting area with chairs or place to sit A5. Duplicate (if worker serves more than one village)  A5. Duplicate (if worker serves more than one village)  Duplicate village 1  [__] Duplicate village 1[__] Duplicate village 2 MODULE C:  [__] Duplicate village 2 MODULE C:[__]  Duplicate village 3  [__] Duplicate village 3[__] A6. [__][__] A6. [__][__] A10. Supervisor's name & code:  [__][__] A10. Supervisor's name & code:[__][__] A11. Date of data collection:  First visit A11. Date of data collection:First visit    Day Month Year DayMonth Year    1 7 1 7    Second visit Second visit    Day Month Year DayMonth Year    1 7 1 7 A12. Starting time of data collection(hours/minutes) (AM OR PM): B10. Drinking water pot is covered B11. Garbage and waste dumps are near AWC  0. No Hours Minute AM/PM AM…1 PM….2 A12. Starting time of data collection(hours/minutes) (AM OR PM): B10. Drinking water pot is covered B11. Garbage and waste dumps are near AWC0. No Hours Minute AM/PMAM…1 PM….2 B12. Electricity connection (authorized only)  B12. Electricity connection (authorized only) A13. Finishing time of data collection(hours/minutes) (AM OR PM): B13. Light (electric light) B14. Fan fixtures Hours Minute AM/PM AM…1 PM….2 A13. Finishing time of data collection(hours/minutes) (AM OR PM): B13. Light (electric light) B14. Fan fixturesHours Minute AM/PMAM…1 PM….2 B15. Separate kitchen space  B15. Separate kitchen space B16. Space for storage of supplementary nutrition food  B16. Space for storage of supplementary nutrition food B17. Drinking water source in the compound/close by  B17. Drinking water source in the compound/close by B18. Toilet  B18. Toilet B19. Handwashing facility  B19. Handwashing facility B20. Soap available at the handwashing facility  B20. Soap available at the handwashing facility B21. Water available at the handwashing facility  B21. Water available at the handwashing facility B22. Walls have colorful pictures or drawings including  B22. Walls have colorful pictures or drawings including  alphabets and numbers  alphabets and numbers B23. Toys for children to play  B23. Toys for children to play B24. Functioning weighing scale for adults  B24. Functioning weighing scale for adults B25. Functioning weighing scale for children  B25. Functioning weighing scale for children B26. IFA supply  B26. IFA supply B27. Calcium supply  B27. Calcium supply B28. Supplementary nutrition supply  B28. Supplementary nutrition supply B29. WHO growth charts  B29. WHO growth charts  "},{"text":"DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION INTERVIEWER: DO NOT PROMPT RESPONSES UNLESS INDICATED IN THE QUESTION  MODULE D:  MODULE D: No Question Respond Code NoQuestionRespond Code C1. Age of AWW Year C1. Age of AWWYear C2. Do you know how to read and write? 0. No, cannot read and write C2. Do you know how to read and write?0. No, cannot read and write   1. Yes, read and write 1. Yes, read and write C3. Can you read this sentence out loud? (SHOW CARD) C14. How do you know what all your AWW work responsibilies are? 2. Yes, read 1. Yes 0. Cannot read at all 0. No 1. Can read some of it 1. Told by previous AWW 2. Can read whole sentence 2. Told by Lady Supervisor C3. Can you read this sentence out loud? (SHOW CARD) C14. How do you know what all your AWW work responsibilies are?2. Yes, read 1. Yes 0. Cannot read at all 0. No 1. Can read some of it 1. Told by previous AWW 2. Can read whole sentence 2. Told by Lady Supervisor C4. What is the highest class you have completed? 0. Did not complete class 1 3. Told by CDPO C4. What is the highest class you have completed?0. Did not complete class 1 3. Told by CDPO  (Multiple responses possible) 1. Completed class 1 4. Told by DPO (Multiple responses possible)1. Completed class 1 4. Told by DPO C15. Do you have access to a mobile/cell phone or landline? 5. Instructed during training or orientation 2. Completed class 2 6. Previous knowledge or experience 3. Completed class 3 95.Other (specify) 4. Completed class 4 -99. Don't know 5. Completed class 5 0. No 6. Completed class 6 1. Yes, mobile phone only C15. Do you have access to a mobile/cell phone or landline?5. Instructed during training or orientation 2. Completed class 2 6. Previous knowledge or experience 3. Completed class 3 95.Other (specify) 4. Completed class 4 -99. Don't know 5. Completed class 5 0. No 6. Completed class 6 1. Yes, mobile phone only   7. Completed class 7 2. Yes, landline phone only 7. Completed class 7 2. Yes, landline phone only   8. Completed class 8 3. Yes, both mobile and landline phones 8. Completed class 8 3. Yes, both mobile and landline phones   9. Completed class 9 -99. Don't know 9. Completed class 9 -99. Don't know C16. Is the phone self-owned or shared? C17. Do you ever use your phone in your work as an 1. Self-owned 10. Completed class 10 2. Shared with other family members/ 11. Completed class 11 neighbors 12. Completed class 12 3. Given by government 13. Graduate and above 1. Yes C16. Is the phone self-owned or shared? C17. Do you ever use your phone in your work as an1. Self-owned 10. Completed class 10 2. Shared with other family members/ 11. Completed class 11 neighbors 12. Completed class 12 3. Given by government 13. Graduate and above 1. Yes  AWW? 14. Other diploma 0. NoD1 AWW?14. Other diploma 0. NoD1 C18. What do you typically use your phone for? 15. Madrassa (if no formal classes exist) 1. Schedule visits or appointments with C18. What do you typically use your phone for?15. Madrassa (if no formal classes exist) 1. Schedule visits or appointments with   16. Tuitions / teaching at home beneficiaries 16. Tuitions / teaching at home beneficiaries  (Multiple responses possible) 17. Other training / courses / camps only 2. Follow up with mothers or take calls from (Multiple responses possible)17. Other training / courses / camps only 2. Follow up with mothers or take calls from C5. Religion mothers 66. No schooling 3. Call health facilities during home visits 95. Others (Specify) 4. Request supplies for yourself 1. Hindu 5. Coordinate with ANM/ ASHA/ 2. Muslim supervisor/other officials ASHA/ ANM 3. Christan 6. Receive payments 4. Buddhist 5. Sikh 95.Other (specify) C5. Religionmothers 66. No schooling 3. Call health facilities during home visits 95. Others (Specify) 4. Request supplies for yourself 1. Hindu 5. Coordinate with ANM/ ASHA/ 2. Muslim supervisor/other officials ASHA/ ANM 3. Christan 6. Receive payments 4. Buddhist 5. Sikh 95.Other (specify)   6. Jain 6. Jain   95.Others (Specify) 95.Others (Specify) C6. What is your caste category? 1. SC C6. What is your caste category?1. SC   2. ST 2. ST   3. OBC 3. OBC   4. General 4. General   5. Not applicable 5. Not applicable   95. Others (Specify) 95. Others (Specify)  "},{"text":"WORKLOAD AND SERVICE CONTACTS I would like to ask you about your workload and specific services that you provide for pregnant women, lactating mothers and children. For question D1 to D6, please check registers and fill in the details Ask the wife to take proper diet 8. Store enough IFA and Calcium tablets at home 9. Ask the wife to take one IFA tablet everyday 10. Ask the wife to take 2 Calcium tablets everyday 11. Ask the wife to take two hours of rest everyday 12. Ask the wife to sleep for at least 8 hours every night 13. Ask the wife to avoid heavy work during pregnancy 14. Check the weight in MCP card of PW regularly 15. Take care so that PW's weight increases No D1. D2. D3. D4. D5. D6. D7. D8. D9. D10. What services do you provide as AWW? Question What is the total population covered by the AWC/AWCs that you are in-charge of? How many pregnant women are there in your catchment area? How many women are there in your area who have delivered during the last 42 days? How many children between 0-6 months are there in your catchment area? How many days of the month do you work as an AWW? How many hours do you usually work each day? How much time do you USUALLY spend on preparing reports each month? (Time taken per day also into account) How many days in a month do you meet your supervisor who supervises you to discuss your work? How mny days in a month do you carry out special campaigns or initiatives for senior authorities? (Multiple responses possible) D11. Are you responsible for provision of services for another AWC apart from this one? D12. If yes, how many? D13. How did you come to know about the pregnancy of the women you followed in the last 6 months? (Multiple responses possible) D14. How many pregnant women did you interact with in the last month? D15. Do you usually keep up with your work responsibilities? D16. What usually stops you from keeping up with your work? your village? F4. How many times was VHND DIWAS conducted in the village in the past 3 months? F5. What services do you usually provide during VHND? F6. From the community, who attends/participates in VHND DIWASs? (Multiple responses possible) MODULE G: HOME VISITS No Question Response Respond Code (Range: 0-5,000) Number of pregnant women (Range: 0-200) Number of recently delivered women (Range: 0-200) Number of children 0-6 months (Range: 0-1,000) Days (Range: 0-31) Minutes (Range: 0-59mins) Hours (Range: 0-24hrs) Hours (Range: 0-24hrs) Minutes (Range: 0-59mins) Days/month (Range: 0-31) (Range: 0-31) 1. Counsel pregnant women on birth preparedness 2. Counsel pregnant women on the importance of safe delivery 3. Counsel on Early Initiation of breastfeeding within 1 hr of birth 4. Counsel on exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months (not even water) 5. Counsel and demonstrate on dietary diversity and quantity during pregnancy 6. Counsel on IFA & Calcium consumption 7. Counsel on complementary feeding 8. Counsel on immunization 9. Provide information on family planning 10. Provide information on hygiene 11. Mobilize pregnant women to go for ANC 12. Mobilize women with infants for immunization 13. Accompany pregnant women with complications to facilities 14. Accompany pregnant women to health facilities for delivery 15. Accompany women with infants/young children to health facilites 16. Conduct home vists 17. Call a monthly VHSNC meeting 24. Education about diarrhea prevention and treatment 25. Provide ORS 26. Provide information on ANC services under PMSMA 27. Information on JSY/JSSK 28. Maintain records 95.Other (specify) 1. Yes 0. NoD13 Number of AWCs (Range: 1-5) 1. Ca me to me 2. Heard from ASHA 3. From home visits 4. Came to VHND 5. Heard from neighbors 95.Other (specify) Number of women 1. Yes Module F 0. No 2. Once a month 3. <12 a year 4. Once a year -99. Don't know 1. More than 3 times 2. 3 times 3. 2 times 4. Once 0. None -99. Don't know 1. Immunization/vaccination 2. Growth monitoring for children 3. Antenatal checkup 4. Weighing of PW 5. Counsel on dietary diversity for PW/RDW 6. Counsel on quantity of food intake for PW/RDW 7. Provide free IFA 8. Provide free Calcium 9. Counsel on IFA 10. Counsel on calcium 11. Provide advice on rest during pregnancy 12. Provide advice on avoiding heavy workload during pregnancy 13. Provide advice on how much weight to gain during pregnancy 14. Counseling on breastfeeding 15. Counseling on complementary feeding 16. Provide Take Home Rations 17. Provide vitamin A dose 18. Provide ORS and Zn tablets 19. Counseling/referral on severe acute malnutrition management 20. Provide deworming tablets 21. Counseling on management and prevention of infectious diseases like TB, leprosy, malaria 22. Family planning counseling and distribution of contraceptives 23. Advice about sending children to school/ Anganwadi 24. Referral to PHC/CHC 95.Other (specify)__________ 1. Pregnant women 2. Lactating mothers 3. Children under 3 years 4. Adolescent girl 5. Men/fathers Response code G1. How many households in your catchment area are you responsible for making home visits in total? Number of households (Range: 0-5,000) G2. Do you have Revised ICDS MIS register no. 8 (Home Visit) 1. Yes 0. No G4 G3. Do you regularly update the register? 1. Yes 0. No G4. As per the home visit register, how many home visits are expected from you to Pregnant women and children up to 24 months? Number of expected home visits Pregnant women (Range: 0-30) Children up to 24 months (Range: 0-50) G5. How many days of the month do you usually make home visits for your work as an AWW? Days (Range: 0-31) G6. How many home visits do you usually make each day on days that you make home visits? Home visit/ day (Range: 0-50) G7. How long do you usually spend in each home that you visit (on average) Minutes (Range: 0-59) G8. How often do you usually visit a pregnant woman's household during her pregnancy? 1. More than once a month 2. Once a month 3. Once in two months 4. Once in three months 5. As when required 95. Other (specify) G9. What is the specific period that you usually visit a pregnant woman's household during her pregnancy? (Multiple responses possible) 1. 0-3 months 2. 4-6 months 3. 7 months -delivery G10. What do you usually do when you visit a house with a pregnant womant? (Multiple responses possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. Provide advice about family planning 2. Advice on maternal nutrition 3. Food demonstration 4. Counsel PW about taking IFA 5. Counsel PW about taking calcium 6. Counsel PW about breastfeeding for her child 7. Provide free IFA 8. Provide free Calcium 9. Provide advice on rest during pregnancy 10. Provide advice on avoiding heavy workload during pregnancy 11. Provide weight gain advice during pregnancy 12. Provide advice on delivery care after birth and exclusive breastfeeding 2. During the second trimester 14. Provide advice on water and sanitation G14. What messages do you provide on taking IFA 1. Take 1 tablet daily during pregnancy take deworming tablet during pregnancy? 1. During the first trimester 13. Counsel mother about personal hygiene tablet? 0. Did not provide any messages G17. What messages do you provide on when to 0. Did not provide any messages 12. Counsel mothers about vaccination for child 13. Counsel on early initiation of breastfeeding 3. Nourishing diet everyday saves costs on doctor and medicine for both mother and child 4. Nutritious food is not always expensive 5. It is good for the health of the mother 95.Other(specify) G12. What messages on dietary diversity do you give when you visit a household with a pregnant/ RDW woman? (Multiple response possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. PW/RDW to eat five different types of food in addition to roti/rice everday 2. PW/RDW have to eat dark green leafy vegetable everyday 3. PW/RDW have to eat yellow/orange fruits or vegetables everyday 4. PW/RDW have to eat thick daal everyday 5. PW/RDW have to eat fish/meat everyday, if non-vegetarian 6. PW/RDW have to eat an egg everyday, if acceptable 7. PW/RDW have to eat milk/milk products everyday 8. PW/ RDW to increase the quantity of milk and milk products if she doesn't eat eggs or meat 9. PW/RDW to take nutritious snacks 2-3 times/day 10. PW/RDW to consume extra food with every meal 11. Why different varieties are required 12.Consume jaggery 13. Consume channa 95. Others (specify) G13. What messages on quantity of food to eat during pregnancy do you give when you visit a household with a pregnant woman? Probe: If meals mentioned, probe for which trimester (Multiple response possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. A woman needs more energy and nutrients during pregnancy and lactation. 2. To increase the amount of food depending on the month of pregnancy to meet the demands of the growing fetus 3. Eat 2 complete meals everyday during first trimester of pregnancy 4. Eat 3 complete meals everyday during second trimester of pregnancy 5. Eat 3 complete meals with 2 nutritious snacks everyday during third trimester of pregnancy 6. Eat 3 complete meals everyday with 3 nutritious snacks during lactation 7. Why extra quanitities of food are needed 8. Increased intake of food 95. Others (specify) 9. How can PW/RDW remind herself or have family member's support to take one tablet daily 10. IFA prevents anemia 11. IFA reduce risk of low birth weight baby 12. IFA reduce risk of maternal death due to hemorrhage 13. IFA ensures the best development of the child 14. IFA reduces complication during pregnancy and birth 15. Information related to side effects 16. Increase intake of fruits and vegetable to avoid constipation 17. Take IFA tablets 95.Others (specify) G15. What messages doyou provide on taking Calcium tablet? (multiple responses possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. Take 2 tablets daily during pregnancy 2. Take 360 calcium tablets during pregnancy 3. Continue to take 2 tablets/day till 6 months postpartum 4. Do not take IFA and calcium together 5. Do not take calcium tablet on an empty stomach 6. Take the first calcium tablet after breakfast and the second tablet with lunch 7. Calcium helps in the development of bone and teeth of the baby 8. Calcium reduce risk of high blood pressure, swelling of body, with headache, nausea & vomiting and blurring of vision & fits (convulsions) 9. How to remind herself or have family member's support to take one tablet daily 10.Take calcium tablets 95. Others (specify) G16. What messages do you provide on monitoring weight or gaining weight during pregnancy? (multiple responses possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. Weigh regularly during pregnancy 2. Record weight in MCP card 3. Women should gain 1.5-2 kg/month from the fourth month of pregnancy 4. A woman should gain 9-11 kg weight during pregnancy 5. Gaining weight indicates proper growth of the fetus 6. Gaining weight indicates mother is taking adequate food 95. Others (specify) improve blood supply to foetus 4. Taking rest is important for the growth of the baby 5. Taking rest improves weight gain of the mother 6. Avoid hard work such as lifting heavy weight. 7. Take some rest 95. Others (specify) G19. What messages do you provide on handwashing and hygiene? (multiple responses possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. Wash your hands with soap after using the toilet 2. Wash your hands with soap after cleaning the feces of children 3. Wash your hands with soap before preparing food 4. Wash your hands with soap before eating 5. Maintain water and soap near to the place of eating/feeding meals in the home 6. Do not walk around barefoot 7. Use vegetables and fruits only after they are washed very well 8. Drinking water should be kept covered 9. Do not go to the toilet in the open, use the toilet that is made in the house. 10.Wash hands after cleaning the house 11.Wash hands before holding the child 95.Others (specify) G20. During your household visits, whom do you talk to about maternal nutrition and health? (Multiple responses possible) 0. No oneG22 1. Pregnant/RDW 2. Pregnant/RDW's husband 3. Pregnant/RDW's mother-in-law 4. Pregnant/RDW's father-in-law 5. Other relatives who live with PW/RDW 6. Whoever is available G21. When you visit a household with a pregnant/recently delivered women, what advice do you give to husband/mother-in-law? (Multiple responses possible) 0. Do not provide any advice 1. To help the women with her household work 2. To ensure she has dievrse and adequate quantity of nutrient rich food items as specified 3. To ensure she can rest two hours during daytime everyday 4. Support for early iniation of breastfeeding and not give prelacteals 5. To support her for exclusive breastfeeding 6. Buy different kinds of nutritious foods for his wife/daughter-in-law as per recommended food groups 16. To ensure wife attends VHND or Subcenter for ANC 17. Take help from the health care provider as needed 95. Others (specify) G22. On average, how long do you usually spend discussing maternal nutrition during your home visits with pregnant women? Minutes (Range: 0-59) G23. On average, how long do you usually spend discussing maternal nutrition during your home visits with recently delivered women? Minutes (Range: 0-59) G24. In the last 30 days during home visits how many times have you demonstrated food intake according to the diet chart? No. of demonstrations (Range: 0-60) G25. When do you first usually visit a house after a child is born? 1. Within one week of the delivery 2. After one week but before one month 3. After one month 4. There is no fixed time 5. As soon as mother gets back from hospital 0. Never visited a newbon household 95.Other (specify) G26. How many times do you visit households of women within the first month after delivery? No of times If 0, skip to G28 (Range: 0-60) G27. What do you do when you visit a house for the first time after a child is born? Multiple responses possible 0. Do not do anything 1. Initiate breastfeeding within the 1st hour of birth 2. Feed colostrum 3. Do not put anything in child's mouth (water, sugar water, honey, jhanamghutti, cow or goat milk, etc.) after birth 4. Counsel mother to initiate breastfeeding within the first hour of birth 5. Councel mother to feed colostrum 6. Counsel mother not to put anything in child's mouth (water, sugar water, honey, jhanamghutti, cow or goat milk, etc.) after birth 7. Observe mother while she is breastfeeding 8. Demonstrate correct attachment and positioning for breastfeeding 9. Counsel and problem solving for breastfeeding difficulties 10. Counsel mothers about exclusive breastfeeding 11. Counsel mothers about keeping baby warm 21. Discuss government schemes 22. Discuss VHND 23. Discuss other community events 24. Weigh the child 95.Other (specify) G28. How often do you visit homes of children under 6 months? 0. Never visit->Skip to G30 1. Once a month 2. Once in two months 3. Once in three months 4. No fixed time/ As necessary 95.Other (specify) -99.Don't know G29. What do you do when you visit homes of children under 6 months? (multiple responses possible) 0. Do not do anything 1. Counsel mother about exclusive breastfeeding 2. Demonstrate correct attachment and positioning for breastfeeding 3. Counsel and problem solving for breastfeeding difficulties 4. Counsel mother to feed express breast milk if the mother goes out for long time 5. Counsel mothers about keeping baby warm 6. Counsel mothers about vaccination for child 7. Counsel mother about personal hygiene 8. Counsel mothers about family planning 9. Counsel mothers to spend time with the child 10. Counsel mothers to get their children weighed regularly 11. Counsel mothers about supplementary nutrition for lactating women 12. Discuss government schemes 13. Counsel mothers about calcium supplements 14. Counsel mothers about IFA supplements 15. Discuss VHND 16. Discuss other community events 17. Refer a sick child to ANM/health facility 18. Weigh the child 95.Other (specify) -99.Don't know G30. Are you ever unable to make home visits? 1. Yes 0. No  G32 10. Supervisor did not provide instructions to go 11. Meet beneficiaries at the AWC 95.Other (specify) G32. Did your supervisor watch you provide advice on maternal nutrition during last 3 months? 1. Yes 0. No G33. Did s/he provide any advice on maternal nutrition at that time? 1. Yes 0. No G34. Did your supervisor watch you demonstrate BF techniques during last 3 months? 1. Yes 0. No G35. Did s/he provide any advice on breastfeeding techniques at that time? 1. Yes 0. No 10. External trainer (official) 95.Other (specify) -99.Don't know I5. Was the training you received adequate for helping you to carry out your work responsibilities as AWW? 1. Yes 0. No I6. Do you usually attend monthly training meetings to discuss nutrition or monthly refresher training? 1. Yes 0. NoSkip to I8 I7. When did you last attend monthly meeting to discuss nutrition or refresher training? 1. Years ago 2. Months ago 3. Days ago 0. Never/ did not receive any training -99. Don't know/ Don't remember MATERIALS I would now like to ask you about the materials, health equipment, and medications that you have in your possession No Question Response Response code I8. Do you have printed job aid material on recommended practices? 1. Yes 0. No I9. Do you have video/ films (non-printed) job aid material on recommended nutrition/diet practices? I10. Do you have a katori/bowl or other measuring device to show amounts of food to be consumed per dy/per meal by PW? I11. Do you have a maternal nutrition -family calender? I12. Do you have maternal nutrition -flipchart? I13. Do you have a breastfeeding Poster in your possession? I14. Do you have a Growth chart in your possession? I15. Do you have Paracetamol in your possession? I16. Do you have a functioning weighing scale for adults I17. Do you have functioning weighing scale for children I18. Do you have deworming pills in your possession? I19. Do you have ORS in your possession? I20. Do you have contraceptives for distribution? 7. a dequately for lactating women 9. Insufficent or lack of forms or materials 9. LHV/ANM Number of peopleDon't know 18. Support in organizing a monthly VHND Diwas 19. Maintain records/VHIR Register 20. Distribute free IFA 21. Distribute free calcium 22. Provide Vitamin A supplements for children 23. Provide deworming tablets/syrup No Question Response Response code F1. Is VHND Diwas held in your village/area? 1. Yes F2. Is any other service beside immunization also offered on VHND Diwas? 1. Yes How often is VHND DIWAS conducted in 1. >1 a month of mothers 8. Do not take IFA tablet on an empty stomach 3. During rest woman should lie on her left side to 20. Counsel mothers about supplementary nutrition 8. Inadequate or lack of knowledge/training 8. Lady supervisor F3. 2. Nourishing diet everyday ensures quick recovery 7. Do not take IFA and calcium together least 8 hours at night 19. Counsel mothers about IFA supplements 7. Lack of interest 7. BMO/ MOIC 0. No 95.Other(specify) -99.Don't know household with a pregnant woman? (Multiple responses possible) women and adequate growth of baby inside the womb 5. Do not take IFA with tea or milk 6. Take IFA at night before bed time 2. During pregnancy, a woman should sleep for at 18. Counsel mothers about calcium supplements 6. Lack of time/busy with other AWW work 6. CDMO (multiple responses possible) at least 2 hours after lunch 17. Counsel mothers about maternal nutrition 5. In a meeting with a supervisor 5. DCPM/BCPM 0. No  skip to next Module 6. Community leaders 7. SHG Member 8. Severely malnourished children 9. Other women 15. Provide advice on hand washing with soap 95. Other (specify) G11. What messages on the importance of nourishing diet do you give when you visit a 0. Did not provide any messages 1. Nourishing diet ensures weight gain of pregnant (multiple responses possible) 2. Take 180 IFA tablets during pregnancy 3. Continue to take 1 tablet/day till 6 months postpartum 4. Take IFA with water or lemon water (multiple responses possible) 3. During the third trimester 95. Others (specify) G18. What messages do you provide on taking rest 1. During pregnancy, a woman should take rest for child 4. Beneficiaries are not at home 4. DPO(ICDS) during pregnancy? 0. Did not provide any messages 14. Counsel mothers about family planning 15. Counsel mothers to spend time with the child 16. Counsel mothers to monitor the growth of their G31. What are the usual reasons for not making 3. Family or personal problem (Multiple responses possible) 3. CDPO (Multiple responses possible) 2. On a Holiday 2. Someone from health home visits? 1. Fell Sick I4. Who provided the training? 1. Someone from ICDS MODULE J: No D1. D2. D3. D4. D5. D6. D7. D8. D9. D10. What services do you provide as AWW? Question What is the total population covered by the AWC/AWCs that you are in-charge of? How many pregnant women are there in your catchment area? How many women are there in your area who have delivered during the last 42 days? How many children between 0-6 months are there in your catchment area? How many days of the month do you work as an AWW? How many hours do you usually work each day? How much time do you USUALLY spend on preparing reports each month? (Time taken per day also into account) How many days in a month do you meet your supervisor who supervises you to discuss your work? How mny days in a month do you carry out special campaigns or initiatives for senior authorities? (Multiple responses possible) D11. Are you responsible for provision of services for another AWC apart from this one? D12. If yes, how many? D13. How did you come to know about the pregnancy of the women you followed in the last 6 months? (Multiple responses possible) D14. How many pregnant women did you interact with in the last month? D15. Do you usually keep up with your work responsibilities? D16. What usually stops you from keeping up with your work? your village? F4. How many times was VHND DIWAS conducted in the village in the past 3 months? F5. What services do you usually provide during VHND? F6. From the community, who attends/participates in VHND DIWASs? (Multiple responses possible) MODULE G: HOME VISITS No Question Response Respond Code (Range: 0-5,000) Number of pregnant women (Range: 0-200) Number of recently delivered women (Range: 0-200) Number of children 0-6 months (Range: 0-1,000) Days (Range: 0-31) Minutes (Range: 0-59mins) Hours (Range: 0-24hrs) Hours (Range: 0-24hrs) Minutes (Range: 0-59mins) Days/month (Range: 0-31) (Range: 0-31) 1. Counsel pregnant women on birth preparedness 2. Counsel pregnant women on the importance of safe delivery 3. Counsel on Early Initiation of breastfeeding within 1 hr of birth 4. Counsel on exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months (not even water) 5. Counsel and demonstrate on dietary diversity and quantity during pregnancy 6. Counsel on IFA & Calcium consumption 7. Counsel on complementary feeding 8. Counsel on immunization 9. Provide information on family planning 10. Provide information on hygiene 11. Mobilize pregnant women to go for ANC 12. Mobilize women with infants for immunization 13. Accompany pregnant women with complications to facilities 14. Accompany pregnant women to health facilities for delivery 15. Accompany women with infants/young children to health facilites 16. Conduct home vists 17. Call a monthly VHSNC meeting 24. Education about diarrhea prevention and treatment 25. Provide ORS 26. Provide information on ANC services under PMSMA 27. Information on JSY/JSSK 28. Maintain records 95.Other (specify) 1. Yes 0. NoD13 Number of AWCs (Range: 1-5) 1. Ca me to me 2. Heard from ASHA 3. From home visits 4. Came to VHND 5. Heard from neighbors 95.Other (specify) Number of women 1. Yes Module F 0. No 2. Once a month 3. <12 a year 4. Once a year -99. Don't know 1. More than 3 times 2. 3 times 3. 2 times 4. Once 0. None -99. Don't know 1. Immunization/vaccination 2. Growth monitoring for children 3. Antenatal checkup 4. Weighing of PW 5. Counsel on dietary diversity for PW/RDW 6. Counsel on quantity of food intake for PW/RDW 7. Provide free IFA 8. Provide free Calcium 9. Counsel on IFA 10. Counsel on calcium 11. Provide advice on rest during pregnancy 12. Provide advice on avoiding heavy workload during pregnancy 13. Provide advice on how much weight to gain during pregnancy 14. Counseling on breastfeeding 15. Counseling on complementary feeding 16. Provide Take Home Rations 17. Provide vitamin A dose 18. Provide ORS and Zn tablets 19. Counseling/referral on severe acute malnutrition management 20. Provide deworming tablets 21. Counseling on management and prevention of infectious diseases like TB, leprosy, malaria 22. Family planning counseling and distribution of contraceptives 23. Advice about sending children to school/ Anganwadi 24. Referral to PHC/CHC 95.Other (specify)__________ 1. Pregnant women 2. Lactating mothers 3. Children under 3 years 4. Adolescent girl 5. Men/fathers Response code G1. How many households in your catchment area are you responsible for making home visits in total? Number of households (Range: 0-5,000) G2. Do you have Revised ICDS MIS register no. 8 (Home Visit) 1. Yes 0. No G4 G3. Do you regularly update the register? 1. Yes 0. No G4. As per the home visit register, how many home visits are expected from you to Pregnant women and children up to 24 months? Number of expected home visits Pregnant women (Range: 0-30) Children up to 24 months (Range: 0-50) G5. How many days of the month do you usually make home visits for your work as an AWW? Days (Range: 0-31) G6. How many home visits do you usually make each day on days that you make home visits? Home visit/ day (Range: 0-50) G7. How long do you usually spend in each home that you visit (on average) Minutes (Range: 0-59) G8. How often do you usually visit a pregnant woman's household during her pregnancy? 1. More than once a month 2. Once a month 3. Once in two months 4. Once in three months 5. As when required 95. Other (specify) G9. What is the specific period that you usually visit a pregnant woman's household during her pregnancy? (Multiple responses possible) 1. 0-3 months 2. 4-6 months 3. 7 months -delivery G10. What do you usually do when you visit a house with a pregnant womant? (Multiple responses possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. Provide advice about family planning 2. Advice on maternal nutrition 3. Food demonstration 4. Counsel PW about taking IFA 5. Counsel PW about taking calcium 6. Counsel PW about breastfeeding for her child 7. Provide free IFA 8. Provide free Calcium 9. Provide advice on rest during pregnancy 10. Provide advice on avoiding heavy workload during pregnancy 11. Provide weight gain advice during pregnancy 12. Provide advice on delivery care after birth and exclusive breastfeeding 2. During the second trimester 14. Provide advice on water and sanitation G14. What messages do you provide on taking IFA 1. Take 1 tablet daily during pregnancy take deworming tablet during pregnancy? 1. During the first trimester 13. Counsel mother about personal hygiene tablet? 0. Did not provide any messages G17. What messages do you provide on when to 0. Did not provide any messages 12. Counsel mothers about vaccination for child 13. Counsel on early initiation of breastfeeding 3. Nourishing diet everyday saves costs on doctor and medicine for both mother and child 4. Nutritious food is not always expensive 5. It is good for the health of the mother 95.Other(specify) G12. What messages on dietary diversity do you give when you visit a household with a pregnant/ RDW woman? (Multiple response possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. PW/RDW to eat five different types of food in addition to roti/rice everday 2. PW/RDW have to eat dark green leafy vegetable everyday 3. PW/RDW have to eat yellow/orange fruits or vegetables everyday 4. PW/RDW have to eat thick daal everyday 5. PW/RDW have to eat fish/meat everyday, if non-vegetarian 6. PW/RDW have to eat an egg everyday, if acceptable 7. PW/RDW have to eat milk/milk products everyday 8. PW/ RDW to increase the quantity of milk and milk products if she doesn't eat eggs or meat 9. PW/RDW to take nutritious snacks 2-3 times/day 10. PW/RDW to consume extra food with every meal 11. Why different varieties are required 12.Consume jaggery 13. Consume channa 95. Others (specify) G13. What messages on quantity of food to eat during pregnancy do you give when you visit a household with a pregnant woman? Probe: If meals mentioned, probe for which trimester (Multiple response possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. A woman needs more energy and nutrients during pregnancy and lactation. 2. To increase the amount of food depending on the month of pregnancy to meet the demands of the growing fetus 3. Eat 2 complete meals everyday during first trimester of pregnancy 4. Eat 3 complete meals everyday during second trimester of pregnancy 5. Eat 3 complete meals with 2 nutritious snacks everyday during third trimester of pregnancy 6. Eat 3 complete meals everyday with 3 nutritious snacks during lactation 7. Why extra quanitities of food are needed 8. Increased intake of food 95. Others (specify) 9. How can PW/RDW remind herself or have family member's support to take one tablet daily 10. IFA prevents anemia 11. IFA reduce risk of low birth weight baby 12. IFA reduce risk of maternal death due to hemorrhage 13. IFA ensures the best development of the child 14. IFA reduces complication during pregnancy and birth 15. Information related to side effects 16. Increase intake of fruits and vegetable to avoid constipation 17. Take IFA tablets 95.Others (specify) G15. What messages doyou provide on taking Calcium tablet? (multiple responses possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. Take 2 tablets daily during pregnancy 2. Take 360 calcium tablets during pregnancy 3. Continue to take 2 tablets/day till 6 months postpartum 4. Do not take IFA and calcium together 5. Do not take calcium tablet on an empty stomach 6. Take the first calcium tablet after breakfast and the second tablet with lunch 7. Calcium helps in the development of bone and teeth of the baby 8. Calcium reduce risk of high blood pressure, swelling of body, with headache, nausea & vomiting and blurring of vision & fits (convulsions) 9. How to remind herself or have family member's support to take one tablet daily 10.Take calcium tablets 95. Others (specify) G16. What messages do you provide on monitoring weight or gaining weight during pregnancy? (multiple responses possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. Weigh regularly during pregnancy 2. Record weight in MCP card 3. Women should gain 1.5-2 kg/month from the fourth month of pregnancy 4. A woman should gain 9-11 kg weight during pregnancy 5. Gaining weight indicates proper growth of the fetus 6. Gaining weight indicates mother is taking adequate food 95. Others (specify) improve blood supply to foetus 4. Taking rest is important for the growth of the baby 5. Taking rest improves weight gain of the mother 6. Avoid hard work such as lifting heavy weight. 7. Take some rest 95. Others (specify) G19. What messages do you provide on handwashing and hygiene? (multiple responses possible) 0. Did not provide any messages 1. Wash your hands with soap after using the toilet 2. Wash your hands with soap after cleaning the feces of children 3. Wash your hands with soap before preparing food 4. Wash your hands with soap before eating 5. Maintain water and soap near to the place of eating/feeding meals in the home 6. Do not walk around barefoot 7. Use vegetables and fruits only after they are washed very well 8. Drinking water should be kept covered 9. Do not go to the toilet in the open, use the toilet that is made in the house. 10.Wash hands after cleaning the house 11.Wash hands before holding the child 95.Others (specify) G20. During your household visits, whom do you talk to about maternal nutrition and health? (Multiple responses possible) 0. No oneG22 1. Pregnant/RDW 2. Pregnant/RDW's husband 3. Pregnant/RDW's mother-in-law 4. Pregnant/RDW's father-in-law 5. Other relatives who live with PW/RDW 6. Whoever is available G21. When you visit a household with a pregnant/recently delivered women, what advice do you give to husband/mother-in-law? (Multiple responses possible) 0. Do not provide any advice 1. To help the women with her household work 2. To ensure she has dievrse and adequate quantity of nutrient rich food items as specified 3. To ensure she can rest two hours during daytime everyday 4. Support for early iniation of breastfeeding and not give prelacteals 5. To support her for exclusive breastfeeding 6. Buy different kinds of nutritious foods for his wife/daughter-in-law as per recommended food groups 16. To ensure wife attends VHND or Subcenter for ANC 17. Take help from the health care provider as needed 95. Others (specify) G22. On average, how long do you usually spend discussing maternal nutrition during your home visits with pregnant women? Minutes (Range: 0-59) G23. On average, how long do you usually spend discussing maternal nutrition during your home visits with recently delivered women? Minutes (Range: 0-59) G24. In the last 30 days during home visits how many times have you demonstrated food intake according to the diet chart? No. of demonstrations (Range: 0-60) G25. When do you first usually visit a house after a child is born? 1. Within one week of the delivery 2. After one week but before one month 3. After one month 4. There is no fixed time 5. As soon as mother gets back from hospital 0. Never visited a newbon household 95.Other (specify) G26. How many times do you visit households of women within the first month after delivery? No of times If 0, skip to G28 (Range: 0-60) G27. What do you do when you visit a house for the first time after a child is born? Multiple responses possible 0. Do not do anything 1. Initiate breastfeeding within the 1st hour of birth 2. Feed colostrum 3. Do not put anything in child's mouth (water, sugar water, honey, jhanamghutti, cow or goat milk, etc.) after birth 4. Counsel mother to initiate breastfeeding within the first hour of birth 5. Councel mother to feed colostrum 6. Counsel mother not to put anything in child's mouth (water, sugar water, honey, jhanamghutti, cow or goat milk, etc.) after birth 7. Observe mother while she is breastfeeding 8. Demonstrate correct attachment and positioning for breastfeeding 9. Counsel and problem solving for breastfeeding difficulties 10. Counsel mothers about exclusive breastfeeding 11. Counsel mothers about keeping baby warm 21. Discuss government schemes 22. Discuss VHND 23. Discuss other community events 24. Weigh the child 95.Other (specify) G28. How often do you visit homes of children under 6 months? 0. Never visit->Skip to G30 1. Once a month 2. Once in two months 3. Once in three months 4. No fixed time/ As necessary 95.Other (specify) -99.Don't know G29. What do you do when you visit homes of children under 6 months? (multiple responses possible) 0. Do not do anything 1. Counsel mother about exclusive breastfeeding 2. Demonstrate correct attachment and positioning for breastfeeding 3. Counsel and problem solving for breastfeeding difficulties 4. Counsel mother to feed express breast milk if the mother goes out for long time 5. Counsel mothers about keeping baby warm 6. Counsel mothers about vaccination for child 7. Counsel mother about personal hygiene 8. Counsel mothers about family planning 9. Counsel mothers to spend time with the child 10. Counsel mothers to get their children weighed regularly 11. Counsel mothers about supplementary nutrition for lactating women 12. Discuss government schemes 13. Counsel mothers about calcium supplements 14. Counsel mothers about IFA supplements 15. Discuss VHND 16. Discuss other community events 17. Refer a sick child to ANM/health facility 18. Weigh the child 95.Other (specify) -99.Don't know G30. Are you ever unable to make home visits? 1. Yes 0. No  G32 10. Supervisor did not provide instructions to go 11. Meet beneficiaries at the AWC 95.Other (specify) G32. Did your supervisor watch you provide advice on maternal nutrition during last 3 months? 1. Yes 0. No G33. Did s/he provide any advice on maternal nutrition at that time? 1. Yes 0. No G34. Did your supervisor watch you demonstrate BF techniques during last 3 months? 1. Yes 0. No G35. Did s/he provide any advice on breastfeeding techniques at that time? 1. Yes 0. No 10. External trainer (official) 95.Other (specify) -99.Don't know I5. Was the training you received adequate for helping you to carry out your work responsibilities as AWW? 1. Yes 0. No I6. Do you usually attend monthly training meetings to discuss nutrition or monthly refresher training? 1. Yes 0. NoSkip to I8 I7. When did you last attend monthly meeting to discuss nutrition or refresher training? 1. Years ago 2. Months ago 3. Days ago 0. Never/ did not receive any training -99. Don't know/ Don't remember MATERIALS I would now like to ask you about the materials, health equipment, and medications that you have in your possession No Question Response Response code I8. Do you have printed job aid material on recommended practices? 1. Yes 0. No I9. Do you have video/ films (non-printed) job aid material on recommended nutrition/diet practices? I10. Do you have a katori/bowl or other measuring device to show amounts of food to be consumed per dy/per meal by PW? I11. Do you have a maternal nutrition -family calender? I12. Do you have maternal nutrition -flipchart? I13. Do you have a breastfeeding Poster in your possession? I14. Do you have a Growth chart in your possession? I15. Do you have Paracetamol in your possession? I16. Do you have a functioning weighing scale for adults I17. Do you have functioning weighing scale for children I18. Do you have deworming pills in your possession? I19. Do you have ORS in your possession? I20. Do you have contraceptives for distribution? 7. a dequately for lactating women 9. Insufficent or lack of forms or materials 9. LHV/ANM Number of peopleDon't know 18. Support in organizing a monthly VHND Diwas 19. Maintain records/VHIR Register 20. Distribute free IFA 21. Distribute free calcium 22. Provide Vitamin A supplements for children 23. Provide deworming tablets/syrup No Question Response Response code F1. Is VHND Diwas held in your village/area? 1. Yes F2. Is any other service beside immunization also offered on VHND Diwas? 1. Yes How often is VHND DIWAS conducted in 1. >1 a month of mothers 8. Do not take IFA tablet on an empty stomach 3. During rest woman should lie on her left side to 20. Counsel mothers about supplementary nutrition 8. Inadequate or lack of knowledge/training 8. Lady supervisor F3. 2. Nourishing diet everyday ensures quick recovery 7. Do not take IFA and calcium together least 8 hours at night 19. Counsel mothers about IFA supplements 7. Lack of interest 7. BMO/ MOIC 0. No 95.Other(specify) -99.Don't know household with a pregnant woman? (Multiple responses possible) women and adequate growth of baby inside the womb 5. Do not take IFA with tea or milk 6. Take IFA at night before bed time 2. During pregnancy, a woman should sleep for at 18. Counsel mothers about calcium supplements 6. Lack of time/busy with other AWW work 6. CDMO (multiple responses possible) at least 2 hours after lunch 17. Counsel mothers about maternal nutrition 5. In a meeting with a supervisor 5. DCPM/BCPM 0. No  skip to next Module 6. Community leaders 7. SHG Member 8. Severely malnourished children 9. Other women 15. Provide advice on hand washing with soap 95. Other (specify) G11. What messages on the importance of nourishing diet do you give when you visit a 0. Did not provide any messages 1. Nourishing diet ensures weight gain of pregnant (multiple responses possible) 2. Take 180 IFA tablets during pregnancy 3. Continue to take 1 tablet/day till 6 months postpartum 4. Take IFA with water or lemon water (multiple responses possible) 3. During the third trimester 95. Others (specify) G18. What messages do you provide on taking rest 1. During pregnancy, a woman should take rest for child 4. Beneficiaries are not at home 4. DPO(ICDS) during pregnancy? 0. Did not provide any messages 14. Counsel mothers about family planning 15. Counsel mothers to spend time with the child 16. Counsel mothers to monitor the growth of their G31. What are the usual reasons for not making 3. Family or personal problem (Multiple responses possible) 3. CDPO (Multiple responses possible) 2. On a Holiday 2. Someone from health home visits? 1. Fell Sick I4. Who provided the training? 1. Someone from ICDS MODULE J:  "},{"text":"KNOWLEDGE ON MATERNAL NUTRITION AND BREASTFEEDING PRACTICES Now I would like to ask you a few questions about your knowledge about diet and nutrition during pregnancy For each statement, please tell me if you strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree. Please remember that this information will remain confidential.Your supervisor take your concerns into account when planning activities that involve you K15. Your supervisor praises you when you do something really well on the job K16. Your supervisor takes your concerns up to the higher management level K17. Your supervisor spends time to help you improve your skils when you make mistakes Please tell me how well each statement describes the behaviour or attitude of your immediate supervisor. For each statement, please tell me if you strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree. My supervisor ensures that I have enough supplies to do my daily work. K20. My supervisor works with me to identify solutions to problems that I face in my work. K21. I feel that my supervisor is sympathetic to and cares about my work-related problems. K22. My supervisor provides enough hand holding support for helping me to improve my skills and deliver services better K23. My supervisor gives me enough guidance and structure to help me do my job. I would now like to ask you about how you feel about your work as an Anganwadi worker. I will read some statements that are examples of the things that relate to health workers and volunteers. For each statement, please indicate if you strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree. No Question Response Response code NoQuestionResponseResponse code K13. When you raise a concern, or worry to your 1. Strongly disagree K13. When you raise a concern, or worry to your1. Strongly disagree  supervisor, s/he follows up to address the issue 2. Disagree supervisor, s/he follows up to address the issue2. Disagree No J1. J2. K14. No K18. I feel well informed by my supervisor about any Question Response Response code Why are some newborns very small at birth and others are born healthy in your community? (Multiple responses possible) 1. Evil eye 2. Too many children or closely spaced births 3. Mother frail and unhealthy 4. Mother did not eat well during pregnancy 5. Mother did not complete ANC visits 6. Mother did not take IFA or calcium 7. Mother was ill during pregnancy a lot 8. Pre-mature baby 95.Other (specify) -99.Dont'know Why is nourishing diet and good nutrition of pregnant women important? (Multiple responses possible) 1. For adequate weight gain of pregnant woman 2. Child inside the womb grows adequately/is healthy 3. For a brainy child with bright future 4. Quicker recovery after delivery 3. Agree 4. Strongly agree Question Response Response code 5. Extra costs due to doctors and medicine will be 1. Strongly disagree No J1. J2. K14. No K18. I feel well informed by my supervisor about any Question Response Response code Why are some newborns very small at birth and others are born healthy in your community? (Multiple responses possible) 1. Evil eye 2. Too many children or closely spaced births 3. Mother frail and unhealthy 4. Mother did not eat well during pregnancy 5. Mother did not complete ANC visits 6. Mother did not take IFA or calcium 7. Mother was ill during pregnancy a lot 8. Pre-mature baby 95.Other (specify) -99.Dont'know Why is nourishing diet and good nutrition of pregnant women important? (Multiple responses possible) 1. For adequate weight gain of pregnant woman 2. Child inside the womb grows adequately/is healthy 3. For a brainy child with bright future 4. Quicker recovery after delivery 3. Agree 4. Strongly agree Question Response Response code 5. Extra costs due to doctors and medicine will be 1. Strongly disagree  changes to program activities that I am involved in. saved 2. Disagree changes to program activities that I am involved in.saved2. Disagree J3. K19. No K24. I receive adequate training to complete my current How should a pregnant woman eat in comparison with a non-pregnant woman to provide good nutrition to her baby and help him grow? Probe: If meals mentioned, probe for which trimester (Multiple responses possible) Question responsibilities. K25. I feel that my superiors value the work that I do in the communities. 6. It is a good investment in future 7. To produce adequate breastmilk 8. To ensure the mother is healthy 95. Others (specify) -99.Do not know 1. Eat 5 variety of foods in addition to rice and dal 2. Eat fish/meat daily, if non vegetarian 3. Eat egg daily, if accepatble 4. Take milk/ milk product daily 5. Eat green leafy vegetable daily 6. Eat yellow/orange vegetables/fruits daily 7. Take thick dal daily 8. Take nutritious food twice daily 9. Take one IFA tablet daily from 4 th month onwards or after completion of first trimester 10. Take two Calcium tablet daily from 4 th month 3. Agree 4. Strongly agree Response Response code onwards or after completion of first trimester 1. Strongly disagree 11. Eat extra food (to the amount of a fist) with each 2. Disagree meal 3. Agree 12. Eat 2 complete meals everyday during first trimester of pregnancy 4. Strongly agree J3. K19. No K24. I receive adequate training to complete my current How should a pregnant woman eat in comparison with a non-pregnant woman to provide good nutrition to her baby and help him grow? Probe: If meals mentioned, probe for which trimester (Multiple responses possible) Question responsibilities. K25. I feel that my superiors value the work that I do in the communities.6. It is a good investment in future 7. To produce adequate breastmilk 8. To ensure the mother is healthy 95. Others (specify) -99.Do not know 1. Eat 5 variety of foods in addition to rice and dal 2. Eat fish/meat daily, if non vegetarian 3. Eat egg daily, if accepatble 4. Take milk/ milk product daily 5. Eat green leafy vegetable daily 6. Eat yellow/orange vegetables/fruits daily 7. Take thick dal daily 8. Take nutritious food twice daily 9. Take one IFA tablet daily from 4 th month onwards or after completion of first trimester 10. Take two Calcium tablet daily from 4 th month 3. Agree 4. Strongly agree Response Response code onwards or after completion of first trimester 1. Strongly disagree 11. Eat extra food (to the amount of a fist) with each 2. Disagree meal 3. Agree 12. Eat 2 complete meals everyday during first trimester of pregnancy 4. Strongly agree   13. Eat 3 complete meals everyday during second 13. Eat 3 complete meals everyday during second   trimester of pregnancy trimester of pregnancy   14. Eat 3 complete meals with 2 nutritious snacks 14. Eat 3 complete meals with 2 nutritious snacks   everyday during third trimester of pregnancy everyday during third trimester of pregnancy   15. Eat 3 complete meals everyday with 3 nutritious 15. Eat 3 complete meals everyday with 3 nutritious   snacks during lactation snacks during lactation   16. Eat channa  16. Eat channa   17. Eat jaggery  17. Eat jaggery   95.Other (specify)  95.Other (specify)   -99. Don't know  -99. Don't know J4. Have you heard about anemia? 1. Yes  J4.Have you heard about anemia?1. Yes   0. NoJ9  0. NoJ9  "}],"sieverID":"c6873ed5-c476-48d7-83b3-ef3645f44edd","abstract":"Only use in Research purpose No Question Respond Code C7. Aside from your work as an AWW, are you presently engaged in any other work for which you receive compensation? 1. Yes 0. No C8. What was your primary reason for becoming an AWW? 1. Income generation 2. Want to be involved in the community/help or serve others 3. Bored/ have unoccupied time 4. Only opportunity available 95. Other (specify) C9. How long have you been working as AWW in this community? Years Month C10. Prior to becoming an AWW, what was your occupation? 1. Housewife 2. Teacher 3. Agricultural labourer 4. Private sector job 5. No prior occupation 6. Anganwadi helper 95.Other (specify) C11. Do you live in the village where the Anganwadi Center is located? 1. Yes 0. No C12. How far away do you stay/live from the AWC village where you work? Km C13. Do you have a job description or manual that describes your AWW work responsibilities?"}

data/part_3/05951f81c8298b13a31252552ec22b8e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05951f81c8298b13a31252552ec22b8e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8f3731b6-89f9-412e-bb54-e0fabf905197/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Olam extends ambition to reduce Food, Loss and Waste (FLW), and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions to 9 crops next to rice","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Project Title: P251 -Reducing agro-food induced GHG emissions through effective FLW reducing strategies Description: Based on learnings in rice case study, Olam wants to extend the approach to their main other crops. They post a call for proposals for a generic ACE calculator methodology. "}]},{"head":"Is new?: Yes","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Innovations:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• I1880 -A variant of the Agro-Chain greenhouse gas Emissions (ACE) calculator, including specific operation in rice chains, and simplified for target users (extension services) (https://tinyurl.com/2jeuth9o)"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• I1879 -Agro-Chain greenhouse gas Emissions (ACE) calculator: user-friendly and accessible tool for rapid assessment of net climate impact effect of food loss reducing interventions (https://tinyurl.com/2gjj7jdh)"}]},{"head":"Narrative of Evidence:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The overall objective of this consultancy is to help Olam Agri identify hotspots of post-harvest loss and GHG emissions, and to establish a baseline in priority products. The consultant will create a toolkit which will guide our ground staff to collect the data needed to establish a baseline of post-harvest losses (both in terms of quantity and quality) occurring between the point of harvest and the point of sale. This toolkit should be tailored to all 10 product-country combinations. Following the toolkit, the consultant will identify opportunities to mitigation losses and GHG emissions."}]},{"head":"Milestones:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"• Business models and analysis of options for structuring finance for replication and scaling of FLW reduction measures in priority value chains"}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"• 9 -Reduce pre-and post-harvest losses, including those caused by climate change 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 07:48 (GMT+0)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Olam posted a request for proposals on Food Loss and Waste (FLW) reduction (https://tinyurl.com/ybzy8db8) "}],"sieverID":"d2598510-b2f6-4a47-ad0f-99c92b6353ea","abstract":""}

data/part_3/059a4cc9aaf74a69f841e79b2eb602c9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"059a4cc9aaf74a69f841e79b2eb602c9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f6ca3dbb-b395-4d46-8220-d558d06a9610/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The Rwanda National Dairy Consumer Survey & Marketing Strategy Recommendations Workshop was a result of an initiative by MINICOM to provide a forum where stakeholders in the dairy sector would discuss the findings of the consumer survey sponsored by EADD and also propose recommendations that would inform the dairy processing and marketing strategy that is being written by MINICOM. The workshop helped identify key issues facing the dairy sector and proposed recommendations for MINICOM's dairy processing and marketing strategy."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The workshop was jointly and expertly facilitated by Dennis Karamuzi of RDCP II and Amos Omore of EADD/ILRI."}]},{"head":"Opening Address by the Permanent Secretary, MINICOM","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"In his opening remarks, the PS, MINICOM welcomed participants and thanked the various stakeholders of the Dairy Sector for making the time to actively participate and contribute to the deliberations of the workshop. He especially commended the team members of EADD for the work that had been put into the consumer survey and in the workshop that was jointly organized by MINICOM and EADD."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The PS pointed out that dairy is a critical sector in Rwanda, as agriculture has the biggest share of the economy aside from services, and therefore the importance of the deliberations from the workshop could not be emphasized enough. He noted that lot of work had already gone into the dairy sector but there was still a lot to be done, and it was important that the dynamics of the dairy sector be well understood, to ensure more effective planning."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"The PS discussed the fact that a great deal of effort has been put towards dairy production, via programs like \"One Cow Per Poor Family,\" transforming it from a traditional dairy industry into a more robust dairy sector. While much work is to be done along the full value chain, the emphasis of the workshop was on addressing the marketing portion of it, and the PS noted that expectations for the workshop were high."},{"index":4,"size":149,"text":"The PS explained that MINICOM is very concerned with elements of trade and industry in the dairy sub-sector, including transport logistics, processing, and marketing; however, today, the focus is on the fact that MINICOM is urgently required to produce a dairy processing and marketing strategy to present to the Cabinet. The PS believes a great deal has been done on production, though there is still more to be done in areas like inputs, quality assurance, and logistics. However, the question has emerged on whether supply is exceeding demand; the PS believes this is the case, but notes that processors have also discussed challenges in getting quality supply. While ideally the sector will move to a point where consumption is of processed milk, he realizes that this will take time. Regardless, a robust processing and marketing strategy is needed for the sector, since one cannot discuss marketing without addressing processing."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"The organizing team (MINICOM and EADD) would like to thank participants from Government of Rwanda ministries and institutions and dairy sector stakeholders from NGOs and the private sector for their valuable contributions to this workshop."},{"index":6,"size":83,"text":"The consumer survey provided a starting point and the recommendations from the workshop would constitute a great input in elaboration of the marketing strategy. The PS communicated his expectations that rich views would come from the workshop due to the diversity of stakeholders in attendance. The recommendations of the workshop, he said, would be input into the dairy processing and marketing strategy which is to be presented before the Cabinet, and therefore the quality of the work expected, again, could not be overemphasized."}]},{"head":"Background & Introduction to the Consumer Survey by Dr. Charles KAYUMBA, EADD/HPI","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Dr. KAYUMBA welcomed participants and reiterated the fact that the entire dairy sector has worked very hard to get the industry to the point it is at today; right after the war, he noted, there was not an issue of milk marketing but an issue of milk. He took time to explain that the Government of Rwanda initially invested in livestock as an effort to move productive assets to rural areas and involve youth and women in production. This, he said, led to responsive interventions by many players including Send a Cow, LWF, and Heifer International. This time also marked the conception of PADEBL, which dealt with production, MCCs, and milk marketing. The quality question and milk standards, he said, had to be addressed as milk volumes increased. Only then, Dr. Kayumba noted, did issues of a potential surplus come about."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"The Consumer Survey revealed that Rwanda's per capita milk consumption was the lowest in the region. Dr. Kayumba noted that the issue is thus not one of over-production but one of under-consumption. He concluded by stressing that the main aim of the workshop was to come up with strategies of how to increase consumption of milk and dairy demand."}]},{"head":"Presentation of the Analysis of the Consumer Survey by Lindsay Hagan, EADD/TNS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Please note that the full presentation given by Ms. Hagan is included in the attached PowerPoint."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"Ms. Hagan began by reiterating what the Permanent Secretary and Dr. Kayumba discussed: many terrific efforts have been made on production in the dairy sector, and the Rwanda National Dairy Consumer Survey is an effort to better understand the demand side and answer the question of whether supply truly is exceeding demand. She noted that the focus of the Consumer Survey was on domestic consumers and drivers and barriers of demand; while understanding of other elements of the value chain, such as cost of production, transport logistics, and processing, and an analysis of export markets and consumers in other countries are extremely important, they were unfortunately outside of the already extensive scope of the Consumer Survey. EADD encourages other stakeholders to take up these elements, and Ms. Hagan invited stakeholders to take note during the workshop of what additional research would be valuable in the dairy sector and to the immediate need for a dairy processing and marketing strategy."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"The Consumer Survey, combined with production data from the Rwanda Dairy Master Plan, identifies a supply-demand gap. Milk production already exceeds demand, and the gap will grow, unless efforts are made to grow the market. Thus, a marketing strategy is critical at this juncture in the dairy industry. Ms. Hagan pointed out the way the Rwanda Dairy Master Plan has projected supply will grow, the result of all the terrific efforts discussed. However, unless per capita consumption grows, demand will not keep pace with supply. Today an over-supply of 52M liters exists, which is not that significant, but if no efforts are made, by 2020 the Consumer Survey projects an over-supply of approximately 375M liters. Even when adjusting consumption for expected income growth, which is projected to allow some non-users to start consuming and to cause a shift to the higher-income segments like the Urban Elites, and projecting the School Milk Program to continue at the same level to 2020, there is still expected to be an over-supply of approximately 335M liters."},{"index":4,"size":148,"text":"The supply-demand gap has a number of implications throughout the value chain that ultimately limit the ability of farmers to sell milk at a good price, lower incentives to enter the Rwandan dairy industry, and create challenges for absorbing off-take from the existing MCCs and new ones being constructed. However, all stakeholders recognize the benefits of cow ownership to farmers and of increasing milk production, thus the solution must be to find ways for demand to keep pace with supply. As Dennis Karamuzi from RDCP II said so well, no one in the dairy sector would ever want to slow milk production. Thus, preventative measures must be taken before the supply-demand gap grows. The goal of a marketing strategy will be to ensure that the Rwandan dairy industry keeps the momentum going and that demand keeps pace with the supply we have all worked so hard to generate."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"Ms. Hagan then stressed the fact that the supply-demand gap will continue to grow, unless efforts are made to grow the market. When EADD launched the survey in 2011, a twopronged approach was recommended: more consumers and more consumption per consumer. This means converting non-users to dairy consumers and getting current dairy consumers to increase their usage. Another idea has been put forward by the dairy stakeholders, which is to find new markets of consumers; while the export market was not a focus of the Consumer Survey, it is an opportunity to expand the market that should be considered."},{"index":6,"size":317,"text":"Looking at the levers of more consumers and more consumption per consumer, hypothetically, you could close the supply-demand gap by converting 40% of non-users to dairy consumers and by getting current dairy consumers to consume 40% more dairy. There are many other ways to close the gap based on a combination of these two levers and potential export markets. However, Ms. Hagan then pointed out that absorbing supply, while important, is not the only issue in the market. There is also a nutrition issue, since Rwanda is falling short of the WHO recommendation of 200 liters of milk per person per year, and Rwanda is behind the region in consumption. John Haguma of EADD later pointed out in Q&A that, given how young the dairy industry in Rwanda is relative to neighbours, how close the consumption is to that of Uganda and Tanzania should be seen as an accomplishment. Ms. Hagan acknowledged this is very true, and credit for this fact is owed to the efforts of the entire dairy sector. That said, from a nutritional standpoint, the low per capita consumption means that most Rwandans are not getting all the important nutrient benefits from dairy, such as Calcium and protein. Most concerning is the fact that 33% or 1/3 of the population does not consume dairy, and even for those that do consume, per capita consumption is still only 60 liters per capita per year. This puts Rwanda at an overall average of 40 liters per capita per year vs. as high as 111 liters per capita per year in Kenya. Therefore, Ms. Hagan noted, the goal should not just be to meet production but to reach the WHO recommendation or at least match Kenya's per capita consumption. If this were the case, then supply could even be increased further, resulting in many positive effects on the dairy sector and nutrition for the people of Rwanda."},{"index":7,"size":193,"text":"The Consumer Survey is considered the first step in developing a marketing strategy to increase demand and solve the supply-demand gap. The goal of the Consumer Survey was to identify the drivers and barriers of demand and determine how the drivers could be enhanced and the barriers overcome. Ms. Hagan remarked that the sector should be excited that there are many drivers of demand for milk, noting that she will often discuss milk specifically, since it really is the vast majority of the dairy industry in Rwanda. This means there is a need to increase demand for value-add products in particular. In the focus group discussions conducted by the Rwandan research team, dairy consumers talked about a range of both functional and emotional benefits. Functional benefits included things like nutrients, strong bones, protection from disease, and good skin. Emotional benefits included pleasure of consumption and associations with childhood and family. Consumers made statements like, \"Growing up, we felt milk was the most delicious thing in life\" and \"Milk is very nutritious. It is a source of power. It can help you live longer.\" Clearly, there is a love of milk in this country."},{"index":8,"size":209,"text":"At the same time, the Consumer Survey identified four key issues limiting demand, which the dairy processing and marketing strategy should seek to address. The first is the fact that competition with other beverages and consumer perceptions that milk is not for them threaten milk and dairy's share of throat and wallet. In particular, growth of soft drinks (Fanta) and the access that wealthier, more urban consumers have to a variety of beverage options means that milk has to do more to compete. In Rwanda, there is not the exciting array of dairy options found in other markets in the region, such as Kenya and South Africa. There, flavoured milk, varieties of flavoured cheese options, and even fruit and juice mixes create opportunities to compete on flavour with soda and to convert non-users who don't like the taste of milk. Ms. Hagan noted that in the US, they even have milk with an enzyme to allow lactose intolerant consumers to drink it. In focus groups, consumers were presented with the ideas of milk and juice mixed or a pre-mixed African tea, and they seemed receptive to new-product innovations, if they have the opportunity to sample first of course. Thus, there is an opportunity to encourage greater dairy product variety."},{"index":9,"size":183,"text":"There are also some perceptions to overcome. Non-users said things like, \"Milk?! We're not babies,\" indicating that they believe milk is a product for children, not themselves. Even consumers of dairy felt that preference for milk should go to children and the sick. While true that children and the sick can benefit from dairy, Ms. Hagan emphasized the fact that we need to remind consumers of the importance and relevance of milk and dairy to adults. Women, for instance, start to lose bone mass as early as age 30, which can lead to osteoporosis, so there is a particular need for Calcium. Therefore, there is an opportunity for a national campaign to remind dairy consumers of the importance of dairy and encourage them to increase consumption for nutritional value and to educate nonusers in order to get them to start consuming dairy. Advertising on the radio and TV are not the only way to reach consumers, however; Rwandans take the opinions of authority and friends and family seriously, creating an opportunity to utilize word-of-mouth / social marketing, events, and key influencers in addition."},{"index":10,"size":198,"text":"The second key issue is the fact that cost and availability limit consumption of milk and dairy overall, as well as conversion to processed products. The main reason non-users claimed they didn't consume milk is because they can't afford it / it's too expensive (38%). For those who don't own a cow or have access to cheap raw milk, such as from a neighbour's cow, milk overall is considered too expensive. Those that live in urban (22% of non-users) or areas without high milk production, buying raw milk at a kiosk or market might be expensive. In focus group discussions, consumers also discussed money as a key constraint to consuming more milk; many consumers wanted to consume more but felt limited by cash available. The issue of cost is even more pronounced when it comes to processed milk: 74% of those dairy consumers who do not consume processed milk claim they don't because they can't afford it / it's too expensive. Therefore, there is an opportunity to grow dairy consumption by making it more affordable, and the main way to do this is to examine ways to reduce costs throughout the value chain, including production, transport, and processing."},{"index":11,"size":103,"text":"Availability is also an issue limiting dairy consumption. The Consumer Survey asked consumers what they would do if they intended to buy fresh milk and milk was not available. While some said they would walk a longer distance (24%), many didn't know (28%) and, unfortunately, 23% would avoid taking milk and 22% would get a substitute. Thus, approximately 45% of sales are lost when milk is not available in an outlet. This points to the opportunity to ensure milk is widely available, which means both throughout the country, particularly in areas with lower milk production, and at all outlets, including restaurants and hotels."},{"index":12,"size":221,"text":"The third issue Ms. Hagan discussed was framed as a question; what EADD has labelled the \"Alternative Milk Sector\" is really the majority of the market. When excluding powdered milk, since it is primarily imported, the AMS makes up 75% of milk consumed in liquid milk equivalent. Liquid milk equivalent means that some products, e.g., cheese, take more than a liter of milk to make a kilogram. While there are quality concerns with the AMS, including the potential for diseases and the fact that milk may be adulterated in transit, e.g., if a trader adds water, most consumers cannot afford to or choose not to switch to processed milk. Instead, they cope by boiling milk (70%). Today, the dairy industry is trust-based in Rwanda, and consumers are also able to rely on trust they place in the neighbour or kiosk from which they always buy. However, consumers discussed the fact that when they travel or for those living in the city, they can no longer rely on this trust. Therefore, there is the potential that quality concerns will grow as Rwanda moves to a more urban society. Since the AMS is such a heated issue in the dairy sector, EADD wanted to put the question to stakeholders: How do we manage the AMS, given it is 75% of the dairy market?"},{"index":13,"size":264,"text":"Finally, the fourth key issue raised was that, despite the over-supply, Rwanda is still a net importer of dairy products. Based on the data available from the ITC Trade Map, which covers formally recorded imports, Rwanda has a negative US $3.4M trade balance in dairy. This means that Rwanda imported 1.6M liters of dairy in 2010 and only exported about 10K liters. Ms. Hagan noted that she was only able to obtain data for formal imports, and there is likely an opportunity to better understand the amount of dairy products brought in via the AMS. The majority of formal imports have Uganda as the country of origination (72%), which means that Uganda is recorded as the source of the product. Given Rwanda has an abundance of its own milk, it begs the question as to why the country is importing dairy products, and one hypothesis offered by EADD is the fact that imported processed products are priced at parity or cheaper than domestic processed products. For example, in a spot check, KCC from Kenya and Fresh Dairy from Uganda were cheaper than Inyange, and the EADD team has often observed Highland from Uganda as cheaper. This reiterates the need to examine costs that are driving the price of processed products. There is also an opportunity to explore the export market to increase that side of the equation; however, research would need to be done on the potential, such as consumer surveys or market analyses of the DRC and Burundi. It also may be a challenge to compete in export markets without becoming more cost-competitive."},{"index":14,"size":229,"text":"To create a dairy processing and marketing strategy, it will be important to address these issues, as well as build upon the appreciation consumers already have for dairy. In addition, it will be important to keep in mind the different segments of consumers and the best approach to targeting each segment. Please note that an overview of the approach to each segment is included on slide 26, but detailed segment portraits can be found in the appendix of the presentation. Overall, the Urban Elite and Dynamic Familian segments are higher-income and tend to spend more on dairy and have higher consumption respectively; they are good targets to try to trade up to processed dairy, since it is still only a small proportion of their usage. Conservative Masses, Older Introverts, and Non-Users should be targeted for increased usage (or conversion to usage overall in the case of Non-Users) via both processed products and for dairy overall. Opportunities for processed usage are occasions like travel or when these groups are able to increase their income. Finally, the two lowest-income groups, Male Traditionalists and Price-Sensitive Socializers, often do not have the means to afford the milk they desire. They will benefit from efforts to lower the cost of milk and ensure quality in the AMS. Ms. Hagan encouraged participants to keep the segments in mind when developing their small group topic recommendations."}]},{"head":"Comments of the Permanent Secretary on the Consumer Survey Findings","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The PS expressed his regrets that he would not be able to remain for the afternoon discussions, as other key meetings required his presence. He also regretted the fact that few processor representatives were present to hear the Consumer Survey results and expressed desire that the information is circulated to the processors."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"The PS opened his comments on the Consumer Survey thanking the presenters and stating that what was presented was the \"hard facts\" and in some cases the \"bitter truth,\" making it very valuable information. He was concerned to hear that 33% of the population is not consuming milk, since we all know the importance of milk to nutrition and in the fight against malnutrition. Another hard fact he noted was that 74% of those not consuming processed milk are not able to afford it; the PS viewed this as a serious message to processors and to the government. The fact that many people were comfortable just boiling milk or \"processing\" it themselves confirmed what he imagined most in the room know from experience of Rwandan culture."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"In addition, the PS reacted to the fact that foreign products are often cheaper, such as Fresh Dairy from Uganda; he expressed the need to ensure Rwandan products can compete domestically before tapping into foreign markets. He also added some information on the fact that there are cultural issues behind substitutes for dairy. For example, the PS described the fact that most citizens believe you must talk business over a beer and that there would be reluctance to give that habit up. However, the PS also pointed out the fact that substitutes like soda are often more expensive and less beneficial; he suggested there may be a potential campaign idea around milk's cost-benefit advantage."},{"index":4,"size":179,"text":"The PS also offered advice to the stakeholders and thoughts for going forward in the workshop. He reiterated the value of the work that would be done over the next day and a half and recognized the challenges before the groups. He recommended that the working groups look at the drivers behind increased consumption and, equally important, the barriers to consumption and to propose actions that address both. The groups should look at the three strategic orientations, (1) increased consumers, (2) increased consumption of existing consumers, and (3) new markets for dairy outside Rwanda, and to suggest actions that need to be implemented to achieve those three objectives. The PS also asked groups to explore short-term actions, or quick wins, as well as medium-term and long-term actions. The PS also noted that the Consumer Survey unfortunately did not cover three key areas for the processing and marketing strategy: (1) other aspects of processing, such as capacity and costs, (2) transport logistics, and (3) markets beyond Rwanda. He hoped there would also be recommendations around how to address these issues."}]},{"head":"Dairy Break","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Following the comments of the PS, the group took a \"dairy break,\" a term the stakeholders are encouraging everyone to use for their meetings to ensure that coffee and tea are taken with dairy or that dairy is taken on its own during meeting breaks."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"It should be noted that the organizations represented also identified an opportunity to increase dairy usage at functions such as this workshop. Most participants noticed that milk was not available as a lunch beverage option, while soda and juice were offered, and that this is a common occurrence at such events. Further, the group discussed the fact that the majority of money spent on soda leaves the country, while that on domestic brands of milk would contribute back to the Rwandan economy. Heifer, Land O' Lakes, SNV, and TechnoServe all pledged to request that milk is offered for lunch at any functions they host and requested to do so as well."}]},{"head":"Question & Answer on the Consumer Survey","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The Consumer Survey presentation was followed by a question and answer session. Beyond the questions incorporated into the above, three key follow-ups on the consumer survey were discussed:"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"1. Place of purchase: what percent of consumers are obtaining milk from their own cow or from a neighbour? 2. Penetration, frequency, and volume per purchase: The volume of each dairy product purchased could be the result of very different dynamics, e.g., small"},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"proportion of the population buying great quantities, majority of dairy users buying infrequently, etc.; can we better understand these dynamics to improve targeting decisions? 3. Imports by product type: What types of dairy products make up the majority of imports?"},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Follow-ups on all three of these questions are included in the attached PowerPoint. Additional questions on the Consumer Survey data can be posed to Lindsay Hagan ([email protected]). For the third follow-up, it should be reiterated that only data for recorded imports is captured; thus, there is the potential that significant trade of raw milk, for example, exists and is not captured in the data available. As discussed, this may be an opportunity for further research to understand trade in the Alternative Milk Sector."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"Additional questions addressed the jump in production based on productivity increases per cow from 2016 to 2017 and the reasons why costs of processing are so high. The productivity question was addressed by Dr. RUTAGWENDA, Theogene, Director General of the Ministry of Agriculture and Dr. Kayumba and the decision was made to concentrate on marketing, the task at hand, vs. questions of production. Discussions on the costs of processing were initiated with the Inyange representatives, and this conversation was deferred to the small group discussions, as it was central to one of the topics."}]},{"head":"Introduction of the Small Group Topics by Lindsay Hagan, EADD/TNS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Ms. Hagan introduced the topics for the small working groups and explained why the topics were chosen. The topics were selected to address the three key levers for increasing demand, (1) more consumers, (2) more consumption per consumer, and (3) new markets of consumers, as well as to overcome each of the key issues identified in the consumer survey."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Topic #1 was: \"National dairy campaign: If there were to be a nationwide, advertising effort, what would it look like?\" This topic is an opportunity to address the first issue identified in the consumer survey, competition with other beverages and the fact the perception of some non-users that milk is not relevant for them and of some users that milk is less relevant for healthy adults vs. children and the sick. A national campaign provides the opportunity to remind consumers of the importance and benefits, both functional and emotional, of dairy and of the proper amount to consume, as well as to convince non-users of dairy's value."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Measured media such as TV and radio is not the only way to influence consumers, particularly in Rwanda. The Rwandan consumers in focus group discussions expressed the fact that they are influenced by authority and by friends and family. Thus, Topic #2 was: \"Other methods of encouraging dairy consumption: Beyond advertising, what other ways can we encourage dairy usage?\" This topic intended to address the same two issues as a national campaign but using word-of-mouth/social marketing and events."},{"index":4,"size":175,"text":"Cost and availability were also identified as key issues, and each one was given its own topic. Topic #6 was: \"Ways to lower costs of production, transportation, and processing: How can we help reduce costs along the value chain?\" and Topic #5 was: \"Ways to ensure widespread availability of dairy, both processed and the Alternative Milk Sector (dairy that is not processed): How can we ensure dairy is accessible to all citizens?\" Decreasing costs and increasing availability both have the opportunity to make dairy more accessible to non-users who can't afford or obtain it and to ensure that dairy consumers are able to consume as much as they desire without being limited by means or access. In addition, decreasing costs and increasing availability of processed milk specifically will certainly increase processed dairy usage and potentially increase usage of dairy overall. Finally, ensuring cost competitiveness of Rwandan dairy has the potential to open new markets by allowing Rwandan dairy to compete abroad and to address the issue that Rwanda is currently a net importer of dairy."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Topic #3 cuts across several issues, including competition with other beverages, consumer attitudes, cost, availability, and net importation of dairy: \"Ways to grow the processed dairy market: How can we increase consumption of Rwandan processed dairy?\" Ms."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"Hagan noted that this topic should address not only processed milk products but the full range of processed dairy, reminding the group of the limited variety observed in domestic processed products vs. those in other markets. Processed dairy has the potential to increase usage occasions by consumers and to convert non-users who are not using for reasons of taste and lactose intolerance in particular."},{"index":7,"size":134,"text":"At the same time, the question was put to the group on how to manage the Alternative Milk Sector, and therefore Topic #4 was designed to address this issue: \"Evaluating the role of the Alternative Milk Sector (dairy that is not processed): How do we manage the Alternative Milk Sector, which is 75% of the dairy market?\" Given the AMS is the majority of the market and currently the least expensive portion, consumers of the AMS are a large proportion of those whose usage stakeholders seek to increase and the AMS may have the greatest potential as a gateway for those who currently cannot afford dairy. Last, given the potential discussed above for there to be trade in the AMS that is not recorded, understanding and addressing that trade may help in market expansion."},{"index":8,"size":123,"text":"Finally, two topics were meant to cut across all the issues. Topic #7 intended to address the dairy sector business environment in Rwanda: \"Encouraging additional investment in dairy processing / marketing: How can we ensure the environment is optimal for investors to set up operations in Rwanda, buying Rwandan supply of milk?\" Topic #8 was: \"Additional market research support to the industry: What other consumer / market research would be helpful as we continue to develop marketing strategies?\" Ms. Hagan reminded the group that there were many other valuable topics of research that the already-extensive scope of the Consumer Survey could not cover, and thus there was a need to identify key pieces of research needed to inform a marketing and processing strategy."}]},{"head":"Presentations of Recommendations of the 8 Small Working Groups","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Eight working groups presented recommendations on their assigned topics to the plenary on Day 1. All participants had an opportunity to add their ideas and ask questions."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Teams then regrouped to make revisions to their presentations that evening and the following morning; thus, additions from the plenary to the group presentations have been incorporated. In the morning of Day 2, teams then presented again to the Director General, MINICOM. Those presentations are included in the attached PowerPoint."}]},{"head":"Closing by the Director General of the Ministry of Trade & Industry","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"In closing, the Director General of MINICOM once again thanked the participants for contributing richly to the marketing strategy and pointed out that the results of the workshop were indeed reflective of the profound and diverse capacity of the dairy players attending the workshop."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"The DG reiterated the fact that MINICOM would incorporate the results of the workshop into the comprehensive dairy processing and marketing strategy they were developing to share with the Cabinet. He concurred with the majority of recommendations presented, joking that the only one he questioned was the milk-beer, which he would need to be educated on how to develop. Overall, he completely agreed that something was needed to reinforce the milk-drinking mindset in Rwanda and agreed with the idea of an awareness campaign of the benefits of milk. He also heard and appreciated the request to mobilize social-political leaders and events like umuganda as vehicles for increasing milk consumption, particularly to address the fact that Rwanda is trailing neighbouring markets in consumption."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"The DG also recorded the request for infrastructure to be upgraded, as well as the ideas around additional research needed in the sector, the desire for continuation and expansion of the School Milk Program, the need for a national media campaign, and the call-toaction for processors to diversify in terms of product sizes and varieties. The DG noted the opening of the Inyange kiosk at Kisiment that day and discussed the idea of encouraging processors to avail dispensers throughout the country to increase accessibility."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"Finally, the DG noted that there were many ideas revolving throughout the groups, such as ideas around infrastructure, taxes and investment, and campaigns; he expressed the need for the ideas to be narrowed and packaged and requested the help of stakeholders in doing so. He noted the timeline of MINICOM to prepare a draft for the Minister of Trade & Industry of the dairy processing and marketing strategy by the 15th of June."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"In response to the DG's request, the plenary concluded by constituting a work group that would refine the results of the workshop. The workgroup is to consist of a member from: EADD, SNV, RBS, RDCP, and RNDB, led by MINICOM. The MINICOM team will follow up with an invite, but tentative date and time proposed were: Tuesday, 2/6 9am at MINICOM. "}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"53d981d3-6f91-4a3f-938e-2b9bb7a961f3","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05bfeae3c5810ddfcf3c286561832aee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c8ebce26-1e36-404b-9f8d-32e89660530b/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Are weeds really an issue in Zero Tillage systems? Farmer insights from the Eastern Gangetic Plains of South Asia","keywords":["Suri, B1","Timsina, P1","Chaudhary, A2","Karki, E2","Sharma, A2","Sharma, R2","Gartaula, H1, 3","Brown, B2, 4"],"chapters":[{"head":"Research context","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• Conservation Agriculture based Sustainable Intensification (CASI) has been promoted in EGP (Eastern Gangetic Plains:"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"India, Bangladesh, Nepal) since 2014 due to many benefits of labour cost reduction, durgery reduction and increased yields (Gathala et al., 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"• Changes in weed management under ZT are commonly identified as a constraint to wider adoption, based primarily on quantitative investigations. Yet the contribution of this to farmers' evaluation and adoption behaviour remains underexplored."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"• Studies have shown that CASI tends to implicate reallocation of roles for men and women in farming system (Farnworth et al., 2016*;Brown, et al., 2021**) • To address this issue, we explore farmers' perceptions of CASI-based herbicide weed management systems using semi-structured interviews from six locations across the EGP."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• The study also focuses on inclusivity of outcomes due to herbicide use.  "}]},{"head":"Findings Regional Variations in Herbicide Use","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• Distinct regional variations in herbicide experiences and perceptions."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• Regions with limited herbicide use, such as Bihar (India) and Sunsari (Nepal), predominantly held negative perceptions about ZT systems."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• In contrast, areas with extensive herbicide adoption, including Cooch Behar, Malda (India) and Rangpur (Bangladesh) exhibited a mix of positive and negative perceptions about ZT systems."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Negative Perceptions among ZT Non-Users and users with limited Experience that impacted farming decision \"If we try to do it ourselves manually instead of using herbicides, then it may take 6-7 days and it leads to late sowing, and it will impact the crop\"-B31 \"The hard work has become easy now...There is no manual weeding work...we just have to apply herbicides…in the previous method we hired five to seven labors for weeding 2 bigha field for 4-5 days yet it did not suffice\" -J18"},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"\"Earlier, we weeded manually 2-3 times to remove weeds. Sometimes 20-25 laborers were required in 1 bigha land. But in zero tillage, spraying the field once with herbicides is sufficient\" -M27 \"I started using herbicides to reduce the cost. The cost for hiring laborers is more to remove weeds\"-M42 \"Laborers for weeding are not available now\" -C30"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" K., Laing, A.M., Tiwari, T.P., Timsina, J., Rola-Rubzen, F., Islam, S., Maharjan, S., Brown, P.R., Das, K.K., Pradhan, K., Chowdhury, A.K., Kumar, R., Datt, R., Anwar, M., Hossain, S., Kumar, U., Adhikari, S., Magar, D.B.T., Sapkota, B.K., Shrestha, H.K., Islam, R.,Rashid, M., Hossain, I., Hossain, A., Brown, B., Gerard, B., 2021. Improving  smallholder farmers' gross margins and labor-use efficiency across a range of cropping systems in the Eastern Gangetic Plains. World Development 138, 105266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105266 Study Area Methodology • Locations selected based on suitable agro-ecologies for the implementation of CASI practices (Gathala et al., 2021)* • Purposive sampling and snowball methods applied. • 'Decision-making dartboard (DmD) framework' (Brown et al., 2021, p. 257)** used as framework.*Gathala, M. K., Laing, A. M., Tiwari, T. P., Timsina, J., Rola-Rubzen, F., Islam, S., Maharjan, S., Brown, P. R., Das, K. K., Pradhan, K.,Chowdhury, A. K., Kumar, R., Datt, R., Anwar, M., Hossain, S., Kumar, U., Adhikari, S., Magar, D. B. T., Sapkota, B.  K., … Gerard, B. (2021). Improving smallholder farmers' gross margins and labor-use efficiency across a range of cropping systems in the Eastern Gangetic Plains. World Development, 138, 105266. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WORLDDEV.2020.105266  **Brown, B., Samaddar, A., Singh, K., Leipzig, A., Kumar, A., Kumar, P., Singh, D. K., Malik, R., Craufurd, P., Kumar, V., & McDonald, A. (2021). Understanding decision processes in becoming a fee-for-hire service provider: A case study on direct seeded rice inBihar, India. Journal of Rural Studies, 87, 254-266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.09.025     "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Perceived crop damage and associated ineffectiveness of herbicides Ineffectiveness results in additional time required Hiring of laborer due to ineffectiveness of herbicides Re-emergence of weeds Frequent repetitive herbicide applications Preference for tried and tested conventional methods Perception of limited applicability Perceived Weather dependency   Positive perceptions in herbicide usage that impacted Positive perceptions in herbicide usage that impacted     farming decisions farming decisions Reduced Weeds Occurrence Time saving Reduced Drudgery Reduced Labour requirement Reduced Labour cost Existing labour scarcity Reduced Weeds OccurrenceTime savingReduced DrudgeryReduced Labour requirementReduced Labour cost Existing labour scarcity \"I had sprayed herbicides twice, but my wheat crop also got damaged\" -S34 \"Zero tillage produces \"The problem of herbicide is that it can't kill the weeds completely…To kill the weeds, I have to use a spade, or I have to spray herbicides again which takes time.\" -J9 more weeds. But they are killed after spraying herbicides\" -M30 \"Herbicides control weeds to some extent, and I hire some workers to handpick them to remove the weeds completely\"-S8 \"Months later the S34 grasses would grow even after applying herbicides in CASI, the growth rate of the weeds is quicker than the crop…But, under the conventional method, the growth rate was reduced\"- \"We are sowing with the help of zero tillage, but there is a lot of problem of weed in the field…So, frequently\"-B3 herbicides we need to use growth.\"-M36 \"I think conventional farming requires more effort... but even then, I prefer tillage farming to prevent weeds \"I spray herbicides M31 on edible crops.\" -on the jute crop when there are a lot of weeds… but we do not spray the herbicides like this \"We sprayed with water\" -S1 the fields were filled herbicides, but it was not effective. When there was rain, the herbicides were of no use. Sometimes \"I had sprayed herbicides twice, but my wheat crop also got damaged\" -S34 \"Zero tillage produces \"The problem of herbicide is that it can't kill the weeds completely…To kill the weeds, I have to use a spade, or I have to spray herbicides again which takes time.