[
  "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nChemical Reactions and Equations\nIntroduction to Chemical Reactions and Equations\nPhysical and chemical changes\nChemical change - one or more new substances with new physical and chemical properties\nare formed.\nExample: Fe(s)\u00a0 + \u00a0CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\nHere, when copper sulphate reacts with iron, two new substances, i.e., ferrous sulphate and\ncopper are formed.\nPhysical change - change in colour or state occurs but no new substance is formed.\nExample: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though\nsteam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react\nthe same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid\nto vapour).",
  "Example: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though\nsteam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react\nthe same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid\nto vapour).\u00a0\nObservations that help determine a chemical reaction\nA chemical reaction can be determined with the help of any of the following observations:\na) Evolution of a gas\nb) Change in temperature\nc) Formation of a precipitate\nd) Change in colour\ne) Change of state\nChemical reaction\nChemical reactions are chemical changes in which reactants transform into products by\nmaking or breaking of bonds(or both) between different atoms.\nTypes of chemical reactionsTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.\nFew examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nChemical Reactions and Equations I\nWord equation\nA\u00a0 word equation is a\u00a0chemical reaction\u00a0expressed in words rather than\u00a0chemical\nformulas.",
  "It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride\nThe above equation means: \"Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.\"\u00a0\nSymbols of elements and their valencies\nA symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic",
  "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nformulas.\u00a0It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride\nThe above equation means: \"Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.\"\u00a0\nSymbols of elements and their valencies\nA symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic\nsymbol, which is the abbreviated form of its name.\nValency is the combining capacity of an\u00a0element. It can be considered as the number of\nelectrons lost, gain or shared by an atom when it combines with another atom to form a\nmolecule.\nWriting chemical equations\nRepresentation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and chemical formulae of the\nreactants and products is known as a chemical equation.\nZn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".",
  "Zn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".\n\u2022 For gases, it is \"(g)\".\u2022 For aqueous solutions, it is \"(aq)\".\n\u2022 For gas produced in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2191)\".\n\u2022 For precipitate formed in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2193)\".\nBalancing of a Chemical Reaction\nConservation of mass\nAccording to the law of conservation of mass, no atoms can be created or destroyed in a\nchemical reaction, so the number of atoms for each element in the reactants side has to\nbalance the number of atoms that are present in the products side.\nIn other words, the total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is equal to the\ntotal mass of the reactants participated in a chemical reaction.\nBalanced chemical equation\nThe chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element\u00a0in the reactants side\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.",
  "Balanced chemical equation\nThe chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element\u00a0in the reactants side\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.\nSteps for balancing chemical equations\nHit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coef\ufb01cients (the numbers in\nfront of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same\non each side of the chemical equation.",
  "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.\nSteps for balancing chemical equations\nHit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coef\ufb01cients (the numbers in\nfront of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same\non each side of the chemical equation.\u00a0\nShort-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation\nExample:\naCaCO 3+bH3PO 4\u2192cCa 3(PO 4)2+dH2CO 3\nSet up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.",
  "Short-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation\nExample:\naCaCO 3+bH3PO 4\u2192cCa 3(PO 4)2+dH2CO 3\nSet up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.\nCa: a=3c\nC:\u00a0 \u00a0a=d\nO:\u00a0 \u00a03a+4b=8c+3d\nH:\u00a0 \u00a03b=2d\nP:\u00a0 \u00a0 b=2c\nLet's set c=1\nThen a=3 and\nd=a=3\nb=2c=2So a=3; b=2; c=1; d=3\nThe balanced equation is\n3CaCO 3+ 2H 3PO 4\u2192Ca3(PO 4)2+ 3H 2CO 3\nChemical Reactions and Equations II\nTypes of chemical reactions\nTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.",
  "Few examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nCombination reaction\nIn a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one compound or two\ncompounds combine\u00a0to give one single product.\nH2+Cl2\u2192 2HCl\nelement + element \u2192 compound\n2CO +O2\u2192 2CO 2\ncompound + element \u2192 compound\nNH 3+HCl \u2192NH 4Cl\ncompound + compound \u2192 compound\nDecomposition reaction\nA single reactant decomposes on the application of heat or light or electricity to give two or\nmore products.\nTypes of decomposition reactions:\na. Decomposition reactions which require heat - thermolytic decomposition or thermolysis.\nThermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.",
  "Thermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.\nElectrolytic decomposition of H 2O\nDisplacement reaction\nMore reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.i)Zn(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)",
  "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.\nElectrolytic decomposition of H 2O\nDisplacement reaction\nMore reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.i)Zn(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\nii)Cu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) \u2192Cu(NO 3)2(aq) + 2Ag (s)\nDouble displacement reaction\nAn exchange of ions between the reactants takes place to give new products.\nFor example,\u00a0Al 2(SO4)3(aq) + 3Ca( OH)2(aq) \u2192 2Al (OH)3(aq) + 3CaSO 4(s)\nPrecipitation reaction\nAn insoluble compound called precipitate forms when two solutions containing soluble salts\nare combined.",
  "For example, Pb( NO 3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) \u2192 2KNO 3(aq) +PbI 2(\u2193)(s)(yellow )\nRedox reaction\nOxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.\nOxidation:  Substance loses electrons or gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.\nReduction:  Substance gains electrons or loses oxygen or gains hydrogen.\nOxidising agent  - a substance that oxidises another substance and self-gets reduced.\nReducing agent - a substance that reduces another substance and self-gets oxidised.\nExamples:\n1.Fe(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0(Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\nFe\u2192Fe+2+ 2e \u2212 \u00a0(oxidation ) ; Fe - reducing agent.\nCu+2+ 2e \u2212 \u2192Cu(s)\u00a0(reduction ) ; Cu - oxidising agent.",
  "Cu+2+ 2e \u2212 \u2192Cu(s)\u00a0(reduction ) ; Cu - oxidising agent.\n2.ZnO +C\u2192Zn+CO\nZnO reduces to Zn\u00a0\u2192 reduction\nC oxidises to CO \u2192 oxidation\nZnO - Oxidising agent\nC - Reducing agent\nEndothermic and exothermic reaction\nExothermic reaction - heat is evolved during a reaction. Most of the combination reactions\nare exothermic.\nAl+Fe2O3\u2192Al2O3+Fe+heat\nCH 4+ 2O 2\u2192CO 2+ 2H 2O+heat\nEndothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.\n6CO 2+ 6H 2O+Sunlight \u2192C6H12O6+ 6O 2\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Glucose\nMost of the\u00a0decomposition reactions are endothermic.\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.\nRusting:",
  "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nare exothermic.\nAl+Fe2O3\u2192Al2O3+Fe+heat\nCH 4+ 2O 2\u2192CO 2+ 2H 2O+heat\nEndothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.\n6CO 2+ 6H 2O+Sunlight \u2192C6H12O6+ 6O 2\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Glucose\nMost of the\u00a0decomposition reactions are endothermic.\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.",
  "Corrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.\nRusting:\n4Fe(s) + 3O 2(from \u00a0air) +xH 2O(moisture ) \u2192 2Fe 2O3.xH 2O(rust)\nCorrosion of copper:\nCu(s) +H2O(moisture ) +CO 2(from \u00a0air) \u2192CuCO 3.Cu(OH)2(green )\nCorrosion of silver:\nAg(s) +H2S(from \u00a0air) \u2192Ag2S(black) +H2(g)\nRancidity\nIt refers to oxidation of fats and oils in food that is kept for a long time. It gives foul smell\nand bad taste to food. Rancid food causes stomach infection on consumption.\nPrevention:\n(i) Use of air-tight containers(ii) Packaging with nitrogen\n(iii) Refrigeration\n(iv) Addition of antioxidants or preservatives",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nAcids, Bases and Salts\nIntroduction to Acids, Bases and Salts\nClassi\ufb01cation of matter\nOn the basis of\na) composition -\u00a0 elements, compounds and mixtures\nb) state - solids, liquids and gases\nc) solubility - suspensions, colloids and solutions\nTypes of mixtures - homogeneous and heterogeneous\nTypes of compounds -\u00a0covalent and ionic\nWhat Is an Acid and a Base?\nIonisable and non-ionisable compounds\nAn ionisable compound when dissolved in water or in its molten state, dissociates into ions\nalmost entirely. Example: NaCl, HCl, KOH, etc.\nA non-ionisable compound does not dissociate into ions\u00a0when dissolved in water or in its\nmolten state.\u00a0Example: glucose, acetone, etc.\nArrhenius theory of acids and bases\nArrhenius acid - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H+(aq) or H 3O+ ion.\nArrhenius base - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH\u2212 ion.",
  "Example: glucose, acetone, etc.\nArrhenius theory of acids and bases\nArrhenius acid - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H+(aq) or H 3O+ ion.\nArrhenius base - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH\u2212 ion.\nExamples\u00a0Acids\u00a0\nHydrochloric acid (HCl )\nSulphuric acid\u00a0\u00a0(H 2SO 4)\nNitric acid\u00a0(HNO 3)\nBases\u00a0\nSodium hydroxide (NaOH)\nPotassium hydroxide (KOH)\nCalcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)\nBronsted Lowry theoryA Bronsted acid is a H+(aq) ion\u00a0donor. \nA Bronsted base is a H+(aq) ion\u00a0acceptor.\nExample \nIn the reaction:\u00a0 HCl(aq) +NH 3(aq) \u2192NH+\n4(aq) +Cl\u2212(aq)\nHCl - Bronsted acid and Cl\u2212 - its conjugate acid\nNH 3\u00a0 - Bronsted base and NH+\n4 - its conjugate acid\nPhysical test\nGiven\u00a0are two possible physical tests to identify an acid or a base.",
  "a. Taste\nAn acid tastes sour whereas a base tastes bitter.\nThe method of taste is not advised as an acid or a base could be contaminated or corrosive.\nb. Effect on indicators by acids and bases\nAn indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties,\nmainly colour or odour when brought in contact with an acid or a base.\nBelow mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they exhibit:\u00a0\na) Litmus\nIn neutral solution - purple\nIn acidic solution - red\nIn basic solution - blue",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nb. Effect on indicators by acids and bases\nAn indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties,\nmainly colour or odour when brought in contact with an acid or a base.\nBelow mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they exhibit:\u00a0\na) Litmus\nIn neutral solution - purple\nIn acidic solution - red\nIn basic solution - blue\nLitmus is also available as strips of paper in two variants - red litmus and blue litmus.\nAn acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.\nA base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.",
  "An acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.\nA base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.\nb) Methyl orange\nIn neutral solution - orange\nIn acidic solution - red\nIn basic solution - yellow\nc) Phenolphthalein\nIn neutral solution - colourless\nIn acidic solution - remains colourless\nIn basic solution - pink\nAcid Base ReactionsReactions of acids and bases\na) Reaction of acids and bases with metals\nAcid\u00a0+ active metal\u00a0\u2192\u00a0 salt + hydrogen + heat\n2HCl \u00a0 +Mg\u2192MgCl 2+H2(\u2191)\nBase\u00a0+ metal \u2192 salt + hydrogen + heat\n2NaOH \u00a0 +Zn\u2192Na 2ZnO 2+H2(\u2191)\nA more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.\n2Na +Mg(OH)2\u2192 2NaOH +Mg\nb) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates\nAcid\u00a0+ metal carbonate\u00a0or bicarbonate\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + carbon dioxide.",
  "2Na +Mg(OH)2\u2192 2NaOH +Mg\nb) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates\nAcid\u00a0+ metal carbonate\u00a0or bicarbonate\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + carbon dioxide.\n2HCl \u00a0 + \u00a0CaCO 3\u2192CaCl 2\u00a0 + \u00a0H 2O\u00a0 + \u00a0CO 2\nH2SO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0Mg (HCO 3)2\u2192MgSO 4\u00a0 + \u00a02H 2O\u00a0 + \u00a02CO 2\nEffervescence indicates liberation of\u00a0 CO 2\u00a0gas.\nc) Neutralisation reaction\n1. Reaction of metal\u00a0oxides and hydroxides with acids\nMetal\u00a0oxides or metal hydroxides are basic in nature.\nAcid + base \u2192 salt + water + heat\nH2SO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0MgO \u2192MgSO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0H 2O\n2HCl +Mg(OH)2\u2192MgCl 2+ 2H 2O\n2.",
  "Reaction of non-metal\u00a0oxides with bases\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are acidic in nature\nBase\u00a0+ Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + heat\n2NaOH +CO 2\u2192Na 2CO 3+H2O\nWater\nAcids and bases in water\nWhen added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in\nconducting electricity.\nDifference between a base and an alkali\nBase-Bases undergo neutralisation reaction with acids.",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\n2. Reaction of non-metal\u00a0oxides with bases\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are acidic in nature\nBase\u00a0+ Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + heat\n2NaOH +CO 2\u2192Na 2CO 3+H2O\nWater\nAcids and bases in water\nWhen added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in\nconducting electricity.\nDifference between a base and an alkali\nBase-Bases undergo neutralisation reaction with acids.\nThey are comprised of metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and metal\nbicarbonates.\nMost of them are insoluble in water.\u00a0\nAlkali -\u00a0\nAn alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).\nIt dissolves in water and dissociates to give \u00a0 OH\u2212 ion.\nAll alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.",
  "Most of them are insoluble in water.\u00a0\nAlkali -\u00a0\nAn alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).\nIt dissolves in water and dissociates to give \u00a0 OH\u2212 ion.\nAll alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.\nHydronium ion\nHydronium ion is formed when a hydrogen ion accepts a lone pair of electrons from the\noxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a coordinate covalent bond.\nFormation of a hydronium ion\nDilution\nDilution is the process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more solvent\n(usually water) to it.\nIt is a highly exothermic process.\nTo dilute an acid, the acid must be added to water and not the other way round.\nStrength of acids and basesStrong acid or base : When all molecules of given amount of an acid or a base dissociate\ncompletely in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq)\u00a0 for acid and OH\u2212(aq) for base).",
  "Strength of acids and basesStrong acid or base : When all molecules of given amount of an acid or a base dissociate\ncompletely in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq)\u00a0 for acid and OH\u2212(aq) for base).\nWeak acid or base: When only a few\u00a0of the molecules of given amount of an acid or a base\ndissociate in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq) for acid and OH\u2212(aq) for base).\u00a0\nDilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.\nConcentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.Universal indicator\nA\u00a0universal indicator has pH range from\u00a00 to 14 that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a\nsolution.\nA neutral solution has pH=7\npH\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 pH= \u2212log 10[H+]\nIn pure water,\u00a0 [H+] = [OH\u2212] = 10\u22127 mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.\nThe pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nConcentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.Universal indicator\nA\u00a0universal indicator has pH range from\u00a00 to 14 that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a\nsolution.\nA neutral solution has pH=7\npH\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 pH= \u2212log 10[H+]\nIn pure water,\u00a0 [H+] = [OH\u2212] = 10\u22127 mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.\nThe pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.\nIf pH < 7 - acidic solution\nIf pH > 7-\u00a0 basic solution\npH scale\nImportance of pH in everyday life1. pH sensitivity of plants and animals\nPlants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,\nfunctions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.\n2. pH of a soil\nThe pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.",
  "Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,\nfunctions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.\n2. pH of a soil\nThe pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.\n3. pH in the digestive system\nThe process of digestion happens at a speci\ufb01c pH in our stomach which is 1.5 - 4.\nThe pH of the interaction of enzymes, while food is being digested, is in\ufb02uenced by HCl in\nour stomach.\u00a0\n4. pH in tooth\u00a0decay\nTooth decay happens when the teeth are\u00a0exposed to an acidic environment of\u00a0pH\n5.5\u00a0and\u00a0below.\u00a0\u00a0\n5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants\nAcidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,\nbee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted\nacidic substances have a speci\ufb01c pH.",
  "5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants\nAcidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,\nbee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted\nacidic substances have a speci\ufb01c pH.\nManufacture of Acids and Bases\nManufacture of acids and bases\na) Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0+ water \u2192 acid\nSO2(g) +H2O(l) \u2192H2SO3(aq)\nSO3(g) +H2O(l) \u2192H2SO4(aq)\n4NO 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) +O2(g) \u2192 4HNO 3(aq)\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.\nb) Hydrogen + halogen \u2192 acid\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc.",
  "b) Hydrogen + halogen \u2192 acid\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid \u2192 salt + more volatile acid\n2NaCl (aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl (aq)\n2KNO 3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO 3(aq)d) Metal + oxygen \u2192 metallic oxide (base)\n4Na( s) +O2(g) \u2192 2Na 2O(s)\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s)\ne) Metal + water \u2192 base or alkali + hydrogen\nZn(s) + H2O(steam ) \u2192 ZnO(s)+ H 2(g)",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc.",
  "sulphuric acid \u2192 salt + more volatile acid\n2NaCl (aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl (aq)\n2KNO 3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO 3(aq)d) Metal + oxygen \u2192 metallic oxide (base)\n4Na( s) +O2(g) \u2192 2Na 2O(s)\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s)\ne) Metal + water \u2192 base or alkali + hydrogen\nZn(s) + H2O(steam ) \u2192 ZnO(s)+ H 2(g)\nf) Few metallic oxides + water \u2192 alkali\nNa 2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2NaOH (aq)\ng) Ammonia + water \u2192 ammonium hydroxide\nNH 3(g) +H2O(l) \u2192NH 4OH(aq)\nSalts\nSalts\nA salt is a combination of an anion of an acid and a cation of a base.",
  "Examples - KCl ,NaNO 3,CaSO 4,etc.\nSalts are usually prepared by neutralisation\u00a0reaction of an acid and a base.\nCommon salt\nSodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it\u2019s used all over the world for\ncooking.\nFamily of salts\nSalts having the same cation or anion belong to the same family. For example, NaCl, KCl,\nLiCl.\npH of salts\nA salt of a strong acid and a strong base will be neutral in nature. pH = 7 (approx.).\nA salt of a weak acid and a strong base will be basic in nature.\u00a0pH > 7.\nA salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.\nThe pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.",
  "pH > 7.\nA salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.\nThe pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.\nPreparation of Sodium hydroxide\u00a0\nChemical formula - NaOH\nAlso known as - caustic sodaPreparation (Chlor-alkali process):\nElectrolysis of brine (solution of common salt, NaCl) is carried out.At anode: Cl 2\u00a0is released \nAt cathode: H2\u00a0is released\nSodium hydroxide remains in the solution.\nBleaching powder\nChemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2\nPreparation -\u00a0Ca( OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) \u2192CaOCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nOn interaction with water - bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for\nbleaching action.\nBaking soda\nChemical name - Sodium hydrogen carbonate\nChemical formula - NaHCO 3\nPreparation (Solvay process) -\u00a0\na. Limestone is heated:\u00a0 CaCO 3\u2192CaO +CO 2",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nBleaching powder\nChemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2\nPreparation -\u00a0Ca( OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) \u2192CaOCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nOn interaction with water - bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for\nbleaching action.\nBaking soda\nChemical name - Sodium hydrogen carbonate\nChemical formula - NaHCO 3\nPreparation (Solvay process) -\u00a0\na. Limestone is heated:\u00a0 CaCO 3\u2192CaO +CO 2\nb. CO_2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia :\nNaCl (aq) +NH 3(g) +CO 2(g) +H2O(l) \u2192NaHCO 3(aq) +NH 4Cl(aq)\nUses:\n1. Textile industry\n2. Paper industry\n3. Disinfectant\nWashing soda\nChemical name\u00a0 - Sodium carbonate decahydrate.",