\" -J9 more weeds. But they are killed after spraying herbicides\" -M30\"Herbicides control weeds to some extent, and I hire some workers to handpick them to remove the weeds completely\"-S8\"Months later the S34 grasses would grow even after applying herbicides in CASI, the growth rate of the weeds is quicker than the crop…But, under the conventional method, the growth rate was reduced\"-\"We are sowing with the help of zero tillage, but there is a lot of problem of weed in the field…So, frequently\"-B3 herbicides we need to usegrowth.\"-M36 \"I think conventional farming requires more effort... but even then, I prefer tillage farming to prevent weeds\"I spray herbicides M31 on edible crops.\" -on the jute crop when there are a lot of weeds… but we do not spray the herbicides like this\"We sprayed with water\" -S1 the fields were filled herbicides, but it was not effective. When there was rain, the herbicides were of no use. Sometimes  "}],"sieverID":"833bfd1d-0db9-4cdf-b8c6-11cb91214ac0","abstract":"How do perceptions of herbicides impact the decision to implement ZT?"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05ec8561057cfabe5f100c6a71856f8d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/af1c5e1f-1ed8-4de2-be48-098ca109392a/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Home / Volume 37 (2019) / Numéro 1 / Socio-Economic Factors and Smallholder Cassava Farmers' Access to Credit in South-Western Nigeria","keywords":["cassava","credit","farmers","impact","Nigeria","productivity Table of content Introduction Materials and Method Data Source and Sampling Framework Analytical Framework and Estimation Techniques: The Tobit Model Results and discussion Conclusion Bibliography"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Rural credit markets are essential for agricultural growth and development, particularly in the developing countries where the majority of producers are resource-poor rural dwellers. Poor access to credit by smallholder farmers who are the majority of the sector drivers is among the major constraining factors (7,13,33). The agriculture sector appears to be more credit dependent due to the seasonality of production and the need to move from subsistence to large-scale/commercial production. Although, access to agricultural finance can be viewed as only a mean to an end, it is highly very important and paramount to the attainment of nationally desired increase productivity, through having enough financial resources to adopt yield increasing agricultural technologies such as fertilizer, seed and improve post-harvest techniques (4,24). For instance, Simtowe and Zeller (32) reported that credit access had a higher impact on the adoption of hybrid maize among credit constrained households in rural Malawi."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"In the same vein, Petrick (26) posits that lack of access to credit may affect farm productivity, based on the fact that many smallholder producers confronted with binding capital constraints would tend to use lower levels of inputs in their production activities. Furthermore, aaccess to credit can also increase farmers' resilience and adaptability in the face of the present global climate change and variability and thus, alleviating food insecurity and hunger. It can also enhances the production efficiency of small scale farmers, thereby reducing rural poverty and food insecurity (25). And can also assists the poor to smooth consumption and to build up assets greater than the value of the liability (15). https://popups.uliege.be/2295-8010/index.php?id=262 2/10"},{"index":3,"size":297,"text":"In spite of the aforementioned significance of access to credit, Bali (6) reported that only 5 percent in African and about fifteen percent in Asia and Latin America have had access to formal credit due to lack of collateral. The agricultural sectors in many developing countries are also plagued with adverse issues such as low rainfall, poor soil fertility and inadequate infrastructure which make financial service providers categorize farmers as high risk clients who cannot use their farms as collateral for credit (12,27). Additionally, in the likelihood effect of bad weather, entire producers' farm can be damaged or wiped out completely in a production season by droughts, floods, fire outbreak and insect pests. This constitute a source of high risk for lenders, because many farmers or producers will likely default. This is exacerbated by the fact that smallholder farmers often lived in widely dispersed communities resulting in high transaction cost in terms of credit administration and data gathering on the nature of their enterprises (27,28). In view of this, financial service providers seldom extend credit services to smallholder farmers and even if they do farmers are often charged high interest rate A common feature of rural credit markets in developing countries is the coexistence of formal and informal credit markets (2,8,9,8,11,12,16). Ghate (14), defined formal financial service providers as registered companies that are licensed by a central monetary authority to offer financial services and further asserted that these institutions are largely urban based in terms of distribution of branches and the concentration of deposit and lending activities. According to Kashuliza et al. (18) informal financial services refer to all transactions, loans, and deposits that take place outside the regulated monetary system and this includes the activities of intermediaries such as relatives and friends, traders, and money lenders."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Semi-formal institutions also exists and are described by Steel and Andah (32) as institutions which are registered to provide financial services and are not controlled by a central monetary authority. In Nigeria, Badiru (4) indicates that credit institutions are categorized into three groups:"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"1. formal, such as commercial banks, microfinance banks, the Nigeria Agricultural and Cooperative Rural Development Bank (NACRDB), and state government-owned credit institutions;"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"2. semi-formal, such as non-governmental organizations-microfinance institutions (NGO-MFIs) and cooperative societies; and"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"3. informal, such as money lenders, and rotating savings and credit associations (RoSCAs)."},{"index":8,"size":135,"text":"Despite the aforementioned sources of credit, most farmers are still reportedly credit constrained. Lack of access or low access to credit has been reported in the literature as part of the factors militating against increased agricultural productivity and contributing to high rates of poverty among the rural smallholder farmers in developing countries. In spite of these facts, studies that have looked into the factors that influence rural farmers' access to credit are not many and those that actually assessed the determinants of intensity of access to credit; measured in this study as the amount of credit actually obtained by the farmers is scarce. This study therefore, contributes to the existing literature by examining those factors that influence the actual amount of credit obtained by rural smallholder farmers from formal or informal credit sources or both."},{"index":9,"size":78,"text":"In addition, most past studies that have looked into determinants of farmers' access to credit have treated access to credit as a binary variable (yes or no) neglecting the actual amount farmers obtained, which is the most important to attain any meaningful effect on rural livelihoods. Thus, the issue of farmers' access to credit is beyond the usually adopted methods such as Probit or Logit models which merely analyze whether a farmer has access to credit or not."}]},{"head":"Materials and Method","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data Source and Sampling Framework","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"This study was carried in the South Western geo-political zone of Nigeria. Ekiti, Osun, Ogun, Ondo, and Oyo were selected out of the six States in the south west. Smaller administrative units referred to as Local Government Areas (LGAs) were used as primary sampling units (PSUs). Enumeration areas (EAs), defined as a cluster of housing units, were used as secondary sampling units (SSUs). The final sampling units were the rural smallholder farming households."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"LGAs were selected from each State based on probability proportional to size, where size is measured as the number of EAs. The advantage of using EAs as sampling units is that each is approximately equal in population size. This ensured that all farmers had an equal probability of being selected, unlike the situation when sampling units are towns or villages of unequal size. Within each LGA, four EAs were selected at random from a sampling frame of EAs classified as rural or semi-urban, giving a total of 80 EAs or villages (as clusters of housing units, the EAs are similar to villages or communities)."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Finally, a list of households was developed for the selected EAs and a sample of at least 10 farming households was selected randomly in each of the sampled EAs, giving a total sample of 860 households. The survey was carried out between August and October 2011. Community and household questionnaires were administered by trained enumerators under the field supervision of a senior agricultural economist and the direction of IITA's economist. The data were collected using structured questionnaire. After data cleaning, about 856 (99.5%) of the questionnaires were useful for the analysis."}]},{"head":"Analytical Framework and Estimation Techniques: The Tobit Model","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"According to the International Financial Corporation (17), smallholders tend to be highly risk averse and are often unwilling to adopt new practices if the outcomes are uncertain or the benefits take time to manifest themselves. Studies indicate that only 5 to 10 percent of smallholders are willing to take risks, and 50 to 75 percent of smallholders are moderately to extremely risk-averse. Thus, farmers in traditional agriculture act economically rationally within the context of available resources and existing technology. Accordingly, poor farmers allocate resources in a manner consistent with the neo-classical profit maximization model. Thus, in the context of this study the cassava farmers' decision to access credit is based on the assumption of expected utility maximization. When confronted with a choice between whether to access credit or not, the smallholder cassava farmers would compare the expected utility of access to credit with non-access. The cassava farmers' decision to access credit is expected to be influenced by a set of household socioeconomic and demographic variables. Thus, famer J's expected utility of access and non-access to credit can be expressed in Equations I and II."}]},{"head":"(I) (II)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Where EU kj and EU mj denote the expected utility with non-access and access to credit, respectively, and Z represents a set of the cassava farmer J's socioeconomic and demographic variables. τis a random disturbance and assumed to be independently and identically distributed with mean zero."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Then the difference in expected utility may be expressed in equation III."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"https://popups.uliege.be/2295-8010/index.php?id=262 3/10"},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"If , the cassava farmer will prefer to access credit. Thus, the difference of the expected utility between access and non-access to credit is the potential factor that influences the farmers' decisions."},{"index":5,"size":150,"text":"The main objective of this study is beyond the determinants of access to credit to analyze the intensity of access to credit, therefore, we adopt the Tobit model. This is because the Tobit model which is an extension of the Probit model is useful for continuous values that are censored at or below zero as we have in this data set. When a variable is censored, regression models for truncated data provide inconsistent estimates of the parameters. The Tobit model assesses not only the probability of access to credit, but also the intensity or degree of access to credit measured by the total amount of credit obtained by the farmer for the production season under study in relation to the farmer's socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. The Tobit model supposes that there is a latent unobserved variable g i * that depends linearly on z i through a parameter vector α."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"There τ i is a normally distributed error term to capture the random influence on this relationship. The observed variable g i is defined as being equal to the latent variable whenever the latent variable is above zero and equal to zero otherwise (Equation IV)."}]},{"head":"(IV)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Where g i * is a latent variable:"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"If the relationship parameter α is estimated by regressing the observed g i on z i the resulting Ordinary Least Squares estimator (OLS) is inconsistent."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Freeman et al. (13) have proven that the likelihood estimator suggested by Tobin (30) for this model is consistent."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"The likelihood function of the model ( 4) is given by L (Equation V)."}]},{"head":"(V)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Where f and F are the standard normal density and cumulative distribution functions, respectively. Then we can write the log-likelihood function (Equation VI)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"(VI) are estimated by maximizing the log-likelihood function (Equation VII)."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"(VII)"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Iterative process is usually employed to obtain the maximum likelihood estimator of (equation VII), since they are non-linear."},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"The variables used in the analysis are presented in table 1. The dependent variable indicating the cassava farmers' access to credit is measured by the total amount of credit obtained from all available credit sources, for the productive season under investigation. Following the literature on the determinants of access to credit (5,19,24), the following explanatory variables were included in the model: the farmers' age, farm size, total livestock units, household size, years of formal education, monetary value of household productive assets, income from off-farm employment, own television, rented land for farming, gender of the household head, and total cassava output. The empirical model is presented equation VIII."}]},{"head":"CREDITAMT=f (AGE, GENDER, OUTPUT, PRODASSET, LAND, HHSIZE, (VIII)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"NFINC, TTLU, RENTEDLAND, OWNTELE, EDUC)"},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"The family ability as proxy by AGE of the household head is hypothesized to be negatively related to the dependent variable. This implies that the younger farmers who tend to be more risk neutral are expected to have better and easier access to credit than the older farmers. GENDER is a dummy variable that takes the value of 1 if the household head is male and zero otherwise and was hypothesized to be positively related to the dependent variable. This is because male-headed households have more access to credit than the female-headed households. It has been observed by Mehra and Rojas (23) that women are able to access only one percent of credit in agriculture. This poor access to credit facilities prevents women from purchasing the needed inputs for agricultural purpose and is hampering women's productivity in agriculture (10). Total farm output is hypothesized to be positively related to the dependent variable. The higher the output, the larger the amount of credit a farmer will be likely to obtain."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"The household endowments measured by the monetary value of the household production assets is hypothesized to be positively related to the dependent variable. The farmers' farming and loan repayment capacity proxy by the area of farmland is hypothesized to be positively related to the dependent variable. This is because the size of the farmland owned by a farmer is an indication of wealth and perhaps a proxy for social status and influence within a community. Family labor endowment represented by the number of people in the household is also hypothesized to be positively related to the dependent variable. Income earned through non-farm employment is also expected to be positively related to the dependent variable. Off-farm income will reduce the perception of risk and increase the likelihood of access to credit."},{"index":4,"size":195,"text":"Total Tropical Livestock Unit (TTLU) which is used as a measure of the household livestock endowment was calculated using the following conversion factors for the livestock: 0.7, 0.2, 0.1, and 0.01 for cattle, pig, Shot (goat/sheep) and poultry, respectively. TTLU is expected to be positively related to the dependent variable, as they may act as productive assets (oxen and manure) and can also act as additional sources of household income (1). Land ownership status is a dummy variable that is 1 if the farmer rented land for farming and it is hypothesized to be negatively related to the dependent variable. Other household non-productive asset include a television set which is a dummy variable that takes the value of one if the household has a television and zero otherwise. The non-productive asset is also a measure of the financial strength of the farmers and is also hypothesized to be positively related to the dependent variable. Education of household head is measured by the number of years of schooling and it is hypothesized to be positively related to the dependent variable. The maximum likelihood estimates of the Tobit model was carried out using STATA 11.0 statistical package."},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"https://popups.uliege.be/2295-8010/index.php?id=262 5/10"}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"The definition and description of the variables used for the empirical analyses is presented in table 1. The average age of the respondents is 50 years. The majority of the respondents (83%) are male, with an average household size of four persons. The average farm size is 2.59 ha, with an average land pressure of about 4 persons per hectare, translating into about 0.65 ha per person. This shows that land access is a problem among the cassava farmers and this could be reason why about 76% of the respondents are cultivating cassava on rented farmland. The respondents are literate with an average of six years of formal education. Access to credit is a major constraint to agricultural production as evidently revealed by the small number (17%) of farmers that have access to credit. A larger percentage (86%) of the respondents have access to information enhanced assets such as radio, mobile phone, and television. The average monetary value of the respondents' farm and non-farm assets is about N 11, 052.84 and N 72, 988.43, respectively. This suggests that the farmers are creditworthy, since they could use some of these assets as collateral to gain access to credit."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"Table 2 presents the test of the mean differences in some selected socioeconomic characteristics of the farmers by access to credit. This test was carried out to showcase the relevance of access to credit in increasing smallholder farmers output and income. Farmers that have access to credit are not entirely similar to those that did not have access to credit. Those farmers that have access to credit have statistically significant higher yield (increase productivity), productive and non-productive assets, than those farmers that have no access to credit. In addition, farmers that have access to credit were able to spend more on agricultural production. This is indicating that access to credit can enable the farmers to acquire yield increasing inputs such as fertilizer, seed and agrochemicals. Note: figures in parentheses are the standard errors and *, ** and *** means statistically significant at 10%, 5% and 1% levels respectively."},{"index":3,"size":529,"text":"Table 3 presents the distribution of the farmers according to some socioeconomic characteristics. Male-headed households dominate cassava production in Nigeria. This is understandable in view of the tedious nature of some of the activities (weeding, harvesting etc.) involved in cassava production. About 76% of the respondents are between 18 and 60 years of age. This has a positive implication for cassava productions. As farmers age and gain experience, he or she may become more productive with improved managerial ability. Thus, it is expected that the farmers would be highly productive if they have access to credit which will enable them to purchase adequate productivity enhancing inputs at the right time. About 73% of the respondents have a household size of between 1 and 5 persons, while about 26% have between 6 and 10 persons. About 27% of the respondents cultivate less than 1 ha of farmland. Most respondents cultivate between one to four hectares of farmland. This shows that cassava production in Nigeria is still largely concentrated in the hands of small-scale farmers. About 39% of the farmers are literate with only primary education. This level of education will afford the farmers the opportunity to read and write and also to be able to process information that can enhance their access to credit. Despite this endowment, only about 20% of the farmers demanded for credit out of which only 17% had access to the credit. In addition, 17% acquired the credit for agricultural production purposes, while 4% obtained the credit for other non-agricultural purposes. About 9% of the farmers obtained the credit for both agricultural and non-agricultural purposes.  The assessment of credit demand, obtained credit, and credit constraint status of the farming households is presented in table 4. The analysis shows the different reasons/purposes for which credit was demanded. The reasons were broadly categorized into agricultural and non-agricultural purposes. The major reasons for demanding a loan for agricultural uses was related to planting material purchases (24.02%), fertilizer purchases (15.14%), farm operations (27.94%), and land acquisition (2.87%). The main reasons for which credit is demanded for non-agricultural uses related to business/trade (4.44%), food (4.18%), children's education (11.23%), health medical (5.48%), and other social obligations such as burial, marriage, and naming ceremonies (4.69%). Overall, 383 farmers demanded for credit, while only 157 (40.99%) of the farmers actually obtained the credit. This shows that there are credit market imperfections in Nigeria and this could limit the investment and operation of the farms. Most importantly, credit constraints can limit the size of farms, as well as their growth, profits, and scope of operation. Above all it has a detrimental effect on poverty reduction. Table 5 presents the distribution of the respondents according to the amount of credit obtained for agricultural purposes. The average amount of credit obtained for agricultural production purposes was N 6338.90. A larger percentage (86%) of the respondents obtained about N 5000. About 3% of the respondents obtained between N 16,000 and N 20,000. A negligible proportion (0.95%) obtained above N 100, 000. This reveals that the amount of credit required by the farmers is still very small, in spite of the need for credit for varieties of farm operations."},{"index":4,"size":195,"text":"Access to credit is also an important source of cash for the farmers to meet other household financial needs aside from farming operations. Many other needs listed by the farmers include payment of children school fees, food, off-farm business, family health, and other social obligations which include ceremonies such as naming, marriage, and burial. Fulfilling all these needs through access to credit can also improve the farming households' well-being. Average credit obtained for non-agricultural purposes is N 3788.79. As shown in Table 6, a large percentage (84%) of the respondents got between 0 and N 5000. About 3% obtained between N 51,000 and N 100,000. Only eight of the respondents (0.94%) obtained more than N 200,000 for non-agricultural purposes. The coefficient of the LAND, GENDER, EDUC and NFINC, variables are consistent with our expectation, but not statistically significant. The estimated coefficient of the TTLU variable is positive and statistically significant at 5%. The positive sign as expected, implies that farmers with more livestock are more likely to obtain credit. For a unit change in number of livestock, there is 21,841.84 point increase in the predicted value of the amount of credit obtained by the farmers."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"The estimated coefficient of cassava output (OUTPUT) variable is positive and statistically significant at 10%, which implies that cassava output has a positive effect on the amount of credit obtained by the farmers. For a unit increase in cassava output, there is 2.00 point increase in the predicted value of the amount of credit obtained by the farmers. The term for OWNTELE and RENTLAND variables has a slightly different interpretation. The predicted value of amount of credit obtained by the farmers is -22,887.10 point lower for the farmers that own television than for those that did not."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"In the same vein the predicted value of the amount of credit obtained by the farmers that rented land for farming is -24,994.69 point lower for those farmers that rented the farmland than for those that own the farmland."},{"index":7,"size":72,"text":"The estimated coefficient of the PRODASSET variable is positive and statistically significant at 10%, which suggests that the monetary value of the farmers' productive assets such as hoes, cutlass, machetes, wheelbarrow, sprayers, etc. has a positive effect on the amount of credit obtained. In addition, for a unit increase in the households' productive asset, there is 0.97 point increase in the predicted value of the amount of credit obtained by the farmers."},{"index":8,"size":147,"text":"The estimated coefficient of AGE of household head variable is negative and statistically significant. This implies that the age of the household has a negative effect on the amount of credit obtained. Specifically, younger farmers are more likely to obtain credit than the older farmers and for a unit increase in age, there is a -604.15 point reduction in the amount of credit obtained. This could be because older farmers, due to experience are more risk averse than the younger farmers. The coefficient of the HHSIZE variable is positive and statistically significant at 10%. This shows that the larger the household size, the higher the amount of credit a farmer will obtain. A unit increase in the number of the household members increases the amount of credit obtained by 3889.32 points. The ancillary statistic/sigma is analogous to the square root of the residual variance in OLS regression. "}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":206,"text":"Using cross-sectional data collected in 2011 from a total of 871 smallholder cassava farmers, this study assess the relationship between socioeconomic characteristics, access to credit and intensity of credit use among smallholder cassava farmers in south-Western Nigeria .The analysis shows that majority of the smallholder cassava farmers in Nigeria are still credit constrained. The result further shows that the cassava farming households that are better endowed in terms of output, and assets are more likely to have access to credit than the un-endowed counterparts. This could mean that investment in assets (productive and non-productive) and diversification of household income sources to livestock could serve as a collateral security for access to credit, and hence increase the amount of credit a farmer could have access to. Although, there are existing programs and policies targeted at granting farmers access to credit, this study recommend that policies and programs that could also lead to improvement in cassava production, income diversification and asset accumulation will ultimately influence the amount of credit obtained by the farmers and should be promoted and adequately monitored. These programs and policies should also be targeted at the older farmers, since the younger one are more likely to have access to credit than the older ones."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Age /DIIVA Survey, (2011). "},{"text":"Table 1 . Variable definition and description. Variable Definition VariableDefinition  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Test of Mean Differences in Socioeconomic Characteristics by Access to Credit. Variable Combined Access to credit = 1 Access to credit = 0 Mean Difference t-test VariableCombinedAccess to credit = 1Access to credit = 0 Mean Differencet-test  2.59 3.04 2.48 0.56  2.593.042.480.56 Farm size (ha)     2.67*** Farm size (ha)2.67***  (0.08) (0.20) (0.09) (0.21)  (0.08)(0.20)(0.09)(0.21)   17128.56  2151.76  17128.562151.76 Yield (kg/ha) 15408.19 (439.081)  14976.8 (482.43)  1.97** Yield (kg/ha)15408.19 (439.081)14976.8 (482.43)1.97**   (1038.82)  (1094.82)  (1038.82)(1094.82)  11,052.84 13,488.38 10,447.57   11,052.8413,488.3810,447.57 Productive (Farm) Asset value (N)    3040.81 (855.43) 3.55*** Productive (Farm) Asset value (N)3040.81 (855.43)3.55***  (344.09) (819.99) (374.88)   (344.09)(819.99)(374.88) Non-productive ( non-farm) asset value (N) 72,988.43 (2913.68) 83,417.66 (6788.58) 70,396.65 (3217.71) 13021.02 (7287.74) 1.79* Non-productive ( non-farm) asset value (N) 72,988.43 (2913.68) 83,417.66 (6788.58) 70,396.65 (3217.71) 13021.02 (7287.74) 1.79* Agricultural expenditure (N) 1845.04 (217.05) 3041.92 (828.68) 1554.94 (178.74) 1486.98 (545.67) 2.73*** Agricultural expenditure (N)1845.04 (217.05)3041.92 (828.68)1554.94 (178.74)1486.98 (545.67)2.73*** Source: IITA/DIIVA Adoption and Impact Survey (2011)     Source: IITA/DIIVA Adoption and Impact Survey (2011)  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Distribution of Respondents according to Socioeconomic Characteristics. Socioeconomic characteristic Number of respondents Percentage Socioeconomic characteristicNumber of respondents Percentage Gender  Gender  707 82.59 70782.59 Male  Male  149 17.41 14917.41 Female  Female Credit  Credit  167 19.51 16719.51 Demand for credit (1= yes))  Demand for credit (1= yes))  146 17.06 14617.06 Access to credit (1= yes)  Access to credit (1= yes)  146 17.06 14617.06  35 4.09 354.09  81 9.46 819.46  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Proportion that demand credit for Agricultural and Non-Agricultural Uses.  Demand credit Acquire credit Credit constrained Demand creditAcquire credit Credit constrained    Freq.  Freq.  Freq.Freq. Uses of Credit Freq. (A) %  %  % Uses of CreditFreq. (A) %%%    (B)  (A B)  (B)(A B) Agricultural 92 24.02 45 28.66 47 20.79 Agricultural9224.024528.664720.79 Planting material 58 15.14 20 12.74 38 16.81 Planting material5815.142012.743816.81 Fertilizer 107 27.94 39 24.84 68 30.09 Fertilizer10727.943924.846830.09  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Distribution of Respondents According to Amount of Loan Obtained for Agricultural Production. Amount (N) Frequency Percentage (%) Amount (N) Frequency Percentage (%) Source: IITA/DIIVA Survey, (2011). Source: IITA/DIIVA Survey, (2011).  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Distribution of Respondents According to Amount of Loan Obtained for Non-Agricultural Production.Estimation result of the Tobit model of amount of credit obtainedThe result of the estimation of the Tobit model of the intensity of credit access is presented in table 7. Due to some missing data only 817 observations in our data set were used in the analysis. The final log likelihood is -2058.58 and the likelihood ratio chi-square of 36.55 (df = 11) with a P-value of 0.0002 implies that the model as a whole fits significantly better than an empty model (i.e., a model with no predictors).Tobit regression coefficients are interpreted in the similar manner to OLS regression coefficients; however, the linear effect is on the uncensored latent variable, not the observed outcome(McDonald, 1980). The empirical model of the Tobit model indicates that 10 out of the 11 variables included in model have the hypothesized signs. The sign of OWNTELE variable is not consistent with our expectation. However, only seven variables significantly (positively and negatively) affect the farmers' decision to access credit Amount (N) Frequency Percentage (%) Amount (N)Frequency Percentage (%) 0-5000 723 84.46 0-500072384.46 6000-10,000 10 1.17 6000-10,000101.17 11,000-15,000 9 1.05 11,000-15,00091.05 16,000-20,000 20 2.34 16,000-20,000202.34 21,000-30,000 19 2.22 21,000-30,000192.22 31,000-40,000 17 1.99 31,000-40,000171.99 41,000-50,000 17 1.99 41,000-50,000171.99 51,000-100,000 22 2.57 51,000-100,000 222.57 110,000 200,000 11 1.29 110,000 200,000 111.29 > 200,000 8 0.94 > 200,00080.94 Total 856.00 100.00 Total856.00100.00 Source: IITA/DIIVA Survey, (2011). Source: IITA/DIIVA Survey, (2011).  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Estimation result of the Tobit model of amount of credit obtained. Source: IITA/DIIVA Survey, (2011).Note: *, ** and *** means statistically significant at 10%, 5% and 1% levels, respectively. Variable Coefficient Std. Err. t-value P>t VariableCoefficientStd. Err.t-value P>t NFINC 329.09 975.59 0.34 0.736 NFINC329.09975.590.340.736 TTLU 21,841.84** 10,505.98 2.08 0.038 TTLU21,841.84**10,505.98 2.080.038 OUTPUT 2.00* 1.11 1.81 0.071 OUTPUT2.00*1.111.810.071 OWNTELE -22,887.10** 10,991.40 -2.08 0.038 OWNTELE-22,887.10**10,991.40 -2.080.038 RENTEDLAND -24,994.69** 11,031.10 -2.27 0.024 RENTEDLAND -24,994.69** 11,031.10-2.270.024 LAND 2547.26 2112.11 1.21 0.228 LAND2547.262112.111.210.228 PRODASSET 0.97* 0.55 1.77 0.078 PRODASSET0.97*0.551.770.078 AGE -604.15* 349.93 -1.73 0.085 AGE-604.15*349.93-1.730.085 GENDER 1712.06 15,281.33 0.11 0.911 GENDER1712.0615,281.33 0.110.911 HHSIZE 3889.32* 2337.07 1.66 0.096 HHSIZE3889.32*2337.071.660.096 EDUC 503.57 1132.67 0.44 0.657 EDUC503.571132.670.440.657 CONSTANT -92,799.37*** 28,282.97 -3.28 0.001 CONSTANT-92,799.37*** 28,282.97 -3.280.001 /sigma 95,616.36 6596.01   /sigma95,616.366596.01 Log likelihood -2058.58    Log likelihood-2058.58 Number 817.00    Number817.00 LR Chi2(11) 35.75    LR Chi2(11)35.75 Prob > chi2 0.0002    Prob > chi20.0002 Pseudo R 2 0.0086    Pseudo R 20.0086  "}],"sieverID":"5ef81ae2-843d-4383-aa84-f5676ada1772","abstract":"Facteurs socio-économiques et accès au crédit des petits producteurs de manioc dans le sud-ouest du Nigeria L'accès au crédit est un facteur important pour l'augmentation de la productivité agricole. Le modèle \" Tobit\" a été utilisé pour évaluer les facteurs qui influencent l'intensité de l'accès au crédit des petits producteurs de manioc du sud-Ouest du Nigeria. Les données primaires utilisées ont été collectées, auprès de 856 ménages, lors d'une enquête conduite par l'International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) en 2011. Les résultats du modèle empirique Tobit indiquent que seules sept des 11 variables sont statistiquement liées à l'intensité de l'accès au crédit. Cependant, seules les variables cheptel, production totale de manioc, valeur monétaire des actifs productifs du ménage et taille du ménage ont une influence positive et statistiquement différente de zéro sur l'intensité de l'accès au crédit. L'augmentation de ces variables permettrait d'augmenter le montant du crédit auquel un agriculteur pourrait avoir accès. Les politiques qui mèneront à l'amélioration de la diversification par l'élevage, l'augmentation de la production de manioc et l'accumulation d'actifs des agriculteurs sont recommandées pour cette région."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05ef8e6a602f1316652eec17f3792b82","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f6002868-2e77-47c8-b349-46f922e50fd0/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Land tenure, food security, gender and urbanization in Northern Ghana","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Land is a critical resource to socioeconomic development in the Global South, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, home to more than 60% of people directly depending on the agricultural sector (Goedde et al., 2019;Feyertag et al., 2021). Coincidentally, millions of people suffering from chronic food insecurity and undernourishment live in sub-Saharan Africa (Shimeles et al., 2018). The high prevalence of hunger in the region is attributed to the underperformance of agriculture, climate change, civil and political instability, and high population growth rate (OECD-FAO, 2016;Shimeles et al., 2018). Reversing the food problems in sub-Saharan Africa does not, however, require shifting investment or policy focus to alternative sectors. Instead, transformations that position agriculture on a growth trajectory are required. Central to the transformation is land use and management which, according to Kamau et al. (2021), is critical for the achievement of sustainable development goals (SDG) of ending poverty (SDG 1), zero hunger (SDG 2), and responsible production and consumption (SDG 12)."},{"index":2,"size":208,"text":"Land use is the utilization of land resources by populations for diverse purposes, including social and economic functions. Agriculture is an economic and anthropogenic activity that drives changes in land use across regions, directly affecting livelihood, social, and economic outcomes (Ahmed et al., 2016). Much of the recent changes in land use have occurred in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly resulting from rapid population growth and urbanization. High population growth has caused expansion of cultivated land area and agricultural intensification due to increasing food demand (Aleman et al., 2016), while urbanization causes the conversion of agricultural land to commercial, industrial, and residential infrastructure to accommodate populations from rural areas, as well to allow economic diversification of African economies (Magigi and Drescher, 2010;Schoneveld and German, 2014;Kleemann et al., 2017). These changes are responsible for local and regional climate change, soil degradation, and loss of biodiversity which are also linked to food insecurity and malnutrition. This implies that land use is also directly and indirectly linked with SSG 11 (sustainable cities and communities), SDG 13 (climate action), and SDG 15 (reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss) (Kamau et al., 2019). Thus, the relationship between land use and social, economic, and environmental impacts is complex and has varying implications across sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"Land tenure is an important social and economic concept that refers to the way land rights are distributed or bestowed to individuals or groups of people, legally or customarily. Tenure incorporates the rights of individuals to access, use, manage, make profit or loss, transform, and transfer ownership of land and land resources. Consequently, land tenure security is linked to land use and access, driving farmers' livelihood diversification options and food security outcomes (Keovilignavong and Suhardiman, 2020). The conceptual linkage between land tenure and food security is explained in literature as being intertwined and land use and productivity are central to the relationship (Borras et al., 2015;Holden and Ghebru, 2016). Land degradation, for instance, causes a shortage of productive land and reduces agricultural productivity which is a threat to food security (Utuk and Daniel, 2015). Therefore, land tenure defines how land is used, playing a crucial role in the ability of individuals and groups to improve productivity and food security."},{"index":4,"size":185,"text":"However, land tenure is important when it secures and promotes inclusive socio-economic development for the achievement of SDG 5 (gender equality). In sub-Saharan Africa, tenure security for women is held back by social and cultural norms which often undermine their livelihoods. Customary tenure is common in Africa, where land is inherited or held by a clan, making land ownership unequal for women (Nadasen, 2012). Married women are often not recognized as part of the lineage, thereby limiting their access to and use of land (Yaro, 2010). Secure land ownership among women also depends on sociodemographic and economic characteristics, including marital status (married, divorced, or widowed), women's position in households and communities, age, sex, marriage types, education, economic status, and social capital and networks (Nnoko-Mewanu, 2016;Doss and Meinzen-Dick, 2020). Even though policy and legal frameworks have been adopted to address inequalities in land tenure in sub-Saharan Africa, they are insensitive and treat women as a homogenous group with similar challenges (Chigbu et al., 2019). This is not always true given the different circumstances and experiences of women in their pursuit to access land for agricultural purposes."}]},{"head":"Setting the context","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"West Africa is a climate hotspot in sub-Saharan Africa, with changes in land use and technology adoption identified as crucial to averting adverse effects of climate and weather variability on agriculture. Although climate change is cited as an important challenge to food security in West Africa (Ahmed et al., 2016), demographic changes have historically contributed to concerns about food production and security. High urbanization in West Africa is complicating the region's potential to meet the current and future food demand of the growing population. Ghana is a relevant example of countries in the sub-region that has registered rapid population growth in the post-independence era (Kleemann et al., 2017). Much of the urbanization in Ghana is happening in the coastal and inland cities of Accra, Kumasi, and Tamale. In 2020, Ghana had the largest share (57%) of the urban population than any other populous country in the sub-region (World Bank, 2022). The high population in urban and rural areas has caused extreme pressure on land, with significant changes in land use. This presents a major concern in Northern Ghana where agriculture is a dominant activity and is affected by erratic rainfall and long dry periods, causing extreme poverty and chronic food insecurity and malnutrition (Kleemann et al., 2017;Nkegbe et al., 2017;WFP, 2021). The threat of food insecurity is compounded by increasing competition for land for agricultural and commercial purposes (Schoneveld and German, 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"The distinction in regional economic development in Ghana between the Northern and Southern parts is attributed to disparities in national investment and differences in natural resource endowment. The historical background of land planning and tenure could explain the differences in levels of economic development in the two regions. Three broad categories of land tenure or rather ownership exist in Ghana: customary, state, and shared ownership. Customary ownership constitutes about 78% of the total land in the country (Schoneveld and German, 2014). Ghanian land legislation recognizes customary ownership and forbids the sale, but only allows temporary alienation through leasing and can be inherited by individuals, groups, sub-groups, or allocation by the chief. Few usufruct titles are held as individual landholdings, meaning that land ownership and access are via groups or sub-groups (Schoneveld and German, 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":176,"text":"The chiefs are powerful custodians of land traditions in the north than in the south. Chiefs give land to titleholders, allocate vacant land to users, and arbitrate land disputes. The growing population pressure in the north has therefore created conflicts with chiefs (Schoneveld and German, 2014). In contrast, local institutions in southern Ghana are more experienced in land matters, making land allotment less controversial. In cities, land planning is largely under statutory tenure and, therefore, land management and use are better controlled than in rural areas. However, peri-urban areas are marked by transitions from customary tenure to statutory tenure and the demarcation of the applicable tenure is not clearly defined, leading to tenure issues. The majority of land owned in peri-urban areas, especially land-titled under customary tenure, remains undocumented because the statutory system is considered a colonial heritage (Schoneveld and German, 2014). The confusions about the applicable laws and arising conflicts and contestations have implications on land use and the ability of agriculture and food systems to meet the increasing urban demand for food in Ghana."},{"index":4,"size":215,"text":"Like elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa, there exist unequal land tenure rights in Ghana despite recent land reforms. Sociocultural norms are deep-rooted and continue framing land access rights for individuals and groups. Land tenure is shaped at several levels, including resource allocation systems, social, institutional, and governance (Britwum et al., 2014). The customary entitlement to land arises out of the multiplicity of social relations which strengthens land access and use for others while weakening claims over land for other groups. Social norms define gender roles and power relations which determine the way socially valued resources are accessed and controlled (Britwum et al., 2014). The social norms in Ghana also run deep in institutional and governance structures for land allocation. The end-product is a land tenure that is insensitive to the experiences of heterogeneous groups, especially women, hindering their access and control over land. Women's access to land also varies in Ghana, with women's land rights being less autonomous in the North than in the South. Women in the north own smaller and less productive land parcels, and their land use is limited to growing a narrow range of crops, especially vegetables. Thus, the weak and skewed land rights in Northern Ghana create inequalities that stifle food production and food availability, and accessibility (Nara et al., 2020)."},{"index":5,"size":205,"text":"Understanding the land tenure-land/use-food security nexus is, therefore, a critical step in informing policy and legal reforms that would create and reinforce the land rights of individuals and groups. Establishing the relationship between land tenure, land use, and food security will expose the complexities of existing tenure systems and the varying realities of men's and women's access to land and food security outcomes in Ghana. Nonetheless, the lived experiences of women are not homogenous for they are affected by varying contexts and individual and group characteristics, which are inadequately covered in the empirical literature. This study investigates how gender and land use varies in Ghana and the implication of land tenure and gender on food security. The study hypothesizes that the complex land tenure systems present challenges to urban and peri-urban women farmers in securing long-term access to land and sustaining their agricultural activities. In testing this hypothesis, the study also posits that traditional gender roles and social norms in Tamale impact women's access to land and resources, contributing to household food and nutrition insecurity. Adaptive land-use strategies can help urban and peri-urban farmers overcome land scarcity challenges created by gender insensitive tenure systems, but have implications on soil fertility, land use, and resource management."}]},{"head":"Literature review and theoretical framework","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Literature review","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"The United Nations ratified SDGs in 2015 with a call to people, nations, and organizations to focus on fostering shared and inclusive prosperity for the realization of the seventeen interlinked global goals. The UN progress report years later acknowledged that it would be challenging for the all the SGDs to be achieved by 2030 unless a holistic approach that clarifies the interrelationships between SGDs and considers the complexities involved are actioned (United Nation, 2018). However, it is inconceivable that 17 goals can be achieved simultaneously just like it is nonsensical to focus on delivering the goals separately (Fu et al., 2019). Studies have recognized that the goals are indivisible and used different approaches, including the nexus approach, to explore interactions and causal relationships between SGDs (Gao and Bryan, 2017). Consequently, reviewing literature that accounts for synergies between gender, land tenure, land use, and food security is critical in understanding how causal relationships among the phenomena can influence the achievement of development goals."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"Land is a scarce productive resource that can be managed to meet the demand for food and other products. However, as a fixed resource, land is constrained by competition, pressure, and path dependencies that may enhance or create trade-offs in the achievement of SDGs (Obersteiner et al., 2016). Policy options that center on the management of land-based resources have an implication on interactions among multiple SDGs such as gender equality, zero hunger, no poverty, climate action, and sustainable production. Studies have acknowledged interactions among these goals and indicated that policy-driven land-use systems can undo inherent constraints to the achievement of the goals and solve sustainable management concerns (Kamau et al., 2021). Women in sub-Saharan Africa are mostly involved in agricultural activities such as cultivation, planting, weeding, and harvesting crops (Ben-Ari, 2014), making them important in land-use changes. Accordingly, Fonjong et al. (2013) observed that women play a crucial role in the execution of land-related decisions and should be at the heart of farming, conservation, and land management and policy matters."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Literature has provided mixed results with respect to gender and land use. Nigussie et al. (2017) reported that female-headed households apply less capital-intensive land-use practices such as manure compared to men who tend to use capital-intensive practices like the application of inorganic fertilizer and the use of irrigation. The results contrast earlier findings by Pender and Gebremedhin (2008) who reported that female-headed households applied less manure/compost and contour farming compared to male-headed households. Explainers of the gender difference in land use management practices are cited as differences in physical and human capital endowments (Teklewold et al., 2013)."},{"index":4,"size":164,"text":"Besides, land tenure has been cited as an important factor affecting land use, but the evidence remains mixed (Asaaga et al., 2020). For instance, several studies in Ghana and elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa have found that the intensity of investment in land-use practices varies depending on tenancy agreements (Abdulai et al., 2011;Abdulai and Goetz, 2014). Even so, Asaaga et al. (2020) note that land tenure arrangements in Ghana do not solely influence land-use practices but rather other extra-tenurial context-specific factors such as ethnicity and gender. This suggests socially differentiated land users. For instance, the implementation of sustainable land-use practices in Ejura Sekyedumase and Bongo districts of Ghana was lower among vulnerable and marginalized groups such as women and immigrants due to insecure land tenure (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2015). In most communities in the Global South, land-use decisions are mostly biased against women who struggle due to limited access and insecure control over land because of local customs and culture (Fonjong et al., 2013;Meinzen-Dick, 2019)."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"The effects of land-use change and tenure security are socially differentiated resulting in differences in productivity and other downstream impacts such as food security. The conversion of agricultural land for commercial purposes has been rapid over the five decades. Agricultural land-use changes have reduced farmland under food production, resulting in lower yield and food insecurity, especially in communities with weak land tenure rights (Appiah et al., 2019;Bonye et al., 2021). Nara et al. (2021) found that strengthening land rights, especially traditional land rights and tenure, enhanced productive land use, thereby leading to increased food production and food security in Northwest Ghana."},{"index":6,"size":186,"text":"The food-security and gender nexus in Ghana is articulated by Fonjong, Gyapong, 2021) who argued that achieving SDG 2 requires gender-inclusive land tenure. Dispossession caused by land-use changes affects women more than men due to women's close relationship with household food provisioning through farming (Fonjong, Gyapong, 2021;Dzanku et al., 2021;Wood et al., 2021). The intersection between gender and food security in Ghana was also reviewed by Wood et al. (2021) who showed that women have been historically disenfranchised by social and institutional organizations which restrict them from accessing labour and capital outside their homes. However, acknowledgement of women's role in Ghana has led to some policy progress that aims to erase factors that restrict women from contributing to food security. Food security, land use, and gender equality nexus and its significance in the achievement of SGDs 1, 2, 5 and landscape management are closely linked and can be achieved through land reforms that are inclusive and sensitive to local needs (Asiama et al., 2021). Therefore, the need to integrate a gender dimension into achieving zero hunger via sustainable land use through secure land tenure is critical."}]},{"head":"Theoretical framework","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The intersectionality framework provides an overarching theoretical framework for analyzing gender, land use, land tenure, and food security nexus. The framework posits that social categories intersect or interact at an individual level to influence social and economic outcomes (Akimowicz et al., 2022). The intersectionality framework is founded on the belief that interdependencies among social categories result in the marginalization of some groups of people within communities. The framework allows exploration of social and economic structures of people's lives and how local contexts create hierarchies and bestow power within societies and their implications on access to resources and services, as well as the impact on all aspects of living in marginalized communities."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"The successive development of the intersectionality framework has enabled its application across disciplines, including agriculture. In agriculture and social sciences, the theory is applied to identify marginalized groups and the unique challenges they face in their local contexts, and how the challenges are linked to social organizations (Wood et al., 2021). In the current study, the intersectionality approach provides an accurate picture of the social, economic, and institutional challenges women face in Ghana with respect to land rights, security of land tenure, and land use. The challenges are deeply rooted in customary land tenure systems that perpetuate gender inequalities in land access and use. Formal land access rights are affected by customs which weaken the implementation of inclusive policies. Consequently, unequal land right affects women's investment in sustainable land management practices resulting in a socially differentiated outcome such as food security. For instance, increased competition for land for commercial purposes has changed agricultural land use in the Global South, causing an increase in food insecurity. Therefore, the intersectionality framework helps in framing the gender-land use, land tenure security, and food security in Ghana."}]},{"head":"Material and methods","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Method","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"A sequential mixed-method approach was used in this study. Although it can be challenging to meet the assumptions of both quantitative and qualitative research methods, the mixed methods approach used strengthened and maximised the advantages of both methodologies. It provided a more meaningful interpretation of farmers' livelihood strategies in the face of urbanisation and changing tenure systems. A survey was carried out between November and December 2013 in and around Tamale (Fig. 1). The survey aimed at understanding the dynamics of food and nutrition insecurity and the role played by urban, periurban and rural agriculture along the urban-rural continuum. This survey involved 240 households randomly selected over seven districts (Fig. 1). Structured questionnaires were used to collect data on crop and livestock production and consumption and the prevalence of household food and nutrition insecurity."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Simultaneously, an ethnographic study was carried out from October 2013 to November 2014 in and around Tamale to understand the resource use politics of urban and periurban vegetable farming. During this ethnographic study, 12 households were randomly selected from 240 households surveyed for food and nutrition insecurity and men and women in each household were interviewed on how they access land, grow food and provide livelihood for their families."}]},{"head":"Sampling","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"The food and nutrition insecurity survey was based on a transect approach. The transect approach has been used in previous studies on vegetable production, the use of natural resources and the analysis of vegetation (Alberti, 2008;Kamga et al., 2017). Transects were laid radially, 70 km long and 2 km wide from the Tamale central market (Fig. 1). The working definitions of urban, periurban and rural areas were based on reviewed literature on West Africa (e.g. Adam, 2001, Drescher andIaiquinta 2000). In this study urban areas are defined as those that extend up to 10 km from the city center, periurban 10 -40 km and rural areas 40-70 km. All the houses along the transects were digitised in ArcGIS 10 Geographical Information Systems software using recent imagery. Twenty households were randomly selected per transect using GIS, giving a total of 240 households being selected (20 households' x 3 areas/zones x 4 transects)."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Twelve households were randomly selected from the 240 households who participated in the food and nutrition survey covering urban and periurban Tamale, six from urban and six from periurban areas, to find out how land tenure systems influence their food and nutritional insecurity. 5 men and 7 women were interviewed with one representative from each household chosen as a key informant, resulting in a sample of 12 participants."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"A further series of targeted in-depth interviews and informal conversations with key informants was carried out from December 2013 to November 2014, specifically to delve deeper into the link between  access to land and food security in urban and periurban Tamale. The current paper uses data from both studies."}]},{"head":"Study food and nutrition indicators","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The food and nutrition insecurity study used the following households' food and nutrition indicators:"},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS): this is based on responses to 18 questions about behaviours and attitudes related to food insecurity experience over the past four weeks (consisting of 9 occurrence questions and 9 frequency-of-occurrence questions), resulting in households being assigned scores that range from 0 to 27 (Coates et al., 2007). Households were divided into two HFIAS classes, based on the distribution in the sample as recommended by FAO (2011), with a score of ≤ 11 as food secure and a score of > 11 as food insecure (Chagomoka et al., 2018). A higher HFIAS score reflects greater household food insecurity and poorer access to food."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Women's Dietary Diversity Score (WDDS): this is a proxy for household nutrition (FAO, 2011). Based on food items consumed in the past 24 h, respondents were assigned the number of food groups they consumed, ranging from 0 to 9. An increase in the number of food groups or WDDS is related to increased nutrient adequacy of the diet. Households were classified into three groups based on the distribution in the sample: ≤ 3 food groups as lowest dietary diversity, 4 -5 food groups as medium dietary diversity and ≥ 6 highest dietary diversity (Chagomoka et al., 2016a)."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"The data collection tools were tested for validity and reliability before the actual data collection exercises. Content validity was used to ensure data collection tools' validity. Two subject matter experts reviewed the questionnaire for relevance and completeness of the content. Cronbach's alpha was used to test the internal consistency of our survey questionnaire. The Cronbach's alpha value for HFIAS was 0.83 and for WDDS was 0.79. These values were considered good measures of reliability of the scales in measuring food security because they were above the acceptable level of 0.70."}]},{"head":"Data management and analysis","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Data was entered with Epidata version 9, and exported to Stata 11 software for analysis. The Pearson chi-square test was used to test the association between reasons for not growing crops and the geographical location. Fisher's exact chi-square test was used where expected cell frequencies were less than 5 and N < 50. We did the Fisher's chi-square exact test for household nutrition and food insecurity indicators associated with reasons for not growing crops. Interview guides were used in directing discussions with informants. All in-depth interviews and focus group discussions were recorded and transcribed using the F4 transcription tool."}]},{"head":"Ethical considerations","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"In each community, study objectives and purpose were clearly conveyed to community leaders and respondents. Permission was sought before data collection from local leaders and respondents. Respondents had the opportunity to stop participating in the research at any time of their choice during interviews but none opted out during this study."}]},{"head":"Results","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Socio-demographic profile of the study sample","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The Dagomba (70%) and Gonja (17%) ethnic groups formed the majority of respondents who took part in the food and nutrition survey which informed the sampling population for further in-depth interviews. Women (39%) and men (61%) participated in the food and nutrition survey (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Association between the reason for not growing crops and geographical location","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The results of the food and nutrition survey revealed that 7.1% of respondents were not producing crops because they did not own any land. Unsurprisingly, land shortages were more pronounced in urban and periurban areas than rural areas (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Association between reasons for not growing crops and household nutrition security","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Food insecure households were more likely to name a lack of land than anything else as the primary reason for their inability to grow crops (Table 3). Nevertheless, there was no statistically significant association between various reasons for not growing crops and household nutrition security (WDDS) (Table 4)."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Hypothesis 1. The complex land tenure systems present challenges to urban and peri-urban women farmers in securing long-term access to land and sustaining their agricultural activities."}]},{"head":"Land tenure systems in Northern Region of Ghana","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"According to Nchanji (2018), the land tenure system in the study region is communal, with some pockets of public land. These public lands host government and public buildings which help provide for the socio-cultural and economic needs of the people. In this communal system, land belongs to communities and families. The chiefs are custodians of community lands in trust for the people while the lineage heads are in charge of their family land. Chiefs have allodial rights 1 over the community land and the farmers have usufruct rights over these same lands, which they can pass on from generation to generation legally. In this system the chief who is the custodian of land for the people is expected to use it on behalf of and in trust for the subjects in accordance with customary law and usage. In this case the chief could lease community land and the proceeds are used for the development of the community. Land used for agricultural purposes in urban and periurban areas can be acquired with a gift token of \"kola\" (kola here varies in form as it can be kola nuts, bread etc.)."},{"index":2,"size":238,"text":"When this is done, the \"new owner\" has \"user's\" rights on the land. If the indigene needs land for a residential building, the same rule for acquiring agricultural land applies. But an additional monetary token is expected after which the indigene is given an allocation note from the chief stating that the land now belongs to him/her. After this process, the indigene can apply for a land title, which is a long term lease. Prices for 100 m x 100 m of land in periurban areas ranged from 2500 to 5000 new Ghana Cedi in 2014 (1 Ghana Cedi was approximately 0.25 Euro in October 2014), while in the urban areas land prices ranged from 8000 to 15,000 new Ghana Cedi in 2014. These prices have definitely increased as of 2018. Land given out just for \"kola\" can also be leased to prospective buyers prepared to give cash as well as \"kola\", if they intend to use the land for development. Lands leased with an allocation note are generally used for the construction of houses and not for any farming activity, as observed by the authors. Most land owners highlighted in interviews that land where persons who had invested to get an allocation note were secured for posterity and not to be sold, even in a case of extreme food crisis. They argued that land is a symbol of identity and pride to be inherited and never sold."}]},{"head":"Hypothesis 2. Adaptive land-use strategies help urban and peri-urban farmers overcome land scarcity challenges, but have implications for soil","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"1 Free, not subject to the rights of any lord or superior, owned without obligation of vassalage or fealty E.B. Nchanji et al. fertility, land use, and resource management."}]},{"head":"Strategies for securing land","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"This study revealed that most periurban farmers sought ways to secure their agricultural land in the face of uncertainties about long term access within the communal land system. After the harvesting of cereals and tubers the farmer gives about 100 kg of the crop (usually referred to as 'kola') to the chief to maintain ties of trust and loyalty and in so doing secure the use of the land for the next season, similar to land buyers who provide \"kola\" with additional cash when they want to acquire land for residential and commercial purposes. If farmers fail to provide their land owner with some produce or money because they do not have enough produce to feed their household, the land might be taken from them and given to someone else. The chief usually appoints elders whose role is to check that farmers give him a share of their harvest, which he will use for his family's needs. This mechanism mitigates against food security in these communities."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"In urban Tamale, there are zones where the Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD) authorities prohibit residential construction following a flood that happened in 1989. The ownership of these lands is contested between different factions of the traditional royal family, the Ghana Water Company (GWC) and the Volta River Authority of the Northern Electricity Distribution Company (VRA/NEDco). The government institutions have won ownership of these lands in the court of law but are not using these lands because they have been designated by the Town and Country Planning Department as disaster zones. The chiefs still maintain that these lands were not sold to the government and are \"unofficially\" leasing these plots of lands from these zones to any interested buyer. These lands are the Gumbihini old dam, Gumbihini new dam and the former Gumbihini Volta River Authority site (also known as \"Waterworks\") (Fig. 2)."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"The number of farmers who are using these lands for agricultural purposes has continually increased after the disaster as stated by one of the farmers on this site during an interview. Alongside these conventional mechanisms, farmers are working with non-governmental organisations and some government institutions like the TCPD to stake claims to these zones. They are collaborating with various institutions including the NGO -Urban Agriculture Network (Urbanet) to facilitate infrastructural development in some of the sites. Specifically, water pipes have been installed for vegetable irrigation at the Gumbihini old and new dam sites. Interview data from farmers and court officials revealed a colloquial perception that such infrastructural investment in land strengthens one's claim to it for future use. The main users of these  Fisher's exact probability = 0.040 (significant). Fisher's exact probability= 0.102 (insignificant)."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"lands are dry season farmers who produce vegetables including cabbage (Brassica oleracea), lettuce (Lactuca sativa), amaranth (Amaranthus spp), roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa), jute mallow (Corchurus olitorious) and okra (Abelmoschus esculentus). The buffer zone covers approximately 125,000 m 2 . Besides easing the pressure of land shortages, the use of buffer zones provides a wide range of vegetables to the urban and periurban population."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"Farmers have also taken up cultivation on other vacant areas of land outside the buffer zone, for example at Choggu cheferuguni, Ganasco dam, Sangani, and Zagyuri amongst other locations, where vegetables like cabbage, cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) lettuce, amaranth, roselle, jute mallow, pepper (Capsicum annuum) and tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L) are grown. These open spaces are found on undeveloped public, private and community lands to which the farmers do not have allodial rights but are squatting, renting, borrowing or have usufruct rights. Some of the farmers have borrowed land from its legal owners and are acting as caretakers to secure it from encroachment."}]},{"head":"Land, agriculture and soil fertility","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Shortage of land in the urban and periurban areas was frequently due to community land being sold for development, which implies that farmers often produce crops on less than half a hectare of land. Also this has pushed some farmers to crop in and around buildings. This practice has led to depleted and poor soils on farmers' fields, lowered yields and contributed to household food shortages. In an attempt to overcome this problem, farmers are using several options. They practice mixed cropping with nitrogen fixing legumes such as cowpea to improve the soil's fertility, and use inorganic fertilisers such as sulphate of ammonia and different blends of compound NPK fertiliser, which, even though relatively expensive, are readily available in the markets. There is also a sizable proportion of farmers using organic manures such as cow dung, chicken manure and sewage as well as compost to improve soil fertility. Apart from boosting the soil farmers also use pesticides in an endeavour to boost production, but due to high levels of illiteracy in the study areas (Table 1), the recommended rates of pesticides are not always applied and some farmers use non-recommended combinations."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Hypothesis 3. Traditional gender roles and social norms impact access to land and resources, contributing to household food and nutrition insecurity."}]},{"head":"Gender and land ownership","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"From interviews we confirmed that household heads ('landlords') and owners of land were almost always men in the study area. During the main farming season women were usually given a small portion of land on the farm around the edges of their male relatives' field to produce or cultivate vegetables. This plot of land was often less fertile and considered not \"good enough\" for cereals or legumes production, which are the main crops. The vegetables cultivated are usually jute mallow, roselle, pepper and okra. This way of growing vegetables by women and sometimes preserving them for use in the dry season is a strategy for improving household food and nutritional security."}]},{"head":"Women, food and nutritional security","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"Interview results showed that, in order to provide soup for the household while sometimes not having access to enough land, women often work on the farms of their husband or other male kin during harvesting. After harvesting, a certain portion of the crop is given to the female harvesters. In the case of okra, a bowl of okra or more is given to each woman depending on the number of harvesters. In the case of pepper a basin is given to each woman. These vegetables are usually used in the household by the women to prepare soup. In the case of abundant vegetables given after harvesting, women also sell some to get income to buy spices and salt to prepare the soup in their households. In the case of widows, harvesting cereals and legumes are necessary if they are to feed their household as well as sell to supplement household needs. Although women do not own land and sometimes find it difficult to provide the soup, men usually leave some crops during harvesting which women glean and use to provide the soup. After the farm owner harvests, widows and old women can enter any field with their bowls to harvest the left over cereals."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"Another interesting element related to women's responsibility to provide soup lies in the arrangements of access to two economic trees. These trees are the dawadawa (Parkia biglobosa) and sheanut trees (Vitellaria paradoxa). For women to access these trees they have to go through men, as these trees are on land owned by men. The fruit of the dawadawa and sheanut trees are consumed by the community as a spice for soup, porridge and as oil respectively. The dawadawa tree is owned by the chief/sub chief in that community, so in most cases permission needs to be sought for its harvesting. Women also collect sheanut fruits to eat and sell the seeds to individuals or shea butter extraction production centres. They also use shea butter for cooking and pepper preservation. These trees therefore provide income generating opportunities to the women who sell the fruits and their by-products. ."}]},{"head":"Land and migrant farmers","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"In the study site, we observed a new phenomenon of urban to rural migration. This information came out of discussions with farmers who described their search for agricultural land in rural areas. This move was prompted by the search of land in areas where urbanisation, population pressure and shortage of arable land are not yet perceived to be a problem. They give \"kola\" in exchange for agricultural land where they farm. After harvesting they bring their harvest back to the periurban and urban areas for consumption and sale."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"Urban farmers, due to land shortage, are also moving their production activities to irrigation sites, where they rent plots of land and pay water charges to grow their vegetables and staple crops for home consumption and income generation. There is an influx of urban farmers from Kumbungu and Tamale in Ghana's Northern region, and even from Bawku in the Upper East region, to irrigation sites such as Bontanga and Golinga, This usually occurs during the dry season, when okra, onion (Allium cepa), green pepper and rice (Oryza sativa) are grown to target the early market, including the festive periods of christmas and new year holidays. Onions are produced in large quantities and are sold in Tamale, Kumasi and Accra amongst others destinations."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"This study reveals that chiefs' manipulation of the customary land tenure system in Northern Region of Ghana is one mechanism whereby agricultural land is lost to residential construction. The manipulation of customary land tenure system by chiefs and the hybrodization of land tenure systems are not only a manifestation of inefficiencies (Nchanji et al., 2017;Nchanji, Bellwood-Howard, 2018), but also its broader implication for food security. These occurrences could be attributed to urban planning policies that encourage rezoning of public land to private developers and residential areas, shrinking available land for agricultural activities and leading to food insecurity. The hybrid planning practices in urban and peri-urban overseen chiefs and local authorities propagate tenure insecurity and encourage land speculation and conversion of agricultural land for commercial purposes (Akaateba et al., 2021), thereby undermining the realization of sustainable cities and communities (SDG 11). The exacerbation of tenure insecurity for peri-urban and urban areas also renders residents landless without alternative sources of livelihood and secure food sources. This relates to findings by Afriyie et al. (2020) who found that spatial expansion of Greater Kumasi reduced the availability of arable land for urban and peri-urban agriculture, denying farmers access to land to meet their basic needs worsening their economic conditions."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Comparison to other urban and peri-urban areas in Ghana reveals almost similar across various the country. Although distinct patterns may be influenced by regional-specific factors such as economic conditions, cultural norms and population density are the popular drivers of land use changes in major urban areas in the country. For instance, like in Tamale, the majority of customary lands in Accra and Cape Coast have been leased to private individuals due to rapid urbanization and increased demand for land. The land tenure system in these cities are characterized by improper documentation of land transactions and boundaries, encroachment on public lands, multiple sale of lands, and intractable land disputes (Water Aid, 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"However, in Tamale, land users do not engage in land markets and do"}]},{"head":"Box 1","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Women negotiating land tenure security."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"Nina (name has been changed for ethical reasons), is a widow in a periurban village called Jimle. She lives with her aged mother and children and borrowed land from her brother. Nina complains that this land is infertile. She would like to borrow more productive land from elderly men who have larger surface areas of lands and cannot afford to cultivate them due to high input costs. However, she has been unsuccessful in negotiating access to such lands. She exercises her resource gathering rights by collecting sheanut and dawadawa fruits from communal holdings. She processes these into oil and spice, used for domestic consumption and also as a source of income. Nina also got permission from her brother to fell neem trees found on his land, which she sells as firewood to sustain her family. She considers that non-family members are kinder to women with no land than family members. Nina argues that borrowed land is secure if the borrower maintains a good relationship with the owner. This involves giving some crops, gifts or other basic commodities like salt to the owner after every harvest. Maintaining a good personal relationship is a starting point for negotiating security of tenure for women."}]},{"head":"Box 2","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Improving value chains."},{"index":2,"size":176,"text":"In urban Tamale, around Gumani, securing land for agricultural activities is difficult, as Ashaitu (name has been changed for ethical reasons) notes. Her husband has no piece of land and his former land holdings have been sold by the chief to estate developers for residential purposes. Ashaitu is the sole provider of food for her household. She has multiple activities she engages in to feed her family. Ashaitu harvests on the farms of her friends and kin, and is paid with the crop she harvests. She does not have the luxury of choosing the type of crops she can harvest, so she harvests any crop she is called upon to assist. Ashaitu prefers to harvest rice, cereals, groundnuts and vegetables. She consumes all the vegetables either fresh or in dried form and she processes the rice she harvests and sells it to generate more income. Ashaitu says land ownership is important but not sufficient, as you need other technical farm inputs to be able to get a good yield from the farm to feed the family."},{"index":3,"size":226,"text":"not benefit financially from economic transactions involving their lands (Ubink, 2007), being limited to giving 'kola' to secure their access to it. This non fungibility of land and cash from the users' point of view contributed towards the study respondents' noncommercial conceptualisation of land. Similar strategies were observed by Townsend (1995) in India, where households who did not sell their capital assets instead depleted their cash reserves and adjusted their eating habits. Corbett (1988) and Debessa et al. (2022), also revealed that households did not sell capital assets but instead reduced their food consumption or adopted food coping strategies which would not hinder their household income generation in the long term. Chagomoka et al. (2016b) reported diverfy food coping strategies used by households in West African cities. However, despite the threat to their ability to access land, farmers in Tamale were using ingenious methods to access interstitial urban and periurban spaces and thus continue cultivation. In addition to counteracting land sales by chiefs with 'kola', they cultivate on the buffer zones and other unoccupied urban land (Nchanji et al., 2017). The movement of urban farmers to periurban spaces, including irrigation sites, can also be seen as part of this strategy. All these farmers are exploiting loopholes and gaps in existing tenure arrangements to gain access to the crucial resource, land in order to feed their families."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"The urban to rural migration we encountered contrasts with the longstanding phenomenon of rural-urban migration by farmers offering labour for wages. This changing strategy has also been noted by Yaro (2010), who describes a case where farmers migrated to Gbanyamni, a periurban town 10 km from Malshegu, Tamale, and had to further move due to land commodification some years later to a rural area in search of land to farm. In Burkina Faso the Groupe de Recherche et d′Action sur le Foncier (2011) discovered that migration patterns towards the rural areas for land were due to poor soils in urban and peri-urban areas, and pastoralists' increasing cultivation of fodder crops as part of their livelihood strategy."},{"index":5,"size":393,"text":"Furthermore, the findings of the study challenge the long-standing traditional hypothesis that secure tenure incentivizes agricultural investment. Classically, secure tenure is hypothesised to incentivise intensive agricultural investment (Fatton, 1997). According to this perspective, farmers will be more willing to invest for three reasons. They will be keen to enjoy the returns of long term improvement and conservation measures: the 'assurance effect' (Braselle et al., 2002). Returns on investment made can easily be recuperated, which is the 'realisation effect', and farming productivity increases through improvements in allocative efficiency. Yet Bruce (1988) questioned the direction of causality between tenure and investment, arguing that tenure security may not cause investment to increase but rather investment may stimulate land security. The study found that farmers' investments in soil fertility were found to be more influenced by socio-economic status than by land security, suggesting that the relationship between tenure and investment may be more complex than previously assumed. This observation is reinforced by a study in Ghana showed that tenure security had a very positive impact on investment in the Anloga area, but a less noticeable impact in Wassa-Amenfi and no influence in Ejura (Migot-Adholla et al., 1994). Besley (1995aBesley ( , 1995b) ) used the same data to assess the sensitivity of the results to the estimation methodology used, and reached the conclusions that better land rights facilitated investment in Wassa but not in Anloga. In Tamale, interviews with the farmers revealed that as much as access to land influences food and nutritional security, the effects of poverty are also significant. Investments in soil fertility of land are more influenced by the farmer's socio-economic status and are not directly influenced by the security of access to the land (Nchanji et al., 2017). In fact, influences on soil fertility management are diverse and interact with household roles and responsibilities. Organic manures such as faecal sludge are being used by farmers in Tamale to improve their soil fertility and increase yields to be able to feed their families (Gyasi et al., 2014). In Burkina Faso, when women plant legumes to fix nitrogen in the soil, men sometimes took over the improved soil the next year to plant their cereals (Jones-Casey, 2014). Like the majority of West African farmers in the increasingly common situation of land scarcity, those in Tamale implement diverse soil fertility management strategies to maintain high yields."},{"index":6,"size":117,"text":"The majority of crops grown on these urban farmlands are vegetables, which are good sources of micronutrients and help households to generate income (Chagomoka et al., 2014). Urban agricultural activity does contribute to improved household food and nutritional security (Chagomoka et al., 2018). However, the use of these interstitial spaces for agriculture does have its drawbacks for the consuming urban populace. Pesticide misuse and the occasional use of waste water for irrigation (Kamga et al., 2013, Nchanji et al., 2017) mean that intensive urban and periurban farming has possible health and food safety risks, which occur partly as a result of farmers' intensive use of chemical inputs on their small spaces of land in the urban zone."},{"index":7,"size":234,"text":"The role of women in maintaining household food security is crucial. Our data revealed that women have used different food security strategies to reconcile their lack of access to land (Nchanji and Bellwood-Howard, 2016). Thus, in a situation where land is becoming scarcer in general, these strategies, involving gleaning and cultivating on field edges and small plots, come to the fore. Women's cultivation of soup vegetables is not exclusive to the Northern Region of Ghana: in Kenya and Burkina Faso women also cultivate crops perceived as less valuable (Jones-Casey, 2014). Mechanisms have also developed that allow women access to natural resources on land owned by men, concomitant with their role as gatherers (Doss et al., 2014). Their use of fruits and seed for food and as a source of income mirrors their use of other natural resources such as firewood and water. Yet they do not gain ownership over any of these resources. Inter-gender, class and status power relations are especially evident in the case of the dawadawa tree, important to women's livelihood strategies but considered to belong to the traditional authorities (Mahama, 2009). The activities employed by women to guarantee food security, such as harvesting from male kin, relying on economic trees and cultivating borrowed land, are set to continue and even to gain importance in the future (Nchanji andBellwood-Howard, 2016a, 2016b) as more of the urban population loses access to agricultural land."},{"index":8,"size":145,"text":"Although the study underpins the intersection of gender, land insecurity, and food insecurity in Tamale and more broadly in Northern Ghana, the findings lso reveals intricate web of socio-economic and cultural dynamics that can influence food security outcomes. This finding may also resonate to other regions in the country and beyond. In addition, the study reveals that land tenure systems in the Tamale, customary or statute, places women in a precarious position which has an implication on types of policies that can be instituted to address the issue. However, despite women facing hurdles in access to and use of land, they play a crucial role in maintaining household food security. Therefore, the study provides a step towards the understanding of policies that can integrate gender-sensitive strategies and recognition of women roles in food security in provision of solutions to their relative lack of land access."},{"index":9,"size":129,"text":"Furthermore, study reveals local farmers' resilience and adaptability to land tenure issues in Northern Ghana. Despite facing land use obstacles, farmers find innovative strategies to use urban and periurban spaces for food production. However, the strategies pursued by farmers are a further revelation of larger structural issues related to land commodification, urbanisation, and the changing dynamics of land tenure systems in Northern regions and the entire country to some extent. This has a crucial implication on urban and periurban agriculture policies and land reform, as well as food security. Therefore, although the study is contextually grounded in Nothern Ghana, the insights it provides are valuable in understanding gender, land, and food security nexus in Ghana and similar contexts across the world, especially with respect to dialogues on sustainable cities."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The study concludes that the communal nature of the land system in Northern Region of Ghana interacts with agricultural and food provisioning activities and consequently affects household food and nutritional security. Growing crops entails not just access to land but also access to other bundles of power associated with financial institutions, inputs and health. Due to the complexity of land access mechanisms in urban and periurban areas, and the commodification of urban land, farmers are adapting various strategies to provide food for their households. These strategies are embedded in social relations and interactions with family and external actors to gain access to buffer zones, irrigation sites, periurban and rural sites."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"In the midst of this complex interaction between land tenure and food and nutritional security are women. They do not usually own land, but are expected to provide soup for the household. To cope with this dilemma, they are found working as harvesters so as to have crops like okra and pepper to provide soup for their household. Simultaneously, they seek permission from men to harvest from trees of economic importance such as the dawadawa and sheanut. These food provisioning strategies of the landless may continue in a situation of increasingly difficult access to land and have implications at landscape scale, for example for the conservation of trees."},{"index":3,"size":149,"text":"Land tenure and food and nutritional insecurity are thus embedded in the socio-economic and political environment of urban and periurban farming households. Therefore, understanding the urban and periurban farmers' context can help to grasp the recursive links between access to land, access to food and the ability to maintain sufficient resources to meet long term needs. Thus, from a policy perspective, understanding and ability to manipulate the flexibility of the communal land system through encouragement of integration of vegetable cultivation and other urban and periurban agricultural activities into the socio-political milieu will go a long way towards improving household food and nutrition security. At the same time, new forms of institutional organisation, particularly in irrigation projects, are opening up alternative modes of access to land for women. These, and other government schemes, should be encouraged to enhance women's access to resources needed to boost household income and food security."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"The findings that customary land tenure system and land commodification have implications on secure tenure for agricultural investments, food security, and inclusive cities and sustainable development should be used to inform both national and local policy decisions. Local and national policies decisions could range from stricter regulations on land conveyancing and adjudication the development of more equitable land tenure systems that consider the needs of local farmers, especially women and immigrants. The findings also provides an entry point for policy that balances urbanization and preservation of agricultural lands for food security and sustainability of urban livelihoods."},{"index":5,"size":195,"text":"Furthermore, the study findings highlight the critical role played by women in securing and maintaining household food security. Understanding of strategies used by women to navigate land access and use constraints reveal need for developing gender-sensitive agricultural interventions. Such interventions could encompass promoting and securing women's access to land. The program could also entail creating opportunities for women in urban and peri-urban agriculture to engage more in profitable and sustainable farming practices by providing training and resources. Such programs could also form entry points for addressing urban farming challenges, such as potential health risks associated with use of waste water for irrigation and misuse of pesticides. Training and educational programs in sustainable farming practice could ensure adherence to health and safety standards in urban farming. Considering that the urban farming households are often poor and marginalized, implementation of sustainable social safety nets that consider the complexities in accessing and using land and gender issues is recommended. For instance, agricultural support programs that increase access to agricultural training, resources, and credit will not only ensure improve women's ability to make efficient use of scarce land but also critical in addressing food security in a sustainable way."},{"index":6,"size":183,"text":"The study also acknowledges and provides a firm foundation for future researchers. For instance, future research should explore the socio-economic factors influencing investments in soil fertility and use of sustainable farming practices in urban agriculture, with consideration of both ingenious and modern farming methods. The limitation of the study is its narrow focus on the northern region of Ghana, and therefore may not fully reflect land use and food security dynamics across the entire country due to uniqueness of land tenure systems in each region. However, the issues and trends uncovered by this study are relevant to other countries in West Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, and other developing regions of the world that are experiencing similar dynamics of urbanization, changing land use patterns, and food security challenges. Therefore, the study provides global lessons that can be used by developing countries in responding to these issues. Another limitation relates to limited focus on effect of gender dynamics surrounding land use and agriculture and the effect of specific cultural practices on what was observed by study. Thus, further research would be critical in feeling these gaps."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Location map of the study area. "},{"text":" E.B.Nchanji et al.    "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Location map of buffer zone areas in Tamale. "},{"text":"Table 1 Demographic characteristics of respondents. Characteristics  Urban % (n = 80) Periurban % (n = 80) Rural % (n = 80) Total % (n = 240) CharacteristicsUrban % (n = 80)Periurban % (n = 80)Rural % (n = 80)Total % (n = 240) Gender Men 53 65 66 61 GenderMen53656661  Women 48 35 34 39 Women48353439 Age class of respondents ≤ 20 years 3 1 0 1 Age class of respondents≤ 20 years3101  21 -59 years 90 96 100 96 21 -59 years909610096  ≥ 60 years 8 3 0 3 ≥ 60 years8303 Level of education None 50 75 79 68 Level of educationNone50757968  Primary 4 0 6 3 Primary4063  Secondary 25 10 5 13 Secondary2510513  Tertiary 15 5 0 7 Tertiary15507  Koranic 6 9 10 8 Koranic69108 Household Religion Muslim (M) 88 88 99 91 Household ReligionMuslim (M)88889991  Christian (C) 11 8 0 6 Christian (C)11806  Mix M + C 1 5 1 3 Mix M + C1513 Ethnic group Dagomba 80 64 66 70 Ethnic groupDagomba80646670  Gonja 3 24 25 17 Gonja3242517  Fulani 1 4 9 5 Fulani1495  Dagati 4 0 0 1 Dagati4001  Others 13 9 0 7 Others13907  "},{"text":"Table 2 Association between the reason for not growing crops and geographical location.   Urban % Periurban Rural % Total % Urban %PeriurbanRural %Total %   ( % (n = 80) (n = 80) (n = 240) (% (n = 80)(n = 80)(n = 240)   n = 80)    n = 80) Growing Growing 55 93.8 100 82.9 GrowingGrowing5593.810082.9 crops crops     cropscrops Reasons for No capital 2.5 1.3 0 1.3 Reasons forNo capital2.51.301.3 not No land 20 1.3 0 7.1 notNo land201.307.1 growing Not 1.3 0 0 0.4 growingNot1.3000.4 crops interested     cropsinterested  in farming     in farming  Sickness 2.5 1.3 0 1.3 Sickness2.51.301.3  Trading 3.8 0 0 1.3 Trading3.8001.3  Working 15 2.5 0 5.8 Working152.505.8  "},{"text":"Table 3 Association between reasons for not growing crops and household food insecurity.   Food insecure Food Secure Total Food insecureFood SecureTotal   HFIAS> 11 HFIAS≤ 11  HFIAS> 11HFIAS≤ 11 Reasons for not No capital 1 1 2 Reasons for notNo capital112 growing crops No land 5 11 16 growing cropsNo land51116  Not interested 1 0 1 Not interested101  in farming    in farming  Sickness 2 0 2 Sickness202  Trading 1 2 3 Trading123  Working 1 11 12 Working11112  "},{"text":"Table 4 Association between reasons for not growing crops and household nutrition security.   Lowest Medium Highest Total LowestMediumHighestTotal   dietary dietary dietary  dietarydietarydietary   diversity diversity 4 - diversity  diversitydiversity 4 -diversity   ≤ 3WDDS 5 WDDS ≥ 6 WDDS  ≤ 3WDDS5 WDDS≥ 6 WDDS Reasons No capital 1 0 1 2 ReasonsNo capital1012 for not No land 1 12 3 16 for notNo land112316 growing Not 0 1 0 1 growingNot0101 crops interested     cropsinterested  in farming     in farming  Sickness 0 1 1 12 Sickness01112  Trading 1 1 1 3 Trading1113  Working 3 3 6 12 Working33612  "}],"sieverID":"f0358c16-573e-4e91-9e30-13119a6ed3e4","abstract":"Links between land tenure and food and nutritional insecurity are receiving increased attention. Nevertheless, urban and periurban dwellers face challenges in accessing land to produce food for subsistence and sale. An ethnographic study and food and nutrition insecurity survey were conducted between October 2013 and November 2014 in Tamale, Northern Region of Ghana, to explore the dynamic and recursive links between land access, food access and the ability to maintain resources to meet long-term needs. Results showed that infrastructural development and agriculture compete for land. The shortage of land for agricultural purposes was pronounced in urban areas (20%) than in periurban areas (1.3%) and rural areas (0%). Food insecure households were more likely to name a lack of land than anything else as the primary reason for their inability to grow crops (Fisher's exact probability = 0.040). Urban and periurban dwellers cope with the constraints posed in the communal tenure system by using strategies such as urban-periurban-rural migrant farming and buffer zone cultivation. The role of women in providing nutritious soups is especially important, and they use various mechanisms to circumvent their lack of access to land and provide food for the household. Political, economic and cultural elements thus interact to constitute the link between land and food."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0647a30e469815e4be3c643c924d66d3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/490b1293-6aa4-4ee9-b676-7a68a70b4fad/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Identificación de potenciales bio-pesticidas y bio-fertilizantes microbianos para el cultivo de papa en los Andesresultados del proyecto VALORAM","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Palabras clave: Bacterias, micorrizas, metagenómica Área temática: Agronomía Tipo de presentación: Oral"}]},{"head":"INTRODUCCIÓN","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Los bio-pesticidas son hongos, bacterias o virus que protegen a las plantas de fitopatógenos o plagas vía diferentes mecanismos y que son normalmente derivados del ambiente natural de las plantas. Bio-fertilizantes, en igual forma, son insumos formulados con microorganismos, los cuales tienen propiedades que estimulan al crecimiento de las plantas y que proveen o mejoran la disponibilidad de nutrientes cuando se los aplica a los cultivos."},{"index":2,"size":214,"text":"Los Andes son el lugar de origen de la papa (Solanum tubersousm L.) y la cuna de su biodiversidad. Durante siglos, algunos agricultores de zonas marginales han cultivado la papa en condiciones agroecológicas difíciles, y han manejado sus suelos con pocos insumos externos, seleccionando cultivares aptos para su alimentación, logrando buenos rendimientos. En la actualidad, frente a la demanda creciente de alimentos, la investigación agrícola debe orientarse a mejorar la producción y el rendimiento económico con el mínimo uso de productos no renovables y el menor efecto adverso a los recursos naturales. El conocimiento de la interacción entre las plantas y los microorganismos en sus sitios de origen puede ayudar a un manejo sostenido y eficiente de dichos microorganismos para el beneficio de la cadena planta-alimento-consumidor. En este sentido, el proyecto VALORAM (http://valoram.ucc.ie/) financiado por el Séptimo Programa Marco de la Unión Europea entre 2009 -2014, tenía como objetivo la exploración y valorización de la diversidad microbiana del suelo andino de las zonas tradicionales de producción de papa para el desarrollo de inoculantes microbianos y prácticas de manejo del cultivo de papa que mejoren la sostenibilidad y la productividad de los sistemas de producción de papa en la zona Andina. Aquí describimos las estrategias de la investigación del proyecto VALORAM y sus resultados primordiales."}]},{"head":"MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"El proyecto fue implementado en Ecuador por la Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL) y el Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), en Perú por el CIP, y en Bolivia por la Fundación -Promoción e Investigación de Productos Andinos‖ (PROINPA), con el apoyo de universidades, ONGs y asociaciones locales en cada país. El proyecto fue liderado por Université Catholique de Louvain (Bélgica) e incluyó a los siguientes socios europeos: Austrian Institute of Technology (Austria), University College Cork (Irlanda), Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (Alemania), y Universiteit Gent (Bélgica)."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Se identificaron zonas importantes de producción de papa en diferentes regiones geográficas con distintos agro-ecosistemas. Se realizaron muestreos de microorganismos del suelo y de plantas y se exploraron las funciones de los microorganismos para la preservación de los componentes benéficos de esta microflora en colecciones internacionales. Al final del proyecto se desarrollaron tecnologías y formulaciones de bio-pesticidas y bio-fertilizantes mediante experimentos participativos con agricultores."}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":296,"text":"Desarrollo de protocolos de aislamiento de endófitas, bacterias y hongos de la rizosfera (principalmente micorrizas arbusculares, AMF, por sus siglas en inglés) Conservación a largo plazo de los aislamientos de AMF y bacterias en reputadas colecciones internacionales de microorganismos (313 aislamientos de bacterias se identificaron hasta el nivel de género y 41 especies AMF de 12 géneros) Caracterización de propiedades benéficas, tales como la promoción del crecimiento de plantas y la supresión de enfermedades con el desarrollo de (1) protocolos para la medición de volátiles bacterianas en cultivo puro, (2) cultivos puros para el cribado de la actividad de cebado de bacterias y de AMF utilizando un enfoque transcriptómica y proteómica (3) protocolos para la selección de aislamientos con efectos de promoción de crecimiento de las plantas y supresión de Rhizoctonia solani y Phytophthora infestans bajo un sistema microhydroponico in-vitro y bajo condiciones de ambiente controlado en invernadero Creación de bibliotecas metagenómicas y protocolos para el análisis metagenomica Determinación de características apropiadas de los microorganismos para formulaciones de productos de bio-pesticidas (control de R. solani, P. infestans, nematodos) y biofertilizantes (solubilizadores de nitrógeno y fosforo) Resultados experimentales de campo (5 cepas bacterianas incrementan significativamente el rendimiento de tubérculos) Producción de stock de inoculantes (bacterias y AMF) para la transferencia a socios interesados (en Ecuador disponibles en la UTPL) CONCLUSIONES Se mejoró el conocimiento general y fundamental de la diversidad microbiana en raíces de papa y en la rizosfera en campos de papa en su zona de origen y se identificaron candidatos potenciales de inoculantes de AMF y de bacterias como bio-fertilizantes y bio-pesticidas. Este enfoque de investigación puede llegar a alcances importantes que ayuden a reducir los altos costos del uso excesivo de agroquímicos, aliviando los efectos perjudiciales de la producción agrícola en el medio ambiente."}]},{"head":"BIBLIOGRAFÍA","index":5,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"02936c67-3e79-4588-b0e5-5be0474334dc","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07076686213073f368306a88f69d8c8b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a7493878-635e-4167-a274-2d7c1f50d839/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"Improving Productivity & Market Success of Ethiopian Farmers","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Project summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Improving Productivity & Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian Farmers is a five-year project funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and implemented by International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) on behalf of the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD)."},{"index":2,"size":179,"text":"The Government of Ethiopia has recently embarked upon exploring new knowledge from outside the country in order to accelerate its market-oriented agricultural development. These areas of new knowledge include technologies, biotechnological tools and products, institutional innovations and arrangements for extension, output marketing, input supply and rural finance. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), as an international institution based in Ethiopia, has been selected to implement and facilitate access to these new knowledge through the IPMS project. ILRI has its own experiences and well equipped research facilities for livestock research to assist in livestock-oriented market development. ILRI being a member of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) can engage the involvement and participation of scientists from these centers. It also has strong linkages with advanced research centers on biotechnology (eg. TIGER in the USA for genomics research). In addition, NEPAD's initiative on the Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa (BECA) facility, hosted at the ILRI Nairobi campus (funded by CIDA), shall also serve as a centre of excellence for the application of advanced science and biotechnology in agricultural development."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"ILRI has recently reorganized its program structure to include innovations and markets. Other CGIAR centers are also increasingly developing experiences and knowledge in innovative institutional arrangements for extension and input/output marketing. Biotechnological applications can also help Ethiopia in the development of new marketing strategies for indigenous agricultural products. In support of these marketing strategies, the IPMS project shall serve as a vehicle for linking with genetics and genomics centers for the characterization of priority market-oriented commodities. It can also, in a limited way, build capacity of national research and development institutions and create platform to further transfer of technological and biotechnological tools and products to the benefits and development of Ethiopian agriculture."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"To achieve market oriented agricultural development the MoARD requested that the project address the following specific objectives: 1. To develop a gender sensitive agricultural knowledge management system in the MoARD that will enable Ethiopian institutions, farmers and pastoralists to adopt appropriate technologies from research and development institutions based in Ethiopia and elsewhere; 2. To build and strengthen gender balanced existing public agricultural institutional capacity and foster institutional learning and change so that new collaborative arrangements across sectors and levels are developed to better support the dissemination, use and impact of market oriented agricultural technologies and information;"},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"3. To increase gender balanced capacity of farmers, pastoralists, community-based organizations, and private organizations to improve market oriented agricultural productivity and production, and to improve and sustain livelihoods;"},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"4. Based on action oriented research generate gender sensitive policy and strategy recommendations on marketing, technology transfer, input and credit innovations for market oriented priority key crops, livestock & livestock products"},{"index":7,"size":258,"text":"In consultation with the federal and regional level authorities, the project choose 10 Pilot Learning Sites (PLS) for developing a community based market oriented agricultural program, i.e. 2 in Tigray: Atsbi and Alamata Districts, 3 in Amhara: Fogera, Metema and Wanberma, 3 in Oromiya: Miesso, Ada'a and Goma, and 2 in SNNPRS: Dale and Alaba (a map showing the locations is presented in section 4.3.1). In 4 of these PLS, research and development programs based on priority commodities within farming systems were developed in a participatory manner with the main stakeholders. Programs for four additional sites will be developed in the first half of 2005. Plans for the remaining two sites will be developed once some experience has been gained with managing and funding the activities in the first 8 sites. The selection of the commodities was based on the development priorities expressed by communities as well as the MoARD. The commodities selected so far include cereals (tef, wheat, rice), pulses (faba bean, chickpeas, haricot beans, field peas and soybean), oil crops (sesame, noug), fruits (temperate, tropical), vegetables (irrigated), cattle products (milk, butter, beef and skins), sheep and goats (live animals, hides), poultry (meat and eggs), apicultural products (honey and wax) and fish. These priority commodities will be reviewed in more detail with the village communities in the PLS during the implementation phase. Commodities which are \"new\" but have been identified by various experts as having a good development potential (e.g. bamboo and sericulture) will also be assessed in more detail during the implementation phase of the project."},{"index":8,"size":142,"text":"Pilot learning site research and development programs will focus on these priority commodities. New and/or innovative approaches to production, natural resource management, technology transfer, input supply, credit, and output marketing will be introduced and adapted. Such innovations are guided by market \"demands\" and the capacity of the communities and its individual members to handle such innovations in a sustainable manner. Key to such development is to create the capacity of the rural communities, where farmers are \"producing what they can market rather than trying to sell what they produce\" quote from CIAT's ERI program. Many of these innovations have been developed by research and development partners in collaboration with the farming communities. The project will have a strategy which is aimed at mainstreaming gender and environmental concerns. A strategy will also be developed to limit the effect of HIV/AIDS on agricultural development."},{"index":9,"size":56,"text":"Emphasis will be put on strengthening or developing farmer-based seed and seedling supply system (linked to a cooperative and/or private sector outlet), private/cooperative bull stations and AI services, private/cooperative rural shops for the supply of veterinary drugs, farm equipment/implements and fertilizers and other innovative arrangements. This approach is in line with the Ethiopian government's privatization strategy."},{"index":10,"size":66,"text":"The IPMS project will focus on grouping individual farmers to increase their negotiating power, agro-processing possibilities, and access to market information thereby increasing their potential for earning high income. The project will also assist in improving product quality, storage and processing. Linking of producer groups and small scale local traders with wholesale, agro-processing and export marketing parties through various forums will be part of the strategy."},{"index":11,"size":205,"text":"At the PLS level, the program will be implemented by existing public and private institutions, including extension/advisory services, agricultural input/service suppliers, credit institutions, cooperatives and private traders. An important aspect of the project will be the opportunity for providing these institutions with new ideas and best practices from CG centres and other institutions outside of Ethiopia. The project's role in the PLS is to provide facilitate access to agricultural innovationstechnologies, policies and process as well as strengthening the capacity of institutions to better serve farmers and communities. The project will furthermore facilitate the introduction of improved planting material through the appropriate channels and provide demonstration and training materials. Realizing the GoE keen interest in the use and application of biotechnology, the IPMS project will also serve as a vehicle to introduce biotechnological tools and products to help assess and improve the utilization of plant, animal and microbial genetic resources for the priority commodities in the PLS. A limited amount of credit funds for input supply and small scale marketing and innovative technologies will also be made available. Particular attention will be given to farmers and communities around newly established Farmers Training Centers (FTCs), located in the farming systems for which the market priorities are identified."},{"index":12,"size":152,"text":"The lessons being learned in the PLS on technology uptake and institutional innovations will be documented and discussed in various fora including the FTCs, the annual performance review meetings and multi-institutional learning and advisory committees. These committees have been established at the District, Regional and National levels. The analysis of lessons learned in and across PLSs, together with the results of special studies will form the basis for adjusting the annual program of work. This also form the basis for recommendations on policies and strategies for rural development throughout the life of the project. These lessons may also be used as the basis for planning the scaling up and scaling out of what has been achieved in the project to other parts of the countryduring and after the project. Due attention will be paid to the project's lessons learned and impact on the livelihood of men and women, HIV/AIDS and the environment."},{"index":13,"size":311,"text":"The capacity building of farmers and private sector partners is an integral part of the community-based market-led development program in the PLS, and is aimed at building the capacity of the farmers and the private sector institutions for a market oriented development strategy. A special capacity building program for the agricultural staff in the PLS to facilitate such development has been developed and will be implemented during the life of the project. A learning approach will be adopted for farmers as well as agricultural staff to ensure that lessons learned are incorporated in the program. The program will not only support the development of the PLS programs, but also provide the MoARD with functional models for the newly established Farmer Training Centers, which are expected to become multi functional service centers in the future. Emphasis in such centers will be on knowledge exchange between the farmers and service providers, rather than the technology package approach. Such capacity building will also be linked to the newly established Agricultural Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Colleges, since they are producing the \"future generation\" of extension workers to be assigned to the FTCs. The project will furthermore, in a limited way, contribute to the increased human resource capacity of agricultural staff (in particular female staff) in fields relevant for the development of a community-based market oriented rural development. This will include, in a limited way, capacity building in the area of agricultural biotechnology. For this purpose, funds will be provided for BSc, MSc and PhD level training at local and universities abroad. Funds for study tours aimed at introducing innovative technology and institutional innovations to decision makers will also be made available. The project will also facilitate workshops and committee meetings linking the development institutions in the PLS to facilitate learning as well as facilitate linkages with the regional and federal level institutions."},{"index":14,"size":215,"text":"The focus of the research and development efforts will be at the PLS or Woreda level. To foster this process, action research activities in communities within the selected Woredas will be supported through the government established Farmer Training Centres (FTC) and other local groups. The capacity of regional agricultural bureau and the MoARD to support Woredas will also be enhanced. One mechanism for this support will be through the MoARD's AgriNet and WoredaNet programs. These are nationwide information and communications technology infrastructure (ICT) capacity building initiatives. The project proposes to contribute by systematically capturing, storing and sharing knowledge on priority commodities and institutional innovations from different sources, including knowledge generated by national and international research and development organizations and indigenous knowledge. Special attention will also be given to the capturing, synthesizing and sharing of knowledge in the application of agricultural biotechnology. The project will also support MoARD in its establishment of a National Agricultural Information Resource Centre (NAIRC). Computerized access to electronic information at the PLS will also be facilitated. Non computerized forms of knowledge sharing such as radio programs, use of pamphlets, leaflets and posters as well as exhibitions will also be supported. To make the overall system functional, particular attention will be paid to promoting improved culture of knowledge sharing between the stakeholders."},{"index":15,"size":146,"text":"The project's research and technical assistance activities will be implemented by a national project team and the 10 PLS teams in collaboration with regional, national and international research and development partners. The national team is comprised of an internationally recruited project manager, a knowledge management expert, a technology expert, an innovative technology transfer specialist and a policy/market analyst. The Addis based team is, furthermore, comprised of a nationally recruited program assistant, a GIS expert and technician, two research assistants and a data analyst. Each PLS team consist of a research and development officer (RDO), a research assistant. Partner institutions have been identified for the initial 4 PLS based on program demand and on the comparative advantage of the various organizations. Detailed plans and budget will developed with the partners in the initial phase of the implementation, once the budgetary allocation in the PIP has been approved."},{"index":16,"size":36,"text":"In summary, the project is geared to help and create an enabling environment where the Ethiopian government and Ethiopian farmers and pastoralists will be empowered to increase agricultural production and productivity in a market-oriented development approach."}]},{"head":"Introduction first year work plan","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The plan for the first year of project implementation covers the period of the signing of the Project Implementation Plan (PIP) until the end of the March 2006 (coinciding with the Canadian fiscal year)."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"The main focus of the IPMS project are the activities in the Pilot Learning Sites in which the various institutional and technology innovations will be introduced and tested. Plans for 4 of these Pilot Learning Sites were developed during the \"official\" project planning phase, i.e. Ada, Atsbi, Fogera and Dale. Not to loose the next cropping season, the project team continued with the planning of 2 additional sites in the interim period i.e. Alamata and Metema and plans will be available for these 2 sites at the time of approval of the PIP. The plans for the remaining 2 sites, Miesso and Alaba will developed in March and are expected to be ready for implementation in April at the start of the implementation period. In the second half of 2005, a decision on the start of the remaining 2 sites (Goma and Wamberma) will be taken by the Steering Committee (see project summary)."}]},{"head":"Project activities according to the result based management framework","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"In the first year of implementation the project will initiate activities within the four project objective components i.e."},{"index":2,"size":353,"text":"-strengthening innovative knowledge management system -strengthening institutional capacity of agricultural public institutions -enhancing capacity of farmers, Community Based Organizations (CBO) and agricultural private institutions and technology uptake -developing recommendations on technology, institutional and policy options Many of these activities will evolve over the project life due to the innovation nature of the project.  In the first project year there will be collaborative work among database specialist, subject matter expert on the priority commodities, and MoARD staff at various levels. This will involve selection of appropriate software, standards to be followed, and actual development of the databases (also see 121, 123, 124 and 125).  Studies conducted by the project (see 400) will be entered into databases together with other information relevant to the PLS (see Annex 2, 3 and 4 for details) 123. Development of (non) spatial databases on institutional arrangements (ext/tech transfer) on input/credit supply schemes, and marketing systems  In the first project year there will be collaborative work among database specialist, subject matter expert on the priority commodities, and MoARD staff at various levels. This will involve selection of appropriate software, standards to be followed, and actual development of the databases (also see 121, 122, 124 and 125).  Studies conducted by the project (see 400) will be entered into databases together with other information relevant to the PLS (see Annex 2, 3 and 4 for details) 124. Development of PLS (non) spatial baseline data with annual snap shots through the life of the project  The baseline data on all items that we will measure throughout the life of the project will be collected at the start of the project implementation and these will be repeated every year during the life of the project in order to measure/compare achievements against plans. 125. Expert Consultations/Task force identifying, capturing, and synthesizing knowledge related to the priority commodities  One-to-one as well as group meeting will be conducted to identify, capture, and synthesize information/knowledge on the priority commodities and institutional innovations. Some of these will involve the setup of specific task forces with defined expected deliverables within a given time period."}]},{"head":"Strengthening Innovative Knowledge Management","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"To answer the question on how the project will implement the various interventions/studies a series of expert consultations is scheduled with partner institutions in the 2005. These expert consultations will focus on identifying innovative technology transfer methods, and innovative community based input supply and marketing systems. These events will also be used to enable the partners to develop\"their program of work\" in the PLS in collaboration with the project team and national and regional research partners (also see 331)."},{"index":2,"size":214,"text":"126. Synthesis of knowledge from all available sources to create actionable knowledge assets  Once specific databases are setup for various aspects (production, marketing, input supply, etc) on priority commodities, extensive effort will be made to synthesize information that may be disjointed into coherent and actionable \"knowledge assets\". An example of this is a knowledge asset or \"knowledge pack\" on wheat that will provide a potential beneficiary everything one needs to know to succeed in wheat farmingfrom finding the right variety for the area, financing of input supply, production technologies, post harvest technologies, marketing of wheat, etc). Knowledge Assets (knowledge packs) will primarily target the extension workers at various levels of the GoE as well as DAs who have direct contact with farmers. Supporting materials that will make knowledge assets accessible to various audiences will also be implemented. For example a knowledge asset that is presented in textual format to a researcher may be summarized and presented in a rural radio program transmitted to farmers in a local language. Posters that communicate the same information in pictorial forms will also be prepared. Since knowledge assets encompass human, structural and technological, the appropriateness of a given method will ultimately depend on its suitability to the target audience's capacity and preparation to take advantage of these."}]},{"head":"Developing Processes and Mechanisms for Enhanced Knowledge Sharing Systems for all levels","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"131. Prepare various forums to help disseminate knowledge  In the first year, various innovative approaches will also be tried out in the PLS and FTCs in order to determine what works best in sharing indigenous as well as modern (domestic and international) knowledge assets from different sources."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"(Story telling, leveraging of traditional farmers associations gathering, posters, newsletters, exchange visits are all approaches that can be tried for this purpose). The project will also organize one technology exhibition in one of the regions (to coincide wit the annual performance review meeting. 132. Recommend organizational process that foster KS & utilization to Ministry offices at PLS, Regional & Federal Levels\"  Based on the business process assessment (see 111) done at various stakeholders of the KM system (MoARD offices, research and educational institutions, etc) specific recommendation for business process improvement that will enhance knowledge management and knowledge sharing will be recommended.  Business process modeling tools will be used to determine better alternatives from various possible paths of process improvement."}]},{"head":"Establishment & Strengthening of institutional linkages fostering learning & knowledge sharing","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":" The main focus here will be to help the establishment of formal knowledge sharing linkage among the extension services, research institutes (domestic and international), educational institutes, and farmers associations in order to make each of these (especially the domestic organizations) responsive to farmers' needs for current and applicable knowledge in the project focus areas (priority commodities). Establishment of \"communities of practice\" can create one such linkageparticularly among research/education institutions and extension system. The NALC, RALC, and WALC are such formalized linkage the project already established that can be leveraged for this purpose."}]},{"head":"Establishing a National Agricultural Information Resource Center","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"141. Planning & design of appropriate data models for capturing  This will involve providing assistance to the MoARD staff to develop \" agricultural application and content \" for the GoE's IT based knowledge management data bases, which involves various ministries  Planning and design sessions among project and MoARD staff and taskforces. 142. Planning, design & implementation of hardware and software infrastructure o In the first project year, an assessment of the hard and software requirements for the NAIRC will be made o The project will then assist in establishing the hardware, including establishment local area networks in the MoARD o A start will be made with the system's operation 143. Capturing and synthesizing of info & knowledge from PLS  In the second half of the year the project will harmonize the information that has been collected to meet KM needs at the PLS for inclusion at the national information center. New information that is relevant at the Federal level will also be captured, categorized, and synthesized for inclusion in the national agricultural information center. "}]},{"head":"Establishing ICT networks and Infrastructure","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Actual setup of local and wide area networks to link the various MoARD offices and other stakeholder institutions. (This will be a sub-project in itself)"},{"index":2,"size":264,"text":"151. Procurement of computers & printers for Woreda offices  Purchase of and installation of computers and printers for the PLS KM system will be completed in the first half 2005. Three sets (desktop, printer, UPS) have been proposed for each PLS.  Assessment of additional equipment will be made in close consultation with other IT projects (WoredaNet) 152. Design and implementation of databases, spreadsheets and forms for business process improvement  The project will develop of simple database, spreadsheets, and various electronic forms that will increase the effectiveness and efficiency of PLS offices that will be provided with computers. 153. Training of selected staff in the PLS in the use and maintenance of computers  PLS staff that will be responsible for the operation and maintenance of the computers for KM will be trained on the skills they will need to do so. 154. Linking computers in the PLS to appropriate Regional and/or Federal offices  Computers at the PLS will be linked to their respective Regional and Federal offices as well as to the NAIRC using appropriate, practical, and sustainable means. 212 Curriculum development/upgrading TVET  In the first project year the project will assist the TVETs with developing upgrading their curriculum for gender, HIV/AIDS and environment (linked to the in service training -211). This activity will be undertaken with 5 to 6 instructors from the TVETs and staff from the MoARD's TVET capacity building unit, over a one month period during the summer months. It will be conducted with the help of local consultants (see Annex 2,3 and 4 for details)."}]},{"head":"Capacity Building","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"213 Provision of teaching aids and training materials  During the first project year the project will provide training materials from national and international centres on the priority commodities and institutional innovations to the TVETs."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"214 Involve selected TVET instructors and students in PLS research activities  The project has identified a number of researchable topics on technologies; input supply and marketing system (see 400). Part of these studies are expected to be conducted by students form the TVETs and instructors which have already started their MSc upgrading in local Universities."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"215 Post graduate training TVET instructors  An assessment will be made to improve the TVET staff capacity, especially in the field of gender, environmental science (by the project consultants).  The project will then prepare a plan to allocate part of the funding for PhD and MSc training at local universities for this training. The project will have a gender balanced selection of candidates (also see 221) This plan will be forwarded to the MoARD and CIDA for approval."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"221 PhD/MSc/BSc training (Woreda, Regional and Federal Level staff)  An assessment will be made at PLS, Regional and Federal level to determine the need for post graduate training in fields relevant to the project, including an assessment of local and international universities who may deliver such training. These assessments will then be discussed with the MoARDs to integrate them into the Ministry's overall human resource development plan.  A capacity building plan for this education will then be developed for local as well as universities abroad. The project will have a gender balanced selection of candidates. (also see 215). This plan will be subject to approval by CIDA and the MoARD."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"222 Study visits Regional and Federal level staff  In the first year particular attention will be paid to broaden the scope of key staff members of public agricultural organizations and visits are planned to introduce key staff to a number of important project sites where innovative approaches can be demonstrated. This will include South Africa and Uganda to view innovative technology transfer methods."},{"index":6,"size":76,"text":"223 to 226 Capacity building MoARD staff at PLS level  In each of the selected PLS, introductory course on innovative technology transfer approaches, gender, HIV/ADS and environmental assessment will be conducted by the project staff, partners and consultants.  Short introductory course for technology and institutional innovations, in particular for innovative seed input supply and marketing systems are PLS specific and will be given by project staff and partners to FTC staff and Woreda specialist."}]},{"head":"Provision training materials","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":" Training materials on gender and environment and innovative input supply and marketing systems will be provided as an integral part of the capacity building activities outlined above."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"228 Provision demonstration materials  The project will provide selected FTCs with demonstration materials for the priority commodities. This will include small scale dairy processing equipment, bee hives and processing equipment, farm tools and implements, post harvest storage devices. One of the FTCs in each PLS will be fully equipped with demonstration materials and serve as a focal \"farmer training\" center, where representatives from interest groups from other FTCs in the PLS will be trained (see section 320)"},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"229 Strengthening linkages between PLS, FTCs and private sector  During the year the project will bring together different institutions (micro finance, traders, etc) in the FTCs to interact with staff and farmers (also see 330)"}]},{"head":"Developing institutional capacity and learning","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"231 NALC meetings and field visits  In the first project year the project will organize two NALC meetings and organize field visits to 2 PLS."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"232 RALC meetings and field visits  In the first project year the project will organize two RALC meetings by Region and organize field visits to two PLS in the Region. Studies conducted by the project will be a discussed in the RALC meetings to learn lessons and to determine new directions (see 400 series)"},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"233 WALC meetings  In the first project year the project's RDOs will organize WALC meetings on a regular basis. During the year the project will also organize visits for the WALC members to the other PLS in the Region. Studies conducted by the project will be a discussed in the WALC meetings to learn lessons and to determine new directions (see 400 series)"}]},{"head":"Enhancing Private Institutions and Technology Uptake","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"310 Establishing PLSs strategically linked to priorities of the RDP 311 Preparation of plans for the remaining 6 PLS  In the first 4 months of 2005, the team will undertake participatory planning activities in the 4 PLS i.e. Alamata in Tigray, Metama in Amahara, Mieso and in Oromia and Alabe in SNNPRS. The plans for the remaining 2 sites will be developed by the end of 2005 (for implementation in 2006), subject to a decision by the project's steering committee. An integral part of this planning process is the collection of baseline data and the preparation of GIS maps for each of the PLS. This will also include the special studies proposed on gender, HIV/AIDS as well as environmental assessment (also see 100 and 400 series). The work will be conducted by the newly selected Research and Development Officers in collaboration the WALC and RALC members under the guidance provided by the Addis based project staff. Potential partners will be called to assist in the development of the program. Maps and baseline database will be established by the project's Addis based GIS and database specialist."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"312 Planning workshops  At the end of each planning exercise a workshop will be held in each of the 6 PLS to outline the program of work for the first year. Workshops will also be attended by potential project partners."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"320 Strengthening capacity of farmers, pastoralists and staff from CBOs and private organizations."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"321 to 323 Capacity building in marketing, input supply and technology innovations, including natural resource management."},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":" A number of activities are envisaged to build the knowledge, awareness and skills of farmers, private entrepreneurs, cooperatives, associations and micro finance institutions in the targeted FTCs in order to improve: marketing, input supply/credit and production (details on targeted FTCs and proposed interventions for priority commodities for these activities are PLS specific and can be found in the proposed program of work for the PLS). The participatory training will be conducted by the DAs and Woreda staff which will be guided by project staff and partners from national and international research and development organization."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"Training in each PLS, will usually be provided in one of the FTCs to representative male and female farmers from similar interest groups from the different FTCs (it is expected that interest groups will be formed around the targeted FTCs in each PLSsee 330). These key farmers, together with the FTC staff will then bring the knowledge to the \"interested\" farmers in their own FTC/village."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":" The capacity building for the initial 4 PLS will be scheduled around April while the capacity building for the additional 4 PLS will be started in June."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"330 Identifying, assessing, implanting and monitoring participatory market led development programs"}]},{"head":"Development of community based programs and interest groups","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":310,"text":" In each of the PLS, a number of FTCs and/or DA posts was identified for introducing the proposed technologies and institutional innovation for priority commodities. The first step in the refinement of a program for the PLS is to (re) asses these \"marketable commodities\" and the proposed technology and institutional innovations with the farmers and communities in and around the selected FTCs. Different approaches may be tried depending on the nature of the commodity and innovation, however regardless of the method used, due attention shall be paid to the resources available to the farmers and communities and the role resource poor farmers and women can play in this market oriented development. A special study to determine the role of the women and resource poor farmers will be used in this process (see studies 400).  Based on the identified activities and potential partners for each of the PLS, the partner institutions will be asked to design \"their program of work and budget\", within the overall project framework. It is expected that (international) partners make use of project staff and collaborative arrangements with national and regional research institutions for the implementation of the activities.  Based on the re assessment of the potential innovations at each of the FTCs, learning or interest groups shall be established around different technology and institutional innovations. For example in one FTC there may be a group of women farmers around the development of irrigated vegetables, another group for the production of improved seeds for haricot beans, another group testing hay box brooder, and one or two individual interested in developing a business for the supply of small irrigation equipment.  The process of refinement of the PRA will be started for the 4 initial PLS in the first quarter of 2005. The other 4 PLS will be \"refined\" in the second quarter of 2005."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"332 to 334 Developing marketing, input supply and production innovations in the PLS  With the interest group established in and around FTCs, the introduction and adaptation of the technology and institutional innovations will start in each PLS."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Representatives of the groups who have taken part in the initial training (see 320) will facilitate the development process in collaboration with the FTC and Woreda staff. They will be further assisted by the project and research and development partner staff. They will be providing technical assistance, monitor and draw lessons on a continuous basis. The project will also make some input and materials available for on-farm experimentation, especially for the introduction of innovative technologies."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":" To support input supply and technology innovations the FTC staff and micro finance staff will make an assessment of the credit requirements and the project will prepare a proposal for the development of a specially operated credit scheme with the micro finance institutions in the PLS. Specially attention will be paid to the role of women in the use of credit. The proposed micro finance plan will be subject to approval by the MoARD and CIDA."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":" In the first year the project will furthermore provide improved germplasm (seeds, semen) for the development of innovative input supply system. Introduction of \"foreign\" germplasm will be verified through existing procedures/mechanisms as required by Ethiopian rules and regulations."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":" Simultaneously, institutional innovations for input supply/credit and marketing by interest groups in and around FTCs will be linked at the PLS level. The previously mentioned farmer training activities may be used"}]},{"head":"Development of Recommendations on Technology Institutional and Policy Options 410 Undertaking research on adoption an impact on technologies across PLS","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"411 Focused studies on indigenous knowledge systems  In order to introduce new and improved technologies for the production of the market oriented priority commodities, specific studies on indigenous knowledge have been proposed for the PLS. These studies will be conducted by the project staff and students (including TVET students).  The results of the studies will be summarized, discussed in the project's learning structures at FTC and PLS level."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":" The studies will be included in the project's knowledge management database (see 100 series)."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"412 Focused studies on adoption and impact of current NRM practices  A number of natural resource management technologies have been proposed for the PLS, of which some have been introduced already in particular small scale irrigation. Studies of these technologies will be conducted as proposed in the PLS programs and be combined with literature reviews.  A synthesis report will be produced and be discussed in the project's learning structures at the Woreda, regional and national levels.  The studies will be included in the project's knowledge management database."}]},{"head":"Regular monitoring of introduced technologies","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":" In order to be able to monitor impact overtime, there is a need to create a benchmark against which technology developments and changes will be compared. Data will be computerized and be entered in the database (see knowledge management). This baseline data collection will be combined with the baseline data collected for the institutional innovations and for the performance measurement framework.  The baseline data will be included in the project's knowledge management data base."}]},{"head":"Undertaking research on alternative and innovative institutional arrangements","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"421 Focused studies on marketing of priority commodities in PLS  Specific studies have been identified on marketing of priority commodities in the 4 PLS, including the identification of supply and demand quantities, market mechanisms, and economic viability of joint trading and processing. Additional studies will be identified for the remaining PLS. The studies will take into account regional and national studies conducted by specialized projects (see PIP).  These studies will be conducted during the first year and the results will be discussed in the project's learning structures at the FTC and PLS and regional levels.  The studies will be included in the project's KM database."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"423 Studies on existing extension, input supply and credit systems for priority commodities in PLS  In the initial PRA of the PLS, assessments of the existing extension, input supply, rural finance and marketing systems were made. Similar assessments will be made for the remaining 6 PLS together with a literature review on the institutional support services for agriculture in Ethiopia.  The study results will be discussed in the project's learning structures at the FTC, PLS, Regional and Federal levels.  The studies will be included in the project's knowledge management data base."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":" Specific studies on input supply were identified for the 4 PLS. Additional studies will be identified for the remaining PLS. These studies will be used to further develop the strategies for innovative institutional arrangements in the PLS.  These studies will be conducted during the first year and the results will be discussed in the project's learning structures at the FTC and PLS levels.  The studies will be included in the project's KM database."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"424 Monitoring of the development and impact of institutional innovations for extension, input supply, credit and marketing  In order to be able to monitor impact overtime, there is a need to create a benchmark against which institutional changes will be compared. This baseline data collection will be combined with the baseline data collected for the technology innovations and the performance measurement framework. The baseline data will be included in the project's knowledge management database."}]},{"head":"Conducting and synthesizing environmental studies and assessments of priority commodities","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"431 Preparation of environmental briefs  This information, (including information on the main environmental problems in each PLS) will feed into the Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRAs) which culminate in a site diagnosis and program design for each of the ten (10) PLSs. 432 Environmental assessments of technologies  Information on the environmental effects of the introduced technologies in the PLS will be synthesized. The synthesized reports will be included in the project's knowledge management database."}]},{"head":"Conducting gender analysis and studies related to priority commodities, technologies and services","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"441 Studies and stakeholder meetings on gender roles in production and marketing of priority commodities in PLS  Sex disaggregated baseline data will be collected for priority commodities and services by PLS, together with performance indicators (see Annex 2 of the PIP for details).  These data will be analyzed and be discussed in stakeholder workshops in each of the PLS in collaboration with the WALC and RALC. The findings will be used to adjust and/or add additional project activities.  The study reports will be included in the project's knowledge management data base."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"450 Conducting studies on the interrelationships between HIV/AIDS and agricultural production and productivity 451 Studies and stakeholder meetings on the current status of the relationships between HIV/AIDS and production of priority commodities in PLSs."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":" To establish a sex disaggregated HIV/AIDS risk and vulnerability baseline data and performance indicators, studies will be conducted in each PLS (see Annex 3 of the PIP for details).  The findings will be analyzed and discussed in stakeholder meetings in each PLS in collaboration with the WALC and RALC members. The findings will be used to adjust and/or add additional project activities.  The study reports will be included in the project's knowledge management data base.  The study findings may also be presented in an international Conference on HIV/AIDS, Food and Nutrition Security, scheduled to be held in Durban from April 14-16."}]},{"head":"Project Management","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"510 Recruitment project staff  The project will recruit the remaining staff as seen in the overall plan (see project organizational chart) 520 Recruitment of consultants  International consultants will be employed for gender, HIV/AIDS and environment (see Annex 2, 3 and 4 for details):  An international consultant will be employed for RBM to facilitate the project first annual review and revise RBM framework.  Other international consultants will be employed on a needs basis  Local consultants will be employed for gender and HIV/AIDS training (see Annex 2 and 3 for details)  Others local consultants will be employed on a needs basis 530 Contracting -Research and development partners Contracts with the partner institutions will be developed on a needs basis in the first quarter of 2005 and be submitted to MoARD and CIDA for review. New partners hips will be developed in the first quarter of 2006."}]},{"head":"Office establishment in the PLS","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":" Office facilities in 3 of the 4 initial PLS have been secured in the Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development. Three regional liaison offices have also been secured. These offices will be equipped with furniture and telecommunication equipment. The reaming offices will also be secured and equipped before the middle of 2005."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"550 Project monitoring and evaluation  The project will organize its first national annual program review workshop with the help of the RBM consultant and members of the IPE. The stakeholders to be invited are specified in the PIP."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":" Two project steering committee meetings will be organized during the first year, the first one half way the year the discuss project progress and the second one to approve the second year work plan."}]},{"head":"Project reporting","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Reports will be prepared as scheduled 570 Project communications  The project website will be launched in January 2005  Two newsletters will be issued during the first year  The on line reporting system will be functional by April, 2005."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The on-line reporting will provide easier access and ready report on the status of the project at any given time. Such information has potential value for soliciting feedback from CIDA as well as partner organizations. It is envisaged to be a section in the IPMS main public website (or linked to it) that is accessible via a username and password provided to partners and the governing structure of the project."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 145. Training of personnel for participation in the development of the NAIRC  Short term training of MoARD staff on tools, technologies, and skill sets needed to collaboratively create and maintain the NAIRC. One such training for 4 persons is scheduled in the first year. "},{"text":" training TVETs  During 2005, the project will assist the TVET by providing in service training on livestock and irrigation technologies, gender and HIV/AIDS. Such training will be conducted by project staff and partners in TVETs near to the PLS. The training will be conducted during the summer periods. "},{"text":"110. Assessing current state at PLS, Regional & Federal Levels\" Site visits will be done at various offices to visually inspect current ICT tools being used at various offices and assess their fit in the planned KM system.  Organizational assessment surveys and interviews will be completed by selected staff at various MoARD offices at the PLS, Region, and Federal levels and other potential KM users. These will include RARI's, TVET's, various farmers associations, etc. In the first project year there will be collaborative work among database specialist, subject matter expert/consultants on the priority commodities, and MoARD staff at various levels. This will involve selection of appropriate software, standards to be followed, and actual development of the databases (also see122, 123, 124 and 125).  Studies conducted by the project (see 400) will be entered into databases together with other information relevant to the PLS (see Annex 2, 3 and 4 for details) 122. Development of (non) spatial database on the technology and input/output marketing of priority commodities, incl. best practices & methods\" 111. Diagnosis of Organizational, cultural, infrastructure & process related dependency 111. Diagnosis of Organizational, cultural, infrastructure & process related dependency hindering knowledge sharing hindering knowledge sharing  Interviews with KM stakeholder in 8 PLS to asses current ICT and related  Interviews with KM stakeholder in 8 PLS to asses current ICT and related infrastructure to assess their capacity to communicate, the number of personnel infrastructure to assess their capacity to communicate, the number of personnel they have to do such tasks and their skill level. The type and sophistication of the they have to do such tasks and their skill level. The type and sophistication of the ICT tools they use (hardware, software, communications platforms and ICT tools they use (hardware, software, communications platforms and standards, etc) standards, etc)   Identify areas to focus KM efforts   Identify areas to focus KM efforts  Operational assessment of working knowledge  Operational assessment of working knowledge o Review critical processes o Review critical processes o Identify individual process steps within each process o Identify individual process steps within each process o Identify the knowledge required to fulfill the purpose of each process o Identify the knowledge required to fulfill the purpose of each process step (Determine the knowledge required by brainstorming, or step (Determine the knowledge required by brainstorming, or conducting interviews with the process owners. Categorize the conducting interviews with the process owners. Categorize the knowledge content (explicit, tacit, and/or embedded), the social capital knowledge content (explicit, tacit, and/or embedded), the social capital (trust, interpersonal relationships, cultural norms) and infrastructure (trust, interpersonal relationships, cultural norms) and infrastructure (processes, tools, roles & responsibilities, incentives). (processes, tools, roles & responsibilities, incentives). o Identify the knowledge generated for each process step o Identify the knowledge generated for each process step o Create measurement criteria for each critical process step o Create measurement criteria for each critical process step o Analyze the process maps (knowledge quality, knowledge sharing, o Analyze the process maps (knowledge quality, knowledge sharing, ease of access, etc.) ease of access, etc.)  "}],"sieverID":"41837651-b9a7-422a-b589-08189390f811","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07b0fc8f5e0adc67ca96e4e55ef7f54c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/43669c62-29ca-4f1c-8346-66a41f19d654/retrieve"},"pageCount":57,"title":"Authority (TSA), the Supreme National Economic Council (SNEC), and the Culture and Environment Preservation Association (CEPA). We would especially like to recognize the efforts of","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"iii Hatfield                           (1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011) The project recognized the relationship between research and effective water management, and that conflicts and competition can occur amongst irrigated agriculture, hydropower, domestic water supply and sanitation, fisheries and other stakeholders. In addition, the project understands that strategies are available to translate integrated water resources management (IWRM) into governance practices through improved planning and management of water resources. Integrated planning can lead to multi-purpose storage reservoirs and other infrastructure projects, water allocation systems, and river operations which provide specifically for other uses."}]},{"head":"LIST OF TABLES","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LIST OF FIGURES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"In order to address water resources issues and develop capacities for implementing IWRM, there is a need for better collaboration between sectors and use of scientific data in decision making. Collaborative and informed decisionmaking rely on better understanding of, and access to quantitative and qualitative research results. Multi-stakeholder Platforms (MSPs) are forums to share and discuss such research outputs with various government sectors and water users. "}]},{"head":"ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PHYSIOGRAPHY","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"The Stung Pursat river catchment is located in the Pursat province, south of the Tonle Sap Great Lake, and drains an area of 5,955 km 2 (Figure 2-1) (Ashwell et.al, 2011). The Stung Pursat river catchment is shared by six districts: Veal Veng, Kravanh, Sampov Meas, Krakor, Bakan, and Kandieng (CNMC, 2012).The river originates in the drier eastern slopes of the Cardamom mountains and flows for approximately 150 km, ultimately draining into the Tonle Sap Great Lake. Two main tributaries, the Stung Peam and Stung Santre (Prey Khong) rivers, flow in a northerly direction and meet the Pursat River just above Bac Trakuon. The drainage areas of Stung Pursat at Bac Trakuon (just below the confluence of the Pursat and the two tributaries) is 4,245 km 2 and at the Khum Veal gauging station (farther downstream near the town of Pursat) is 4,596 km 2 (CNMC, 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Elevations in the Pursat catchment range between six and 1,717 m above sea level (masl) 1 . More than 75% of the catchment encompasses a hilly terrain, with an elevation greater than 30 masl, and is covered by forested land of varying densities (JICA, 2011). The remaining low-lying land is occupied by agriculture (Figure 2-2)."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Major soil types in the Pursat catchment are: Dystric Leptosol and Cambisol in the upper reaches; Gleyic and Plintic Acrisols in the mid-elevation reaches and; Dystric Fluvisol and Dystric Gleysol in the lower elevation reaches (CNMC, 2012) (Figure 2-3)."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"1 Elevations referenced to mean sea level based on the Ha Tien datum, Viet Nam  "}]},{"head":"CLIMATE","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Climate in the study area is influenced by tropical monsoon systems with distinct wet and dry seasons. The wet season, extending from May to November, is dictated by the southwest monsoon system, and receives approximately 90% of the total annual rainfall (CNMC, 2012). The dry season, extending from December to April, is influenced by the northeast monsoon system, and is characterized by the prevalence of hot and dry air with high potential transpiration demands during the months of March and April (CNMC, 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"The Elephant and Cardamom ranges act as a barrier to the warm, moisture-laden westerly air masses from the Gulf of Thailand, creating a rain-shadow effect that extends from the eastern slopes of the mountain ranges to the adjacent low-lying lands. This translates into lower precipitation totals ranging between 900 and 1,800 mm of rainfall during normal years, and between 800 and 1,500 mm during dry years. The rain shadow effect is more pronounced during dry years and expands the extant of dry land from small dry sections located around the Tonle Sap Great Lake to a region that encompasses the entire lake area and peripheral low lands (CNMC, 2012)."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Rainfall within the Pursat river catchment increases with elevation, but annual totals vary considerably from year to year (JICA, 2013b). The annual average rainfall ranges from 1,200 mm to 1,700 mm (Figure 2-6) (JICA, 2013a)."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"Maximum 24-hr rainfall throughout the region amounts to approximately 150 mm, and is generated by convective storms (CNMC, 2012). On occasions, a typhoon originating from the South China Sea or the Gulf of Thailand crests the Elephant and Cardamom ranges, bringing to the eastern low lands strong winds and torrential rains CNMC, 2012)."},{"index":5,"size":228,"text":"The monthly rainfall distribution for areas around the Tonle Sap Lake is characterized by having two distinct peaks (Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2). The first peak occurs at the beginning of the wet season, between May and June, as the monsoon rain travels north. This peak is followed by a period of lower rainfall between June and August. The second peak occurs during the months of August and October, and is caused by a southerly shift in the monsoon circulation pattern. This period is characterized by heavy rainfall and widespread flooding conditions CNMC, 2012). There is also substantial variability within the typical bimodal rainfall distribution. This translates into increased difficulties for rice farmers during the first months of the wet season when rainfall is most erratic and early season droughts are common. In addition to the main dry season (January to March or April), and prior to the wettest period of the year (end of August to end of November), there is a small dry season (July and/or early August). This dry period is marked by light showers or even dry spells. Short droughts during this period can last approximately 15 days or more, but on occasion extend to up 60 days after the first monsoon rains end. The cessation of heavy rain at the end of the wet season can also be abrupt and unpredictable (CNMC, 2012)."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"The temperature regime is consistently high with little daily or seasonal variation. Daily maximum temperatures vary between 36 °C during the hottest months (April-May) and 32 °C during the coolest months (December-January)."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"Daily minimum temperatures vary between 25 °C and 17 °C. The annual average temperature is approximately 28 °C (CNMC, 2012)."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"Monthly mean relative humidity ranges from 66% in the dry season to 71% in the wet season, with a mean annual of 70% (CNMC, 2012).  Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) values were calculated using the Penman-Monteith method."}]},{"head":"EXISTING AND PLANNED WATER MANAGEMENT INFRASTRUCTURE","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Similar to other catchments within the Tonle Sap basin, water resources in the Stung Pursat catchment are increasingly under pressure. This pressure is partly driven by a recent focus on rice exports and partly by an increase in knowledge gaps (i.e. awareness of the issues) in key development sectors (CDRI, 2011). To improve the situation, a series of irrigation (e.g., Damnak Ampil irrigation scheme) and hydropower and irrigation projects are currently under construction, with other projects in the planning stages. "}]},{"head":"Total Command Area 55,509","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Notes-1 -MCM-million cubic meters n/a -not applicable 2irrigation command areas are for the wet season Damnak Ampil Headworks command area is 24,629 ha and is the sum of Damnak Ampil Irrigation Scheme-Extension, Damnak Ampil -Sub Project, Orokar, and Wat Loung irrigation schemes."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Dam No.3 and No. 5 (see Figure 2-6), funded by Chinese institutions, have been under construction since 2010. Projected storage capacities are 25.5 million cubic meters (MCM) for Dam No.3 and 24.5 Dam for No.5 (MOWRAM, 2010). It is expected that these two projects will be completed in 2014, and will enable an additional 6,200 ha of paddy irrigation (Field Observation, MK16, November, 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Dam No.1 is being developed by the Ministry of Industry Mines and Energy (MIME) with support from the Korean Government, and is currently in the prefeasibility stages (MIME, 2013). This impoundment has a projected storage capacity in excess of 1,000 MCM, and it will store water for hydropower generation and for irrigation. Augmented flows from this impoundment have been studied by the Damnak Chheukrom irrigation project, and are expected to irrigate 16,100 ha of land located on the left bank of the Pursat River (MOWRAM, 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"The Damnak Ampil diversion weir, rehabilitated in 2006, is a structure with automated gates that diverts and conveys water from the Pursat River to the Stung Dauntry River. The Damnak Ampil Headworks encompasses several subprojects (Damnak Ampil extension, Damnak Ampil, Wat Loung, and Orokar) that will provide irrigation for a total of 24,629 ha (MOWRAM, 2010). Current net storage capacity of the Stung Pursat at Damnak Ampil reservoir is estimated at 860 MCM. Recorded data for the canal or its diversion structure on the Pursat River are currently unavailable (JICA, 2012).   "}]},{"head":"EXISTING HYDROLOGIC DATA","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The Stung Pursat is the only tributary of the Tonle Sap Lake with more than one hydrometric station. Over the years, water level data have been collected at 13 stations, of which only six are currently operational. The station Bak Trakuon (ID 580103) is the station with the longest period of collecting data, spanning from 1995 to 2011. All other stations have fragmented data collection periods limited to a few years in the mid-nineties or the late-nineties onward. All hydrometric stations are currently concentrated at mid-to-low elevations in the catchment, and there are gaps in coverage at key locations of existing and planned water resources infrastructure (e.g., hydropower dams, diversion canals) (MK16, 2013b). Summaries of water level and discharge data for the Stung Pursat catchment are provided in Table 3-1 and Table 3-   4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10    "}]},{"head":"EXISTING METEOROLOGICAL DATA","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"There are 11 rainfall stations in the Pursat river catchment, resulting in a network density of approximately one station per 540 km 2 ; however, the network does not cover the entire elevation range in the catchment, and the stations are concentrated at low and mid elevations (MK 16, 2013a). A description of climate stations in the Pursat catchment is presented in Table 3-3.      "}]},{"head":"METHODS","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"GAP FILLING OF RAINFALL DATA FOR THE PURSAT RIVER CATCHMENT","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Numerous gaps in the rainfall records make existing data in the Stung Pursat of limited value for further analysis (e.g., modeling and application of decision support tools) (JICA, 2013b). Data gaps in the rainfall records for stations in the Pursat catchment were filled by means of spatial interpolation techniques."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Several spatial interpolation techniques, including nearest neighbor (NN), Thiessen polygons, splines and local trend surfaces, global polynomial (GP), local polynomial (LP), trend surface analysis (TSA), radial basic function (RBF), inverse distance weighting (IDW), and various forms of Kriging have been used globally in similar studies. In this study, the inverse distance weighting (IDW) method was selected because of its applicability when the estimated parameters are not normally distributed."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"In the IDW method, distances between the gauges with missing and available data are determined. Missing data are then calculated as an average of nearby gauges using a weight factor. The weight factor is inversely proportional to the squared distance between gauges (i.e., a heavier weight is placed on gauges that are closer to the gauge with missing records). Missing records are estimated using the formula:        "}]},{"head":"Rainfall","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RIVER CATCHMENT MODELING","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The Unified River Simulation Model (URBS v5.13) was selected to simulate rainfall-runoff processes at different points of interest (nodes) in the Stung Pursat catchment. This model was selected because it was used previously in the Mekong region, and it is a relatively robust model that can be developed with limited data (First Technical Focus Group Meeting, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"URBS is a semi-distributed, non-linear network model that divides a river catchment into small sub-catchments or cells. The model generates runoff from rainfall at the center of each cell, and routes it from the cell center to the cell outlet. Runoff is then routed from each cell into the river channel until it reaches the main outlet of the catchment. The model can be run either as an event-based or as a continuous simulation (First Technical Focus Group Meeting, 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Six main parameters are used by the model for simulations: three parameters to generate runoff from rainfall inputs (IF = infiltration, IL = Initial Loss, and PR = runoff proportion), and three non-linear channel routing parameters (Alpha, Beta, and m)."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"The minimum required inputs to the model are a rainfall definition file and a catchment definition file. The latter can be created based on a digital elevation model (DEM)."}]},{"head":"Model Setup and Calibration","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Digitized river networks and DEMs from the 2000 Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) 2 were combined in a geographic information system (GIS) to generate a definition file of the Stung Pursat catchment for a JICA study (JICA, 2011 andJICA, 2013). The catchment was divided into 19 nodes or subcatchments of which four were used for calibration purposes, three for flow  There were slight differences between the irrigation scheme areas described in the JICA study and the areas determined in this study. The redefined areas by MK 16 used for model setup were based on an updated DEM. Details for each irrigation scheme are provided in Table 4-3. The URBS model was calibrated using rainfall data from 11 stations in the Stung Pursat catchment, two stations in the Stung Kambot, and three stations in the Stung Bamank. Rainfall Data from these stations for the period of record (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006) were used to simulate daily discharges. Resulting discharges were calibrated against observed discharges recorded at the stations Peam, Prey Khong, Bak Trakuon, and Kum Veal."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The calibration process also involved fine tuning of the model runoff generation parameters (IF = infiltration, IL = Initial Loss, and PR = runoff proportion), and channel routing parameters (Alpha, Beta, and m). Once a satisfactory calibration was achieved daily discharge time series were generated for each of the 19 defined nodes for the period 1992 -2011. Simulated results were used to compute monthly means and to verify water availability using 5-day mean discharges. The computed 5-day means were further used in water balance calculations."}]},{"head":"WATER BALANCE COMPUTATION","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Water balance computations were based on a modified version of the existing spreadsheet model program developed by JICA (2013). In the original model a reference period of 30 years  was used, while in this study the reference period was set at 20 years (1992-2011). In addition, discharges for the original 30-year reference period were simulated using a simple TANK 3 model, whereas in this study discharges for the 20-year reference period were simulated using the URBS model (JICA, 2013b andTes S, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"The water balance model was conducted setting 2020 as the target year, when construction of major water resource infrastructure is expected to be completed. All calculations were performed on a 5-day time step. Calculations in the model considered the following elements: A schematic for the Stung Pursat catchment is shown in Figure 4-3. The schematic shows expected basin areas, irrigation systems and major structures along river systems for the target year 2020. River nodes in the schematic conceptualize the relations among river maintenance flows, inputs, and outputs (e.g., tributary inflows, return inflows, and intake sites). All calculations in the water balance model were conducted using the following assumptions:"},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":" Flows for each sub-catchment of interest were downscaled from simulated flows at Khum Veal (using URBS) using a drainage area ratio (area of sub-catchment of interest/ drainage area of Khum Veal);"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Hatfield  For sub-catchments where the major land use was paddy agriculture, the flow Qi was derived using the expression: Qi = Rainfall x Paddy drainage area x 10%."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":" Irrigation water requirements (IWR) for the 20-year reference period were defined from seven different crop patterns; Water balance calculations for each irrigation scheme followed the steps shown in Figure 4-4. A factor of 1/5 was adopted as the criterion to evaluate the safety level of irrigation water supply to various irrigation projects. For a given year, water balance calculations are considered acceptable if the continuous water deficit period is less or equal than a half month. Water deficits were only evaluated for periods of high priority water use. The safety level was calculated using the expression:"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Safety Level = (x+1)/n Where:"},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"x = number of occurrence of 20-day successive deficit (irrigation failure) n = total number of simulated years (i.e., 20 years) Irrigation schemes were considered as optimum if the safety level was 1/5 (also expressed as 4/20), and acceptable if the safety level was 1/4 (also expressed as 5/20). In contrast, irrigation schemes falling outside of these safety levels were considered a failure."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"The following sub-sections give a detailed description of the different water demand elements considered in the water balance model. "}]},{"head":"Irrigation Water Requirements","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cropping Patterns","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Water balance calculations in this study considered seven cropping patterns distributed among early-wet, wet, and dry seasons (Table 4-2). These cropping patterns are a combination of proposed patterns by the study conducted by JICA and by the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM) (JICA, 2011 andJICA, 2013b). It is important to note that in contrast to JICA (2009), the patterns proposed by MOWRAM stress the importance of supplemental paddy irrigation during the wet season (JICA, 2013b)."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Cropping patterns for the early-wet season are based on the assumption that the direct sowing method is the prevailing farming practice. This method was introduced in the Stung Pursat catchment to save costs associated with land preparation. It is estimated that this method is effective for parcels of land of approximately 1 ha in size. During the wet season the transplanting method is assumed as the dominant farming practice. This method produces a higher unit yield of rice than the direct sowing method. Lastly, during the dry season the direct sowing method is assumed. Irrigation areas for each cropping pattern, as well as a crop calendar for the Stung Pursat catchment are shown on       The above D&I value was applied as an average value for the entire reference period (1992-2011) used in the water balance calculations."}]},{"head":"Hydropower dam simulation","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Domestic and Industrial Water Use","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Hatfield "}]},{"head":"Maintenance Flow, Return Flow, and Reservoir Losses","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Maintenance or environmental flows refer to the quality, quantity, and timing of water flows required maintaining the components, functions, processes, and resilience of aquatic ecosystems that provide goods and services to people. King et al. (2008) proposed maintenance flows to be defined as the minimum monthly flows that equaled or exceeded 95% probability of occurrence. These values are slightly higher than the annual minimum flows observed in the Stung Pursat catchment."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"In the study by JICA (2011) and in the spreadsheet calculation program (JICA, 2013a), a river maintenance flow of 0.1 m 3 /s/100 km 2 was adopted. This value is greater than the natural minimum flows observed during the dry season, and if this value is adopted, it could lead to the occurrence of water shortages in the irrigation schemes located in the lower Stung Pursat catchment. For this reason, the estimated D&I value of 0.212 m³/s was adopted for water balance calculations. The return flow was estimated as half the value of irrigation loss (i.e., 17%)."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Seepage losses from reservoirs were assumed as 0.05 % of storage volume per day. Further, evaporation losses from reservoir surface were estimated at 70% of observed evaporation. Estimated reservoir surface evaporation based on Pursat climate stations is 936 mm (annual average)."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"Hatfield"}]},{"head":"Water Balance Flowchart","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Once all elements, assumptions, and water demands were carefully accounted for at all nodes in the Stung Pursat catchment, the water balance calculations were performed as described in the following flowchart (Figure 4-7). "}]},{"head":"VERIFICATION OF WATER BALANCE RESULTS USING THE IQQM MODEL","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The IQQM was also used to simulate a water balance for the Stung Pursat catchment and to verify results to the estimates generated by the simplified spreadsheet model developed by JICA (2013a)."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"IQQM operates on a continuous time basis and can be used to simulate river system behavior for periods ranging up to hundreds of years. It is designed to examine long-term behavior under various management regimes, which include environmental flow requirements. IQQM is based on a node-link concept. Each important feature of a river system is represented by one of thirteen node types."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"The movement and routing of water between nodes is carried out in the links."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Normally the model is run on a daily time step, but for adequate representation of certain water quality and routing processes, the model can run down to an hourly step (Hameed and Podger, 2001)."}]},{"head":"Model Schematization","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The Stung Pursat catchment was divided into 13 sub-basins, which were linked to each other by nodes (Figure 4-8). The following key processes that affect water balance in the catchment were:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":" Consumptive and non-consumptive water demands;"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":" Water storage; and  Movement of water through the catchment."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"To generate useful results for planning purposes at the district level, different parameters were defined in the schematization. Sub-catchment size was set at 30 km 2 ; minimum storage volume was set to a value greater than 10 MCM; and individual irrigation schemes were set to 3,000 ha in the dry season, and greater than 10,000 ha in the wet season. It is important to note that the schematization was developed to agree with the sub-catchments defined for the URBS model developed for the Stung Pursat catchment."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"The schematization of the Pursat catchment is a dynamic process and it will evolve as the model is further calibrated. For instance, depending on decisions of the line agencies on the required level of detail and the amount of data that they will provide, the schematization may be simplified in some cases, especially where storage information is not available."},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"Hatfield "}]},{"head":"Model Calibration and Validation","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Due to limited data sets, calibration for the IQQM model was only conducted for flow data. Calibration and model validation was performed for the entire period of record (1999 to 2006 for Khum Veal and 1994 to 2011 for Bak Trakuon). This approach was used because of the dynamic nature of Stung Pursat catchment and the uncertainty in estimating demands (MK 16, 2013a). There is a steady increase in irrigation development over the calibration period, with substantial changes in some areas that occurred recently (JICA 2012). These considerations, coupled with relatively limited data sets, made it difficult to find a calibration period (representative of all the variability) and a separate period for validating modeled results in the Pursar catchment."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Model calibration was conducted in the three following stages:"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Routing: the first stage in the calibration is the adjustment of the routing parameters. Routing was done using lag and non-linear flow storage relationships. The lag parameter was adjusted first, followed by adjustments to the storage coefficient and exponent to match the timing of the hydrograph peaks and hydrograph shapes;"},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"2."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Residual Inflows: residual inflows were estimated by subtracting the simulated flow records from the observed flow records at the downstream gauge (Khum Veal). Observed data were used at the upstream gauge (Bak Trakuon); and   "}]},{"head":"SIMULATION OF FLOODS AND DROUGHTS USING THE ISIS MODEL HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The ISIS hydrodynamic model was used to simulate time series water level and flow data in the rivers and on the adjacent floodplains. Simulated results can help predict the extent, depth, and duration of flooding conditions. Simulated results can also help estimate impacts on low flow regimes during the dry season (First Technical Focus Group Meeting, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Data Requirements","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The development of the ISIS model required the following data: "}]},{"head":"Model Schematization","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"A total of 250 cross-sections (61 cross-sections and 190 units such as flood plain, spills, etc.) were used for the Stung Pursat. Flood plain sections, spill units, and breach sections were also included in the catchment schematization. Even though there is significant flow in the flood plain under flooding conditions, these flows are not considered natural because their extent is controlled by roads, village embankments, and openings. The schematic for the catchment is shown in Figure 4-10."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"Hatfield "}]},{"head":"Model Calibration and Validation","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Models were calibrated by visual comparison of simulated with observed data rather than by gauging the performance of the model by means of statistical goodness of fit tests. This procedure was used because there were inconsistencies in the observed data; variability of data quality for different model components and discrepancies in the variability of tide levels in the low reaches of the Stung Pursat (Tes S, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"In contrast to the calibration approach used for the URBS and IQQM models, three years (1998, 2000, and 2001) were selected for calibration and verification of the ISIS model. This approach was used because of limited data availability, unusually high flood discharges that occurred in 2000, and sensitivity of the ISIS model to changes in infrastructure and channel geometry."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"The peak flow event that occurred in 2000 was the largest on record at stations Perk Kdam and Kompong Luong (JICA, 2012). This event was assumed as a reasonable calibration point for high flood conditions. The second calibration point selected, the 2001 peak flow, was the second largest event on record. The third calibration point was the low flow event recorded at the station Kompong Luong. This event was the lowest event on record for this station. Calibration points along the Stung Pursat River are shown in Figure 4-11."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"A model test-run was conducted for the year 2000 dry season. This helped identify a number of issues that needed to be changed in order to conform to the observed data. These issues were:"},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":" There are a series of diversions along the main channel of Stung Pursat river for irrigation at the beginning of wet season. There was a need to better understand how these diversions were affecting water levels in the main channel;"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":" The point of zero flow (datum correction) was poorly defined at the hydrometric stations located at the upstream and downstream boundaries of the model extent;"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":" Lack of information on river cross-section geometry and adjacent floodplain elevations;"},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":" Data interpolation methods (for river cross-section, flood plain, spill unit, DEM) were not accurate enough to include in model simulations."},{"index":9,"size":34,"text":"After taking the above issues into consideration and making adjustments to the model, it was possible to generate acceptable results that were in close agreement with observed data for the wet and dry seasons."},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"Hatfield "}]},{"head":"WATER BALANCE COMPUTATION","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The water balance computations were done by taking into account two scenarios:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Natural scenario: the 20-years reference simulated flows were treated as natural flows and they were used directly as input flows to the systems. All 3 dams were excluded; and 2. Dam scenario: Dam No. 1, No. 3, and No. 5 described in Section 2 were considered. The 20-years reference simulated flows were used directly as input flows to the dams and the computed outflows from the dams were used as input flows to the systems."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"For the Natural scenario, water balance calculation checks were performed each year to define the deficit at each scheme outlet. Two options of computation were performed:"},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"1. Exclude supplementary water supplies to the Beung Khnar and Svay Donkeo river basins; and 2. Include supplementary water supplies to the Beung Khnar and Svay Donkeo river basins."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"Amounts of supplementary water supplies to the Beung Khnar and Svay Donkeo river basins were based on the JICA report (2013a)."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"The dam scenario includes supplementary water supplies to the Beung Khnar and Svay Donkeo river basins. Two steps of computation were performed:"},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":9,"size":99,"text":"Step 1: use outflow from the hydropower Dam No. 1 and only maintenance flows from Dams No. 3 and Dam No. 5. At each scheme outlet, the water balance checking was performed each year, i.e., by computing the deficit. In some years when water was not enough for the Damnak Ampil extension, then Step 2 was performed; and The storage capacity of a reservoir is divided into distinct zones. Dead or inactive storage refers to the water that cannot be drained by gravity through the dam outlet works, spillway, or power plant intake and can only be pumped out."},{"index":10,"size":28,"text":"Active or live storage is the portion of the reservoir that can be drained by gravity and can be utilized for flood control, power production, and downstream releases."},{"index":11,"size":79,"text":"Using MRC's RULE program storage capacities were estimated for Dam No.1. Full storage capacity was projected at 1,320 MCM and dead storage at 306 MCM. This translates into an effective storage capacity of 1,014 MCM. These values were used in the water balance simulations for the 20 year reference period (1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011). Results show that after taking into consideration all water releases from this dam the remaining storage capacity is on average well in excess of 300 MCM (Figure 5-4)."},{"index":12,"size":68,"text":"This water surplus could be used to augment water provided by Dam No. 3 and Dam No. 5 and minimize the possibility of water shortages in the Stung Pursat catchment. Using this scheme, surplus water releases from Dam No.1 will not only generate additional hydroelectric power, but will also improve water security of all irrigation schemes in the Stung Pursat catchment by reducing the safety factors to 1/20. "}]},{"head":"Irrigation Water Requirements","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Unit diversion irrigation water requirements (IWR) of six cropping patterns for the 20 year reference period (1992 -2011) were computed and are shown in  Irrigation water requirements for each irrigation scheme were also estimated for the reference period (1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011). Average IWR ranged from 34 MCM at Damnak Ampil to 0.9 MCM at Loloksar (Figure 5-6).  "}]},{"head":"Hydropower Dam Simulation","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Simulated results for Dam No. 1 are shown in Figure 5-7. The reservoir's full storage capacity was estimated at 1,320 MCM, dead storage capacity at 320 MCM, and effective storage capacity at 1,024 MCM. Using these storage values and rule curves, the total annual simulated energy production for this dam was estimated at 309.8 megawatts (MW). This estimate is in agreement with the projected energy output of 335.4 MW. "}]},{"head":"EVALUATION OF THE IQQM MODEL FOR VERIFYING WATER BALANCE RESULTS","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Due to inadequate data -on land use, land cover, soil type, rainfall, etc. -the URBS model was not able to produce good estimates for water flow (MK16, 2013a). As a result, the IQQM model, which relies on flow data from the URBS model, could not produce good estimates for water use for irrigation. One of the main constraints for modeling is that data is collected on a provincial basis and is subsequently disaggregated to URBS sub-basins. Higher resolution data would significantly improve the estimates of irrigation demand found through IQQM. Furthermore, there is no information on the efficiency of water use for irrigation in Cambodia (Tes S, 2013). Better estimates of irrigation efficiency for each URBS sub-basin will give a more realistic estimate of crop water demands. Moreover, the data on harvested area does not distinguish between irrigated and nonirrigated lands. This results in an exaggerated estimate of the water demand for irrigation (Tes S, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Hatfield","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Finally, there is virtually no information on urban and industrial water demand (MK16, 2013a). An estimate for these values was derived from the provincial population and estimate of water usage per day. A better estimate of population in each URBS sub-basin and data on monthly urban and industrial demand patterns in each district would assist in estimating a more realistic urban and industrial demand."}]},{"head":"EVALUATION OF THE ISIS HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL FOR FLOOD AND DROUGHT SIMULATION","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Even with limited data, a hydrodynamic model was produced for the main channel of the Stung Pursat for calibration and validation, as described above. Furthermore, for the Khum Veal station, the results for water level and flow simulations were compared to the observed data, as shown in Figure 5-8 and Figure 5-9. As can be seen in these figures, there was greater agreement between simulated and observed values for the water level than flow data at the Khum Veal station.   However, due to inadequate data, the ISIS model was not able to produce forecasts for floods and droughts in the Pursat catchment for the time-being. Important data gaps were revealed:"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":" Very little data is present for river cross-sections in the main channel. As a result, the representation of the Stung Pursat river in the models was greatly simplified with a consequent reduction in accuracy in the distribution of forecasted outflows;"},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":" Whereas data on water levels is available for the time-period 1999 -2006, data on discharge is unavailable in terms of real-time observations. Consequently, the result of calibrating the two parameters is poor; and  There was limited climate data available, and as a result several inaccuracies were introduced in the model. "}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Considerable efforts were made by the MOWRAM to develop predictive tools to support a better understanding and management of water resources in the Stung Pursat catchment. However, challenges exist and the paucity of hydrometeorological data remains one of the central issues that hindered the development of the applied modeling tools."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"This study adopted a tripartite approach to describe water resources allocation in the Stung Pursat catchment."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Firstly, a theoretical watershed model (URBS) was developed and calibrated for the Stung Pursat. Model predictions were verified against existing observed data and field measurements and an effort was made to check for inconsistencies."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Through model simulations, a synthetic continuous time series of flow data were generated for the period 1992-2011."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Secondly, a water balance simulation was conducted for the Stung Pursat by means of a simplified spreadsheet model. These simulations provided valuable insights about water resources allocations, projected irrigation schemes, and operation of water resources infrastructure (i.e. dams). Results from the water balance model were verified against results produced by the IQQM model."