  "Textile industry\n2. Paper industry\n3. Disinfectant\nWashing soda\nChemical name\u00a0 - Sodium carbonate decahydrate.\nChemical formuala - \\(Na_2CO_3 \\)\nPreparation: By heating\u00a0NaHCO 3\n2NaHCO 3(s) \u2192Na 2CO 3(s) +CO 2(g) +H2O(g)\nNa 2CO 3(s)\u00a0 + \u00a010H 2O(l)\u00a0 \u2192 \u00a0Na 2CO 3.10H 2O(s)Uses\n1. In glass, soap and paper industries\n2. Softening of water\n3. Domestic cleaner\nCrystals of salts\nCertain salts form crystals by combining with a de\ufb01nite proportion of water. The water that\ncombines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.",
  "In glass, soap and paper industries\n2. Softening of water\n3. Domestic cleaner\nCrystals of salts\nCertain salts form crystals by combining with a de\ufb01nite proportion of water. The water that\ncombines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.\nPlaster of parisGypsum , \u00a0CaSO 4.2H 2O\u00a0(s)\u00a0on \u00a0heating \u00a0at\u00a0100\u00b0C \u00a0(373K )\u00a0gives \u00a0CaSO 4.H2O\u00a0and \u00a0H2O\nCaSO 4.H2O\u00a0is plaster of paris.\nCaSO 4.H2O means\u00a0two formula units of CaSO 4 share\u00a0one molecule of water.\nUses - cast for healing fractures.1\n23\n2\n1\n21\n2",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nCorrosion\nAlloys\nAlloys are homogeneous mixtures of\u00a0metal\u00a0with other metals or nonmetals.\u00a0Alloy formation\nenhances the desirable properties of the\u00a0material, such as hardness, tensile strength and\nresistance to corrosion.\nExamples of few alloys - \nBrass: copper and zinc\nBronze: copper and tin\nSolder: lead and tin\nAmalgam: mercury and other metal\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material usually a metal by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.",
  "Rusting:\n4Fe(s) + 3O 2(from \u00a0air) + xH 2O(moisture ) \u2192 2Fe 2O3.xH 2O(rust)\nCorrosion of copper:\nCu(s) +H2O(moisture ) +CO 2(from \u00a0air) \u2192 CuCO 3.Cu(OH)2(green )\nCorrosion of silver:\nAg(s) +H2S(from \u00a0air) \u2192 Ag2S(black) + H2(g)\nPrevention of CorrosionPrevention :\u00a0\n1. Coating with paints or oil or grease: Application of paint or\u00a0oil or grease on\u00a0metal surfaces\nkeep out air and moisture.\n2. Alloying: Alloyed metal is more resistant to corrosion. Example: stainless steel.\n3. Galvanization: This is a process of coating molten zinc on iron articles. Zinc forms a\nprotective layer and prevents corrosion.\n4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by use of electric current.\nThis method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.",
  "Zinc forms a\nprotective layer and prevents corrosion.\n4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by use of electric current.\nThis method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.\nExample: silver plating, nickel plating.\n5. Sacri\ufb01cial protection:\u00a0Magnesium is more reactive than iron. When it is coated on the\narticles made of iron or steel, it acts as the cathode, undergoes reaction (sacri\ufb01ce) instead\nof iron and protects the articles.Metals and Non-metalsPhysical Properties\nPhysical Properties of Metals\n\u25cfHard and have a high tensile strength\n\u25cfSolids at room temperature\n\u25cfSonorous\n\u25cfGood conductors of heat and electricity\n\u25cfMalleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets\n\u25cfDuctile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires\n\u25cfHigh melting and boiling points (except Caesium (Cs) and Gallium (Ga))\n\u25cfDense, (except alkali metals). Osmium - highest density and lithium - least density\n\u25cfLustrous",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\n\u25cfHard and have a high tensile strength\n\u25cfSolids at room temperature\n\u25cfSonorous\n\u25cfGood conductors of heat and electricity\n\u25cfMalleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets\n\u25cfDuctile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires\n\u25cfHigh melting and boiling points (except Caesium (Cs) and Gallium (Ga))\n\u25cfDense, (except alkali metals). Osmium - highest density and lithium - least density\n\u25cfLustrous\n\u25cfSilver-grey in colour, (except gold and copper)\nNon-Metals\nNonmetals are those elements which do not exhibit the properties of metals.\nPhysical Properties of Nonmetals\nOccur as solids, liquids and gases at room temperature\nBrittle\nNon-malleable\nNon-ductile\nNon-sonorous\nBad conductors of heat and electricity\nExceptions in Physical Properties\nAlkali metals (Na, K, Li) can be cut using a knife.\nMercury is a liquid metal.\nLead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.",
  "Mercury is a liquid metal.\nLead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.\nMercury expands signi\ufb01cantly for the slightest change in temperature.\nGallium and caesium have a very low melting point\nIodine is non-metal but it has lustre.\nGraphite conducts electricity.\nDiamond\u00a0conducts heat and has a very high melting point.\nChemical Properties\nChemical Properties of Metals\u25cfAlkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc) react vigorously with water and oxygen or air.\n\u25cfMg reacts with hot water.\n\u25cfAl, Fe and Zn react with steam.\n\u25cfCu, Ag, Pt, Au do not react with water or dilute acids.\nReaction of Metals with Oxygen (Burnt in Air)\nMetal + Oxygen\u00a0 \u2192 \u00a0Metal oxide (basic)\n\u25cfNa and K are kept immersed in kerosene oil as they react vigorously with air and catch\n\ufb01re.\n 4K(s) +O2(g) \u2192 2K 2O(s) (vigorous reaction)\n\u25cfMg, Al, Zn, Pb react slowly with air and form a protective layer that prevents corrosion.",
  "4K(s) +O2(g) \u2192 2K 2O(s) (vigorous reaction)\n\u25cfMg, Al, Zn, Pb react slowly with air and form a protective layer that prevents corrosion.\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s) (Mg burns with a white dazzling light)\n4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) \u2192 2Al 2O3(s)\n\u25cfSilver, platinum and gold don't burn or react with air.\nBasic Oxides of Metals\nSome metallic oxides get dissolved in water\u00a0and form alkalis.\u00a0Their aqueous solution turns\nred litmus blue.\nNa 2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2NaOH (aq)\nK2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2KOH (aq)",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s) (Mg burns with a white dazzling light)\n4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) \u2192 2Al 2O3(s)\n\u25cfSilver, platinum and gold don't burn or react with air.\nBasic Oxides of Metals\nSome metallic oxides get dissolved in water\u00a0and form alkalis.\u00a0Their aqueous solution turns\nred litmus blue.\nNa 2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2NaOH (aq)\nK2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2KOH (aq)\nAmphoteric Oxides of Metals\nAmphoteric oxides are metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to form\nsalt and water.",
  "For example - Al 2O3,ZnO ,PbO ,SnO\nAl2O3(s) + 6HCl (aq) \u2192 2AlCl 3(aq) + 3H 2O(l)\nAl2O3(s) + 2NaOH (aq) \u2192 2NaAlO 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nZnO (s) + 2HCl (aq) \u2192ZnCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nZnO (s) + 2NaOH (aq) \u2192Na 2ZnO 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nReactivity Series\nThe below table illustrates the reactivity of metals from high order to low order. \nSymbol \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 ElementK Potassium ( Highly Active Metal)\nBa Barium\nCa Calcium\nNa Sodium\nMg Magnesium\nAl Aluminium\nZn Zinc\nFe Iron\nNi Nickel\nSn Tin\nPb Lead\nH Hydrogen\nCu Copper\nHg Mercury\nAg Silver\nAu Gold\nPt Platinum\nReaction of Metals with Water or Steam\nMetal +Water \u2192Metal \u00a0hydroxide",
  "Magnesium\nAl Aluminium\nZn Zinc\nFe Iron\nNi Nickel\nSn Tin\nPb Lead\nH Hydrogen\nCu Copper\nHg Mercury\nAg Silver\nAu Gold\nPt Platinum\nReaction of Metals with Water or Steam\nMetal +Water \u2192Metal \u00a0hydroxide \u00a0or\u00a0Metal \u00a0oxide +Hydrogen\n2Na + 2H 2O(cold) \u2192 2NaOH +H2+heat\nCa+ 2H 2O(cold) \u2192Ca(OH)2+H2\nMg+ 2H 2O(hot) \u2192Mg(OH)2+H2\n2Al+ 3H 2O(steam ) \u2192Al2O3+ 3H 2\nZn+H2O(steam ) \u2192ZnO +H2\n3Fe + 4H 2O(steam ) \u2192Fe3O4+ 4H 2\nReaction of Metals with Acid\nMetal +dilute \u00a0acid \u2192Salt +Hydrogen \u00a0gas\n2Na(s) + 2HCl (dilute ) \u2192 2NaCl (aq)",
  "2O(steam ) \u2192Fe3O4+ 4H 2\nReaction of Metals with Acid\nMetal +dilute \u00a0acid \u2192Salt +Hydrogen \u00a0gas\n2Na(s) + 2HCl (dilute ) \u2192 2NaCl (aq) +H2(g)\n2K(s) +H2SO 4(dilute ) \u2192K2SO 4(aq) +H2(g)\nOnly Mg and Mn, react with very dilute nitric acid to liberate hydrogen gas.\u00a0\nMg(s) + 2HNO 3(dilute ) \u2192Mg(NO 3)2(aq) +H2(g)\nMn(s) + 2HNO 3(dilute ) \u2192Mn(NO 3)2(aq) +H2(g)\nDisplacement ReactionA more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.",
  "How Do Metal React with Solution of Other Metal Salts\nMetal \u00a0A+Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0B\u2192Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0A+Metal \u00a0B\nFe(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\nCu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) \u2192Cu(NO 3)(aq) + 2Ag (s)\nReaction of Metals with Bases\nBase +metal \u2192salt+hydrogen",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nDisplacement ReactionA more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.\nHow Do Metal React with Solution of Other Metal Salts\nMetal \u00a0A+Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0B\u2192Salt\u00a0of \u00a0metal \u00a0A+Metal \u00a0B\nFe(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\nCu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) \u2192Cu(NO 3)(aq) + 2Ag (s)\nReaction of Metals with Bases\nBase +metal \u2192salt+hydrogen\n2NaOH (aq) +Zn(s) \u2192Na 2ZnO 2(aq) +H2(g)\n2NaOH (aq) + 2Al (s) + 2H 2O(l) \u2192 2NaAlO 2(aq) + 2H 2(g)\nExtraction of Metals and Non-Metals\nApplications of Displacement Reaction\nUses of displacement reaction\n1. Extraction of metals\n2.",
  "Extraction of metals\n2. Manufacturing of steel\n3. Thermite reaction:\u00a0Al( s) +Fe2O3(s) \u2192Al2O3+Fe(molten )\nThe thermite reaction is used in welding of railway tracks, cracked machine\u00a0parts, etc.\nOccurrence of Metals\nMost of the\u00a0elements\u00a0especially metals occur in nature in the combined state with other\nelements. All these compounds of metals are known as\u00a0 minerals. But out of them, only a few\nare viable sources of that metal. Such sources are called ores.\nAu, Pt - exist in the native or free state.\nExtraction of MetalsMetals of high reactivity - Na, K, Mg, Al.\nMetals of medium reactivity - Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn.\nMetals of low reactivity - Cu, Ag, Hg\nRoasting\nConverts sulphide ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of excess air.\nIt also removes volatile impurities.",
  "Metals of medium reactivity - Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn.\nMetals of low reactivity - Cu, Ag, Hg\nRoasting\nConverts sulphide ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of excess air.\nIt also removes volatile impurities.\n2ZnS (s) + 3O 2(g) +Heat \u2192 2ZnO (s) + 2SO 2(g)\nCalcination\nConverts carbonate and hydrated ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of\nlimited air. It also removes\u00a0volatile impurities.",
  "It also removes\u00a0volatile impurities.\nZnCO 3(s) +heat \u2192ZnO (s) +CO 2(g)\nCaCO 3(s) +heat \u2192CaO (s) +CO 2(g)\nAl2O3.2H 2O(s) +heat \u2192 2Al 2O3(s) + 2H 2O(l)\n2Fe 2O3.3H 2O(s) +heat \u2192 2Fe 2O3(s) + 3H 2O(l)\nExtracting Metals Low in Reactivity SeriesBy self-reduction- when the sulphide ores of less electropositive\u00a0metals\u00a0like Hg, Pb, Cu etc.,\nare heated in air, a part of the ore gets converted to oxide which then reacts with the",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nZnCO 3(s) +heat \u2192ZnO (s) +CO 2(g)\nCaCO 3(s) +heat \u2192CaO (s) +CO 2(g)\nAl2O3.2H 2O(s) +heat \u2192 2Al 2O3(s) + 2H 2O(l)\n2Fe 2O3.3H 2O(s) +heat \u2192 2Fe 2O3(s) + 3H 2O(l)\nExtracting Metals Low in Reactivity SeriesBy self-reduction- when the sulphide ores of less electropositive\u00a0metals\u00a0like Hg, Pb, Cu etc.,\nare heated in air, a part of the ore gets converted to oxide which then reacts with the\nremaining sulphide ore to give the crude metal\u00a0and sulphur dioxide. In this process, no\nexternal\u00a0reducing agent is used.",
  "In this process, no\nexternal\u00a0reducing agent is used.\n1.2HgS (Cinnabar) + 3O 2(g) +heat \u2192 2HgO (crude \u00a0metal ) + 2SO 2(g)\n2HgO (s) +heat \u2192 2Hg (l) +O2(g)\n2.Cu2S(Copper\u00a0pyrite ) + 3O 2(g) +heat \u2192 2Cu 2O(s) + 2SO 2(g)\n2Cu 2O(s) +Cu2S(s) +heat \u2192 6Cu(crude \u00a0metal ) +SO 2(g)\n3.2PbS (Galena) + 3O 2(g) +heat \u2192 2PbO (s) + 2SO 2(g)\nPbS(s) + 2PbO (s) \u2192 2Pb (crude \u00a0metal ) +SO 2(g)\nExtracting Metals in the Middle of Reactivity Series\nSmelting -\u00a0it involves heating the roasted or calcined ore(metal oxide) to a high temperature\nwith a suitable reducing agent.",
  "The crude metal is obtained in its molten\u00a0state.\nFe2O3+ 3C (coke) \u2192 2Fe + 3CO 2\nAluminothermic reaction -\u00a0also known as the\u00a0Goldschmidt\u00a0reaction is a highly exothermic\nreaction in which        metal oxides usually of Fe and Cr are heated to a high temperature with       \naluminium.\nFe2O3+ 2Al \u2192Al2O3+ 2Fe +heat\nCr2O3+ 2Al \u2192Al2O3+ 2Cr +heat\nExtraction of Metals Towards the Top of the Reactivity Series\nElectrolytic reduction:\n1. Down\u2019s process:\u00a0 Molten NaCl is electrolysed in a special apparatus.\nAt the cathode (reduction) -\u00a0\nNa+(molten ) +e\u2212\u2192Na(s)\nMetal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n2Cl\u2212(molten ) \u2192Cl2(g) + 2e\u2013\nChlorine gas is liberated.\n2.",
  "At the cathode (reduction) -\u00a0\nNa+(molten ) +e\u2212\u2192Na(s)\nMetal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n2Cl\u2212(molten ) \u2192Cl2(g) + 2e\u2013\nChlorine gas is liberated.\n2. Hall\u2019s process: Mixture of molten alumina and a \ufb02uoride solvent usually cryolite,\n(Na 3AlF 6) is electrolysed.\nAt the cathode (reduction) -\n2Al3++ 6e\u2013\u2192 2Al (s)Metal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n6O2\u2013\u2192 3O 2(g) + 12e\u2013\u00a0\nOxygen\u00a0gas is liberated.\nEnrichment of Ores",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nNa+(molten ) +e\u2212\u2192Na(s)\nMetal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n2Cl\u2212(molten ) \u2192Cl2(g) + 2e\u2013\nChlorine gas is liberated.\n2. Hall\u2019s process: Mixture of molten alumina and a \ufb02uoride solvent usually cryolite,\n(Na 3AlF 6) is electrolysed.\nAt the cathode (reduction) -\n2Al3++ 6e\u2013\u2192 2Al (s)Metal is deposited.\nAt the anode (oxidation) -\n6O2\u2013\u2192 3O 2(g) + 12e\u2013\u00a0\nOxygen\u00a0gas is liberated.\nEnrichment of Ores\nIt means removal of impurities or gangue from ore, through various physical and chemical\nprocesses. The technique used for a particular ore depends on the difference in the\nproperties of the ore and the gangue.\nRe\ufb01ning of Metals\nRe\ufb01ning of metals - removing impurities or gangue from crude metal.",
  "The technique used for a particular ore depends on the difference in the\nproperties of the ore and the gangue.\nRe\ufb01ning of Metals\nRe\ufb01ning of metals - removing impurities or gangue from crude metal. It is the last step in\nmetallurgy and is based on the difference between the properties of metal\u00a0and the gangue.\nElectrolytic Re\ufb01ning\nMetals like copper, zinc, nickel, silver, tin, gold etc., are re\ufb01ned electrolytically.\nAnode \u2013 impure or crude\u00a0metal\nCathode \u2013 thin strip of pure metal\nElectrolyte \u2013 aqueous solution of metal salt\nFrom anode\u00a0 (oxidation) - metal ions are released into the solution \nAt cathode (reduction) - equivalent amount of metal from solution is deposited\nImpurities deposit at the bottom of the anode.",
  "The Why Questions\nElectronic con\ufb01guration\n\u00a0Group 1 elements - Alkali metals\nElement Electronic \u00a0configuration\nLithium (Li) 2, 1\nSodium (Na) 2, 8, 1\nPotassium (K) 2, 8, 8, 1\nRubidium (Rb) 2, 8, 18, 8, 1\u00a0Group 2 elements - Alkaline earth metals\nElement Electronic \u00a0configuration\nBeryllium (Be) 2, 2\nMagnesium (Mg ) 2, 8, 2\nCalcium (Ca) 2, 8, 8, 2\nStronium (Sr) 2, 8, 18, 8, 2\nHow Do Metals and Nonmetals React\nMetals lose valence electron(s) and form cations. \nNon-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.\nThe cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus\nforming an ionic bond.",
  "Non-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.\nThe cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus\nforming an ionic bond.\u00a0\nFor example: In Calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by oppositely charged\ncalcium\u00a0and chloride ions.",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nHow Do Metals and Nonmetals React\nMetals lose valence electron(s) and form cations. \nNon-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.\nThe cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus\nforming an ionic bond.\u00a0\nFor example: In Calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by oppositely charged\ncalcium\u00a0and chloride ions.\nCalcium atom loses 2 electrons and\u00a0attains the electronic con\ufb01guration of the\u00a0nearest noble\ngas (Ar). By doing so, it gains a\u00a0net charge of +2.\nThe two Chlorine atoms take one electron each, thus gaining a charge of -1 (each) and attain\nthe electronic con\ufb01guration of the nearest noble gas (Ar).\nIonic CompoundsThe electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound\ntogether.\nExample: MgCl 2,CaO ,MgO ,NaCl ,etc .\nProperties of Ionic Compound\nIonic compounds\n1.",
  "Ionic CompoundsThe electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound\ntogether.\nExample: MgCl 2,CaO ,MgO ,NaCl ,etc .\nProperties of Ionic Compound\nIonic compounds\n1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions).\n2. Have high melting and boiling points.\n3. Conduct electricity when in aqueous solution\u00a0and when melted.\n4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents.\nPhysical Nature\nIonic solids usually exist in a regular, well-de\ufb01ned crystal structures.\nElectric Conduction of Ionic Compounds\nIonic compounds conduct electricity in the molten or aqueous state when ions become free\nand act as charge carriers.\nIn solid form, ions are strongly held by electrostatic forces of attractions and not free to\nmove; hence do not conduct electricity.\nFor example, ionic compounds such as NaCl does not conduct electricity\u00a0when\u00a0solidconduct electricity but when dissolved in water or in molten state, it\u00a0will\nconduct \u00a0electricity.",
  "For example, ionic compounds such as NaCl does not conduct electricity\u00a0when\u00a0solidconduct electricity but when dissolved in water or in molten state, it\u00a0will\nconduct \u00a0electricity.\nSalt solution conducts electricity\nMelting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds\nIn ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high amount of\nenergy to break. Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound are usually\nvery high.\nSolubility of Ionic Compounds",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nconduct \u00a0electricity.\nSalt solution conducts electricity\nMelting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds\nIn ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high amount of\nenergy to break. Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound are usually\nvery high.\nSolubility of Ionic Compounds\nMost ionic compounds are soluble in water due to the separation of ions by water. This\noccurs due to the polar nature of water.\u00a0For example, NaCl  is a 3-D salt crystal composed of Na+ and Cl\u2212 ions bound together\nthrough electrostatic forces of attractions.\u00a0When a crystal of NaCl comes into contact with\nwater, the partial positively charged ends of water\u00a0molecules interact with the Cl\u2212 ions,\nwhile\u00a0the negatively\u00a0charged end of the water molecules interacts\u00a0with the Na+ ions.\nThis\u00a0ion-dipole interaction between ions and water molecules assist in the breaking of the\nstrong\u00a0electrostatic forces of attractions within the crystal and ultimately in the solubility of\nthe crystal.",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nCarbon and Its Compounds\nSoaps and Detergents:-   \nCleansing Action of Soap\nWhen soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form\nspherical shape micelles.\nThe non-polar hydrophobic part or tail\u00a0of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of\nthe fabric, while the polar hydrophilic part or head, (\u2212COO\u2212Na+, remains attracted to water\nmolecules.\nThe agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles\nand detach them from the \ufb01bres of the fabric.Hard Water\nHard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates, chlorides,\nand sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard\nwater react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium\nsalts of fatty acids.",
  "When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard\nwater react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium\nsalts of fatty acids.\n2C17H35COONa +MgCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Mg+ 2NaCl\n2C17H35COONa +CaCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Ca+ 2NaCl\nThese precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere\u00a0with the cleaning\nability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.\nCovalent Bonds\nDif\ufb01culty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion\nTo achieve the electronic con\ufb01guration of nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom loses\nfour of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C4+\u00a0ion hence formed will\nbe highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.\nIf the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic con\ufb01guration of\nthe noble gas, Ne, C4\u2212 ion will be formed.",
  "C4+\u00a0ion hence formed will\nbe highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.\nIf the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic con\ufb01guration of\nthe noble gas, Ne, C4\u2212 ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required.\nMoreover, in C4+\u00a0ion it is dif\ufb01cult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its\ntetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.\nIonic BondIonic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a\nnonmetal.\u00a0The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the\ncompound together.\nIonic compounds:",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\ntetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.\nIonic BondIonic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a\nnonmetal.\u00a0The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the\ncompound together.\nIonic compounds:\n1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)\n2. Have high melting and boiling points\n3. Conduct electricity when melted\n4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents\nCovalent Bond\nA covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms.\u00a0It is\nprimarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic atoms with\nsimilar electronegativity.\nLewis Dot Structure\nLewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.\nThese are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it\nrepresent the valence electrons of the element.",