},{"index":6,"size":150,"text":"Results from water balance simulations revealed that water supply under natural flow conditions (i.e. no dams considered) would support 55,509 ha of irrigation schemes in the Stung Pursat. In this scenario, flow would not support additional irrigation schemes for meeting growing demand in the lower part of Stung Pursat catchment in dry season, and in the neighboring catchments of the Svay Donkeo and Beung Khnar rivers (though inter-basin diversion). In contrast, simulations suggest that Dams No.1, 3, and 5 would theoretically store sufficient water to support all existing and planned irrigation schemes in Stung Pursat, Beung Khnar, and Svay Donkeo catchments. Access to the additional water resources would, however, require a strong communication and cooperation between different players, such as dam operators and upstream and downstream irrigation water users. This kind of multi-stakeholder dialog is also necessary to manage resources and mitigate impacts of natural disasters, like floods and droughts."},{"index":7,"size":95,"text":"Lastly, the ISIS hydrodynamic model was developed to simulate time series water level and flow data in the rivers and on the adjacent floodplains. The simulations correlated better with the observed flow data than water level data. The analysis fell short of producing flood forecasts because of limited data availability, particularly for river cross-sections, discharge and climatic parameters in the catchment. Further studies are required to fill these data gaps, either by modeling or through other methods. This information would help to improve water management/allocation and disaster risk reduction practices and planning in the catchment."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2- 1 Figure 2-1 Digital elevation model of the Stung Pursat catchment showing the elevation and network of hydrometeorological monitoring stations (JICA, 2011). ................................................................................ "},{"text":"Figure 2- 2 Figure 2-2 Map of Forest Cover of the Stung Pursat catchment (CNMC, 2012 based on 1993-97 forest covers in MRCS, n.d.). ....................................... "},{"text":"Figure 2- 3 Figure 2-3 Soil map of the Pursat catchment (JICA, 2013b). ...................................... "},{"text":"Figure 2- 4 Figure 2-4 Annual rainfall distribution for the Pursat and Tonle Sap catchments (MOWRAM, 2013). ................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 2- 5 Figure 2-5 Schematic of Water resources development in the Stung Pursat catchment (JICA, 2013). ............................................................................ "},{"text":"Figure 2- 6 Figure 2-6 Location of Water resources development in the Pursat river (JICA, 2013). ............................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 3- 1 Figure 3-1 Discharge hydrograph for the station Bak Trakuon (1995-2011) (JICA, 2013b). ......................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure Figure 3-2 Discharge Hydrograph for the station Khum Veal (1995-2006) (JICA, 2013b). ......................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 3- 3 Figure 3-3 Monthly rainfall distribution Pursat station (1981 to 2011) (Tes S, 2013). ...................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 3- 4 Figure 3-4 Monthly rainfall distribution Kravanh station (1994 to 2010) (Tes S, 2013). .................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 4- 1 Figure 4-1 Schematic of Inverse Distance Weighing Method (IDW). ......................... "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4-2 URBS Model schematization for the Pursat river catchment (JICA, 2013b). .................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 4- 3 Figure 4-3 Schematic Diagram of Pursat River Basin (JICA, 2013b). ....................... "},{"text":"Figure 4- 4 Figure 4-4 Typical water balance computation procedure at each irrigation scheme (JICA, 2013b). ............................................................................ "},{"text":"Figure 4- 5 Figure 4-5 Characteristics of Dam No.1 (First Technical Focus Group Meeting of the MK 16, 2013 and MIME, 2013). ........................................ "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4-6 Population Census results in the Stung Pursat Catchment (2008) (NIS, 2008). ............................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4-7 Water Balance Calculation Flowchart for the Stung Pursat Catchment. .............................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4-8 IQQM model schematization for the Stung Pursat catchment. ................. "},{"text":"Figure 4 HatfieldFigure 4 Figure 4-9 IQQM model calibration steps for the Stung Pursat catchment. ............... "},{"text":"Figure 4 - Figure 4-11 Model Calibration points along the Stung Pursat River (2000). ................ "},{"text":"Figure 5- 1 Figure 5-1 Comparison of Hydrographs between Calibrated and Observed flows at station Bak Trakuon (Volume ratio = 99.73; r = 0.617). ............... "},{"text":"Figure 5- 2 Figure 5-2 Comparison of Hydrographs between Calibrated and Observed flows at station Khum Veal (Volume ratio = 98.37; r = 0.60). .................... "},{"text":"Figure 5- 3 Figure 5-3 Simulated flows in the Pursat catchment (1992-2011). ............................ "},{"text":"Figure 5- 4 Figure 5-4 Simulation of remaining storage volume at Dam No. 1 for the period 1992-2011 (Tes S, 2013). ............................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 5- 5 Figure 5-5 Computed unit diversion irrigation water requirement of each crop (1992-2011). ............................................................................................ "},{"text":" This report contributes to the Stung Pursat MSP process by providing information about changes in water balance in Pursat. The objectives of the Water Demand Analysis within the Pursat River Catchment report are to:  Present and compare the water balance in the Pursat catchment under two scenarios; a) natural scenario (absence of Dam No. 1, No. 3, and No. 5) and b) dam scenario (presence of Dam 1, 3, and 5); and  Apply and critique the usefulness of the ISIS model for flood simulation in the Pursat catchment. The methodology consisted of the following steps:  Rainfall-runoff modeling of 19 nodes in the Stung Pursat basin for the period (1992-2011) using the semi-distributed model Unified River Basin Simulator (URBS);  Computation of basin water balance, using results generated by URBS as inputs into a simplified excel spreadsheet calculator developed by JICA (2013);  Application of the model IQQM to verify basin water balance computations; and  Use of the ISIS model to determine areas in the catchment prone to flooding. Water balance for Stung Pursat basin was assessed based on updated information related to:  Water demands for irrigation and other purposes;  River runoff taking into account the three dam development projects (Dams No. 1, 3, and 5); and  Available water used by existing and planned water resources facilities and irrigation systems in the basin. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 2-1 Digital elevation model of the Stung Pursat catchment showing the elevation and network of hydrometeorological monitoring stations (JICA, 2011). "},{"text":"Figure 2 - 3 Figure 2-3 Soil map of the Pursat catchment (JICA, 2013b). "},{"text":"Figure 2 - 4 Figure 2-4 Annual rainfall distribution for the Pursat and Tonle Sap catchments (MOWRAM, 2013). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 2-5 Schematic of Water resources development in the Stung Pursat catchment (JICA, 2013). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 2-6 Location of Water resources development in the Pursat river (JICA, 2013). "},{"text":" 2, respectively. Representative hydrographs for the stations Bak Trakuon (ID 580103) and Khum Veal (ID 580104) are provided in Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2, respectively. Water Demand Analysis within the Pursat River Catchment 10 Hatfield "},{"text":"Figure Figure 3-2 Discharge Hydrograph for the station Khum Veal (1995-2006) (JICA, 2013b). "},{"text":" When conducting additional analyses, monthly rainfall distributions were calculated. The rainfall station Pursat (ID 120302) has the longest period of data collection (1981 to 2011), and was used as the representative station for the low elevation regions in the Stung Pursat catchment. The rainfall station Kravanh (ID 120312), with a period of record of 17 years (1994 to 2010), was used as the representative station for the mid-elevation regions in the catchment. Monthly rainfall distributions for the stations Pursat and Kravanh are shown in Figure 3-3 and Figure 3-4. "},{"text":"Figure 3 - 3 Figure 3-3 Monthly rainfall distribution Pursat station (1981 to 2011) (Tes S, 2013). "},{"text":"Figure 3 - 4 Figure 3-4 Monthly rainfall distribution Kravanh station (1994 to 2010) (Tes S, 2013). "},{"text":" value at the grid node Zi = rainfall value at location (xi,yi) Wi = weighted function, and n = number of sample pointsThe weighted function is calculated using:The distance di between Zp and Zi was determined by the difference of the coordinates between the two points. A maximum of four stations near the station with data gaps were used to estimate missing records (Figure4-1). "},{"text":"Figure 4 - 1 Figure 4-1 Schematic of Inverse Distance Weighing Method (IDW). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4-2 URBS Model schematization for the Pursat river catchment (JICA, 2013b). "},{"text":" irrigation, domestic, industrial, hydropower, maintenance flows, return flows, and reservoir losses). "},{"text":"Figure 4 - 3 Figure 4-3 Schematic Diagram of Pursat River Basin (JICA, 2013b). "},{"text":" A simple reservoir routing was conducted between Dam No. 3 and Dam No. 5. All information related to the dams were based on the feasibility study in the Stung Pursat Dam conducted by the Guangdong Foreign Construction Company in 2009; and  Simulated monthly outflows for the hydropower Dam No.1 were further disaggregated into 5-day outflows. "},{"text":"Figure 4 - 4 Figure 4-4 Typical water balance computation procedure at each irrigation scheme (JICA, 2013b). "},{"text":" Dam simulation at Dam No.1 was conducted by applying the RULE program, developed by the MRC. This program defines upper and a lower rule curves for dam operation and simulates water consumption for hydropower generation, dam outflows, and energy production. Characteristics of Dam No. 1 are shown in Figure 4-5. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4-5 Characteristics of Dam No.1 (First Technical Focus Group Meeting of the MK 16, 2013 and MIME, 2013). "},{"text":" Compared to other consumptive uses, domestic and industrial (D&I) water use is relatively small, but economically significant. The D&I data for the Stung Pursat catchment were estimated based on population size. According to the General Population Census of Cambodia (2008) the population in the Stung Pursat catchment was estimated at 203,522 inhabitants (Figure 4-6) (NIS, 2008). D&I water use per capita in Cambodia was determined to be 90 l/h/d (the 2006-2007 Water supply Performance and Consumption report of the Cambodian's Provincial Water Supply, referred to in JICA, 2012). Based on the above, D&I water use in the Stung Pursat catchment was estimated as: 90 x 10-³ x 203,522 = 18,317 m³/day; or 0.212 m³/s. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4-6 Population Census results in the Stung Pursat Catchment (2008) (NIS, 2008). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4-7 Water Balance Calculation Flowchart for the Stung Pursat Catchment. "},{"text":"Figure 4 - Figure 4-8 IQQM model schematization for the Stung Pursat catchment. "},{"text":"Hatfield  "},{"text":" : the URBS model was calibrated against the observed residual inflow determined in Stage 2. The calibrated inflows were then entered into IQQM. The calibration was conducted from 1999 to 2006. In many cases, the IQQM could not account for some of the physical characteristics (land use, land cover, soil properties); in this case only the URBS model was used (MK16, First Technical Focus Group Meeting, 2013).The steps followed in the calibration procedure are shown in Figure4-9. After all upstream flow and demands were entered in the model the results were compared with stream flow records from the Hymos data base. "},{"text":"Figure 4 - Figure 4-9 IQQM model calibration steps for the Stung Pursat catchment. "},{"text":"Figure 4 - Figure 4-10 ISIS model schematization of the Stung Pursat catchment (insert shows expanded section of the river). "},{"text":"FigureFigure 5 - 3 Figure 4-11 Model Calibration points along the Stung Pursat River (2000). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 5-4 Simulation of remaining storage volume at Dam No. 1 for the period 1992-2011 (Tes S, 2013). "},{"text":" Figure 5-5. IWR for the following six cropping patterns (JICA 2012) are shown in Figure 5-5:  A is Basic crop calendar for early wet season paddy;  B is Basic crop calendar for wet season paddy; B1 is Additional crop calendar for irrigation area other than JICA's subproject;  B1-15: 15 days ahead of Calendar B1;  B1+15: 15 days delay of Calendar B1; and  B2: Dry season paddy direct sowing. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 5-5 Computed unit diversion irrigation water requirement of each crop (1992-2011). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 5-6 Annual IWR per each scheme (1992-2011). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 5-7 Rule curves, flow and energy simulation for Dam No.1 (MIME, 2013 and) Tes S, 2013). "},{"text":"Figure 5 - 8 Figure 5-8 Simulated and observed water level in Khu Veal (Tes S, 2013). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 5-9 Simulated and observed water flow at the Khum Veal station (Tes S, 2013). "},{"text":"Table 2 - 1 Climate variables at Pursat meteorological station (1992-2011)(JICA, 2012). ............................................................................................. Summary of Water Resources Infrastructure Projects in the Stung Pursat Catchment (JICA, 2013b). .............................................................. Availability of daily water levels at stations within the Pursat river basin (JICA, 2011). .................................................................................. Availability of daily water discharges at stations within Pursat river basin (JICA, 2011). ..................................................................................Table 3-3 Rainfall stations with daily data availability within and around the Pursat river basin (JICA, 2013). ............................................................... Table 2-2 Table 2-2 Table 3-1 Table 3-1 Table 3-2 Table 3-2  "},{"text":"Table 2  -1 summarizes -1 summarizes  "},{"text":"Table 2 -1 Climate variables at Pursat meteorological station (1992-2011) (JICA, 2012).   "},{"text":"Climate Components Unit Months of the year Annual Table 2-2 Summary of Water Resources Infrastructure Projects in the Stung Pursat Catchment (JICA, 2013b). Water Resources Infrastructure Storage Volume (MCM) 1 Command Area (ha) 2 Existing Under Development Planned  Dam # 1       1,014   -     Dam # 11,014- Dam # 3       25.5   -     Dam # 325.5- Dam # 5       24.5   -     Dam # 524.5- Jan Damnak Cheukrom Irrigation Scheme Feb Mar Apr May Jun n/a Jul Aug Sep 16,100 Oct Nov Dec  Jan Damnak Cheukrom Irrigation Scheme FebMarAprMayJun n/aJulAug Sep 16,100OctNovDec Tmax Tmin Damnak Ampil Irrigation Scheme-Extension °C 33.3 34.5 35.7 36.3 36.1 35.3 34.7 34.4 33.2 32.4 32.1 31.6 °C 19.5 20.5 21.8 24.4 24.5 24.7 23.7 24.1 23.4 23.1 21.4 16.9 n/a 15,000  34.1 22.3  Tmax Tmin Damnak Ampil Irrigation Scheme-Extension °C 33.3 34.5 35.7 36.3 36.1 35.3 34.7 34.4 33.2 32.4 32.1 31.6 °C 19.5 20.5 21.8 24.4 24.5 24.7 23.7 24.1 23.4 23.1 21.4 16.9 n/a 15,000 34.1 22.3  Rhmean U(x) Damnak Ampil -Sub-project (SAPI) % 65.8 63.0 64.6 65.5 67.1 68.0 67.9 71.0 73.9 75.8 74.2 71.0 m/s 0.80 0.78 0.68 0.60 0.48 0.37 0.40 0.37 0.32 0.48 0.50 0.58 n/a 2,519 69.0 0.5  Rhmean U(x) Damnak Ampil -Sub-project (SAPI) % 65.8 63.0 64.6 65.5 67.1 68.0 67.9 71.0 73.9 75.8 74.2 71.0 m/s 0.80 0.78 0.68 0.60 0.48 0.37 0.40 0.37 0.32 0.48 0.50 0.58 n/a 2,51969.0 0.5  n Rs Orokar Irrigation Scheme hour/day Mj/m².day 12.2 13.7 16.2 15.6 15.6 14.6 15.4 13.7 12.9 12.7 12.8 13.8 9.5 9.0 8.8 7.7 7.3 5.6 6.4 5.0 5.5 6.6 7.4 8.5 n/a 4,700  7.3 14.1 n Rs Orokar Irrigation Scheme hour/day Mj/m².day 12.2 13.7 16.2 15.6 15.6 14.6 15.4 13.7 12.9 12.7 12.8 13.8 9.5 9.0 8.8 7.7 7.3 5.6 6.4 5.0 5.5 6.6 7.4 8.5 n/a 4,700 7.3 14.1 Pan Evaporation mm/day 3.7 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.0 4.0 3.4 3.4 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.4 3.7 Pan Evaporationmm/day3.74.44.54.64.04.03.43.43.03.13.13.43.7 ETO Loloksar Irrigation Scheme mm/day 3.0 3.4 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.4 n/a 3.5 3.2 2.9 580 2.9 2.8  2.8 3.3 ETO Loloksar Irrigation Scheme mm/day3.03.43.83.83.73.4 n/a3.53.22.9 5802.92.8 2.83.3 Wat Loung Irrigation Scheme (SAPI)    n/a   2,410     Wat Loung Irrigation Scheme (SAPI)n/a2,410 Kbal Houng Irrigation Scheme (right bank)   n/a   1,200     Kbal Houng Irrigation Scheme (right bank)n/a1,200 Kbal Houng Irrigation Scheme (left bank)   n/a   2,000     Kbal Houng Irrigation Scheme (left bank)n/a2,000 Charek Irrigation Scheme      n/a   11,000     Charek Irrigation Schemen/a11,000             These water These water infrastructure projects often develop from either existing deteriorated infrastructure projects often develop from either existing deteriorated infrastructure, a legacy of the Khmer Rouge era, or from previous studies infrastructure, a legacy of the Khmer Rouge era, or from previous studies conducted by the Interim Mekong Committee (IMC) (predecessor of the current conducted by the Interim Mekong Committee (IMC) (predecessor of the current Mekong River Commission (MRC) (H.E. Veng Sakhon (Secretary of State, Mekong River Commission (MRC) (H.E. Veng Sakhon (Secretary of State, MOWRAM) personal communication, March, 2013).      MOWRAM) personal communication, March, 2013). In total, 12 to 17 large and medium-sized existing and planned irrigation areas, In total, 12 to 17 large and medium-sized existing and planned irrigation areas, including three in the Svay Donkeo river basin (neighboring basin), cover an including three in the Svay Donkeo river basin (neighboring basin), cover an area of 55,509 ha (JICA, 2013b). A summary of the different projects in the Stung area of 55,509 ha (JICA, 2013b). A summary of the different projects in the Stung Pursat catchment is presented in Table 2-2 followed by a description of the major Pursat catchment is presented in Table 2-2 followed by a description of the major projects. The location of all existing and planned water development structures projects. The location of all existing and planned water development structures in the Stung Pursat catchment, and a flow chart of these structures are shown in in the Stung Pursat catchment, and a flow chart of these structures are shown in Figure 2-5 and Figure 2-6, respectively.         Figure 2-5 and Figure 2-6, respectively.  "},{"text":"Table 3 -1 Availability of daily water levels at stations within the Pursat river basin (JICA, 2011).   "},{"text":"Data available 120 Number of gaps in a year 1990 Station Name 11    River catchmn et Pursat Stung Peam Stung Svay At Stung Bromauy River Name Pursat Stung Santre / Prey Khlong Stung Sanlong HYMOS ID CODE Khum Veal Bak Trakuon Lolok Sar Phum Kos Kbal hong(up) Kbal hong(down) Peam Prey Klong(down) Prey Klong(up) Sanlong(up) Sanlong(down) Svay At Veal Veng 4,596 4,245 1,059 818 Gauging Station, km² + Area at 363700.7 1346389.3 DHRW Non-Operational 364756.9 1365617.7 DHRW Operational 255 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 120 + 306 + + + + + + + + 367847.3 1347660.8 DHRW Operational 90 + + 306 + + + + + + + + 184 378380.2 1351302.1 DHRW Non-Operational 90 + + 306 400493.0 1401662.8 DHRW Operational 120 + 306 + + + + + + + + + + 394894.4 1396798.2 DHRW Non-Operational 242 + + + + + + + 359610.0 1344257.8 DHRW Operational + + + + + + + + + + 383622.0 1339545.0 DHRW Operational 90 + + 306 + + + + + + + + + + 307961.4 1383516.3 DHRW Non-Operational 243 + + 306 + 371603.2 1410290.0 DHRW Non-Operational 212 + 306 371852.5 1405434.4 DHRW Non-Operational 212 + 306 371833.1 1401163.8 DHRW Non-Operational 90 + + 306 293934.0 1359853.0 DHRW Operational 364 146 Daily Data Availability Status till 2011 X_COORD Y_COORD TYPE of Station run by project /organisation 2000 River catchmn et PursatStung Peam Stung Svay At Stung Bromauy River Name Pursat Stung Santre / Prey Khlong Stung SanlongHYMOS ID CODEKhum Veal Bak Trakuon Lolok Sar Phum Kos Kbal hong(up) Kbal hong(down) Peam Prey Klong(down) Prey Klong(up) Sanlong(up) Sanlong(down) Svay At Veal Veng4,596 4,245 1,059 818 Gauging Station, km² + Area at 363700.7 1346389.3 DHRW Non-Operational 364756.9 1365617.7 DHRW Operational 255 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 120 + 306 + + + + + + + + 367847.3 1347660.8 DHRW Operational 90 + + 306 + + + + + + + + 184 378380.2 1351302.1 DHRW Non-Operational 90 + + 306 400493.0 1401662.8 DHRW Operational 120 + 306 + + + + + + + + + + 394894.4 1396798.2 DHRW Non-Operational 242 + + + + + + + 359610.0 1344257.8 DHRW Operational + + + + + + + + + + 383622.0 1339545.0 DHRW Operational 90 + + 306 + + + + + + + + + + 307961.4 1383516.3 DHRW Non-Operational 243 + + 306 + 371603.2 1410290.0 DHRW Non-Operational 212 + 306 371852.5 1405434.4 DHRW Non-Operational 212 + 306 371833.1 1401163.8 DHRW Non-Operational 90 + + 306 293934.0 1359853.0 DHRW Operational 364 146 Daily Data Availability Status till 2011 X_COORD Y_COORD TYPE of Station run by project /organisation 2000     Hatfield Hatfield  "},{"text":"Table 3 -2 Availability of daily water discharges at stations within Pursat river basin (JICA, 2011). Figure 3-1 Discharge hydrograph for the station Bak Trakuon (1995-2011) (JICA, 2013b).  Start Date End Date Start DateEnd Date  "},{"text":"Monthly Flow Availability of the Pursat River at Bak Trakuon   "},{"text":"Table 3 -3 Rainfall stations with daily data availability within and around the Pursat river basin (JICA, 2013).     UTM Coordinates  UTM Coordinates River Catchment Station ID Station Name Easting Northing Period of Record River CatchmentStation IDStation NameEastingNorthingPeriod of Record    (m) (m)  (m)(m) Stung 120426 Beung Khnar 362,188.5 1,396,436.4 1994-1996, 2001-2008 Stung120426Beung Khnar362,188.5 1,396,436.41994-1996, 2001-2008 Kambot/Beung      Kambot/Beung Khnar 120004 Phteah Rung 361,016.4 1,369,770.9 2000-2008 Khnar120004Phteah Rung361,016.4 1,369,770.92000-2008  120003 Bak Tra 375,989.1 1,373,551.5 2005-2010 120003Bak Tra375,989.1 1,373,551.52005-2010  120304 Dap Bat 370,246.6 1,380,894.0 2000-2002, 2004-2010 120304Dap Bat370,246.6 1,380,894.02000-2002, 2004-2010 Stung Pursat 120002 Kandieng 390,515.1 1,394,023.5 2005-2008, 2010 Stung Pursat120002Kandieng390,515.1 1,394,023.52005-2008, 2010  120312 Kravanh 365,457.0 1,364,266.0 1994-2010 120312Kravanh365,457.0 1,364,266.01994-2010  120313 Peam 360,322.6 1,356,910.4 2000-2010 120313Peam360,322.6 1,356,910.42000-2010  "},{"text":"Monthly Flow Availability of the Pursat River at Phum Veal Khum Veal Hatfield   "},{"text":"Table 3 -3 (Cont'd.)     UTM Coordinates  UTM Coordinates River Catchment Station ID Station Name Easting Northing Period of Record River CatchmentStation IDStation NameEastingNorthingPeriod of Record    (m) (m)  (m)(m)  120302 Pursat 381,845.0 1,386,941.0 1992-2011 120302Pursat381,845.0 1,386,941.01992-2011  120005 Roveing 341,975.0 1,362,273.0 2007-2008, 2010 120005Roveing341,975.0 1,362,273.02007-2008, 2010  120009 Santre 372,359.7 1,355,371.0 2010-2011 120009Santre372,359.7 1,355,371.02010-2011 Stung Pursat      Stung Pursat (Cont'd.) 120006 Taing Luch 352,425.1 1,361,891.5 2005-2010 (Cont'd.)120006Taing Luch352,425.1 1,361,891.52005-2010  120301 Tuolkruos 320,034.5 1,368,732.7 2001-2002, 2010-2011 120301Tuolkruos320,034.5 1,368,732.72001-2002, 2010-2011  120007 Veal Veng 293,501.2 1,361,041.1 2001-2002, 2004-2006, 2008-2010 120007Veal Veng293,501.2 1,361,041.12001-2002, 2004-2006, 2008-2010 Stung 120406 Bamnak 410,323.3 1,359,592.0 1993, 1999-2010 Stung120406Bamnak410,323.3 1,359,592.01993, 1999-2010 Bamank/Thlea 120320 Beung Kantout 400,310.1 1,384,906.1 1994-1996, 1999-2008 Bamank/Thlea120320Beung Kantout 400,310.1 1,384,906.11994-1996, 1999-2008 Ma' am 120001 Koh Chum 397,229.9 1,381,664.0 2007-2010 Ma' am120001Koh Chum397,229.9 1,381,664.02007-2010  "},{"text":"Rainfall Depth in mm Monthly rainfall availability at the Pursat raingauge station (ID: 120302)              400 400             350 350             300 300             250 250             200 200             150 150             100 100             50 50             0 0  Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec 20% Exceedance 5 10 86 123 237 206 223 280 264 356 184 20 20% Exceedance5108612323720622328026435618420 50% Exceedance 0 2 36 72 137 149 171 186 220 192 74 1 50% Exceedance023672137149171186220192741 80% Exceedance 0 0 3 37 87 97 109 104 198 111 25 0 80% Exceedance003378797109104198111250  "},{"text":"Table 4 -   "},{"text":"Table 4 -1 Rainfall stations with data interpolated using the Inverse Distance Weighing Method (IDW) (Tes S, 2013). It is important to note that the station Bak Trakuon was relocated in 2010; thus, two rating curves were developed at this station to compute discharges before and after 2010. The developed rating equations for all stations are shown in Table4-2. 4.2 RATING CURVE DEVELOPMENT 4.2RATING CURVE DEVELOPMENT  "},{"text":"Table 4 -2 Developed rating equations for four hydrometric stations in the Stung Pursat catchment (Tes S, 2013).  Station Name Station ID Rating Equation R 2 Number of Points used Station NameStation IDRating EquationR 2Number of Points used Peam 580201 Q = -0.84 + 6.7952H + 2.713H 2 0.9848 44 discharges measured between 1999-2001 Peam580201Q = -0.84 + 6.7952H + 2.713H 20.984844 discharges measured between 1999-2001 Prey Khlong 580301 Q = 24.3175 x (H-0.68) 1.6134 0.9917 23 discharges measured in 1994 and 2001 Prey Khlong580301Q = 24.3175 x (H-0.68) 1.61340.991723 discharges measured in 1994 and 2001 Bak Trakuon 580103 Before 2010: Q = 27.5335 x (H-0.05) 1.9304 After 2010: Q = -6.62 + 20.3279 H + 23.2066 H 2 0.9933 0.9946 108 discharges measured in 1997 to 1999, 2001, 2005 to 2006, and 2010 to 2012 Bak Trakuon580103Before 2010: Q = 27.5335 x (H-0.05) 1.9304 After 2010: Q = -6.62 + 20.3279 H + 23.2066 H 20.9933 0.9946108 discharges measured in 1997 to 1999, 2001, 2005 to 2006, and 2010 to 2012 Khum Veal 580104 Q = -42.05 + 52.2099 H -8.2745 H 2 + 2.0294 H 3 0.9977 36 discharges measured in 1998, 1999, and 2001 Khum Veal580104Q = -42.05 + 52.2099 H -8.2745 H 2 + 2.0294 H 30.997736 discharges measured in 1998, 1999, and 2001  "},{"text":" Hatfieldsimulations at three dams(Dams No. 1, 3, and 5), five for simulation of water intakse at various irrigation points, and the remaining nodes for simulation of inflows to the Pursat catchment. The nodes used in the simulation is listed below and also shown in Figure4-2. Node 1 : Stung Pursat basin outlet Node 1:Stung Pursat basin outlet Node 2 : Dam 1 Node 2:Dam 1 Node 3 : Dam 3 Node 3:Dam 3 Node 4 : Damnak Cheukrom diversion point Node 4:Damnak Cheukrom diversion point Node 5 : Bak Trakuon hydrometric station Node 5:Bak Trakuon hydrometric station Node 6 : Dam 5 Node 6:Dam 5 Node 7 : River inflow below Dam 3 Node 7:River inflow below Dam 3 Node 8 : Prey Khlong River Node 8:Prey Khlong River Node 9 : Node combining nodes 3, 7 and 6 Node 9:Node combining nodes 3, 7 and 6 Node 10 : Damnak Ampil diversion point Node 10:Damnak Ampil diversion point Node 11 : Loloksar diversion point Node 11:Loloksar diversion point Node 12 : Kbal Hong Right diversion point Node 12:Kbal Hong Right diversion point Node 13 : Kbal Hong Left diversion point Node 13:Kbal Hong Left diversion point Node 14 : Khum Veal Hydrometric station Node 14:Khum Veal Hydrometric station Node 15 : Charek Irrigation diversion point Node 15:Charek Irrigation diversion point Node 16 : Subcatchment south of national road 5. Flows into node 15 Node 16:Subcatchment south of national road 5. Flows into node 15 Node 17 : Subcatchment south of national road 5. Flows into node 1 Node 17:Subcatchment south of national road 5. Flows into node 1 Node 18 : Node combining nodes 3 and 7 Node 18:Node combining nodes 3 and 7 Node 19 : Subcatchment south of national road 5. Flows into node 15 Node 19:Subcatchment south of national road 5. Flows into node 15   Hatfield Hatfield  "},{"text":"Table 4 -3 Difference between areas defined in SAPI and in this study (Tes S, 2013). Irrigation Scheme Catchment Area From SAPI Diagram, km 2 New defined area by MK 16 km  2 2  "},{"text":"Table 4   "},{"text":"Table 4 -4 Assumed Cropping Patterns for Water Balance determination in the Stung Pursat Catchment (JICA, 2012). Table 4-5 Irrigation areas for each cropping pattern in the Stung Pursat catchment (JICA, 2012).  Early Wet Season   Wet Season Dry Season   Remarks Early Wet SeasonWet SeasonDry SeasonRemarks (A) Paddy (105 days, DS) (B) Paddy (115 days, TP)   Double crop of paddy, Proposed pattern for JICA's sub-project by SAPROF (A) Paddy (105 days, DS)(B) Paddy (115 days, TP)Double crop of paddy, Proposed pattern for JICA's sub-project by SAPROF   (B1) Paddy (140 days, DS)   Single crop of paddy in Wet season, assuming that majority of the area applied this pattern (B1) Paddy (140 days, DS)Single crop of paddy in Wet season, assuming that majority of the area applied this pattern   (B1-15) Paddy (140 days, DS)   Do. (15 days earlier than B1) (B1-15) Paddy (140 days, DS)Do. (15 days earlier than B1)   (B1+15) Paddy (140 days, DS)  Do. (15 days delay from B1) (B1+15) Paddy (140 days, DS)Do. (15 days delay from B1)      (B2) Paddy (90 days, DS) Limited from December to March (B2) Paddy (90 days, DS) Limited from December to March      (UC-1) Upland crops (mung bean)   (UC-1) Upland crops(mung bean) Irrigation Area/ Cropping Pattern A (DS 105 days) B (TP 115 days) B1-15 (DS 140 days) B1 (DS 140 days) B1+15 (DS 140 days) B2 (DS 90 days) UC-1 Total crop area per year Cropping Intensity (CI) Irrigation Area/ Cropping PatternA (DS 105 days)B (TP 115 days)B1-15 (DS 140 days)B1 (DS 140 days)B1+15 (DS 140 days)B2 (DS 90 days)UC-1Total crop area per yearCropping Intensity (CI) Pursat  ha        (Ha) % Pursatha(Ha)% Damnak Chhoeukrom 16100 6000 16100 0 0 0 0  22,100.00 137% Damnak Chhoeukrom16100600016100000022,100.00137% Orokar 4700 1000 0 0 4700 0   5,700.00 121% Orokar4700100000470005,700.00121% Damnak Ampil (Ext.) Damnak Ampil (SAPI) 15000 2519 2462 189 0 2519 0 15000 0 0  17,462.00 2,708.00 116% 108% Damnak Ampil (Ext.) Damnak Ampil (SAPI)15000 25192462 1890 25190150000017,462.00 2,708.00116% 108% Wat Loung (SAPI) 2410 180 2410 0 0 0   2,590.00 107% Wat Loung (SAPI)241018024100002,590.00107% Loloksar  580 0 0 0 580 0 20  600.00 103% Loloksar580000580020600.00103% Kbal Hong (LB) 2000    2000  30  2,030.00 102% Kbal Hong (LB)20002000302,030.00102% Kbal Hong (RB) 1200    1200  10  1,210.00 101% Kbal Hong (RB)12001200101,210.00101% Charek 11000 350    11000   11,350.00 103% Charek110003501100011,350.00103% Total Area, Ha 55,509 10181 21029 0 23480 11000 60 0 65,750 118% Total Area, Ha55,50910181210290234801100060065,750118%  "},{"text":"Table 4 -6 Crop Calendar for the Stung Pursat river catchment (JICA, 2012 and Tes S, 2013).   "},{"text":" development of the integrated water quality and quantity model (IQQM) considered key components of the water balance in the Stung Pursat catchment including: inflows, return flows, impoundments, reservoir operation, consumptive and non-consumptive demands, and the general capability to simulate pollutants. IQQM was developed for the Stung Pursat catchment with the purpose of:  Assessing water availability for different water use sectors/stakeholders to support development efforts in the Stung Pursat catchment; and  Providing information to help develop appropriate Rules/Procedure in Climate Change Adaptation.  "},{"text":" Calibration data, including satellite imagery, ground measurements of level and flow and local knowledge of flood patterns. These data were collected from the following sources: These data were collected from the following sources:  Cross-section surveys conducted in the Stung Pursat River;  Cross-section surveys conducted in the Stung Pursat River;  Existing digital elevation model (DEM) developed for the Land and  Existing digital elevation model (DEM) developed for the Land and Resources Inventory Agriculture Development project (LRIAD) and an Resources Inventory Agriculture Development project (LRIAD) and an updated DEM generated by the MRC in 2013; updated DEM generated by the MRC in 2013;  Acoustic doppler velocity meter (ADCP) discharge measurements  Acoustic doppler velocity meter (ADCP) discharge measurements conducted in 2013 in the Stung Pursat River for the period pre-flood, conducted in 2013 in the Stung Pursat River for the period pre-flood, flood and post-flood. These measurements help check the diversions flood and post-flood. These measurements help check the diversions onto the flood plain that are being simulated in the model; and onto the flood plain that are being simulated in the model; and  Rainfall data collected at the Pursat climate station for the period (1992-  Rainfall data collected at the Pursat climate station for the period (1992- 2011). 2011).  Channel cross-sections;  Floodplain data (including area/elevation relations) and controls (including spill levels and any structures);  Boundary data, including hydrological data on inflows, direct rainfall and evaporation, crop water use and water level; and parameters to match hydrograph peak timing and shape Run model and compare simulated and observed at calibration point Validate, and review inputs if Determine the difference between observed and simulated flow Input inflows and demands Include URBS inflows in IQQM Calibrate URBS against Develop River flow vs. flow  Adjust routing necessary. difference file. error function.  Channel cross-sections;  Floodplain data (including area/elevation relations) and controls (including spill levels and any structures);  Boundary data, including hydrological data on inflows, direct rainfall and evaporation, crop water use and water level; and parameters to match hydrograph peak timing and shape Run model and compare simulated and observed at calibration point Validate, and review inputs if Determine the difference between observed and simulated flow Input inflows and demands Include URBS inflows in IQQM Calibrate URBS against Develop River flow vs. flow  Adjust routing necessary. difference file. error function. Hatfield Hatfield  "},{"text":"Monthly Flow Availability of the whole Pursat River Hatfield   450            450  400            400  350            350 Flows in m³/s 200 250 300            Flows in m³/s200 250 300  150            150  100            100  50            50  0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 0JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec Average  1.9 1.9 10.5 35.9 46.9 71.8 99.0 115.2 129.9 183.6 94.1 14.4 Average1.91.910.535.946.971.899.0115.2129.9183.694.114.4 Maximum  5.1 6.2 66.0 83.5 119.8 173.6 245.0 240.6 221.4 411.7 271.8 34.9 Maximum5.16.266.083.5119.8173.6245.0240.6221.4411.7271.834.9 Minuimum  0.0 0.0 0.4 1.3 9.5 29.4 20.8 36.8 58.7 67.7 10.7 3.1 Minuimum0.00.00.41.39.529.420.836.858.767.710.73.1 95% Exceedence 0.3 0.1 0.5 4.2 9.9 32.9 31.6 38.7 68.6 88.8 23.4 3.1 95% Exceedence0.30.10.54.29.932.931.638.768.688.823.43.1 80% Exceedence 0.6 0.6 1.1 11.0 25.2 44.6 63.5 80.7 87.0 100.1 35.5 5.5 80% Exceedence0.60.61.111.025.244.663.580.787.0100.135.55.5  "},{"text":"IWR in liter/s/ha Average Monthly IWR (1992-2011)    Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec A (DS 105 days)  0 0 0 2.42 6.92 5.83 1.59 0 0 0 0 0.00 A (DS 105 days)0002.426.925.831.5900000.00 B (TP 115 days)  0 0 0 0 0 0 0.46 3.55 4.43 3.74 2.91 0.11 B (TP 115 days)0000000.463.554.433.742.910.11 B1-15 (DS 140 days) 0 0 0 0 0.14 2.16 5.32 4.91 3.91 1.85 0.40 0 B1-15 (DS 140 days)00000.142.165.324.913.911.850.400 B1 (DS 140 days)  0 0 0 0 0 0.88 3.77 4.82 4.21 2.85 1.58 0 B1 (DS 140 days)000000.883.774.824.212.851.580 B1+15(DS 140 days) 0 0 0 0 0 0.23 2.48 4.22 4.32 3.63 3.17 0.49 B1+15(DS 140 days)000000.232.484.224.323.633.170.49 B2 (DS 90 days)  9.50 8.99 2.84 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.91 B2 (DS 90 days)9.508.992.84000000002.91 60.0             60.0 50.0             50.0 40.0             40.0 30.0             30.0 20.0             20.0 10.0             10.0 0.0 Damnak  Orokar Damnak Ampil  Loloksar Kbal Hong (LB &  Charek 0.0DamnakOrokarDamnak AmpilLoloksarKbal Hong (LB &Charek  Chheukrom        RB)   ChheukromRB) Maximum  48.8  14.1  55.3  1.5  8.3  29.5 Maximum48.814.155.31.58.329.5 Average  29.8  8.8  34.0  0.9  5.1  18.2 Average29.88.834.00.95.118.2 Minimum  12.0  4.2  15.7  0.4  2.3  8.6 Minimum12.04.215.70.42.38.6  "},{"text":"IWR in MCM Irrigation Water Requirement per each Scheme in the Pursat river catchment   "}],"sieverID":"8bcb1e53-3a80-4dae-8739-5f452f268c62","abstract":"Our sincerest thanks go to all key stakeholders and members of the Pursat Multi-Stakeholder Platform (MSP) from relevant government agencies, academics and research organizations, local authorities, community-based organizations, and other individuals for their active contribution to the project."}

data/part_3/07c25e32b400225cf50a14eaf54f62d1.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07c25e32b400225cf50a14eaf54f62d1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/116b5869-3410-40a0-965a-fbc42f72c341/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Viện nghiên cứu Chăn nuôi Quốc tế (ILRI) Phòng 301-302, tòa nhà B1, Khu Ngoại giao đoàn Vạn Phúc","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Chữ viết tắt","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Giới thiệu về dự án","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mục đích và đối tượng sử dụng cuốn sổ tay","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Mục đích của cuốn sổ tay nhằm giúp nâng cao nhận thức và kiến thức về một số bệnh KST trên lợn của những người tham gia vào chuỗi sản xuất, tiêu thụ thịt lợn, bao gồm người chăn nuôi lợn, giết mổ, bán lẻ và người tiêu dùng, trong đó chú trọng đến lợn bản địa được chăn nuôi trên địa bàn dự án, đồng thời đưa ra khuyến nghị về một số thực hành vệ sinh tốt nhằm giảm nguy cơ mắc các bệnh lây truyền qua thực phẩm. Cuốn sổ tay là hướng dẫn hỗ trợ chăn nuôi lợn bản địa an toàn hơn, và không có chức năng thay thế các quy định hiện hành."}]},{"head":"Hình thức và cách thức sử dụng cuốn sổ tay","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Cuốn sổ tay trình bày tổng quát vòng đời của hai bệnh KST trên lợnbệnh sán dây lợn/bệnh ấu trùng sán lợn và bệnh giun xoắn, nguyên nhân, cách thức lây truyền và triệu chứng của bệnh. Các thông điệp chính về kiểm soát và phòng ngừa những bệnh này được trình bày cho từng đối tượng cụ thể trong chuỗi sản xuất tiêu thụ, bao gồm người chăn nuôi lợn, giết mổ, bán lẻ và người tiêu dùng, và kèm theo các hình ảnh, giải thích để minh họa cho một số thực hành tốt và không tốt."}]},{"head":"Bệnh sán dây lợn và bệnh ấu trùng sán lợn","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Bệnh sán dây lợn trên người liên quan đến nhiễm sán dây trưởng thành trong đường ruột. Bệnh ấu trùng sán lợn là bệnh nhiễm ấu trùng của sán dây lợn (T. Solium) ký sinh trên các cơ quan tổ chức (dưới da, não)."}]},{"head":"Cách thức lây bệnh","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Người bị bệnh sán dây lợn khi ăn thịt lợn có chứa nang sán (ấu trùng của sán dây lợn ký sinh trên thịt lợn) chưa được nấu chín.   "}]},{"head":"Bệnh giun xoắn","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Bệnh sán dây lợn","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Đau bụng hoặc thấy các đốt sán dây trong phân người."}]},{"head":"Bệnh giun xoắn","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Buồn nôn, nôn, sốt, tiêu chảy, mệt mỏi, đau cơ, sưng mí mắt hoặc mặt, phù toàn thân, nhức đầu, nhạy cảm với ánh sáng và mắt đỏ (viêm kết mạc)."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Hướng dẫn phòng bệnh KST truyền lây từ lợn sang người cho người tiêu dùng"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Dự án được tài trợ bởi Bộ Hợp tác Kinh tế và Phát triển Liên bang Đức (BMZ), được ủy quyền và quản lý thông qua Tổ chức Hợp tác Quốc tế Liên bang Đức (GIZ), Quỹ Nghiên cứu Nông nghiệp Quốc tế (FIA), mã tài trợ: 81219445. Dự án được đồng tài trợ bởi Chương trình nghiên cứu CGIAR về Nông nghiệp vì Dinh dưỡng và Sức khỏe (A4NH) và Trung tâm nghiên cứu Nông nghiệp Quốc tế Úc (ACIAR). Dự án xin gửi lời cảm ơn sự hỗ trợ của Viện Sốt rét, Ký sinh trùng Côn trùng Trung ương (hỗ trợ kỹ thuật về sức khỏe cộng đồng), Viện Chăn nuôi (hỗ trợ thương hiệu lợn Bản) và Trường Thú y Hoàng gia, Vương quốc Anh (hỗ trợ kỹ thuật về nghiên cứu thay đổi hành vi). "},{"text":" Người bị bệnh ấu trùng sán lợn khi ăn phải trứng sán dây lợn qua thực phẩm bị nhiễm trứng sán (ví dụ như rau quả, thịt) hoặc nước. Trứng phát triển thành ấu trùng và xuyên qua thành ruột đến các mô liên kết (dưới da, não) tạo thành các nang sán. Bệnh xảy ra trên lợn khi lợn nuốt phải trứng sán dây lợn từ phân của người nhiễm sán (ví dụ qua môi trường trang trại). Vòng đời của sán dây lợn, ấu trùng sán lợn trên người và lợn (nguồn García và cộng sự) 1 : Triệu chứng trên người và lợn Bệnh sán dây lợn (ở người): thường không có triệu chứng điển hình như đau bụng, rối loạn tiêu hóa, nhưng giai đoạn sán trưởng thành có thể nhìn thấy các đốt sán trong phân. Bệnh ấu trùng sán lợn (ở người): đau đầu, liệt chân, tay hoặc liệt nửa người, co giật, động kinh, sa sút trí tuệ, giảm thị lực, mù lòa, xuất hiện nang sán dưới da. Bệnh ấu trùng sán lợn (ở lợn): Lợn mắc bệnh hầu hết không có triệu chứng, nhưng trong quá trình giết mổ xuất hiện các nang sán có nhân trắng giống như hạt gạo xuất hiện trong thịt (cơ). "},{"text":" Triệu chứng trên lợn Hầu hết không có triệu chứng, ấu trùng trong cơ chỉ có thể xác định, chẩn đoán qua xét nghiệm phòng thí nghiệm. Vòng đời giun xoắn trên người và lợn 4 Xử lý phân lợn đúng cách, như ủ phân hoặc thu gom và lưu trữ, che đậy phân để các vật nuôi khác không tiếp xúc được. Luôn nhốt lợn trong chuồng hoặc trong khu vực có tường, rào chắn. Điều này cũng làm giảm nguy cơ mắc các bệnh khác. Không thả rông lợn bên ngoài khu chuồng nhốt hay khu có rào chắn. Thả rông lợn cũng có thể làm tăng nguy cơ nhiễm các bệnh khác, như bệnh dịch tả lợn Châu Phi. bệnh KST truyền lây từ lợn sang người cho người chăn nuôi lợn bản địa Khuyến khích người dân sử dụng nhà vệ sinh khép kín hoặc hố xí xây kín. Thường xuyên tẩy giun cho lợn (dựa trên khuyến cáo, lời khuyên từ bác sĩ thú y về các loại thuốc nên sử dụng). thịt để tìm các dấu hiệu bất thường. Trong trường hợp có bất kỳ dấu hiệu nghi ngờ nào, cần báo ngay cho cơ quan chức năng hoặc cán bộ kiểm định. (Ảnh: lợn bị bệnh giun xoắn) Lợn và thân thịt phải được kiểm tra khi giết mổ. Thực hành tốt Không giết mổ lợn có biểu hiện ốm, bệnh. (Ảnh: lợn và thân thịt có biểu hiện mắc bệnh truyền nhiễm) Thực hành không tốt Hướng dẫn phòng bệnh KST truyền lây từ lợn sang người cho người giết mổ Thường xuyên rửa, khử trùng tay và các dụng cụ giết mổ. Không giết mổ hoặc đặt thân thịt lên các bề mặt bẩn hoặc sàn nhà. Giết mổ lợn trên các bề mặt sạch như các tấm sàn hoặc bàn. Không để thân thịt gần nội tạng (lòng, gan, phổi…) của lợn. lợn có các biểu hiện bất thường. (Ảnh, từ trái qua: thịt lợn bị áp xe và nhiễm ấu trùng sán dây lợn) trên các bề mặt bẩn hoặc gần với nội tạng. lợn hoặc các sản phẩm thịt lợn sống hoặc chưa được nấu chín. "},{"text":" Chăn nuôi lợn đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc tạo sinh kế cho người dân tộc thiểu số ở Việt Nam. Lợn bản địa và lợn rừng hầu hết đều được nuôi dưới hình thức chăn thả. Chăn nuôi lợn bản địa cho phép người dân tộc thiểu số sản xuất và tiêu thụ nhiều hơn các thực phẩm có nguồn gốc động vật, cải thiện tình trạng dinh dưỡng và góp phần tạo sinh kế cho người dân. Tuy nhiên, các bệnh ký sinh trùng (KST) trên lợn, bao cho người dân. Tuy nhiên, các bệnh ký sinh trùng (KST) trên lợn, bao gồm bệnh sán dây lợn, bệnh ấu trùng sán lợn và bệnh giun xoắn, tiềm ẩn gồm bệnh sán dây lợn, bệnh ấu trùng sán lợn và bệnh giun xoắn, tiềm ẩn những nguy cơ sức khỏe cho con người và dẫn đến những tác động đáng những nguy cơ sức khỏe cho con người và dẫn đến những tác động đáng kể về mặt kinh tế, dinh dưỡng đối với người dân. kể về mặt kinh tế, dinh dưỡng đối với người dân. Mục tiêu của dự án nhằm đánh giá và giảm thiểu các bệnh KST trên lợn Mục tiêu của dự án nhằm đánh giá và giảm thiểu các bệnh KST trên lợn nói trên tại địa bàn cộng đồng đồng bào dân tộc thiểu số mà dự án lựa nói trên tại địa bàn cộng đồng đồng bào dân tộc thiểu số mà dự án lựa chọn. Một trong những mục tiêu cụ thể của dự án là nâng cao nhận thức chọn. Một trong những mục tiêu cụ thể của dự án là nâng cao nhận thức và kiến thức về một số bệnh KST trên lợn cho những người tham gia vào và kiến thức về một số bệnh KST trên lợn cho những người tham gia vào chuỗi sản xuất, tiêu thụ lợn bản địa, bao gồm người chăn nuôi lợn, giết chuỗi sản xuất, tiêu thụ lợn bản địa, bao gồm người chăn nuôi lợn, giết mổ, bán lẻ và người tiêu dùng. mổ, bán lẻ và người tiêu dùng.  "},{"text":" Triệu chứng trên người Các triệu chứng đầu tiên: Buồn nôn và nôn, sốt cao, tiêu chảy nhiều, mệt mỏi, đau bụng, sau đ�� đau cơ, đau toàn thân, sưng phù mí mắt, sau phù toàn thân, nhức đầu, sợ ánh sáng, mắt đỏ (viêm kết mạc) có thể xảy ra. Trong trường hợp nghiêm trọng dẫn đến suy đa phủ tạng có thể dẫn đến tử vong.  "}],"sieverID":"0769d775-a49c-417f-814f-93bd817aebc6","abstract":""}

data/part_3/07e313ba9107acecbd86935a788a11c2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07e313ba9107acecbd86935a788a11c2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Books/PDF/water_reuse_in_the_middle_east_and_north_africa-a_sourcebook-section-3.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Nevertheless, the spread of projects on direct water reuse is uneven across the MENA region even though the region is one of the most arid and water-scarce regions in the world. Some countries, such as Jordan and Tunisia, promote wastewater treatment and reuse as an integral component of their water management strategy. Other countries, such as Lebanon, have not given priority to wastewater treatment or reuse."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Although water reuse in the region is currently limited, there are noteworthy water reuse success stories at different scales. Factors that contribute positively are political will and support, participatory stakeholder processes, economic and finance models, flexible reuse safety plans, effective policies, innovative partnerships, technologies and cost-effective investments that promote reuse. This body of knowledge provides opportunities for crosslearning to find solutions for common regional reuse challenges."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"The dominant uses of reclaimed water are for forestry, agriculture and landscaping, including irrigation of parks and gardens. Each country of MENA has invested in different typologies of water reuse that best suit its needs and constraints. Forestry and agriculture are the dominant users of reclaimed water for example in Egypt, Tunisia and Jordan while landscaping is the preferred option in countries like Morocco, United Arab Emirates, Oman and other GCC countries. The pattern in other areas is not so clear with a more mixed project portfolio. These patterns are a consequence of different factors, including perceptions about reuse, the quality of the effluents and the different policies and legislations that have been shaped across the region."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"The presence of water reuse projects for other purposes such as industrial use, non-potable urban use, aquifer recharge or environmental restoration are scattered and much less frequent."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"In this section we have characterized in detail several key water resource projects from Morocco, Tunisia, Jordan, the West Bank and United Arab Emirates (Figure S3.2). The objective of this task is to make a full characterization of selected reuse cases, document the key factors that made them a success and the lessons learnt when things did not go well."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"We selected nine case studies out of the 409 projects that ReWater MENA identified. The nine case studies met the following criteria:"},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"Have operated at scale for at least two years Have sufficient data available and accessible Are financially sustainable Generate positive social externalities Ensure human health protection and Generate positive environmental externalities"},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"The selection also considers a balanced geographical distribution of cases that capture the regional differences and socioeconomic contexts."},{"index":9,"size":103,"text":"Case studies 1 and 2 examine wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) in Morocco. The first study examines a WWTP which serves a million inhabitants of Marrakech. The WWTP has made it possible to use recycled water in novel and innovative ways including to irrigate golf courses, green landscaped areas, the palm grove and 26 gardens and parks in Marrakech city. It has been successful in offsetting a water deficit in the Tensift basin and alleviates pressure on conventional water sources. The reuse of this water, which is treated to a very high standard, is contributing to the health of the people and the environment."},{"index":10,"size":61,"text":"The second case study in Morocco looks at the Boukhalef WWTP, which was constructed to increase capacity in wastewater treatment and to provide irrigation water for green spaces in Tangier city. Operational since 2015, the plant saves nearly 3 million m 3 /year of water and improve the health and living environment of residents and bring additional benefits for promoting tourism."},{"index":11,"size":52,"text":"Case studies 3 and 4 present examples of WWTPs in Tunisia. The Sfax Sud WWTP serves a population of around 526,800 people and is located 6 km south of Sfax city. Water from the WWTP is used to irrigate the public irrigated perimeter of El Hajeb, an agricultural area of 444 hectares."},{"index":12,"size":151,"text":"The second case study in Tunisia is similar to the first as recycled water from the Ouardanine WWTP is used in the Ouardanine public irrigated perimeter. The 74 hectares of the perimeter is owned by 42 farmers. The Ouardanine perimeter is an active location for scientific research and studies on irrigated agriculture in Tunisia and the first at the national level to use sludge as organic fertilizer. Case study 5 provided an in-depth analysis of the Jericho WWTP in Palestine. The Jericho WWTP started operations in June 2014 with the dual purpose of treating wastewater generated in the area and providing recycled water as a new source of irrigation water for date palm cultivation. The Jericho WWTP provides an attractive new non-conventional water resource that is already almost fully utilized for supplementary irrigation on date palm farms, representing 8-25% of the total irrigation water used for date palm cultivation in Jericho."},{"index":13,"size":100,"text":"Case studies 6 and 7 are from Jordan. Tala Bay WWTP started operations in 2005 to supply recycled water from the plant for use around the Tala Bay Hotels and Resorts complex to irrigate the landscaped spaces, for example, green areas and gardens. The water is pumped from the storage tank to be reused in different ways around the resort such as for the sprinkler systems to irrigate the green areas in the resort or to the drip network to irrigate the trees. Some of the recycled water is pumped to nearby hotels such as the Mövenpick Resort and Spa."},{"index":14,"size":66,"text":"The Wadi Musa WWTP in the southern part of Jordan, close to the historic city of Petra, is owned by the Aqaba Governorate. It started operations in 2001 to serve 20,000 inhabitants and treat collected wastewater from hotels in Petra and nearby residential areas. The recycled water is used to irrigate an area used to grow alfalfa. It is the first community-based project established in Jordan."},{"index":15,"size":128,"text":"Case studies 8 and 9 look at WWTP in the United Arab Emirates. In 2011, two new treatment plants and facilities were constructed to boost wastewater treatment services in Abu Dhabi city and the surrounding areas. The Al Wathbah-1 and Al Wathbah-2 WWTPs were designed to fill gaps in existing treatment facilities caused by the increased volume of wastewater and to produce recycled water to use as irrigation water for farms, parks, green areas and similar around Abu Dhabi as part of sustainable water resource management activities. The catchment area for Al Wathbah-2 is below sea level. This has led to seepage of seawater into the collection network and results in high levels of salinity which is reflected in the salinity levels of water produced at the plant."},{"index":16,"size":70,"text":"The Jebel Ali WWTP is the largest state-of-the-art plant in the United Arab Emirates and is located close to the city of Dubai. Water treated at the plant can be reused for non-potable applications across the Emirate of Dubai, with tertiary treated water mainly used for agricultural purposes. When combined with existing facilities, Jebel Ali WWTP will be providing sewage treatment for more than half of Dubai's 3.5 million population."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE S3. 2 FIGURE S3.2 Selected cases of water reclamation and direct reuse for productive purposes in the MENA region. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"0f4d2ca0-97ae-41d8-8b38-7a94ad2c1da6","abstract":""}

data/part_3/081bc2ad37b51667f88a4078eefa57ba.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"081bc2ad37b51667f88a4078eefa57ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b9ab0874-8f54-41a2-ae9f-dbe8311e7160/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Diseño de un mecanismo financiero mixto y evaluación del potencial de carbono para sistemas sostenibles de cacao en Caquetá y Cesar: necesidades, barreras y recomendaciones 0 Diseño de un mecanismo financiero mixto y evaluación del potencial de carbono para sistemas sostenibles de cacao en Caquetá y Cesar: necesidades, barreras y recomendaciones","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Participantes","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introducción al Grupo Focal","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introducción y presentación de la agenda","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Para comenzar, se hizo una presentación del objetivo general del proyecto: \"diseñar un mecanismo financiero mixto dirigido a la adopción y escalamiento de sistemas de producción de cacao bajo en emisiones y que contribuya a la paz para los departamentos de Caquetá y Cesar\"."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Además, se compartió la agenda de la reunión presentada a continuación. • Identificar las necesidades de financiamiento para sistemas sostenibles de cacao en Caquetá y Cesar."}]},{"head":"•","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Identificar las barreras de financiamiento para sistemas sostenibles de cacao en Caquetá y Cesar."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Sobre la consolidación de información cualitativa sobre las actividades que requerían financiación, se mencionó que estas podían incluir, por ejemplo, la reconversión de fincas, ampliación de sistemas existentes o certificación hacia sistemas agroforestales de cacao sostenible, y que, además, se buscaba comprender las condiciones necesarias para esta financiación en términos de plazos, montos y tipo de financiamiento."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Por otro lado, se profundizó en que se pretendía recopilar información sobre las barreras que enfrentan los actores de la cadena de valor del cacao sostenible, incluyendo tanto factores externos como circunstancias de orden público, falta de claridad en la información o tenencia de tierras, como barreras inherentes al acceso a recursos financieros, como requisitos excesivos, montos y plazos inadecuados, falta de asistencia técnica y capacidades, así como la falta de mercados rentables."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Finalmente, el facilitador destacó que el punto de partida era el conocimiento y la experiencia de los colaboradores en la adopción de sistemas de cacao sostenible, considerando su trabajo en el Proyecto SLUS y otros programas relacionados."}]},{"head":"Presentación del Proyecto SLUS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"A modo de introducción del grupo focal se realizó una corta presentación sobre el proyecto SLUS, cuyo objetivo es implementar sistemas productivos sostenibles agrícolas y pecuarios para simultáneamente alcanzar la conservación de los bosques para la mitigación del cambio climático (REDD+) y la construcción de la paz en Colombia. El proyecto busca conectar enfoques territoriales con enfoques económicos, financieros y de mercado, para poder construir sistemas sostenibles escalables. Para esto, existen cuatro paquetes de trabajo que son: i) integración de políticas, ii) sistemas sostenibles de uso del suelo (SLUS), iii) estrategias de cadenas de valor, y iv) modelos de negocio. Sus logros, en resumidas cuentas, han sido: a nivel académico, 23 artículos publicados sobre acción climática y paz, un artículo sobre sistemas alimentarios bajos en carbono, y 4 herramientas que permiten integrar co-beneficios de paz a través de la acción climática. Además, se ha acompañado el acuerdo cero deforestación de la cadena láctea y de cacao, y se ha apoyado el fortalecimiento de capacidades a través de 4 estudiantes de maestría y 8 de doctorado."}]},{"head":"Desarrollo del grupo focal","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"BLoque 1: Identificación de necesidades","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Principales actividades o inversions de los sistemas sostenibles de cacao que requieren financiación","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Para comenzar con este bloque se preguntó ¿Cuáles son las principales actividades o inversiones de los sistemas sostenibles de cacao que requieren financiación y por qué?"},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Se destacaron las inversiones iniciales en los costos de establecimiento de prácticas sostenibles, señalando que estas eran difíciles de internalizar inicialmente. Además, se subrayó la importancia de escalar estas prácticas en términos de número de hectáreas y beneficiarios para asegurar su rentabilidad. Asimismo, se mencionó la necesidad de cumplir con normas ambientales previas al establecimiento, reconociendo las dificultades para llevar a cabo trámites con corporaciones en este aspecto."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"Posteriormente, se profundizó en la discusión al preguntar qué aspectos específicos debían impulsarse en relación con los costos iniciales de las adopciones sostenibles y los puntos críticos de financiación para la transición a un sistema sostenible o su escalamiento. Se resaltó que el cacao por sí solo no era rentable y que era necesario adoptar prácticas adicionales, como la certificación orgánica, técnicas pos cosecha para mejorar la calidad del grano, y la incorporación de cultivos asociados como plátano y madera. Se enfatizó la necesidad crucial de acceso a mercados diferenciados y requisitos específicos de licencia técnica, así como el fortalecimiento de las asociaciones de productores."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Se compartió un ejercicio de costo-beneficio que abarcó un periodo de un año desde el establecimiento desde cero, revelando que el cultivo no generaba producción durante los primeros tres años, lo que requería financiación. Se hizo hincapié en que el tamaño rentable del cultivo debía ser igual o superior a tres hectáreas, alcanzando rentabilidad positiva sin financiación a partir del sexto año. Para la reconversión, se destacó la importancia de la asistencia técnica adecuada y el fortalecimiento de las asociaciones de productores."}]},{"head":"Características y experiencias sobre el acceso a financiación","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"A continuación, el grupo focal se enfocó en responder a siguiente pregunta: De acuerdo con la experiencia de su programa, ¿cuáles son las características que necesita tener [esa financiación] en términos de montos, plazos y tipo de financiación?"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Desde el CIAT, se llevó a cabo un análisis de costo-beneficio tanto para la certificación orgánica en Caquetá como para el riego en Cesar, considerando los costos reales incurridos en la adopción de sistemas SLUS como buenas aproximaciones a estos precios."}]},{"head":"Bloque 2: Identificación de barreras para el financimiento","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experiencias para la implementación, acceso o ejecución de financiación","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Para iniciar con este bloque se preguntó: ¿Cuáles son las principales barreras que han enfrentado sus socios para acceder a una financiación adecuada y oportuna?"},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"En Caquetá, se destacaron vacíos en la reglamentación de las figuras de ordenamiento como una barrera significativa. Estos vacíos generan falta de claridad entre las familias sobre la propiedad y tenencia de la tierra, así como las actividades permitidas según las figuras de ordenamiento. La presencia de Parques Nacionales y el Distrito de Conservación de Suelos y Aguas del Caquetá, aunque existentes como figuras, no se aplican operativamente."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Se mencionó que la barrera relacionada con la tenencia de la tierra puede ser independiente de la figura de protección y es un problema generalizado en el país. En Cesar, además de esta barrera, se resaltaron las medidas de control ambiental y sus requisitos (permisos, autorizaciones y concesiones) como factores limitantes para el acceso a la financiación."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"La informalidad fue identificada como otro obstáculo, ralentizando los procesos, aunque no siempre impidiéndolos, constituyendo una limitación en muchos casos. También se señaló la necesidad de contar con proyectos estructurados, lo cual requiere el apoyo de organizaciones para la formulación inicial y sus costos asociados. La rentabilidad del proyecto también fue identificada como una barrera crucial, ya que debe demostrarse que es rentable incluso sin el respaldo de instrumentos de crédito o fomento, siendo un riesgo significativo para la financiación."}]},{"head":"Información sobre alternativas de financiación","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"A continuación, se realizó la siguiente pregunta: ¿A quién acude el productor en busca de información sobre alternativas de financiación o de asistencia técnica para implementar esas necesidades?"},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"En Caquetá, se destacó la presencia de diversas organizaciones. En el sur, Conservación Internacional, a través del programa Natura Amazona, respalda arreglos agroforestales con cacao y otras especies promisorias de la Amazonía. Además, contribuyen al fortalecimiento de la investigación en biodiversidad y restauración ecológica. La GiZ apoya a nivel organizativo a las asociaciones, enfocándose en temas de certificación e infraestructura para el manejo de poscosecha, fermentación y secado. WWF ha colaborado con productores y asociaciones, mientras que otras organizaciones de base se centran en temas de restauración y conectividad. En el ámbito de PEDET, se priorizaron Belén y San José, dando importancia a temas agropecuarios, pero priorizando en realidad otros temas."}]},{"head":"Bloque 3: Recomendaciones","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Para el desarrollo de la sección de recomendación se plantearon las siguientes cinco preguntas:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"1. ¿Cómo podría mejorarse el financiamiento para lograr la adopción de sistemas productivos sostenibles de cacao?"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"2. ¿Cómo podría mejorarse la asistencia técnica y el acompañamiento para lograr la adopción de sistemas productivos sostenibles de cacao?"}]},{"head":"3.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"¿Cómo podría mejorarse el financiamiento de los bancos o privado de las empresas ancla?"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"4. ¿Cuál debería ser el rol de las asociaciones en un modelo mixto de financiamiento y asistencia técnica?"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"5. ¿Cuál debería ser el rol de las entidades públicas regionales y municipales del sector rural y ambiental?"},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Durante el desarrollo del grupo focal, se establecieron importantes consideraciones y recomendaciones. Desde el inicio, se resaltó la importancia de forjar alianzas con corporaciones regionales, fortaleciendo así las asociaciones para que desempeñen un papel más dinámico en temas de financiamiento y asistencia técnica."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"Se reconoció la necesidad de conocer la realidad única de cada territorio, con sus propias características, necesidades y barreras. Se hizo hincapié en la importancia de considerar las necesidades tanto de productores pequeños como medianos, comprendiendo su realidad productiva y social. La construcción de propuestas se planteó como un proceso colaborativo con las comunidades, asegurando que estén arraigadas en los territorios y contemplando posibles acciones a corto, mediano y largo plazo."},{"index":6,"size":92,"text":"En cuanto a la mejora del financiamiento, se sugirió una buena focalización, aprovechando la condición de trabajar en municipios PDET y Áreas Estratégicas como una ventaja, no una limitante. Se subrayó la necesidad de cuantificar los cobeneficios generados por los proyectos y comunicarlos de manera efectiva a públicos y privados. La combinación de fuentes y la unión de esfuerzos públicos y privados, junto con la visibilidad del valor agregado mediante instrumentos como certificaciones, sellos o acuerdos de cero deforestación, se destacaron como estrategias valiosas, aunque se reconoció que también podrían presentar desafíos."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"Se señaló la necesidad de superar la tendencia a trabajar de manera aislada y fomentar alianzas y sociedades para mejorar la relación costo-beneficio. La importancia de desarrollar procesos integrales en lugar de proyectos aislados se destacó como una lección clave. La participación activa y el acompañamiento técnico y socioempresarial a largo plazo a las familias fueron resaltados como aspectos críticos para el éxito, reconociendo que la falta de seguimiento y acompañamiento después de la conclusión de los proyectos ha sido una razón común de fracaso en el pasado."}]},{"head":"Cierre del grupo focal","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"El grupo focal concluyó con un agradecimiento a la participación de todos los presentes cuyas contribuciones son fundamentales para la formulación de la propuesta mecanismo financiero mixto para cultivos de cacao sostenible en Caquetá y Cesar. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Fuente: propiaDentro de la contextualización general se presentaron los objetivos del grupo focal que fueron: "},{"text":"Carlos Borda, Senior research associate, c [email protected] CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. www.cgiar.orgWe would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders.To learn more about this Initiative, please visit this webpage.To learn more about this and other Initiatives in the CGIAR Research Portfolio, please visit www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio © 2023 CGIAR System Organization. Some rights reserved. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International Licence (CC BYNC 4.0). International Licence (CC BYNC 4.0). | | | | ||  "}],"sieverID":"da17293a-c98a-43a6-9a30-c78bf36f3482","abstract":"Diseño de un mecanismo financiero mixto y evaluación del potencial de carbono para sistemas sostenibles de cacao en Caquetá y Cesar: necesidades, barreras y recomendaciones 1 El presente informe técnico fue redactado con base a un entregable de la Consultoría No. No 13075659 suscrito entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) y la Corporación Ecoversa.El CGIAR es una asociación mundial de investigación para un futuro con seguridad alimentaria. La ciencia del CGIAR se dedica a transformar los sistemas de alimentos, tierra y agua en una crisis climática. Su investigación la llevan a cabo 13 Centros/Alianzas del CGIAR en estrecha colaboración con cientos de socios, entre los que se incluyen institutos de investigación nacionales y regionales, organizaciones de la sociedad civil, el mundo académico, organizaciones de desarrollo y el sector privado. www.cgiar.org Agradecemos a todos los financiadores que apoyan esta investigación a través de sus contribuciones al Fondo Fiduciario del CGIAR: www.cgiar.org/funders. Para saber más sobre esta Iniciativa, visite esta página web.Para obtener más información sobre esta y otras iniciativas de la cartera de investigación del CGIAR, visite www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio.2023 Organización del Sistema CGIAR. Algunos derechos reservados. Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional (CC BYNC 4.0).El CGIAR es una asociación mundial de investigación para un futuro con seguridad alimentaria. La ciencia del CGIAR se dedica a transformar los sistemas de alimentos, tierra y agua en una crisis climática. Su investigación la llevan a cabo 13 Centros/Alianzas del CGIAR en estrecha colaboración con cientos de socios, entre los que se incluyen institutos de investigación nacionales y regionales, organizaciones de la sociedad civil, el mundo académico, organizaciones de desarrollo y el sector privado. www.cgiar.org Agradecemos a todos los financiadores que apoyan esta investigación a través de sus contribuciones al Fondo Fiduciario del CGIAR: www.cgiar.org/funders. Para saber más sobre esta Iniciativa, visite esta página web.Para obtener más información sobre esta y otras iniciativas de la cartera de investigación del CGIAR, visite www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio.2023 Organización del Sistema CGIAR. Algunos derechos reservados. Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional (CC BYNC 4.0)."}

data/part_3/0877933aff0beeb18be1c0770eed20ee.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0877933aff0beeb18be1c0770eed20ee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad1538ec-b47a-47c5-a4a7-0a6ff1bcd45b/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Upon MARD's request, IRRI's scientists provided technical inputs to the draft Circular. In November 2019, MARD officially issued Circular No. 19/2019/TT-BNNPTNT, incorporating IRRI's inputs regarding rice straw collecting and utilization","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Outcome Impact Case Report:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• 3086 -Alternate wetting and drying technology outscaled on 180,000ha of rice production in Vietnam, reducing over 1 million tCO2-eq/yr. (https://tinyurl.com/ycmtjqjv)"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• 2362 -Vietnam's Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development adopts CCAFS' outputs and inputs on its major climate-smart agriculture-related policies and programs (https://tinyurl.com/25tb7wfr)"},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"• 3787 -Vietnam reduced additional 1.5MtCO2-eq/year through outscaling low-emission technologies in rice production with IRRI-CCAFS' contributions and increases Agriculture-Nationally Determined Contributions mitigation target by 16MtCO2-eq by 2030. (https://tinyurl.com/y8nnkfzj)"}]},{"head":"Innovations: <Not Provided>","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Narrative of Evidence: <Not Applicable>","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milestones:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"• National governments, agri-food companies and agricultural development actors use improved emissions data and tools to support farmers' use of LED practices (e.g. for efficient fertilizer use)"}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• 30 -Reduced net greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, forests and other forms of land-use (More sustainably managed agro-ecosystems)"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• 46 -Increased capacity for innovation in partner development organizations and in poor and vulnerable communities 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 07:47 (GMT+0)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Project Title: P1602 -GHG mitigation in rice: From evidence-based concepts to adoption at scale "}],"sieverID":"53b16087-a132-4259-9272-7b9d4d642d0d","abstract":""}

data/part_3/09226c617492f6bee88c0571b7050333.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09226c617492f6bee88c0571b7050333","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b585aabb-fa32-481c-aec1-8cdcc85a3883/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"Assessing the Hydrology of a Data-Scarce Tropical Watershed Using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool: Case of the Little Ruaha River Watershed in Iringa, Tanzania","keywords":["Hydrology","Little Ruaha","Anthropogenic Activities","SWAT-CUP"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Freshwater ecosystems are vital and crucial limited resources to the survival of human beings as well as for sustaining ecosystems around the globe. Apart from sustaining the environment and conservation, freshwater ecosystems provide services for socio-economic, supporting such activities as irrigation, energy supply and directly impact human livelihoods [1]  [2]. However, despite their value and importance, freshwater ecosystems around the world are being threatened by the increase in anthropogenic activities as a result of pressure from increased population growth [1] [3] [4]."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"In recent decades, the challenge of feeding the world population has increased demands for increasing food production, and hence expansion of croplands. Approximately 38% of the global land surface are occupied by croplands and grazing lands [5] [6] [7]. According to the World Bank [8], agriculture employs more than 31% of the world population. This number is even higher for developing countries like Tanzania where over 75% of the population is directly dependent on agriculture [9]  [10]. Various studies have shown that land expansion will likely increase especially in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America [11]  [12]."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Most areas of Tanzania are particularly vulnerable to the increase in frequency and amplitude of extreme climate events [13] and impacts on agriculture and water resources have been reported [14] [15] [16]  [17]. The land expansion exacerbated by rapid population growth and multiple competing uses and increase in water withdrawals for irrigation might result in environmental problems and conflicts. In fact, water related conflicts are not uncommon in many areas in Tanzania [18] [19] [20]."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"The Little Ruaha Watershed located in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania has experienced water conflicts between upstream users and downstream users including hindering hydroelectricity production from Mtera and devastating impacts on the Ruaha National Park (RNP) [21]. The watershed is one of major sources of water for the Ihemi Cluster, which is one of the six clusters identified by the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor (SAGCOT) for agricultural intensification with significant investments in irrigation planned [22]. Adequate and sustainable freshwater supply in the Ihemi Cluster and other clusters in the SAGCOT corridor is a pre-requisite for the success of the envisioned projects."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"We examine water resources in the Little Ruaha River Watershed, which is a significant waterway for the development of the cluster and the main source of water during the dry season, vital for the ecology of the Ruaha National Park and source of fresh water supply and irrigation for many residents in the rural and urban settlements of the neighboring districts. Moreover, the watershed contributes about 18% of flows going into the Mtera Dam, which is an important source of hydro-electric power in Tanzania [23]  [24], providing about 200 MW."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"Wetlands in the Little Ruaha apart from being highly productive agricultural lands also provide natural habitats to many species of invertebrates and aquatic organisms. Anecdotal evidence collected as part of this study suggests that freshwater resources play an important role in the agricultural productivity and livelihood of the people and water related conflicts have been reported mainly from competing sectors such as agriculture versus livestock keepers, downstream and upstream users [25]."},{"index":7,"size":243,"text":"Land and water resources in the Little Ruaha Watershed are currently being affected by anthropogenic activities through deforestation, inappropriate farming practices, wetland encroachment, soil erosion and sediment deposition. Increased water abstractions especially in the dry season have reduced streamflow in the Little Ruaha Watershed. Valley-bottom farming in wetlands locally known as \"vinyungu\", has increased over the last decade [25], jeopardizing the sustainability of wetlands and water resources. Given the proposed interventions in the cluster and the importance of the freshwater resources for development, understanding the hydrology of the watershed is essential for improved watershed management programs and water resources management and development in the watershed. Since hydrologic processes are complex, their proper comprehension is essential and for this, watershed models are widely used. These models can provide a scientific framework of hydrological process within a watershed and give information on the behavior of the landscape and system. Nonetheless, in hydrology, there is a challenge of developing models that can respond to local conditions and can give reliable predictions of surface runoff from sub-catchments. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) [26] has been widely used for hydrological modeling in many landscapes around the globe. SWAT model has been adopted in tropical resource-limited watersheds (e.g. [15] [27] [28]  [29] [30] [31]). This paper focuses on the development of physically-based and distributed hydrological model for the data-limited Little Ruaha River Watershed in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SW-AT)."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study Area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"This study was conducted in the Little Ruaha River watershed, one of the three tributaries forming the Great Ruaha River Catchment (GRRC) (Figure 1). Geographically the watershed lies within longitudes 35˚2'E and 35˚36'E and, latitudes 7˚11'S and 8˚36'S. Little Ruaha River watershed has been estimated to have 6210 km 2   "}]},{"head":"SWAT Model","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Model Description","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Prediction of surface runoff, soil erosion, nutrients and other pollutants at a watershed scale can be done using physically distributed models. Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) [32] [33] [34] is one of such models that have received worldwide applications. The model is a process based model that operates at a daily time scale."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Processes in the model include hydrology, erosion, climate, soil, temperature, plant growth, nutrients, pesticides and land management. Stream processes considered by the model include water balance, routing, sediment, nutrient and pesticide dynamics. The model was selected because of its robust approach of soil water balance at the watershed scale. The SWAT model has been used to study the impacts of environmental change in several parts of the world [27] [33] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39]. SWAT is a process-based model that operates at a daily time step and uses a modified Soil Conservation Service-Curve Number (SCS-CN) from the United States Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service (U-SDA-SCS) to estimate surface runoff, and peak runoff rates using a modified rational method [40]."},{"index":3,"size":228,"text":"The model was designed to assess long term impact of land management on water balance, sediment transport and non-point source pollution in river basins. In the SWAT model, a watershed is divided into homogeneous hydrological response units (HRUs) which are a combination of land use, management practices, topographical and soil characteristics. The HRUs are represented as a percentage of the sub watershed area and may not be contiguous or spatially identified within a SWAT simulation. Alternatively, a watershed can be subdivided into only sub watersheds that are characterized by dominant land use, soil type, and management. Water balance is the driving force behind all the processes in SWAT because it impacts plant growth and the movement of sediments, nutrients, pesticides, and pathogens. Simulation of watershed hydrology is separated into the land phase, which controls the amount of water, sediment, nutrient, and pesticide loadings to the main channel in each sub basin, and the in-stream or routing phase, through the channel network of the watershed to the outlet [41]. Plant growth is estimated under optimal conditions, and then computes the actual growth under stresses inferred by water and nutrient deficiency. Further documentation about the model can be obtained from literature e.g. [26] [33] [41] [42]. Subdividing the watershed allows users to analyze hydrologic processes in different sub-watersheds within a larger watershed and under localized land use management impacts [27]."}]},{"head":"Model Input","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"The model used in this study was built using the SWAT (2012) version using Soils are important inputs into the model and are determining factors for hydrological processes including surface runoff, infiltration, percolation, lateral subsurface flow and plant water availability in the watershed. This study relied on the soil information generated from the coarser resolution soil map (scale of 1:1,000,000) of Tanzania [45]. The soil input (.sol) in SWAT requires information on physical properties for all layers in the soil. The information was obtained from different sources: Soil and Terrain Database for Southern Africa (SOTER) [46], from literature and from the World Soil Information website (http://www.soilgrids.org/) (ISRIC). This is a collection of updatable soil property and class maps of the world at 1 km spatial resolution produced using state-of-the-art model base [47]. ISRIC-World Soils Information contains a As SWAT requires information on soil properties such as soil texture, hydrologic soil group (HSG), bulk density, soil depth, and organic matter, soil profiles in the study watershed were obtained from literature and from the World Soil Information website (http://www.soilgrids.org/). This is a collection of updatable soil property and class maps of the world at 1 km spatial resolution produced using state-of-the-art model base [47]. ISRIC-World Soils Information contains a database for different soil types and profiles with important soil properties can be extracted."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Climate data were obtained from the Tanzania Meteorogical Agency (TMA) and the Rufiji Basin Water Board (RBWB). Rainfall data for three stations Iringa Met, Msembe Met and Mtera Meteorological Station with different length periods were available (Table 1). Quality check was conducted on the dataset by evaluating consistency and checking for missing data. The period for which all the stations had data was chosen and used as inputs for the model. Other stations with less data were used for filling missing data using regression equations [48]. A stochastic weather generator (WEXGEN) [32] is built-in the SWAT and uses it for filling-in missing climate data gaps. The weather generator model uses monthly statistics calculated from daily weather data to account for the missing data in the daily time series and/or simulate weather based on the statistics [27]."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Therefore, 12 years of data were used for calculating the statistics at monthly time scale that were used for building the WXGEN."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"The dataset had different record lengths, and based on the availability of data for other variables such as temperature and relative humidity, starting from 1979 was considered a good approach. Weather data for Mtera and Iringa Meteorological stations were used. Additional weather data were obtained from reanalysis data from the WATCH Forcing Data Methodology applied to ERA-Interim data Meteorological Forcing (WFDEI) dataset [49]. The WFDEI dataset was correlated with observed data and a fair agreement was found. In the absence of long record of temperature, relative humidity, wind and solar radiation data, these records were used."}]},{"head":"Model Set Up and Calibration Approach","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Watershed delineation process which includes processing of DEM data for stream network and sub-watershed delineation was done using the ArcSWAT (ArcGIS interface of the SWAT model) model version 2012.10.18. The watershed delineation process resulted into 31 sub-watersheds which were further subdivided into 698 HRUs based on the unique combination of land use and soil type. Recommended thresholds of 10% for land cover and 5% for the soil area were applied to limit the number of HRUs in each watershed."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"The curve number method was chosen for estimating rainfall-runoff in the watershed, while daily curve number was determined using the Plant ET method, potential evapotranspiration was estimated using the Hargreaves method and the variable storage was used for channel routing. The HRU management file is used to summarize land-use characteristics in SWAT. The file contains input data on planting, harvesting, irrigation applications, nutrient and pesticide applications as well as tillage applications. Three databases are used in SWAT to store information required for plant growth, urban land characteristics and Operation schedules for the four common crops (two cereals and two horticultural crops) available in the study area were included in the management file and were obtained from socio-economic surveys. The cereal crops are maize and rice and the two horticultural are tomato and onions. The horticultural crops were restricted in the lowlands and were therefore implemented in areas with a slope below or equal to 5%."}]},{"head":"Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"In order to understand how closely the model simulates the hydrological processes within a watershed, it is critical to examine the influence of different parameters. SWAT is a physically based process model that uses spatially-variable inputs such as land use, elevation, soil and other different hydrological parameters. Therefore, SWAT has many parameters, and due to the nature of the simulations and computational constrains, it is difficult to calibrate all the parameters. In order to understand the model performance, a sensitivity analysis for quantifying the most sensitive parameters is carried out prior to model calibration. This helps to ascertain whether the appropriate quantity and quality of data can be obtained to provide realistic model outputs given parameter sensitivity. In this study, a sensitivity analysis using the Sequential Uncertainty Fitting (SUFI-2) within the SWAT-CUP model [50] was used. Initial run of the SWAT-CUP was set using as many parameters as 23 that are responsible for surface runoff, groundwater and other hydrological processes within the watershed. The advantage of using SWAT-CUP lies on the possibility of using different kinds of parameters including those responsible for surface runoff, water quality parameters, crop, parameters, crop rotation and management parameters, and weather generator parameters."}]},{"head":"Model Calibration and Evaluation","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Calibration in this study was carried out in order to improve model performance using data from outlets in three sub-basins which are located in the upstream, middle and downstream areas. As the model was set using the baseline land use, the data for calibration was divided to coincide with that period. However, due to dearth of flow data in the study area, calibration was done from 1989 to 1998 following a warm-up period which was intended to allow the model parameters reach a steady-state condition. Evaluation period was a seven years period from 1999 to 2005. The flow gauging stations used are shown in Table 2. Calibration was done for daily and monthly simulations. The calibration and evaluation processes were carried out using the Sequential Uncertainty Fitting (SUFI-2) in the semi-automatic SWAT-CUP model [50] which was developed to include methods by Van Griensven and Bauwens [51] and other approaches."},{"index":2,"size":259,"text":"SUFI-2 uses a semi-automated approach that incorporates both manual and auto-calibration procedures including the sensitivity and uncertainty analysis [41]. This allows users to adjust manually some parameters and range iteratively between auto-calibration runs. In SUFI-2, parameter uncertainty accounts for all sources of uncertainties such as uncertainty in driving variables [50]. Quantification of the uncertainties is done using the P-factor, which is the percentage of measured data bracketed by the 95% prediction uncertainty (95 PPU). The 95PPU is calculated at the 2.5% and 97.5% levels of cumulative distribution of an output variable obtained through Latin hypercube sampling, disallowing 5% of the worst simulations. Another measure quantifying the strength of a calibration/uncertainty analysis is the d-factor, which is the average thickness of the 95PPU band divided by the standard deviation of the measured data. Thus SUFI-2 seeks to bracket most of the measured data with the smallest possible uncertainty band [50]. SUFI-2 has been successfully used for case studies in different parts of the world [41] [52] [53]. Parameters that are responsible for surface flow and groundwater were used in the calibration process. The calibration process involved adjusting the model's input parameters as guided by the sensitivity analysis, to match the observed and simulated streamflows. In order to have an idea on the influence of groundwater on the flow in the three basins used for calibration, hydrograph separation was implemented using the Web GIS-based Hydrograph Analysis Tool (WHAT) [54] using the recursive digital filter method for baseflow separation. The approach has been in other areas with similar land uses [55] [56]."}]},{"head":"Model Performance","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Model performance was carried out in order to verify the robustness of the model to simulate hydrological processes. The model performance in this study was carried out based on [57] model evaluation guideline. Therefore, the Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) [58], percent bias (PBIAS) and ratio of the root mean square to the standard deviation of measured data (RSR) were used. The NSE indicates how well the plot of observed versus simulated value fits the 1:1 line and is computed as the ratio of residual variance to measured data variances [58]."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"NSE values range between −∞ and 1 (inclusive), if NSE is less than or close to zero, the model prediction is considered unacceptable and means that the model prediction is no better than using average annual runoff volume as predictor of runoff. If the values approach one, the model predictions are considered to be acceptable. Results between zero and 1 are indicative of the most efficient parameters for model predictive ability, and NSE values of 1 indicate perfect alignment between simulated and observed values. This method has been commonly used in judging model performance in many hydrological modeling studies (e.g. [27] [53] [57]), which provides extensive information on reported values."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"The NSE is calculated by: ( ) ( )"},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"where NSE is the Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency, Q meas is the measured flow, Q sim is the simulated flow and Q is the mean of measured flow at the outlet. The Percent bias (PBIAS) measures the average tendency of the simulated data to be larger or smaller than their observed counterparts [59]. The PBIAS is calculated as:"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"( )"},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"where Q meas is the measured flow and Q sim is the simulated flow. The optimal value of PBIAS is 0.0, with low-magnitude values indicating accurate model si- [59]."}]},{"head":"mulation. Positive values indicate model underestimation bias, and negative values indicate model overestimation bias","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The ratio of root mean square error to the standard deviation of measured data (RSR) is calculated as the ratio of the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and standard deviation of the observed data."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"("},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Model simulation is judged as satisfactory if NSE > 0.5, RSR ≤ 0.70 and PBIAS ±25% [53] [57]."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sensitivity Analysis","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Table 3 shows the list of 10 parameters that were the most sensitive for flow prediction in the model. The ranking shown is from the most sensitive with 1 being the most sensitive. It was found that the curve number (CN2) was the most sensitive parameter, followed by the base flow alpha factor (ALPHA-BF), groundwater delay time (GW_DELAY), threshold water depth in the shallow aquifer (GWQMN), and groundwater \"revap\" coefficient (GW-REVAP)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The most significant parameters were considered for further model calibration. The rest of the parameters had no significant effect on streamflow simulations; altering values would not yield any significant changes in the model output. "}]},{"head":"Calibration and Evaluation of Results","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"As described earlier, calibration was done in three sub-basins located in the up- ter values for the calibration process are as shown in Table 3. Table 4 shows the results of calibrated and evaluation values at the monthly time step. Table 4 shows the calibrated and evaluation values and Figure 3 and      Based on the statistical and graphical evaluation, the model was considered reasonable and could be used for analyses of hydrological processes within the watershed including water balance, land use and land cover impacts and other issues. Moriasi, Arnold [57] proposed that in order for a model to be judged as satisfactory for hydrological and pollutant loss evaluations it should at least have NSE values of 0.5 or more [41] at monthly time steps. Despite data challenges for the study watershed, the model results were deemed reasonable. Other studies in the region have reported different calibration and evaluation results depending on data quality. For example, Birhanu [30] reported NSE values ranging between 11% and 63.3% in the Kihansi River catchment, Natkhin, Dietrich [31] reported R 2 values of between 13% and 57% for Morogoro and Mgude watersheds."}]},{"head":"Implications and Application of Results for Further Hydrological Analysis","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Long term simulation results for the period between 1990 to 2012 for 1KA31A"},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"(Little Ruaha at Mawande) which happens to be located in the downstream area show reasonable model prediction of streamflow with the average annual streamflow of 22.87 m 3 •s −1 in comparison to the observed average annual flow of 21.01 m 3 •s −1 . The results show good agreement between the observed and predicted streamflows at the downstream outlet (1KA31A). This is confirmed by long term monthly simulation shown in Figure 5. The hydrographs show good agreement between the observed and the simulated streamflows with R 2 = 0.81."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"As it can be observed from Figure 5 that simulated had a tendency of over-predicting peak flows and under-predicting baseflow in some situations, but the general pattern seemed to be within the range of the observed streamflow.  filling. The dataset is the most complete time series to be available for the watershed. Data filling using SWAT was judged to be more robust for predicting low flows compared to Artificial Neural Network in a study by [62], and is more favored than statistical approaches because the latter assumes the datasets are linear and stationery.   "}]},{"head":"Average Annual Flow","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Flow Duration Curves","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The shape of flow duration curves (FDCs) are related to the interactions of climate, catchment size and morphology, vegetation cover, and the properties of the subsurface domain, which together control the various runoff components [65]. The shape of FDCs is largely governed by both precipitation and evapotranspiration variability and how water moves through the catchment [65]. The Average Annual Flow for Little Ruaha at Makalala "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The calibration of the model at monthly time steps at the outlet of the three subs-watersheds showed that the model deviated from the observed data by 7%, 9% and 1% for Mawande, Ihimbu Makalala outlets, respectively. While the average simulated streamflow showed a slight over-prediction for Mawande and Ihimbu, the results showed model under-prediction for Makalala outlet. Results"},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"for the evaluation stage showed that the discrepancy between the simulated and observed streamflow was 22% for Mawande, 11% for Ihimbu and 22.2% for Makalala. It can be realized that the overall accuracy was lower during the evaluation period compared to the calibration period. Despite the slight discrepancies, visual inspection of hydrographs show that the simulated streamflows were within the range of the measured streamflows. Overall assessment of the model at both daily and monthly time steps showed a satisfactory results for baseflow and peak flows. Challenges of data for modeling and hydrological analysis in Tanzania have been highlighted by other researchers [28] [29] [30] [31]. By comparing the mean of the observed streamflow data from 1980 to 2012 before and after filling missing gaps, we found a deviation of 3%, signifying that the gap filling did not change the pattern of the data. SWAT has been used successfully by other researchers for gap filling of missing data and is considered one of the robust methods [62]. In a watershed that is faced with diverse and increased anthropogenic activities and competing demands for water, a complete set of streamflow data is important for sustainable water management. Studies such as environmental flow, water allocation and water availability as risks and disaster assessment are highly dependent on availability of good datasets."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The hydrology of the Little Ruaha River has been studied. Analysis of available historical river flow records revealed presence of many data gaps that necessi-tated conducting rainfall-runoff modelling using a Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The model has been calibrated, verified and found to be adequate in simulating flows with high confidence. The model has been applied to simulate flows that were used in gap filling the missing data and thus generating complete daily time series of discharges at the three gauging stations of Makalala, Ihimbu and Mawande. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" watershed area and drains parts of Iringa Municipal, Iringa, Kilolo and Mufindi Districts in Iringa Region. The watershed lies within the Ihemi Cluster, one of the six clusters forming the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania (SAGCOT). Climate in the watershed is highly variable, at both spatial and temporal scales, and is dominantly unimodal with a single rainy season from November to April and correlated with altitude. Average annual rainfall ranges from 500 mm in the lowlands (e.g. rainfall measured at Mtera Met station) to 700 mm in the highlands at Iringa based on average rainfall from 1979 to 2012. The mean annual temperature varies from about 18˚C at higher altitudes to about 28˚C. Elevation ranges from 698 to over 2300 m, above mean sea level (m. asl) (Figure 1). Dominant soils in the area include Cambisols, Fluvisols, Leptosols, Lixisols, Nitisols and Solonetz. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Little Ruaha River watershed showing topography and river network (data source: various). "},{"text":" ArcSWAT. Building a SWAT model requires availability of spatially distributed information on Digital Elevation Model (DEM), land cover and land use and soils. Data on climate and river discharge were also important for prediction of streamflow and calibration purposes. Digital Elevation Model was extracted from the Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) available from the USGS website (http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov) at a spatial resolution of 30 m. The DEM was used to delineate the watershed and to analyze the drainage patterns of the land surface terrain. Sub-basin parameters such as slope gradient, slope length of the terrain, and the stream network characteristics such as channel slope, length, and width were derived from the DEM.Land cover and land use data were mapped based on Landsat TM of 1990.Land use classification was performed using the random forest classification[43] [44] after initially using the unsupervised classification for identification of spectral classes. Twelve (12) land use classes were mapped for each respective year as shown in Figure2(a). The land use classes were later assigned based on the SWAT land use database (crop and urban). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Maps of the Little Ruaha watershed showing (a) land use and (b) major soils. "},{"text":"Figure 4 show hydrograph comparison between the measured and simulated streamflows at 1KA31 and 1KA32A during calibration and evaluation. Comparison of the results between the measured and calibrated streamflows show a good agreement with NSE, PBIAS and RSR statistical values falling within the range of good to very good models. NSE values for monthly streamflow calibration and evaluation ranged from 0.64 to 0.77. According to the model evaluation guidelines, SWAT 2012 simulated the streamflow fairly well, as shown by statistical results, and supported by the graphical results in Figure 3. The PBIAS values ranged from −12.3% to 1.8% during calibration and from −28.3% to 10.2% during evaluation. The RSR values varied from 0.48 to 0.60 during both calibration and evaluation. These values indicate that the model performance for streamflow residual variation ranged from good to very good. In general, from the results shown in Table 4, the simulated results from the model show good results during calibration and evaluation processes for the three sub-basins. The simulated mean monthly streamflow at 1KA31 (sub-basin) was 17.92 m 3 /s while the observed was 21.58 m 3 /s at monthly time step. It was also observed that the mean streamflow at gauging station 1KA21A (Sub-Basin 19) was 11.31 m 3 /s for the observed and 8.81 m 3 /s for the simulated. The difference was not significant for the third gauging station, where the observed monthly streamflow was 3.08 m 3 /s compared with the simulated 2.93 m 3 /s. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Comparison of observed and simulated streamflows at two gauging stations in the Little Ruaha Watershed for the calibration stage. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Comparison of observed and simulated streamflows at two gauging stations in the Little Ruaha Watershed for the evaluation stage. "},{"text":" show the simulated mean daily streamflow was 17.52 m 3 •s −1 and observed mean daily flow was 23.06 m 3 •s −1 for gauging station 1KA31 and for gauging station 1KA32A, the simulated mean streamflow was 2.89 m 3 •s −1 while the observed mean daily stream flow was 3.21 m 3 •s −1 . "},{"text":"3. 3 . 1 .Figure 5 . Figure 5. Observed and predicted hydrographs of streamflow (m 3 /s) at 1KA31A (Little Ruaha at Mawande) 1990-2012. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Time series of average daily streamflow (m 3 /s) for Little Ruaha River at Makalala (a) and at Mawande (b). "},{"text":"Figure 7 presents the average annual flows fitted with linear trend lines for the Little Ruaha River at Makalala and Mawande. The trend lines have negative slopes indicating the decline in magnitude of annual flows over time. Nevertheless, the nature of the slope is not uniform at all the stations. The slope of trend line at Makalala station is steeper as compared to Mawande stations. The average annual flow volume is 127.4 Mm 3 at Makalala and 741.5 Mm 3 at Mawande. "},{"text":"3. 3 . 3 .Figure 7 . Figure 7. Average annual (HY) flow (m 3 /s) for Little Ruaha River at two gauging stations fitted with a linear trend line. "},{"text":"Figure 8 . 1 - Figure 8. 1-Day flow duration curve for Little Ruaha River at Makalala, Ihimbu and Mawande. "},{"text":"Further analysis on daily time series enabled computation of trends, flow duration curves, monthly and annual flows. The trend analysis on seasonal and annual flows revealed declining flows indicating that the flows are significantly changing with time. The decline in river flows will have some implications on the planned future water development in the catchment. There is therefore, a need to carry out analysis on the implications of water allocations (water use permits) on river flows. Along, this will be a need to understand the implications of water allocations on environmental flows for meeting the ecosystem ecological requirements. The water balance of the Little Ruaha River catchment has not been fully evaluated including the impacts of planned interventions associated with land use/land cover changes. This will be part of the next phase of the study by applying a calibrated and verified SWAT model in understanding the future impacts of land use/land cover change on hydrological processes within the watershed including the water balance. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Rain gauge stations in the little Ruaha Watershed used in this study. Three important land-use parameters are CNII value, CANMX (maximum canopy storage for each land use) and ALAI (initial leaf area index). The primary SWAT files used to summarize land-use characteristics is the HRU management file (.mgt). Station Stat Name Latitude (degrees) Longitude (degrees) Altitude (m.asl) Rainfall (1979-2012) (mm) StationStat NameLatitude (degrees)Longitude (degrees)Altitude (m.asl)Rainfall (1979-2012) (mm) 9735014 Iringa Met. −7.783 35.700 1656 688 9735014Iringa Met.−7.78335.7001656688 9734001 Msembe Met. −7.733 35.950 793 564 9734001Msembe Met.−7.73335.950793564 9735011 Mtera Met. −7.083 35.917 683 534 9735011Mtera Met.−7.08335.917683534  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Streamflow gauge stations in the little Ruaha River watershed used in this study. Station Stat Name Latitude (degrees) Longitude (degrees) Altitude (m.asl) StationStat NameLatitude (degrees)Longitude (degrees)Altitude (m.asl) 1KA32A Little Ruaha at Makalala −8.33 35.30 1800 1KA32ALittle Ruaha at Makalala−8.3335.301800 1KA31 Little Ruaha at Mawande −7.50 35.50 1540 1KA31Little Ruaha at Mawande−7.5035.501540 1KA21A Little Ruaha at Ihimbu −7.88 35.80 1550 1KA21ALittle Ruaha at Ihimbu−7.8835.801550  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Ranking of the 10 most sensitive parameters in the Little Ruaha River Watershed (from the most sensitive) and their fitted value parameters. Rank Parameter code Parameter definition Fitted value RankParameter codeParameter definitionFitted value 1 CN2.mgt Initial SCS CN II value −0.299 1CN2.mgtInitial SCS CN II value−0.299 2 ALPHA_BF.gw Baseflow alpha factor 0.532 2ALPHA_BF.gwBaseflow alpha factor0.532 3 GW_DELAY.gw Groundwater delay time 521.022 3GW_DELAY.gwGroundwater delay time521.022 4 GWQMN.gw Threshold water depth in the shallow aquifer 20.638 4GWQMN.gwThreshold water depth in the shallow aquifer20.638 5 GW_REVAP.gw Groundwater \"revap\" coefficient 0.313 5GW_REVAP.gwGroundwater \"revap\" coefficient0.313 6 ESCO.hru Soil evaporation compensation factor 0.799 6ESCO.hruSoil evaporation compensation factor0.799 7 CH_N2.rte Manning's \"n\" value for the main channel 0.035 7CH_N2.rteManning's \"n\" value for the main channel0.035 8 CH_K2.rte Channel effective hydraulic conductivity 68.327 8CH_K2.rteChannel effective hydraulic conductivity68.327 9 ALPHA_BNK.rte Baseflow alpha factor for bank storage 0.458 9ALPHA_BNK.rteBaseflow alpha factor for bank storage0.458 10 SOL_AWC.sol Available water capacity of soil layer (mm/mm) 0.008 10SOL_AWC.solAvailable water capacity of soil layer (mm/mm)0.008  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Results of streamflow model output for the calibration and evaluation processes based on the developed model evaluation guidelines at monthly time step.    Evaluation Statistic    Evaluation Statistic  NSE  PBIAS  RSR  NSEPBIASRSR Outlet Calibration Evaluation Calibration Evaluation Calibration Evaluation OutletCalibration Evaluation Calibration Evaluation Calibration Evaluation 1KA31 (7) 0.75 0.65 6.4 −28.2 0.50 0.59 1KA31 (7)0.750.656.4−28.20.500.59 1KA21A (19) 0.64 0.71 8.4 10.2 0.60 0.53 1KA21A (19)0.640.718.410.20.600.53 1KA32A (27) 0.80 0.65 −1.5 −27.5 0.45 0.59 1KA32A (27)0.800.65−1.5−27.50.450.59  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Results of streamflow model output for the calibration and evaluation processes based on the developed model evaluation guidelines at daily time step.    Evaluation Statistic    Evaluation Statistic  NSE  PBIAS  RSR  NSEPBIASRSR Outlet Calibration Evaluation Calibration Evaluation Calibration Evaluation OutletCalibration Evaluation Calibration Evaluation Calibration Evaluation 1KA31 (7) 0.67 0.65 5.0 −28.2 0.57 0.59 1KA31 (7)0.670.655.0−28.20.570.59 1KA32A (27) 0.77 0.65 −1.0 −27.5 0.48 0.59 1KA32A (27)0.770.65−1.0−27.50.480.59  "},{"text":" 3 /s) for Little Ruaha River at two gauging stations fitted with a linear trend line. consistently increases through time, but the trend may or may not be linear. The MK test can be used in place of a parametric linear regression analysis, which can be used to test if the slope of the estimated linear regression line is different from zero. It is important noting that the other regression analysis requires that the residuals from the fitted regression line be normally distributed; an assumption not required by the MK test, that is, the MK test is a non-parametric (distribution-free) test. Thus, Table6presents the results of trend analyses on an-nual and seasonal flows Little Ruaha River at Makalala, Ihimbu and Mawande gauging stations. The Mann-Kendall test statistics (Z) on annual and seasonal flows indicate decreasing trend in river flows in the catchment. The results suggest that the flows in the Little Ruaha Catchment are changing with time.  "}],"sieverID":"5eeeb578-b2bc-42b4-81f3-7050718fd176","abstract":"The hydrology of the Little Ruaha River which is a major catchment of the Ihemi Cluster in the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania (SA-GCOT) has been studied. The study focused on the hydrological assessment through analysis of the available data and developing a model that could be used for assessing impacts of environmental change. Pressures on land and water resources in the watershed are increasing mainly as a result of human activities, and understanding the hydrological regime is deemed necessary. In this study, modeling was conducted using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) in which meteorological and streamflow data were used in the simulation, calibration and evaluation. Calibration and evaluation was done at three gauging stations and the results were deemed plausible with NSE ranging between 0.64 and 0.80 for the two stages. The simulated flows were used for gap filling the missing data and generation of complete daily time series of streamflow at three gauging stations of Makalala, Ihimbu and Mawande. Results of statistical trends and flow duration curves, revealed decline in magnitudes of seasonal and annual flows indicating that streamflows are changing with time and may have implications on envisioned development and the water dependent ecosystems."}

data/part_3/099e5dacac49f6544eab6a233e36c6ca.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"099e5dacac49f6544eab6a233e36c6ca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0f125e55-12d0-4724-b238-928c6b908d8c/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"estes compostos por raparigas adolescentes, mulheres grávidas, pessoas vivendo com o HIV e SIDA e crianças menores de 2 anos. Esta capacitação tem como objectivo principal a mudança de comportamento dos beneficiários, visando a redução dos índices de insegurança alimentar e a redução da desnutrição crónica através da melhoraria da dieta dos produtores e suas famílias."}]},{"head":"Fazendo das cozinhas salas de aula","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"A cobertura de intervenção desta actividade é de nível nacional com vista a abranger todo o universo de produtores. Numa primeira fase a experiência está sendo implementada de forma progressiva nos quarenta e dois distritos cobertos pelo Projecto de Apoio ao Programa Nacional de Extensão Agrária (PSP-PRONEA), este financiado pelo Fundo Internacional de Desenvolvimento Agrícola (FIDA). São atores desta experiência: a Direcção Nacional de Extensão Agrária (DNEA), os Serviços Provinciais de Extensão Agrária (SPER), o Serviço Distrital de Actividades Económicas (SDAE), assim como produtores, professores, alunos e elementos dos grupos especiais ligados à Escola na Machamba do Camponês. Os parceiros consistem no FIDA, FAO (órgão financiador das Escolas) e o Programa de Mercados Rurais (PROMER)."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"C om a criação do Ministério da Agricultura e Segurança Alimentar, a responsabilidade de oferecer educação nutricional veio a cair no Direção Nacional de Extensão Agrária. A integração do Serviço Agricultura e Nutrição nos serviços de Extensão tem como fins promover a produção, processamento, a utilização e venda de alimentos nutricionalmente adequados e localmente disponíveis. A disseminação de tecnologias apropriadas para os produtores é feita através das Escolas na Machamba do Camponês (EMCs), Escolas Primárias e Secundárias, associações de produtores e parceiros."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Para concretizar tais propósitos, iniciou-se um esquema de capacitação em segurança alimentar em forma de cascata, dos técnicos da Direção nacional até os beneficiários. No caso desta experiência, são estes: produtores, professores e alunos ligados às Escolas na Machamba. Incluímos também grupos especiais, Com as feiras e demonstrações simulou-se o que é possível executar em casa, com os alimentos disponíveis e/ou fáceis de serem produzidos no próprio quintal ou na machamba. Com efeito, depois das aulas se nota uma mudança de atitude, tanto na diversificação do cardápio como no número crescente de hortas caseiras. E estes são só dois exemplos."}]},{"head":"Capa Extensionista formando membros da comunidade Esquerda Música durante a demonstração","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"As intervenções de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional são focalizadas para a capacitação, demonstrações de boas práticas de nutrição comunitária e para a comunicação. Para a efectividade desta intervenção foram realizadas, em esquema de catarata, as actividades descritas a seguir. Também uma avaliação a meio termo fez parte do desenho da intervenção."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"O Departamento Nacional de Extensão Agrária iniciou com a capacitação de técnicos da Direcção Nacional. A seguir, capacitou técnicos dos Serviços Provinciais de Extensão, que são os pontos focais de segurança alimentar e nutricional. No total, efectivouse a capacitação de 20 técnicos a nível central e provincial em educação alimentar e nutricional. Depois de terem atingido estas duas camadas institucionais, os técnicos dos Serviços Nacional e Provincial de Extensão Agrícola começaram a ir para as províncias de Gaza, Inhambane, Zambézia, Nampula, Niassa e Cabo Delgado. A nível distrital nestas províncias, persuadiram os extensionistas e os produtores das Escolas na Machamba do Camponês sobre a importância de produzir e consumir os alimentos diversificados com vista a melhorar a dieta alimentar e gerar renda. O passo subsequente foi capacitação de agentes de extensão ligados a projetos não beneficiados pelo financiamento do FIDA sobre a preparação dos alimentos, processamento, confeccionamento e consumo de dietas alimentares nutricionalmente adequadas."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Completo o processo de capacitação, o esquema de Educação Nutricional investiu em outras intervenções complementares, enumeradas a seguir. a. Demonstrações sobre práticas alimentares adequadas nas comunidades, onde os produtores aprendem a preparar os seus alimentos de várias formas, usando produtos existentes nas suas machambas. Confeccionar alimentos mais saborosos e convidativos/atraentes para as crianças também era parte do objetivo."},{"index":4,"size":184,"text":"b. Introdução de hortas caseiras, estimulandose a produção de uma variedade de hortícolas diversificadas e fruteiras, além da criação de animais de pequeno porte como galinhas e patos. As intervenções de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional que são direccionadas para os grupos especiais são feitas com os membros do agregado familiar dos elementos destes grupos. Têm como porta de entrada as associações dos produtores, as Escolas na Machamba do Camponês e os grupos de produtores. c. Produção de material de comunicação tais como Manual, álbuns seriados, folhetos, cartazes e camisetas. Estes materiais foram elaborados pelo Consultor de Nutrição da FAO e pelos técnicos da DNEA envolvidos nestas actividades. Com a finalidade de servir como material de auxílio e consulta, estes materiais foram distribuídos e lidos pelos Pontos focais de nutrição, os Extensionistas e produtores que se beneficiaram da formação. Também as receitas preparadas são publicadas para atingir o maior número possível de beneficiários. d. A realização de feiras sobre nutrição ajuda a promover a utilização e comercialização de receitas melhoradas com alimentos localmente disponíveis. Estas feiras foram realizadas na Província de Gaza e de Nampula."}]},{"head":"Diversificação para aceleração","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Esperava-se que esta abordagem de trabalho permitisse a transferência sólida e relativamente rápida dos conhecimentos e das habilidades em torno de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional do nível central para os serviços provinciais de extensão, também como para os extensionistas e produtores ao nível local. Observa-se hoje que a intervenção de fato contribuiu para a melhoria dos hábitos alimentares dos produtores e os membros do seu agregado familiar, garantindo assim a melhoria do estado nutricional das populações rurais. A avaliação a meio termo da intervenção indicou os ajustes desejáveis, com a vantagem de ainda haver tempo para estes serem implementados."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Formando-se mais extensionistas e produtores de outros distritos e/ou comunidades, de outras Escolas na Machamba do Camponês foi possível alargar o numero de produtores formados em matérias de segurança alimentar. Com a capacitação de outras Escolas na Machamba de Camponês está sendo possível aumentar o número de produtores formados. A réplica na implementação do projeto veio a acelerar a obtenção dos resultados esperados."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"Para a mudança de comportamento, os produtores foram sensibilizados em matérias como a inclusão de Durante as práticas culinárias, são preparados alimentos tais como: papas enriquecidas de arroz com leite de coco, de farinha de milho com cenoura/moranga, ovo; bolo de farinha de mandioca, chips de banana. Ensina-se a conservação de hortaliças tais como: folhas de feijão, abobora, mandioca, couve e a de carnes, além da conservação peixe usando o sal e o fumo. Só de batata-doce de polpa alaranjada pode-se fazer: sumo, bolo e biscoito, chips, puré com amendoim ou castanha torrada e pilada, além guisado das folhas. novos alimentos na dieta alimentar através do cultivo de culturas diversificadas bem como através da introdução de hortas caseiras e da criação de animais de pequeno porte."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"A diversificação do cardápio diário foi em parte consequência da introdução de horta caseira. A demonstração culinária teve seu impacto ampliado por ocorrer simultaneamente à capacitação nas comunidades, unindo teoria à prática. Como disse uma produtora: \"Tenho isso em casa, mas não como. Não sabia.\" Ainda assim, persiste a necessidade da sensibilização das comunidades quando falamos da inclusão da proteína animal na dieta. Mesmo os produtores que criam patos e galinhas só os comem em dias de festa. Continuamos a recomendar aos produtores que comam estes produtos uma vez a outra e não só em dias festivos."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"Em termos institucionais, os fatores limitantes observados foram o atraso na alocação de fundos para o desenvolvimento das actividades e a cobertura. O projeto só cobriu 42 distritos, dos 1.420 distritos em Moçambique. O sistema de cascata foi usado exatamente devido ao número reduzido de agentes em relação ao de produtores."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"Com a integração das intervenções de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (SAN) nos serviços de extensão agrária, o Ministério da Agricultura e Segurança Alimentar espera contribuir para a redução do índice de insegurança alimentar de 24% em 2015 até 16% em 2019 e para a redução da desnutrição crónica de 43% para 35% em 2019."}]},{"head":"Distribuamos a receita","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"As intervenções de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional do Departamento Nacional de Extensão e Agricultura aos grupos especiais provaram efectivas e permitiram deste modo acelerar a redução da problemática da desnutrição crónica no país. Escolher as Escolas na Machamba aumentou a eficiência da intervenção, replicando -como desejado -os benefícios da diversificação alimentar. Ter incluído os serviços de extensão dos distritos do país não cobertos pelo projecto também influenciou a intervenção de forma positiva. Com as feiras e demonstrações simulou-se o que é possível executar em casa, com os alimentos disponíveis e/ou fáceis de serem produzidos no próprio quintal ou na machamba. Com efeito, depois das aulas se nota uma mudança de atitude, tanto na diversificação do cardápio como no número crescente de hortas caseiras."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Querendo o governo a sustentabilidade destas mudanças, é necessário que invista no monitoramento do trabalho dos extensionistas e dos produtores já capacitados e avalie periodicamente projectos semelhantes. Porém, só isto não basta.A expansão deste modelo exige o aumento do número de capacitação institucional e dos indivíduos dos grupos especiais e seus agregados, com enfâse na expansão do número de Escolas na Machamba do Camponês beneficiadas."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Por sua vez, é essencial que as Escolas que hoje contam com o apoio da FAO e/ou de outros parceiros deem continuidade às actividades educativas. Para a divulgação das boas práticas, aconselhamos que as instituições e parceiros invistam em atividades de comunicação provadamente efetivas, como centros de demonstrações culinárias móveis em todo o país -com distribuição de receitas. A realização de feiras sobre nutrição em todo o país também possibilita que se atinja grande parte dos beneficiários."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"Este é um dos resultados do processo iniciado pelo projeto \"Capitalização de Experiências para Maior Impacto no Desenvolvimento Rural\", implementado pelo CTA, FAO e IICA, e apoiado pelo FIDA. http://experiencecapitalization.cta.int País: Moçambique Região: Sudeste da África Data: Junho 2017 Palavras-chave: Educação nutricional, capacitação, transversalidade, segurança alimentar"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"fceb5e14-d26c-49ca-8396-55c0998eba5a","abstract":""}

data/part_3/09e7e7fec5bdae692829f2548f9041b8.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09e7e7fec5bdae692829f2548f9041b8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5734d74c-1a64-4281-bebd-44f840603b34/retrieve"},"pageCount":36,"title":"Appendix 2: Comparative statics matrix for the 2-player non-cooperative game with multiplicative risk in production Appendix 3: Comparative statics","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"2 The effects of risk in production under joint-maximization vs. individual optimization"}]},{"head":"Relevant literature","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"There have been few studies of the effect of risk on the use of common-pool resources. As noted above, most of the research on risk has focused on explaining the existence and resilience of even poorly managed common-pool pastures because of the resource's value as a means of insurance and/or risk mitigation through spatial mobility. In this paper, however, we will focus on the impact of risk on exploitation rates when the size of the common-pool pasture is fixed. The most active area of research for risk and common property in the context of a fixed resource has been in the area of fisheries management. Sandler and Sterbenz (1990) show that harvest uncertainty in a fisheries model will result in lower exploitation rates than under the corresponding certainty case, using general functional forms for both expected utility and production. This leads to them to conclude that \"the tragedy of the commons is therefore mitigated ... in the face of harvest uncertainty\"."},{"index":2,"size":213,"text":"More generally, it is posited that the greater the variability of an activity, the less resources will be devoted to that activity when producers are risk-averse. Sadoulet & de Janvry (1996) note that risk-averse producers will reduce output supplied as risk increases-in a single commodity model-as long as agents are not \"too\" risk-averse. That is to say, for very riskaverse agents, it is possible that they will dedicate more resources to the risky activity, to increase the chances that realized output reaches a sufficient level. Though this is theoretically plausible, empirical verification of such a high degree of risk aversion is nonetheless lacking. However, another interesting aspect to the problem occurs when one incorporates risky production into a household model, which allows for the fact that a household can be both a producer and primary consumer of its own output. Here Sadoulet & de Janvry note that it is more likely that the household will produce more as risk increases if the household is a net buyer of the commodity. The model developed below is a pure producer model, and as such does not permit interactions between production and consumption activities of households. Nonetheless, it will be important to bear this point in mind when discussing the more general applicability of the model."}]},{"head":"Development of the theoretical model","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"There are many different ways in which a group can manage its resources, even in the simple model developed below. However, we follow the typical analysis and begin by examining the two extreme cases-joint-maximization and non-cooperation (c.f. Dasgupta & Heal, 1979). Joint maximization implies that a group can \"perfectly\" manage its common resources (in the sense that all negative externalities are internalized, and costs to this management are zero -an assumption that will be relaxed in section 3). Conversely, non-cooperation implies that each individual is concerned only with his/her own profit-maximization problem, and we use a non-cooperative game framework to arrive at the equilibrium outcome. Furthermore, the model developed below consists of a single-period; we do not consider either inter-temporal externalities or possible outcomes that are supportable under a repeated game structure."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Overstocking occurs if the stocking level chosen under the non-cooperative game is higher than the level associated with joint-maximization. Finally, we use the mean-variance approximation for expected utility obtained using a second-order Taylor series expansion (Hirschleifer and Reilly, 1995)."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"Initially, players are assumed to be homogeneous in terms of marginal costs and risk preferences. We do this as a base case and show that, as in Sandler & Sterbenz (1991), the total number of cattle stocked under risk is less than the corresponding case under certainty. Furthermore, we establish that profits are actually higher, but expected utility lower, when there is riskiness in production and a non-cooperative game is played. Under jointmaximization, stock levels, expected utility and profits are all lower when there is risk vis-à-vis the riskless scenario. Note that for joint-maximization, a further assumption must be imposed on the model with respect to individual stocking rates, which are otherwise not identified. It is assumed that each herder is allocated rights to stock 1/n-th of the optimum. While this is an intuitively plausible assumption when producers are homogeneous, its justification under producer heterogeneity is more complicated. Thus in this section, we examine comparative statics results for the non-cooperative game when agents are heterogeneous, but defer a discussion of the effects of heterogeneity on joint-maximization until the third section."}]},{"head":"Joint-maximization vs. non-cooperation; risk vs. no risk in production","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The profit-maximization equations are given below for the following scenarios: 1) joint maximization without risk in production, 2) a non-cooperative game without risk in production, 3) joint maximization with risk in production, and 4) a non-cooperative game with risk in production. Immediately following are the respective first-order conditions."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Scenario 1:"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Joint Maximization, No risk in production "}]},{"head":"First-order conditions and model propositions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"To simplify notation when writing the first-order conditions, the following definitions will be used: For i=1,2"},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Proposition 1: Comparing the first-order conditions between the risk and no-risk scenarios, we see that a) under non-cooperation, exploitation levels are lower when there is riskiness in production (which is easily verified by comparing equations 6 & 8), and b) under jointmaximization, exploitation levels are lower when there is production risk, (compare equations 5 & 7)."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Proposition 2: Given riskiness in production, total stock levels are higher under noncooperation than under joint maximization, the proof of which is provided in Appendix 1."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Proposition 3: Stock levels under non-cooperation and production risk may be lower than the levels under riskless, joint-maximization [proof provided in Appendix 1]."},{"index":5,"size":217,"text":"We can now compare these results to those obtained in the Sandler & Sterbenz model. As noted above, they conclude that \"overstocking\" is reduced as risk increases, and conclude that risk therefore \"mitigates the tragedy of the commons\". However, it is fitting to note that to obtain this result, we must make a comparison across two different types of management regimes as well as across two different levels of risk. That is to say, this result depends on using the joint-maximization solution in the absence of risk as the basis for calculating the degree of overstocking. If instead we compared the non-cooperative outcome under risk to the joint-maximization solution under risk, it is not necessary that overstocking-defined here as the difference between the joint-maximization and non-cooperative solutions-decreases with increases in risk. Nonetheless, a comparison to the riskless situation is appropriate if we consider that this reflects the socially efficient outcome. To make this point more forcefully, we can examine the profits accruing under both scenarios as the level of risk is increased. As stated in proposition 1, stocking rates are lower under both regimes when there is production risk. However, profits accruing to the individual are actually higher under the non-cooperative game for a wide range of values for risk, a result depicted graphically in Figure 1."},{"index":6,"size":119,"text":"Thus, starting from a point of no risk, as risk increases, the stock level declines, and profits under non-cooperation will increase until the point where stock levels coincide with the optimal stock levels for the riskless joint-maximization solution. At this point, further increases in risk will reduce both profits and expected utility. Note that for the joint-maximization case, increases in risk will always reduce both profits and expected utility. In Figure 2, we illustrate the case where profits are actually lower under joint-maximization vs. non-cooperation; however, it should be stressed that expected utility will always be lower under noncooperation. Thus, where producers are risk-averse, we may very well observe stocking rates which produce profits that coincide with joint maximization."},{"index":7,"size":165,"text":"The danger here is in interpreting these profits as indicative of producer welfare, or even worse still, as using this proxy of profits as indicating that the group is actually managing its resources in a socially optimal way. Consider a policy option that will reduce output variance faced by the producer. If the initial assumption is that the group is cooperating (based on profitability), then a reduction in risk should lead to increased producer profits as well as expected utility, without increasing stocking rates beyond the socially efficient level (the riskless joint-maximization level). However, if the group is not cooperating, a reduction in output risk may very well lead to decreased profits and increased overstocking -though expected utility will still be higher. Nonetheless, valuing such an intervention will crucially depend on the situation ex-ante; a point we will return to in the third section of the paper where we examine the ability of the group to sustain cooperation in the face of exogenous parameter changes."},{"index":8,"size":60,"text":"In the next section, we give the comparative static results for the non-cooperative game, first assuming that producers are homogeneous, and second, assuming that there is heterogeneity among producers either in marginal costs or in risk preferences. As is made clear in Section 3, heterogeneity among agents significantly complicates the joint-maximization problem; we thus defer the analysis until that section."}]},{"head":"Comparative static results","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":382,"text":"Optimal stock levels are derived from the simultaneous solution of each player's respective first-order condition as given in Equation [8]. Thus, to the derive comparative statics, we totally differentiate the first order conditions and compute the comparative static matrix. However, though the problem looks similar to the single-agent problem with two choice variables, in fact, second-order sufficient conditions cannot be used to sign the Jacobian to the problem, as discussed in Caputo (1996). Dixit (1986) uses an ad-hoc dynamic adjustment process to arrive at the result that this matrix must be negative semi-definate, by appealing to necessary and sufficient conditions for local asymptotic stability. Instead of appealing to the ad-hoc adjustment process, we will instead make an assumption that fits well with our particular empirical focus, which is that , and at the equilibrium. This assumption has been widely made in the theoretical literature (c.f. Dasgupta & Heal (1979); Sandler and Sterbenz, (1990)), and posits that the \"inputs\", in our case cattle, are equally productive across herders in terms of their ability to convert forage to meat, milk and/or draft power so that each producer's share of total output is equal to their share of variable inputs applied. While we allow for heterogeneity among herders in terms of costs or risk preferences, we still maintain that the animals are of the same productivity, an assumption that fits well with the empirical observation that herders in extensive and semi-extensive production systems generally stock the same type of cattle, usually indigenous breeds. This assumption would be somewhat dubious if, for instance, we were considering a herder who held indigenous cattle and who shared common pastures with another herder who held highgrowth stock (with the assumption that both types of animals are equally adapted to their environment, equally capable of handling environmental stress, disease risks, etc). In the latter case, the high-growth stock would be more efficient at converting a given amount of forage into meat or milk than the indigenous breed, ceteris paribus. Given our empirical focus on animals held by herders in semi-arid Africa, this particular complication is not likely to arise. As shown in Appendix 2, this assumption assures that the Jacobian is negative semi-definite, allowing us to compute the following comparative statics results (proofs of which are provided in Appendix 3):"}]},{"head":"Under agent homogeneity","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Proposition 4. Stock levels are decreasing in marginal costs. Stock levels may or may not be increasing in the productivity of the resource or with output prices. If agents are not \"too riskaverse\" and/or the output variance is fairly low, then stocking rates will increase with increases in forage productivity and output prices, though the response will be dampened vis-à-vis the certainty case."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"There is nothing very surprising about the direction of these results. Though it is theoretically possible to get \"perverse\" responses, i.e. that stocking rates actually decline with an increase in output price, it is highly unlikely. However, as in other studies, responses will be dampened vis-à-vis the certainty case, since higher profits lead to a greater variance in income and raise the cost of risk, thereby leading to smaller increases in inputs. We now examine the case where there is heterogeneity among producers, where the results are more complicated but more interesting."}]},{"head":"Heterogeneity in risk preferences","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Let herder 1's coefficient of absolute risk aversion be greater than herder 2's. While all of the comparative statics are derived in Appendix 3, it is instructive to examine one of the results when heterogeneity is introduced into the problem. Below is the equation for the change in the i-th person's stock level given an overall positive change in forage productivity."},{"index":2,"size":321,"text":"As with many of the following comparative static results, the signing of this term depends not only on whether or not both herders are not \"too\" risk averse, but also on the absolute difference between herders with respect to stocking levels, [L i -L j ], and the term representing the coefficient of absolute risk aversion times the variance, R i . From Appendix 2, we know that <0. If in the equation above, then stock levels will increase with increases in forage productivity. A is always greater than B whenever . For , however, it is possible for to be negative. That is to say, if the i-th herder is sufficiently more risk averse than the j-th herder, then it is possible that the i-th herder will stock less animals on more productive land. The intuition is that the less risk averse herder will respond to changes in parameters relatively more than will the more risk averse herder. As captured in the comparative statics expression above, there are two effects of an increase in forage productivity, the first being the positive direct effect, and the second the effect stemming from the other herder's response to the same parameter change. Caputo (1996) calls this second effect the strategic effect, and we will use this term as well. It is possible for the strategic effect, which is negative, to dominate the direct effect for one herder -especially if that herder faces much higher marginal costs and/or is much more risk averse than the other herder. It must be the case that the direct effect dominates for the lower cost or less risk averse herder, however. Note that the possibility of a dominant strategic effect also holds in the absence of risk -if at the initial equilibrium, Lj>>Li, then it is also possible that the overall effect of an increase in forage productivity will be to reduce stock levels for the i-th herder."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"Finally, however, note that optimal number of livestock, L i is an inverse function of the cost of risk, R i . That is to say, ceteris paribus, a relatively high L i will be associated with a relatively low R i . Thus, we expect that, except for large differences in costs or in risk preferences, higher forage productivity will induce a positive response by both players. Nonetheless, starting from an initial difference in risk preferences and hence stock levels, the more riskaverse individual will stock fewer animals in response to positive changes in exogenous variables than will the less risk-averse individual -and hence, distribution of livestock assets will widen even when both players respond positively."},{"index":4,"size":159,"text":"Proposition 5. Given that agents are not \"too risk\" averse, nor \"too\" differentiated in terms of risk preferences, individual stock levels will increase with increases in output price and forage productivity. Any changes in exogenous parameters that positively affect profits will lead to a widening of the distribution of livestock holdings; conversely, any negative changes will lead to a narrowing of that distribution. Proposition 6. A decrease in the i'th herder's marginal costs will lead to an unambiguous increase in that herder's stock, and to an unambiguous decrease in the other herder's stock. The overall effect on total stock levels is ambiguous, and will depend on whether it is the lowcost or high-cost herder's costs that are increasing. Proposition 7. An increase in the coefficient of absolute risk aversion for the i-th player will result in lower stock levels for that herder, and to an increase in the other herder's stock. The effect on overall stock levels is ambiguous."}]},{"head":"Summary of comparative statics results:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"A. Herders not \"too\" risk averse, nor \"too\" differentiated in terms of risk preferences"}]},{"head":"Exogenous","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Case "}]},{"head":"Summary","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"In this section, we have shown that, under joint-maximization, herders are better off in terms of welfare and profits as production risk decreases, and that their stock levels increase as production risk declines. However, under non-cooperation, though stock levels will also increase with decreases in production risk, profits may in fact decline -though herders are better off in terms of welfare when this risk is lower. Furthermore, we have derived the comparative statics for the case of two herders. When herders are sufficiently homogenous in terms of risk preferences and/or marginal costs, then changes in exogenous parameters that positively affect profits for both herders will increase stock levels. However, even in this case, as long as herders exhibit some degree of heterogeneity beforehand, then the distribution of livestock holdings will widen in response to these changes."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Where herders are sufficiently heterogeneous, it is possible for the more risk-averse or higher cost player to reduce his livestock holdings. Many other analyses have pointed to a widening distribution of assets when there is heterogeneity initially; however, in the case of noncooperatively exploited common property, these differences will be exacerbated, because of the added \"strategic\" effect. Policy changes that affect direct producer incentives for all resource users must adequately account for both these effects, lest the resulting distribution be far larger than anticipated."}]},{"head":"Incentives to cooperate, incentives to deviate and the scope for collective action","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":238,"text":"In Section 2, we focused on the two extreme cases of either no cooperation or perfect cooperation. Nonetheless, there is usually a large set of possible outcomes that would be pareto superior to the non-cooperative outcome, and thus there is no reason to arbitrarily restrict our attention to only these extremes. Thus in this section, we develop a model of a centralized local management institution who can choose any stocking level that leads to a pareto improvement for all players, subject to costs of cooperation. As noted in the introduction, we do not consider decentralized solutions, i.e. outcomes that can be supported under a repeated game structure. Instead, we posit that the ability of the group to make and enforce use-rules for the management of common pastures will be a function of the oneperiod incentives to cooperate, as well as incentives to deviate from any specified level of cooperation. What is unique to this model, then, is that although the group does attempt to jointly maximize the sum of members' utility, costs of doing so are a function of incentives to deviate from any agreements that are calculated from the non-cooperative game. The main question to be addressed is: If the group does attempt to cooperate, how does risk affect the different incentives to engage in cooperation, and how do differences in risk preferences affect the range of possible levels at which the group may decide to cooperate?"}]},{"head":"Relevant literature","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"There is now a vast literature on the use of common property resources by a well-defined group of users, as well as much empirical research that addresses the ability of groups to manage common property resources (Ostrom, 1990;Seabright, 1993;McKean, 1992;Stevenson, 1991;Bromley, 1992;Bardhan, 1993). Although the case-study and socioanthropological literature has attempted to identify factors associated with successful management of common property resources, a rigorous theoretical framework has yet to be developed, so that the effect of changes in exogenous variables on exploitation rates and the functioning of a management institution are still not well understood. Nonetheless, many researchers with extensive field experiences have noted two distinct phenomena: 1) there generally exists some type of centralized management institution and/or regulatory body over resource use; or alternatively, lack of centralized management is usually associated with overexploitation as predicted by the non-cooperative model ( Ostrom, 1990;Balland & Platteau, 1996, McCarthy et.al., 1998), and 2) that groups undertake cooperation to the extent that the benefits from cooperation outweigh the costs of making and enforcing agreements (Ostrom, 1990;Thompson & Wilson, 1994), or stated somewhat differently, that partial cooperation is often observed in reality (Ostrom, 1990, Balland & Platteau, 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":302,"text":"Why is the first phenomena interesting? The answer lies in the way economists generally approach the problem of the commons vs. other disciplines, particularly sociologists, anthropologists, and even range ecologists (Behnke et.al., 1993;McKean, 1992;Berkes, 1989). Economic models based on game-theory hold that cooperation cannot be sustained in a one-period game, and conversely, that an infinite number of outcomes may be sustained by a group of users if the game is repeated and there is discounting of the future or uncertainty over when the game will end. These outcomes are sustained by credible threats to dissolve cooperation if any cheating is observed, either for ever or for some specific number of periods (Kreps, Chpt. 14, 1990). However, because these self-enforcing strategies are undertaken solely on the basis of individual actions, there is no economic reason for the group to form an institution to manage the commons, i.e. there is no need for group cooperation, at least with respect to managing externalities (Balland & Platteau, 1996). If groups actually do form to manage the commons, then this type of game-theoretic analysis cannot aid in explaining either the existence or the functioning of institutions to manage the commons. Balland & Platteau (1996) discuss a number of reasons why \"collective regulation through a central authority may be desirable\", including 1) where there are multiple equilibria, group-level regulation may aid in reaching the Pareto-optimal outcome, and 2) where information is not perfect, decentralized punishment strategies may be very unstable. These are plausible explanations, but they cannot address the second observation, which is that cooperation is often partial. That is to say, if the purpose of a centralized management institution is really only to act as a clearing house for information and for coordinating activities, we should not observe levels of cooperation that are below pareto optimal levels."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"Several authors mention that there will be costs and benefits associated with cooperation, so that the group will weigh these costs and benefits when choosing a level of cooperation (Bromley, 1992;Ostrom, 1990Ostrom, , 1992;;Wilson & Thompson, 1993). At the same time, a number of authors note that it is not likely that groups will be able to enforce use-rates that are socially optimal, and that cooperation is likely to be partial (Ostrom, 1992;Balland & Platteau, 1996)."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"In fact, Oakerson (1992) states that \"some degree of sub-optimal use may actually be efficient when costs of obtaining collective action are taken into account\". On the other hand, Seabright (1993) cogently argues that as long as a group can cooperate, there is no reason why they would not pick the best possible outcome to cooperate over. And, as noted above, Balland & Platteau (1996) argue that arriving at the Pareto-optimal level of cooperation when there are multiple equilibria is likely to be a reason for the existence of a centralized regulatory body."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"The main problem with the discussion of costs of cooperation thus far is that there has been little attention paid to the actual form of these costs, though much of the discussion seems to imply that they are fixed costs. Transaction costs of cooperating may be increasing in the number of members, but in many cases, the number of members is not the choice variable."},{"index":6,"size":145,"text":"The use-rate -in the case of grazing land, the number of livestock to graze, or the number of livestock per some time period -is generally the choice variable under the greatest direct control of the users, either as individuals or as members of the group. A group may face some given level of transactions costs, and they might have some given stock of \"social capital\" that reduces the costs of cooperation, but it is unclear from the literature why these costs of cooperation are themselves a function of use-rates, i.e. stocking rates, amount of fish to harvest, timber to fell, etc. To summarize, benefits are greatest at the joint-maximization solution, and if costs are fixed, then there is no reason to observe partial cooperation. Below, we argue that costs are in fact a function of the agreed-upon stocking level, thereby allowing for partial cooperation. 1"},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"1. Because the model is one-period with perfect information (perfect monitoring), I will not review the literature on repeated games and the possibility of partial cooperation/collusion where observability of actions is not perfect. For the oligopoly case see Green and Porter, 1984; for public goods provision, see Bendor & Mookherjee, 1988."},{"index":8,"size":59,"text":"Finally, as in Section 2, we are concerned with the effects of heterogeneity on the ability of the group to cooperate. Perhaps the most relevant strand of literature to the model developed below has emerged from oligopoly theory, specifically the work on sustainability of collusion when firms are heterogeneous, though it is generally assumed that agents are risk neutral."},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"There is a direct corollary between the non-cooperative game framework for explaining the exploitation of common property and optimal quantities to produce in an oligopoly. Perfect collusion in oligopoly is equivalent to perfect cooperation over a common property resource."},{"index":10,"size":175,"text":"Though much of the literature focuses on trigger strategies and mainly ignores explicit group collusion, there has been work establishing the individual participation constraints that will bound the set of feasible solutions, especially when there is heterogeneity among producers. For example, where marginal costs differ among firms, the optimal \"collusive\" outcome may not be individually rational for certain firms to participate in -i.e. it may entail output levels that cause some firms to shut down, and in the absence of side-payments, these firms would not enter into such agreements (Harrington (1991), Schmalensee (1987)). Johnson and Libecap (1982) note that this problem is likely to be further exacerbated if the allocation of grazing rights (or fishing quotas in their example) must be allocated equally (i.e. for sociopolitical reasons (equity), or administrative feasibility). Equity considerations may in fact be very important in the case of common property resources; the degree to which existing differences in wealth and/or efficiency can be institutionalized may very well be limited (though c.f. McKean, (1992) for the case of Japanese grazing lands)."}]},{"head":"Modelling incentives to cooperate and incentives to deviate","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"In what follows, we develop a model to determine: 1) whether it is worthwhile, in terms of marginal costs and marginal benefits, for the group to engage in cooperation, and 2) If so, at what level will they cooperate, and how will levels of cooperation change in response to changes in exogenous parameters. While there may be a whole host of socio-cultural factors that affect a group's ability to cooperate, in the analysis which follows, we focus only on the pure economic incentives to cooperate and to deviate from agreements. Furthermore, we rely heavily on a graphical analyses. For more rigorous mathematical treatment of the incentives to cooperate and to deviate, see McCarthy et.al. (1996); for a more rigorous treatment of individual participation constraints under agent heterogeneity, see Schmalensee (1989), andHarrington (1991)."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"To graphically illustrate the model, we must give a functional form to the average product function, as well as to parameterize the model. In the analysis that follows, we use a linearquadratic value function for livestock production. The coefficient of absolute risk aversion is chosen so as to yield a coefficient of relative risk aversion of .65 in the base scenario; a figure that implies mid-level risk aversion. 2 Given these parameter values -and even within wide ranges of all these values -the non-exceptional comparative statics results hold. That is to say, we have not reproduced the results where agents are too risk-averse, or too differentiated in terms of marginal costs or risk preferences, as the former case is not likely to be of importance in empirical applications, and the latter case is dealt with in more detail below."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"2. A coefficient greater than 1 is considered highly risk averse."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Let us first discuss incentives to enter into agreements as well as to defect from them. First, consider the net gains to the individual from entering into an agreement. These are defined as the profits associated with cooperation, Π i Cc , minus profits from the initial position of noncooperation (i.e. the Nash non-cooperative solution), Π i NCnc . In the analysis that follows, superscript notation will have the following meaning: capital letters will denote the actions taken by the player 1, which can either be cooperate at an agreed upon level (C), or to optimally deviate from this agreement (NC); similarly lower-case letters will refer to the actions of player 2 (c, nc)."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"The gains to cooperation are plotted in Figure 3; where gains from cooperation for the individual in terms of expected utility are plotted against stock levels, note that gains are achieved by moving from right to left, that is, as the group de-stocks. Thus, the benefits from destocking can be calculated over the entire interval from the non-cooperation outcome to the joint-maximization levels."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Next, consider the logic of the prisoner's dilemma game. There are two elements of the game which lock the players into the non-cooperative outcome. Below is a typical example of a Prisoners Dilemma game."},{"index":7,"size":142,"text":"Consider player 1. In the first instance, he must choose the optimal decision to make given that player 2 cooperates. Clearly his best response is to cheat, and to gain 15 instead of 10. We define incentives to cheat as the difference between the profits acquired by optimally deviating when the other player abides by a cooperatively-agreed upon stocking level minus the profits associated with cooperation, Π i NCnc -Π i Cc . Next, he decides what is the best response when player 2 does not cooperate, clearly this is to not cooperate as well. In this case, the player is choosing not to be cheated on, or not to be duped. Thus, we define the incentives not to be duped as being the difference between both playing non-cooperatively, and player 1 being duped while player 2 plays his optimal deviation strategy,"},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"This is the \"relentless\" logic of the prisoner's dilemma; and, even though there is no dominant strategy in the non-cooperative game, 3 at each possible point of cooperation, there are incentives to cheat and incentives to deviate, as well as the incentives to cooperate."},{"index":9,"size":35,"text":"3. The non-cooperative game we have represented above is not a Prisoner's Dilemma, since there is not a dominant strategy (hence the reaction curves are curves and not a point, cf. Dasgupta and Heal (1979)."},{"index":10,"size":148,"text":"Hereafter, we refer to the combination of incentives to cheat and incentives not to be duped as incentives to deviate. In figure 4, we plot all four incentives as a function of stock levels. As we can see, again moving right to left, the gains from cooperation are increasing at a decreasing rate, but incentives to cheat and to not be duped are increasing at an increasing rate. In figure 4, the Nash non-cooperative outcome is to stock 96 animals apiece; whereas the jointmaximization solution is to stock 72 animals apiece. At the stock level of 96, all incentives are zero -if the group agrees to allow each to stock 96, then there are no gains to this agreement vis-à-vis the situation where none cooperated, and clearly incentives to deviate and not be duped our zero, which is why this level is the solution to the non-cooperative game."},{"index":11,"size":94,"text":"Next, consider the incentives for the group to stock 93 animals each. At this point gains to cooperating are quite large at the margin, whereas incentives to deviate are quite low. Now, consider a stock level of 73, just one above the joint-maximization solution. Here the gains from cooperating are very small, in fact quite close to zero. But marginal incentives to deviate are at their highest. We hypothesize that cost of monitoring and enforcing agreements is a function of the incentives to deviate. The following equation gives the maximization problem for the group:"},{"index":12,"size":178,"text":"Cooperation costs are a function of both incentives to deviate as well as variables that may shift the cost function, Z C . These variables may be thought of as representing extra-economic characteristics of the community that enable group members to achieve any level of cooperation at lower cost. We also note that though we have a general functional form for cooperation costs, this form must preserve the shape of the incentives, so that costs are increasing at an increasing rate as we move toward the joint-maximization solution. Given this specification, marginal benefits to cooperation will be decreasing as the number of animals is reduced whereas marginal costs are increasing; therefore, there will be some level that equates marginal costs and marginal benefits. In the absence of variables that may shift the cost function (i.e. the stock of socio-cultural capital), the solution to this equation will always lead to a group-determined and enforced stock level which lies between the joint-maximization and non-cooperative solutions -that is to say, we will observe a situation that appears to be partial cooperation."},{"index":13,"size":200,"text":"Next, we consider that the group has reached some level of cooperation, given the associated incentives to deviate. What will happen for a given change in parameters? For all parameter perturbations, both the incentives to cooperate and the incentives to deviate will move in the same direction 4 . For instance, if the price of livestock output increases--so that the livestock activity becomes more profitable -then the gains to cooperation will increase, but so will the incentives to deviate. Thus, we are concerned with relative changes. In Figures 5-8, we have plotted the change in expected utility from cooperating as well as the change in incentives to deviate. What is clear from all of the graphs is that, when groups are cooperating at relatively high levels ex-ante, then incentives to deviate will increase more rapidly than incentives to cooperate. Now facing higher relative incentives to deviate, it is likely that the group will not be able to enforce the same level of cooperation, and overstocking is likely to increase relative to the ex-ante situation. On the other hand, if there were very little cooperation ex-ante, then incentives to cooperate will increase more rapidly and may lead to less overstocking ex-post."},{"index":14,"size":198,"text":"4. Note that this assertion relies on the assumption that all of the comparative static results of the previous section hold as stated above. Because of shift variables, we do not have any theoretical reason to know where any particular group will be ex ante. For a concrete example however, suppose that there are no shift variables, so that unit costs of enforcing agreements are equal to the sum of the incentives to deviate. In Figures 9 & 10, we have plotted the marginal incentive curves, in Figure 9, where the coefficient of absolute risk aversion is equal to .0001, and in Figure 10, where it is equal to .0005. In this case, an increase in the coefficient of risk aversion shifts all marginal incentives down; both the optimal number of animals to stock in the non-cooperative game as well as under joint maximization decrease. However, the difference between the optimal amount of animals to stock under the costless, joint maximization solution and the costly group-cooperation solution decreases with increases in risk aversion, and the rate of overexploitation goes down as well -from 33.33% to 32.97%. Thus, the more risk-averse are group members, the lower will be overgrazing."},{"index":15,"size":76,"text":"To summarize, it is clear that both gains from cooperation as well as gains from optimally deviating increase with changes in all parameters that positively affect expected utility. And, by examining the relative changes in incentives, we note that the overall effect on cooperation will be ambiguous. Nonetheless, higher levels of cooperation should become more difficult to sustain, whereas low levels should become easier to sustain, and the ultimate response will depend on the shift parameters."}]},{"head":"Effects of heterogeneity on incentives","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Next, we consider the effect of heterogeneity among players, in terms of either marginal costs or in terms of risk aversion. In the case where players are homogeneous, gains from cooperation are positive for both players over the entire range from the non-cooperation to the joint maximization outcomes, where rights are allocated equally among players. Let us reiterate that to get a unique solution for both players under the joint maximization problem, we required the additional assumption of how total stock levels will be split among group members. In the case of homogeneity, equal allocation of rights seems a very plausible assumption. In the case of heterogeneity, however, such an assumption becomes more difficult to justify. For instance, in the case of different (linear) marginal costs, total expected utility would be maximized by allocating all rights to the low cost producer. Obviously, in the absence of side-payments, such an allocation would not be supported by the high-cost producer."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Typical reaction functions for two players with the same levels of risk aversion are illustrated in figure 11. The iso-profit curves are drawn for each player corresponding to the profit attained at the non-cooperative outcome. The area bounded by the two iso-profit curves represents pareto-improving allocations of stocking rights across individual producers, we will hereafter refer to this area as the scope for cooperation."},{"index":3,"size":301,"text":"Figure 12 shows the same graph, except here, player 1 has a lower coefficient of absolute risk aversion. Note that in this case, there is no allocation of stock levels which falls on the 45 degree line; that is to say, an equal allocation of rights will not be supported by the low-cost producer, because profits for this herder are greater at the non-cooperative solution than for any allocation that falls on the 45 degree line. We are concerned with equal allocations belonging to the set of pareto improving allocations, because much of the empirical literature supports the notion that under most circumstances where there are use rules, these rules apply equally to all members (Johnson & Libecap, 1982;Ostrom, 1990;McCarthy, 1996). In the example given above, the coefficient of absolute risk aversion for player 2 has to be 5.5 times greater than that for player 1 for there to be no scope for cooperation, if stocking rights are allocated equally. It is worth noting that if player's wealth levels were different because of other income/assets (in addition to the differential income arising from livestock activity), then the coefficient of relative risk aversion (wealth times the coefficient of absolute risk aversion), would only need to be approximately 3.6 times greater. In the case of marginal costs, the difference between the two players need be much smaller in order for there to be no scope for cooperation; player 2 need only have costs approximately 41% greater. It is worth noting that all of these figures are based on a single set of parameter values, and though the direction of the responses are thus far invariant to parameter changes, the weight of such responses differs more significantly. Thus, obtaining actual parameter values would be of critical importance in analyzing policies in any particular area."}]},{"head":"Summary","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"In this section, we have developed a model that incorporates incentives to deviate from agreements into the cost function for a group-maximization problem over the use of a common rangeland. In section 3.2, where herders are homogeneous, we have shown that: 1) given incentives to deviate from agreements, optimal stock levels for the group are likely to lie between the non-cooperative and the costless, joint-maximization outcomes, and 2) where community-level shift variables are zero, significant reductions in risk increase overstocking, but only slightly. One of the more important testable hypotheses of the model is that overstocking itself should respond only very slightly to large changes in exogenous parameters as long as the group can cooperate, because of the offsetting effects of incentives to cooperate and incentives to deviate. In section 3.3, however, we see that we may observe large and discrete jumps to non-cooperation when a group solution is no longer feasible because of increased heterogeneity among herders. Thus, where only a fraction of herders gains access to outside income sources, or for any reason becomes less risk-averse or more efficient producers, we may observe discrete breakdowns in cooperation."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"Essentially, the above analyses attempt to answer two distinct questions: 1) What happens to the non-cooperative game when risk is introduced, and how do results differ both vis-à-vis the riskless situation, as well as vis-à-vis the joint-maximization, or perfect cooperation, solution, and 2) If the group does attempt to cooperate, how does risk affect the different incentives to engage in cooperation, and how do differences in risk preferences affect the range of possible levels at which the group may decide to cooperate. The results suggest caution regarding the possible effects of risk reduction. Decreased risk may in fact result in lower incomes in the case of non-cooperation, and if producer's are differentiated either in terms of marginal costs or risk preferences themselves, then decreased risk will widen the distribution of livestock assets. In fact, any change in exogenous parameters that positively affect profitability will lead to a increase in this distribution, given some initial degree of heterogeneity."},{"index":3,"size":238,"text":"Furthermore, if there were some type of cooperative arrangement in place before a decrease in income variability (risk), then cooperation will likely become more difficult to sustain at high levels of cooperation, and easier to sustain at lower levels of cooperation. There is no theoretical basis to assume, a priori, the functional form of these costs, and thus the comparative statics are indeterminate. However, if the cost function is a linear transformation of the sum of incentives to deviate, then a decrease in risk will lead to slightly lower levels of cooperation in terms of overstocking, as illustrated in Fig. 9 & 10. 5 Unlike a decrease in risk, however, an increase in producer prices, an increase in pasture productivity, and a decrease in production costs will all lead to slightly higher levels of cooperation. These latter results run counter to the commonly held -though not universal -belief that increases in parameters which positively increase profitability will lead to a lower levels of cooperation. Nonetheless, given the parameter values chosen (and over a wide range of parameter values), we observe only very small changes in the level of overgrazing due to most parameter changes, and this is because both incentives to cooperate as well as incentives to deviate move in the same direction. Thus, we hypothesize that communities which can cooperate, will not be adversely affected by policies which decrease risk or increase the profitability of livestock production."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"5. Though note that the increase in overstocking is very slight compared to the large decrease in the coefficient of absolute risk aversion."},{"index":5,"size":190,"text":"However, the models developed above can explain discrete jumps to non-cooperation for increases in profitability. As just noted, as long as we have an interior solution for the group maximization problem, increases in profitability will lead to greater gains from cooperation. However, if there are initial differences between the herders, then these will be exacerbated by increases in profitability. At some point, the differences may become sufficiently large as to cause a discrete jump to non-cooperation. Alternatively, consider that the productivity of the range is decreasing each year. As the resource degrades, differences between herders will diminish, and at some point, we may observe a discrete jump to cooperation. Finally, if noneconomic variables that shift costs of cooperation change, we may also see a discrete jump from non-cooperation to group cooperation, or vice versa. Overall, the effect of increased profitability is ambiguous and depends on the degree of heterogeneity among herders, so that it is necessary to know how heterogeneous the community in question is, as well as the strength of the socio-cultural shift variables, before a prediction can be made about changes in cooperation for changes in exogenous variables."},{"index":6,"size":96,"text":"These results indicate that precaution should be taken when undertaking development projects and policies that either alter the riskiness of livestock production itself, or of any exogenous parameters that improve profitability directly, since resulting outcomes may not be those desired -either decreased incomes and increased overstocking in the case of noncooperation, or, a discrete jump to non-cooperation from a cooperative starting point. The analysis also points to the problem of using income as an indicator of well-being when livestock production is risky; overall utility increases with decreases in output variability, but income may in fact decline."},{"index":7,"size":261,"text":"Finally, we can combine the results of this analysis with those analyses that examine the benefits of spatial mobility in terms of risk reduction (Van den Brink et.al., 1995;Wilson & Thomspon, 1993). Clearly, for most of the world's livestock owning population, access to common, or even open-access, pastures is of utmost importance in reducing the riskiness associated with climatic variability. Access to land, then, serves two very important functions -it is the source of an essential input, forage, and it reduces risk. In fact, spatial variability seems to be the single most important determinant of the resilience of common property grazing lands. Nonetheless, when the commons are not well-managed, there will be a tradeoff between leaving lands in common versus privatization; namely, there will be increases in herder welfare due to a larger amount of land over which to spread the riskiness in production, but profits will be lower as stock levels per unit area are higher due to reduced riskiness. We hypothesize, then, that more land will be appropriated privately (or by ever smaller subgroups), the lower is the ability to cooperate. Adding the results of the above models to the Van den Brink et.al. work -which considers that use rates are socially optimal and thus problems of non-cooperation and overgrazing are abstracted from -allows us to better identify factors associated with cooperation and hence identify policies that will increase the welfare of herders and their ability to harness benefits both cooperation, as well as to more accurately identify areas of potential conflict and policy measures needed to resolve conflict."},{"index":8,"size":109,"text":"Dynamic considerations are absent from the model; and though we believe many of the hypotheses from the model will remain intact, a rigorous dynamic framework should be developed, perhaps with the express intent of capturing cyclical behaviour. The exogenous \"shift\" variables in the model of incentives need to be elaborated, and the added complexity of multiple users (with multiple interactions in other spheres) also needs to be addressed in a more systematic fashion. Finally, a simulation model should be developed to formally incorporate not only the spatial variability argument proposed by Van den Brink et.al, but also to capture the multiple co-variate risks and crop-livestock interactions faced by agropastoralists."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" of profits accruing under joint maximization, and under Cournot-Nash solution, respectively = price of livestock output = average product function = number of cattle stocked by players, i=1,2 = forage productivity parameters, where . = constant marginal cost of livestock. = variance in rainfall = coefficient of absolute risk aversion "},{"text":" average product function, R = variance * coefficient of absolute risk aversion, "},{"text":"Figure 5 :Figure 6 :Figure 7 :Figure 8 : Figure 5: Change in Expected Utility; a = 82 to a 90 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"not \"too\" risk averse, but are sufficiently differentiated in terms of risk preferences  Marginal costs     Marginal costs For Herder 1  + - +/- For Herder 1+-+/- Coefficient of absolute risk aversion     Coefficient of absolute risk aversion For Herder 1  + - +/- For Herder 1+-+/-  1: Homogeneity Case 2: Herder 1 with lower coefficient of 1: Homogeneity Case 2: Herder 1 with lower coefficient of   absolute risk aversion  absolute risk aversion Parameters Herder 1 & 2 Herder 1 Herder 2 Total herd size ParametersHerder 1 & 2Herder 1Herder 2Total herd size Increase in:     Increase in: Pasture productivity + + + + Pasture productivity++++ Output prices + + + + Output prices++++ Decrease in:     Decrease in: Pasture fragility + + + + Pasture fragility++++ Marginal costs     Marginal costs For both players, Case 1 +    For both players, Case 1+ For Herder 1, Case 2  + - +/- For Herder 1, Case 2+-+/- Coefficient of absolute risk aversion     Coefficient of absolute risk aversion For both players, Case 1 +    For both players, Case 1+ For Herder 1, Case 2  + - +/- For Herder 1, Case 2+-+/- B. Herders Exogenous  Case 2: Herder 1 with lower coefficient of B. Herders ExogenousCase 2: Herder 1 with lower coefficient of   absolute risk aversion  absolute risk aversion Parameters  Herder 1 Herder 2 Total herd size ParametersHerder 1Herder 2Total herd size Increase in:     Increase in: Pasture productivity  + - +/- Pasture productivity+-+/- Output prices  + - +/- Output prices+-+/- Decrease in:     Decrease in: Pasture fragility  + -  Pasture fragility+-  "}],"sieverID":"27017eea-0ae6-42cf-9f49-f82c3add4e82","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a048fc658733899cc8462848348ec69","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e33367ab-572a-48b6-bd23-9cb49c7c8815/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Combinational Variation Temperature and Soil Water Response of Stomata and Biomass Production in Maize, Millet, Sorghum and Rice","keywords":["gs","leaf area","temperature-dependent","transpiration","water stress","water use efficiency Conceptualization, J.-I.S.","methodology, P.K. and S.Y.","formal analysis, investigation, writing-original draft preparation, and editing, A.I.M., M.A.H. and I.A"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Global climate change increases variability in temperature, drought, and flooding [1][2][3]. Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) as C 3 , and maize (Zea mays. L.), millet (Panicum miliaceum L.), and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) as C 4 are cereal crops grown under variable climates and rainfed environments in Asia, America, and Africa, sharing a high contribution to global food security [4]. Climate change and weather disasters are major causes of reductions in agricultural productivity [5,6]."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Under rainfed conditions in tropical and subtropical regions, these crops experience diverse individual and successive combined environmental stresses attributed to climate change such as drought, flooding, and temperature variability that directly affect their morphology and physiology, leading to crop failure. The effect of environmental stress such as water stress and temperature on crop production is well documented [7][8][9][10]. This study focusses on to access crops response to combined soil water status and temperature in relation to morphological and gas exchange parameters (i.e., photosynthesis and stomatal behavior)."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Stomata are the gatekeepers of gas exchange and the primary determinants of CO 2 assimilation. Stomata conductance (gs) response to soil water and temperature stresses is Plants 2022, 11, 1039 2 of 17 basic information for photosynthesis transpiration, and it has increasingly been a concern under global warming. The positive correlation between gs and photosynthesis (A) has been reported in the laboratory [11] and a positive correlation between gs and yield has also been reported in field conditions [12]. Alternatively, stomatal closure is caused by water stress and temperature [13]. Additionally, stomatal closure can directly influence CO 2 absorption (photosynthesis rate) and transpiration rate (E) [11,14]."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"Rice, a C 3 , an original lowland crop, is resilient, and due to its crucial root anatomy to cope with soil waterlogging [15,16] has been introduced to waterlogging and upland conditions [17]. In contrast, maize, millet, and sorghum are better adapted to upland conditions due to their water absorption ability that is related to their deep root system [18]. Nevertheless, the response of crops to soil water status depends on crop genotypes and varieties [19,20]."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"More than one-third of the world's irrigated area suffers due to waterlogging. Continuous flood conditions lead to lack oxygen in the soil, restricting respiration of growing roots, living organisms, and changing soil chemical property [21]. The response of crops to waterlogging depends on varieties. Most of the upland crop species are sensitive to waterlogging conditions compared to wetland crop species such as rice due to their inability transport oxygen from the leaves to root tips for sustaining the root respiration and gas exchange. In condition, waterlogged soil cause reduction of gs and A in sorghum [22,23], maize [24], and millet [9]. Therefore, maize, millet and sorghum reduce in growth and grain yield under waterlogging [9,[24][25][26]."},{"index":6,"size":162,"text":"Drought occurs when the soil moisture is continuously low, where water extraction by root and water transport within the plant is reduced. To overcome drought stress, plants respond by increasing the water extraction efficiency and the water use efficiency of the root, and simultaneously reduce E (water loss) [27] by closing stomata as well as maintaining turgor [28]. Crops have different water requirement for growth development and productivity. Rice and maize had higher water requirement than millet and sorghum [29]. The ability to maintain photosynthesis during drought is indicative of the potential to sustain productivity under water deficit. The stomatal response to drought conditions depends on crop genotypes [30,31]. Sorghum exhibits the ability to maintain stomatal opening and photosynthesis at low water potentials, as well as the ability for osmotic adjustment [32]. In rice, the photosynthetic rate declines dramatically during soil drought, mainly due to the decrease in the gs [33]. Stomatal limitation on photosynthesis depends on the level of drought [28]."},{"index":7,"size":178,"text":"Extreme temperature directly impacts on the production of cereal crops. The optimal temperature of C 3 plants (28-30 • C) is lower than C 4 plants (26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31)(32)(33)(34)(35) • C) such as maize, millet, and sorghum [34,35]. C 3 and C 4 plant species show various responses to gs, A, and E under temperature stress [36][37][38]. Increase in global temperature can directly affect stomatal behavior and reduce yield in major crops [7,39]. The increase in mean global temperature has been predicted under climate change [40]. Increasing of temperature is closely associated with increased vapor pressure deficit (VPD). The key response of crops to variation of VPD is by regulation of E through gs [41]. On the other hand, low temperature is another influence on stomatal aperture of crops. Cool conditions affect stomatal closure in Phaseolus vulgaris and maize [42]. Low temperature causes a reduction in the plant's capacity for calcium uptake by guard cells due to stomatal closure [43,44]. Calcium acts as an intracellular secondary messenger, regulating ion transport activity plasma and vacuolar membranes in guard cell turgor [44,45]."},{"index":8,"size":205,"text":"Previously, our study showed that rice and millet have better root distribution under waterlogging than in dry conditions compared with maize and sorghum, whose root distribution was limited under waterlogging, leading to poor growth of aboveground biomass [19]. However, this study was conducted in a specific environment only. A combination of factors such as the variable temperatures, drought, and waterlogging occur during crop production, especially under rainfed agriculture. The effect of combination of factors on crop failure may be higher than an individual factor. Many studies have reported the effect of combinations of water stress and temperature variability on the growth and productivity of crops [46][47][48][49][50]. However, knowledge on the effect of various soil water status and temperature variabilities such as soil waterlogging, dry conditions, and their interactions with low and high temperatures on stomatal response among crop genotypes are scant. Hence, we hypothesized that the response of shoot biomass and gs behavior of different crop genotypes to combinations of soil water stress and temperatures have an effect on crop genotypes due to their variable adaptability of gs. Therefore, we identified the variation in stomatal traits and the impact of gs behavior under various soil water status and temperatures on rice, maize, millet, and sorghum."}]},{"head":"Results","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experiment 1 2.1.1. Soil Control and Atmospheric Environment","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"The change in soil moisture content, air temperature, relative humidity, and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) during the treatment period are summarized in Figure 1. The trend of soil moisture for each treatment in experiment. 1A and 1B (Exp. 1A and 1B) was similar, where waterlogging (WL) and dry soil (DH) had the highest (38.8% and 43.7% for Exp. 1A and 1B, respectively) and lowest moisture contents (7.6% and 10.6% for Exp. 1A and 1B, respectively), respectively (Figure 1a,d). Soil moisture content with severe dry soil treatment (DH) gradually declined from 16.0% down to 7.6% for Exp. 1A and 15.1% down to 10.6% for Exp. 1B during the treatment period. The temperature in Exp. 1A was higher than in Exp. 1B with the average temperature of day/night being 34/25 • C and 24/15 • C in Exp. 1A and 1B, respectively (Figure 1b). The vapor pressure deficit, relative humidity, and solar irradiance were not significantly different between Exp. 1A and 1B, but their fluctuations were different between Exp. 1A and 1B (Figure 1c,e,f)."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"during crop production, especially under rainfed agriculture. The effect of combination of factors on crop failure may be higher than an individual factor."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Many studies have reported the effect of combinations of water stress and temperature variability on the growth and productivity of crops [46][47][48][49][50]. However, knowledge on the effect of various soil water status and temperature variabilities such as soil waterlogging, dry conditions, and their interactions with low and high temperatures on stomatal response among crop genotypes are scant. Hence, we hypothesized that the response of shoot biomass and gs behavior of different crop genotypes to combinations of soil water stress and temperatures have an effect on crop genotypes due to their variable adaptability of gs. Therefore, we identified the variation in stomatal traits and the impact of gs behavior under various soil water status and temperatures on rice, maize, millet, and sorghum."}]},{"head":"Results","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experiment 1","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Soil Control and Atmospheric Environment","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"The change in soil moisture content, air temperature, relative humidity, and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) during the treatment period are summarized in Figure 1. The trend of soil moisture for each treatment in experiment. 1A and 1B (Exp. 1A and 1B) was similar, where waterlogging (WL) and dry soil (DH) had the highest (38.8% and 43.7% for Exp. 1A and 1B, respectively) and lowest moisture contents (7.6% and 10.6% for Exp. 1A and 1B, respectively), respectively (Figure 1a,d). Soil moisture content with severe dry soil treatment (DH) gradually declined from 16.0% down to 7.6% for Exp. 1A and 15.1% down to 10.6% for Exp. 1B during the treatment period. The temperature in Exp. 1A was higher than in Exp. 1B with the average temperature of day/night being 34/25 °C and 24/15 °C in Exp. 1A and 1B, respectively (Figure 1b). The vapor pressure deficit, relative humidity, and solar irradiance were not significantly different between Exp. 1A and 1B, but their fluctuations were different between Exp. 1A and 1B (Figure 1c,e,f). "}]},{"head":"The Correlation between Soil Moisture Status and Shoot Biomass, LA, and gs","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"A linear and nonlinear correlation that depended on crop and experiment existed between soil moisture status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs in comparison between Exp. 1A and 1B (Figure 2). There were significant nonlinear correlations between soil moisture "}]},{"head":"The Correlation between Soil Moisture Status and Shoot Biomass, LA, and gs","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":805,"text":"A linear and nonlinear correlation that depended on crop and experiment existed between soil moisture status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs in comparison between Exp. 1A and 1B (Figure 2). There were significant nonlinear correlations between soil moisture status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs for both Exp. 1A and 1B (Figure 2a,e,i) in maize. Furthermore, the correlation between soil moisture status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs was observed as a nonlinear correlation on shoot biomass, LA, and gs in Exp. 1A in sorghum, whereas, in Exp. 1B, it was a linear correlation on shoot biomass, LA, and Plants 2022, 11, 1039 gs (Figure 2b,f,j). In millet, the nonlinear and linear correlation between soil moisture status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs was observed in Exp. 1A and 1B, respectively. The correlation was significant between soil moisture status and shoot biomass for both Exp. 1A and 1B, LA for Exp. 1A, and gs for Exp. 1A, but Exp. 1B showed no significant correlation between soil moisture status and LA (Figure 2c,g,k). Additionally, a nonlinear correlation between soil moisture status and shoot biomass LA, and gs was found in Exp. 1A and 1B in rice, whereas the excluded correlation between soil moisture status and shoot biomass in Exp. 1A showed a negative linear correlation. A significant correlation was found between soil moisture status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs for Exp. 1A and 1B (Figure 2d,h,l). The distance of correlation lines between soil moisture status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs showed that maize and rice had fewer distance correlation lines between Exp. 1A and 1B than sorghum and millet (Figure 2). status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs for both Exp. 1A and 1B (Figure 2a,e,i) in maize. Furthermore, the correlation between soil moisture status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs was observed as a nonlinear correlation on shoot biomass, LA, and gs in Exp. 1A in sorghum, whereas, in Exp. 1B, it was a linear correlation on shoot biomass, LA, and gs (Figure 2b,f,j). In millet, the nonlinear and linear correlation between soil moisture status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs was observed in Exp. 1A and 1B, respectively. The correlation was significant between soil moisture status and shoot biomass for both Exp. 1A and 1B, LA for Exp. 1A, and gs for Exp. 1A, but Exp. 1B showed no significant correlation between soil moisture status and LA (Figure 2c,g,k). Additionally, a nonlinear correlation between soil moisture status and shoot biomass LA, and gs was found in Exp. 1A and 1B in rice, whereas the excluded correlation between soil moisture status and shoot biomass in Exp. 1A showed a negative linear correlation. A significant correlation was found between soil moisture status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs for Exp. 1A and 1B (Figure 2d,h,l). The distance of correlation lines between soil moisture status and shoot biomass, LA, and gs showed that maize and rice had fewer distance correlation lines between Exp. 1A and 1B than sorghum and millet (Figure 2).  The volumetric soil moisture content of moderate soil moisture (MSM), gradual soil drying (GSD), and continuous soil waterlogging (CSW) combined with low or high temperature is shown in Figure 3. There was less difference between the soil moisture status combinations with low or high temperatures. It is because the soil moisture content was controlled at field capacity before the start of the treatment. After treatment, the average soil moisture content under MSM/24/15 °C or 34/25 °C was maintained at field capacity. In contrast, the soil moisture content under GSD/24/15 °C or 34/25 °C was gradually reduced by withholding irrigation for 17 days. Alternatively, when the pots were  The volumetric soil moisture content of moderate soil moisture (MSM), gradual soil drying (GSD), and continuous soil waterlogging (CSW) combined with low or high temperature is shown in Figure 3. There was less difference between the soil moisture status combinations with low or high temperatures. It is because the soil moisture content was controlled at field capacity before the start of the treatment. After treatment, the average soil moisture content under MSM/24/15 • C or 34/25 • C was maintained at field capacity. In contrast, the soil moisture content under GSD/24/15 • C or 34/25 • C was gradually reduced by withholding irrigation for 17 days. Alternatively, when the pots were submerged, the volumetric soil moisture content under CSW/24/15 • C or 34/25 • C depicted very little change.  The effect of the combination between soil moisture status and the temperature varied significantly depending on crop (p < 0.001) for shoot biomass, LA, A, gs, E, and water use efficiency (WUE) (Table 1). Similarly, treatments on shoot biomass showed significant effects, A, gs, E, and WUE (p < 0.001) for all crops. In contrast, there was no significant effect within the crops on all parameters."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"Table 1. The effect of the combination of environmental factors (soil moisture status and temperature) on shoot biomass, LA, A, gs, E, and WUE of crops (maize, sorghum, millet, and rice), and interaction between crops and environment in experiment 2. All crops showed a negative response on shoot biomass and LA under MSM with low temperature, except LA of maize showed a positive response under this condition. Under GSD, maize and sorghum had better shoot biomass and LA growth under GSD/34/25 °C compared to millet and rice; maize and rice showed positive response on shoot biomass under GSD/24/15 °C, but not sorghum and millet. Under GSD/24/15 °C, the LA of all crops had a negative response. Moreover, each crop showed a similar response on shoot biomass and LA under CSW/24/15 °C and 34/25 °C. Maize and sorghum had an adverse reaction to CSW, whether 24/15 °C or 34/25 °C. Alternatively, the effect of CSW on the shoot biomass and LA of millet and rice were negatively affected by low temperature (24/15 °C)."}]},{"head":"Source of Variation Shoot Biomass Leaf Area","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Under various combined factors, as presented in Figure 4, there were variations in gas exchange among the crops. The A was a positive response in all crops grown under MSM/24/15 °C or 34/25 °C (Figure 4c). Under GSD/24/15 °C, a negative impact existed in maize and millet, and that on rice was under GSD/34/25 °C. In comparison, the negative The effect of the combination between soil moisture status and the temperature varied significantly depending on crop (p < 0.001) for shoot biomass, LA, A, gs, E, and water use efficiency (WUE) (Table 1). Similarly, treatments on shoot biomass showed significant effects, A, gs, E, and WUE (p < 0.001) for all crops. In contrast, there was no significant effect within the crops on all parameters."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"Table 1. The effect of the combination of environmental factors (soil moisture status and temperature) on shoot biomass, LA, A, gs, E, and WUE of crops (maize, sorghum, millet, and rice), and interaction between crops and environment in experiment 2. All crops showed a negative response on shoot biomass and LA under MSM with low temperature, except LA of maize showed a positive response under this condition. Under GSD, maize and sorghum had better shoot biomass and LA growth under GSD/34/25 • C compared to millet and rice; maize and rice showed positive response on shoot biomass under GSD/24/15 • C, but not sorghum and millet. Under GSD/24/15 • C, the LA of all crops had a negative response. Moreover, each crop showed a similar response on shoot biomass and LA under CSW/24/15 • C and 34/25 • C. Maize and sorghum had an adverse reaction to CSW, whether 24/15 • C or 34/25 • C. Alternatively, the effect of CSW on the shoot biomass and LA of millet and rice were negatively affected by low temperature (24/15 • C)."}]},{"head":"Source of Variation Shoot Biomass","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Leaf","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"Under various combined factors, as presented in Figure 4, there were variations in gas exchange among the crops. The A was a positive response in all crops grown under MSM/24/15 • C or 34/25 • C (Figure 4c). Under GSD/24/15 • C, a negative impact existed in maize and millet, and that on rice was under GSD/34/25 • C. In comparison, the negative effect of GSD on A of sorghum was found at low and high temperatures. Under CSW, maize and sorghum had a negative response on A at low and high temperatures, whereas the effect of CSW in millet and rice was found in low temperatures (Figure 4c). Low temperature harmed E of all crops grown under different soil moisture status (Figure 4d). Under MSM, gs of all crops had a positive response in high temperatures, but they showed a negative impact at low temperatures except maize. There was a high negative impact on gs in maize, sorghum, and millet under GSD/24/15 • C. Furthermore, GSD showed a negative response on gs at low and high temperatures in rice. Under CSW, gs of maize, sorghum, millet, and rice demonstrated a similar response of A with maize and sorghum, harming gs at low and high temperatures (Figure 4e). Figure 4f shows that low temperature promoted a positive response of WUE under numerous soil moisture statuses, but high temperature negatively impacted WUE in all crops."