  "Lewis Dot Structure\nLewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.\nThese are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it\nrepresent the valence electrons of the element.\u00a0\nLewis structures of elements with atomic number 5-8\nCovalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2\nFormation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:\nEach hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to\nacquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (He). \nTherefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.Formation of a\u00a0double bond in an oxygen molecule:\nEach oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to\nacquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.\nFormation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:\nEach nitrogen atom has \ufb01ve electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).",
  "Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.\nFormation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:\nEach nitrogen atom has \ufb01ve electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.\nSingle, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths\nA single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one electron from each participating atom.",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.\nSingle, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths\nA single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one electron from each participating atom.\nIt is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.\nA double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines\nbetween the two atoms.\nA triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., two\u00a0pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines\nbetween the two atoms.Bond strength:\n- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a\nbond.",
  "It is depicted by triple lines\nbetween the two atoms.Bond strength:\n- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a\nbond.\n- The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is:\u00a0Triple bond>double\nbond>single bond\n- This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for two\nbonds or a single bond.Bond length:\n- Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.\n- The order of bond length for multiple bonds is:\u00a0Triple bond<double bond<single bond\nThe distance between the nuclei of two atoms is least when they are triple bonded.\nCovalent Bonding of N, O with H and Polarity\nIn ammonia ( NH 3), the three hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the nitrogen\natom and form three covalent bonds. \nAmmonia has one lone pair.\nAll the three N-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.\nN atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus the shared pair of electrons lies\nmore towards N atom.",
  "Ammonia has one lone pair.\nAll the three N-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.\nN atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus the shared pair of electrons lies\nmore towards N atom.\nThis causes the N atom to acquire a slight negative charge, and H atom a slight\npositive charge.In water (H2O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen atom and\nform two covalent bonds. \nWater has two lone pairs.",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nAll the three N-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.\nN atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus the shared pair of electrons lies\nmore towards N atom.\nThis causes the N atom to acquire a slight negative charge, and H atom a slight\npositive charge.In water (H2O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen atom and\nform two covalent bonds. \nWater has two lone pairs.\u00a0 \nThe two O-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.\nO atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus the shared pair of electrons lies\nmore towards O atom.\nThis causes the O atom to acquire a slight negative charge, and H atom a slight\npositive charge.\nCovalent Bonding in Carbon\nA methane molecule (CH 4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with four\nhydrogen atoms as shown below.\nMp,Bp and Electrical Conductivity\nCovalent compounds:\n1. Are molecular compounds\n2. Are gases, liquids or solids\n3.",
  "Mp,Bp and Electrical Conductivity\nCovalent compounds:\n1. Are molecular compounds\n2. Are gases, liquids or solids\n3. Have weak intermolecular forces\n4. Have low melting and boiling points\n5. Are poor electrical conductors in all phases\n6. Are mostly soluble in nonpolar liquids\nAllotropes of Carbon\n- The phenomenon of existence of the same element in different physical forms with similar\nchemical properties is\u00a0known as allotropy.- Some elements like carbon, sulphur, phosphorus,\u00a0etc., exhibit this phenomenon.\n- Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and, fullerene.\n- Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, coke, charcoal, lamp black and gas carbon.\nDiamond\nDiamond has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is because each carbon is connected to\nfour neighbouring carbon atoms via single covalent bonds,\u00a0resulting in a single unit of a\ncrystal. These crystal units lie in different planes and are connected to each other,\n\u00a0resulting in a rigid three-dimensional\u00a0cubic\u00a0pattern of the diamond.\nDiamond:\n1.",
  "These crystal units lie in different planes and are connected to each other,\n\u00a0resulting in a rigid three-dimensional\u00a0cubic\u00a0pattern of the diamond.\nDiamond:\n1. Has a high density of 3.5g/cc.\n2. Has a very high refractive index of 2.5.\n3. Is a good conductor of heat.\n4. Is a poor conductor of electricity.\nGraphite",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\ncrystal. These crystal units lie in different planes and are connected to each other,\n\u00a0resulting in a rigid three-dimensional\u00a0cubic\u00a0pattern of the diamond.\nDiamond:\n1. Has a high density of 3.5g/cc.\n2. Has a very high refractive index of 2.5.\n3. Is a good conductor of heat.\n4. Is a poor conductor of electricity.\nGraphite\nIn graphite, each carbon atom is bonded\u00a0covalently to three other carbon atoms, leaving\neach carbon atom with one free valency.\u00a0This arrangement results in hexagonal rings in a\nsingle plane and such rings are stacked over each other through weak Van der Waals forces.\nGraphite:\n1. Has a density of 2.25 g/cc.\n2. Has a soft and slippery feel.\n3. Is a good conductor of electricity.\nC60\nC60, also known as Buckminsterfullerene, is the very popular and stable form of the known\nfullerenes.",
  "Has a density of 2.25 g/cc.\n2. Has a soft and slippery feel.\n3. Is a good conductor of electricity.\nC60\nC60, also known as Buckminsterfullerene, is the very popular and stable form of the known\nfullerenes. \nIt is the most common naturally occurring fullerene and can be found in small quantities in\nsoot.\nIt consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons, like in a soccer\nball.\nChains, Branches and Rings\nSaturated and Unsaturated HydrocarbonsSaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have all carbon-carbon single bonds. These\nare known as alkanes. General formula = C nH2n+2 where n = 1,2,3,4\u2026..\nUnsaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon-carbon double or\ntriple bond.\nHydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes.",
  "Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes.\u00a0General\nformula = CnH2n where n = 2,3,4\u2026..\nHydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond are called alkynes.\u00a0General\nformula = CnH2n\u22122 where n = 2,3,4\u2026..\nChains, Rings and Branches\nCarbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.\nIn cyclic compounds, atoms are connected to form a\u00a0ring.\u00a0\nStructural IsomersThe compounds with same\u00a0molecular formula and different physical or chemical properties\nare known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.\nThe isomers that differ in the structural arrangement of atoms in their molecules are called",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nCarbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.\nIn cyclic compounds, atoms are connected to form a\u00a0ring.\u00a0\nStructural IsomersThe compounds with same\u00a0molecular formula and different physical or chemical properties\nare known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.\nThe isomers that differ in the structural arrangement of atoms in their molecules are called\nstructural isomers and the phenomenon is known as structural isomerism.\nStructural isomers with molecular formula - C5H12\nBenzene\nBenzene is the simplest organic, aromatic\u00a0hydrocarbon.\nPhysical properties: \u00a0colourless liquid, pungent\u00a0odour, \ufb02ammable, volatile.\nStructure: \nCyclic in nature with chemical formula, C 6H6, i.e., each carbon atom in benzene is arranged\nin a six-membered ring and is bonded to only one hydrogen atom.\nIt includes 3-double bonds which are separated by a single bond.",
  "Structure: \nCyclic in nature with chemical formula, C 6H6, i.e., each carbon atom in benzene is arranged\nin a six-membered ring and is bonded to only one hydrogen atom.\nIt includes 3-double bonds which are separated by a single bond.\u00a0\nHence this arrangement is recognized to have conjugated double bonds and two stable\nresonance structures exist for the ring.\nResonating structures of Benzene\nFunctional Groups and Nomenclature\nFunctional Groups\nAn atom or a group of atoms which when present in a compound gives speci\ufb01c physical and\nchemical properties to it regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain is called a\nfunctional group.\nClassi\ufb01cation of Functional Groups\nMain Functional Groups:\n(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH): All organic compounds containing - OH group are known as\nalcohols.\u00a0For example, Methanol (CH 3OH), Ethanol (CH 3\u2212CH 2\u2212OH), etc.\n(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing\u00a0 -CHO group are known as\naldehydes.\u00a0For example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH 3CHO ), etc.",
  "(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing\u00a0 -CHO group are known as\naldehydes.\u00a0For example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH 3CHO ), etc.\n(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): All organic compounds containing (-C=O)\u00a0group \ufb02anked by two\nalkyl groups are known as ketones.\u00a0For example, Propanone (CH 3COCH 3), Butanone\n(CH 3COCH 2CH 3), etc.\n(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). Hence\nthey are also called carboxylic acids.",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\naldehydes.\u00a0For example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH 3CHO ), etc.\n(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): All organic compounds containing (-C=O)\u00a0group \ufb02anked by two\nalkyl groups are known as ketones.\u00a0For example, Propanone (CH 3COCH 3), Butanone\n(CH 3COCH 2CH 3), etc.\n(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). Hence\nthey are also called carboxylic acids.\nFor example,\u00a0Ethanoic acid ( CH 3COOH ),\u00a0Propanoic acid (CH 3CH 2COOH ), etc.\n(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): \u00a0The alkanes in which one or more than one hydrogen atom\nis substituted by \u00a0- X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as haloalkanes.",
  "(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): \u00a0The alkanes in which one or more than one hydrogen atom\nis substituted by \u00a0- X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as haloalkanes. For example,\u00a0Chloromethane\n(CH 3Cl),\u00a0Bromomethane ( CH 3Br), etc.\nHomologous SeriesHomologous series constitutes organic compounds with the same general formula, similar\nchemical characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent members differ in\ntheir molecular formula by \u2212CH 2.\nPhysical Properties\nThe members of any particular family have almost identical chemical properties due to the\nsame functional group.\u00a0Their physical properties such as melting point, boiling point,\ndensity, etc., show a regular gradation with the increase in the molecular mass.\nChemical Properties\nCombustion Reactions\nCombustion means burning of carbon or carbon-containing compounds in the presence of\nair or oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, heat and light.\nFlame Characteristics\nSaturated hydrocarbons give clean \ufb02ame while unsaturated hydrocarbons give smoky\n\ufb02ame.",
  "Flame Characteristics\nSaturated hydrocarbons give clean \ufb02ame while unsaturated hydrocarbons give smoky\n\ufb02ame. In the presence of limited\u00a0oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give smoky \ufb02ame.\nOxidation\nOxidation\nBy use of mild oxidizing agent, CrO 3 (chromic anhydride), ethanol CH 3CH 2OH is oxidised\nto\u00a0ethanal (CH 3CHO ).\nWhereas, by use of a strong oxidizing agent\u00a0like (alkaline KMnO 4 or acidi\ufb01ed K2Cr2O7\n),\u00a0ethanol CH 3CH 2OH is oxidised to\u00a0ethanoic acid (CH 3COOH ).\nCH 3CH 2OH\u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2192 CH 3COOHalka\nline\u00a0KMnO4\n\u00a0o\nr\nacidif\nied\u00a0K2\nCr2\nO7CH 3CHO \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2192 CH 3COOH\nAddition",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nBy use of mild oxidizing agent, CrO 3 (chromic anhydride), ethanol CH 3CH 2OH is oxidised\nto\u00a0ethanal (CH 3CHO ).\nWhereas, by use of a strong oxidizing agent\u00a0like (alkaline KMnO 4 or acidi\ufb01ed K2Cr2O7\n),\u00a0ethanol CH 3CH 2OH is oxidised to\u00a0ethanoic acid (CH 3COOH ).\nCH 3CH 2OH\u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2192 CH 3COOHalka\nline\u00a0KMnO4\n\u00a0o\nr\nacidif\nied\u00a0K2\nCr2\nO7CH 3CHO \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2192 CH 3COOH\nAddition\nThe reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all the atoms of\nthe combining molecules are called addition reactions.\nThe hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction.",
  "The hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction. In this reaction,\nhydrogen is added to a double bond or a triple bond\u00a0in the presence of a catalyst like nickel,\npalladium or platinum.\nC2H2+H2\u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2192 C2H4\nSubstitution\nThe reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or substituted by\ndifferent atoms or group of atoms is called substitution reaction.\u00a0In alkanes, hydrogen\natoms are replaced by other elements.\nCH 4+Cl2+Sunlight \u2192CH 3Cl+HCl\nEthanol and Ethanoic Acid\nEthanol\n(i) Ethanol, C2H5OH is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.\n(ii) It boils at 351 K.\n(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.\n(iv) It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)\n(v) It is neutral to litmus.\nUses:\n1. As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.\n2.",
  "(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.\n(iv) It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)\n(v) It is neutral to litmus.\nUses:\n1. As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.\n2. As a solvent in the manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic rubber.alka\nline\u00a0KMnO4\n\u00a0o\nr\nacidif\nied\u00a0K2\nCr2\nO7\nNi\u00a0or\u00a0Pt\u00a0or\u00a0Pd3. As a solvent\u00a0to prepare the tincture of iodine.\nHow Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?\n(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH 3OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and loss\nof eyesight.\n(ii) It causes addiction, damages the liver if taken in excess.\n(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.\nReactions of Ethanol with Sodium\nEthanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. This reaction",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nHow Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?\n(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH 3OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and loss\nof eyesight.\n(ii) It causes addiction, damages the liver if taken in excess.\n(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.\nReactions of Ethanol with Sodium\nEthanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. This reaction\nsupports the acidic character of ethanol.\n2C2H5OH+ 2Na \u2192 2C 2H5O\u2212Na++H2(\u2191)\nElimination Reaction\nAn elimination reaction is a type of reaction in which two substituents are removed from a\nmolecule.\u00a0These reactions play an important role in the preparation of alkenes.\nDehydration Reaction\nEthanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This reaction\nis known as dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water molecule is removed\nfrom the ethanol molecule.",
  "These reactions play an important role in the preparation of alkenes.\nDehydration Reaction\nEthanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This reaction\nis known as dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water molecule is removed\nfrom the ethanol molecule.\u00a0\nCH 3CH 2OH\u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2192 CH 2=CH 2+H2O\nEthanoic Acid or Acetic Acid\n(i) Molecular formula: CH 3COOH\n(ii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether.\n(iii) It often freezes during winter in cold climate and therefore it is named as glacial\nacetic acid.\nEsteri\ufb01cation\nWhen a carboxylic acid is re\ufb02uxed with an alcohol in presence of small quantity of conc.\nH2SO4, a sweet-smelling ester\u00a0is formed.\u00a0This reaction of ester formation is called\nesteri\ufb01cation.conc.H2\nS\nO4When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of conc.H 2SO4, ethyl ethanoate and\nwater are formed.",
  "This reaction of ester formation is called\nesteri\ufb01cation.conc.H2\nS\nO4When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of conc.H 2SO4, ethyl ethanoate and\nwater are formed.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\nCH 3COOH +C2H5OH\u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2212 \u2192 CH 3COOC 2H5+H2O\nSaponi\ufb01cation\nA soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid).\u00a0The soap\nmolecule is generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic hydrocarbon group\nand\u00a0 \u2212COO\u2212Na+\u00a0ionic group.\u00a0When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is treated with a\nconcentrated sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place; soap\nand glycerol are formed. This alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as\nsaponi\ufb01cation.",
  "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nmolecule is generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic hydrocarbon group\nand\u00a0 \u2212COO\u2212Na+\u00a0ionic group.\u00a0When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is treated with a\nconcentrated sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place; soap\nand glycerol are formed. This alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as\nsaponi\ufb01cation.\nReaction of Ethanoic Acid with Metals and Bases(\nConc.H2\nS\nO4)Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and magnesium to liberate\nhydrogen gas.\n2CH 3COOH + 2Na \u2192 2CH 3COONa +H2(\u2191)\nIt reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.",
  "2CH 3COOH + 2Na \u2192 2CH 3COONa +H2(\u2191)\nIt reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.\nCH 3COOH +NaOH \u2192CH 3COONa +H2O\nReaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and Bicarbonates\nCarboxylic acids reacts with carbonates and\u00a0bicarbonates with the evolution of CO 2 gas. For\nexample, when ethanoic acid (acetic acid) reacts with sodium carbonate\u00a0and sodium\nbicarbonate, CO 2 gas is evolved.\n2CH 3COOH +Na 2CO 3\u2192 2CH 3COONa +H2O+CO 2\nCH 3COOH +NaHCO 3\u2192CH 3COONa +H2O+CO 2\nFriendly Carbon\nWhy Carbon Can Form so Many Compounds\nCatenation occurs most readily with carbon due to its small size, electronic con\ufb01guration\nand unique strength of carbon-carbon bonds.",
  "Tetravalency, catenation and tendency to\nform multiple bonds with other atoms account for the formation of innumerable carbon\ncompounds.\nCatenation\nCatenation is the self-linking property of an element by which an atom forms covalent\nbonds with the other atoms of the same element to form straight or branched chains and\nrings of different sizes. It is shown by carbon, sulphur and silicon.\nS8\nIn its native state, sulphur show catenation up to 8 atoms in the form of S 8 molecule. It has\npuckered ring structure.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nIntroductionAll living organisms have certain common characteristics such as breathing, growing, requiring nutrition, producing offspring, responding to stimuli, etc. that distinguish them from non-living things. There are certain vital processes that maintain homeostasis and proper functioning of the body, they are called life processes. These processes continue to occur even when we are sleeping or not performing any action. These processes are essential for all living organisms including plants and animals. These life processes are nutrition, photosynthesis, transportation, metabolism, respiration, reproduction and excretion.In this chapter, we will learn about the details of these processes occurring in plants, animals and human beings in particular.LifeEarth happens to be the only known planet having a life. There are beings who live, die and become part of nature again. The living organism can be differentiated from the inanimate entities on various parameters of life processes.",
  "There are beings who live, die and become part of nature again. The living organism can be differentiated from the inanimate entities on various parameters of life processes.\nLife Process\n \n\u2022The maintenance of living organisms is essential even if they are moving, resting or even sleeping.\u2022The processes which together perform the function of maintenance of 'life' are called as life processes.\u2022Nutrition, respiration, circulation, and excretion are examples of essential life processes.\u2022In unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by a single cell.\u2022In multicellular organisms, well-developed systems are present to carry out the processes.\nTo know more about Life Process, visit here. Students can refer to the short notes and MCQ questions along with a separate solution pdf of this chapter for quick revision from the links below:\u2022Life Processes Short Notes\u2022Life Processes MCQ Practice Questions\u2022Life Processes MCQ Practice Solutions",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTo know more about Life Process, visit here. Students can refer to the short notes and MCQ questions along with a separate solution pdf of this chapter for quick revision from the links below:\u2022Life Processes Short Notes\u2022Life Processes MCQ Practice Questions\u2022Life Processes MCQ Practice Solutions\n \nNutritionNutritionThe process of acquiring food that is needed for nourishment and sustenance of the organism is called nutrition.\u2022There are two main modes of nutrition, autotrophic and heterotrophic.\u2022Autotrophic nutrition is present in plants, algae and some bacteria. Organisms produce their own food using light energy or chemical energy by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, respectively.\u2022Heterotrophic nutrition is present in bacteria, fungi and animals. They derive energy from organic compounds.",