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"effect of GSD on A of sorghum was found at low and high temperatures. Under CSW, maize and sorghum had a negative response on A at low and high temperatures, whereas the effect of CSW in millet and rice was found in low temperatures (Figure 4c). Low temperature harmed E of all crops grown under different soil moisture status (Figure 4d). Under MSM, gs of all crops had a positive response in high temperatures, but they showed a negative impact at low temperatures except maize. There was a high negative impact on gs in maize, sorghum, and millet under GSD/24/15 °C. Furthermore, GSD showed a negative response on gs at low and high temperatures in rice. Under CSW, gs of maize, sorghum, millet, and rice demonstrated a similar response of A with maize and sorghum, harming gs at low and high temperatures (Figure 4e). Figure 4f shows that low temperature promoted a positive response of WUE under numerous soil moisture statuses, but high temperature negatively impacted WUE in all crops. "}]},{"head":"Changing of Gas Exchange","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"The effect of the combination between soil moisture status and temperature treatments on gas exchange is shown in Figure 5. There was a significant effect of combination treatments on A, gs, E, and WUE at 4, 8, 12, and 17 days after treatment (DAT) (p < 0.05) in maize, except for gs at 4 DAT that showed no significant difference among the treatments. With low temperature, each soil moisture status had lower A, gs, and E of maize than high temperature. A, gs, and E of maize significantly decreased in low temperature at 4, 8, and 12 DAT under GSD, but declined A, gs, and E were delayed at 17 DAT (Figure 5a,e,i,m) compared to MSM with high temperature (MSM/34/25 °C). Under CSW, A, gs, and E of maize significantly decreased at initial (4 DAT) after imposed soil waterlogging in low and high temperatures compared to MSM/34/25 °C and GSD/34/25 °C; WUE of the maize was influenced by low temperature combined with all soil water statuses, particularly "}]},{"head":"Changing of Gas Exchange","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":378,"text":"The effect of the combination between soil moisture status and temperature treatments on gas exchange is shown in Figure 5. There was a significant effect of combination treatments on A, gs, E, and WUE at 4, 8, 12, and 17 days after treatment (DAT) (p < 0.05) in maize, except for gs at 4 DAT that showed no significant difference among the treatments. With low temperature, each soil moisture status had lower A, gs, and E of maize than high temperature. A, gs, and E of maize significantly decreased in low temperature at 4, 8, and 12 DAT under GSD, but declined A, gs, and E were delayed at 17 DAT (Figure 5a,e,i,m) compared to MSM with high temperature (MSM/34/25 • C). Under CSW, A, gs, and E of maize significantly decreased at initial (4 DAT) after imposed soil waterlogging in low and high temperatures compared to MSM/34/25 • C and GSD/34/25 • C; WUE of the maize was influenced by low temperature combined with all soil water statuses, particularly MSM and GSD, compared to high temperature. Additionally, a significant effect of treatments on gas exchange was found at 4, 8, 12, and 17 DAT in sorghum. Under different combinations of various soil water status and temperature, the change in gas exchange compared to sorghum and maize was similar. The combination of soil water status and low temperature Plants 2022, 11, 1039 7 of 17 decreased A, gs, and E, but it increased WUE. After the low-temperature imposition, A, gs, and E of sorghum under different soil moisture levels decreased at the inceptive stage. Its A, gs, and E under MSM and GSD recovered at 8 DAT, but not under CSW. The A, gs, and E of sorghum at low and high temperatures gradually declined along with soil moisture status (Figure 5b,f,j,m) under GSD. Nevertheless, the A, gs, and E under GSD combined with low temperature (GSD/24/15 • C) was lower than high temperature (GSD/34/25 • C), and GSD/24/15 • C was not significantly different compared to CSW combined with low and high temperatures. Under CSW, the A, gs, and E was significantly decreased at 4 DAT by CSW, and CSW/24/15 • C and CSW/34/25 • C on A, gs, and E (Figure 5b,f,j,n) showed no significant difference."},{"index":2,"size":196,"text":"MSM and GSD, compared to high temperature. Additionally, a significant effect of treatments on gas exchange was found at 4, 8, 12, and 17 DAT in sorghum. Under different combinations of various soil water status and temperature, the change in gas exchange compared to sorghum and maize was similar. The combination of soil water status and low temperature decreased A, gs, and E, but it increased WUE. After the low-temperature imposition, A, gs, and E of sorghum under different soil moisture levels decreased at the inceptive stage. Its A, gs, and E under MSM and GSD recovered at 8 DAT, but not under CSW. The A, gs, and E of sorghum at low and high temperatures gradually declined along with soil moisture status (Figure 5b,f,j,m) under GSD. Nevertheless, the A, gs, and E under GSD combined with low temperature (GSD/24/15 °C) was lower than high temperature (GSD/34/25 °C), and GSD/24/15 °C was not significantly different compared to CSW combined with low and high temperatures. Under CSW, the A, gs, and E was significantly decreased at 4 DAT by CSW, and CSW/24/15 °C and CSW/34/25 °C on A, gs, and E (Figure 5b,f,j,n) showed no significant difference."}]},{"head":"Figure 5.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The effect of combination of soil moisture status and temperature on changing of photosynthesis rate (A; a-d), stomatal conductance (gs; e-h), transpiration rate (E; i-l), and water use efficiency (WUE; m-p) in maize (a,e,i,m), sorghum (b,f,j,n), common millet (c,g,k,o), and rice (d,h,l,p) during the course of experiment 2. Each day of measurement with similar letters did not significantly differ according to Tukey's test at the 0.05 probability level."},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"There were significant effects of the combination treatments on the change of gas exchange (Figure 5c,g,k,o) in millet. MSM and GSD combined with low temperature were initially lower at A, gs, and E than high temperature at 4, 8, and 12 DAT, but CSW/24/15 °C did not decrease gs of millet at 4 DAT compared to the treatment before. Under MSM/34/25 °C, the gas exchange did not change the A, gs, and E at all measured times, but the gas exchange was reduced under MSM/24/15 °C, specifically on E. There was a similar reduction of gas exchange of millet under GSD/24/15 °C with MSM/34/25 °C at 4 DAT. In contrast, A, gs, and E under GSD/34/25 °C was delayed to record a significant decrease at 17 DAT. The impact of CSW in A, gs, and E depended on temperature. CSW/34/25 °C showed no significant difference on A, gs, and E of millet compared to MSM/34/25 °C , whereas under CSW/24/15 °C , A and E was reduced for maize at 4 DAT  E; (i-l)), and water use efficiency (WUE; (m-p)) in maize (a,e,i,m), sorghum (b,f,j,n), common millet (c,g,k,o), and rice (d,h,l,p) during the course of experiment 2. Each day of measurement with similar letters did not significantly differ according to Tukey's test at the 0.05 probability level."},{"index":3,"size":639,"text":"There were significant effects of the combination treatments on the change of gas exchange (Figure 5c,g,k,o) in millet. MSM and GSD combined with low temperature were initially lower at A, gs, and E than high temperature at 4, 8, and 12 DAT, but CSW/24/15 • C did not decrease gs of millet at 4 DAT compared to the treatment before. Under MSM/34/25 • C, the gas exchange did not change the A, gs, and E at all measured times, but the gas exchange was reduced under MSM/24/15 • C, specifically on E. There was a similar reduction of gas exchange of millet under GSD/24/15 • C with MSM/34/25 • C at 4 DAT. In contrast, A, gs, and E under GSD/34/25 • C was delayed to record a significant decrease at 17 DAT. The impact of CSW in A, gs, and E depended on temperature. CSW/34/25 • C showed no significant difference on A, gs, and E of millet compared to MSM/34/25 • C, whereas under CSW/24/15 • C, A and E was reduced for maize at 4 DAT and gs at 8 DAT. Millet responded similar to maize and sorghum, where WUE increased under all SMC combined with low temperature (Figure 5o). The effect of treatments on gs, E, and WUE was noticed at all measured times in rice, but A was seen at 12 and 17 DAT (Figure 5d,h,l,p  6 presents the correlation between gs and shoot biomass, gs and A, and gs and E across the combination between soil moisture status and temperature treatments, which was positively significant for all crops (Figure 6). Maize had the highest coefficient, followed by millet, sorghum, and rice in a correlation coefficient between gs and shoot biomass (Figure 6a-d). The correlation between gs and A in maize had the highest coefficient, followed by sorghum, millet, and rice (Figure 6e-h). In contrast, a high correlation coefficient between gs and E was found in maize, followed by sorghum and rice (Figure 6i-l).  6 presents the correlation between gs and shoot biomass, gs and A, and gs and E across the combination between soil moisture status and temperature treatments, which was positively significant for all crops (Figure 6). Maize had the highest coefficient, followed by millet, sorghum, and rice in a correlation coefficient between gs and shoot biomass (Figure 6a-d). The correlation between gs and A in maize had the highest coefficient, followed by sorghum, millet, and rice (Figure 6e-h). In contrast, a high correlation coefficient between gs and E was found in maize, followed by sorghum and rice (Figure 6i-l). Multiple linear regression analysis was used to identify which environmental factors and physiological traits influenced shoot biomass across a combination of various soil water statuses and temperatures, gs, A, and WUE. Our results showed that soil moisture content, temperature, and gs were suitable parameters to generate a formula that highly Multiple linear regression analysis was used to identify which environmental factors and physiological traits influenced shoot biomass across a combination of various soil water statuses and temperatures, gs, A, and WUE. Our results showed that soil moisture content, temperature, and gs were suitable parameters to generate a formula that highly contributes to multiple crops. Soil moisture content and temperature influenced gs of all crops. The result of multiple linear correlation showed that sorghum had the highest adjustment (Adj) of R squared (Adj. R 2 = 0.759, p < 0.001), followed by maize (Adj. R 2 = 0.658, p < 0.001), millet (Adj. R 2 = 0.492, p = 0.006), and rice (Adj. R 2 = 0.262, p < 0.066) (Table 2). On the basis of β-value, rice and maize were less affected by temperature and soil moisture content compared to sorghum and millet; temperature especially had a higher influence on shoot biomass of sorghum and millet than maize and rice (Table 2). "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The gs Responses to Soil Moisture Status and Environmental Influence on Biomass Production","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Our study highlighted the interaction between crop genotypes and combination of soil moisture status and environment through gs and shoot biomass. Stomatal aperture is influenced by a number of environmental factors including water variability, leaf temperature, and CO 2 . The dynamic of stomatal movement acting in response to environmental charge and internals in an attempt is to optimize the trade-off between A and to maintain plant water status (transpiration rate) [51]. Close positive correlation among gs, A, and plant growth have been found under the control environments and field experiments [11,12,52]. Plant mechanism of response to water stress includes conservative, where the plants close the stomata are faster, and non-conservative, where the plants close the stomata are slower under drought conditions [53]. Our study emphasized on non-conservative mechanism."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"The correlation between soil moisture status and shoot biomass and gs was a similar tendency (Figure 2). Under wet soil conditions, the shoot biomass of maize and sorghum declined (Exp. 1A and 1B). Additionally, the gs of these two crops were limited by wet soil conditions, especially waterlogging in Exp. 1A and 1B (Figure 2). A similar response of shoot biomass and gs of maize and sorghum was noticed under waterlogging interaction with low and high temperatures. It showed that maize and sorghum were sensitive to soil waterlogging and were temperature-independent (Figure 6). This finding is confirmed previous reports [23,54,55]. Waterlogging extremely limited root length density at the deep soil layer and shoot biomass of maize and sorghum [19,56] due to their roots suffering from low oxygen diffusion in the soil [57][58][59]."},{"index":3,"size":578,"text":"Moreover, shoot biomass of millet showed a negative response to waterlogging in both Exp. 1A and 1B. Still, its impact on shoot biomass under combination of CSW and high temperature was the opposite in experiment 2. The temperature was similar to CSW interaction with a high temperature in experiment 2 (Figure 4a). Barnyard millet adapted well to waterlogging [19,20]; not withstanding, low temperature caused a reduction of shoot biomass under waterlogging in Exp. 1B and low temperature (CSW/24/15 • C) in experiment 2 (Figure 4a). Under the screen house, the fluctuation of light intensity influenced gs, A, and biomass production [60]. It was reported that under optimum temperature, rice is well adapted to waterlogging [17]. However, sub-optimum temperature (<20 • C) affected reduction of shoot biomass and relative growth in rice compared to optimum temperature [61]. Similarly, the combination of waterlogging and low temperature caused a reduction of shoot biomass and gs of rice compared to a higher temperature (Figures 2 and 4a). The shoot biomass and gs crop response to dry soil conditions or combination of gradual soil drying and low or high temperature were computed among crops and within the treatment in experiment 1 and 2 (Figures 2 and 4). The correlation trend between soil moisture status and shoot biomass and gs in Exp. 1A and 1B or response of shoot biomass and gs under combination of gradual soil drying and high or low temperature (Experiment 2) of each crop were similar (Figures 2 and 4a,e). These results imply that gs were influenced shoot biomass under gradual soil drying. Generally, crops respond to water deficit by reducing water loss and maintaining turgor by stomatal closure [28]. Nevertheless, our results in experiment 2 indicated that the effect of gradual soil drying on the reduction of gs was primarily caused by low temperature for all crops, and their corresponding shoot biomass except for rice. Stomatal closure under drought and cold stress conditions was affected by water stress as a hydraulic activity in roots decreases [28,42]. Exp. 1A had a considerate higher temperature than Exp. 1B; however, the impact of gradual soil drying on shoot biomass of maize, sorghum, and rice in this study could not be explained by temperature as the results showed in experiment 2 (Figure 4a). The gs of all crops under combination of gradual soil drying and low temperature was significantly reduced than in high temperature, and rice showed a positive response as its shoot biomass was promoted by A (Figure 4c). In these conditions, the alternative response between gs and A of rice (C 3 ) under the combination of gradual soil drying and low temperature suggested that their correlation is sometimes not positive. Furthermore, rice, a C 3 crop, had a lower optimum temperature, and it had better CO 2 assimilation than C 4 crops such as maize, sorghum, and millet [62]. Cold-adapted plants displayed an increase in A below the optimum thermal temperature and a reduction in A above the thermal optimum [62][63][64][65]. In maize, sorghum, and millet, a combination of gradual soil drying and high temperature was highly promoted the shoot biomass, A, and gs (Figure 4a,c,e), but shoot biomass, A, and gs of rice decreased under a combination of gradual soil drying and high temperature. Day by day, the stomata react to changing water and temperature variables [51]; therefore, managing the responsiveness of gs offers breeders the potential to manage the interaction gs and A, which would impact yield [66]."}]},{"head":"A Plant's Ability to Maintain Gas Exchange Is Important for Maintaining the Biomass Production","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"gs, A, and E under water and temperature variability for all crops were significantly correlated (p < 0.001) (Figure 6), but in rice, the coefficient correlation between gs and A was low (Figure 6d). Reactive gs and A of rice (C 3 ) was indeed different from maize, sorghum, and millet (C 4 ), measured at the same environmental factor [62,67]. The changing of the gas exchange clarified the effect of soil moisture status and temperature viability in experiment 2 (Figure 5). A reduction was caused by declining gs to prevent desiccation [68][69][70]. Under water deficit, the leaf gradually increases water potential with depletion of soil moisture content [71]. Plants increase ABA hormone concentration in their leaf, which governs close gs and inhibition A [72]. Alternately, leaf water potential is not remarkedly different under soil waterlogging [68]. It relates to limiting root respiration due to hypoxia and reducing gs at the early growth stage compared to water deficit [73,74]."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Similarly, gs of maize and sorghum under combination of waterlogging and low or high temperature was declined earlier after imposed soil waterlogging compared to combination of moderated soil moisture and high temperature and gradual soil drying and high temperature. Alternatively, the gs of millet under combination of waterlogging and low temperature, and gradual soil drying and low temperature were also reduced earlier than the higher temperature at the same soil moisture states. This evidence suggested that the delay of gs leads to maintained A and consequently shoot biomass under water stress and temperature variability. In contrast, multi-water stress and low temperature had a higher impact on reducing gs, A, and consequently shoot biomass of maize, sorghum, and millet compared to the combination of water stresses and at higher temperature. Therefore, to consider how crops cope with the water and temperature variability of current global climate change, the ability to maintain gs should be a crucial parameter."}]},{"head":"The Influence of Soil Moisture Content, Air Temperature and gs on Shoot Biomass of Each Crop","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"According to multiple linear regression, sorghum was the highest adjusted R 2 , followed by maize and millet, whereas rice was considerately lowest (Table 2). The developed crop growth models have been variable, but their effectiveness is only a specific environment and crop, and excludes the gas exchange parameter [75]. Global climate change and water and temperature stress events are predicted to increase with greater frequency or duration [40]. Thus, our crop growth model is useful for estimating multiple crops such as sorghum, maize, and millet, but not rice, under a wide range of soil water statuses and atmospheric environments. This model may therefore be considered for application in further research and irrigation schedules."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Seedling Preparation","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Four crop species: (1) maize (Zea mays L. cv. Honey Bantam), ( 2) sorghum (Sorghum bicolor Moench. cv. High grain sorghum; prone to waterlogged soil but adaptable to dry soil), (3) millet (Echinochloa utilis Ohwi. cv. Kumamoto local), and (4) rice (interspecific progeny cv. NERICA1), as adaptable to saturated and dry soil conditions [19], were used. Each crop's seed was placed in a Petri dish containing filter paper moistened with distilled Plants 2022, 11,1039 water and left to germinate at 28 • C in an incubator under dark conditions for 2-3 days. Then, the germinated seeds were sown in a seedling tray (59 × 30 cm, containing 128 holes) filled with soil and vermiculite mixture (3:1/v:v). Ten-day-old seedlings of each crop were transplanted into experimental sites."}]},{"head":"Experiment 1: Four Crops on Nine Different Water Conditions","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"This experiment was conducted at screen house (without atmospheric environment controlling), Kagoshima University (31.5699 • N, 130.5443 • E), Japan, and repeated twice (Exp. 1A and 1B). Exp. 1A and 1B were carried out in early to mid-summer (25 August-9 September 2020) and late summer to early autumn (16 October-11 November 2020)."}]},{"head":"Experimental Site","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The seedlings were grown on a concrete container (360-cm L × 110 cm W × 35-91 cm D) filled with a mixture of loamy soil and river sand (1:3 v/v). The container was divided into nine plots representative of different top sequence positions. The lowest to highest top sequence positions ranged from 30 to 90 cm, and the difference between each plot (top sequence position) was 6.5 cm."}]},{"head":"Treatment","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Each plot was divided into three replications measuring 36.6 × 41.0 cm. Two seedlings per crop were randomly transplanted into each replication with plant interval and between row spacing at 10.0 × 13.3 cm. Rice plants were transplanted as a guard row along the borders. Daily irrigation was applied in the morning and evening to allow adequate soil moisture prior to initiate treatments."},{"index":2,"size":285,"text":"The water treatments started the early growth stage 10 days after transplanting; leaf age was 2.5 leaves for rice and 3 leaves for other crops. The treatment was ended 17 days after treatment (DAT). Water was added to the container, allowing the lowest end to be flooded and water level maintained at 2-3 cm above the soil surface. Another soil surface of eight treatments was close to or above the water level [75]. Nine water treatment regimes were controlled in each treatment, categorized into three soil moisture statuses: dry, moderate, and wet. Three positions (sub-soil moisture status), namely, high, middle, and low, were contained in each soil moisture status. Details of the treatment are shown in Table 3. A soil moisture sensor (5TE) placed at a depth of 15 cm was used to measure the soil moisture status of each plot (total nine plots). Data were recorded using a Datalogger Em50 Series (Decagon Devices Inc., Pullman, WA, USA) with a 60 min interval between each measurement through the experiment. Using a porometer (AP4, Delta-T Devices, Cambridge, UK) between 9:00 a.m. and 12:00 p.m. at 16 DAT, the gs was measured from the second youngest fully expanded leaf. The sampled shoot biomass and LA were conducted at 17 DAT by cutting the shoot and separating the leaves and stems. Then, the gathered leaves and stems were oven-dried at 80 • C to a constant weight before determining shoot dry weight. An automatic area meter (AAM-9, Hayashi Denko Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) was used to measure LA. This experiment confirmed the crop response to a combination of water stress and temperatures, referred to as experiment 1. This experiment was conducted at Kagoshima University, Japan, in December 2021."}]},{"head":"Experimental Site and Growing Media Preparation","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"The plants were grown with maximum photosynthetic photon in controlled environment chambers (Biotron NK system, model LPH-411PFQDT-SP; Nippon Medical and Chemical Instruments Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan) with a flux density (MPPFD) of 930 µmolm −2 s −1 . The air temperature was set to 32/22 • C (day/night) with a relative humidity of 50/80% (day/night) and a light/dark regime of 12/12 h before treatment; a pot (42 cm × 28 cm × 21 cm) was filled with mixed soil containing 30% (v/v) soil, 30% vermiculite, and 10% peat moss until 2/3 (7-kg pot −1 ). After compound fertilizer with concentration of 1.3 g of each N-P-K (8-8-8; N-P-K) per pot was mixed with the soil, the soil pH was measured with an average of 5.65. Then, the container was watered abundantly for three hours before excess water was drained overnight to obtain the soil field capacity. After the soil field capacity of soil was set, each container was weighed to obtain the initial weight. The measurement of soil moisture was the same method as experiment 1."}]},{"head":"Method and Treatment","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":333,"text":"The experimental treatments consisted of six combinations of soil moisture and temperature, i.e., (1)  To maintain adequate soil moisture content before treatments, the watering was irrigated every evening, and the amount of daily watering was estimated by water loss on the day of watering. The containers were weighed from 4:00 to 5:00 p.m. every evening to calculate water loss under MSM and GSD. Under MSM conditions, the pot was refilled by water to compensate for the water loss and maintain the soil field capacity. Under GSD conditions, a maximum of 200 g of water loss per day was fixed; if the water loss over 200 g per day was filled with an equal amount of water lost, the soil was gradually dried for lowand high-temperature treatments. Lastly, the flooded water level was set at 2-3 cm above the soil surface for CSW. The treatment ended at 17 DAT. 4.3.3. Shoot Biomass, LA, A, gs, and E Three plants from each treatment at 17 DAT were selected from each growth chamber to determine the A, gs, and E. Using a portable gas exchange measurement system (LI-6400, Li-Cor Inc., Lincoln, NE, USA) equipped with the standard leaf chamber (chamber area of 6 cm 2 ), gas exchange parameters were measured on the attached second youngest fully expanded leaf at 0, 4, 8, 12, and 17 DAT from 10:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. The measurement settings included a light intensity of 830 mol m −2 s −2 , an ambient CO 2 concentration of 420 mol mol −1 , and a block temperature of 27 • C for 0 days of all treatments: 19 • C for treatment of any soil moisture status under low temp treatments, and 29 • C for treatment of any soil moisture status under high temperature. The humidity was set to alter close to the growth chamber. WUE was calculated as ratio between A and E. The LA and shoot biomass measurement was conducted with the same procedure as experiment 1."}]},{"head":"Data Analysis","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"All parameters were transformed using standardization to compare the shoot biomass, LA, A, gs, E, and WUE between the crops. Then, a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for both experiment 1 and 2 to compare the crop response to treatments using Graph Pad Prism 9.0 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA; https://www.graphpad. com (accessed on 11 March 2022)). The linear or non-linear (polynomial) correlation line was used, which was decided by coefficient. Pearson's correlation was conducted to test the significant correlation of linear or non-linear correlation. A multiple linear regression was used with single and combination parameters among soil moisture status, temperature, A, gs, E, and WUE to evaluate which factors influenced shoot biomass. It can be used for multiple crops. Turkey's test was used to test the statistical differences among the treatments."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"Different crops responded differently to different soil moisture, temperature, and these two stresses in combination. Decreased stomatal conductance and biomass accumulation was observed, and the highest decrease was observed when crops were exposed to combined stress. However, the effect of these stresses varied among the crop genotypes. The combination of various soil water status and temperature variation, rice, and maize were less effective on biomass production compared to millet and sorghum. Biomass accumulation of all crop genotypes was reduced by all treatments compared to optimal growing condition (i.e., moderate temperature in the presence of adequate temperature). Maize and sorghum under waterlogging conditions reduced shoot biomass, presumably due to the decreased stomatal conductance and photosynthesis, which was temperature independent, whereas for rice and millet, the reduction was also due to decreased stomatal conductance; it was temperature dependent. All crops indicated temperature-dependent stomatal conductance (at GSD/34/25 • C), where the gs of rice was lowest under high temperature. Thus, our results suggest that an ability to sustain gs is essential for photo assimilation and maintaining leaf temperature through evapotranspiration for biomass production, a mechanism of crop avoidance to combine variable soil water status and temperature."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Soil moisture content (SMC) in experiment 1A (a) and 1B (d), air temperature (b), vapor pressure deficit (VPD) (c), relative humidity (e), solar irradiance (f), and during the treatment of experiments 1A and 1B. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Soil moisture content (SMC) in experiment 1A (a) and 1B (d), air temperature (b), vapor pressure deficit (VPD) (c), relative humidity (e), solar irradiance (f), and during the treatment of experiments 1A and 1B. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Correlations between soil moisture content and shoot biomass (a-d), leaf area (e-h), and stomatal conductance (gs; i-l) in maize (a,e,i), sorghum (b,f,j), millet (c,g,k), and rice (d,h,l). *, ***, and ns indicate Pearson statistical significance at p < 0.05, p < 0.001, and non-significance, respectively (n = 9). Linear or nonlinear (polynomial) correlation line is decided by coefficient. "},{"text":"2. 2 . Experiment 2 2.2.1. Crop Response to a Combination of Soil Moisture Status and Temperature on Shoot Biomass, LA, and Gas Exchange "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Correlations between soil moisture content and shoot biomass (a-d), leaf area (e-h), and stomatal conductance (gs; i-l) in maize (a,e,i), sorghum (b,f,j), millet (c,g,k), and rice (d,h,l). *, ***, and ns indicate Pearson statistical significance at p < 0.05, p < 0.001, and non-significance, respectively (n = 9). Linear or nonlinear (polynomial) correlation line is decided by coefficient. "},{"text":"2. 2 . Experiment 2 2.2.1. Crop Response to a Combination of Soil Moisture Status and Temperature on Shoot Biomass, LA, and Gas Exchange "},{"text":" volumetric soil moisture content under CSW/24/15 °C or 34/25 °C depicted very little change. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Soil moisture content (SMC) during the treatment period of experiment 2. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Soil moisture content (SMC) during the treatment period of experiment 2. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. The responses of shoot biomass (a), leaf area (LA; b), photosynthesis rate (A; c), transpiration rate (E; d), stomatal conductance (gs; e), and water use efficiency (WUE; f) of maize, sorghum, millet, and rice to the combination of soil moisture contents and temperatures by standardization data. The shoot biomass and LA were at 17 days after treatment, while gas exchange (A, gs, E, and WUE) was the average of all measurements after treatment. Bars indicate mean standard deviation. Standardization was used for transformation of data. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. The responses of shoot biomass (a), leaf area (LA; (b)), photosynthesis rate (A; (c)), transpiration rate (E; (d)), stomatal conductance (gs; (e)), and water use efficiency (WUE; (f)) of maize, sorghum, millet, and rice to the combination of soil moisture contents and temperatures by standardization data. The shoot biomass and LA were at 17 days after treatment, while gas exchange (A, gs, E, and WUE) was the average of all measurements after treatment. Bars indicate mean standard deviation. Standardization was used for transformation of data. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. The effect of combination of soil moisture status and temperature on changing of photosynthesis rate (A; (a-d)), stomatal conductance (gs; (e-h)), transpiration rate (E; (i-l)), and water use efficiency (WUE; (m-p)) in maize (a,e,i,m), sorghum (b,f,j,n), common millet (c,g,k,o), and rice (d,h,l,p) during the course of experiment 2. Each day of measurement with similar letters did not significantly differ according to Tukey's test at the 0.05 probability level. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Correlation between stomatal conductance (gs), shoot biomass (a-d), and photosynthesis rate (A; e-h), and transpiration rate (E; i-l) in maize (a,e,i), sorghum (b,f,j), millet (c,g,k)), and rice (d,h,l). *** indicates Pearson statistical significance at p < 0.001 (n = 18 for shoot biomass and n = 72 for A and E). "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Correlation between stomatal conductance (gs), shoot biomass (a-d), and photosynthesis rate (A; (e-h)), and transpiration rate (E; (i-l)) in maize (a,e,i), sorghum (b,f,j), millet (c,g,k)), and rice (d,h,l). *** indicates Pearson statistical significance at p < 0.001 (n = 18 for shoot biomass and n = 72 for A and E). "},{"text":"4. 3 . Experiment 2: The Effect of Soil Water Statuses and Temperature Combination on Four Crops "},{"text":" combination of moderate soil moisture and low temperature (moderate soil moisture (MSM)/24/15 • C); (2) combination of moderate soil moisture and high temperature (MSM/34/25 • C); (3) combination of gradual soil drying and low temperature (gradual soil drying (GSD)/24/15 • C); (4) combination of gradual soil drying and high temperature (GSD/34/25 • C); (5) combination of continuous soil waterlogging and low temperature (continuous soil waterlogging (CSW)/24/15 • C); and (6) combination of continuous soil waterlogging and high temperature (CSW/34/25 • C). Each treatment was replicated four times. Two seedlings (each representative replication) per pot were randomly transplanted with plant interval and between row spacing at 10.0 × 13.3 cm. "},{"text":" ). Rice showed the highest gs and E at 4 DAT under C, but not for A. The highest A was seen under MSM/24/15• C from 8 DAT. However, CSW/24/15 • C had lower A, gs, and E than CSW/34/25 • C, and CSW/34/25 • C had greater gs from 4 DAT than other treatments. Under GSD combined with low and high temperatures, A was shown to be alternative to gs and E, where it was higher under GSD/24/15 • C than under GSD/34/25 • C at 17 DAT. Although under GSD/34/25 • C, gs and E was higher at 4, 8, and 12 DAT than GSD/24/15 • C, at 17 DAT, there was no significant difference in gs and E between GSD/24/15 • C and GSD/34/25 • C. 2.2.3. Correlation between gs, A, and E and Influence of Atmospheric Environment and gs on Shoot BiomassFigure Plants 2022, 11, 1039 8 of 17 Plants 2022, 11, 10398 of 17 CSW/34/25 •  CSW/34/25 •  "},{"text":" DAT. Millet responded similar to maize and sorghum, where WUE increased under all SMC combined with low temperature (Figure5o). The effect of treatments on gs, E, and WUE was noticed at all measured times in rice, but A was seen at 12 and 17 DAT (Figure5d,h,l,p). Rice showed the highest gs and E at 4 DAT under CSW/34/25 °C , but not for A. The highest A was seen under MSM/24/15 °C from 8 DAT. However, CSW/24/15 °C had lower A, gs, and E than CSW/34/25 °C, and CSW/34/25 °C had greater gs from 4 DAT than other treatments. Under GSD combined with low and high temperatures, A was shown to be alternative to gs and E, where it was higher under GSD/24/15 °C than under GSD/34/25 °C at 17 DAT. Although under GSD/34/25 °C , gs and E was higher at 4, 8, and 12 DAT than GSD/24/15 °C, at 17 DAT, there was no significant difference in gs and E between GSD/24/15 °C and GSD/34/25 °C. Plants 2022, 11, 1039 8 of 18 Plants 2022, 11, 10398 of 18 and gs at 8  and gs at 8  "},{"text":"Table 2 . The multiple linear regression for shoot biomass (g plant −1 ) based on parameters of temperature (Temp), soil moisture content (SMC), and stomatal conductance (gs) under three soil moisture regimes (MSM, GSD, CSW) and two temperatures (24/15 • C and 34/25 • C) (n = 18).   Maize      Sorghum     Millet     Rice   MaizeSorghumMilletRice Equation Variation β t-Value Adjusted R 2 p-Value Equation β t-value Adjusted R 2 p-Value Equation β t-Value Adjusted R 2 p-Value Equation β t-Value Adjusted R 2 p-Value EquationVariationβt-ValueAdjusted R 2p-ValueEquationβt-valueAdjusted R 2p-ValueEquationβt-ValueAdjusted R 2p-ValueEquationβt-ValueAdjusted R 2p-Value (1) Intercept 5.71 2.906 0.658 0.000 (2) 0.947 1.351 0.759 0.000 (3) −9.832 −3.072 0.492 0.006 (4) 0.556 1.794 0.262 0.066 (1)Intercept5.712.9060.6580.000(2)0.9471.3510.7590.000(3)−9.832−3.0720.4920.006(4)0.5561.7940.2620.066  Temp 0.071 0.983    0.163 4.875    0.455 2.514    −0.006 −0.567   Temp0.0710.9830.1634.8750.4552.514−0.006−0.567  SMC −0.171 −3.271    −0.085 −4.602    0.208 2.126    −0.008 −0.896   SMC−0.171−3.271−0.085−4.6020.2082.126−0.008−0.896  gs 0.012 1.877    −0.005 −1.293    −0.016 −0.750    0.001 2.231   gs0.0121.877−0.005−1.293−0.016−0.7500.0012.231  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Explanation of soil moisture statuses (treatments) in experiment 1. No. Abbreviation Soil Water Statuses (Treatments) No.AbbreviationSoil Water Statuses (Treatments) 1 WL Low position of sub-wet soil conditions (waterlogging) 1WLLow position of sub-wet soil conditions (waterlogging) 2 WM Middle position of sub-wet soil conditions 2WMMiddle position of sub-wet soil conditions 3 WH High position of sub-wet soil conditions 3WHHigh position of sub-wet soil conditions 4 ML Low position of sub-moderate soil conditions 4MLLow position of sub-moderate soil conditions 5 MM Middle position of sub-moderate soil conditions 5MMMiddle position of sub-moderate soil conditions 6 MH High position of sub-moderate soil conditions 6MHHigh position of sub-moderate soil conditions 7 DL Low position of sub-dry soil conditions 7DLLow position of sub-dry soil conditions 8 DM Middle position of sub-dry soil conditions 8DMMiddle position of sub-dry soil conditions 9 DH High position of sub-dry soil conditions (severe dry soil) 9DHHigh position of sub-dry soil conditions (severe dry soil) 4.2.3. Soil moisture Content, Leaf Area, Shoot Biomass, and gs 4.2.3. Soil moisture Content, Leaf Area, Shoot Biomass, and gs  "}],"sieverID":"55cd4814-fe1f-4795-9683-7751d4ade638","abstract":"Environmental responses of stomatal conductance (gs) as basic information for a photosynthesistranspiration-coupled model have been increasing under global warming. This study identified the impact of gs behavior under different soil water statuses and temperatures in rice, maize, millet, and sorghum. The experiments consisted of various soil moisture statuses from flooding to drying and combination of soil moisture status and temperature. There was a reduction in shoot biomass of maize and sorghum caused by decreasing of gs, photosynthesis (A), and transpiration (E) in early imposed waterlogging without dependent temperature, whereas millet and rice were dependent on temperature variation. The effect of gradual soil drying, gs, A, and E of maize, millet, and sorghum were caused by low temperature, except rice. The impact of the combination of various soil water statuses and temperatures on gs is important for the trade-off between A and E, and consequently shoot biomass. However, we discovered that an ability to sustain gs is essential for photo assimilation and maintaining leaf temperature through evapotranspiration for biomass production, a mechanism of crop avoidance in variable soil water status and temperature."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a14b6e90512a976238b2b6e76074a16","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/be63207c-b3ac-46eb-9931-7208e8ffb951/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Stakeholders mapping, analysis and engagement in Southern Mali","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Implications of the research for generating development outcomes","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Results and main findings","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"o Critical actors to be engaged in the R4D platforms in intervention sites identified through network and power analysis approaches o Baseline measures of the roles of R4D members that can be monitored over time and evaluated for change assessed o Four R4D operational platforms including two-district levels and two-village levels were established in Koutiala, Bougouni, Flola and M'pessoba. o Increased interaction, knowledge/information sharing among stakeholders (including farmers, research and development partners) in villages exposed to the R4D platforms (see network map 1)"},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"o Identifying and engaging the right actors in the R4D platforms help to foster co-learning and co-evolution of technical, institutional and organizational innovations o Intensifying interactions and increasing exposure to integrated knowledge and technologies help small-holder farming households sustainably increase the overall productivity of their farms, and thus their agricultural output, and improve nutrition and welfare especially young children and mothers."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"o The R4D related work was beneficial since it allowed to not only identify critical actors to be engaged in the platforms, but also, depict the role played by R4D platforms in intensifying interactions and knowledge/information sharing among actors. o Taking the analysis ahead in phase 2 will help to identify Noninvolved, prominent, influential and bonding actors/stakeholders at different stages of product value chains and develop a proper engagement and management plan to get them involved in the scaling up and out efforts."}]},{"head":"How this work would continue in Africa RISING phase 2","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Africa Research In Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) program comprises three research-fordevelopment projects supported by the United States Agency for International Development as part of the U.S. government's Feed the Future initiative. Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING will create opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base. The three projects are led by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (in West Africa and East and Southern Africa) and the International Livestock Research Institute (in the Ethiopian Highlands). The International Food Policy Research Institute leads an associated project on monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment. www.africa-rising.net o A number of CG partner institutions, NARS, national and international NGOs including AMEDD, AMASSA, MOBIOM, UCPTC, CCPAM, ULCFBV, BACIR, COFPROSOTRANS among others are actually engaged in the R4D platforms within Africa RISING action sites. o These partnerships can be diversified and strengthened for up/out-scaling purposes Current partnerships and future engagements for out scaling Network map 1: Perception of Interaction among R4D partners and farmers in the IPexposed village villages "}],"sieverID":"0040d6f2-5375-40f3-bdce-d85e6cc875a5","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0a4458f0ce862227863aea66e86ddf39.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a4458f0ce862227863aea66e86ddf39","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/70f23932-b6f0-4135-8d78-dd674b317379/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"Socioeconomics Discussion Paper Series","keywords":["complex adaptive systems","value chains","smallholders","agribusiness","risk management JEL classification: Q13"],"chapters":[{"head":"List of Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Interacting agents in value chains involving smallholders ....  "}]},{"head":"List of Figures and Boxes","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Value chain development (VCD), which facilitates the participation of smallholders and small and medium rural enterprises in higher value markets for agricultural and forest products, has become a key component in the strategies of many development agencies, donors and governments (Humphrey and Navas-Alemán, 2010;Staritz, 2012). Focusing VCD on opportunities for economic growth and social inclusion offers a way to combine efficiency and equity objectives by enhancing value chain performance while reducing poverty among smallholders, including women and other marginalized groups."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"The rise of VCD in development programmes has led to a flood of case studies, guides and diagnostic tools. Many value chain guides and tools provide practitioners and researchers with a framework to engage with market actors and set the stage for collaboration in VCD. However, most assume that users will identify critical elements in the context, understand their relevance for VCD, and make the necessary adjustments for data collection and analysis (Donovan et al., 2015). Consequently, they provide limited insights into how policy, institutional and market trends, culture and local circumstances could shape the possible outcomes of interventions to strengthen value chains with smallholders and other resource constrained actors, or the actions needed to mitigate risk for different actors in the chain."},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"Similarly, conventional value chain analyses see performance as driven primarily by financial incentives. They quantify how much of the product flows through different market channels, and they measure costs and revenues to estimate how much value is added at each stage in the chain. The result is a snapshot that captures 'stylised facts' about the value chain at a moment in time. They pay scant attention to value chain dynamics: what happened in the past and what could happen in the future remain unmentioned. How will changes in market conditions and the enabling environment affect value chain performance? How robust is the value chain to unexpected shocks? What happens when conflicts develop between different value chain actors? How can value chain stakeholders adapt to meet these challenges? How long will this take?"},{"index":4,"size":246,"text":"Questions like these are critical for VCD with smallholders in developing countries. There are examples of successful integration of smallholders in value chainssuccessful for now, that is (Stoian and Donovan, 2008;Harper et al., 2015). But there are also examples of mixed success (Donovan et al., 2008;Donovan and Poole, 2014) and outright failures, and the failures may well outnumber the successes. This should not surprise us. Experience in Africa and Latin America has brought to light the struggles of smallholders to participate in relatively demanding and high risk business environments across a range of agrifood sectors (Conroy et al., 1996;Reinhardt, 1987;Dolan et al,. 1999;Gibbon and Ponte, 2005). Furthermore, in business, as in evolution, failure is always more common than success. 'It is failure rather than success which is the distinguishing feature of corporate life' (Ormerod, 2005: 12). Fewer than half of today's Fortune 500 companies were listed as such 20 years ago (Fortune, 1996(Fortune, , 2015)). Viewed in this light, failure is not an aberration but the norm. The risk of failure is particularly high in value chains originating from developing countries where smallholders are active participants. In this context smallholders are more likely to have limited access to information, productive assets, and limited degrees of freedom to adjust to shocks. Such chains tend to have multiple layers that increase the odds of failure, and supply is subject to shocks from changes in the political-legal context and changes in agroecological conditions (drought or floods, pests and diseases)."},{"index":5,"size":180,"text":"These questions suggest the need for an expanded conceptual framework to understand the dynamics of value chains involving smallholders, and to develop tools that help anticipate changes and devise strategies that minimize risks. While this framework seeks to offer something new, it also draws on existing areas of inquiry, incorporating their strengths and recognizing their limitations. Political economy, for example, has enriched our understanding of power relations within value chains, but has focused on global value chains led by socalled lead firmsoften global agri-food companiesrather than on local or regional value chains where smallholders play a more prominent role (Gibbon and Ponte, 2005). Moreover, political economy has emphasised the growth of buyer-driven chains rather than the producer-driven or intermediary-driven chains that are the concern of many VCD practitioners (Vorley et al., 2009). Finally, political economy sees value chain performance as driven by power relations rather than giving equal weight to other drivers. We have tried to take a broader view, where power relations within the value chain are part of a wider system over which no single actor has control."},{"index":6,"size":163,"text":"This paper proposes a conceptual framework based on complex adaptive systems. Complex systems thinking has been applied to a wide range of social sciences (Kiel and Elliot, 1997;Fuller and Moran, 2001;Lansing, 2003) but has been absent in discussions on value chains in a rural development context. This paper draws an analogy between value chains involving smallholders and complex adaptive systems. Some economists object that the argument from analogy is unscientific, because only if the economy really is a complex system can we ever discover universal laws like those in biological systems (Beinhocker, 2007). However, many economic models are in fact analogies that use inductive reasoning to compare the case of a theoretical model with real-world cases and judge the value of the model (Gilboa et al., 2014). Similarly, this paper compares the theoretical case of a complex adaptive system with cases of value chains involving smallholders to judge their similarities and the relevance of this model for explaining the performance of these chains."},{"index":7,"size":68,"text":"We have applied the theory of complex adaptive systems to VCD involving smallholders with three specific objectives in mind. One is to provide researchers with an expanded conceptual framework to understand value chain performance over time. The second is to apply this framework to selected case studies of value chains involving smallholders. The third is to provide practitioners with diagnostic tools to help these chains adapt to complexity."},{"index":8,"size":36,"text":"With the aim to provide a broader view on value chains involving smallholders and the design of interventions to support these chains, we use the analogy of a complex adaptive system to answer the following questions:"},{"index":9,"size":57,"text":"1. Which common properties of complex adaptive systems are most relevant for understanding value chains and their development? 2. Can we combine these common properties into a conceptual framework that can enhance our understanding of value chain performance? 3. How can this framework be applied to develop research questions, case studies, and diagnostic tools for smallholder VCD?"},{"index":10,"size":33,"text":"The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 summarises relevant research on complex adaptive systems. Section 3 presents a conceptual framework, while section 4 discusses applications to smallholder VCD. The final section concludes."}]},{"head":"Complex adaptive systems","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"We do not propose to give a potted history of thinking about complex adaptive systems (see Mitchell, 2003 for the full story and Rosser, 1999 for a shorter account). We begin by defining terms and summarise the common properties of these systems and their relevance for smallholder value chains."}]},{"head":"Definitions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Writers distinguish between complex adaptive systems, where adaptation plays a large role and non-adaptive complex systems, such as a hurricane (Mitchell, 2009). In this paper, we focus on complex adaptive systems because we seek not just better understanding but better management of complexity in VCD. Thinking about complex adaptive systems has emerged from a range of disciplines, with each discipline contributing key ideas. This helps explain why there is no universally agreed definition of a complex system or a 'unified theory' of complex systems (Gleick, 1987). However, the essence is captured by Mitchell's definition:"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"'A system in which large networks of components with no central control and simple rules of operation give rise to complex collective behavior, sophisticated information processing, and adaptation via learning or evolution'. Mitchell (2009: 13)."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Complex adaptive systems challenge two fundamental assumptions of neoclassical economics. First, a complex adaptive system is not in equilibrium, but in constant movement. Second, complex adaptive systems challenge the concept of 'representative agents', or the assumption of 'a single actor who rationally calculates the decision that will maximize his or her self-interest from now until the end of time' (Ormerod, 2005: 179). Instead of representative agents, complex adaptive systems have heterogeneous, interacting agents whose tastes and preferences are not fixed but are influenced by those of other agents (Kirman, 1992). Once tastes and preferences are allowed to change, the economy is no longer in equilibrium. As economic agents interact they produce novel and unexpected outcomes which in turn lead to adaptation and change (Arthur, 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"Challenging these neoclassical assumptions has generated new fields of research. Evolutionary economics and the new growth theory both assume dis-equilibrium (Nelson and Winter, 2002). Similarly, the theory of interacting agents has contributed to the growth of behavioural economics, helping to understand stock market fluctuations and the business cycle (Ormerod, 1998), why companies succeed or fail, why inferior technologies may dominate the market (Ormerod, 2005), and the operation of social networks (Durlauf, 2005;Mitchell, 2009). Viewing the economy as a complex adaptive system has thus had widereaching effects on economics at both the macro-and the micro-levels. In the same fashion, viewing value chains as complex adaptive systems can enrich our understanding of success and failure in value chains involving smallholders."}]},{"head":"Common properties","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Despite the lack of a single definition, complex systems share 'common properties' (Mitchell, 2009: 293). These common properties provide the building blocks that we can use to construct a conceptual framework for VCD involving smallholders. In this section we identify and describe the common properties of complex adaptive systems that we believe to be most relevant for understanding value chains in which smallholders are important participants."}]},{"head":"Time","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"'Once we admit that an economy exists in time, that history goes one way, from the irrevocable past into the unknown future, the conception of equilibrium…becomes untenable '. Joan Robinson (1973) quoted Arthur (2015: 23)."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"In most value chain analyses in the rural development arena, as in neo-classical economics, time is not considered because the markets exist in equilibrium, or move imperceptibly from one equilibrium to another, and are therefore stationary. At equilibrium an outcome simply persists and so time largely disappears, or in dynamic models it becomes a parameter that can be slid back and forth reversibly. Equilibrium also tells us nothing about the time required to move between equilibria (Ormerod, 2005). How long does it take for the economy to move to new equilibrium after a shock? Is the adjustment made rapidly, and the last few steps slowly, or is the path to a new equilibrium an entirely smooth process?"},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"In complex systems, by contrast, the system is in a constant state of dis-equilibrium or change. Because change is measured over time, time becomes a factor in complex systems. Time also enters complex systems through path-dependence, where the system becomes 'locked' into a particular trajectory by events or shocks that have occurred in the past. 1 In economics, this may result in 'technological lock-in' where one technology becomes the industry standard despite the existence of superior alternatives (for example, the QWERTY keyboard) (Durlauf, 2005). This implies that we need to take a historical perspective on value chain performance, analyzing the sequence of events that created shocks and led to adaptation by one or more chain actors (eg. Rousseau et al., 2015)."}]},{"head":"Uncertainty","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Uncertainty refers to situations where the probability of a given outcome is itself unknown (Ormerod, 2005). 2 For an individual firm uncertainty is recognized to have a strong impact on business performance (Wilding, 1998):"},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"'I may be choosing to put venture capital into a new technology, but my startup may not know how well the technology will work, how the public will receive it, how the government will choose to regulate it, or who will enter the space with a competing product. I must make a move but I have a genuine not-knowingnessfundamental uncertainty. There is no 'optimal' move.' (Arthur, 2015: 5)."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The same holds true of value chains where smallholders play an important role. Some threats to its performance are known and steps can be taken to mitigate risk, for example, 1 'Environments in which a shock or a set of shocks has permanent effects on a system ' Durlauf (2005): F225."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"2 By contrast, 'risk' is a situation where the probabilities of an outcome can be measured (Knight, 1921). In economics, this is sometimes called 'Knightian' risk to distinguish it from ordinary usage."},{"index":5,"size":116,"text":"actions to reduce production losses from known diseases and actions to support the management of a newly organized cooperative. But some threats are unknown, because we do not know what the system will do next. These include changes in the political and legal framework, changes in consumer preferences, and changes in the comparative advantage of one country versus another. The future is not just unforeseen but unforeseeable. As Keynes expressed it: 'the prospect of a European war… the price of copper… the rate of interest twenty years hence… About these matters there is no scientific basis on which to form any calculable probability. We simply do not know' (J. M. Keynes, quoted in Arthur, 2015: 5)."}]},{"head":"Sensitivity to initial conditions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Complex systems are very sensitive to small changes in initial conditions. The classic example is meteorology, where the climatologist Edward Lorenz discovered that tiny changes in the parameter values of weather models led to wildly divergent weather forecasts (Gleick, 1987). As a result, weather forecasts beyond six-seven days ahead are worthless. Lorenz described this as the 'Butterfly Effect' ('a butterfly causing a hurricane on the other side of the world by flapping its wings')."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"The butterfly effect is caused by non-linearity. A good example is the logistic curve used to model population growth. Changing the parameter value of the curve (R) increases the nonlinearity of the equation and beyond a certain value (3.1) the curve starts to oscillate. When the value is further increased to between 3.54 and 3.55 the logistic curve becomes 'chaotic' or apparently random (Gleick, 1998;Mitchell, 2009). Thus, even in a simple model in which all the parameters are exactly determined, long-term prediction is impossible. By contrast, in a linear system large results must have large causes. This has been dubbed 'The Dogma of Large-Large' (McCloskey, 1991). In linear systems, therefore, change is predictable, just as each value on a straight line at Time A is directly proportional to the value at Time B."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"The Butterfly Effect implies that the performance of a value chain is sensitive to initial conditions. For example, when in 2013 Kenya imposed an excise duty of 50 % on sorghum beer, this effectively killed the industry (Orr et al., 2013). Similarly, the decision by the EC to impose a maximum level of aflatoxin contamination of 2 parts per billion made it more difficult for groundnut growers in Africa to penetrate European markets and threatened to reduce trade flows by 63% (Otsuki et al., 2001). The Brazil nut trade from the Amazon worth more than $100 m per year was also threatened. Thus, the impact of a given change (eg. in policy, or a tax rate) can vary substantially depending upon the exact circumstances in which the change is made. While some small changes may have small effects, others may have very big effects. According to Ormerod (1998: 96) 'this is the whole logic of the complex systems approach'."}]},{"head":"Endogenous Shocks","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"In neoclassical economics, where the economy is in equilibrium, shocks are by definition external to the system. Shocks like the business cycle are incorporated by allowing that from time to time its equilibria must adjust to such outside changes (Ormerod, 2005). By contrast, in complex systems shocks are not just external. They can arise internally, created by the system itself. Two sources of internal shocks are 'uncertainty' about the future, discussed above, and innovation. In neoclassical growth theory, innovation is exogenous to the economy, and measured simply as a residual once other factors of production have been accounted for. By contrast, new growth theory sees innovation as endogenous, because investment in innovation generates increasing returns, resulting in further investment and so on in an endless cycle (Beinhocker, 2007). Moreover, innovation does not produce a onetime disruption to equilibrium but an ongoing sequence of demand for further technologies in a self-reinforcing cycle (Arthur, 2015). Innovation is therefore intrinsic to the internal working of the economy rather than something imposed from outside."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"A complex systems perspective implies that we should not see shocks as something external to the value chain, but also as generated from within the value chain, by uncertainty, by technological change, and also by 'interacting agents' whose individual behaviour can have unpredictable results for the system as a whole. For example, the government of Kenya's decision to hike the excise duty for sorghum beer by 50 % was provoked by the need for extra revenue to pay for its programme of decentralization and what was seen as excessive profit-taking by Kenya Breweries (Orr et al., 2013). Similarly, the international coffee agreement to regulate production and world prices broke down because of competition from new entrants that made such regulation unworkable (Talbot, 2004). In both cases, shocks that affected performance were generated from inside the value chain as the result of conflicts between different value chain actors."}]},{"head":"Sudden change","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"Neoclassical economics is wedded to the idea that change is gradual, since the system can be regarded as being in equilibrium. This is based on the Darwinian theory of evolution where small variations operating through natural selection lead to gradual change over time. 3 By contrast, complex systems are characterized by sudden changes where the system lurches suddenly to a new equilibrium. The idea of a 'Tipping Point' -'the moment of critical mass, the threshold, the boiling point'has been used to explain sudden changes in consumer behaviour (Gladwell, 2000) or in crime rates, where sudden jumps in crime can result from quite small changes in rates of social deprivation (Ormerod, 1998). Sudden changes are caused by feedback loops. For example, the higher the crime rate the more criminals in the population and the weaker the social sanctions against crime. This reduces the incentive to stop being a criminal, which in turn leads to more crime. This is a positive feedback loop, where the system shows explosive behaviour. If a system contains only negative feedback loops (in economics, diminishing returns) it converges to equilibrium and the 'stationary state' that haunted classical economists. A system that shows a mixture of both positive and negative feedback loops exhibits 'complex behaviour' (Arthur, 2015: 17)."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Value chains involving smallholders are easy prey for sudden, large changes that disrupt performance. These include food safety standards that may lead to being locked out of particular markets, the loss of a major buyer, a sudden pest outbreak, or a policy U-turn that can rip the foundations from a value chain literally overnight. For example, more than half the smallholders growing green beans in Kenya were dropped immediately following the imposition of international food safety standards (Narrod et al. 2008)."}]},{"head":"Interacting agents","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The property of complex systems with the biggest impact on economics is that of 'interacting agents', defined as the 'interdependence in behaviour across individuals' (Durlauf, 2005: F238). In neoclassical economics individual tastes and preferences are fixed. In complex adaptive systems, however, individual behavior depends on the behaviour of other agents."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The famous example is the ants model, in which the foraging behaviour of individual ants is determined by the behaviour of other ants (Ormerod, 1998). Similarly, for some consumer goods (movies, smart-phones) individual consumers have to find out what their preferences are, which is why the opinions of others influence their behaviour so strongly. The theory of interacting agents also helps explain how inferior products can drive out superior technology and why stock markets boom and bust (Ormerod, 1998)."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"The assumption of 'interacting agents' has important implications for system performance. First, small observed differences between agents can have a large effect on the overall system. For example, a mild racial preference at the individual levelavoiding being a minority groupcan result in complete racial segregation in a neighbourhood or even an entire city (Ormerod, 2005). Second, interacting agents produce unpredictable results. Even if we know exactly how individuals will behave, we still cannot predict the behaviour of the system because the whole is more than the sum of the parts (Ormerod, 1998). Thus, the property of interacting agents is a source of uncertainty which is generated from within the system."},{"index":4,"size":130,"text":"Similarly, interacting agents helps explain many aspects of value chain performance. Value chains have several stages where actors have different functions, but also different, and often conflicting, goals and preferences. The interactions between these functional actors play an important role in the performance of the value chain. This is vertical interaction between agents. In addition, each separate function in the value chain may have several actors. Again, the interactions between actors with the same function affect value chain performance. This is horizontal interaction between agentsa critical feature of smallholder businesses, such as cooperatives and farmers' associations. In both cases, interactions can have positive or negative outcomes. Actors are not homogeneous and their goals and behaviors may conflict, but actors can also share goals and cooperate to achieve a common objective."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Table 1 shows how interacting agents might affect the performance of value chains involving smallholders. Below we highlight some examples of vertical and horizontal interaction between agents: "}]},{"head":"Horizontal interactions","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":" Smallholders join cooperatives or associations to benefit from cheaper farming inputs, collective marketing, credit, and other services, but cooperation may break down if there is elite capture, free riding or other forms of unequal benefit sharing that create distrust between agents.  Even if collective smallholder businesses are based on internal trust relationships, they face a dilemma when deciding if a given surplus is distributed among members (e.g. as dividends) or reinvested in the business.  Competition between buyers and processors can lead to price-wars between rival firms (a 'race to the bottom') or to cooperation and price-fixing by cartels.  Consumers influence other consumers to buy products that meet specific ethical or quality standards (eg. Fair Trade)."}]},{"head":"Vertical interactions","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":" Buyers use Trade Associations to lobby governments to introduce legislation or nontariff barriers to give them a cost advantage over foreign competitors or for taxbreaks if they buy from local producers.  Governments impose international food safety standards that increase costs for smallholders who must either meet these standards or seek alternative markets.  Consumers increase demand for new and exotic products (eg. quinoa) that result in new markets for smallholders.  Collective smallholder businesses may develop as multi-tier enterprises, with base cooperatives as first tier, marketing cooperatives as second tier, and advocacy organizations as third tier (e.g. ICA -International Co-operative Alliance)."}]},{"head":"Adaptation","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Complex systems are 'adaptive', meaning that they evolve and can learn. Adaptation is defined as 'change in behavior to ensure survival or success' (Mitchell, 2009: 13). Adaptation, therefore, is the survival mechanism to cope with the uncertainty of complex systems. Some economists take a biological view, and argue that firms can plan and strategise to avoid failure, or that failure itself can function as a means of adaptation through learning (Harford, 2011). Others are more skeptical, arguing that 'the complex interactions between individuals give rise to inherent limits to knowledge about how systems behave at the aggregate level' (Ormerod, 2005: 226). Although firms plan and strategise, the same pattern of 'extinctions' that holds true for biological species also holds true for SMEs and big companies, which suggests there are limits to how far firms can plan and adapt to changing market conditions (Ormerod, 2005). Successful adaptation can also be due to pure chance (Ormerod, 2005). In short, although complex systems are defined by their ability to learn, adapt, and evolve, adaptation has limits."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Adaptation is the key to understanding the evolution of global value chains, which are driven by the unceasing quest for competitive advantage. As the historian of the global value chain for cotton concludes:"},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"'The constant reshuffling of the empire of cotton, ranging from its geography to its systems of labor, points towards an essential element of capitalism: its ability to constantly adapt. Again and again a seemingly insurmountable crisis in one part of the empire generated a response elsewhere: capitalism both demands and creates a state of permanent revolution' (Beckert 2015: 441)."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Adaptation, therefore, is the distinguishing feature of the wider economic system in which value chains involving smallholders are embedded. Their performance in a system characterized by 'permanent revolution' greatly depends on how well the different actors can adapt to constant and at times abrupt change in market conditions."},{"index":5,"size":213,"text":"Figure 1 applies adaptation to value chains involving smallholders. Buyers, markets, commodities, coordination, regulatory frameworks may all differ across these chains. However, certain characteristics usually go together. Perishable, high-value commodities that are traded in global markets are associated with transnational firms and tight regulatory frameworks, and products are differentiated for different consumer segments. These are not characteristics of value chains involving smallholders for staple food crops, which are typically traded in local markets where regulatory frameworks may be missing or unenforced, where purchasing power is limited and quality incentives are scarce, and where consumers have little choice in the type of product they buy. Value chains where smallholders sell on spot markets are simple in the sense that they have fewer functions and actors. However, they also share the properties of complex systems, because their lack of vertical integration and weak coordination makes them less stable and less able to adapt to endogenous shocks and sudden changes. By contrast, value chains with large agribusiness companies as 'lead firms' are more complex in the sense that they have more functions and actors, but they have streamlined the coordination problem and their global reach gives greater control in sourcing material and finding buyers. This makes it easier for them to adapt to changing market conditions."},{"index":6,"size":126,"text":"One common form of adaptation in value chains involving smallholders, therefore, is through the business model. These models come in different shapes and sizes, ranging from individual smallholders selling on spot markets (the most common form), to organized smallholders selling in spot markets, to contract farming, to integrated agribusiness (Haggblade et al., 2012). However, the last three business models share a common rationale, which is to optimize performance in the value chain by reducing the chance of something going wrong. They provide value chain actors with a buffer that helps reduce Knightian risks (which are known), cope with uncertainty (which is unknown), and reduce the potential for endogenous, catastrophic shocks generated by conflicts within the system. In other words, they are institutional mechanisms for managing complexity."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"ICRISAT -Socioeconomics Discussion Paper Series 16"},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"Where value chains involving smallholders adapt successfully, it is often thanks to an appropriate business model. This is particularly true for high quality consumer markets."},{"index":9,"size":127,"text":"Experience has shown that smallholders can produce food of the required quality, and that 'policy makers have to be wary of the pessimism that is common with regard to smallholders' ability to meet stringent food safety standards' (Narrod et al., 2008: 371). However, successful adaptation to meet these standards in Kenya has required the right institutional support, with farmer organisations contracted by exporters, a certification agency funded by donors and NGOs, and government investment in cold storage facilities (Narrod et al., 2008). Similarly, Colombia's successful value chain for specialty coffee is founded on the Colombian Coffee Growers' Federation, an integrated agribusiness owned by smallholders that tightly controls all stages of the chain to ensure compliance with stringent quality standards and protect the brand (Bentley and Baker, 2000)."},{"index":10,"size":186,"text":"By contrast, where value chains involving smallholders lack the appropriate business model adaptation is generally less successful. For example, despite strong demand for finger millet in Kenya, efforts to develop an inclusive business model to increase imports from Uganda were not successful largely because of poor decision-making by the project management, which resulted in an intermediary-driven business model rather than a buyer-driven model as originally intended (Orr et al., 2013). Similarly, small-scale forest users providing palm heart to local processing plants in the Bolivian Amazon were ill-adapted when conditions in Brazil, the principal market, changed abruptly because they lacked a business model allowing them to identify alternative market outlets (Stoian, 2004). Even where appropriate models exist, many smallholders may be unable to benefit from them because they lack the minimum level of assets and skills to participate in the value chain. Successful adaptation may require new functions in the chain. If a critical mass of actors to perform these functions is not available, the value chain may break down; or if smallholders fail to adapt to new conditions, the value chain may become reorganized around them."},{"index":11,"size":93,"text":"Adaptation can prove too difficult even for agribusiness companies. One striking example is the introduction of refrigerated containers for bananas. Formerly, bananas were transported in refrigerated ships owned by a few transnationals that controlled global trade. Refrigerated containers broke this monopoly. Today, most bananas sold in the European Union are bought and transported by small and medium exporters while transnationals own the ships (Anania, 2015). In this case, innovation created an endogenous shock within the value chain to which transnationals could not adapt. As Ormerod (2005) argued above, there are limits to adaptation."},{"index":12,"size":59,"text":"Smallholder VCD usually focuses on value chains with low adaptive capacity. How can we increase adaptive capacity in these chains? What are the possibilities and what are limits of management and control in adapting to complexity in value chains involving smallholders? What tools and mechanisms to facilitate adaptation already exist? What new tools or mechanisms need to be developed?"}]},{"head":"Conceptual Framework","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"In this section we integrate the common properties of complex adaptive systems into a simple conceptual framework. We provide a visual representation that can help us see a value chain as a complex adaptive system."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"This framework was developed with two objectives in mind. The first was to focus on value chain dynamics. Most VCD guides pay limited attention to these dynamics, which are consigned to a black box called 'the enabling environment'. An exception is the IIED guide (Vermeulen et al., 2008) which develops a conceptual framework that identifies three sources of dynamism:"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"1. Drivers of change, or 'the main external factors that cause change in the value chain';"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"2. Trends, or 'the directions of change in the chain, caused by the drivers'; and 3. Institutions, or \"the rules of the game\", that 'enable change to take place'."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"The IIED guide uses these categories to 'explore future scenarios in relation to uncertainties about drivers and trends and understanding the future implications for the value chain, its actors and the inclusion of small-scale producers'. However, these dynamics are seen as external to the value chain. We expand this framework to include not just the dynamics in the wider system (the 'enabling environment') in which the value chain is embedded, but also the dynamics that are internal to the value chain, such as the interactions between value chain actors and their capacity for adaptation."},{"index":6,"size":170,"text":"Our second objective in developing this framework was to provide a tool for value chain analysis. We distinguish between heuristic devices and analytical tools. As Kaplinsky and Morris (2001) point out, most VCD guides use heuristic devices, such as value chain maps, that simply describe and generate data. These serve a useful function. However, VCD also requires analytical tools that can help explain the behavior of value chain actors and why performance varies over time. For example, the concept of 'governance' has been the key analytical tool for the analysis of global value chains. This framework seeks to go beyond heuristic devices, and provide an analytical tool in the form of a set of conceptslinked together in a systematic waythat can be used to deepen our understanding of value chain performance. These concepts -'pressure points' in the value chainprovide entry points to drill down into the internal dynamics of the value chain and reveal its inner workings and the behavior of the value chain actors that can explain its performance."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Figure 2 shows the conceptual framework. The components of this framework include:"},{"index":8,"size":96,"text":"1. Seven common properties of complex systems that we consider relevant for value chains involving smallholders; 2. Five propertiesuncertainty, sudden change, shocks, adaptation, and timethat directly affect the performance of the value chain; 3. Two propertiessensitivity to initial conditions and interacting agentsthat affect the performance of the value chain indirectly, by helping to create uncertainty; 4. Feedback loops that operate between the five common properties and the performance of the value chain. Feedback loops operate in both directions for adaptation, since adaptation is a continuous process, and for shocks, which may be either external or internal;"},{"index":9,"size":189,"text":"One omission from this framework is risk. In economics, 'risk' is defined as a situation where the probabilities of an outcome can be measured (Knight, 1921). Risk and uncertainty can be hard to distinguish in practice. For example, if there is a quantifiable probability that a tax increase of X % will reduce demand for a given commodity by Y%, then we know the risk associated with this tax increase. But what is the risk of the tax being imposed? This might depend on which political party wins the next election, budget requirements, the influence of the Ministry of Finance, or on lobbying by the industry most affected by the change. Since these probabilities cannot be quantified, the decision to increase the tax must be uncertain. This suggests that many of the 'risks' associated with VCD are better described as 'uncertainties'. However, simply because outcomes are uncertain, this does not mean that they cannot be anticipated and steps taken to mitigate their impact. While uncertainty may be beyond the control of individual value chain actors, there are tools to help manage uncertainty and reduce its negative impacts on performance."}]},{"head":"Applying the Framework","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"This section outlines three ways in which the conceptual framework can be applied to value chains involving smallholders. The framework can be used to:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"1. Ask new research questions; 2. Analyse case studies; and 3. Develop tools to manage complexity."}]},{"head":"Research questions","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Table 2 provides a set of research questions to explore complexity in value chains and value chain interventions, with questions for each of the properties of complex systems. These questions are not exhaustive, but they suggest the type of information that is needed when we apply the conceptual framework to a specific value chain. The questions concern the value chain and the set of interventions carried out to develop the chain, including support to smallholders. A common set of research questions is needed to allow meaningful comparisons across different value chains where smallholders play an important role and where interventions have been carried out to develop the chain. and high quality cassava flour in Nigeria. Below we discuss how the conceptual framework will be used to analyse these case studies."}]},{"head":"Qualitative methods","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"One approach is through qualitative analysis, or analyzing each case study thematically according to properties of complex systems that seem most relevant for each particular case. Box 1 gives a schematic example of the qualitative approach, applied to khat in Kenya."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Here we simply frame the available information according to the conceptual framework. This might identify knowledge gaps that can be filled by additional research. We can also include quantitative data (eg. time series) to describe system performance, for example the impact of shocks, or the success of adaptation."}]},{"head":"Quantitative methods","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"One criticism of current analytical approaches to value chains involving smallholders is that \"they remain qualitative and often case-specific\" (Rich et al., 2011: 221). A second approach is through quantitative analysis. For example, ILRI has used stochastic dynamic models, simulation, and game theory to understand livestock value chains in Africa (Hamza et al., 2014;Naziri et al., 2012;Rich et al., 2011;Rich and Hamza, 2013;Rich et al., nd). This approach is still relatively new. Consequently, the data needed for modeling may not be available and new data would have to be collected. The advantage of a quantitative approach is that it uses the tools as well as the concepts that are relevant for understanding complex systems. In particular, a quantitative approach allows the ex ante simulation of different outcomes, which is useful for managing complexity through adaptation."}]},{"head":"Tools","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Existing tools for developing value chains involving smallholders pay limited attention to the context in which these value chains operate, particularly to uncertainty and systemic risk."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Our aim is to develop a practical tool that will help value chains involving smallholders manage complexity and increase successful adaptation."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"This tool would include the following features:"},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"1. A modular design, that can be applied across the entire range of value chains involving smallholders; 2. A typology of the most common and most disruptive risk scenarios linked to a portfolio of options for better anticipating and mitigating such risks 3. A diversity of instruments, ranging from check lists to 'what-if' scenarios, 'thoughtexperiments' and informal methods of risk-assessment. 4. A user-friendly approach that can be used by value-chain actors in stakeholder workshops without requiring additional resources."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"This tool would build on relevant material from the existing literature as well as developing innovative ways of managing complexity. Based on evidence of real-life situations, the tool will provide guidance for identifying critical risk factors in a given chain, based on past performance and analogies with similar chains in other territories or different chains in the same territory. Similarly, risk mitigation strategies will be systematized and made available in form of a matrix including diverse adaptation options for different types of value chains and different stages of value chain development."}]},{"head":"Box 1. Smallholder Value Chains as Complex Adaptive Systems: Khat in Kenya","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Time: For the past five years Kenya's exports of khat (Catha edulis) have grown by 10% per year, earning $232 million and making khat the country's most valuable regional export. In February 2015, however, this expanding and highly lucrative value chain suddenly collapsed."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Uncertainty: Although legal in Africa, khat is banned as a harmful drug in the US, Canada, China, and most European countries. An influential Somali lobby group campaigns against trade in khat. The export market also depends on efficient air cargo services since khat has to be consumed within three days."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Sensitivity to initial conditions: About 40% of the Kenyan crop is exported, with twothirds of exports going to Somalia, and one third to the Somali diaspora in Europe. A Europe-wide trade ban on khat would therefore have a significant impact on the performance of the khat value chain."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Shocks: Following a ban on khat imports by the Netherlands in 2012, the UK became the hub for illegal trade in khat to Europe and the US. In June 2014, supported by Somali lobbyists, the UK declared khat a Class C drug, effectively closing the European market to imports from Kenya."}]},{"head":"Interacting agents:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The Europe-wide trade ban led to oversupply in the regional market for khat, which resulted in falling prices. Kenyan growers responded by doubling their prices from $300 to $600 per bag. At the same time, the Somali government increased taxes by 100 % to $200 per bag. This reduced demand from khat traders in Somalia who believed that consumers were unwilling to pay higher prices. Middlemen in Kenya responded by suspending the 16 daily flights from Nairobi to Mogadishu needed to supply the Somali market."}]},{"head":"Adaptation:","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The Kenya Miraa Farmers and Traders Association (KMFTA) has held discussions with the British opposition Labour party and hopes that the ban will be lifted in case of a change of government. The association will now move to the European Court of Justice to challenge the UK ban. Since the ban, government officials have been meeting regularly with growers to discuss the latest developments and the possibility of growing alternative crops."}]},{"head":"Conclusion:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The experience of the khat value chain in Kenya makes sense when analysed as a complex system where shocks produced sudden and unpredictable outcomes, where interacting agents created a 'cascade' that closed down the value chain, and where asymmetric power between value chain actors and nation states prevented successful adaptation."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Conventional value chain analyses focusing on the price incentives for value chain actors fail to capture the variable performance of value chains involving smallholders in developing countries. Many of these value chains are volatile, with sudden changes of fortune and conflicts between value chain actors that may lead to the breakdown of the chain, or the crowding out of smallholders. This suggests the need for an expanded conceptual framework to help understand the major drivers of value chain performance over time and the role of smallholders and smallholder business development therein. This discussion paper re-conceptualizes value chains involving smallholders from the perspective of complex adaptive systems."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Complex adaptive systems share several common properties that can help explain variable performance in these chains. We identified seven common properties that we combined to build a conceptual framework. We emphasise that this is a framework, not a model. It is not a predictive toolbeing nonlinear, complex systems are unpredictable. Instead the framework provides a set of concepts that allow us to (1) structure the analysis of a specific value chain (2) compare performance across different value chains (3) evaluate the effectiveness of adaptation, and (4) identify general lessons for successful adaptation in value chains involving smallholders."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"For researchers, the framework provides an analytical tool for the analysis of value chain performance. The usefulness of the framework has to be judged by its relevance for individual cases. This requires a deeper, contextualized analysis of value chains involving smallholders. We will apply the framework to four case studies of value chains involving smallholders across different crops and continents. Because no two value chains are alike, the framework will be used selectively, highlighting the common properties of complex adaptive systems that are most relevant for each case. In combination, the results will allow us to judge whether the framework has the potential to add to our knowledge of value chains involving smallholders."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"For practitioners, interest in complex adaptive systems is likely to focus on adaptation. In particular, how can value chains involving smallholders with low adaptive capacity be strengthened? Since existing value chain guides are silent on these questions, we will develop new diagnostic tools that will help practitioners to identify complexity and better anticipate risk in the value chain and potential solutions for risk mitigation. We have identified some promising possibilities. However, an inventory of existing tools and the identification of knowledge gaps require a more systematic approach that will form a separate activity and deliver a different type of product. These tools will complement existing guides for VCD and will be designed for use by development agencies, NGOs, and government programmes."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 :Figure 2 : Figure 1: A typology of adaptive capacity in value chains involving smallholders ............ 15 Figure 2: Value Chain Dynamics: An expanded Conceptual Framework ......................... 19 Box 1.Case study of complex adaptive systems: Khat in Kenya ……………………….21 "},{"text":" Figure 2: Value Chain Dynamics: An expanded Conceptual Framework "},{"text":"Table 2 : ............................ 13 Research questions based on common properties of complex adaptive systems ........................................................................................................... 20  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Interacting agents in value chains involving smallholders Actors Participation in Funding sources Objectives in Conflicting ActorsParticipation inFunding sourcesObjectives inConflicting  value chain  value chain interactions value chainvalue chaininteractions    participation between participationbetween     agents agents  On farm production, Sales of raw Sufficient Production On farm production,Sales of rawSufficientProduction Smallholders with surplus for chain; materials or semi- income to meet gluts, Smallholderswith surplus for chain;materials or semi-income to meetgluts,  artisanal or collective finished products basic needs price collapse artisanal or collectivefinished productsbasic needsprice collapse  processing    processing Cooperatives Aggregation of Membership fees, Support to Elite capture, CooperativesAggregation ofMembership fees,Support toElite capture, and other forms production; provision donor projects, smallholders by free-riders, and other formsproduction; provisiondonor projects,smallholders byfree-riders, of collective of farming inputs; selling services to sharing costs, gender bias of collectiveof farming inputs;selling services tosharing costs,gender bias smallholder technical, business members building social  smallholdertechnical, businessmembersbuilding social businesses and financial services  and other  businessesand financial servicesand other  provided to members  capital, and  provided to memberscapital, and  (incl. marketing and  negotiating  (incl. marketing andnegotiating  credit)  higher prices  credit)higher prices Processors and Transformation and Value added to Market share, Price-wars, Processors andTransformation andValue added toMarket share,Price-wars, buyers marketing for raw materials or growth in share price-fixing, buyersmarketing forraw materials orgrowth in shareprice-fixing,  downstream buyers semi-finished price lobbying downstream buyerssemi-finishedpricelobbying   products  government, productsgovernment,     taxation taxation Governments Regulatory body Tax revenue, Re-election, Conflicts GovernmentsRegulatory bodyTax revenue,Re-election,Conflicts   votes from political between votes frompoliticalbetween   smallholders legitimacy different smallholderslegitimacydifferent     Ministries (eg. Ministries (eg.     Finance, Finance,     Agriculture) Agriculture) Non- Provision of technical, Access to funding Institutional Competition Non-Provision of technical,Access to fundingInstitutionalCompetition Governmental business and financial from bilateral growth, mission with the Governmentalbusiness and financialfrom bilateralgrowth, missionwith the Organisations services donors, advancement private Organisationsservicesdonors,advancementprivate   government  sector, governmentsector,   agencies;  crowding out agencies;crowding out   revenues from   revenues from   sales of products   sales of products   and services   and services Consumers Demand for products n.a. Utility, value for Changing ConsumersDemand for productsn.a.Utility, value forChanging    money tastes and moneytastes and     preferences preferences  "},{"text":"Figure 1: A typology of adaptive capacity in value chains involving smallholders Value Chain Characteristics Adaptive capacity Low High  Business Model Smallholders selling in spot markets Organised markets smallholders selling in spot Contract Farming Integrated agri-business Business ModelSmallholders selling in spot marketsOrganised markets smallholders selling in spotContract FarmingIntegrated agri-business Buyers Local firms   Transnationals BuyersLocal firmsTransnationals Market Local   Global MarketLocalGlobal Commodity Staple food crops   Fresh produce, plantation crops CommodityStaple food cropsFresh produce, plantation crops Value of commodity Low   High Value of commodityLowHigh Product differentiation Low   High Product differentiationLowHigh Coordination between actors Low   High Coordination between actorsLowHigh Regulatory framework None   International Regulatory frameworkNoneInternational  "}],"sieverID":"7f200c9e-8ce8-4eb1-a449-24b07c8393a0","abstract":"This paper is part of ICRISAT Economics Discussion paper series. This series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about a wide array of issues in the area of agriculture for development. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. Any comments and suggestions are more than welcome and should be addressed to the author whose contact details can be found at the bottom of the cover page. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and its affiliated organizations."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a9cf238c8d1b8b21d346a480a5df2e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/TZKTCK/KADSAF"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Sampling Plan Africa Rising Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Sources of variation to consider in sampling","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"• Location -Want to do all 4 Woredas, because they are quite different, but we think (hope) that all data could still be pooled for analysis. Woreda would be a source of variation, in terms of outcomes, climate, infrastructure, language, and actual technologies implemented."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• Engagement with Africa Rising."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"• Engaged households in kebeles where AR did have a presence • Non-engaged households in kebeles where AR did have a presence • Non-engaged households in kebeles where AR did not have a presence"},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"We decided to focus only on engaged AR households. It is better to focus on the question of the 'adoption gradient' and effects on SI more completely, and not to spread our efforts also trying to evaluate scaling/dissemination or program impact against counter-factual."