  "Organisms produce their own food using light energy or chemical energy by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, respectively.\u2022Heterotrophic nutrition is present in bacteria, fungi and animals. They derive energy from organic compounds. Such as animals eating plants or other animals for food.\u2022Heterotrophic nutrition has subtypes such as holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic nutrition.To know more about Nutrition, visit here.Autotrophic NutritionIf an organism can nourish\u00a0itself by making its own food using sunlight or chemicals such mode of nutrition is called as autotrophic nutrition.\u2022Plants photosynthesize (use light energy) and are called photoautotrophs.\u2022Few bacteria use chemicals to derive energy and are called chemoautotrophs.",
  "Photosynthesis\u2022Photosynthesis is an important process by which food is formed.\u2022The plants make food using sunlight and water, which provides nourishment to other organism and themselves.\u2022Chlorophyll present in the green parts absorbs light energy.\u2022This light energy is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.\u2022Hydrogen is then used to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, typically glucose.\u2022Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis and stomata to facilitate intake of carbon dioxide.The overall reaction occurring in photosynthesis is as follows:6CO2 + 6H2O \u2192 C6H12O6 + 6O2To know more about Photosynthesis, visit here.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nStomata\u2022Stomata are pores on the leaves that help in the exchange of gases.\u2022They are mostly found on the underside of the leaf.\u2022Each stoma is guarded by guard cells, which control the opening and closing of the pore.\u2022The water content of the guard cells is responsible for their function.\nTo know more about Stomata, visit here.Saprophytic NutritionSome organisms feed on dead and decaying organic matter. This mode of nutrition is called saprophytic nutrition.\u2022The food is partially\u00a0digested outside the body and then it is absorbed.\u2022E.g. Fungi are saprophytes.Parasitic NutritionSome organisms feed at the expense of another organism and in turn cause harm. This is called the parasitic mode of nutrition.\u2022These parasites live on the body or in the body of a host organism and derive the nutrients directly from the body of the host.\u2022E.g. Leech is an ectoparasite while Ascaris\u00a0is an endoparasite. Cuscuta is a parasitic plant.",
  "Leech is an ectoparasite while Ascaris\u00a0is an endoparasite. Cuscuta is a parasitic plant.\n \nNutrition in Amoeba\u2022Amoeba feeds by holozoic mode of nutrition.\u2022It engulfs the food particle using pseudopodia, the process is called phagocytosis.\u2022The engulfed food gets enclosed in a food vacuole.\u2022As the food vacuole passes through the cytoplasm, digestion, absorption and assimilation take place.\u2022When the food vacuole opens to outside, the egestion of undigested food takes place.\n \nTo know more about Nutrition in Amoeba, visit here.Nutrition in Paramoecium\u2022Paramoecium also exhibits holozoic nutrition.\u2022However, they have cilia that help them to engulf the food through the oral groove.\u2022A food vacuole is created enclosing the food.\u2022It moves through the cytoplasm, the process is called cyclosis.\u2022Food digested in the food vacuole is absorbed by the cytoplasm.\u2022Undigested food is given out to a tiny pore\u00a0called anal pore or cytopyge.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nNutrition in Humans\u2022Humans are omnivores, they can eat plant-based food as well as animal-based\u00a0food.\u2022Being more complex, humans have a very complicated nutrition system.\u2022The digestive system has an alimentary canal and associated digestive glands, which together function to nourish the body.\u2022There are \ufb01ve stages in human nutrition; Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation and Egestion.\u2022Four stages\u00a0i.e. ingestion, digestion, absorption and egestion take place in the alimentary canal while assimilation of food takes place in the whole body.To know more about Nutrition in Humans, visit here.Alimentary Canal\u2022The alimentary canal in humans is a long tube of varying diameter.\u2022It starts with the mouth and ends with the anus.\u2022Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine are the parts of the alimentary canal.\n \nTo know more about Alimentary Canal, visit here.\u00a0Mouth",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTo know more about Alimentary Canal, visit here.\u00a0Mouth\n \n\u2022It is the opening of the alimentary canal and helps in the ingestion of food.\u2022The buccal cavity which is present behind the mouth is also commonly referred to as the mouth.\u2022The buccal cavity has teeth and a tongue.\u2022The set of teeth helps in the mastication of food.\u2022The tongue has taste buds on it and thus helps in tasting the food.\u2022The salivary glands open also in the buccal cavity and pour saliva which initiates the process of digestion.Teeth\u2022Teeth are the hard structures present in the buccal cavity.\u2022They help us to cut, shear and masticate the food we eat.\u2022The vertical section of a tooth shows four layers enamel, dentine, cement and dental pulp.\u2022Enamel is the outermost, shiny, highly mineralized and the hardest part of the human body.\u2022Dentine makes the bulk of the tooth and contains 70% inorganic salts.\u2022Cement is present at the lining of a tooth and bony socket.",
  "dentine, cement and dental pulp.\u2022Enamel is the outermost, shiny, highly mineralized and the hardest part of the human body.\u2022Dentine makes the bulk of the tooth and contains 70% inorganic salts.\u2022Cement is present at the lining of a tooth and bony socket.\u2022The dental pulp is the central soft part of a tooth and contains nerve endings, blood and lymph vessels along with connective tissue.\u2022There are four types of teeth in humans, Incisors, canines, molars and premolars, each with a speci\ufb01c function.\u2022Incisors cut the food, canines tear the food while molars and premolars crush it.\u2022The dental formula in adult humans is 2:1:2:3.\n \nOesophagus & StomachOesophagus\u2022The swallowed food passes into the oesophagus.\u2022It is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long, with a sphincter (valve/opening) at each end.\u2022Its function is to transport food and \ufb02uid, after being swallowed, from the mouth to the stomach.\u2022Food is pushed down by peristaltic movements.Stomach",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021.txt\nOesophagus & StomachOesophagus\u2022The swallowed food passes into the oesophagus.\u2022It is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long, with a sphincter (valve/opening) at each end.\u2022Its function is to transport food and \ufb02uid, after being swallowed, from the mouth to the stomach.\u2022Food is pushed down by peristaltic movements.Stomach\n \n\u2022The stomach is a thick-walled bag-like structure.\u2022It receives food from the oesophagus at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other end.\u2022The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices.\u2022Food is churned into a semi-solid mass in the stomach and is called chyme.\u2022Enzymes present in the gastric juice break down the\u00a0food.\u2022Hydrochloric acid\u00a0helps in the partial digestion of proteins and also kills harmful bacteria.\u2022The mucus secreted by the wall of the stomach\u00a0resists the action of HCl on itself.Small Intestine\u2022The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal,",
  "\u2022Hydrochloric acid\u00a0helps in the partial digestion of proteins and also kills harmful bacteria.\u2022The mucus secreted by the wall of the stomach\u00a0resists the action of HCl on itself.Small Intestine\u2022The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal, about 20 feet long in humans.\u2022It has regions, duodenum, the region which follows the stomach, jejunum\u00a0is the middle part and the ileum is the later region which continues further into the large intestine.\u2022The internal surface of the small intestine is folded into \ufb01nger-like\u00a0projections called villi.\u2022A common pancreatic duct from the pancreas\u00a0and liver opens into the duodenum.\u2022Most of the chemical digestion and absorption take place in the small intestine.Large Intestine\u2022The large intestine in humans is about 5 feet long.\u2022It has two regions, colon ( about 1.5 m) and rectum (10 cm in length in the adult).\u2022The region of large intestine after ileum is called colon while the last part is called the rectum.\u2022Colon has three regions as, ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon.",
  "colon ( about 1.5 m) and rectum (10 cm in length in the adult).\u2022The region of large intestine after ileum is called colon while the last part is called the rectum.\u2022Colon has three regions as, ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon.\u2022At the base of the ascending colon, a small \ufb01nger-like out-growth is seen and is called\u00a0an appendix.\u2022It houses many useful bacteria required for digestion of food.\n \n\u2022Rectum opens to outside by anus.\u2022The anus has internal and external anal sphincters.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u2022Rectum opens to outside by anus.\u2022The anus has internal and external anal sphincters.\nPeristalsisA constant wave-like movement of the alimentary canal right from the oesophagus to the small intestine is called as peristalsis.\u2022Muscles present in the wall of the alimentary canal are responsible for peristalsis.\u2022This movement helps to push the food through the alimentary canal.To know more about Peristalsis, visit here.Digestive Glands\u2022Several glands produce digestive juices that help in digestion of the food.\u2022Salivary glands, Gastric glands, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas are few to name.\u2022Salivary glands secrete saliva which initiates digestion in the mouth itself.\u2022Gastric glands\u00a0present in the wall of the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid and enzyme pepsin.\u2022The liver secretes bile which is stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps in digestion of fats.\u2022The pancreas secretes many digestive enzymes and its secretion is called as pancreatic juice.",
  "Bile helps in digestion of fats.\u2022The pancreas secretes many digestive enzymes and its secretion is called as pancreatic juice.\n \n\u2022Enzymes like trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase, amylase are present in the pancreatic juice.Pancreas\u2022The pancreas is a long, \ufb02at gland present behind the stomach in humans.\u2022It is one of the major digestive glands and is of mixed nature i.e. endocrine as well as exocrine.\u2022As an endocrine organ, it secretes two hormones called insulin and glucagon which maintain the blood sugar level.\u2022As an exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic juice which is nothing but a mixture of many digestive enzymes.\u2022The digestive enzymes secreted by the pancreas include trypsin and chymotrypsin and proteases which digest proteins.\u2022It also includes amylase which digests the starch content of the food.\u2022Pancreatic lipases are the pancreatic enzymes that help in digestion of fats.\nTo know more about Pancreas, visit here.Holozoic NutritionThe mode of nutrition in which animals take their food as a whole is called as holozoic nutrition.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\nIn holozoic nutrition, food passes through \ufb01ve steps as ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.Physiology of Digestion\u2022Mechanical digestion of food takes place in the buccal cavity where teeth masticate the food, saliva gets mixed and it turns into a bolus.\u2022Digestion of starch starts in the buccal cavity itself, with the action of salivary amylase present in the saliva.\u2022Salivary amylase converts starch into maltose.\u2022In the stomach, the churning of food takes place due to the muscular contraction and relaxation of its wall. It breaks down the food into simpler substances.\u2022Digestion of proteins starts in the stomach with the action of pepsin.",
  "It breaks down the food into simpler substances.\u2022Digestion of proteins starts in the stomach with the action of pepsin. Proteins are broken down into smaller fragments called peptide by the action of pepsin.\u2022The bolus after mixing with gastric juice, turn into a \ufb01ne soluble form known as the chyme.\u2022Chyme enters into the small intestine where complete digestion takes place due to the action of various enzymes present in the pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice.\u2022The digested food is completely absorbed by the villi and microvilli of the small intestine.\u2022Undigested food\u00a0then enters into the large intestine.\u2022The colon is responsible for absorption of water and salts whereas rectum stores the undigested food temporarily before defaecation.To know more about Digestive System, visit here.Digestive System in Other Animals\u2022Digestive systems in different animals vary in structure and function.\u2022The structure of the\u00a0digestive\u00a0system depends on the food habits of the animal.\u2022Alimentary canal in herbivores is long as the cellulose content of their plant-based diet takes a long time to digest.\u2022On the other hand, the alimentary canal of carnivorous animals is comparatively shorter because meat gets digested faster.Anatomy of Digestive Tract\u2022The alimentary canal in humans is approximately 30 feet (9m) long.",
  "It is also called the\u00a0gastrointestinal tract.\u2022It starts with the mouth and ends in the anus.\u2022Between these two openings, the alimentary canal is a tube of varying diameter.\u2022Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (divided into three regions duodenum, jejunum and ileum) and large intestine(having two regions colon and rectum) are the parts of the alimentary canal.\u2022Salivary glands, pancreas and liver act as major digestive glands.\u2022Glands present in the wall of the stomach and small intestine also contribute to the digestion of food.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021.txt\nRole of HCl\u2022Hydrochloric acid in the stomach is secreted by the gastric glands present in its wall.\u2022the pH of the gastric acid\u00a0is usually between 1.5\u00a0to\u00a03.5\u2022This acid serves the following functions:1.Converts inactive pepsinogen and pro-rennin into active pepsin and rennin respectively.2.Provides an acidic medium for protein digestion.3.Kills bacteria entered through food and prevents infection.4.Prevents putrefaction of food in the stomach.\u2022A thick layer of mucus secreted by the mucous glands of the stomach prevents itself from the action of gastric acid.\u2022Excess acid\u00a0damages gastric mucosa and causes gastric and duodenal ulcers.Salivary Glands\u2022Salivary glands are the exocrine glands that secrete saliva and through a system of ducts, it is poured into the mouth.\u2022In humans, three major pairs of salivary glands are present, parotid, submandibular and sublingual.\u2022In healthy individuals between 0.5 to 1.5 litres of saliva is produced per day.",
  "it is poured into the mouth.\u2022In humans, three major pairs of salivary glands are present, parotid, submandibular and sublingual.\u2022In healthy individuals between 0.5 to 1.5 litres of saliva is produced per day.\u2022Saliva serves the following functions in the oral cavity:1.It lubricates and protects the soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity2.It also gives protection from dental caries3.Saliva prevents microbial growth in the oral cavity.4.Saliva can encourage soft tissue repair by decreasing clotting time and increasing wound contraction5.Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that hydrolyses starch into maltose and dextrin. Hence saliva allows digestion to occur before the food reaches the stomach6.Saliva acts as a solvent in which solid particles can dissolve in and enter the taste buds located on the tongue.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nHeterotrophic NutritionWhen an organism depends on others for food, such a mode of nutrition is called as a heterotrophic mode of nutrition.\u2022These organisms depend on autotrophs for their nutritional requirements.\u2022E.g. Animals which eat plants as their food are called herbivores.\u2022Animals which eat other animals as their food are called carnivores.\u2022Holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic nutrition are all types of heterotrophic nutrition.To know more about Heterotrophic Nutrition, visit here.Glandular Epithelium\u2022Many small glands present in the inner layer of the stomach and intestine take part in the digestion of food.\u2022These glands are present in the epithelial lining of the stomach and intestine.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021.txt\n\u2022The glands present in different regions of the stomach are called gastric glands.\u2022They are responsible for the secretion of mucus, hydrochloric acid and enzymes like pepsinogen.\u2022The glands present in the epithelial lining of the small\u00a0intestine and large intestine are called intestinal glands.\u2022Glands of the small intestine are responsible for the secretion of intestinal juice also called succus entericus.\u2022Intestinal juice contains\u00a0hormones,\u00a0digestive enzymes, alkaline mucus, and substances to neutralize\u00a0hydrochloric acid\u00a0coming from the\u00a0stomach.\u2022Intestinal juice completes the digestion started by the pancreatic juice.\u2022Glands of the large intestine are associated with the absorption of water and electrolytes.Villi and Micro Villi\u2022Complete digestion and absorption of food take place in the small intestine.\u2022Pancreatic juice coming from the pancreas, bile from the liver and intestinal juice secreted by the intestinal glands complete the digestion of food material.\u2022All the digested nutrients are absorbed by the long \ufb01nger-like projections present in the ileum of the small intestine.",
  "\u2022Pancreatic juice coming from the pancreas, bile from the liver and intestinal juice secreted by the intestinal glands complete the digestion of food material.\u2022All the digested nutrients are absorbed by the long \ufb01nger-like projections present in the ileum of the small intestine.\u2022These small \ufb01nger-like\u00a0projections of the inner wall of intestine are called as villi (singular: villus).\u2022Each villus has its cell membrane of the lumen side again folded into microscopic processes, called microvilli.\u2022Villi increase the internal surface area of the intestinal walls making available a greater surface area for absorption.\u2022Digested nutrients pass into the semipermeable villi through diffusion.\u2022Villi also help in chemical digestion of food by secreting digestive enzymes.\n \n\u00a0Liver",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nLiver\n \n\u2022The liver is the largest and major digestive gland of humans\u2022Liver, in humans, is located in the upper right-hand portion of the abdomen.\u2022This\u00a0organ is dark reddish-brown in colour due to an extensive blood supply.\u2022Some of the important functions of the liver are as follows:1.It secretes bile that helps in digestion.2.It \ufb01lters the blood coming from the digestive tract before passing it to the rest of the body.3.It detoxi\ufb01es various metabolites and antidote.4.The liver makes proteins important for blood clotting and other functions.5.It stores and releases glucose as needed.6.It processes\u00a0haemoglobin, from the dead and worn out RBCs, for the iron content (the liver stores iron).7.Conversion of harmful ammonia to urea takes place in the liver.To know more about Liver, visit here.Digestive Juices",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u2022Pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice (succus entericus) are collectively called digestive juices.\u2022A common duct from digestive glands pours the secretions into the duodenum.\u2022Chyme enters the small intestine where complete digestion takes place due to the action of various enzymes.\u2022In the duodenum, the acidity of chyme is turned to alkalinity\u00a0by the action of bile coming from the liver. This is necessary for pancreatic enzyme action.\u2022Bile also emulsi\ufb01es the fats into smaller globules.\u2022Pancreatic and intestinal amylases break down carbohydrates into glucose.\u2022Trypsin and chymotrypsin are the proteases responsible for the breakdown of proteins \ufb01nally into amino acids.\u2022Lipase is the enzyme which acts on the emulsi\ufb01ed fats and breaks them down into glycerol and fatty acids.Water Absorption in Large Intestine\u2022The large intestine is not involved in the digestion of food or absorption of nutrients.\u2022The major function\u00a0of the large\u00a0intestine\u00a0is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter and make the stool solid.",
  "Water Absorption in Large Intestine\u2022The large intestine is not involved in the digestion of food or absorption of nutrients.\u2022The major function\u00a0of the large\u00a0intestine\u00a0is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter and make the stool solid.\u2022The large intestine also helps in the absorption of vitamins made by bacteria that normally live in the large intestine.\u2022The innermost layer of the large intestine also acts as a barrier and protects from microbial infections and invasions.\u2022Rectum stores the undigested food temporarily until defecation.RespirationIntroduction to Respiration\u2022Respiration broadly means the exchange of gases.\u2022Animals and plants have different means of exchange of gases.\u2022At a cellular level, respiration means the burning of the food at the for generating the energy needed for other life processes.\u2022Cellular respiration may take place in the presence or absence of oxygen.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021.txt\nTo know more about Respiration, visit here.Respiration in Humans\u2022The human respiratory system is more complex and involves breathing, exchange of gases and cellular respiration.\u2022A well de\ufb01ned respiratory system helps breathing and exchange of gases.\u2022Breathing involves the inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide.\u2022The gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs and oxygen is supplied to all cells of the body.\u2022Cellular respiration takes place in each and every cell.Respiratory System\u2022The human respiratory system involves the nose, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea/windpipe, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.\u2022Bronchioles and alveoli are enclosed in a pair of lungs.\u2022The rib cage, muscles associated with the rib cage and diaphragm, all help in inhalation and exhalation of gases.\u2022Exchange of gases takes place between an alveolar surface and surrounding blood vessels.\u2022Alveoli provide a large surface area for exchange of gases.To know more about Respiratory System, visit here.",
  "all help in inhalation and exhalation of gases.\u2022Exchange of gases takes place between an alveolar surface and surrounding blood vessels.\u2022Alveoli provide a large surface area for exchange of gases.To know more about Respiratory System, visit here.Physiology of Respiration\u2022Breathing in humans is facilitated by the action of internal intercostal and external intercostal muscles attached to the ribs and the diaphragm.\u2022When the dome-shaped diaphragm contracts and becomes \ufb02attened and the rib cage is expanded due to the action of intercostal muscles, the volume of the lungs increases, pressure there drops down and the air from outside gushes in. This is inhalation.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u2022To exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, becomes dome-shaped again, chest cavity contracts due to the action of intercostal muscles, the volume inside the lungs decreases, pressure increases and the air is forced out of the lungs.\u2022Inhaled air increases the concentration of oxygen in the alveoli,\u00a0 so oxygen simply diffuses into the surrounding blood vessels.\u2022Blood coming from cells has more concentration of carbon dioxide than outside air and thus carbon dioxide simply\u00a0diffuses out of the blood vessels into the alveoli.\u2022Thus, breathing takes place due to the combined action of intercostal muscles and diaphragm while the exchange of gases takes place due to simple diffusion.",
  "Inhalation and Exhalation\u2022The process of taking in air rich in oxygen is called\u00a0inhalation.\u2022Similarly, the process of giving out air rich in carbon dioxide is called\u00a0exhalation.\u2022One breath comprises one inhalation and one exhalation.\u2022A person breathes several times in a day.\u2022The number of times a person breathes in one minute is termed as his/her\u00a0breathing rate.To know more about Inhalation and Exhalation, visit here.Diffusion\n \nDiffusion is the\u00a0movement of molecules from high concentration area to the low concentration area without spending any energy.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nDiffusion is the\u00a0movement of molecules from high concentration area to the low concentration area without spending any energy.\n\u00a0Cellular RespirationCellular respiration is set of metabolic reactions occurring inside the cells to convert biochemical energy obtained from the food into a chemical compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).\u2022Metabolism\u00a0refers to a set of chemical reactions carried out for maintaining the living state of the cells in an organism. These can be divided into two categories:\u2022Catabolism\u00a0\u2013 the process of breaking molecules to obtain energy.\u2022Anabolism\u00a0\u2013 the process of synthesizing all compounds required by the cells.\u2022Therefore, respiration is a catabolic process, which breaks large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy to fuel cellular activities.\u2022Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain are the important processes of the cellular respiration.\n \n\u00a0To know more about Cellular Respiration, visit here.Aerobic RespirationAerobic respiration is a process in which the food i.e.",
  "To know more about Cellular Respiration, visit here.Aerobic RespirationAerobic respiration is a process in which the food i.e. glucose is converted into energy in the presence of oxygen.\u2022The general equation of aerobic respiration as a whole is as given below-Glucose + oxygen \u21d2\u00a0Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy\u2022This type of respiration takes place in animals, plants and other living organisms.Respiration in Lower Animals\u2022Lower animals lack a sophisticated respiratory system like lungs, alveoli etc.\u2022Respiration\u00a0in them\u00a0takes place by simple exchange mechanisms.\u2022Animals like earthworms take in gases through their skin.\u2022Fishes have gills for gaseous exchange.\u2022Insects have a tracheal system, which is a network of tubes, through which air circulates and gaseous exchange takes place.\u2022Frogs breathe through their skin when in water and through their lungs when on land.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nRespiration in Muscles\u2022Respiration in muscles can be anaerobic when there is not enough oxygen.\u2022Glucose gets broken down into\u00a0carbon dioxide and lactic acid.\u2022This results in the accumulation of lactic acid that makes the muscles sore.\u2022This type of anaerobic respiration is also known as lactic acid fermentation.ATP\u2022It is the energy currency of the cell.\u2022ATP stands for Adenosine Tri-Phosphate.\u2022This molecule is created as a result reactions like photosynthesis, respiration etc.\u2022The three phosphate bonds present in the molecule are high-energy bonds and when they are broken, a large amount of energy is released.\u2022Such released energy is then used for other metabolic reactions.\n \n\u00a0Respiration in Plants\u2022Unlike animals and humans, plants do not have any specialized structures for gaseous exchange\u2022They have stomata (present in leaves) and lenticels (present in stems) which are involved in the exchange of gases.\u2022Compared to animals, plant roots, stems, and leaves respire at a very lower rate.",
  "To know more about Respiration in Plants, visit here.Transpiration\n\u2022Transpiration is a biological process in which water is lost in the form\u00a0of water vapour from the aerial parts of the plants.\u2022This process occurs mainly through the stomata where the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) occurs.\u2022Transpiration helps in the transportation of water from roots to upper parts of plants and this is explained by 'transpirational pull theory'.\u2022Loss of water, especially from leaves, acts as a straw effect and pulls water upwards from roots.\u2022Transpiration also acts as an excretory mechanism in plants as it helps to get rid of excess water.To know more about Transpiration, visit here.Why Do We Need Lungs",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021.txt\n\u2022In unicellular organisms like an amoeba exchange of gases takes place through a general body surface by osmosis.\u2022In lower animals like an earthworm, the gaseous exchange takes place through their moist skin.\u2022The requirement for oxygen is suf\ufb01ciently met in these ways.\u2022But as the animal starts becoming more and more complex, for example, humans, the requirement of oxygen cannot be met alone by diffusion.\u2022Moreover, diffusion will not be able to supply oxygen to the deep-seated\u00a0cells.\u2022This dif\ufb01culty has led to the evolution of a\u00a0more complex mechanism of gaseous exchange and that is the development of lungs.\u2022The alveoli present in the lungs provide a large surface area required for the necessary gas exchange.Read more: Facts about LungsTransportation in Human Beings\n \nTransportation\u2022All living organisms\u00a0need a few necessary components like air, water, and\u00a0food for their survival.\u2022On a regular basis, animals ensure these elements by breathing, drinking and eating.\u2022The required\u00a0elements are transported to their body cells and tissues by a \u00a0transportation system.\u2022In plants,",
  "water, and\u00a0food for their survival.\u2022On a regular basis, animals ensure these elements by breathing, drinking and eating.\u2022The required\u00a0elements are transported to their body cells and tissues by a \u00a0transportation system.\u2022In plants, the vascular tissue is responsible for transporting the substances.Transportation in Humans\u2022Transportation in humans is done by the circulatory system.\u2022The circulatory system in humans mainly consists of blood, blood vessels and the heart.\u2022It is responsible for the supply of oxygen, and nutrients, and the removal of carbon dioxide and other excretory products.\u2022It also helps to \ufb01ght infections.\nTo know more about Transportation in Animals and Plants, visit here.Heart\n \n\u2022The muscular organ which is located near the chest slightly towards the left in the\u00a0thoracic region.\u2022The heart is the main pumping organ of the body.\u2022The human heart is divided into four chambers\u00a0which are involved in the transportation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.\u2022The upper two chambers are called atria whereas the lower two chambers are called as\u00a0ventricles.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u2022The muscular organ which is located near the chest slightly towards the left in the\u00a0thoracic region.\u2022The heart is the main pumping organ of the body.\u2022The human heart is divided into four chambers\u00a0which are involved in the transportation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.\u2022The upper two chambers are called atria whereas the lower two chambers are called as\u00a0ventricles.\n \nTo know more about Human Heart, visit here.\u2022The \ufb02ow of blood through the\u00a0heart is as follows:\nBlood Vessels\u2022Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body.\u2022There three types of blood vessels; arteries, veins and blood capillaries.\u2022Arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood.\u2022Gaseous exchange takes place between blood and cells at capillaries.Difference between Arteries and Veins\n \n\u00a0Blood PressureThe pressure exerted by the blood when it \ufb02ows through the blood vessels is called blood pressure.\u2022There are two different variants of blood pressure; systolic and diastolic blood pressure.\u2022The pressure exerted on the walls of arteries when the heart is \ufb01lling with blood is called diastolic pressure.",
  "It constitutes the minimum pressure on arteries.\u2022The normal range of diastolic blood pressure should be 60 \u2013 80 mm Hg.\u2022The pressure\u00a0exerted on the walls of arteries when the heart is pumping the blood is called systolic pressure. It constitutes the maximum pressure applied to the arteries.\u2022The normal range of systolic blood pressure should be 90 \u2013 120 mm Hg.To know more about Blood Pressure, visit here.Bleeding\u2022Bleeding occurs when the blood vessels rupture.\u2022Bleeding is stopped by the platelets that help in the clotting of blood at the site of the injury.\u2022Blood Clotting\u00a0is the process of forming a\u00a0clot in order to prevent excess loss of blood from the body.\u2022It is a gel-like mass which is formed by the platelets and a \ufb01bre-like protein in the blood.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nDouble Circulation\u2022In the human body, blood circulates through the heart twice.\u2022Once it goes through the heart during pulmonary circulation and second time during systemic circulation.\u2022Hence, circulation in human beings is called\u00a0double circulation.\n \nTo know more about Double Circulation, visit here.Transportation in PlantsTransportation in Plants\u2022Transportation is a vital process in plants.\u2022The process involves the transportation of water and necessary\u00a0nutrients\u00a0to all parts of the plant for its survival.\u2022Food and water transportation takes place separately in plants.\u2022Xylem transports water and phloem transports food.\n\u00a0To know more about Transportation in Plants, visit here.Phloem\n \n\u2022The phloem is responsible for translocation of\u00a0nutrients\u00a0and sugar like carbohydrates, produced by the leaves to areas of the plant that are metabolically active.\u2022Sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem \ufb01bres, and phloem parenchyma cells are the components of this tissue\u2022The \ufb02ow of material through phloem is bidirectional.",
  "Translocation\u2022Transport of food in the plant through phloem via a process such as mass \ufb02ow is called as translocation.\u2022Photosynthates i.e. sugars and organic molecules such as amino acids, organic acids, proteins and inorganic solutes like potassium, magnesium, nitrate, calcium, sulfur and iron from source tissues (mature leaves) to the sink cells (areas of growth and storage) are transported through the phloem.\u2022Material like sucrose is loaded from leaves to phloem using the energy of ATP.\u2022Such a transfer increases the osmotic pressure causing the movement of water from nearby cells into phloem tissue and the material gets transported through the phloem.\u2022The same pressure is also responsible for the transfer of substances from phloem to tissues where food is required.\u2022Thus the bulk \ufb02ow of material through phloem takes place in response to an osmotically generated pressure difference.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nXylem\u2022Xylem tissue transports water in plants from root to all other parts of the plant.\u2022Xylem tissue is made up tracheids, vessels, xylem \ufb01bres and xylem parenchyma.\u2022The \ufb02ow of water and minerals through xylem is always unidirectional.\n \nRoot Pressure\u2022Conduction of water through the xylem, from\u00a0roots to upper parts of plants, is due to many forces acting together.\u2022One of the forces responsible for this is root pressure.\u2022Root pressure is osmotic pressure within the cells of a root system that causes sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves.\u2022Root pressure helps in the initial transport of water up the roots.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTo know more about Root Pressure, visit here.Transport of Water\u2022Water is absorbed by the roots and is transported by xylem to the upper parts of the plant.Imbibition, osmosis, root pressure and transpiration are the forces that contribute towards the upward movement of water, even in the tallest plants.\u2022Imbibition is a process in which water is absorbed by the solids. E.g. seeds take up water when soaked.\u2022Osmosis is a process where water moves from the area of its lower concentration to the area of its higher concentration.\u2022At the roots, the cells take up ions by an active process and this results in the difference of concentration of these ions.\u2022It leads to movement of water, in the root cells, by osmosis.\u2022This creates a continuous column of water that gets pushed upwards.",
  "This is root pressure.\u2022Transpiration contributes to the upward movement of water by creating a staw effect.\u2022It pulls the water column upwards as there is a continuous loss of water from leaves.\u2022All these forces act together for water transport through the xylemExcretion in HumansExcretionExcretion is the process of removal of metabolic waste material and other non-useful substances.\u2022Organisms like animals have an advanced and specialized system for excretion.\u2022But plants lack a well-developed excretory system like that in animals.\u2022They do not have special organs for excretion and thus\u00a0excretion in plants is not so complex.Excretion in Unicellular Organisms\u2022In unicellular organisms such as amoeba and bacteria, the waste product is removed by simple diffusion through the general body surface.\u2022Unicellular organisms like the amoeba, and paramecium excrete excess through tiny organelles called contractile vacuoles.\u2022Undigested food in unicellular animals is excreted\u00a0when the food vacuole merges with the general body surface and opens to the outside.Excretory System of Humans\u2022The excretory system in humans includes\u25e6a pair of kidneys,\u25e6a pair of ureters,",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u25e6a urinary bladder and\u25e6urethra.\u2022It produces urine as a waste product.\nTo know more about Human Excretory System, visit here.Kidneys\u2022Paired kidneys are the main excretory organs of the body.\u2022They are basically the \ufb01ltration units of the human body.\u2022Each kidney is made up of many tiny \ufb01ltration units called nephrons.\u2022Kidneys\u00a0perform crucial functions like:1.Filtering waste materials, medications, and toxic substances from the blood.2.Regulation of osmolarity i.e. \ufb02uid balance of the body.3.Regulation of ion concentration in the body.4.Regulation of pH.5.Regulation of extracellular \ufb02uid volume.6.Secreting hormones that help produce red blood cells, promote bone health, and regulate blood pressureNephronNephrons are the structural and functional unit of kidney.\u2022Each kidney has millions of nephrons and it forms the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney.",
  "\u2022Each nephron has two parts: Malpighian body and renal tubule.\u2022Malpighian body is made up of cup-like structure called Bowman's capsule which encloses a bunch of capillaries called glomerulus.\u2022They together \ufb01lter waste materials along with many useful substances.\u2022Renal tubule has regions called proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle and distal convoluted tubule.\u2022These regions\u00a0absorb\u00a0back\u00a0useful\u00a0substances into the blood and also \ufb01lter remaining waste substances.\u2022The output from nephrons is called urine.\n\u00a0Haemodialysis\u25e6When the kidneys fail, it results in a lot of complications and to\u00a0compensate this situation a technology called dialysis has been developed.\u25e6It uses a machine \ufb01lter called a dialyzer or arti\ufb01cial kidney.\u25e6This is to remove excess water and salt, to balance other electrolytes in the body and remove waste products of\u00a0metabolism.",
  "\u25e6Blood from the body is removed and \ufb02owed through a series of tubes made up of a semipermeable membrane.\u25e6A dialysate \ufb02ows on the other side of the membrane, which draws impurities through the membrane.",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u25e6Blood from the body is removed and \ufb02owed through a series of tubes made up of a semipermeable membrane.\u25e6A dialysate \ufb02ows on the other side of the membrane, which draws impurities through the membrane.\nExcretion in Plants\u2022The cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and other metabolic reactions produce a lot of excretory products in plants.\u2022Carbon dioxide, excess water produced during respiration and nitrogenous compounds produced during protein metabolism are the major excretory products in plants.\u2022Plants produce two gaseous waste products i.e. oxygen during photosynthesis and carbon dioxide during respiration.\n \n\u2022Excretion of gaseous waste in plants takes place through stomatal pores on leaves.\u2022Oxygen released during photosynthesis is used for respiration while carbon dioxide released during respiration is used for\u00a0photosynthesis.\u2022Excess water is excreted by transpiration.\u2022Organic by-products generated by the plant\u00a0are stored in different forms in different parts.\u2022The gums, oils, latex, resins, etc.",
  "are some waste products stored in plant parts like barks, stems, leaves, etc.\u2022Eventually, plants shed off these parts.\u2022Few examples of the excretory products of plants are\u00a0oil produced from orange, eucalyptus, jasmine, latex from the rubber tree, papaya tree, and gums from acacia.\u2022Sometimes plants even excrete into the soil.\u00a0\nTo know more about Excretion in Plants, visit here.Also Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Chapter 5 Periodic Classi\ufb01cation of Elements Notes\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 6 Life Processes\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 6 - Life Processes\u2022Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1\u2022CBSE Class 10 History Notes Chapter 1 - The Rise of Nationalism in EuropeFrequently Asked Questions on Life Processes",
  "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nQ. The instrument used for measuring blood pressure is called?Ans. A sphygmomanometer is an instrument used for measuring blood pressure.Q. The phloem tissue in plants is responsible for doing which function?Ans. Phloem is the vascular tissues that is responsible for the transport of substances in plantsQ. Why aerobic respiration produces more usable chemical energy than fermentation?Ans. Aerobic respiration produces more usable chemical energy in the form of ATPs than fermentation because aerobic respiration involves the complete oxidation of glucose and the release of carbon dioxide and water as end products.",
  "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nIntroductionAll living organisms multiply or reproduce and produce offspring of a similar kind. Reproduction is an essential process for the existence of a species and the continuation of life.Here, in this chapter, we will learn about how different unicellular and multicellular organisms such as bacteria, algae, plants, animals and human beings reproduce. What are the different reproductive structures and modes of reproduction such as cell division, vegetative reproduction, asexual reproduction, and sexual reproduction.ReproductionReproduction is the process by which all organisms multiply in number and increase their population.To know more about Reproduction, visit here.Asexual reproductionAsexual reproduction is a method of reproduction that involves only one organism. A single organism reproduces two or multiple organisms on its own. This is seen in all unicellular organisms, some multicellular organisms and a few plants.To know more about Asexual reproduction, visit here.Sexual reproductionThe mode of reproduction that involves two individuals; one male and one female.",
  "A single organism reproduces two or multiple organisms on its own. This is seen in all unicellular organisms, some multicellular organisms and a few plants.To know more about Asexual reproduction, visit here.Sexual reproductionThe mode of reproduction that involves two individuals; one male and one female. They produce sex cells or gametes which fuse to form a new organism.To know more about Sexual reproduction, visit here.Asexual ReproductionFission\u2022Fission is an asexual reproduction that is common in most of the unicellular organisms.\u2022When the \ufb01ssion results in two daughter cells, it is binary \ufb01ssion (e.g. paramecium).\u2022When \ufb01ssion results in many daughter cells, it is called multiple \ufb01ssion (e.g. Plasmodium).\u2022Planes of \ufb01ssion may be different for different organisms.\n \n\u00a0To know more about Binary Fission, visit here.Budding\u2022Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is formed on the parent\u2019s body, which gives rise to a new individual.\u2022Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new individual (hydra).",
  "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nTo know more about Binary Fission, visit here.Budding\u2022Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is formed on the parent\u2019s body, which gives rise to a new individual.\u2022Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new individual (hydra).\n \nTo know more about Budding, visit here.Regeneration and fragmentation\u2022Regeneration is the process of growing back the lost organ or body part by the organism (e.g. lizard).\u2022Fragmentation is the process by which an organism gets fragmented into smaller pieces and each piece grows into a whole new organism.\u2022E.g. Planaria, Hydra\n \n\u2022Fragmentation and Regeneration in Hydra  To know more about Regeneration and fragmentation, visit here.Spore formationOrganisms such as fungi make spores that can grow into complete new individuals when dispersed from their fruiting body. Spores are produced inside sporangia. They are covered by a thick outer layer that protects them in adverse conditions. When spores get suitable environmental conditions they germinate and begin to grow.",