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"However, we will include some brief questions on dissemination in the Rhomis questionnaire, which will help target follow up study on dissemination. And we will interview ~70 households who were also interviewed with the Impact Lite tool in 2013 in the hope of finding some project impact or interesting panel survey findings."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• Number of promoted technologies engaged farmers have taken up. This can range from 0 to 8 or 9; with many households having taken up 3 to 5."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"• Kindu and Peter are assembling a list of all engaged household (~2000 in total), per kebele, and the number of technologies they have purportedly taken up."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"The key next step is getting the list of technologies adopted by households is, before the sample frame calculations can be performed. The list should also include an indication of the duration of time the technologies have been used, and a rough classification of farm types (poor/medium/wealthy)? --Or did I make that bit up Nils ?"}]},{"head":"Proposal","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Repeat the same sampling strategy in each Woreda. Growing season begins in early June. This survey must be completed by end of May."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"09d4aea0-ba84-427a-adb4-b395089b8ad8","abstract":"We will focus only on the original research locations, with the intention to conduct a thorough baseline survey of the next phase locations at some point in the near future (2019-2020?)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b013a302c0e817ffa5bb918947d355a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f8205506-6340-4b41-a871-59185475188d/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"Choose the varieties for the project Produce high quality seed Provide seed to implementers Personal contact with farmers Assist with trial cultivation Assist with data collection Pass on farmers' observations to the implementers Receive initial training Plant and cultivate one trial per person Observe trial development Evaluate the varieties Report observations to local facilitators LOCAL FACILITATORS FARMERS IMPLEMENTERS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"How tricot works","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"With the tricot method, large numbers of farmers carry out many small, simple trials on their own farms instead of a few big, complex trials conducted at research stations. A research center provides the participating farmers with material for the on-farm trials. The farmers provide observations from their trials to the agricultural research center, where the data from all mini-trials is aggregated and analyzed. The research center then feeds back the findings to the farmers."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"With tricot, research centers can validate and disseminate new agricultural technologies in a participatory way, collaborating with a large number of farmers under diverse conditions. Large-scale tricot experiments, involving many farmers, generate excellent/reliable results about the performance of different technology options (such as different crop varieties or different fertilizer types) in different environments. Farmers evaluate the new technology options on their own farms and under real conditions."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"The tricot trial format is very simple for participating farmers: each executes the mini-task of evaluating only three technology options, out of a range to be tested. This makes it possible to engage many farmers without expending excessive effort on training or supervising them. But this does not mean we can only evaluate three technology options at once! Even though each farmer only evaluates three options, they evaluate many different combinations of technology options, that partially overlaps with the combination of other farmers. By putting the results of their experiments together, a tricot trial can evaluate how well each the options performs relative to the others. Tricot is like a world sports ranking. These rankings cover all players (or teams) and reflect their relative strength. The scores depend on the matches the players have won from other players. But these calculations can be done even if certain teams never played against each other."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Tricot is a valid strategy to overcome the 'bottleneck' of technology dissemination to users, Which variety is the easiest to sell after storage?"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Which variety is the most difficult to sell after storage?"},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"Step 1: Preparation"},{"index":7,"size":60,"text":"Researchers define a set of comparable technology options to test. For example, they decide to compare crop varieties with each other, or different fertilizer types, or irrigation technologies. They will provide the necessary materials (inputs or other) to project implementers (organizations that will reach farmers). Typically, about 8-12 technology options (comparable items) are included in the trial to be tested."},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"Step 2: Design"},{"index":9,"size":124,"text":"The implementing organization uses the ClimMob (climmob.net) free online software to design the project. This digital platform has been specifically created to manage tricot projects, from designing the experiment to data collection and analysis. The use of the digital platform streamlines the process. ClimMob offers the following benefits: 1. ClimMob helps to avoid mistakes by introducing QR codes and electronic forms; 2. ClimMob provides a dashboard to monitor progress; 3. ClimMob reduces or eliminates the effort spent on digitalizing data collected on paper; 4. ClimMob creates automatic reports with analytical results, avoiding the usual lengthy process of data cleaning and analysis; 5. ClimMob provides clean, formatted data that can be easily downloaded for further analysis with existing tools, for example, combining with weather data."},{"index":10,"size":46,"text":"The tricot project will only work well if ClimMob is used from the very start and implementers are trained in its use. After designing the project, the implementers prepare trial packages, which include experimental quantities of three randomly selected technology options generated by the ClimMob platform."},{"index":11,"size":3,"text":"Step 3: Recruitment"},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"The implementers recruit dedicated farmers interested in improving their farming through the use of new technologies."},{"index":13,"size":3,"text":"Step 4: Distribution"},{"index":14,"size":25,"text":"Farmers are trained in the tricot approach and on how to collect data. Each farmer receives a trial package of three technologies to be tested."},{"index":15,"size":3,"text":"Step 5: Execution"},{"index":16,"size":60,"text":"Farmers use their trial packages to apply the new technology options separately, on small plots next to each other, in a mini-trial on their own farm. To avoid any bias, they are not aware of the names of the crop varieties or other technology options they are testing. These are revealed to them only after the data has been collected."},{"index":17,"size":3,"text":"Step 6: Observation"},{"index":18,"size":42,"text":"Every farmer is responsible for their own trial and makes various easy observations about their three options over the course of the season. For example: Which variety had the highest or the lowest yield? In which area will the project be conducted?"},{"index":19,"size":42,"text":"For practical reasons, it is best to work in a defined region. If the project is spread across an entire country it can be hard to stay in touch with the local field agents and to assemble farmers for the initial training."}]},{"head":"How many farmers will participate?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"It advisable to involve as many farmers as possible. The larger the number of trials evaluated, the more useful the information about the technology options becomes. Bear in mind that involving more farmers will also take more work to assist farmers in completing the process. Avoid including more farmers than the local field agents can assist. Each field agent may be responsible for up to 25 farmers. When starting a project and gaining experience with the methodology, it is advisable to include around 100 to 200 farmers, which is enough to obtain good results in most situations. In future iterations, the tricot experiment can be scaled up to involve more farmers."}]},{"head":"Who should participate?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"It is important to think about the selection of farmers, who should be representative of the broader group of potential users of the"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"The farmers record these observations on an observation card."},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"Step 7: Compilation"},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"The local designated field agents collect and compile the observation data from the tricot farmers, either in person or by phone. They record the information digitally and send them on to the implementing organization."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"For this, they can use the free 'ODK Collect' smartphone app, which is connected to the ClimMob software."},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"Step 8: Analysis"},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"The implementers compile and analyze the data from the trials, using the ClimMob online software, to identify which technology options showed the best performance and under which conditions."},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"Step 9: Feedback"},{"index":9,"size":48,"text":"The implementers provide feedback to every participating farmer: the names of their three technology options, which options were most suited to their farm (out of the three options tried by them and out of all the options tried by farmers throughout the project), and where to obtain them."},{"index":10,"size":3,"text":"Step 10: Evaluation"},{"index":11,"size":25,"text":"Tricot is an iterative process: after every project cycle, researchers, implementers and farmers collaboratively evaluate how the process may be improved in the next cycle."}]},{"head":"Preparation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Before you start the project and the participating farmers can receive their trial packages, make sure you have answered the questions below."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Step 1 7 to be sure to pick a good technology option for their farm."}]},{"head":"Which visual materials are needed?","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"At www.climmob.net you will find examples and illustrations to help you generate your own visual materials. In order to explain the process to your tricot farmers and to facilitate the data collection, the following materials can support you:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Informative leaflet or poster, as an aid to explain the tricot process to the farmers."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• Observation card, for the farmers to collect their observations on the field. It is designed to enable participation with a minimal level of literacy."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"technological options. Think about age and gender aspects, but also about different uses that can be given to the technology in different contexts. For example, technology needs can be very different between a household that produces for its own consumption and another that produces for the market. Also, different users may perform different tasks in relation to the technology and may therefore have different knowledge about it. For example, in the case of crop varieties, it can be relevant to include processors and consumers. Decisions on the groups to include in the trial will influence you planning the recruitment (see"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"Step 3)."}]},{"head":"Which criteria will be evaluated?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Maybe one technology option provides higher yields, but another one is less labor-intensive. Both criteria can be important, and there may be many more aspects that matter. You will need to define the criteria to be evaluated by the farmer-researchers. These can be defined by consultation with experienced field agents and local future users of the new technologies, both women and men of all ages. Many criteria can be evaluated, but it is recommended to pick no more than ten criteria. With more criteria, farmers may be discouraged by the complexity of observation. The key question must be: What really matters to the farmers? Most importantly, farmers should be asked to give their opinion about the overall performance of their technology options. Also, they should be asked why they prefer the best option. This is an open question and it is therefore possible that farmers mention criteria that had not been considered beforehand. "}]},{"head":"How will data be collected?","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Should participation be rewarded?","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"This question requires careful thought. Providing a reward to motivate farmers could increase participation. But some types of rewards can undermine enthusiasm, curiosity, and the desire to learn, which are often the most important reasons for participation. In several tricot projects, farmers received extra seed of the variety they preferred. This kind of reward is closely tied to the goal of the project and motivates farmers not only to contribute, but also to pay attention to the process, and"}]},{"head":"Design","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Once you have chosen which technology options will be evaluated and you have identified which criteria are most important to the farmers, your project can start."}]},{"head":"ODK APP","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Create a new project","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Step 2"},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"As explained earlier, tricot uses ClimMob (climmob.net), a free online software specifically created for tricot projects. ClimMob is the fundamental tool for any tricot project, and is used for the following activities: The basic steps for setting up an account and developing and adjusting your project are listed below. More detailed information on how to use and make the most of the ClimMob software can be found on the ClimMob website. "}]},{"head":"A. Setting up an account","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"B. Creating a project","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"When you first log in after having registered, you will see a 'Create a new project' button."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"After clicking here, you will be asked to fill out general information, size and location of your tricot experiment. In cases where you have already created a project, you can navigate to 'Projects' (upper right corner of your screen) to get an overview of your existing projects, navigate between them and create new projects."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"After selecting an existing project or designing a new one, ClimMob will take you to the Main menu, which is the central hub to design your tricot experiment. You need to specify the information on each of the field agents who will work on this project, the technology options that you want to compare, and the registration questions the farmers will be asked when they register to participate. ClimMob will only move on to the next step after you have provided this information."}]},{"head":"C. Define the evaluation criteria","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Depending on the technology options included in your tricot experiment and the needs of your target group, you will define which observations the farmers should make. Each observation corresponds to a question on their observation cards. For example, common criteria for varieties are 'yield' or 'plant height'."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"The corresponding questions would be 'Which variety produced highest yield / lowest yield?' and 'With which variety did plants grow tallest / least tall?' See also Step 6 about how farmers will observe crop performance on their trial plots."}]},{"head":"D. Define the time point for evaluation","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The intervals at which farmers are expected to make an observation during the trials will vary depending on the technologies being tested."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"For each evaluation criterion you will need to decide at which point in the tricot project farmers make their observations. For example, if you intend to test different crop varieties, you might want to ask farmers to make observations at the start of the project (day of sowing), again after 30 days, and lastly at the end of the trial (day of harvest)."}]},{"head":"E. Assign field agents","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"All field agents who will work on your project must be added individually to the ClimMob project design. Field agents are the people who will be working on site, communicating with the farmers and later collecting observation data. You need to assign a username and password to each field agent, which they will use when logging collected data into the ODK Collect app."}]},{"head":"F. Select technology options","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Here you specify the technology options you will compare in your tricot experiment. We recommend a pool of 8 to 12 options. For example, if you want to test which bean variety is best adapted to the region, you would add the names of all the bean varieties to be tested. If you want to test which fertilizer type makes crops grow best, you would add the names of all the fertilizer types to be tested."}]},{"head":"G. Prepare farmer registration","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Once farmers have registered to participate in the trials they will be asked a number of questions by their field agent. Here, you will define which questions should be asked. "}]},{"head":"H. Prepare data collection","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Throughout their tricot trial, the farmers make comparative observations about their three technology options. Here, you will define which types of observations farmers should make."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"For example, a common criterion to observe is the total crop yield achieved with each technology option. You must decide which criteria are important for your experiment. Eventually, all these questions will be printed on the observation cards and handed out to farmers at the distribution stage."}]},{"head":"I. Prepare the packages","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"ClimMob will take you through the steps to execute the randomization. Once the randomization is set up, ClimMob will make a list of the packages and the content of each package (each has three technology options drawn from a larger set). This list is available as a downloadable spreadsheet (available in the Downloads section). Also, ClimMob generates a document with QR codes for each of the packages. The project implementer prints the codes and pastes it on to each package. These QR codes are used to identify each package during distribution and avoid mistakes. Print these documents and use them to prepare the packages. This process should be done very carefully. Try to follow a procedure that avoids mistakes and allows for checks."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"At the end, each package has a unique number (1, 2, 3, etc.) and contains three different technology options (package 1 has 1A, 1B, and 1C)."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"To get there, organize the work in the following steps:"},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"• Before starting, keep all small bags of one technology option together, each having their own place on a table or a corner of the room. • As a next step, mark all the small bags with their respective code (1A, 1B, 1C, 2A, 2B, etc.). • Only when all the small bags are coded, they are picked up and combined in packages of three. • When a package is ready, it is handed to a different person who checks its contents before closing it."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Hanging posters in agricultural shops, village halls or corner shops may also help to attract attention. You do not need to know the farmers before they participate."},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"However, farmers should be:"},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":"• volunteers who are ready to commit time and effort to participation; • farmers who enjoy experimenting and trying out new methods; • both women and men, preferably at an even ratio. "}]},{"head":"A. Tricot is an iterative process","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"B. Local groups can carry out a joint trial","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Carrying out a group or joint trial makes the learning process easier and participation more fun. Any existing group, like farmers' committees, credit cooperatives, or a religious group can receive a trial package and participate together. In this case, a 'host' farm is needed, where the technology options can be tested."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"The host farmer will be the contact person for the local field agent, while all activities -such as planting and making the trial observations -can be performed jointly by the group. In the following season, individual group members may want to plant a trial for themselves, building on the experiences they gained in the group trial. To enhance the participation of women farmers, it can be useful to establish 'women's research groups', who would be in charge of a number of tricot plots."}]},{"head":"Recruitment","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Any farmer who wishes to participate can get involved in a tricot experiment. Recruiting as many motivated farmers as possible is key to the success of the project. The local field agents should help to identify and recruit farmers in their communities."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Step 3"}]},{"head":"Distribution","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The tricot process starts with a training and distribution workshop. Here, the farmers receive their trial packages and learn about the tricot methodology and data collection process."}]},{"head":"A. Organization and logistics","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"The training and distribution workshop should take place about four weeks before the start of the trial, so that farmers can adapt their own farm planning. Every trial package should contain the following four elements: 1. A QR code generated for each package that will be used as a unique ID to track all the information collected during the trial. It is important to tell farmers to keep this code throughout the duration of the trial. 2. Three bags with equal quantities of the technology options (e.g. seeds, fertilizers) or instructions on how to apply the alternative technology options (e.g. tillage systems), according to the randomization that was generated by ClimMob. 3. An observation card where testers will note their on-farm observations 4. A brochure that explains the entire process to the farmer."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"The randomization is done in such a way that it ensures that, in all places, the technology options will be made available with the same frequency. In technical jargon, the randomization is 'balanced'. This avoids, for example, that one of the technology options did not occur in one of the villages in the trial. 'Balancing' the trial means that all technology options are spread across all the villages. For this to happen, however, it is crucial that each of the villages receive packages with consecutive numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) and not random numbers (3, 11, 9, 23, 1, etc.). For example, the first village receives packages 1 to 9, the next village receives packages 10 to 23, etc. If this principle is followed, each of these villages will receive a balanced set. If it is not followed, there is a risk that one or more technology options will be completely absent in some of the villages, so that you will never know if it is suitable there or not."}]},{"head":"B. Teaching tricot","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"The project implementers, together with the local field agents, invite interested farmers to a central location. This can be a village meeting hall or an NGO office. They explain the tricot trial, its purpose, its benefits, and the responsibilities the farmers have. At the workshop, farmers are also trained on how to fill out the observation cards. Every farmer receives one observation card for the immediate exercise. It is important to fully explain the design of the card and go through filling out the card to allow the farmers to practice and gain familiarity with the process. Farmers will then be advised on how data will be collected, and whether a project implementer will be calling them or visiting them in person."}]},{"head":"C. Registration of farmers","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The ODK Collect app is used to register participating farmers. When the farmers receive their personal trial packages, they are registered by Field Agents using the project-specific registration form. This form was set up in Step 2H 'Prepare farmer registration' and will be avail-able when the ODK Collect app is connected to the project on the ClimMob digital platform. The form should be downloaded to all field agents' devices."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"At a minimum, these basic data are required: • Trial package QR code • Name of the tester (participating farmer)"},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The trial package code uses an QR code generated by ClimMob as a unique package ID throughout the trial. The QR Code is generated once the technologies are defined and the randomization is set up. The project implementer prints the codes (available in the Downloads section) and pastes it into each package. Note: farmers should keep their package (QR) code for the duration of the project."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"More in-depth information regarding household and farm characteristics can be collected during registration using the pre-developed RHoMIS survey (available on the ClimMob website)."}]},{"head":"Execution","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The farmers plant and manage the trials independently. Every farmer is responsible for his/her own plot. Two principles should be kept in mind."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"1. The trial should resemble production conditions that reflect reality, not optimal production conditions."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"• To ensure this, the trial plot should be located right next to, or even within, the farmer's regular production plot. Farmers should neither select the best nor the worst spot, but an average, representative location. • Also, each trial should be managed by the participating farmer in exactly the same way as they normally manage their crop (unless the technology under analysis is about crop management). For example: If the farmers usually intercrop with another crop, they may also do intercropping with the trial varieties. The regular plot and trial plots should be treated and maintained equally. Special attention to the trial plots, but also negligence, will distort the results. For example, if the farmers do not irrigate their production plot, they should not irrigate the trial plot either."}]},{"head":"The trial should enable a fair comparison","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"between the three options on each plot."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"• The three technology options are applied next to each other, in separate sub-plots of the same size, and in the exact same way. In the case of varieties, each variety is planted in the same defined number and length of rows. For example: Six rows of five meters' length each, or four rows of eight meters in length. • In the case of fertilizers or other input trials, amounts or combinations are applied as specified by the implementers. • Technology option A is used to the left, B in the middle, C to the right. The borders between the technology options may be marked with sticks or a rope. The three technology options should never be mixed with each other."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Apart from the small plot size, there is really nothing new or special about planting the trials. The farmers should be confident in using their own farming skills and implement the new technologies in the same way as they would normally conduct their work."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Step 5"}]},{"head":"Observation","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"As the crop grows, the farmers observe the technologies and record their observations on the observation card. For many farmers, the questions asked in tricot pose a new way of looking at things."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Most farmers can tell which of the three technology options they generally like best. But it is not always easy to decide which one is the best for a specific evaluation criterion."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"The farmers observe and evaluate the technology options in their trials and focus on only one criterion at a time. The observations they make always follow the same structure: the 'best' and the 'worst' among the three trial technologies need to be identified. Farmers mark their choices on the appropriate page of the observation card. On the card, the question is asked in as few words as possible to make it easier for farmers. For example, instead of asking 'Which of the three varieties has developed the best foliage?' the observation card just asks: 'Best foliage?'."}]},{"head":"A. Focus on one criterion at a time","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Sometimes it is hard to acknowledge that a technology option was not successful for one criterion, but still performed best for another. For example, imagine a maize variety that was heavily affected by drought and disease and hardly produced yield, but has an excellent growth habit, with many tillers. It could look poor overall but would still be 'best' for 'growth habit'. For best results, it is crucial to really focus on only one criterion at a time and ignore all others."}]},{"head":"B. Choose the right dates for the evaluation","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Appropriate timing is important, and farmers should be told at which point in the process each criterion needs to be evaluated. For fertilizers or varieties, it is common to evaluate the trial in three stages: earlier-developing criteria (for example, foliage development), later-developing criteria (for example, disease resistance) and post-harvest criteria (for example, yield or market value). The project implementers should suggest the evaluation steps and dates to the farmers."}]},{"head":"C. Provide follow-up assistance","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Many farmers have a busy life and their tricot trial will be one activity among many others. Through telephone calls, the project implementers or the local field agents may help the farmers to keep track of their evaluations and remind them of upcoming observation steps."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"The telephone calls will also help to clarify open questions and to let farmers know that their contribution is important and valuable."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Within their own capacities, the local field agents may also support farmers directly in the evaluation at the plot. These follow-up calls can also be used to support the data compilation if farmers mention that they have already collected their data."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Step 6"},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"The local field agents will compile the farmer-generated observation data. To do so, they have different options, including using ODKbased forms generated by ClimMob. Data compilation in the field can be done offline with ODK Collect. If the local field agents cannot upload the data directly from the field, they upload the data from ODK Collect as soon as they have an internet connection. It is important to upload the data regularly to avoid any inadvertent data loss. To upload the new data to your database, choose 'Send data' with the ODK Collect app on an Android device. If data is collected through physical visits, each field agent can usually cover up to 25 farmers."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Some alternative options for data collection can make the process more efficient. Some of the different options include:"},{"index":7,"size":85,"text":"• Visit farmers, inspect observation cards and transcribe farmers' observations directly to the ODK Collect App. • Take photos of the observation cards to copy the data later directly into your database or input the data using ODK Collect App. Remember to write down the farmers' name and package ID with the number of each photo. • Call the farmers on their own or their neigh-bor's telephone and fill out the form in ODK based on the information transmitted by the farmer during the call."},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"• New data collection formats (WhatsApp, interactive voice response) can be made available. Check with the ClimMob team."}]},{"head":"Compilation","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Step 6 has been completed when every participating farmer has put into practice the three technology options, has observed the trial and marked their findings on the observation card. Each farmer now has the data ready, but it needs to be compiled to be analyzed."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Step 7"}]},{"head":"Analysis","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"When all the data is uploaded to your ClimMob database, analysis can start."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The analysis will give you an automated report with useful results, such as:"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• Description of the methodological approach applied • A rating of how well each technology performed for each pre-defined criterion (see"},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Step 2) • Information on differing performances (if any) depending on explanatory variables (e.g. the highest yielding crop variety with or without irrigation; or the variety preferred by women, variety preferred by men) • A rating of how all pre-defined characteristics were correlated with the overall performance. This is useful to assess which characteristic influenced the overall appreciation of the technologies tested. "}]},{"head":"• Infosheets","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"This is a document that contains a personal information sheet for each participating farmer. These infosheets contain:"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• The names of their three specific tested technology options • The farmer´s own answers • The most recommended technology options for the farmer's own farm. 5. Press OK."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Depending on the number of farmers, the analysis can take a long time. In some cases, it may take up to half an hour to generate all of the infoheets. You can obtain the infosheets and reports from the Downloads section."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"Soon after all the data are collected and the analysis is completed, participating farmers are invited to a feedback workshop. Here, they receive information sheets about their trials and will have a chance to discuss the results. The farmers have had different experiences with their trials, so reciprocal sharing of these experiences with other farmers is an important part of the learning process. Plan at least half a day for each feedback workshop."},{"index":5,"size":121,"text":"The workshop consists of three parts: 1. The project implementers or the local field agents present the overall results of the technology evaluation. Farmers learn which technology options performed best under which conditions. 2. The farmers receive their personal infosheets about which technology they have preferred and are given time to discuss the results with other farmers and implementers. It is recommended to form small groups for this activity (of about 5-7 persons), including a facilitator (a field agent or experienced farmer). Groups can present their conclusions in a plenary session. 3. Farmers then receive a practical agronomic lesson as another incentive for participation. For example, field agents may use this opportunity to disseminate knowledge about seed storage or seed selection."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"These points should be considered by the field agents:"},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":"• Discussion among the farmers is important: everyone can learn from each other. • It is crucial to make it clear that there is no single best technology option. In fact, optimal technology options can differ across farms and farmers. • Field agents should also annotate feedback provided by the farmers on their experience with the trials and the project in general."},{"index":8,"size":5,"text":"Preparations for the final workshops:"},{"index":9,"size":40,"text":"• As with the training and distribution workshop, in most cases farmers should be limited to around 20-25 per event, in a central location accessible to all. • Have the infosheets for all farmers ready for distribution during the workshop."}]},{"head":"Feedback","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"You have run the analysis using the ClimMob online software. Now the farmer-researchers are eager to know the results of their trials. All farmers are invited to a final workshop to receive and discuss the results."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Step 9"},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Step 8"}]},{"head":"Evaluation","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The first tricot cycle has finished. What can be improved?"},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Countries, crops, farming systems, and people are diverse, so every tricot project is different. This booklet can only be a guide to assist you in designing your own local experiment. Tricot is an iterative process and the last step in a project cycle is the evaluation of the project for further improvement."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Listening to the farmers' experiences is most important. It is crucial that the farmers perceive tricot as both simple and beneficial. You should try to identify possible improvements in managing and executing the trials. At the feedback workshop, farmers can express their experiences, recommendations and complaints about the process. Moreover, the local field agents can provide project implementers with many valuable comments and recommendations, since they have constantly been in touch with the farmers and in some cases have followed the trials in person on site."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"After every project cycle, the project implementers, researchers, and local field agents should discuss how to improve the process."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"Including more farmers with every project cycle should be a constant objective in tricot, so that more households can benefit from the investigation."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"Also, with the results of every cycle, you may identify one or two technology options that were not well accepted by the farmers, or that did not work well in your region. For the next cycle, you can discard those technology options ranked lowest by farmers and replace them with new ones. This way, there is 'refreshed' input to the research system, and the farmers' chances of discovering a suitable technology option for the conditions of their farm remain high."}]},{"head":"Indicators of success","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The success of your tricot project can be measured. You can evaluate five indicators, which will give you an idea about the individual trials' impact, and the project's overall success."}]},{"head":"The rate of completed trials","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Count the trials that were fully completed, as well as the trials where data was missing. You can evaluate whether the loss of information is due to natural causes (e.g. drought that made it impossible to evaluate certain criteria on farm) or to the farmer's management of the trial (e.g. a mistake with the package code (QR code), lack of interest in finishing the observations). This way, important knowledge about the specific difficulties can be generated, which will help you find strategies to avoid them being repeated."}]},{"head":"Farmers' gender ratio","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Women tend to have less access to the profits of agricultural production and other resources generated by such work. Participation in a tricot experiment can open doors for the empowerment of women. It is recommended that every tricot project strives to achieve a balanced gender ratio among"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Step 10 farmers by specially encouraging the participation of women."}]},{"head":"The percentage of farmers who participate again, after the first cycle","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Returning farmers are a clear indicator of the farmers' motivation. If many of the farmers do not want to participate a second time, something about the tricot process design may need to be changed."}]},{"head":"Changes in the technology choice","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"On the observation card, the farmers write whether they will continue using any of the new technology options from their tricot trial. If they choose to use at least one of the three technology options, this shows the impact of the trials. If no or very few farmers want to continue using the newly introduced technology options, then the initial pool of technology options may need to be reconsidered."}]},{"head":"Dissemination of technology into the communities and information exchange","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Because of their joint experience in the tricot trial, farmers may become more active in experimenting with technologies and exchanging information within their communities. This can be checked by estimating the scale of diffusion of technologies into communities a year after the tricot experiment, by talking to the farmers, as well as to other farmers in the communities."}]},{"head":"Glossary ClimMob","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Online software for the design and management of any tricot experiment (www.climmob. net). The database of all tricot projects is stored here. Project implementers also use ClimMob for the analysis of results and the generation of information outputs at the end of the project."}]},{"head":"Balancing a trial","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"'Balancing' the trial means that all technology options are spread across all the participating villages. Each village will receive packages with consecutive numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) and not random numbers (3, 11, 9, 23, 1, etc.). If this principle is followed, each of these villages will receive a balanced set and all of the technology options will be tested and evaluated."}]},{"head":"Evaluation criteria","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The 5 to 10 criteria that will be evaluated within the tricot experiment. These criteria should be chosen in consultation with all stakeholders. For example: Plant height, disease resistance, yield, and others."}]},{"head":"Explanatory variables","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Information about meteorology and agronomic management of the trials, serves to improve the analysis. The explanatory variables refine the results and help to identify the most suitable variety for the local conditions of every farmer."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Examples: Use of irrigation, use of fertilization, season was rainier or drier than usual, etc."}]},{"head":"Field agents","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Lead farmers of rural communities, field workers, or extension agents. They are trained and remunerated by the implementing organization to assist the farmers in the execution and evaluation of their trials. They collect the data from the farmers and pass them on to the project implementers."}]},{"head":"Implementing organization/ project implementers","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The organization that is in charge of carrying out and monitoring the project. It can be an NGO, a government service, or a research program, among other options. Implementers have the major responsibilities in the project, for example:"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"• Training the field agents and farmers • Distributing the trial packages • Carrying out the data analysis once all data is collected and compiled • Feeding back the information to the farmers via the field agents."}]},{"head":"Infosheet","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Personalized information output for every farmer. It is generated automatically using ClimMob and includes:"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"• Names of the three technology options that the farmer received and tested • Names of the most recommended option for their farm • Information about where to obtain more material of the preferred technology option (if applicable)."}]},{"head":"Observation card","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"A pictorial form printed on thick paper, on which farmers mark their observations of the technology options being tested on their plots."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"A generic design can be found for downloading at climmob.net and can be adapted to the local requirements."}]},{"head":"ODK Collect","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"A free app available for download from Google Play Store to all Android-based mobile devices. ODK Collect is used for farmer registration and data collection in tricot projects."}]},{"head":"Farmers / participating farmers","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Women and men who participate in a tricot experiment by managing their own tricot trial and carrying out the observations, marking the observations on the observation card at the appropriate dates, and eventually reporting the observations to the local field agents. Their recruitment should involve considerations of gender, age and other demographic factors, as well as their task related to the technology under evaluation. In some tricot trials, non-farmers participate, based on their role in food processing, trading, retailing or consumption."}]},{"head":"Randomization","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The balanced creation of sets of three varieties from the full pool of varieties. The randomization is generated by the ClimMob software and is required to prepare the trial packages."}]},{"head":"Researchers","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Experts studying or using the agricultural technology under evaluation. They select the technology options to be included in the project and supply experimental material for each technology option to the implementing organization."}]},{"head":"Technology","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"With tricot, many different kinds of farm innovations can be tested. Crop varieties can be one kind of agricultural technology, but irrigation systems, fertilizers, fertilizer dosage, or cropping styles and tillage systems are also 'technologies' that can be tested using the tricot approach. Within each technology, there are different variants or options (see next entry 'Technology options')."}]},{"head":"Technology options","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Each tricot experiment focuses on one agricultural technology (for example, 'fertilizer composition'), but tests several technology options (fertilizer composition X, fertilizer composition Y, etc.). These technology options should in principle be suitable to local conditions and have the potential to be adopted by some of the farmers. The researchers select the technology options, and they are recommended to begin a first experiment made up of between 8 to 12 options."}]},{"head":"Trial package","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"A bag given to every farmer at the initial workshop. The large bag is marked with a number and a QR code. It contains: (i) three small bags containing material of the different technology options ( marked with 'A', 'B', and 'C'); (ii) an observation card; and (iii) an explanatory brochure about the tricot process"}]},{"head":"Tricot","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The word 'tricot' is derived from three words: Triadic comparison of technology options. 'Triadic' refers to the sets of three technology options that are compared in each trial. In technical jargon, three things define tricot: (1) the use of incomplete blocks of three items (to make the threshold of participation low in terms of farm size and to make it cognitively manageable), (2) the use of ranking as the main way to report observations (to facilitate digital data collection and to make it possible to cultivate a tricot plot with very little training), and (3) the limited control of experimental conditions (following usual technology use practice to maximize external validity)."}]},{"head":"Trial plot","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"A small area within or at the margin of the farmer's production plot, with representative soil conditions. It is divided into three equal parts, for the testing of the three technology options assigned to the farmer."}]},{"head":"Tricot trial","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Field test of different technological options, in sets of three, each grown and observed by a farmer in a small designated area of her/his own farm. "}]},{"head":"Which agricultural technologies can I include in a tricot trial?","index":63,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Every farmer compares only three technology options per trial. Does that mean I can only include three options in the whole tricot experiment?","index":64,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"No, you can include more than three technology options in your tricot experiment. We recommend you pre-select a pool of between 8 to 12 different options that you would like to test."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"No matter how many options you are testing, every farmer will receive a personal trial package containing only three technology options out of the larger pool you are testing. As an example, every farmer might receive a sample of seeds of three different crop varieties out of a larger pool. It is important to know that each farmer receives their three specific varieties based on a strict randomization scheme. The ClimMob software takes care of organizing which three varieties go to which farmer. It will also apply statistics to put all the separate answers together into a coherent picture."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Is there a cost for any of the software that I need in order to run a tricot experiment (e.g. for ClimMob, ODK Collect)?"},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"No, both ClimMob and ODK Collect are free. On climmob.net, you will find everything you need for planning, designing and analyzing your tricot experiment. The Android smartphone app 'ODK Collect' is used by the field agents to collect data from farmers in the field, without the need for internet connectivity. In the future, there may be modest charges for commercial applications, or very large trials, to cover costs."}]},{"head":"I am familiar with Participatory Variety Selection (PVS). Why should I use tricot?","index":65,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The tricot approach is based on the idea of Participatory Variety Selection: new crop varieties are evaluated by farmers, on their own fields, and for traits that are of direct interest to them. The unique idea behind tricot consists in 'crowdsourcing' the data generation process. This makes tricot experiments more flexible, less resource-consuming and easier to scale up to have large numbers of tests, representing more diverse use environments."}]},{"head":"What is the incentive for farmers to participate?","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Through participation in a tricot experiment, farmers are exposed to new technologies. For example, they may try out new crop varieties directly under the conditions of their own farm. This way, participating farmers can learn about new options to improve their farming and might discover useful innovation under realistic conditions. Research has shown that many farmers are also motivated by being part of a research project, interacting with researchers and contributing to knowledge generation. Even when a farmer does not immediately"},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Frequently Asked Questions identify a suitable option among the three tested technology options, participation can be useful to them: farmers often discuss results with their neighbors, exchange experimental material, and subsequently try out options that were successful on other farms. Research also shows that money as an incentive is not needed. The tricot trial should be designed in such a way that farmers are motivated to contribute based on intrinsic motivation, which is likely to lead to better data."}]},{"head":"Farmers work in different environmental conditions. How can their observations be merged?","index":67,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Farmers provide rankings based on what they observe in their trials. Under different environmental conditions, such as different climate, these observations may vary. The ClimMob process allows for geospatial disaggregation of results by registering farmers' GPS locations."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Using existing maps of temperature, rainfall, altitude, and other environmental variables, ClimMob can provide different results for different environments. For example, the results may show that one technology option had highest yield in lowlands, while another option had highest yield in higher altitudes. When the observations differ significantly between environments, ClimMob can provide location-specific results. A special software package, 'ClimMobTools' can be used to load the data into programming environment R for in-depth environmental analysis. Contact the ClimMob team for more information."}]},{"head":"Should farmers control their field conditions?","index":68,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Tricot experiments are designed to generate results that apply to realistic management and farm conditions. In order to generate results that are meaningful for general farming practice, the small trials should be cultivated in strictly the same way as the general farming plot. If farmers control conditions in ways they are not used to, they might end up selecting a variety that will not fare well under their usual cropping system."}]},{"head":"How do the farmers record their field observations?","index":69,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"At the beginning of the tricot experiment, farmers will receive observation cards. These paper cards contain all the questions you decided they should answer during the experiment. The observation cards are very easy to use; farmers just need a pen. At the end of the tricot experiment, the data that was recorded on the observation cards will be collected by the field agents and uploaded onto the ClimMob platform."}]},{"head":"Do the farmers need a smartphone to participate?","index":70,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"No, they note all of their field observations on observation cards. Only the field agents need a smartphone or tablet to enter the growers' data into the ODK Collect app. ODK Collect will then upload and merge all data into ClimMob. There are alternative ways to gather data from farmers. See Step 7."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" • Designing the experiment • Generating a randomized list of combinations of three technology options for the individual trial packages • Project management and data overview • Input of farmers' observation data • Data analysis and automatic generation of the post-trial information sheets for farmers "},{"text":" It is most effective to invite a maximum of 20 farmers at a time to the workshop. Women and men should be invited in equal numbers, if possible. Required workshop material and logistics: • A meeting place for about 20 persons • Snacks • Trial packages. "},{"text":" It is important to visualize what a tricot trial looks like, so farmers can see what is expected of them. If can develop a demonstration trial nearby beforehand. Otherwise, the trials can be visualized with a video (video 1: available at climmob.net). A small pictorial guide for farmers on tricot should also be handed out at the training workshop. A format for a foldable, guide (the size of a credit card) is available from climmob.net. "},{"text":" Two messages are key here: • Carrying out an on-farm trial is simple. No special skills are required. Any farmer can participate. • Farmers are farming experts. The participating farmers deserve full respect as generators of new knowledge. Through the training and distribution workshop (Step 4), farmers were trained in tricot methodology, received their individual trial packages, saw a trial plot (on-site or through video), and received a brochure about tricot. Now they need to choose a part of their land on which to conduct their own trial. It is important to understand that the trials must represent regular farming practice for the results to be useful. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"What do you need to know about the participating farmers?  and field agents can collect farmers' observa- and field agents can collect farmers' observa- tion data for each of the criteria. When field tion data for each of the criteria. When field agents gather the data collected by farmers in agents gather the data collected by farmers in the field, the data will be stored on the device the field, the data will be stored on the device until an internet connection is available. All until an internet connection is available. All data is then sent to the ClimMob server for data is then sent to the ClimMob server for storage and analysis. During different steps of storage and analysis. During different steps of the project, ODK forms will be automatically the project, ODK forms will be automatically generated by the ClimMob software or will be generated by the ClimMob software or will be available on the ClimMob website for down- available on the ClimMob website for down- load. Other data collection methods can be load. Other data collection methods can be made available (interactive voice response, made available (interactive voice response, Whatsapp). Contact the ClimMob team Whatsapp). Contact the ClimMob team (climmob.net) for more information. (climmob.net) for more information. Tricot research can be used to evaluate how Tricot research can be used to evaluate how farmers' adoption preferences for different farmers' adoption preferences for different technology options differ by region, gender, technology options differ by region, gender, wealth status, or other farmer-specific vari- wealth status, or other farmer-specific vari- ables. Understanding these differences can ables. Understanding these differences can help to generalize by category the results help to generalize by category the results from the experiment and to tailor technology from the experiment and to tailor technology recommendations for further households. recommendations for further households. Project implementers should define variables Project implementers should define variables they consider important, so these can be they consider important, so these can be collected from the farmer-researchers. Project collected from the farmer-researchers. Project implementers can formulate their own ques- implementers can formulate their own ques- tions or they can use questions from the 'Rural tions or they can use questions from the 'Rural Household Multi-Indicator Survey' (RHoMIS) Household Multi-Indicator Survey' (RHoMIS) to gather key household information. RHoMIS to gather key household information. RHoMIS is free for download on the ClimMob platform. is free for download on the ClimMob platform. Tricot uses the Open Data Kit (ODK) Col- Tricot uses the Open Data Kit (ODK) Col- lect app as the main way to collect data. The lect app as the main way to collect data. The ODK Collect app is available free of charge ODK Collect app is available free of charge on Google Play Store and can be installed on on Google Play Store and can be installed on any Android smartphone or tablet. It allows any Android smartphone or tablet. It allows implementers to register participating farmers, implementers to register participating farmers,  "}],"sieverID":"78cfc01e-bcdb-4ca4-923c-954208a16a2f","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b0b71555947b637f5d285723854f0a0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/31d38f16-03f8-48c2-8aad-1dbd54e725fd/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Taking the Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) approach to extension actors for strengthening resilience in Africa: five years' experience in West Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"In West Africa, about 70% of the population live in rural area and have livelihoods mostly based on rainfed agriculture (Connolly-Boutin and Smit 2016; Serdeczny et al. 2017). Despite the low input practices, agriculture contributes of 30-40% Gross Domestic Product (Jalloh et al. 2012;Nin-Prat et al. 2011). However, farmers in this region are exposed to various weather-related risks, chiefly climate variability as well as climate change inducing droughts, which combined with their low adaptive capacities makes them the most vulnerable in the world (Von Soest 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Moreover, the climate of West Africa is expected to become more arid due to increased temperature and uncertain rainfall regimes, while its population is expected to grow faster than the rest of the world (Mechiche-Alami and Abdi 2020). Climate smart agriculture aims at helping farmers cope with the negative impact of climate change and in line with this, accurate and timely climate information services are one of the major inputs for improving agricultural practices (FAO 2013(FAO , 2018;;Hansen et al., 2011Hansen et al., , 2019))."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"Developed by the University of Reading, within the framework of a CCAFS (Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security research program) funded project and with initial support from Nuffield Africa, the Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) approach is designed to help smallholder farmers to make plans and decisions for their individual contexts and that utilize climate and weather information together with participatory decision making tools. This approach is based on the analysis of livelihood activities by smallholder farmers in the light of climate information of their locality including historical weather data as well as seasonal and short-term forecasts, and helps farmers to make risk assessments and decisions to improve their production and meet their objectives (Dorward et al. 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":134,"text":"Various participatory tools, including resource allocation maps, seasonal calendars, participatory budget analysis, are used for such analysis considering the specific context of each farmer as shown in the contextual framework in Figure 1. Two key principles of PICSA include 'the farmer decides' i.e. that farmers are best placed to make decisions about their agricultural practices, because they have detailed knowledge of their farm, system and environment, and they also face the consequences (whether favourable or unfavourable) of their decisions, and 'options by context' i.e. different farmers having different contexts. This includes differences in wealth, education, land, goals and attitudes to risk. Therefore, what works for one farmer might not work for another and farmers should thus make decisions that are right for their own contexts (see https://research.reading.ac.uk/picsa for full explanation and resources on PICSA).  "}]},{"head":"Meteorological service agents training for data analysis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"In PICSA, historical climate information in the form of graphs of rainfall and temperature values for each of the last 30 years or more is shared and analyzed with farmers. This enables farmers (along with field staff) to explore the characteristics of the climate in their location and to identify implications for agricultural planning and decision making e.g. which crops and varieties are most likely to succeed given the amounts of rainfall received in seasons, exactly how is the climate changing and what enterprises and agricultural practices are likely to be most successful. Often one of the main observations from looking at the graphs is the extent of variability from year to year and farmers consider ways to address this (e.g. by identifying a range of options including climate smart agricultural practices). In addition, later in the PICSA process farmers consider seasonal forecasts and the historical climate information helps provide useful context for this by giving a clear description of conditions in previous years against which to make comparisons."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Given the importance of the historical climate information and to support scaling-up of PICSA in West Africa, Meteo Service agents were first trained to analyze historical data and provide the easy-to-understand graphs needed for PICSA training. About 25 Meteo service agents were trained to clean, check and analyze historical climate data and to produce the graphs using the software Instat (R-Instat) (Figure 3). Each staff had worked on the long-term data (≥30 years) from sites in her/his country and by doing so, they make the large amount of historical data more useful and useable for anyone."},{"index":3,"size":213,"text":"Moreover, in Africa, it is known that the main weakness of climate information including seasonal forecast is that the information is produced for wide areas which might not be relevant to the specific context of a given farmer. Good climate information data are available only for some few areas where weather stations are established. To address such constraint, met service agents of 5 countries (Benin, Guinea, Mali, Niger and Togo) were trained on a technique of combining data derived from satellites with data from ground observation stations. This so-called \"merging\" technique developed by the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), through ENACTS (Enhancing National Climate Services) initiative, aims to improve the availability of data for the development and dissemination of quality climate information and products to users (Dinku et al. 2017). A 5-days training workshop was held with practical sessions to capacitate the various participants to understand the merging technique and generate climate data to cover areas with no data or to provide missing data. For PICSA, this can be used to infill missing data at existing stations or generate graphs for completely locations where ground station data are not available. The origin and accuracy of the merged products should be clearly explained and communicated to other users, especially to farmers."}]},{"head":"Training of trainers for PICSA implementation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"In addition to capacitating met service agents, the implementation of PICSA required strengthening of the capacities of other stakeholders such as field agents of extension services and national and international NGOs working with farmers."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The main objectives of the workshops organized in various countries of West Africa (Figure 3) were to strengthen the capacity of the participants so that they can train and support farmers to use the PICSA approach. This was meant to compliment the work they are already doing with farmers (e.g. working with groups of farmers to provide training and information) and to help them improving livelihoods."},{"index":3,"size":212,"text":"A total of 16 full length (5-days) and two short length (3days) trainings sessions were organized in West Africa (Figures 3 and 4). For each of these trainings, national met services provided historical climate data as well as the seasonal and short-term weather forecasts in the form of easy-to-understand graphs. Participants were trained in and practiced to each of the 12 clear and logical steps of PICSA -see the PICSA field manual and Website for full details (https://research.reading.ac.uk/picsa/). These include enabling farmers to: assess their current resources and activities (using Resource Allocation Maps) and how the climate influences their activities and decision making (using seasonal calendars); use historical climate information to help explore the climate whether and how climate is changing and the implications for agriculture and other livelihoods; analyze and identify the suitability of different crops and varieties to local climate; identify suitable options i.e. enterprises and management practices for local conditions; plan and analyze the options using Participatory Budgets; understand and use the Seasonal and short term forecasts to adapt plans ahead and during the season depending on the forecasts and farmer's individual contexts. At the end of each workshop, the extension workers developed schedules for training groups of farmers in PICSA (normally over a total of approximately 5 meetings)."},{"index":4,"size":390,"text":"Based on lessons learnt from the various full length trainings delivered as well as specific interests of some groups that are already relatively familiar with some of the tools such as resources allocation maps, seasonal calendar or participatory budget elaboration, a short length version of PICSA was experimented to adapt to such groups in Mali in 2019 and 2020. The modified short version focuses on understanding and using the historical climate data and meteorological forecasts to guide the choice and planning of climate smart agriculture options for each context. This was also well appreciated by the participants. The manual describing the PICSA approach was printed and distributed to all participants. After the trainings, the met service agents were able to generate the needed climate information at scale to support decisionmaking in farming activities notwithstanding of variable and changing climate, more specifically in deploying climate smart options. The importance of climate information being delivered to the farmers has been assessed and revealed the willingness of some farmers to pay for climate services (Ouedraogo et al. 2018). Farmers in Mali and Senegal were surveyed specifically about their perceptions on the use of PICSA and the results showed that 76-97% of the respondents found the approach 'very useful' (Dayamba et al. 2018). Clarkson et al (2019) analysed the effects of PICSA on farmer's decision-making and livelihoods, after the training of approximately 5,000 farmers in PICSA and reported that PICSA implementation had the desired effect of stimulating innovation behaviours and catalysing farmers to identify, plan and implement changes that address their own individual farming systems and contexts. The West Africa experience in easy-to understand climate information generation, dissemination and use clearly confirms that climate information is an important input needed by farmers like other production inputs. Therefore, the accessibility of such information in addition to early delivery of seasonal forecast to the farmers is critical for a smooth planning of their farming activities. The PICSA trainings of stakeholder's staff were held in eight countries of West Africa namely Benin, Burkina-Faso, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo with a total of 555 participants. These trainings were implemented in the framework of several projects involving ICRAF (CaSCIERA-TA, CASCAID, DryDev, SmAT-Scaling, Africa RISING, GCC, BrASIL-CSVIL, CINSERE ) and one project of the 2iE institution (IDRC). The highest numbers of participants were from Mali, Benin, and Burkina-Faso."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and perspectives","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The trainings of Met service agents for historical climate data analysis and the elaboration of easy understandable graphs were of great importance and were a key determinant to the rest of the process for implementing PICSA approach in the framework of various projects in West Africa. All these Met services now have the capacity to produce historical climate information graphs for PICSA approach training and implementation. Overall, more than 500 extension agents and scientists were trained on the PICSA approach to improve their support to rural poor farmers in West Africa. These trainings were highly appreciated by participants who reported that they"},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"would make a major contribution to their activities. Extension staff enthusiastically elaborated plans for implementing the approach to support farmers' activities in their specific intervention sites. However, refreshertraining is required for staff in future years as well as expansion of training to new staff (considering staff mobility in the institutions).  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Contextual framework of PICSA approach (Source: https://research.reading.ac.uk/picsa/ ) "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Different phases of PICSA approach (Source: PICSA Website https://research.reading.ac.uk/picsa/ "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Participants of various trainings and number of training per project "},{"text":" Bayala J., Dayamba S.D., Lamien N., Zougmoré R.B., Agali A., Ky-Dembele C., Diakité A., Ouédraogo M., Gnangle P.C., Keita A., Tougiani A., Sadate A. 2020. Capacitating stakeholders to using Climate Information in West Africa: Achievements and lessons learned from the WAAPP-funded CaSCIERA-TA project. Info-note CCAFS. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Hansen J.W., Mason S.J., Sun L., Tall A. 2011 Review of seasonal climate forecasting for agriculture in sub-saharan Africa Expl. Agric 47: 205-40.  Hansen J.W., Vaughan C., Kagabo D.M., Dinku T., Carr E.R., Körner J., Zougmoré R.B. 2019. Climate Services Can Support African Farmers' Context-Specific Adaptation Needs at Scale. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 3:21. Mechiche-Alami A., Abdulhakim M.A. 2020. Agricultural productivity in relation to climate and cropland management in West Africa. Scientific Reports: Nature research.  Jalloh A, Roy-Macauley H, Sereme P. 2012. Major  Jalloh A, Roy-Macauley H, Sereme P. 2012. Major agro-ecosystems of West and Central Africa: Brief agro-ecosystems of West and Central Africa: Brief description, species richness, management, description,speciesrichness,management, environmental limitations and concerns. Agriculture, environmental limitations and concerns. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 157: 5-16.  Ecosystems & Environment 157: 5-16.  "}],"sieverID":"7267cf0b-cd53-4cbb-bcd3-168b332b0404","abstract":"Capacities of key stakeholders (Meteo service staff, researchers, NGOs and extension staff) were strengthened in how to prepare and implement PICSA, especially in a) generating and understanding user-friendly climate information and b) how to support and empower farmers to identify and plan farming and other livelihood activities appropriate to farmer's contexts;  In addition to directly enabling farmers to better cope with and adapt to climate variability and change, the PICSA approach enables stakeholders to work collaboratively, work towards common goals, enables them to play complimentary roles in supporting farmers and leads to improved understanding of farmer's requirements and how to meet them; The new knowledge and skills acquired by key stakeholders can set the foundation for deploying improved climate services and agricultural extension approaches and Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) in future projects or programs in the region."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b8cfca30ec1c073675ab8ecb65e2f1b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5999f742-069f-4cdb-a990-8081ad129542/retrieve"},"pageCount":33,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Executive Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The CGIAR Initiative on Climate Resilience, ClimBeR, aims to transform the climate adaptation capacity of food, land, and water systems in Zambia and five other low-and middle-income countries, ultimately increasing the resilience of smallholder production systems to withstand severe climate change effects like drought, flooding, and high temperatures."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"The variability in Zambia's climate means farmers are challenged by droughts, floods, high temperatures, and increased unpredictability. In response, the government is integrating climate change concerns into its agricultural policy agenda. Under its climate-smart agriculture (CSA) framework, Zambia is promoting various adaptation solutions to sustainably increase productivity and enhance resilience. ClimBeR will contribute to the adaptation priorities outlined in Zambia's Nationally Determined Contribution and Eighth National Development Plan by strengthening early warning systems and increasing access to climate finance, among other activities."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"The ClimBeR Initiative in collaboration with the Zambia Ministry of Green Economy and Environment (MGEE) and Ministry of Agriculture organized a workshop to bring together stakeholders from the Ministry of National Development Planning, Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA), Zambia Meteorological Department, Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU), along with international agencies, development partners, and civil society. The objective of this workshop was to have a deeper understanding on how to co-produce knowledge and innovations that contribute to building systemic resilience against climate variability and extremes in Zambia."}]},{"head":"All photos provided by Agricomm Media based in Lusaka.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"49 national and regional organizations that have a presence in Zambia were represented in this meeting at the Radisson Blu Hotel. We had in total 82 participants in person and at least 9 participants online. Please refer to Annex 1 for a detailed list of participants."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"The workshop provided insight into the main challenges to effective adaptation in Zambia. According to several ministries leading climate action in Zambia, ClimBeR can contribute to Zambia's adaptation priorities on:"},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"1) access to accurate and available climate information; 2) capacity building to develop bankable project proposals; 3) farmers' access to insurance and credit; 4) incentives for farmers to diversify crops; 5) improved dissemination platforms for early warning systems; and 6) the development of partnerships to coordinate financial resources for implementation."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Session 1: Linking ClimBeR to Climate Action in Zambia"}]},{"head":"Session 1 Highlights","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The objective of this session was the identification of strategic needs for climate action and adaptation by national stakeholders for Zambia that can be addressed by ClimBeR's work. Primary conclusions include:"}]},{"head":"Introduction by Lizzy Muzungaire, WorldFish","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Lizzy Muzungaire moderated the inception workshop. She first introduced the program by thanking the Ministry of Green Economy and Environment as well as Ministry of Agriculture for hosting this workshop, with special appreciation to IITA and IWMI for the collaboration given to the ClimBeR team."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"ClimBeR is being implemented in Zambia and five other countries to transform the climate adaptation capacity of food, land and water systems, ultimately increasing the resilience of smallholder production systems to withstand severe climate change effects like drought, flooding and high temperatures."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"We recognize that in the recent past we have witnessed unprecedented effects of climate change shocks, floods where we didn't expect, drought where we least expect it. How can we get together to come out with ways, ideas, innovations to address these issues to get to a point of adapting these innovations?"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"The main objective of the workshop is to establish a common vision and action plan on how to strengthen climate smart adaptation efforts in Zambia."}]},{"head":"Presentation of ClimBeR in Zambia","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Dr. Jon Hellin, Co-Lead of ClimBeR ClimBeR deals with issues of reducing climate change vulnerabilities and extremes. ClimBeR is not a CGIAR Initiative, but a Zambia Initiative; CGIAR is just leading and facilitating. ClimBeR is owned by our national partners; owned by Zambia. ClimBeR can contribute to the agenda of the Zambian Government in responding to climate change challenges."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"The IPCC report in February suggests that changes in climate response require incremental steps, with transformative change in agricultural systems and institutions. It requires a multidisciplinary/interdisciplinary approach."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Transformative adaptation requires strong partnerships to achieve the objectives of ClimBeR. Globally, ClimBeR is being implemented in six countries (in Asia, Africa and Latin America) to achieve its proposed outcomes, including Zambia. ClimBeR is comprised of four work packages and two crosscutting themes (climate finance and gender and social equity)."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"The presentation by Dr. Jon Hellin can be downloaded here (slides 2-5)."}]},{"head":"Dr. Giriraj Amarnath, ClimBeR Zambia Lead and Governance 4 Resilience Lead","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"This workshop celebrates ClimBeR's launch in Zambia. CGIAR has gone through major reforms; working with partners in the regions across the world including farmers. Diverse partnerships will help us achieve the objectives of the ClimBeR program."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"ClimBeR will be owned by Zambia stakeholders: we complement and synergize. We need to make various synergies with different stakeholders and institutions working in Zambia. How can we best learn from you and farmers and other stakeholders?"}]},{"head":"Panel Discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Each panelist described the mandate of their institution and challenges they face in adapting to climate change."}]},{"head":"Mr. Kasanda Bunda, Principal Climate Change Officer and Adaptation, Ministry of Green Economy and Environment","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Mandate: Henry Mgomba, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture (MoA)"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"Mandate:"},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"• Ministry of Agriculture's mandate involves dissemination of proven agricultural technologies and practices to smallholder farmers to improve their livelihoods • Poverty rates are high in rural areas; they are MoA's target to build their capacity to improve their productivity through the ministry's diverse extension system."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"Challenges:"},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"• Climate information is needed; it the basis for advising farmers. It should come quickly for dissemination to farmers. • Conservation agriculture: this consists of three principles including crop rotation, residue retention and minimum tillage. However, residue retention is hard to achieve especially in the southern part of Zambia. There is a tradeoff between animals and crops since residues provide fodder to animals. "}]},{"head":"Mr Kasanda Bunda, MGEE","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"• Adaptation planning is done in two phases: (i) development of the national plan, and (ii) water adaptation plan. Adaptation and capacity gaps have been identified; MGEE reviewed climate change adaption and monitoring and evaluation, developed adaptation indicators and tools for integrating climate change adaptation in budgeting and planning processes, and developed climate change policy guidelines. • MGEE is going into identification and prioritization of climate adaptation strategies. They hope to benefit from ClimBeR by working closely and creating synergies on prioritization of adaptation innovations and strategies for adaptation and providing evidence-based information."}]},{"head":"Henry Mgomba, MoA","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"• Progress on transforming food systems has been hindered by working in isolation. The food system considers all stakeholders. MoA acknowledges all stakeholders in supply chain, marketing and those dealing with farmers. They try to harmonise extension systems and work closely with the private sector."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"o Working in partnerships across different value chains as one unit is necessary (ClimBeR will help to achieve it). o Working in isolation has been the major issue: working with other stakeholders in the supply chain and marketing is paramount. o MoA needs to work closely with input suppliers and agrochemical dealers (to eliminate banned chemicals)."}]},{"head":"Synthesis Remarks","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"David Chikoye, IITA and CGIAR Convener in Zambia","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Challenges below have been identified by all and not specific to a given ministry or stakeholder:"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"• Availability of climate information-e.g., climate advisory for agriculture, early warning systems focusing on drought and flooding, and area specific information Session 2: Reducing risk in production system-linked livelihoods and value chains at scale"}]},{"head":"Session 2 Highlights","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The objective of this session was to identify together with stakeholders the need and opportunities to promote climate information services and digital financial services for reducing risk and improving the livelihoods of smallholder farmers at scale in Zambia. Primary conclusions include:"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"• The focus areas of this aspect include: digital climate and active advising services; financial services for farmers; risk profiling system; and nutritional impacts of climate risk. • One of the main problems in Zambia is the high climatic variability that occurs every year."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"Success with Shamba Shape Up demonstrates the importance of communicating climate information through channels such as television programs to benefit more farmers. • Access to insurance by farmers in Zambia is relatively low. Zambia is sparsely populated, so the cost of physically reaching 3 million smallholder farmers will increase the cost of the premiums. This problem can be solved with innovative digital solutions, and increased financial awareness on multimedia platforms. ACRE will play a key role in the work to be carried out in this field. • Promoting bio-fortified, micronutrient-rich crops in Zambia with farmers will help to support the entire value chain business cycle, from production to market."}]},{"head":"Evan Girvetz, ClimBeR Climate Finance Lead and De-Risk Co-Lead","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Evan emphasized the importance of financial services for de-risking farming and production systems as the focus of ClimBeR's Work Package 1. The activities aim to reach at least 300,000 vulnerable farmers in six countries including Zambia, at least 30% of them being women."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"The presentation by Dr. Evan Girvetz can be downloaded here (slides 6-15)."},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"Four priority areas include: 1. Digital climate and active advising services: not just about getting more data, but information that is accurate and usable. One of the ways that ClimBeR is addressing this is by using innovative delivery mechanisms, including television programming such as the Shamba Shape Up TV show. 2. Financial services for farmers: This can be credit and insurance for smallholder farmers to help them to get the capital they need. ClimBeR aims to also de-risk the capital through different mechanisms like insurance. This will be working with partners such as Acre Africa/ZepRe, Agora Microfinance in Zambia. 3. Risk profiling system: Analyze and understand the climate risks to production systems in specific places. The output information can be useful for sending advisories to farmers or informing insurance and/or credit services. 4. Reduce nutritional impacts of climate risk: addressing nutritional risk through diversification."}]},{"head":"Panel Discussion","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The three panelists covered the four thematic areas of the Work Package 1 extremely well. Many of the activities in Zambia will be based on the learnings from the ongoing activities in Kenya, except for Harvest Plus."}]},{"head":"Patricia Gichinga, Mediae & Shamba Shape Up","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"• Patricia Gichinga, Mediae, head of production of Shamba Shape Up TV program: Patricia described how Shamba Shape Up started in Kenya as a reality makeover show to farm makeover show, running for 12 years in Kenya, reaching more than 8 million viewers. Among others, she described that the most common problem now is the variable weather, particularly every year. To address this issue, they have been developing series on climate smart agriculture, as well as introducing a 2-minute weather segment that provides weather updates weekly based on the forecast. There was also mention about iShamba, the mobile agro-advisory system. • He also mentioned a very important challenge related to insurance access by Zambian farmers. Unlike many other countries, Zambia is sparsely populated, so the cost of physically reaching 3 million smallholder farmers will increase the cost of the premiums, leading to either a higher subsidy from the Government or low uptake by the farmers. This problem can be addressed with innovative digital solutions and increased financial literacy on multimedia platforms such as Shamba Shape Up."}]},{"head":"Emely Mwale, Harvest Plus","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"• Emily Mwale, HarvestPlus, Alliance country coordinator for Zambia: She described how HarvestPlus has been promoting bio-fortified, micronutrient rich crops in Zambia and other African counties. They work with farmers to support the entire value chain business cycle, from production to market. Their main partners are various CGIAR centers, government, United Nations organizations and private sector such as aggregators and processors. She emphasized the huge success of orange maize that is a climate resilient, vitamin A enriched crop in Zambia. She also mentioned the benefits of other varieties such as high iron beans and orange flesh sweet potatoes. Learning from the benefits of orange maize varieties, many other countries are also growing it. They have also teamed up with World Food Programme (WFP) to provide insurance to farmers growing biofortified crops."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"We finally have it in the formation."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Plenary Q&A"},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"• From the audience three main questions were asked. One was around the accessibility and packaging of more information that is localized. In response to that, Patricia described how Mediae works with local experts and languages, and context-specific research to generate the knowledge that are locally relevant. • Another question was around insurance and financing in aquaculture. Aquaculture is a gap and could be an opportunity to work with WorldFish."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"Session 3: Building production-system resilience through recognizing the relationships among climate, agriculture, security, and peace."}]},{"head":"Session 3 Highlights","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The objective of this session was to discuss what climate security is as a concept, increase understanding of how and why climate-related security risks emerge, and discuss its relevance in the context of Zambia. Primary conclusions include:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Climate change, rather than directly causing conflict, has become a multiplier."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"• Risk mapping in Zambia confirms the existence of zones that are more vulnerable than others (climate hotspots) and potential regions where climate security risks may be amplified. • One method to address climate security risks is to build a resilient landscape with productive agriculture practices along and with ecosystem services, for a multi-sectoral approach. • Inequitable access to limited natural resources contributes to conflicts."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"• Accessing finance from the Green Climate Fund (GCF) remains a challenges because few entities in Zambia are accredited. Additional support is needed to increase the number of accredited entities and ultimately access more finance from the GCF. She mentioned that the session will focusing on on addressing the following questions:"}]},{"head":"Sithembile","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• What does climate security look like in Zambia?"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• What are climate security priorities in Zambia?"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• What are the climate security concerns in Zambia?"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• What are the possible solutions?"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"The presentation by Sithembile Mwamakamba can be downloaded here (slides 16-24)."}]},{"head":"Panel Discussion","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Morgan Katati, Zambia Institute of Environmental Management (ZIEM)"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Mr. Morgan elaborated that climate change is an issue of concern in Zambia."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"• He indicated that carbon emissions are increasing in Zambia as a result of agricultural activities, migration, urbanization and mining among other activities. • He further pointed out that climate security should be one of the target topics for Zambia."},{"index":4,"size":187,"text":"• Mr Katati showed how Zambia increased its emissions during the last century, with agriculture as one of the major sources of emissions. He mentioned a lot of risk mapping has been done, and this has shown that some zones are more vulnerable than others (climate hotspots). This connects with another aspect he mentioned: natural resources sharing (water). Inequitable access to limited natural resources contributes to conflicts around the world. • In Zambia, there are noticeable changes resulting from migration. There is movement from the southern province towards northwestern province because of issues such as soil degradation and conflicts over water resources. • In Zambia, having mainly agriculturally based livelihoods, dependence on natural resources is common. The failure of traditional methods to address climate change will lead to greater use of natural resources. The over utilization of these resources causes a threat to ecosystem services that will subsequently affect agricultural productivity. • If not well addressed, this is a major risk if the practices that we are promoting, Climate Smart Agriculture and many other practices are not addressing the issues that Zambia is faced with at hand."}]},{"head":"Lwembe Mwale, Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA)","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"• Mr Mwale pointed out that when different security issues around the climate crisis are examined in more detail, it's possible to notice such issues are increasingly affecting the productivity and economy of the country. • Climate change, rather than directly causing conflict, has become a multiplier."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"• Climate change impacts food production, economic aspects in terms of livelihoods but also nutrition. • In Zambia there is a scarcity of food and people are fighting for the little that is available."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"• Part of the work done by COMESA includes capacitating the rural farmers for instance on how they can use climate-resilient seed varieties so that in the face of climate change they are still able to produce food not only for themselves but also sell the surplus so that their livelihoods can also improve. • There is a need to understand that climate change does not directly cause conflict but rather it has a multiplier effect, because it rides on the already existing vulnerabilities."}]},{"head":"Vincent Ziba, FAO Zambia","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"• Mr. Ziba talked about the increases of climate security threats in agriculture. The solution to overcome these issues should be building a resilient landscape with productive agriculture practices along and with ecosystem services, for a multi-sectoral approach to address climate change."}]},{"head":"Akabiwa Nyambe, National Designated Authority Green Climate Fund in Ministry of National Development Planning","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"• Mr. Nyambe pointed out that there are still many challenges when addressing proposals for accredited entities that have evidence and have been working on climate change for a long time. Accredited entities can receive a lot of investment from the Green Climate Fund (GCF), but access is limited due to the small number of these entities in Zambia. This is a risk for the country since it delays the implementation of more sustainable activities."