  "Spores are produced inside sporangia. They are covered by a thick outer layer that protects them in adverse conditions. When spores get suitable environmental conditions they germinate and begin to grow.\n \nRead more: Spore FormationVegetative propagation\n \n\u2022This is a\u00a0type of asexual reproduction seen in plants.\u2022The vegetative part of the plant,\u00a0like leaves, stem, roots, gives rise to a new plant.\u2022Vegetative propagation can be arti\ufb01cial or natural.\u2022Natural vegetative propagation happens through leaves (e.g. bryophyllum), stem (e.g. turmeric, ginger), runners/stolon (e.g.grass runners, strawberry), bulbs ( e.g.",
  "bryophyllum), stem (e.g. turmeric, ginger), runners/stolon (e.g.grass runners, strawberry), bulbs ( e.g. onion, lily), etc.\u2022Arti\ufb01cial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue culture.To know more about Vegetative propagation, visit here.Sexual ReproductionTypes of Cell division\n \nTwo types of cell division are seen in eukaryotic organisms:Mitosis\u2022Takes\u00a0place\u00a0in\u00a0somatic\u00a0cells\u2022Maintains\u00a0the\u00a0chromosome\u00a0number\u2022Produces\u00a0two,\u00a0diploid\u00a0daughter\u00a0cells\u2022Required\u00a0for\u00a0asexual\u00a0reproduction,\u00a0development\u00a0and\u00a0growth,\u00a0cell\u00a0replacement\u00a0and\u00a0 regenerationMeiosis",
  "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nTwo types of cell division are seen in eukaryotic organisms:Mitosis\u2022Takes\u00a0place\u00a0in\u00a0somatic\u00a0cells\u2022Maintains\u00a0the\u00a0chromosome\u00a0number\u2022Produces\u00a0two,\u00a0diploid\u00a0daughter\u00a0cells\u2022Required\u00a0for\u00a0asexual\u00a0reproduction,\u00a0development\u00a0and\u00a0growth,\u00a0cell\u00a0replacement\u00a0and\u00a0 regenerationMeiosis\n \n\u2022Takes\u00a0place\u00a0in\u00a0sex\u00a0cells\u2022Reduces\u00a0the\u00a0number\u00a0of\u00a0chromosomes\u00a0by\u00a0half\u2022Produces\u00a0four\u00a0haploid\u00a0daughter\u00a0cells\u2022Required\u00a0for\u00a0sexual\u00a0reproduction, i.e\u00a0gamete formationTo know more about Cell division, visit here.The Reproductive SystemIn humans, there is a remarkable difference in the male and female reproductive systems. Testes are the main reproductive structure in males where sperms (male gametes) are produced and ovum (female gamete) is produced inside the ovary.",
  "Testes are the main reproductive structure in males where sperms (male gametes) are produced and ovum (female gamete) is produced inside the ovary. Let us now learn in detail about male and female reproductive systems in humans.To know more about Human Reproductive System, visit here.Male reproductive system\u2022The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.\u2022They produce the male sex cells called sperms and also produce the male sex hormone testosterone.",
  "Let us now learn in detail about male and female reproductive systems in humans.To know more about Human Reproductive System, visit here.Male reproductive system\u2022The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.\u2022They produce the male sex cells called sperms and also produce the male sex hormone testosterone.\u00a0\n \nMale main reproductive organs\u2022The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.\u2022They are present in scrotal sacs outside the body and contain seminiferous tubules as the structural and functional unit.\u2022Male sex cells, sperms, are produced by seminiferous tubules and mature in the epididymis.\u2022Leydig cells or interstitial cells present in between the seminiferous tubules secrete hormone testosterone.Male accessory reproductive organs\u2022Several accessory reproductive organs aid in the reproductive process.\u2022The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles are glands of the reproductive system which make semen and nourish the sperm.\u2022Penis, having urethra passing through it, is called copulatory organ.Male Ducts\u2022In males, the vas deferens and the urethra are the main ducts.\u2022A single vas deferens carries sperms from respective testis up to the urethra.",
  "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\n\u2022The urethra acts as a common passage for semen and urine.To know more about Male Reproductive System, visit here.Female reproductive systemThe human female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tubes/oviducts and the accessory organs such as the uterus and the vagina.\u00a0\nFemale main reproductive organ\n \n\u2022The main reproductive organ in a\u00a0female is a\u00a0pair of ovaries.\u2022They produce the female sex cells called eggs or ova and also produce female sex hormones called estrogen and progesterone.Female accessory reproductive organ\u2022Uterus, oviducts, and vagina are the accessory reproductive organs in human females.\u2022The uterus is the site of fetal development and the vagina receives sperm from the male.",
  "Ovum is carried from ovaries to the uterus through a pair of oviducts.To know more about the Female reproductive system, visit here.Menstrual CycleMenstruation\u2022Menstruation is the cyclic event of the release of the ovum from the ovary and its removal from the body when fertilization does not happen.\u2022During menstruation, the blood-rich endometrium of the uterus also breaks down while the ovum is removed from the body.\u2022Two pituitary hormones, LH and FSH, and two ovarian hormones, estrogen and progesterone, all have their roles in menstruation.\u2022In humans, the cycle repeats every 28 days.To know more about Menstrual Cycle, visit here.FertilizationHuman reproductionHumans reproduce sexually. The male produces sperms and the female produces eggs. When the sperm fuses with the egg, it forms a zygote that gives rise to a new progeny.To know more about Fertilization, visit here.Contraceptive Methods\n \nReproductive healthReproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted pregnancy.",
  "When the sperm fuses with the egg, it forms a zygote that gives rise to a new progeny.To know more about Fertilization, visit here.Contraceptive Methods\n \nReproductive healthReproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted pregnancy. Understanding the reproductive system is also a part of reproductive health awareness.Contraceptives\u2022Contraceptives are devices that prevent unwanted pregnancy and help avoid STDs.",
  "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nReproductive healthReproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted pregnancy. Understanding the reproductive system is also a part of reproductive health awareness.Contraceptives\u2022Contraceptives are devices that prevent unwanted pregnancy and help avoid STDs.\n \n\u2022Contraceptives can be of various types such as mechanical barriers, hormonal/chemical methods, surgical methods, etc.Coitus Interruptus\u2022It is a very unreliable contraceptive method where the coitus is stopped before the male ejaculates inside the female reproductive tracts.Rhythm Method\u2022Another unreliable method of contraception is where coitus is avoided when the female is fertile and the chances of fertilization are very high.Condoms\u2022One of the most effective methods of contraception.\u2022A mechanical barrier that stops the semen from entering the female tract preventing pregnancy.\u2022It also avoids the possibility of contracting STDs.Diaphragms\u2022Diaphragms are barriers that can be added inside the female reproductive tracts.\u2022They stop the entry of semen inside the female tract and thus prevent pregnancy.Contraceptive Pills\u2022Contraceptive pills are chemical methods of contraception.",
  "\u2022It also avoids the possibility of contracting STDs.Diaphragms\u2022Diaphragms are barriers that can be added inside the female reproductive tracts.\u2022They stop the entry of semen inside the female tract and thus prevent pregnancy.Contraceptive Pills\u2022Contraceptive pills are chemical methods of contraception.\u2022They change the level of hormones in the body that prevents the release of the ovum from the ovaries.Emergency Pill\u2022Emergency pills are those pills which can be taken after coitus to avoid pregnancy.\u2022They quickly change the level of hormones in the body and prevent a successful implantation even if the egg gets fertilized.IUD\u2022IUD stands for Intrauterine Device.\u2022They can be used for a couple of years.\u2022It is a device that is inserted into the uterus, changing its shape and preventing successful implantation of the zygote.Sterilization\u2022Sterilization is a surgical method of going permanently sterile.\u2022This can be done in both males and females.\u2022In males, it is called vasectomy and in females, it is called tubal ligation.To know more about Contraceptive Methods, visit here.",
  "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nReproduction in PlantsPlants reproduce by both, asexual and sexual methods. Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in plants. Let\u2019s learn now about sexual reproduction in plants.To know more about Reproduction in Plants, visit here.Sexual reproduction in \ufb02owering plants\u2022Sexual reproduction in plants happens through \ufb02owers.\u2022Essential whorls of the \ufb02owers such as androecium and gynoecium help in the sexual reproduction of plants.Read more:\u00a0 Sexual Reproduction in PlantsNon-essential parts of \ufb02owers\u2022The typical structure of \ufb02owers contains essential whorls and non-essential whorls.\u2022Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not directly take part in reproduction.\u2022Sepals\u00a0protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis if they are green in colour.\u2022Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.",
  "\u2022Sepals\u00a0protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis if they are green in colour.\u2022Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.Essential whorls of \ufb02owers\u2022Androecium and gynoecium are called as essential/reproductive whorls of a \ufb02ower.\u2022Androecium produces pollen grains containing male gametes and gynoecium produces ovules which are female gametes.\u2022Bisexual \ufb02owers contain both the whorls while unisexual \ufb02owers contain either of them.\u2022Each individual member of androecium is called a\u00a0stamen and consists of anther\u00a0and \ufb01lament.\u2022Anther produces haploid pollen grains.\n \n\u2022Each individual member of gynoecium is called\u00a0pistil and consists of stigma, style and ovary.",
  "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\n\u2022Each individual member of gynoecium is called\u00a0pistil and consists of stigma, style and ovary. \nPollinationThe process of transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma of a \ufb02ower is known as pollination.\u2022It is required for fertilization.\u2022Pollination has two types, self-pollination\u00a0(autogamy) and cross-pollination (allogamy).\u2022In self-pollination, the transfer of pollen grains takes place from anthers to the stigma of the same \ufb02ower or another \ufb02ower of the same plant.\u2022In cross-pollination, pollens are transferred from anthers to the stigma of another \ufb02ower.\u2022Many pollinating agents play their roles in cross-pollination. Examples: water, wind, insects, birds, bats, etc.Know more: PollinationFertilizationFusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.\u2022In \ufb02owering plants after pollination, the pollens germinate on the stigma surface of pistil and generate two male nuclei.",
  "\u2022Ovule has egg cell and two polar nuclei.\u2022One male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei and forms triploid endosperm.\u2022Another male nucleus fuses with the egg cell and forms the zygote that gives rise to the embryo and future plant.\u2022After fertilization, ovary becomes fruit and ovules turn into seeds. All other parts wither away.\nKnow more: Fertilisation in PlantsAlso Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination Notes\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 9 Heredity And Evolution Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 8: How do Organisms Reproduce?\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 8 - How Do Organisms Reproduce\u2022Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 8: How do Organisms ReproduceWhat is difference between \ufb01ssion and fusion?",
  "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nFission is the process where an atom splits into two or more smaller parts. Whereas fusion involves the fusing of two or smaller atoms into a larger particular.What is fragmentation?Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where the parent organism breaks into fragments. Each of these fragments are capable of growing independently into a new organism.What is a gamete cell?Gamete cell are the reproductive cells of an organism. Female gametes are referred to a ova or egg cells and male gametes are known as sperms.",
  "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nIntroductionHeredity refers to the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next.\u00a0Evolution is de\ufb01ned as the gradual process by which a simple life form leads to the development of complex organisms over a period of time, spanning several generations.Here in this chapter, we will learn about the mechanism by which variations are created, the rules of heredity determining their pattern of inheritance, and how the accumulation of these variations leads to evolution.HeredityThe transfer of traits from one generation to the next is termed heredity. Genes are the functional units of heredity, that transfer characteristics from parents to offspring. Genes are short stretches of DNA that code for a speci\ufb01c protein or RNA.",
  "Genes are the functional units of heredity, that transfer characteristics from parents to offspring. Genes are short stretches of DNA that code for a speci\ufb01c protein or RNA. Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with the study of genes, heredity and variations.Sexual reproduction\u2022The mode of reproduction involves two individuals; one male and one female.\u2022They produce sex cells or gametes which fuse to form a new organism.Genes\u2022Gene is the functional unit of heredity.\u2022Every gene controls one or several particular characteristic features in living organisms.Read more: GenesHeredityThe process by which the features of an organism are passed on from one generation to another is called heredity.\u2022The process is done by genes, which de\ufb01ne the characters in the organism.To know more about Heredity, visit here.Mendel's work\u2022Gregor Johann Mendel, known as 'Father of Genetics', was an Austrian Monk who worked on pea plants to understand the concept of heredity.\u2022His work laid the foundation of modern genetics.\n \n\u2022He made three basic laws of inheritance - The Law of Dominance, The Law of Segregation and The Law of Independent Assortment.",
  "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\n\u2022He made three basic laws of inheritance - The Law of Dominance, The Law of Segregation and The Law of Independent Assortment.\nDominant traitsThe traits that express themselves in an organism in every possible combination and can be seen are called Dominant traits.\u2022In Mendel\u2019s experiment, we see that the tall trait in pea plants tends to express more than the short trait.\u2022Therefore, the tall trait of the plant is said to be dominant over the short trait.Recessive traitsA trait which is not expressed in the presence of a dominant allele is known as recessive.\u2022So, recessive character/trait is present in an organism but cannot be seen if a dominant allele exists.To know the difference between Dominant traits and Recessive traits, visit here.Monohybrid cross\u2022When only one character is considered while crossing two organisms, then such a cross is known as a monohybrid cross.",
  "\u2022The ratio of characters, arising out of this cross, at F2 generation is called the monohybrid ratio.\u2022E.g., If a tall plant (TT) is crossed with a dwarf plant (tt), we get 3 tall:1 short plant at the end of the F2 generation.\u2022So, 3:1 is a monohybrid ratio.\u2022Here, the height of the plant is considered at a time.Below is the example of a monohybrid cross between a true-breeding pea plant with green pods (GG) and yellow pods (gg). Here, the green colour of the pod is the dominant trait. Hence, in the F1 generation, all plants contain green pea pods.",
  "Here, the green colour of the pod is the dominant trait. Hence, in the F1 generation, all plants contain green pea pods.\nTo know more about Monohybrid cross, visit here.Dihybrid cross\u2022When two characters are considered while crossing two organisms, then such a cross is known as a dihybrid cross.\u2022The ratio of characters, arising out of this cross, at F2 generation is called the dihybrid ratio.\u2022E.g.,\u00a0If a plant with round and green pea is crossed with a plant with wrinkled and yellow pea,\u2022The \ufb01rst generation plants would\u00a0all have round and green peas.\u2022On crossing the same for an F2 generation, we would observe four combinations of characters in the ratio of 9:3:3:1.",
  "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\n\u2022Thus, 9:3:3:1 is the dihybrid ratio.\nTo know more about Dihybrid cross, visit here.InheritanceIn Biology, inheritance pertains to the transfer of traits from one generation to another.To know more about Mendel's laws of inheritance, visit here.Laws of Mendel\n \nLaw of Dominance says that a gene has two contrasting alleles and one always expresses itself in the organism.It is called the dominant gene and it expresses in any possible combination.Law of Segregation says that traits get segregated completely during the formation of gametes without any mixing of alleles.Law of Independent Assortment says that the traits can segregate independently of different characters during gamete formation.Sex determination\u2022The process of determining the sex of an individual, based on the composition of the genetic material is called sex determination.\u2022In different animals, sex of an embryo is determined by different factors.\u2022In humans, sex determination happens on the basis of the presence or absence of Y chromosome.\u2022XX is female and XY is male\u2022An ovum always contains X chromosome.\u2022An ovum, upon fusion with Y containing sperm,",
  "\u2022In different animals, sex of an embryo is determined by different factors.\u2022In humans, sex determination happens on the basis of the presence or absence of Y chromosome.\u2022XX is female and XY is male\u2022An ovum always contains X chromosome.\u2022An ovum, upon fusion with Y containing sperm,\u00a0gives rise to a male child and upon fusion with X containing sperm gives rise to a girl child.To know more about Sex determination, visit here.TraitsTraits are characteristic features of an organism, manifested in a physical form that is visible or in a physiological aspect of the organism.Acquired characters\u2022The traits that are acquired by an organism over the period of its lifetime are termed acquired characteristics.\u2022These characters that are not passed on to the DNA of germ cells do not get transferred to the next generation. E.g. loss of muscles and less weight due to starvation, loss of limb or tails due to injury, etc.",
  "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nInherited characters\u2022The traits that are inherited from the parents are called inherited characters.\u2022These traits always get transferred to the next generation but depending on the dominance or recessiveness they may or may not be expressed.\u2022Examples are height, skin colour and eye colour.To know more about Acquired and Inherited Traits, visit here.VariationVariation is the measure of the difference between individuals of the same species. Offspring is not identical to parents, there exist some variations. Each individual in a population differs from the others. Recombination and mutation are the main causes of variations.Sexually reproducing organisms show great variation among individuals of a species and the long-term accumulation of variations plays a signi\ufb01cant role in evolution. The selection of variants by environmental factors is one of the driving factors of evolutionary processes.Genetic variationsThe differences in the DNA sequences among every organism leading to the diverse gene pool are called genetic variations.",
  "The selection of variants by environmental factors is one of the driving factors of evolutionary processes.Genetic variationsThe differences in the DNA sequences among every organism leading to the diverse gene pool are called genetic variations. These differences lead to different/varied physical characters or biochemical pathways.To know more about Genetics, visit here.Natural selection\u2022It is the phenomenon by which a favourable trait in a population of a species is selected.\u2022Changing natural conditions exert equal pressure on all the existing species.\u2022The species/organisms which are better adapted to the changing conditions survive and reproduce i.e. selected by nature and species/organisms which cannot adapt perish i.e. rejected by nature.SpeciationGenetic driftNatural selection can play an important role in deciding the traits that survive in a population. However, random \ufb02uctuations in gene variants are seen on many occasions. This phenomenon is known as genetic drift. Thus, genetic drift is a change in the frequency of an existing allele in a small population.",
  "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nGenetic drift may cause a gene variant to disappear from the population and thus reduce genetic variation.SpeciationIt is the process of formation of a new species from existing ones due to several evolutionary forces like genetic drift, isolation of populations, natural selection, etc.\u00a0 Speciation leads to diversity in the ecosystem and the diversity and diversity lead to evolution.To know more about Speciation and evolution, visit here.Gene \ufb02owGene \ufb02ow is the transfer of genes from one population to the next. This occurs due to migration or the introduction of organisms to a new population.",
  "This occurs due to migration or the introduction of organisms to a new population. This results in the change in gene frequencies of a population.PopulationA population is a community or a group of animals, plants or any living organism that can reproduce with each other and have fertile, viable offspring.Charles Darwin\u2022Charles Darwin also called the\u00a0\"Father of Evolution\" was an English Naturalist and Biologist.\u2022Five years of the expedition in a ship called HMS Beagle to Galapagos Island helped him write his theory of evolution.\u2022In 1859 he published a book called Origin of Species, in which he put his theory of evolution in detail.To know more about Charles Darwin's Contribution to the Theory of Evolution, visit here.Evolution and FossilsEvolutionEvolution is a tangible change in the heritable characteristics of a population over several generations. These changes can give rise to a new species or the species might change themselves to become better adapted to the surrounding environment.Read more: Evolution",
  "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nOrigin of species\u2022After a successful expedition on HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin wrote a book on what he observed on the Galapagos Islands.\u2022In the book named 'The Origin of Species, he wrote a detailed theory of evolution which was mostly based on Natural Selection.Origin of life - Haldane's theory\u2022JBS Haldane was a British Scientist who theorized that life originated from organic and lifeless matter.\u2022His theory was proved to be correct by Urey and Miller\u2019s experiment.\u2022It was called the theory of abiogenesis.Evolutionary evidence - fossils\u2022There are plenty of pieces of evidence to support the theory of evolution.\u2022Fossils happen to be the biggest of them.\u2022Fossils are the preserved remains of ancient animals or plants that died millions of years ago.\u2022The fossils help us understand the anatomy and even physiology of these organisms and understand how evolution worked and led to the formation of organisms that we see today.Formation of FossilsFossils are important pieces of evolutionary evidence and are formed by the following steps:\u2022Organisms die and they get buried in mud and silt.",
  "Formation of FossilsFossils are important pieces of evolutionary evidence and are formed by the following steps:\u2022Organisms die and they get buried in mud and silt.\u2022The soft tissues of the body get quickly leaving behind the hard bones or shells\u2022Over time sediments build over it and harden into rock\u2022As the bones decay, mineral seep in to replace the contents cell by cell, process called as petri\ufb01cation\u2022If bones decay completely, it leaves behind the cast of the animal.To know more about Fossils, visit here.Evolutionary relationshipsEvolutionary relationships of animals can be deduced by studying the homologous organs and analogous organs.Homologous organs are those which have a similar\u00a0structure but different function.\u2022Wings of birds and forelimbs of mammals: they have similar structure but are modi\ufb01ed to suit different functions\u2022A tendril of pea plant and spine of barberry plant: both are modi\ufb01ed leaves, but perform different\u00a0functions.",
  "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nAnalogous organs are those which have a similar function but a different structure and origin too.\u2022Wings of bats, birds and wings of insects: both are used for \ufb02ying, but structurally are very different\u2022Leaves of opuntia and peepal: both perform photosynthesis, but leaves of Opuntia are modi\ufb01ed stem whereas peepal leaves are normal leaves.\nTo know more about Fossils Evolutionary Relationships, visit here.Evolution by stage\u2022Evolution is a slow process and does not happen overnight.\u2022There are several stages in the evolution of almost every animal that we see today.\u2022Complexities do not evolve suddenly, but evolve bit by bit and may have limited use at certain stages.\u2022This gradual evolutionary process is called evolution by stages.To know more about Evolution by Stages, visit here.Arti\ufb01cial selection\u2022Sometimes a single species can evolve into several different species due to arti\ufb01cial selection.\n \n\u2022E.g. the cabbage family.",
  "\u2022E.g. the cabbage family. A single ancestor in the cabbage family gave rise to several different species due to the selection of different traits.Molecular phylogeny\u2022The evolutionary relationship among different biological species is called phylogeny.\u2022It gives rise to an evolutionary tree.\u2022In molecular phylogeny these relationships are studied at the hereditary molecular level, mainly using DNA sequences.\u2022It involves the analysis of DNA composition and gene comparison between different species.Human Evolution\u2022Humans are known to belong to the primate family.\u2022Humans today have a very close genetic connection to chimps and other primates.\u2022While the complete evolutionary process of Humans from Primates is still a mystery, a larger picture of human evolution has been formed.\u2022Some of the ancestors of Humans include Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus, Australopithecus, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, Cro-magnon man, and \ufb01nally us, the Homo sapiens.\u2022Human evolution traces back to Africa. Then they migrated all over the world.",
  "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nMigration of Early HumansTo know more about Human Evolution, visit here.Also Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 8 How Do Organisms Reproduce Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 9 Heredity and Evolution\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 9 - Heredity And EvolutionFrequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 9: Heredity and EvolutionWhat is evolution?\n \nThe development of plants, animals, etc over many thousand years from simple forms to complex advanced forms.What does the Law of Segregation state?The law of segregation states that each individual that is a diploid has a pair of alleles (copies) for a particular trait.What is meant by natural selection?The process through which organisms adapt and change themselves in huge populations is known as natural selection.",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\n                                                                                             1 \nRevision Notes  \nClass 10  Science  \nChapter 10 Light Reflection and Refraction  \n \nImportant Terms   \nLight is a type of energy that can be converted into other types of energy.  \nLight does not require a physical medium to propagate.  \nLight's velocity in air or vacuu m is \n83 10 \u00a0 m / s\uf0b4 . \n \nRectilinear Propagation of Light   \nLight travels in a straight line in a homogeneous transparent medium, which is \nknown as rectilinear propagation of light.   \n \nReflection of Light   \nReflection of light describes the phenomen on by which a ray of light changes its \npropagation direction when it encounters a boundary between different media \nthrough which it cannot pass.   \nThere are two types of reflection of light:   \n\u27a2 Regular reflection or specular reflection   \n\u27a2 Irregular reflecti on or diffused reflection   \n \nRegular Reflection   \nThe perfect, mirror -like reflection of light is known as specular or regular \nreflection. Regular reflections include reflections in mirrors, water surfaces, and \nhighly polished floors.",
  "Regular reflections include reflections in mirrors, water surfaces, and \nhighly polished floors.    \n \n                                                                                             2 \n \nIrregular Reflection :  \nIrregular reflection, also known as diffused reflection, occurs when a ray of light \nstrikes a rough or unpolished wall or wood. In this case, the incident light is \nreflected in different directions by different parts of the surface. There is no \ndefinite  image formed in such cases, but the surface becomes visible. It is \ncommonly referred to as light scattering. As a result of the diffused reflection, non -\nluminous objects become visible.   \n \n \n \n \n                                                                                             3 \nReflection of Light by a Plane Surface:",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\ndefinite  image formed in such cases, but the surface becomes visible. It is \ncommonly referred to as light scattering. As a result of the diffused reflection, non -\nluminous objects become visible.   \n \n \n \n \n                                                                                             3 \nReflection of Light by a Plane Surface:   \nThe diagram depicts how a light ray is reflected by a plane surface. Assume MM' \nis a reflecting surface. When a light ray strikes MM' in the direction IO, it is \nreflected along the direction OR. The incident ray is denoted by IO, the point of \nincidence by O, and the reflected ray  by OR.  \n \nLet ON be the perpendicular normal to the surface MM' at the point of incidence. \nThe angle of incidence, denoted by the letter I is the angle formed by the incident \nray with the normal at the point of incidence. The angle of reflection 'r' is the  angle \nformed by the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence. A reflecting \nsurface is something like a mirror.",
  "The angle of reflection 'r' is the  angle \nformed by the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence. A reflecting \nsurface is something like a mirror.  \n \nLaws of Reflection:   \nThe laws of reflection are observed to apply to any plane surface's reflection. The \nincident ray, reflected ray, and normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same \nplane, according to the laws of reflection. The angle of incidence equals the angle \nof reflection.  \n \nNature of Image Formed By a Plane Reflecting Surface:   \n \n \n                                                                                             4 \nAn image can be both real and virtual. When light rays intersect after reflection, a \ntrue image is formed. When the light rays after reflection do not actually intersect \nbut appear to diverge from it, a virtual image is formed (these rays of light intersect \nwhen produced backwards).  \n \n \nRay Diag rams of Plane Mirrors:   \nWhen drawing ray diagrams, the following rays are usually taken into account: A",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\ntrue image is formed. When the light rays after reflection do not actually intersect \nbut appear to diverge from it, a virtual image is formed (these rays of light intersect \nwhen produced backwards).  \n \n \nRay Diag rams of Plane Mirrors:   \nWhen drawing ray diagrams, the following rays are usually taken into account: A \nray of light incident at 90 degrees on a plane mirror is reflected from the mirror \nalong the same path. A ray of light falling at any angle on a plane m irror is \nreflected from it in such a way that the angle of incidence equals the angle of \nreflection. The image is formed when the reflected rays appear to collide.  \n \n \n \n \n                                                                                             5 \nSpherical Mirrors:   \nA spherical mirror is a mirror with a polished, reflecting surface th at is part of a \nhollow sphere of glass or plastic. One of the two curved surfaces of a spherical \nmirror is coated with a thin layer of silver, followed by a coat of red lead oxide \npaint.",
  "One of the two curved surfaces of a spherical \nmirror is coated with a thin layer of silver, followed by a coat of red lead oxide \npaint. As a result, one side of the spherical mirror is opaque, while the ot her is a \nhighly polished reflecting surface. The opaque side of a mirror is always shaded in \na diagram.  \nPlease keep in mind that the opaque, non -reflecting side is shaded blue in the \ndiagrams below, while the reflecting side is shaded red.  \nThe spherical mi rror is classified as follows based on the nature of its reflecting \nsurface:  \nConcave mirror   \nA concave mirror is a spherical mirror with its reflecting surface oriented toward \nthe center of the sphere of which it is a part.  \nConvex mirror   \nA convex mirror i s a spherical mirror with a reflecting surface that is angled away \nfrom the center of the sphere of which it is a part.  \n \n \n \n \n                                                                                             6 \nCentre of curvature:",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nthe center of the sphere of which it is a part.  \nConvex mirror   \nA convex mirror i s a spherical mirror with a reflecting surface that is angled away \nfrom the center of the sphere of which it is a part.  \n \n \n \n \n                                                                                             6 \nCentre of curvature:  \nThe centre of curvature is the center of the sphere, of which the spherical mirror is \na part. It is represented by the letter C.  \n \n \nRadius of Curvature: The radius of the sphere, of which the mirror is a part, is \ndefined as the radius of curvature. It is denoted by the letter R.  \n \n \nLinear Aperture: The distance between the extreme points (X and Y) on the \nmirror's pe riphery is defined as the linear aperture.  \n \n \n                                                                                             7 \n \n \nPole: The pole is the spherical mirror's aperture's midpoint. It is denoted by the \nletter P.  \n \n \nPrincipal axis  \nThe principal axis of a spherical mirror is the straight line that passes through the \npole and the center of curvature.",
  "7 \n \n \nPole: The pole is the spherical mirror's aperture's midpoint. It is denoted by the \nletter P.  \n \n \nPrincipal axis  \nThe principal axis of a spherical mirror is the straight line that passes through the \npole and the center of curvature.  \n \n \n                                                                                             8 \n \n \nSecondary Axis:  A secondary axis is any radial line other than the principal axis \nthat passes through the center of curvature.   \n \n \nNormal: The normal at any point on the spherical mirror is the straight line formed \nby connecting tha t point to the mirror's center. The normal at point A on the mirror \nis the line AC obtained by connecting A to the mirror's center of curvature. The \nradius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is equal to the normal at any point \non a spherical mirro r. \n \n \n                                                                                             9 \n \n \nPrincipal Focus or Focus:",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nis the line AC obtained by connecting A to the mirror's center of curvature. The \nradius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is equal to the normal at any point \non a spherical mirro r. \n \n \n                                                                                             9 \n \n \nPrincipal Focus or Focus:   \n \nAfter reflection, light rays parallel to the principal axis of a mirror either pass \nthrough a point (in the case of a concave mirror) or appear to diverge from a point \n(in the case of a convex mirror), and this point is referred to as the mirror's \nprincipal focus or focal point.  \n \nFocal Length: The focal length of a mirror is the distance between the pole and \nthe focus. It is symbolized by the letter f.  \n \n \n \n                                                                                             10 \nCharacteristics of Focus of a Concave Mirror and a Convex Mirror  \nConv ex mirror  Concave mirror  \nThe focal point is hidden behind the mirror.  The focus is on the mirror.  \nBecause the rays of light after reflection \nappear to come from the focus, the focus is \nvirtual.",
  "The focus is on the mirror.  \nBecause the rays of light after reflection \nappear to come from the focus, the focus is \nvirtual.  The focus exists because light rays \nconverge at the focus af ter \nreflection.  \n \nSign Convention for Spherical Mirrors   \nIn the ray diagrams of spherical mirrors, the following sign convention is used to \nmeasure various distances:  \nThe object is always positioned to the left of the mirror.  \nAll distances are measured fro m the mirror's pole.  \nDistances measured in the direction of the incident ray are positive, while distances \nmeasured in the opposite direction are negative.  \nDistances measured above the principal axis are positive, while distances measured \nbelow the princip al axis are negative.   \n \n                                                                                             11 \n \n \nConcave Mirror",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nmeasured in the opposite direction are negative.  \nDistances measured above the principal axis are positive, while distances measured \nbelow the princip al axis are negative.   \n \n                                                                                             11 \n \n \nConcave Mirror   \nWhen an object is placed in front of a concave mirror, light rays from the object \nare reflected on the mirror. At the point where the reflected rays intersect or appear \n \n \n                                                                                             12 \nto intersect, an image is formed. The formati on of an image by mirrors is typically \ndepicted by drawing ray diagrams. To create a ray diagram, we need at least two \nrays with known paths after reflection from the mirror. These rays must be chosen \nbased on our needs. To obtain the image, any two of the  following rays can be \nconsidered.  \nAfter reflection from a concave mirror, a ray of light parallel to the principal axis \npasses through its focus.   \n \nAfter reflection, a ray of light passing through the focus of a concave mirror \nemerges parallel to the pri ncipal axis.",
  "After reflection from a concave mirror, a ray of light parallel to the principal axis \npasses through its focus.   \n \nAfter reflection, a ray of light passing through the focus of a concave mirror \nemerges parallel to the pri ncipal axis.  \n \n \n \n                                                                                             13 \nAs the ray passing through the center of curvature acts as a normal to the spherical \nmirror, a ray passing through the center of curvature retraces its path after \nreflection.  \n \nAccording to the law of reflection, a ray of light striking the mirror at its pole is \nreflected.  \n \n \n \n                                                                                             14 \nFormation of Image by a Concave Mirror   \nWhen the Object Is At Infinity   \nWhen an object is placed at infinity, its rays are parallel to each other. Consider",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nAccording to the law of reflection, a ray of light striking the mirror at its pole is \nreflected.  \n \n \n \n                                                                                             14 \nFormation of Image by a Concave Mirror   \nWhen the Object Is At Infinity   \nWhen an object is placed at infinity, its rays are parallel to each other. Consider \ntwo rays, one striking the pole of the mirror and the other pass ing through the \ncenter of curvature. The incident ray at the pole is reflected according to the law of \nreflection, and the second ray that passes through the mirror's center of curvature \nretraces its path. After reflection, these rays form an image at the focus. The \nresulting image is accurate, inverted, and scaled down.   \nThe image is at F   \nReal  \nInverted   \nDiminished  \n \n \nWhen the Object Is Placed Beyond C   \nThe two rays considered in order to obtain the image are:  \nA ray that passes through the center of the c urvature.  \n \n \n                                                                                             15 \nA ray that runs parallel to the principal axis.",
  "15 \nA ray that runs parallel to the principal axis.  \nAfter reflection, the ray passing through the center of curvature retraces its path, \nand the ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the focus. After reflection, \nthese rays intersect at a point between C and F.  \nThe image is inverted, real, and shrunk. The image is:   \nBetween C and F   \nReal  \nInverted   \nDiminished   \n \n \nWhen the Object Is Placed At the Centre of Curvature   \nIn this section, we will look at two rays, one parallel to the principal ax is and the \nother passing through the focus. After reflection, the ray of light parallel to the \nprincipal axis passes through the focus. After reflection, the other ray that passes \nthrough the focus emerges parallel to the axis. Following reflection, these rays",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nIn this section, we will look at two rays, one parallel to the principal ax is and the \nother passing through the focus. After reflection, the ray of light parallel to the \nprincipal axis passes through the focus. After reflection, the other ray that passes \nthrough the focus emerges parallel to the axis. Following reflection, these rays \n \n \n                                                                                             16 \ncollide at the center of curvature to form an inverted image that is real and the \nsame size as the object.   \nThe image is:   \nAt C   \nReal  \nInverted   \nSame size as object   \n \n \nWhen the Object Is Between C and F   \nConsider a light ray parallel to the principal  axis and another ray passing through \nthe focus. The ray that is parallel to the principal axis passes through the principal \nfocus, and the ray that emerges parallel to the principal axis after reflection. The \nreflected rays collide at a point beyond C, re sulting in a real, inverted, and \nmagnified image.",
  "The ray that is parallel to the principal axis passes through the principal \nfocus, and the ray that emerges parallel to the principal axis after reflection. The \nreflected rays collide at a point beyond C, re sulting in a real, inverted, and \nmagnified image. The image is:   \nBeyond C   \n \n \n                                                                                             17 \nReal  \nInverted   \nMagnified   \n \n \nWhen the Object Is at the Focus   \nConsider a light ray parallel to the principal axis and another ray passing through \nthe center of curvature. The ray p arallel to the principal axis passes through the \nfocus, while the ray through the center of curvature retraces its path. The reflected \nrays are parallel to each other and would only meet at infinity, implying that the \nimage is formed at infinity and is a t rue, inverted, and enlarged image. The image \nis at infinity:   \nReal  \nInverted   \nMagnified   \n \n \n                                                                                             18 \n \n \nWhen the Object Is Between the Pole and the Focus",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nimage is formed at infinity and is a t rue, inverted, and enlarged image. The image \nis at infinity:   \nReal  \nInverted   \nMagnified   \n \n \n                                                                                             18 \n \n \nWhen the Object Is Between the Pole and the Focus   \nConsider a ray of light parallel to the principal axis and another ray passing \nthrough the center of curvature. A fter reflection, the ray that passes through the \ncenter of curvature retraces its path, and the other ray that is parallel to the \nprincipal axis passes through the focus. When the reflected rays are extended \nbackwards, these rays appear to meet behind the mirror. The image is erect, virtual, \nand magnified. The image is:   \nBehind the mirror   \nVirtual   \nErect   \nMagnified   \n \n \n                                                                                             19 \n \n \nUses of Concave Mirrors   \nConcave mirrors are used to obtain a parallel beam of light in the following \napplications: as reflectors in car hea dlights, search lights in torches, and so on.",