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Plenary Q&A"},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"• Concerns from the audience were related to how to increase the number of accredited entities to the GCF and the importance of promoting multidisciplinary approaches for climate solutions. It was said that more strategies to guarantee investment on sustainable solutions are needed. Also, it's necessary to identify different mechanisms that allow farmers to overcome the climate crisis, such as designing integrated approaches for governance mechanisms that help bring justice and amplify community voices."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Session 4: Developing adaptation instruments to inform policy and investments"}]},{"head":"Session 4 Highlights","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The objective of this session was to find synergies and complementarities in support of work with partners to develop adaptation instruments to inform policy and investments. Primary conclusions include:"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"• iFEED (The integrated Future Estimator for Emissions and Diets) is a tool to help decision makers plan for the future and identify needs to be prioritized in the agriculture sector in order to reduce climate change risks."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"• iFEED provides information on how climate change and government policy will affect crop yields, land and water use, and nutritious diets in the future. • The aim of ClimBeR is for co-development and use of future scenarios (as projected by iFEED) to develop policies that will effectively address future climate change risks and build resilient food systems. • There is a need to consider nutrition-sensitive agriculture, which can be achieved through crop diversification."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"• Crop diversification plays a key role to increase the income of farmers in Zambia. Market access and linkages for farmers are very important as they provide an incentive for farmers to crop diversify."}]},{"head":"Rebecca Sarku, Policy Pathways and University of Leeds","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Rebecca asked participants, \"What matters to you most as a decision maker when you think about agriculture?\". She emphasized the need for evidence-based decision making. Decision makers need to be informed by evidence that has been generated through research."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"One such tool that can be used to inform decision making is the integrated Future Estimator for Emissions and Diets (iFEED). iFEED is a tool that shows how climate change and government policy will affect crop yields, land and water use, and how nutritious diets will be in the future. The tool helps decision makers to plan for the future and identify needs to be prioritized in the agriculture sector in order to reduce climate change risks. The tool was developed by various experts such as Climate Scientists, Food Scientists, Meteorologists, Agriculturist and Economists."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"iFEED is one example of how ClimBeR will bring together various experts to find a common solution to the issues that are affecting the agricultural sector."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Christian Chomba, Agricultural Consultative Forum (ACF)"},{"index":5,"size":178,"text":"• iFEED was developed under a project called Agricultural and Food systems Resilience: Increasing Capacity & Advising Policy (AFRICAP). The project's aim was to make agriculture and food production in sub-Saharan Africa more productive, sustainable and resilient to climate change. • iFEED is a tool that was developed to help create scenarios of how climate change will affect the agriculture and food systems in the future up to 2050. • For Zambia, it was observed that the critical risk factors are (i) climate change risk and (ii) market connectivity and function. • Under the same project, media personnel were trained to report on emerging issues in relation to climate change. • The outputs from iFEED contributed to key national policy processes such as the Second National Agriculture Investment Plan, the African Union Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme Malabo Biennial Review process, the crop diversification agenda, the review of the Farmer Input Support Program and the development of the livestock value chain framework. • An iFEED Zambia Champion was identified to champion the work of iFEED and the outputs."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"The presentation by Christian Chomba can be downloaded here (slides 25-33)."}]},{"head":"Panel Discussion","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sithembile Mwamakamba, FANRPAN","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Can you reflect on results from iFEED that we need to expand food production?"},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"• To achieve food security and build resilient food systems in Zambia and across the region, there is a need to look at climate change issues in a multidisciplinary or cross disciplinary way. • iFEED, much like ClimBeR, brought together experts from different disciplines to find solutions that will ensure that resilient food systems are built. • There is a need to bring onboard policy and decision makers so that they appreciate the evidence that is presented to them so that they make informed decisions about the future. • The aim of ClimBeR is for co-development and use of future scenarios (as projected by iFEED) to develop policies that will effectively address future climate change risks and build resilient food systems."}]},{"head":"Christopher Mbewe, Ministry of Agriculture","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"When considering crop diversification, what should be the priority areas considering results from iFEED?","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"• There are high levels of food insecurity resulting in stunting and underweight children. To mitigate this, there is a need to diversify crop production. • There is need to educate the populace on the right nutrition feeding. There is need to consider nutrition sensitive agriculture which can be achieved through crop diversification. • We should promote vegetable production as Zambia has a favorable and conducive production environment. We should reduce our importation of fruits and vegetables and be self-sufficient."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Any intervention such as ClimBeR that promotes increased production and productivity is welcome."}]},{"head":"Noel Simukonde, National Union for Small Scale Farmers in Zambia","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"What policy issues are critical to crop diversification?"},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"• It is important to understand that crop diversification is good for income generation because of its high value (especially in the horticulture sector). • When there is a challenge/shock regarding horticulture, the government intervenes which shows that there is an enabling environment. For example, there was an issue of vegetable dumping on the market which affected supply and demand leading to waste and greenhouse gas emissions. • Access to agriculture equipment (especially irrigation equipment) can be challenging for smallholder farmers, therefore support in this area is required in order to build the resilience of farmers to climate shocks. • Interventions such as iFEED and ClimBeR should involve the marginalized such us the disabled, women and youth. • The outputs from iFEED should be used to enhance extension services."}]},{"head":"Masiye Nawiko, Agricultural Consultative Forum","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"How is the policy state in irrigation and mechanization relevant and critical to food systems?"},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"• Currently, Zambia wants to prioritize climate resilience through irrigation to avoid dependency on rain-fed agriculture. • The current government is building dams in various parts of the country and also helping small scale farmers with simple irrigation equipment. • If we are to build resilient food systems by 2050 and beyond, we need to not only consider the available land for agriculture but also invest in irrigation to utilize the available water resource. • Market access and linkages for farmers are very important as they provide an incentive for farmers to crop diversify."}]},{"head":"Breakout Session","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The participants broke out in groups to discuss the following issues:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"i. What regions or provinces are mostly affected when it comes to nutritional status? ii."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"What are some of the interventions that the government has in place to address the identified nutritional deficits? iii."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Is land easily accessible to men women and youth? What is the main land tenure system? iv."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Who finances or resources agricultural technologies and innovations? v."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"Is the cost of seed favorable and does it support crop diversification?"},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"Responses from the breakout groups"},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"• Western and Northern provinces are the most affected in terms of nutrition status."},{"index":9,"size":114,"text":"• Some of the interventions that government has put in place to mitigate against nutrition challenges include among others the Scaling Up Nutrition, the Social Cash Transfer, the Food Security Pack, the extended Farmer Input Support Program and the Water and Sanitation Development Plan to enable farmers to develop irrigation systems. • Most land is under traditional or customary tenure which is biased towards men. The government has made a deliberate policy to mitigate this by making sure that women have access to 30% of the land while the rest of the 70% both men and women can have access to it. • Agricultural innovations and technologies are largely resourced by the private sector."},{"index":10,"size":67,"text":"• There is need to engage the banks and other private stakeholders to provide incentives that enhance irrigation and farm mechanization in order to improve agricultural production and productivity. • Costs of seed and fertilizer are high. There is need to make sure that farmers have access to seed in order to crop diversify. • Farmers should refrain from using recycled seed as it reduces productivity overtime."}]},{"head":"Session 5: Multiscale governance for transformative adaptation","index":34,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Session 5 Highlights","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The objective of this session was to discuss with various stakeholders the promotion of multiscale polycentric governance and innovative tools to build the adaptive capacity of local communities, increasing their resilience against climate-related shocks. Primary conclusions include:"},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"• A multi-scale governance approach is critical when executing climate change activities and interventions in the country. The approach outlined in the National Policy on Climate Change allows the implementation and coordination of climate action using a multi-level governance system. • ClimBeR could help WARMA localize its early warning system to provide more timely data to communities. • Early warning information needs better dissemination platforms to ensure information is reaching the desired communities."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"• Key research needs include innovations that improve productivity on farm, adaptation indices, research to support NDC implementation, and tools to analyze climate change in the meteorological department. • Capacity building should be at the center of all activities. This includes capacity building in data analysis and innovation."}]},{"head":"Giriraj Amarnath, ClimBeR Zambia Lead and Governance 4 Resilience Lead","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Effective adaptation cannot happen without strong governance. ClimBeR's Governance 4 Resilience (G4R) research examines institutional barriers to adaptation from local to national levels. This presentation highlighted the importance of having a balance between top-down and bottom-up approaches. This is crucial to have a systemic approach to transformation that embraces different sectors working together. G4R will be focused on improving coordination, enabling responsiveness to climate extremes, improving facilitation and planning, and champions of change (key actors). Next steps will be to finalize a work plan along with the key institutions working with ClimBeR, codesign and co-produce the Early Warning, Early Action, and Early Finance (AWARE) platform, and prepare capacity development plans with key stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"The presentation by Giriraj Amarnath can be downloaded here (slides 34-45)."}]},{"head":"Panel Discussion","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Moderated by Lizzy Muzungaire, WorldFish. • Disaster risk knowledge is also crucial gap. There is a need to ensure that information is actually disseminated to the desired end user."}]},{"head":"Kasanda Bunda, Principal Climate Change Officer Adaptation, Ministry of Green Economy and Environment","index":38,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Wina Wina, Red Cross, Zambia","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"• Zambia Red Cross implements forecast-based financing, where finance is mobilized to take early action to mitigate impacts of floods. Red Cross' impact-based forecasting can inform stakeholders of floods seven days in advance, working in Satellite Disaster Management Committees. They bring together various stakeholder groups, including funders and researchers to take action before a disaster occurs."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Plenary Q&A"},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"• Questions from the audience were related to the feasibility of downscaling climate information from provincial levels to camp levels. With a certain level of uncertainty, DMMU can downscale climate information by using supplemental satellite data. Another participant asked about differentiating between \"disasters\" and extreme events in areas that are already known to be vulnerable. Irrespective of areas being prone to disasters or not, the government has a duty to respond. In areas that are more vulnerable, it is necessary to sensitize communities in these areas of the potential dangers of climate extremes in their communities."}]},{"head":"Breakout Session","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The participants broke out in groups to discuss the following issues: Responses from the breakout groups"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"• Finance is a gap. Timely finance needs to be mobilized so farmers can use these resources when they need it. • There is a need to improve coordination at the national, provincial, district, and community level as well as between public and private entities. "}]},{"head":"Reflections and Wrap-up","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Jon Hellin, ClimBeR Co-Lead provided reflections, beginning with thanks to all participants. There were common concerns raised on climate information and drought-tolerant varieties, and these aspects need to be supported by policy and governance. ClimBeR's approach is transdisciplinary in nature, and transdisciplinary work takes time. We need to continue coordinating and collaborating together towards a climate adapted Zambia. ClimBeR is very grateful for the input from everyone represented in the meeting."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Mr. Kasanda Bunda closed saying that the Ministry of Green Economy and Environment is glad to partner with ClimBeR to build resilience in Zambia. Climate change is not a story but a reality. Zambia is already seeing the impact of climate change among vulnerable farmers. Therefore, partnerships like those with ClimBeR are very critical."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Mr. Joy Sinyangwe of the Ministry of Agriculture emphasized the need for greater collaboration. Problems that farmers face are holistic in nature. These challenges require significant collaboration. At the local level, there is a need for capacity building. The Ministry of Agriculture is committed to work to ensure farmers do not remain small-scale forever. Giriraj Amarnath, ClimBeR Zambia Lead closed the workshop thanking Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Green Economy and Environment for co-hosting. He assured the group that committed partnership is critical, and ClimBeR looks forward to engaging with partners in the near future. • Breakout groups with flipcharts to answer specific questions on agricultural area expansion, crop diversity and irrigation, including links to policy processes."}]},{"head":"Annex 2. Agenda","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Expected outputs:"},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"• Participants are aware of plans and the capabilities of iFEED and are able to input their ideas and perspectives, including but not limited to ideas for target policies. • Identify key individuals who wish to engage with ClimBeR's iFEED team beyond the workshop, to help orient the work and/or to link with policy. • Explore links with other ClimBeR research areas and begin to co-ordinate stakeholder engagement. Session 5: Multiscale governance for transformative adaptation"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" LIST OF ACRONYMS ......................................................................................................................................... EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................... SESSION 1: LINKING CLIMBER TO CLIMATE ACTION IN ZAMBIA ....................................................................... SESSION 2: REDUCING RISK IN PRODUCTION SYSTEM-LINKED LIVELIHOODS AND VALUE CHAINS AT SCALE ... SESSION 3: BUILDING PRODUCTION-SYSTEM RESILIENCE THROUGH RECOGNIZING THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG CLIMATE, AGRICULTURE, SECURITY, AND PEACE. ............................................................................ SESSION 4: DEVELOPING ADAPTATION INSTRUMENTS TO INFORM POLICY AND INVESTMENTS ............... SESSION 5: MULTISCALE GOVERNANCE FOR TRANSFORMATIVE ADAPTATION .......................................... REFLECTIONS AND WRAP-UP ....................................................................................................................... ANNEX 1. LIST OF PARTICIPANTS ................................................................................................................. ANNEX 2. AGENDA ....................................................................................................................................... ANNEX 3. PHOTOS ....................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":" Training on climate change information (capacity development) • Financial resources o Partnerships are needed to coordinate resources (e.g., ways of getting 50 million USD to implement the NDC) • Weather insurance; should benefit majority of the people • Under investment in irrigation: water is highly required to increase productivity • Low access to drought-tolerant varieties ClimBeR can help in: • Training • Financial resources accessibility • Writing bankable proposals • Assisting in providing area-specific weather information • Increasing access to credit, such as for equipment in conservation agriculture Takeaways: • Let's minimize working in silos • Let the young people be at the centre of climate change research; youth need to be involved in agriculture as well not only research. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"• Ministry of Green Economy and Environment (MGEE) is mandated to promote education, research, and awareness in relation to climate change, environment and other meteorological issues • MGEE develops and reviews policies related to climate change issues and environment as well as implements programs in relation to climate change in the country Challenges: Challenges: • Needs • Needs  "},{"text":"and challenges facing the ministry can be categorized in two areas: institutional capacity and human resources.  • Institutional capacity challenges • Institutional capacity challenges o Climate change requires money to implement climate change programming. o Climate change requires money to implement climate change programming. Zambia under the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) program requires Zambia under the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) program requires resources to implement it. Specifically, it requires 50 million USD, that is 35M USD resources to implement it. Specifically, it requires 50 million USD, that is 35M USD from donors and 15 from local sources, but very insufficient resources. from donors and 15 from local sources, but very insufficient resources. o There is inadequate information. MGEE needs evidence-based information from o There is inadequate information. MGEE needs evidence-based information from research to inform interventions; and data must be shared. research to inform interventions; and data must be shared. • Human resource challenges: • Human resource challenges: o Climate change is complex (economic, social, and other aspects of climate science) o Climate change is complex (economic, social, and other aspects of climate science) and wide: there is inadequate capacity in relation to training officers that are and wide: there is inadequate capacity in relation to training officers that are equipped with the required knowledge to effectively complete the interventions. equipped with the required knowledge to effectively complete the interventions. o Lack of skills in communicating climate change-related information. o Lack of skills in communicating climate change-related information. o Lack of skills in developing bankable proposals; capacity to develop proposals is o Lack of skills in developing bankable proposals; capacity to develop proposals is required to apply for finance for implementing climate change related required to apply for finance for implementing climate change related interventions. MGEE needs to have that skill to develop bankable proposals that interventions. MGEE needs to have that skill to develop bankable proposals that can bring change. can bring change.  "},{"text":"Eng. Chewe Chishala, Director of Water Resources Management and Information, Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA)  Mandate: Mandate: • WARMA's mandate is to ensure that there is utilization of water resources in a sustainable • WARMA's mandate is to ensure that there is utilization of water resources in a sustainable manner, as well as to: manner, as well as to: o Allocate water resources for various uses e.g., agriculture, mines, etc. o Allocate water resources for various uses e.g., agriculture, mines, etc. o Conserve and reserve water resources for the future o Conserve and reserve water resources for the future o Develop drought and flood forecasting to advise on mitigation and preparedness o Develop drought and flood forecasting to advise on mitigation and preparedness for other government ministries and farmers for other government ministries and farmers Challenges: Challenges: • Accurate information is critical. There is a need for enhanced systems that can give • Accurate information is critical. There is a need for enhanced systems that can give accurate information, and it's very critical for planning. accurate information, and it's very critical for planning. • Infrastructure is lacking e.g., systems that can measure water. There is a need to invest in • Infrastructure is lacking e.g., systems that can measure water. There is a need to invest in systems that measure, harvest and store water and explore other means such as investing systems that measure, harvest and store water and explore other means such as investing in groundwater utilization. in groundwater utilization. • Capacity building is needed: implementers of systems need to be well capacitated and • Capacity building is needed: implementers of systems need to be well capacitated and able to replicate what they have done elsewhere. able to replicate what they have done elsewhere.  "},{"text":"• Lack of weather insurance. It is not easy for everyone to be insured; only participants of the program can access it, leaving others outside. • Irrigation technology: can increase resilience for farmers, but setting it up requires big • Irrigation technology: can increase resilience for farmers, but setting it up requires big investment. investment. • Promotion of drought tolerant varieties: need to have shorter and more tolerant crop • Promotion of drought tolerant varieties: need to have shorter and more tolerant crop varieties. varieties. • Management of pests and diseases: changes on the ground are many because resources • Management of pests and diseases: changes on the ground are many because resources have been declining over time. have been declining over time. o Training of officers is paramount on pests and diseases: to identify pest and o Training of officers is paramount on pests and diseases: to identify pest and diseases and recommend proper means of control, but this has been limited to few diseases and recommend proper means of control, but this has been limited to few programs due to meager resources. programs due to meager resources. o Misapplication of chemicals; farmers tend to apply them incorrectly which have o Misapplication of chemicals; farmers tend to apply them incorrectly which have issues on the environment. Some chemicals are legally banned but they are still issues on the environment. Some chemicals are legally banned but they are still commonly used. commonly used.  "},{"text":"Question 1: How do you think ClimBeR will contribute to those mentioned issues? Eng. Chewe Chishala, WARMA  • Capacity building • Capacity building • Financial resources • Financial resources Henry Mgomba, MoA Henry Mgomba, MoA • Provide accurate climate area-specific information • Provide accurate climate area-specific information • Access to credit services for farmers. Conservation agriculture equipment is expensive for • Access to credit services for farmers. Conservation agriculture equipment is expensive for farmers. farmers. • Capacity building through farmer field schools in relation to climate related issues. • Capacity building through farmer field schools in relation to climate related issues. • Retool extension officers. • Retool extension officers.  "},{"text":"Mr. Kasanda Bunda, MGEE • Develop partnerships in relation to finance. • Complement government efforts to adapting climate change interventions; to provide evidence-based information, and collaborate in information sharing.  "},{"text":"Question 2: How can ClimBeR help you to support more vulnerable groups (social equity)? Eng. Chewe Chishala, WARMA • The Water Resource Management Act defines the level of priorities, especially with water resource utilisation for domestic, environment and commercial use. It manages the commercial part of water. The Act supports the enhancement of subsistence farming for food security. WARMA's efforts are to ensure that local communities that are practicing subsistence farming have priority for water especially for cattle and domestic water use before giving to those who require water for commercial purposes. This is clearly defined in the law.  "},{"text":" After Kenya and recently Uganda, now they plan to broadcast Shamba Shape Up in the next season in Zambia. The activities in Zambia are supported through Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA), Ukama Ustawi and ClimBeR. He aims to bring that technology to Zambia. He also mentioned the role of ZepRe in Zambia, as the re-insurer for the insurance products under the Zambia Farmer Input Support Program (FISP). Isaac Zyambo, ACRE Africa Insurance Isaac Zyambo, ACRE Africa Insurance  "},{"text":"Mwamakamba, Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network (FANRPAN) Sithembile Mwamakamba of FANRPAN began the discussion noting, \"Climate security is an issue that is gaining momentum.\" Her presentation showed how the climate crisis is a reality that requires urgent action on climate security to create more peaceful societies. Conflicts are exacerbated because of climate-related impacts increasing food insecurity around the world. There is a need to understand how, where, and for whom climate increases the likelihood/or intensity of conflict. There is also a lack of policies and programming that addresses climate and security challenges. To address this, ClimBeR researchers and partners will develop multiple innovations: Climate Security Observatory, Climate Security Index, Climate Security Proofing Guidelines, Climate Security Governance and Policy Toolkit, and Climate Security Investment Plans. Additionally, the research area on climate security will be focused on four key aspects: To design programmes and projects that are aware and sensitive to the role of climate on conflict 3. Policy for climate security: To ensure that climate and security policies acknowledge and address the role of climate on conflict 4. Finance for climate security: To design and prioritise investments that mitigate the impact of climate on conflict  "},{"text":" • A multi-scale governance approach is critical when executing climate change activities and interventions in the country. Mr. Bunda highlighted the importance of national policies, such as the National Policy on Climate Change of 2016 (currently under review). This coordination is achieved through multiple units within the government (e.g., Zambia Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU), Zambia Environmental Management Agency). For instance, DMMU chairs adaptation aspects of climate action and Ministry of Finance and National Planning coordinates resource mobilization. The Technical Committee on Climate Change is a committee of technical experts from multiple sectors to support coordinated governance of climate action. Mr. Bunda closed by saying that the coordinated approach covered by the National Policy on Climate Change allows the implementation and coordination of a multi-level governance system. Mr. Sinyangwe mentioned that the structure of the Ministry of Agriculture is conducive to engaging with local communities. The ministry appoints a specific representative for each one of Zambia's Camp Agriculture Committees (CAC). Ministry of Agriculture also engages farmers through participatory extension approaches (e.g., farmer field schools, farmer champions). This structure ensures the Ministry is listening to concerns at a local level to make decisions at a national level. Mr. Lubaba pointed out the importance of localized climate information. WARMA leads the nation's flood warning systems. Although these systems work well at a national scale, there are limitations when it comes to more detailed information for local communities. ClimBeR could help WARMA localize its early warning system to provide more timely data to communities. He also pointed out the need for improved platforms to disseminate information for early warning. Climate information needs to arrive on time to farmers, otherwise it is useless. Another challenge mentioned by Mr. Musobani was early warning systems run in silos, without coordination or multi-sectoral approaches. This siloed approach is delaying actions to protect the vulnerable from climate shocks. Expertise on different aspects related to climate change, can only be achieved with collaboration among different institutions, each one adding their unique value. Douglas Lubaba, WARMA Douglas Lubaba, WARMA Likezo Musobani, Principal Early Warning and Preparedness Officer, DMMU Likezo Musobani, Principal Early Warning and Preparedness Officer, DMMU • • Joy Sinyangwe, Chief Crops Officer, Ministry of Agriculture Joy Sinyangwe, Chief Crops Officer, Ministry of Agriculture  "},{"text":"• Another challenge is lack of awareness of climate change. Some communities don't believe climate change is happening.• Uptake of climate-resilient practices is also a challenge, as some communities prefer to use indigenous practices.• Key research needs include innovations that improve productivity on farm, adaptation indices, research to support NDC implementation, and tools to analyze climate change in the meteorological department. • Capacity building should be at the center of all activities. This includes capacity building in data analysis and innovation. • One group recommended establishing a single platform for dissemination of climate information. • Ongoing interventions include projects led by SNV and WWF.  "},{"text":" Jon Hellin, ClimBeR Co-Lead • Giriraj Amarnath, ClimBeR Zambia Lead and Governance 4 Resilience Lead Panel discussion and Q&A: Climate Action in Zambia -What are the main needs, bottlenecks and strategic priorities? How can ClimBeR contribute to moving this agenda forward? • Kasanda Bunda, Principal Climate Change Officer Adaptation, Ministry of Green Economy and Environment • Eng. Chewe Chishala, Director of Water Resources Management and Information, WARMA • Henry Mgomba, Acting Chief Agriculture Extension Officer, Agriculture Department, Ministry of Agriculture Synthesis Remarks: • David Chikoye, CGIAR Country Convenor in Zambia, IITA Expected output: National stakeholders identify strategic needs for climate action and adaptation for Zambia that can be addressed by ClimBeR's work 11:00 -11:30 Coffee break -Photos and Media interview Session 2: Reducing risk in production system-linked livelihoods and value chains at scale 11:30 -12:30 The purpose of this session is to identify the need and opportunity to promote climate information services and digital financial services for reducing risk, improving livelihoods of smallholder farmers at scale. Facilitator and introductory presentation: Evan Girvetz, ClimBeR Climate Finance Lead 14:45 -15:45 ClimBeR will present the iFEED (integrated Future Estimator for Emissions and Diets) platform and find synergies and complementarities with participants in support of work with partners to develop adaptation instruments to inform policy and investments. • Christopher Mbewe, Ministry of Agriculture • Noel Simukonde, National Union for Small Scale Farmers in Zambia • Masiye Nawiko, ACF • Sithembile Mwamakamba, FANRPAN Time Date: 17 August 2022 TimeDate: 17 August 2022 9:00 -9:30 Session 1: Linking ClimBeR to Climate Action in Zambia Coffee Break and Registration 9:30 -11:00 Welcoming Remarks, Facilitator • Lizzy Muzungaire, WorldFish Presentation: Presentations: iFEED trailer video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y2dJFN-H68U&t=51s) Policy engagements and iFEED, Christian Chomba (ACF) • Facilitator: Rebecca Sarku (Leeds) Panel discussion: 9:00 -9:30 Session 1: Linking ClimBeR to Climate Action in Zambia Coffee Break and Registration 9:30 -11:00 Welcoming Remarks, Facilitator • Lizzy Muzungaire, WorldFish Presentation: Presentations: iFEED trailer video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y2dJFN-H68U&t=51s) Policy engagements and iFEED, Christian Chomba (ACF) • Facilitator: Rebecca Sarku (Leeds) Panel discussion:  Interactive activity: Interactive activity:  "}],"sieverID":"d506adca-1533-4d0b-92df-b21704ef0f24","abstract":"This work is licensed under Creative Commons License CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.• Priorities for effective climate adaptation include capacity building to access finance from the Green Climate Fund, improved climate information and weather insurance products for farmers.• ClimBeR can contribute to the research agenda by strengthening climate information services, designing improved insurance products for farmers, and building capacity in developing proposals to the Green Climate Fund."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bb9e19c6603e7ddddecabd77103b50e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H045512.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"SCHÖBITZ: Business Model Innovations for Scaling-up FSM Businesses in Low-and Middle-income Countries BUSINESS MODEL INNOVATIONS FOR SCALING-UP FSM BUSINESSES IN LOW-AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":398,"text":"The majority of urban populations in low-and middle-income countries rely on onsite sanitation systems, which produce large amounts of faecal sludge. Collecting and treating faecal sludge could provide a viable business opportunity for private firms or public organizations. Despite the increasing efforts to create sustainable and economically viable businesses in the context of faecal sludge management (FSM), most businesses are still in the mode of securing their existence and maintaining their survival. Success is limited, and businesses have not been able to scale-up. Scaling-up entails reaching a critical mass and being able to cover a certain geographical service area. Scaling-up implies that the business provides reliable emptying services, which are affordable for poor people. An example of scaling-up is that businesses not only provide emptying services, but also faecal sludge treatment and resource recovery. IWMI and Sandec/Eawag are exploring the role of business model innovations in the scaling-up process of faecal sludge management. Our preliminary results suggest two distinct paths on how business model innovations can drive the scaling-up processes: (i) organic business growth; and (ii) replication of micro-enterprises. The first path represents a typical 'organic' business growth path. An 'organic' business growth means that the FSM enterprise attempts to make a stepwise extension of the business. Critical innovations in the business model refer to the tariff system, business planning and execution, and the market development for value added end-products. As an example, we will present Manila Water in the Philippines, and their success in scaling up FSM. The second path refers to a replication of micro-enterprises. Micro-enterprises are small firms, that specialize in FSM. They are operated with few employees (e.g. entrepreneur, helper, driver). Microenterprises compete with each other, which, in turn, helps lead to affordable prices. To remain profitable, the micro-enterprises have to drive business model innovations. Compared to path one, the business model innovations are not driven by a single organization, but rather through collective actions among the micro-enterprises. Path two illustrates \"coopetition\". Coopetition means microenterprises compete to find customers, but cooperate in technology innovation to drive down costs, and innovate treatment technologies and resource recovery. As an example, we will present honeysucker businesses in Bangalore, India. The paper contributes to a better understanding of business challenges in the scaling-up process of FSM. It provides guidance for increasing geographical coverage, enhancing usage of emptying services, and increasing affordability of sanitation services at the household level."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"ca27a45f-1b4d-4223-9752-5854813f6d4b","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0bdedda5f15174d5c954d6f1ac480da0.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bdedda5f15174d5c954d6f1ac480da0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f151c016-febb-4163-a325-b1c8382c9902/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Which animals are affected? Does the disease infect humans?","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"• Fasciolosis affects all grazing animals, dogs, cats and humans but the main hosts are ruminants such as sheep, goats and cattle. It is particularly harmful for sheep."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• People (and dogs and cats) are normally infected by ingesting contaminated plants or drinking contaminated water. Fasciolosis in people is classified as a neglected tropical disease (NTD)."}]},{"head":"How does infection occur?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• Livestock become infected by grazing on contaminated pastures or trough contaminated hay."}]},{"head":"Preventing Fasciolosis (liver fluke)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"What are the symptoms of Fascioliasis?"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"In sheep, the disease can be acute, subacute or chronic."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Acute: sudden death or dullness, anemia, dyspnea, ascites and abdominal pain may be observed."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Subacute: rapid weight loss, anemia, submandibular edema and ascites in some cases."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Chronic: progressive weight loss, anemia, submandibular edema, diarrhea and ascites."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"The disease is caused by the migration of large numbers of immature flukes through the liver, the presence of adult flukes in the bile duct, or both.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• A post-mortem examination will usually give a very clear indication of the presence of liver fluke. Fluke infected liver and distended bile duct Anemic sheep Biruk Alemu, Gezahegn Alemayehu, Hiwot Desta and Barbara Wieland The life cycle How can I prevent the disease? • Animals grazing on communal pastures should be treated at regular intervals following a seasonal calendar. • Deworm all newly introduced animals before allowing them to mix with the remaining flock. • Plan rotational grazing to avoid high risk pastures (presence of snails) and ensure adequate drainage to eliminate the snail. • If possible, delay grazing on flooded pastures until the area has been dry for at least eight weeks. Grass from these pastures can be used as hay if dried properly. • Provide water troughs as an alternative to muddy watering holes. to interrupt the cycle 1 -Deworm your flock with appropriate flukicide 2 -Ensure adequate drainage to eliminate the snail 3 -Keep the stock off the wettest fields at peak risk periods. Delay grazing on flooded pastures. What should I do if I suspect my herd is infected? Use flukicides (Triclabendazole) in the whole herd combined with other preventive measures. • Don't delay treatments until the first symptoms become evident. • Best timing for preventative treatments depend strongly on local climatic and ecologic conditions (usually before the beginning of rainy seasons and at the end of dry seasons). "},{"text":" [email protected] "}],"sieverID":"5c6932bb-be64-4696-b4ef-022d099a98a8","abstract":"• Fasciolosis is caused by the trematode parasite Fasciola hepatica, the common liver fluke, as well as by Fasciola gigantica."}

data/part_3/0c6a26561fff3aad6d24249f948139a1.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c6a26561fff3aad6d24249f948139a1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3f4f7b4-fe33-4f62-a7b2-fa9980d1ca94/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Response of grain legumes to rhizobial inoculation in two savanna soils of Nigeria","keywords":["Rhizobial inoculation","Eutric cambisols","Rhodic nitisols","nodulation","dry matter yield","N uptake","N 2 fixation"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"Continuous depletion of nitrogen (N) from the soil pool by processes such as volatilization, leaching and, perhaps most importantly, removal of nitrogen-containing crop residues from the land results in the decline of soil N reserves in agricultural soils. Replenishment has depended largely on the addition of inorganic fertilizers which rank first among the external inputs to maximize output in agriculture but in turns, contributes substantially to environmental pollution (Bohlool et al., 1992). Prolonged applications of large quantity of these N fertilizers are manifesting themselves in environmental *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +234 803 578 7291. degradation such as leaching of nitrates into the ground water and development of soil acidity (Ridley et al., 2004;Agbenin and Goladi, 1997). On the other hand, most farmers cannot afford these inorganic fertilizers. For example, over 90% of Nigerian farmers use inorganic fertilizers, but in majority of cases they apply only half the amount that is recommended because of the cost involved (Sanginga, 2003). The economic and environmental costs of the heavy or wrong use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture are a global concern and mandates that alternatives be urgently sought."},{"index":2,"size":220,"text":"Integration of legumes in cropping system can serve as an alternative to inorganic N fertilizers. This is achieved via the symbiosis between legumes and rhizobia. This symbiosis alone accounts for more than 20% of global biological nitrogen fixation and has been calculated to contribute 45-50 million tones of fixed N to agriculture each year (Giller, 2001). Biologically fixed nitrogen via rhizobia-legume symbiosis has therefore been recommended for the sustenance of traditional agriculture (Peoples et al., 1995a;Postgate, 1998). In many soils however, the native rhizobia are not adequate in either strain number, quality or effectiveness to enhance biological nitrogen fixation (FAO, 1984). Similarly, legume hosts differ in the range of partners with which they form symbioses. Some legumes nodulate with a restricted number of rhizobial strains or species while others nodulate with a wide range of fast-and slowgrowing rhizobia. In addition, factors such as high soil temperature (Giller, 2001), nutrient deficiencies (Beck and Munns, 1984;Watkin et al., 1997;O'Hara, 2001), low levels of soil moisture (Boonkerd and Weaver, 1982), low pH (<5.5), low clay and organic matter (Dudeja and Khurana, 1989;De Mallaro and Izaguirre, 1994) adversely affect rhizobial survival. This suggests that soils varying in soil fertility status will respond differently to rhizobial inoculation. Therefore research efforts on effective management of soil fertility variability are required to derive maximum benefits from inoculation."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"The aim of this study was to identify rhizobia strains that are capable of establishing symbioses with different grain legumes, examine their contribution to dry matter yield, biological nitrogen fixation and compare the effect of soil type on the grain legumes' response to inoculation."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Greenhouse","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Soil sample collection and preparation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Two bulk soil samples collected from farmer's fields (0-20 cm) at Mokwa (Southern Guinea savanna latitude 9°17΄N and longitude 5°03΄E) and Shanono (Sudan savanna latitude 12°03 N and longitude 7° 9 E) were used for the experiments. According to FAO classification ( 2006), Mokwa soil is classified as Rhodic Nitisols (RN) while Shanono soil is classified as Eutric Cambisols (EC). The soils were air-dried, sieved through 4mm mesh and weighed into PVC (8 liters) tubes according to their bulk densities. 10.5 kg and 9.5 kg soils of RN and EC respectively were used in each tube. Earlier, the weighed soils were put in a polythene bag and appropriately mixed with nutrient solutions. The soils were then poured into the tubes and left for 24 h to equilibrate. The nutrient solutions used were calculated based on the optimum nutrient concentration in the plants' tissue."}]},{"head":"Treatments and experimental design","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The greenhouse experiments included three inoculation trials with soybean (TGx 1448-2E), cowpea (IT90K-277-2) and groundnut (Samnut 21) as test crops. Treatments included: Control (minus strains, minus mineral N), Reference (minus strains, plus mineral N) and five rhizobial strains namely: 1495MAR, IRJ 2180A, Legumefix, Histick and TSBF mixture (TSBF 442 + TSBF 531 + TSBF 560). Rhizobial cells in the strains were determined before use (Table 1). Each trial was laid down in a completely randomized design (CRD) on two soils collected from Shanono (Sudan savanna) and Mokwa (southern Guinea savanna). All the treatments were replicated three times."}]},{"head":"Trial management and data collection","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"All the seeds were surface sterilized before planting by immersing them in 95% ethanol for ten seconds and then in 0.5% sodium hypochlorite solution for three minutes and then followed by rinsing with sterile water six times. Ten seeds of soybean and cowpea while five seeds of groundnut were planted in the PVC (8 liters) tube and were thinned down a week after to two for soybean and cowpea and one for groundnut. The peat based inoculants were coated to seed using gum arabic as a sticking agent while the liquid inoculants were prepared in a yeast mannitol broth and applied to the root zones of the plants ten days after planting. Plants were irrigated once or twice a day depending on the moisture content. Plant growth parameters such as plant height, girth and chlorophyll content were recorded during the conduct of the experiment. Harvesting was done 56 days after planting. The plant shoots were cut off at the base while the roots were carefully washed under running tap. Both nodule number and nodule dry weight were determined. Plant shoots were oven dried and the leaves for soybean and cowpea were separated from the stems and petioles and the latter was ground and kept for ureide determination. The remaining plant tissues together with the leaves were used in plant total N determination. The greenhouse pot trials were conducted over a period of eight weeks."}]},{"head":"Growth chamber","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental set up","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"An experiment was set up in a growth chamber to estimate the total viable rhizobia in the experimental soils using plant infection method (Most Probable Number [MPN] technique). The host plants used were soybean and groundnut which were cultured in \"growth pouches\" (Somasegaran and Hoben, 1985). The seeds were surface sterilized as described above and transferred to a sterile germination tray. The seeds were then pre-germinated inside incubator at 30°C for 72 h. Upon emergence of the radicle, the pregerminated seeds were taken to the growth chamber and transferred aseptically into growth pouches containing 75-100 ml of sterilized nitrogen-free nutrient solution (Woomer et al., 1988). The pouches were put into a racket for support. A week later, a six step five-fold soil dilution series was carried out and inoculated onto the root zone of the cultured plants."}]},{"head":"Preparation of the serial dilution","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"A diluent solution was first prepared by dissolving 0.125 g KH2PO4 and 0.05 g MgSO4.7H2O in 1000 ml of distilled water in order to increase the osmotic potential and stirred with magnetic stirrer. Four hundred milliliter (400 ml) of the diluent was measured out to a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask and 20 ml each to 6 different 125 ml Erlenmeyer flask labeled 5 -1 , 5 -2 , 5 -3 , 5 -4 , 5 -5 and 5 -6 . The diluents were then sterilized by autoclaving at 121°C for 15 min. Hundred gram (100 g) (dry weight) of each of the experimental soils was placed in the 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask and mixed in a rotatory shaker set at high agitation level for 20 to 25 min. Five milliliter (5ml) of the soil aliquot from the 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask was pipetted out and transferred to 125 ml Erlenmeyer flask labeled 5 -1 which is the first dilution step. The dilution continued up to 5 -6 level."}]},{"head":"Inoculation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Serially diluted soils were taken to the growth chamber where the legume host plants were cultured. The plants were inoculated with 1 ml of each level of dilution in four replicates."}]},{"head":"Soil chemical analyses","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Soil pH was determined in water on 1:1 soil/ water ratio (IITA, 1982). Organic Carbon was determined by Chromic acid digestion (Heanes, 1984) and Total N was determined using autoanalyser (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982). Available P was determined using Mehlich-3 extraction method (Mehlich, 1984). Cation Exchange Capacity was determined by saturation with 1 N ammonium acetate and extraction of ammonium with 2 M potassium chloride (TSBF, 1993). Exchangeable acidity was determined by titration method after extraction with 1N KCl (Anderson and Ingram, 1993) while ECEC was determined by summation of exchangeable cations and exchangeable acidity. Soil particle size analysis was done by the hydrometer method (Bouyoucos, 1951)."}]},{"head":"Plant analyses","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":215,"text":"The plant samples were digested in hot sulphuric acid solution with Selenium catalyst using a method adapted from Novozamsky et al. (1983). 0.1 g of plant sample was weighed into digestion tube and 2.5 ml sulphuric acid-selenium mixture was added to the samples and allowed to digest for 1 h at 100°C. The tubes were brought out of the digestion block and allowed to cool for 5 to 10 min. Afterwards, 1 ml and then 2 ml more of hydrogen peroxide were added and the tubes were placed back on the digestion block and the temperature was increased to 300°C and then condensed bottles were used to cover the tubes. The temperature was again increased up to 330°C for 2 h or more until a clear solution was obtained in the tubes. The samples were allowed to cool for 24 h and made up to 50 ml with distilled water. After digestion, the samples were read colorimetrically in an auto-analyzer for determination of N. The Berthalot (indophenol reaction) for the N analysis method was adapted from the method of Searle (1984). The ammonium ion reacts with phenol to form an indophenol blue dye. The blue dye is proportional to the concentration of ammonia in the solution and is measured at a wavelength of 630 nm."}]},{"head":"Ureide analyses","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The %Pfix was measured by determining the concentrations of ureide N, amino N, and NO3-N in shoot/petiole, as described by Peoples et al. (1989). The proportion of ureide-N, which is a reflection of %Pfix, was obtained using the following equations:"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Total N in Sap = (ureide-N + NO3-N + Amino-N) But ureide contains 4N atoms, thus ureide-N is calculated as 4 × ureide molar concentration. Therefore, The corresponding values for %Pfix were then calculated from the following equation."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"(for plants in the vegetative and flowering stages) Where, p is the proportion of plant N from N2 fixation, and x is the relative abundance of ureides in extracts of the shoot axis."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Subsequently, the amount of nitrogen fixed per plant was estimated using the equation proposed by Peoples and Craswell (1992) as follows:"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Amount of N fixed = Total N in Biomass × %Pfix."},{"index":6,"size":43,"text":"It is important to mention that the N2 fixation for groundnut could not be determined by ureide analysis because groundnut is not a ureide exporter. Instead, the N difference method was used whereby maize was used as the reference plant to estimate BNF."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"All the statistical analyses were carried out using SAS 9.2 software (SAS, 2008). Data were subjected Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using Proc GLM. Standard error of difference derived from Least Square means (lsmeans) was used as means separation parameter."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Soil chemical analysis and most probable number","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The physical and chemical analyses of the experimental soils have shown that both soils are sandy loam in texture. EC is slightly acidic while RN is moderately acidic (Table 2). The organic carbon content of both soils . However, Mehlich-3 extractable P and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) were higher in EC than in RN."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"The MPN counts of rhizobia in the experimental soils indicated that the native soybean rhizobia are very low in EC while RN is devoid of the native soybean rhizobia (Table 3). This clearly shows that the experimental soils have little or no N fixing ability for soybean. The cowpea rhizobia on the other hand, occurred relatively in high density in EC whereas appreciable number occurred in RN indicating the effectiveness of the soils in the N fixing potential for cowpea and groundnut."}]},{"head":"Nodulation","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"Soybean planted on EC responded to inoculation more than on RN and difference between them was highly significant (P < 0.01). The percentage contrast between the soils in nodulation was 69.2%; EC being higher (Table 4). Highly significant difference (P<0.0001) between the treatments was also observed in the nodule number. The percentage variations observed between the treatments ranged from 29 to 497% higher in nodule number over the uninoculated control. The soil x treatment interaction was also significant (P<0.05) in the nodule number. 100% of the treatments performed better in EC compared to RN (Figure 1). All the strains recorded a significantly higher nodulation in EC compared to RN. Analysis of nodule dry weight did not show significant variation (p=0.058) between the soils. However, highly significant difference (P<0.0001) was observed between the treatments (Table 4). Percentage contrasts between the strains over uninoculated control range from 33 to 252%. Soil x treatment interaction was not significant."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Nodulation in cowpea did not show significant difference between the two soils (Table 4). Highly significant difference was however observed between treatments (P < 0.0001). The control treatment recorded highest nodule number and significantly differed (P < 0.001) from all other treatments inoculated with rhizobia. Also, highest nodule dry weight was recorded by the control treatment though only significantly higher than where mineral N was applied."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"In groundnut trial, analysis of nodule number has shown that there was significant difference (P<0.01) between the soils (Table 4). EC recoded a higher No significant difference was observed in soil x treatment interaction. Analysis of nodule dry weight revealed that there was significant difference (P<0.01) between the soils (Table 4). EC soil differed significantly higher than RN with magnitude of 13.6%. Also, there was highly significant difference (P<0.0001) among the treatments. Highest nodule dry weight was recorded by MAR 1495. No significant difference in the soil x treatment interaction was observed."}]},{"head":"Dry matter yield","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Significantly different dry matter yield (DMY) was recorded between the soils in soybean and groundnut trials while no significant difference was observed between the soils in the cowpea trial (Table 5). The percentage differences between the soils in terms of DMY are 12% and 14% for soybean and groundnut trials respectively. No significant difference was observed among the treatments for both soybean and groundnut trials."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"In the cowpea trial, control treatment was higher in dry matter yield than most of the treatments though the difference was not statistically significant (Table 5). In all the grain legumes, soil x treatment interaction was not significant."}]},{"head":"Nitrogen uptake","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":252,"text":"The results of N uptake by the grain legumes are shown in Table 6. Response to inoculation was significantly higher in EC than RN in both soybean and groundnut trials. Percentage contrasts between the soils in terms of N uptake were 38  and 20% respectively for soybean and groundnut trials; EC being higher in each case. Response was not observed between the soils in the cowpea trial. A significant difference (P< 0.05) was also observed among the treatments in soybean where strains MAR 1495 and TSBF Mixture were at variance with other strains and control. Percentage differences between these strains over uninoculated control were 41 and 31% for MAR  1495 and TSBF Mixture respectively. Strain MAR 1495 was 5% greater than reference treatment. No significant N uptake was recorded among the treatments of both cowpea and groundnut. While significant soil x treatment interaction was not recorded in cowpea trials, soybean and groundnut trials revealed a significant (P< 0.05) soil x treatment interaction (Table 6). Figure 2   were significantly higher in EC compared to RN. HiStick, control and reference did not show significant difference between the soils. However, these treatments were 5, 18 and 4% respectively better in EC than RN. The soil x treatment interaction in groundnut trials is shown in Figure 3. 71.4% of the treatments have higher N uptake in EC than in RN. Strains MAR 1495, TSBF Mixture, IRJ 2180A and reference treatment were significantly higher in EC compared to RN. These are 53, 52, 39 and 38% respectively."}]},{"head":"Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF)","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"The amount of BNF estimated in the soybean trial showed that there was highly significant difference (p<0.0001) between the two soils. EC differed by 84% over RN (Table 7). There was also a highly significant difference (P< 0.01) among the treatments with strains MAR 1495 and TSBF Mixture fixing a significant amount over the other strains and the uninoculated control. Since the Reference treatment did not nodulate, it was concluded that it had 0% N2 fixation. The soil x treatment interaction was also highly significant (P< 0.01) as shown in Table 7. The interaction table (Table 8) had shown that BNF estimated in EC are 100% better than in RN. All the inoculated treatments of EC varied significantly higher than RN. These represent 187, 88, 79, 46 and 86% increment in the BNF estimated for MAR 1495, TSBF Mixture, Legumefix, HiStick and IRJ 2180A respectively. Even in the uninoculated treatment where no significant difference was observed, EC was 29% higher than RN. Cowpea trial did not show variation or improvement in BNF due to soil type. Among the treatments, the uninoculated control performed better than the inoculated treatments and was significantly higher than strain IRJ 2180A (Table 7). The percentage contrasts of the control over inoculated treatments ranged from 6 to 36%. No soil x treatment interaction was recorded."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Groundnut trials, like in soybean, showed significant difference between the soils. EC was better than RN with magnitude of 53%. There was no significant difference in the treatment effect. However, highly significant soil x treatment interaction was recorded (Table 8). Strains MAR 1495, TSBF Mixture and IRJ 2180A recorded a significantly higher BNF in EC as compared with RN. This was 53, 53 and 40% greater BNF in EC over RN for MAR 1495, TSBF Mixture and IRJ 2180A respectively."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"The soil physical and chemical properties depict the characteristics of typical savanna soils which are very low in organic carbon and total N contents (Jones and Wild, 1975;Okalebo et al., 1993). On the other hand higher Mehlich-3 extractable P of EC falls within the medium range of fertility class while that of RN is very low in   (Enwezor et al., 1990). The ECEC of both soils are generally low (Marx et al., 1999) but EC contains more exchangeable cations than RN which suggests that the fertility status of EC is higher than that of RN. The low MPN results for native soybean rhizobia suggest that inoculant strains may play a larger role in the nodule formation for soybean and consequently N 2 fixation. Conversely, the inoculants strains would have to compete with the native population of rhizobia for nodule occupancy in cowpea and groundnut."},{"index":2,"size":358,"text":"Higher nodulation observed on soybean in EC could be due to lower soil pH of RN. Soil pH has been widely reported to influence nodulation because it can induce deficiency in some essential nutrients such as P and Mo (Giller, 2001). These nutrients also affect the distribution of rhizobia (Peoples et al., 1995b). The consequence could be reduction of number and sizes of nodules (Marschner, 1995). Working with pea, Rice et al. (2000) reported that the nodule number and nodule weight increased with increasing soil pH. Results of nodulation among the treatments indicate that some strains could be of higher quality than others. Some of the rhizobia strains used in the trials did not show significant difference compared with control while others recorded even lower nodulation. It is possible that the rhizobial cells died in storage before they were put to use. This could result due to high temperature normally experienced in the tropics. Boonkerd (1991) reported that temperature was critical to the survival of soybean rhizobia in peat with substantial number at 10°C than at 30°C. The peat inoculants used in these trials might have been in storage for months and in an erratic temperature conditions which could have affected the bacterial number and hence viability. The success of commercial inoculants is dependent on the number of viable bacteria available to participate in the infection process at the point of use (Catroux et al., 2001). In addition, Hiltbold et al. (1980) reported that nodulation of soybean was directly related to number of rhizobia with no nodulation by the product supplying <10 3 rhizobia/seed and abundant by about 10 5 to 10 6 rhizobia/seed. This corroborates our findings which show higher nodule number and weight in MAR 1495 and TSBF Mixture which have greater than 10 8 cells ml -1 of inoculants applied than other strains with lower concentrations. Treatment where 91 ppm pot -1 urea-N (reference) was applied suppressed nodulation completely. Availability of mineral N decreases or impedes nodulation of legumes (Abaidoo et al., 1990). In particular, Moawad and Shamseldin (2010) reported that high N dose of 80 ppm inhibited nitrogenase enzyme and nodulation in common bean."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"While some of the inoculants increased nodulation, dry matter yield was not significant in all the grain legumes. Low soil N (0.35 g kg-1 ) and other nutrients in the experimental soils which were replenished with the application of mineral N contributed to the insignificant increase in biomass yield among the grain legume. Application of mineral N and P has been reported to increase shoot dry matter yield of grain legumes (Jemo et al., 2006;Shamseldin and Moawad, 2007). Conversely, it was interesting to observe that some of the strains had a great influence on groundnut and soybean N uptake. Significantly higher plant N uptake in EC than RN could be due to its higher available soil P which has been found to influence N uptake (Yusuf et al., 2005)."},{"index":4,"size":135,"text":"The response of cowpea to inoculation was almost insignificant in all the parameters measured. In fact, nodulation and N uptake were significantly higher in the control and the same trend was observed with dry matter yield and BNF though the difference was not significant compared to other treatments. This could be due to competition between indigenous population and the inoculants which may culminate in antagonism. In other words, during their interaction, a phenomenon of 'nodule blocking' has occurred. Winarno and Lie (1979) demonstrated that a strain that was unable to nodulate a particular cultivar pea was shown to suppress nodulation completely by otherwise nodulation incompetent strain. Thus, even 'non-symbiotic' strains of rhizobia that may be abundant in the soil (Segovia et al., 1991) may be able to exact a very specific effect on competitive outcome."},{"index":5,"size":178,"text":"Profuse literatures have shown that cowpea seldom responds to inoculation. The crop is a very promiscuous legume host (Ahmad et al., 1981;Ranga Rao et al., 1985) and Bradyrhizobium strains with which it can form effective nodules are normally present. Thus, cowpea and some other tropical legume have rarely been found to respond to inoculation unless they are grown in a soil Aliyu et al. 1341 where the conditions are not conducive for the survival of rhizobia (Giller, 2001). In soils where naturalized rhizobial populations are high (>10 3 Rhizobium bacteria g/m soil), introduction of new strains can be difficult and often unsuccessful (Thies et al., 1991;Brockwell et al., 1995). These reports strongly confirmed the fact that occurrence of high rhizobial population density in the experimental soils (Table 3) especially in EC was responsible for the failure of cowpea to respond to inoculation. Low soil pH and other nutrient status of the RN could have aggravated the situation. Lack of response to rhizobial inoculation has been attributed to low soil pH (Vinuesa et al., 2003;Shamseldin and Werner;2004, 2005;Shamseldin, 2007)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"Our study shows that soils varying in fertility status will respond differently to rhizobial inoculation. Research efforts on effective management of soil fertility variability are therefore required to derive maximum benefits from inoculation. Of all the strains evaluated, MAR 1495 and TSBF Mixture ranked highest thus could be further evaluated on a wider range of soils for incorporation into the existing cropping system. Future studies should also focus on quality assessment of both laboratory and commercial inoculants, not relying solely on manufacturers' claims in order to avoid the use of sub standard products. There is also the need to intensify efforts on identifying elite strains of rhizobia that would perform better than ineffective native population and under adverse soil conditions such as low pH."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Interaction between soil type and rhizobial inoculants on nodulation in soybean trials. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Interaction between soil type and rhizobial inoculants on N uptake in soybean trials. "},{"text":" represents the soil x treatment interaction chart. It shows that the treatment performed better in EC compared RN. Strains MAR 1495, TSBF Mixture, Legume fix and IRJ 2180A "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Interaction between soil type and rhizobial inoculants on N uptake in groundnut trials. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Rhizobial cells in the strains used. Strain CFU/ml Cells/ml Formulation StrainCFU/mlCells/mlFormulation MAR 1495 >103 >10 9 Liquid MAR 1495>103>10 9Liquid TSBF Mixture 332 3.32 x 10 8 Liquid TSBF Mixture3323.32 x 10 8Liquid Legumefix 196 1.96 x 10 7 Peat Legumefix1961.96 x 10 7Peat HiStick 4 4.00 x 10 5 Peat HiStick44.00 x 10 5Peat IRJ 2180A 2 20 Liquid IRJ 2180A220Liquid  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Physicochemical analyses of the experimental soils. Property Unit  EC Test value RN PropertyUnitECTest valueRN pH (H2O)   6.30  5.75 pH (H2O)6.305.75 Organic C g/kg  4.15  5.70 Organic Cg/kg4.155.70 Total N g/kg  0.35  0.37 Total Ng/kg0.350.37 Mehlich-3 P mg/kg 14.03  2.94 Mehlich-3 Pmg/kg14.032.94 Exchangeable Cations Cmol (+) /kg   Exchangeable CationsCmol(+) /kg Ca   2.77  0.94 Ca2.770.94 Mg   1.18  0.4 Mg1.180.4 K   0.38  0.17 K0.380.17 Na   0.83  0.86 Na0.830.86 Exchangeable Acidity Cmol (+) /kg 0.08  0.08 Exchangeable AcidityCmol (+) /kg0.080.08 ECEC Cmol (+) /kg 5.23  2.44 ECECCmol (+) /kg5.232.44 Sand %  75  72 Sand%7572 Silt %  12  15 Silt%1215 Clay %  14  14 Clay%1414 Textural Class   Sandy loam Sandy loam Textural ClassSandy loamSandy loam  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Rhizobial counts in the experimental soils. Host Specie Microsymbiont Counts (cells/g) EC RN Host SpecieMicrosymbiontCounts (cells/g) ECRN Glycine max B. japonicum 1.10 x 10 2  0 Glycine maxB. japonicum1.10 x 10 20 Arachis hypogeae Bradyrhizobium sp 2.83 x 10 3 2.0 x 10 2 Arachis hypogeaeBradyrhizobium sp2.83 x 10 32.0 x 102 is very low. Also, the total N contents are much lower than critical level of 1.5 g kg -1    is very low. Also, the total N contents are much lower than critical level of 1.5 g kg -1  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Response of grain legumes to nodulation following inoculation. Treatment Nodule Soybean Cowpea Groundnut TreatmentNoduleSoybeanCowpeaGroundnut  "},{"text":"number Nod Dry weight (mg/plant) Nodule number Nodule Dry weight (mg/plant) Nodule number Nodule Dry weight (mg/plant)  Soil       Soil EC 36.27 153 44.06 90 214.13 341 EC36.2715344.0690214.13341 RN 21.44 110 31.73 90 169.52 300 RN21.4411031.7390169.52300 Mean 28.86 131.5 37.9 90 191.82 320 Mean28.86131.537.990191.82320 SED 0.08 0.02 7.81 20 20.19 30 SED0.080.027.812020.1930 Inoculants       Inoculants MAR 1495 83.58 230 44.25 111 244.67 470 MAR 149583.5823044.25111244.67470 TSBF Mixture 64.83 280 49.25 102 274.5 350 TSBF Mixture64.8328049.25102274.5350 Legumefix 16.67 150 48.58 118 225.17 410 Legumefix16.6715048.58118225.17410 HiStick 33.67 220 43.58 113 212.17 430 HiStick33.6722043.58113212.17430 IRJ 2180A 18.08 110 35.83 84 239.67 320 IRJ 2180A18.0811035.8384239.67320 Control 14 80 81.47 172 209.67 370 Control148081.47172209.67370 Reference 0 0 0.25 8 43.33 60 Reference000.25843.3360 Mean 28.86 131.5 37.9 90 191.82 320 Mean28.86131.537.990191.82320 SED 0.15 0.04 15.51 44 40.37 60 SED0.150.0415.514440.3760 Soil x Inoculant       Soil x Inoculant Significance ** NS NS NS NS NS Significance**NSNSNSNSNS significant value than RN (respectively, 214.13     significant value than RN (respectively, 214.13 and 169.52). The percentage contrast is 26.3%     and 169.52). The percentage contrast is 26.3% with EC being higher. Highly significant difference     with EC being higher. Highly significant difference (P<0.0001) was also observed among the     (P<0.0001) was also observed among the treatments. Highest nodule number was recorded     treatments. Highest nodule number was recorded by the treatment TSBF Mixture followed by MAR     by the treatment TSBF Mixture followed by MAR 1495. Significant difference was not recorded     1495. Significant difference was not recorded among the inoculated and uninoculated control.     among the inoculated and uninoculated control.  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Dry matter yield (g plant -1 ) in grain legumes following inoculation. Treatment Soybean Cowpea Groundnut TreatmentSoybeanCowpeaGroundnut Soil    Soil EC 9.26 7.5 17.67 EC9.267.517.67 RN 8.27 6.65 15.55 RN8.276.6515.55 Mean 8.77 7.08 16.68 Mean8.777.0816.68 SED 0.35 0.72 0.89 SED0.350.720.89 Inoculants    Inoculants MAR 1495 8.41 7.1 17.68 MAR 14958.417.117.68 TSBF Mixture 8.55 7.87 16.38 TSBF Mixture8.557.8716.38 Legumefix 8.15 5.64 17.412 Legumefix8.155.6417.412 HiStick 8.26 7.71 16.82 HiStick8.267.7116.82 IRJ 2180A 8.91 6.03 15.22 IRJ 2180A8.916.0315.22 Control 9.25 7.8 16.18 Control9.257.816.18 Reference 9.82 7.38 16.57 Reference9.827.3816.57 Mean 9.08 7.08 16.68 Mean9.087.0816.68 SED 0.65 5.67 1.67 SED0.655.671.67 Soil x Inoculant    Soil x Inoculant Significance NS NS NS SignificanceNSNSNS NS = Not significant.    NS = Not significant.  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Plant N uptake (mg N plant -1 ) in grain legume following inoculation: Treatment Soybean Cowpea Groundnut TreatmentSoybeanCowpeaGroundnut Soil    Soil EC 280.75 209.12 633.02 EC280.75209.12633.02 RN 203.87 221.08 526.88 RN203.87221.08526.88 Mean 242.31 215.1 579.95 Mean242.31215.1579.95 SED 16.59 20.57 30.96 SED16.5920.5730.96 Inoculants    Inoculants MAR 1495 297.25 189.3 611.89 MAR 1495297.25189.3611.89 TSBF Mixture 275.95 194.54 579.67 TSBF Mixture275.95194.54579.67 Legumefix 222.19 164.5 621.62 Legumefix222.19164.5621.62 HiStick 197.79 234.33 575.33 HiStick197.79234.33575.33 IRJ 2180A 209.68 192.44 515.01 IRJ 2180A209.68192.44515.01 Control 210.17 269.76 561.72 Control210.17269.76561.72 Reference 283.14 260.81 594.38 Reference283.14260.81594.38 Mean 242.31 215.1 30.96 Mean242.31215.130.96 SED 31.04 37.18 187.7 SED31.0437.18187.7 Soil x Inoculant    Soil x Inoculant Significance * NS * Significance*NS*  "},{"text":"Table 7 . N2 fixation (mg N plant -1 ) in grain legume following inoculation: Treatment Soybean Cowpea Groundnut TreatmentSoybeanCowpeaGroundnut Soil    Soil EC 193.49 168.02 546.61 EC193.49168.02546.61 RN 105.25 169.14 466.9 RN105.25169.14466.9 Mean 149.37 168.58 506.76 Mean149.37168.58506.76 SED 9.02 19.67 22.44 SED9.0219.6722.44 Inoculants    Inoculants MAR 1495 189.46 173.09 535.61 MAR 1495189.46173.09535.61 TSBF Mixture 183.11 170.14 508.77 TSBF Mixture183.11170.14508.77 Legumefix 128.14 148.12 548.29 Legumefix128.14148.12548.29 HiStick 130.24 185.18 504.65 HiStick130.24185.18504.65 IRJ 2180A 132.8 130.33 450.55 IRJ 2180A132.8130.33450.55 Control 132.5 204.63 492.66 Control132.5204.63492.66 Mean 149.37 168.58 506.76 Mean149.37168.58506.76 SED 15.62 33.38 38.87 SED15.6233.3838.87 Soil x Inoculant    Soil x Inoculant Significance ** NS ** Significance**NS** NS = Not significant; ** Significant at P <. 01.   NS = Not significant; ** Significant at P <. 01.  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Interaction between soil type and rhizobial inoculants on BNF (mg N plant -1 ) in soybean and groundnut trials. Treatment EC Soybean RN EC Groundnut RN TreatmentECSoybeanRNECGroundnutRN MAR 1495 280.95  97.97 648.04 423.19 MAR 1495280.9597.97648.04423.19 TSBF Mixture 239.17  127.06 614.76 402.77 TSBF Mixture239.17127.06614.76402.77 Legumefix 164.39  91.88 549.69  546.9 Legumefix164.3991.88549.69546.9 HiStick 154.5  105.97 479.53 529.78 HiStick154.5105.97479.53529.78 IRJ 2180A 172.61  92.98 525.86 375.24 IRJ 2180A172.6192.98525.86375.24 Control 149.33  115.67 461.8 523.51 Control149.33115.67461.8523.51 Mean 193.49  105.26 546.61  466.9 Mean193.49105.26546.61466.9 SED  22.09   54.97  SED22.0954.97 SED = Standard error of difference of Means     SED = Standard error of difference of Means fertility       fertility  "}],"sieverID":"3fcd8e71-e0ec-463c-a936-d1d46d0bf79d","abstract":"Three inoculation trials with soybean, cowpea and groundnut were conducted on Eutric Cambisols (EC) and Rhodic Nitisols (RN) in a greenhouse. Five rhizobial inoculants: MAR 1495, TSBF Mixture, Legumefix, HiStick and IRJ 2180A were tested on each crop to determine their response to soil type and ability to form symbiotic relationship with the crops. Generally, response to inoculation was found to be significantly higher (P < 0.05) in EC than RN. In soybean and groundnut trials, highest nodulation in both soils was recorded by strain MAR 1495 followed by TSBF Mixture and these were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than other inoculants and control. A similar trend, though only in EC, was observed in N uptake and in nitrogen fixation but no significant difference was observed in dry matter yield. Cowpea trials did not show response to inoculation nor was there difference between the soils. Instead, control treatment surpassed all the inoculated treatments in nodulation at P < 0.05. Nitrogen uptake and N 2 fixation of control also surpassed those of inoculated treatments. Rhizobia strains MAR 1495 and TSBF Mixture showed similar ability to improve the productivity of soybean and groundnut thus can be used as common inoculants for the two crops."}

data/part_3/0cc995b445d55a0161dc86dd8e02a69d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cc995b445d55a0161dc86dd8e02a69d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4947f05c-9ebe-4d8e-9ca8-d17b3e13708d/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Determining the Pan-African Sweetpotato virome: Understanding Virus Diversity, Distribution and Evolution and their Impacts on Sweetpotato production in Africa * a * b c","keywords":["Pan-African sweetpotato virome","virus diversity","distribution","evolution","impacts","sweetpotato production"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"ff4168c6-e669-4a64-9dc0-080a39609321","abstract":"Food security remains a huge challenge for the millions of Africans dependent on agriculture for their subsistence. A low-level agricultural productivity and a high percentage of poor and undernourished people are common in Africa, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Sweetpotato, Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (Family Convolvulaceae), is among the most important food crops in the world and an extremely important food crop for subsistence farmers in SSA. It is grown throughout the African continent and currently around 34.5% of global sweetpotato area is in Africa. SSA produces approximately 7 million tons of sweetpotato annually, only about 5% of global production. One major limitation in sweetpotato production is cultivar decline, mostly due to the cumulative effect of virus infection on this vegetatively propagated crop. Thus, viral diseases are considered a major limiting factor in sweetpotato production worldwide, and particularly in SSA. However, there is a widespread lack of basic information and understanding of virus populations throughout Africa, even though such basic information is required to manage the spread and impact of these viral diseases. This project will focus on evaluating a novel approach, deep sequencing and assembly of small RNAs from field-grown sweetpotato samples collected throughout Africa, to systematically and efficiently identify virus genome. A Pan-African sweetpotato virome will be established, which will provide the scientific community and government unprecedented possibilities to understand sweetpotato virus distribution in Africa, guide phytosanitory requirements, predict risks of future epidemics, and suggest regional disease management strategies. In West-Africa the survey is expanded to include Cassava, Banana, Yams and Potato."}

data/part_3/0d45c0326d5ea092cac198edac29c704.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d45c0326d5ea092cac198edac29c704","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/49987a44-874e-448c-a027-84f4329bc619/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"AJUSTE DE LAS CONDICIONES DE CRIOCONSERVACIÓN CON MATERIALES DE YUCA RECALCITRANTES A LA CONGELACIÓN","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"1. La evaluación inicial de los puntos críticos de la metodología de Encapsulación-Deshidratación muestra que las fases de pretratamiento y secado en el proceso afectan la respuesta de los ápices disminuyendo su capacidad de rebrote.   2. La respuesta en porcentaje de brotes, a menores tiempos de secado en sílica gel (10,16,20 y 24h), es baja en todos los tratamientos después del congelamiento."}]},{"head":"Se plantea como alternativa, la producción de ápices iniciales mediante el cultivo de nudos durante tiempos cortos (2-3 semanas) y el uso de la técnica de Encapsulación-Vitrificación (ensayos preliminares con ápices sin congelar).","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"El análisis estadístico mostró una interacción significativa entre los tratamientos y los genotipos para las dos variables. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" pre-crecidos durante 5 días presentaron mayor capacidad para resistir los procesos de crioconservación. Sin embargo, hacen menos viable el proceso de almacenamiento a gran escala. "},{"text":" adición de ABA al medio de pre-crecimiento no mejora significativamente la respuesta de los ápices congelados. Es posible que puntualice su efecto bajo otras condiciones. "},{"text":" El análisis estadístico mostró una interacción significativa entre los tratamientos y los genotipos para la variable % de Brotes. "},{"text":"Valores con diferente letra indica diferencias significativas (nivel de significancia α=0.05) ± SE (desviación estándar).   Días de Precrecimiento % Formación de brotes  Días de Precrecimiento% Formación de brotes  5 días  90,66±3,66a  5 días90,66±3,66a  4 días  68,57±9,31b  4 días68,57±9,31b  3 días  64,99 ±9,96b  3 días64,99 ±9,96b Genotipo 0.1 µM 1 µM 5 µM 10 µM Control Genotipo0.1 µM1 µM5 µM10 µMControl MBol3 0 25 0 6.67 27.14 MBol302506.6727.14 MCol1468 6.25 38.33 42 20 37.08 MCol14686.2538.33422037.08 MCol1939 40 0 4.16 0 5 MCol19394004.1605 MEcu165 20.83 12.5 5 9.17  MEcu16520.8312.559.17  "},{"text":"El aumento del tiempo de tratamiento con sacarosa (4 días) a diferentes tiempos de secado (6h, 20h y 24h), causa efectos letales sobre los ápices congelados.  Genotipo 2 Semanas 3 Semanas 4 Semanas 5 Semanas Genotipo2 Semanas3 Semanas4 Semanas5 Semanas MCOL1939 17,78% 16,70% 0,00% 21,85% MCOL193917,78%16,70%0,00%21,85% MECU165 30,00% 0,00% 0,00% 3,33% MECU16530,00%0,00%0,00%3,33% MCOL1468 37,50% 0,00%  0,00% MCOL146837,50%0,00%0,00% MBOL3 38,10% 73,90% 0,00% 31,11% MBOL338,10%73,90%0,00%31,11% MCOL1438 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% MCOL14380,00%0,00%0,00%0,00% 30 minutos % V % B 100a 95ab 82.5ab % V % B 82.5ab 67.5ab 45 minutos % V % B 67.5ad 71.67ab 60 minutos % V % B 56.67be 45bd 30cf 45bd 15ef 60ac 25cf 85ab 25ef 100a 100a 100a 100a 85ab 80ac 59ac 59ae 95a 75ad 100a 95ab 95ª 95ab 85ab 60ae 3. 15 minutos MBol3 MCol1468 MCol1939 MEcu165 MPer205 20cd 20ef 15cd 15ef 5d 5f 20cd 20ef 30 minutos % V % B 100a 95ab 82.5ab % V % B 82.5ab 67.5ab 45 minutos % V % B 67.5ad 71.67ab 60 minutos % V % B 56.67be 45bd 30cf 45bd 15ef 60ac 25cf 85ab 25ef 100a 100a 100a 100a 85ab 80ac 59ac 59ae 95a 75ad 100a 95ab 95ª 95ab 85ab 60ae 3. 15 minutos MBol3 MCol1468 MCol1939 MEcu165 MPer205 20cd 20ef 15cd 15ef 5d 5f 20cd 20ef  "},{"text":"Encapsulación Cargado Pretratamiento Congelación Descongelación Precrecimiento Recuperación PVS   "}],"sieverID":"2562a490-662a-4ba2-9abf-0ed32003d6c7","abstract":"Conservar los recursos genéticos de una especie cultivada, es de vital importancia ya que evita pérdidas de biodiversidad y facilita su acceso y uso en la investigación y en la agricultura. En el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical-CIAT se desarrolló un protocolo de crioconservación para establecer un banco básico de la colección mundial de yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz).Las fases de pre-tratamiento y secado del proceso de crioconservación afectan drásticamente la respuesta después de la congelación. Para resolver estas diferencias se plantearon algunos ajustes al proceso de Encapsulación-Deshidratación usando materiales considerados recalcitrantes a la congelación (con muy baja o nula respuesta). En algunos casos, esto generó un aumento en los porcentajes de recuperación de plantas después de la congelación."}

data/part_3/0d48989b1fd39917e920eeed46d8643f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d48989b1fd39917e920eeed46d8643f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/19ed0497-2994-45e6-9918-cc472fb04030/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"415. Testing phenotypes for degree of resilience using fluctuations in milk yield of dairy cows in sub-Saharan Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":275,"text":"An animal's degree of resilience to a disturbance is its capacity to be minimally affected by the perturbation or rapidly return to the state pertained before exposure to the disturbance. The performance of the resilient animal need not be the same as without a disturbance, but rather, the negative change in its performance should be relatively lower compared to non-resilient individuals performing in the same conditions. Dairy production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is still low compared to the demand. As a result, pressure for genetic improvement for milk production is still accumulating. However, in the wake of climate change, general environmental changes and their impact, the focus of dairy production must shift from increased production to efficiency and sustainability of milk production. Sustainable dairy production practices that ensure food security to the growing population and overcome the negative impacts of climate change on dairy cattle need to be adopted. SSA is confronted with environmental disturbances, most of which are causes of nature that cannot be modified in the favor of the cattle through good husbandry practices. Therefore, one robust way into this is through breeding for resilience in dairy cattle to enhance their ability to withstand environmental stressors and maintain optimal production levels. Deviations from the normal performance has been utilized to derive indicators that can quantify the general resilience of the animals (Berghof, et al., 2019;Elgersma et al., 2018;Poppe et al., 2020). However, these methods have so far not been applied in SSA. The current study aimed to test two indicators of resilience based on deviation in milk yield and to assess the effect of genotype, agroecological zone and their interaction on these indicators."}]},{"head":"Materials & methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Data used in this study came from dairy cows from three different herds, each representing one of the following agroecological zones of Kenya: semi-arid arable (SAA), semi-arid pasture-based (SAP), and semi-humid (SH). All the herds are kept under extensive dairy production system with occasional supplementation feeding for the lactating cows. Rotational cross breeding is adopted for two herds performing in the semi-arid regions. The herd in semi-humid zone is made up of a stable intermating population of composite cattle originating from crossbred parents."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"Data. The original data set for this analysis contained 2,640 lactations with 62,321 bi-monthly milk yield records of 1,490 multibreed cows from three large-scale dairy farms in Kenya born between January 2000 to December 2017. Data for the first parity were extracted and assessed for quality before the analysis. Cows that had at least two breed types in their genetic make-up based on the information provided by the farmers were used. All cows were required to have 5 or more milk records per lactation and all records were used up to 400 days after calving. To correct for season and year of calving, contemporary grouping of year-season (YS) was done with 17 possible years of calving (2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019) and 4 possible seasons. YS groups with less than 5 lactations were excluded from the analysis. After editing the data, 14,278 milk yield records from 745 cows were used for the analysis. These animals were grouped into two genotypic classes based on the proportion of exotic genetics in their breed composition, genotypic class 1 (GC1) (≤50% exotic, n=325) and GC2 (>50% exotic, n=420)."},{"index":3,"size":149,"text":"Defining resilience indicators based on fluctuations in milk. The deviations in daily milk yield from the mean production was used to define two resilience indicators: log-transformed variance of deviation (LnVar) and skewness of deviations (Skew). LnVar indicates the impact of the disturbance to the performance of an individual animal. Because resilient animals are less affected by the disturbances in their environments, they have a smaller range of deviation from their average performance. Therefore, they have low variance of deviation. Skew indicates the direction of the deviation and captures the level of severity of the disturbance experienced by an individual animal. Resilient animals have skewness around zero because they have almost equal numbers of negative and positive deviations. The less resilient animals are more influenced by disturbances and thus have more negative than positive deviations which leads to a negative skewness. The LnVar of j th individual was calculated as:"},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"where x ij is deviation i of the j th individual, \uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 j is the mean of deviations of the j th individual, and n j is the number of deviation observations of the j th individual. The skewness of deviation j th individual was calculated as:"},{"index":5,"size":147,"text":"where n j is the number of deviation observations of the j th individual, \uD835\uDC65 ij is deviation i of the j th individual, ‾ \uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 j is the mean of deviations of the j th individual, and s j is the variance of deviations of the j th individual. Data analyses. The effects of agroecological zone (environment) and genotype as well as the existence of their interaction in the two resilience indicators was analyzed. A multiple linear regression model with explanatory variables of genotypic class, agroecological zone, genotype by agroecological zone interaction, year-season of calving, day in milk (DIM) class of first day in lactation, DIM class of last day in lactation, age of calving, and squared term of age of calving was used. Analysis of variance was performed prior to fitting linear models to determine the significant factors of variation. The following model was fitted:"},{"index":6,"size":111,"text":"where RI ijklmn is the resilience indicator (LnVar and Skew) measurement for n th animal, U corresponds to the population mean, G i is the i th genotypic class (i = 1-2), E j is the j th agroecological zone (j=1-3), G i × E j is the interaction between i th genotypic class and j th agroecological zone, YSC k is the k th year-season of calving (k=1-53), dim.f l and dim.l l are the first and the last DIM classes, respectively of the l th DIM (l=1-10), Age m and \uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC34 \uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC5A 2 represent m th age and its squared term, respectively (m=22-60) e ijklmn is the residual error."},{"index":7,"size":66,"text":"of deviation did not detect differences in resilience between the two genotypic classes. The only significant difference in skew was between the animals performing in SAA and those in SH where the animals in former environment had a positive and a closer to zero Skew signifying more degree of resilience than their counterparts (P<0.01). Genotype by environment (G×E) interaction was not significant for both resilience indicators."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":247,"text":"This study used deviations in milk yield to test two indicators of resilience for cows performing in the tropical environment of sub-Saharan Africa. The LnVar was stronger in showing resilience of the animals than the skew based on its ability to discriminate degree of resilience of cows more efficiently. Similar findings were reported in past studies (Berghof et al., 2019;Poppe et al., 2020). Animals with lower exotic genetic proportion had higher degree of resilience possibly due to the fact that they have a high proportion of Zebu genes in their genetic make-up which could have conferred the adaptation to the local production environments. The environment also affected the degree of resilience of the animals. In particular, animals performing in semi-arid zones, which are known to have many disturbances related to high temperatures and long periods of dry seasons, had better resilience capacity than those in semi-humid zone. Constant exposure of the animals to the disturbances in semi-arid zones could have activated their innate regulatory pathways and bettered their chances to survive environmental adversities in the long run (Colditz and Hine 2016). G×E interaction was not significant for both resilience indicators. This implies that a resilient genotype is capable of performing in a wide range of environments without its resilience capacity being altered. This study has shown the possibility of utilizing the deviations in milk yield to quantify general resilience of dairy cows performing in the tropical environment of SSA, where climate change is already affecting dairy production."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"d4d8347a-7554-4315-a03a-17d7e44e5ee1","abstract":"Despite the relevance of dairy production in the fight against food insecurity and unemployment in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), negative effects of climate change and general changes in the production environment pose huge challenges to its profitability. Thus, there is a need to improve resilience capacity of dairy animals to adapt to this changing environment. In the current study, we tested two indicators of resilience, logtransformed variance (LnVar) and Skewness (Skew) of deviation, based on fluctuations in animals' milk yield. Further, we assessed the effects of genotype, agroecological zone, and genotype by agroecological zone (G×E) interaction for these phenotypes. Cows with less than 50% of exotic genetics had higher degree of resilience (P<0.05). Cows performing in semi-arid zones had higher resilience capacity compared to those in semi-humid environment (P<0.05). G×E did not significantly influence both indicators. The results provide valuable information that would inform dairy cattle improvement initiatives in SSA."}

data/part_3/0d650eccfaef8c7b599abf514e60928b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d650eccfaef8c7b599abf514e60928b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bbfdfd7c-57fd-4346-bed9-fd3dd50ae5ae/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"2. Strains tested: xx 3. What is not known: performance; 4. Purpose of the experiment: test and scale up; 5. Result benefits the whole community; to take measurements consistently: cooperate with enumerators; 2. Repeating on several farms: reliable evidence; 3. Uniformity of management across households within village: similarity of husbandry practices; 4. Safeguarding animals: entry/exit of chicken, ownership, compensation, inputs, joining and leaving; 5. Need for random allocation of strains to HH: scaling up in the village, the district and beyond; Details needed 1. Farmer selection criteria: baselined HH, experience, consent, shelter, supplement, sharing risks 2. Participation in tailor made vaccination programme and hygienic practices (all strains); 3. Who does what? (enumerators, experts, researchers, supervisors, farmers groups, the IP) Points for the community level IP Experimental design for on-farm test "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"SNZ: 1. Lake 2. S. Highland 3. Central 4. Eastern 5. Southern SNZ: 1. Amhara 2. Oromia 3. Southern 4. Tigray 5. Addis Ababa SNZ: 1. Humid Forest 2. Derived Savanna 3. Guinea Savanna 4. Sudan Savanna 5. Mid alititude Tanzania Nigeria Ethiopia  Strains to be tested Sampling for the on-farm test On-farm test locations Components of the on-farm test Strains to be tested Sampling for the on-farm test On-farm test locations Components of the on-farm test Protocol development Design Importation, • Koekoek • Kuroiler • Sasso • Embrapa 051 Sub-national Zone (SNZ) -5 per country Strains hatching, Sub-national Zone (SNZ) delivering, conservation Protocol developmentDesignImportation, • Koekoek • Kuroiler • Sasso • Embrapa 051 Sub-national Zone (SNZ) -5 per country Strains hatching, Sub-national Zone (SNZ) delivering, conservation      • Fayoumi??? • Fayoumi???   District District   • Horro + XX ecotypes District District• Horro + XX ecotypes Engagement    in the sites Engagementin the sites • Kuroiler IP/gender, likability, feedback, public-private, scaling-up Village Village -4 per SNZ Data • Kuroiler Training, measurement, access, analysis, reporting, inform long-term genetic gains • Kuroiler IP/gender, likability, feedback, public-private, scaling-upVillage Village-4 per SNZData• Kuroiler Training, measurement, access, analysis, reporting, inform long-term genetic gains • Koekoek Heat, vaccination,     • Koekoek • Koekoek Heat, vaccination,• Koekoek • Embrapa 051 • Shika Brown supplementation, housing • Sasso -4 introduced + 1 local strain • Embrapa 051 -3 per district • Embrapa 051 • Shika Brown supplementation, housing• Sasso -4 introduced + 1 local strain • Embrapa 051 -3 per district • FUNAB Alpha Management   • Fayoumi??? • FUNAB AlphaManagement• Fayoumi??? • Fulani + XX Household Household    • Australorp + XX • Fulani + XX Household Household• Australorp + XX ecotypes in the sites    ecotypes in the sites ecotypes in the sitesecotypes in the sites -40 HH per village (8 HH per strain) -40 HH per village (8 HH per strain)  "}],"sieverID":"6e0c45f2-3a5e-4546-940e-3444d27cf8a1","abstract":""}