  "The \nlight source is positioned at the concave reflector's focus for this purpose.  \n \nFig. Headlight of Car  \nLight is focused on the tooth to be examined by the dentist.  \n \n \n                                                                                             20 \n \nAs shaving and make -up mirrors to obtain  an enlarged erect image of the face  \n \nSolar radiations are concentrated in solar heating devices. The food or substance to \nbe heated is placed in the center of a large concave reflector for this purpose. \nSunlight converges on the substance after reflecti on and heats it.  \n \nConvex Mirror   \nWhen creating ray diagrams, the following rays are taken into account. After \nreflection from a convex mirror, a ray of light traveling parallel to the principal",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nbe heated is placed in the center of a large concave reflector for this purpose. \nSunlight converges on the substance after reflecti on and heats it.  \n \nConvex Mirror   \nWhen creating ray diagrams, the following rays are taken into account. After \nreflection from a convex mirror, a ray of light traveling parallel to the principal \naxis appears to come from its focus behind the mirror.  \n \n \n                                                                                             21 \n \nA ray of light traveling towards the mirror's center of curvature hits the mirror at \n90\n  and is reflected along its path.  \n \n \n                                                                                             22 \n \nA ray of light directed towards the principal focus of a convex mirror will emerge \nparallel to the principal axis after reflection.  \nAcco rding to the laws of reflection, a ray of light incident obliquely to the principal \naxis and directed towards the pole of the mirror is reflected.  \nRegardless of the position, a convex mirror always produces a virtual image.",
  "Acco rding to the laws of reflection, a ray of light incident obliquely to the principal \naxis and directed towards the pole of the mirror is reflected.  \nRegardless of the position, a convex mirror always produces a virtual image.   \n \nFormation of Image in a Convex  Mirror   \nWhen the Object Is Placed Between Infinity and the Pole of the Mirror   \nThe image is:   \nFormed between the pole and the focus   \nErect   \n \n \n                                                                                             23 \nDiminished   \nVirtual   \n \n \nWhen the Object Is At Infinity   \nThe image is:   \nFormed at the focus   \nExtremely diminished   \nVirtual   \nErect   \n \n \n                                                                                             24 \n \n \nUses of Convex Mirror   \nA rear -view mirror in a car. This convex mirror provides the driver with a clear \nview of approaching traffic from behind because convex mirrors are curved \noutwards, providing a wider field of view.",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nVirtual   \nErect   \n \n \n                                                                                             24 \n \n \nUses of Convex Mirror   \nA rear -view mirror in a car. This convex mirror provides the driver with a clear \nview of approaching traffic from behind because convex mirrors are curved \noutwards, providing a wider field of view.  \n \nIn department s tores, there is a vigilance mirror.  \n \n \n                                                                                             25 \n \nReflectors are used in street lamps to divert light over a large area.  \nPosition of object  Position of image  Size of the image  Nature of the \nimage  \nAt infinity  At focus  Extremely \ndiminished  Virtual and erect  \nBetween infinity \nand pole of the \nmirror  Between the \nfocus and pole  Diminished  Virtual and erect  \n \nMirror formula  \n1 1 1\nf v u\uf03d\uf02b\n \nHere, u is the object distance, v is the image distance and f is the focal le ngth.",
  "Magnification   \nThe magn ification produced by a spherical mirror indicates the extent to which an \nobject's image is magnified in relation to the object size.  \n \n \n                                                                                             26 \nMagnification is defined as the ratio of the image's height to the object's height. \nThe letter m is commonly used to repre sent it.  \nIf h is the object's height and h' is the image's height, then the magnification m \nproduced by a spherical mirror can be written as  \nhmh\uf0a2\n\uf03d\n \nThe magnification \u2018m\u2019 is also related to o bject distance (u) and image distance (v). \nIt can be expressed as:  \nhvmhu\uf0a2\n\uf03d \uf03d\uf02d\n \nThe negative sign in the value of the magnification indicates t hat the image is real. \nA positive sign in the value of the magnification indi cates tha t the image is  virtual.  \n \nRefraction  The deviation in the path of light when it passes from one medium to",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nhmh\uf0a2\n\uf03d\n \nThe magnification \u2018m\u2019 is also related to o bject distance (u) and image distance (v). \nIt can be expressed as:  \nhvmhu\uf0a2\n\uf03d \uf03d\uf02d\n \nThe negative sign in the value of the magnification indicates t hat the image is real. \nA positive sign in the value of the magnification indi cates tha t the image is  virtual.  \n \nRefraction  The deviation in the path of light when it passes from one medium to \nanother medium of different density is called refraction.   \nThe twinkling of stars is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight. Since light \nbends towards the normal the apparen t position of the star is slightly different from \nits actual position as it passes through the atmosphere. Hence the star appears \nslightly higher than its actual position. Due to changing condition of earth's \natmosphere the apparent position of the star ch anges slightly and the intensity of \nlight reaching the eye also fluctuates.",
  "Hence the star appears \nslightly higher than its actual position. Due to changing condition of earth's \natmosphere the apparent position of the star ch anges slightly and the intensity of \nlight reaching the eye also fluctuates. This gives rise to the twinkling effect of the \nstar. \nIncident Ray (IO)   \nThe ray of light striking the surface of separation of the media through which it is \ntraveling is known as the incident ray.   \nPoint of Incidence (O)   \nThe point at which the incident ray strikes the surface of separation of the two \nmedia is called the point of incidence.   \nNormal (N)    \n \n                                                                                             27 \nThe perpendicular drawn to the surface of separation at the point of incidenc e is \ncalled the normal.   \nRefracted Ray (OR)   \nThe ray of light which travels into the second medium, when the incident ray \nstrikes the surface of separation between the media 1 and 2, is called the refracted \nray.  \nAngle of Incidence (i)   \nThe angle which t he incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence, \nis called angle of incidence.",
  "Angle of Incidence (i)   \nThe angle which t he incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence, \nis called angle of incidence.   \nAngle of Refraction (r)   \nThe angle which the refracted ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence,",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nstrikes the surface of separation between the media 1 and 2, is called the refracted \nray.  \nAngle of Incidence (i)   \nThe angle which t he incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence, \nis called angle of incidence.   \nAngle of Refraction (r)   \nThe angle which the refracted ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence, \nis called angle of refraction. A ray of light refra cts or deviates from its original \npath as it passes from one optical medium to another because the speed of light \nchanges.   \nLaws of Refraction   \nThe incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point of \nincidence all lie in one plan e. For any two given pair of media, the ratio of the sine \nof the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant.",
  "The \nabove law is called Snell's law after the scientist Willebrod Snellius who first \nformulated it  \nThus,   \nsin a constant sini\nr\uf06d \uf03d\uf03d\n \nWhere \u00b5 is the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first \nmedium.  \nThe refractive index of glass with respect to air is given by the relation.   \nIn general, if a ray of light is passing from medium 1 to medium 2, then   \nIf the medium 1 is air or vacuum, the refractive index of medium 2 is referred to as \nthe absolute refractive index. The refractive index of a medium depends on the  \n \n                                                                                             28 \nfollowing factors: The nature of the medium. The colour or wavelength of the \nincident light.   \n \nRefraction of Light through a Glass Slab   \nWhen a ray light is passing from air to glass, that is, from a rarer medium to a \ndenser medium, the refracted ray bends towards the normal drawn at the point of \nincidence.",
  "Refraction of Light through a Glass Slab   \nWhen a ray light is passing from air to glass, that is, from a rarer medium to a \ndenser medium, the refracted ray bends towards the normal drawn at the point of \nincidence. In this case angl e of i > angle of r. But when the ray of light is passing \nfrom glass to air, that is, from a denser medium to a rarer medium the refracted ray",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nRefraction of Light through a Glass Slab   \nWhen a ray light is passing from air to glass, that is, from a rarer medium to a \ndenser medium, the refracted ray bends towards the normal drawn at the point of \nincidence. In this case angl e of i > angle of r. But when the ray of light is passing \nfrom glass to air, that is, from a denser medium to a rarer medium the refracted ray \nbends away from the normal. In this case angle of r > angle of i. The emergent ray, \nO1E which is nothing but the refracted ray emerging out of the glass slab is \nparallel to the incident ray. This means that the refracted ray (emergent ray) has \nbeen displaced from its original path by a distance XY. This displacement is \nreferred to as lateral displacement.   \n \nLenses   \nA lens is a portion of a transparent refracting medium bounded by two generally \nspherical or cylindrical surfaces, or one curved and one plane surface.",
  "This displacement is \nreferred to as lateral displacement.   \n \nLenses   \nA lens is a portion of a transparent refracting medium bounded by two generally \nspherical or cylindrical surfaces, or one curved and one plane surface. Convex \nlenses and converging lenses are the two types of lenses.  \nConvex Lens   \nA convex lens is one that is thicker in the center and thinner at the edges. A convex \nlens has at least one surface that bulges out in the middle. Convex lenses are \nclassified as bi -convex or double -convex, Plano - convex lens and concavo - \nconvex lens based on their shape.  \n \nConcave Lens   \n \n \n                                                                                             29 \nA concave lens is one that is thinner in the center and thicker at the edges. These \nlenses, like convex lenses, are classified as:   \nbi-concave   \nPlano - concave   \nconvexo - concave   \n \n \nTerminology Used in Optics   \nOptical Centre   \n \nIt is the foca l point of a lens.",
  "These \nlenses, like convex lenses, are classified as:   \nbi-concave   \nPlano - concave   \nconvexo - concave   \n \n \nTerminology Used in Optics   \nOptical Centre   \n \nIt is the foca l point of a lens. It is represented by the letter O. A ray of light passing \nthrough the optical center of a lens does not deviate in any way. It is also known as \nan optic center.   \nPrincipal Axis",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nlenses, like convex lenses, are classified as:   \nbi-concave   \nPlano - concave   \nconvexo - concave   \n \n \nTerminology Used in Optics   \nOptical Centre   \n \nIt is the foca l point of a lens. It is represented by the letter O. A ray of light passing \nthrough the optical center of a lens does not deviate in any way. It is also known as \nan optic center.   \nPrincipal Axis   \n \n \n                                                                                             30 \n \nThe principal axis is the straight line that connects t he centers of curvature of a \nlens's two curved surfaces.  \nPrincipal Foci  \nRays of light can pass through the lens in any direction, so there will be two \nprincipal foci on either side of the lens, which are referred to as the first and second \nprincipal foci of a lens, respectively.",
  "Principal Foci  \nRays of light can pass through the lens in any direction, so there will be two \nprincipal foci on either side of the lens, which are referred to as the first and second \nprincipal foci of a lens, respectively.   \nFirst Principal Focus (F 1)  \nIt is a point on the lens's principal axis where light rays starting from it (convex \nlens) or appearing to meet at the point (concave lens) become parallel to the lens's \nprincipal axis after refraction  from the two surfaces of the lens.  \n   \nThe distance between the optic center and the first focus is referred to as the lens's \nfirst focal length (f 1).  \nSecond Principal Focus (F 2)  \n \n \n                                                                                             31 \nIt is a point on the lens's principal axis at which light rays parallel to the lens's \nprincipal axis after refraction from both surfaces of the lens pass through (convex \nlens) or appear to come from this point (concave lens).  \n \n \nThe distance between the optic center and the second principal focus is referred to \nas the lens's  second focal length (f 2).",
  "The distance between the optic center and the second principal focus is referred to \nas the lens's  second focal length (f 2). The first and second focal lengths will be \nequal if the medium on both sides of the lens is the same. The focus of a convex \nlens is physical, whereas the focus of a concave lens is virtual.",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nlens) or appear to come from this point (concave lens).  \n \n \nThe distance between the optic center and the second principal focus is referred to \nas the lens's  second focal length (f 2). The first and second focal lengths will be \nequal if the medium on both sides of the lens is the same. The focus of a convex \nlens is physical, whereas the focus of a concave lens is virtual.   \n \nSign Convention for Spherical Lenses   \nAll distances are measured from the lens's optical center. Distances measured in \nthe direction of the incident light are considered positive, while distances measured \nin the opposite direction of the incident light are considered negative. All \nmeasurement s taken above the principal axis are considered positive, while \nmeasurements taken below the principal axis are considered negative, i.e., object \nheight is always considered positive, while image height is only considered \npositive for virtual images.   \n \n \n \n                                                                                             32 \nFormation of Image by a Convex Lens   \nA ray of light passing through the lens's optical center travels straight and without \ndeviation.",
  "32 \nFormation of Image by a Convex Lens   \nA ray of light passing through the lens's optical center travels straight and without \ndeviation. Only in the case of a thin lens does this hold true.  \n \nAfter refraction, an incident ray parallel to the principal axis passe s through the \nfocus.  \n \nAfter refraction, an incident ray passing through the focus of a lens emerges \nparallel to the principal axis.   \n \n \nWhen the Object is Placed between F 1 and O   \n \n \n                                                                                             33 \n \nThe image is:   \nFormed behind the object   \nVirtual   \nErect   \nMagnified   \n \nWhen the Object is placed at 2F 1  \n \nThe image is:   \nFormed at 2F 2  \nReal  \nInverted   \n \n \n                                                                                             34 \nSame size as the object",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nThe image is:   \nFormed behind the object   \nVirtual   \nErect   \nMagnified   \n \nWhen the Object is placed at 2F 1  \n \nThe image is:   \nFormed at 2F 2  \nReal  \nInverted   \n \n \n                                                                                             34 \nSame size as the object   \n \nWhen the Object is placed Between F 1 and 2F 1  \n \nThe image is:   \nFormed beyond 2F 2  \nReal  \nInverted   \nMagnified   \n \nWhen the Object is placed at F 1  \n \nThe i mage is:   \nformed at infinity   \n \n \n                                                                                             35 \nreal  \ninverted   \nmagnified   \n \nWhen the Object is placed beyond 2F 1  \n \nThe image is: formed between F 2 and 2F 2 real inverted diminished.   \n \nWhen the Object is placed at Infinity   \nWhen the object is at infinity, the rays coming fro m it are parallel to each other.",
  "When the Object is placed at Infinity   \nWhen the object is at infinity, the rays coming fro m it are parallel to each other. \nThe image is:   \nformed at F 2 inverted   \nreal  \nhighly diminished   \n \n \n                                                                                             36 \n \nConvex lenses are also used in spectacles to correct the vision problem \nhypermetropia.  \n \nFormation of Image by a Concave Lens   \nAfter refraction, an incident r ay of light from an object parallel to the principal axis \nof a concave lens appears to come from its focus.  \n \nAn incident ray of light that passes through the optical center exits the lens with no \ndeviation.   \n \n \n                                                                                             37 \n \nWhatever the object's position, a concave len s always produces a virtual, erect, and \ndiminished image. Let us now draw ray diagrams to show where the images are \nwhen the object is placed - at infinity, between O and F1, and anywhere between \ninfinity and O.  \n \nWhen the Object is at Infinity",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nWhatever the object's position, a concave len s always produces a virtual, erect, and \ndiminished image. Let us now draw ray diagrams to show where the images are \nwhen the object is placed - at infinity, between O and F1, and anywhere between \ninfinity and O.  \n \nWhen the Object is at Infinity   \n \nThe image  is: formed at F 1 erect virtual diminished.   \n \nWhen the Object is placed at any Position between O and infinity   \nThe image is: formed between O and F1 erect virtual diminished   \n \n \n                                                                                             38 \n \n \nUses of concave lens   \n\uf0b7 It is used to correct myopia in spectacles.  \n\uf0b7 It is used in conjunction with a convex lens to correct flaws such as \nchromatic and spherical aberration (the failure of rays to converge at one \nfocus because of a defect in a lens or mirror).  \n \nSign Convention for Lenses   \nFor measuring various distances, the followin g sign convention is used:   \n \n \n \n                                                                                             39 \n \n\uf0b7 All distances on the principal axis are measured from the optical center.",
  "Sign Convention for Lenses   \nFor measuring various distances, the followin g sign convention is used:   \n \n \n \n                                                                                             39 \n \n\uf0b7 All distances on the principal axis are measured from the optical center.  \n\uf0b7 Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are positive, while \ndistances measured in the opposite direction of incident rays are negative.  \n\uf0b7 All measurements taken above the principal axis are positive. As a result, the \nheight of an object and the height of an erect image are both positive, while \nall distances measured below the principal axis are negative.   \n \nNote:   \nThe rules are the same as f or spherical mirrors.  \nThe sign convention for lenses is shown in the table below:  \nFor measuring various distances, the following sign convention is used:   \n \n \n                                                                                             40",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nall distances measured below the principal axis are negative.   \n \nNote:   \nThe rules are the same as f or spherical mirrors.  \nThe sign convention for lenses is shown in the table below:  \nFor measuring various distances, the following sign convention is used:   \n \n \n                                                                                             40 \n \nThe optical center is used to measure all distances along the principal axis. \nDistances measured in  the direction of incident rays are positive, while distances \nmeasured in the opposite direction of incident rays are negative. All measurements \ntaken above the principal axis are positive. As a result, the height of an object and \nthe height of an erect im age are both positive, while all distances measured below \nthe principal axis are negative.   \n \nLens Formula   \nThe lens formula or lens equation describes the relationship between the object's \ndistance (u), the image's distance (v), and the focal length (f) of  the lens.  \n1 1 1\nf v u\uf03d\uf02d\n \nThis lens formula works for both convex and concave lenses.",
  "1 1 1\nf v u\uf03d\uf02d\n \nThis lens formula works for both convex and concave lenses.  \nNote: Things to keep in mind when using the lens formula. The known parameter \nvalues should be used with their proper sign according to the sign co nvention. \nDuring calculations, the unknown parameter should not be given a sign.   \n \nMagnification   \nMagnification is defined as the ratio of image size (h I) to object size (h o). \n \n \n                                                                                             41 \nDepending on the size and nature of the image, the magnification produced by a \nlens can be equal to one, greater than one, or less than one.  \nCase I   \nWhen the image's height (h I) equals the object's height (h o). \nI\nohm1h\uf03d\uf03d\n \nAs a result,  when the magnification is set to one, the size of the image is the same \nas the size of the  object. \nCase II  \nWhen the image height",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nDepending on the size and nature of the image, the magnification produced by a \nlens can be equal to one, greater than one, or less than one.  \nCase I   \nWhen the image's height (h I) equals the object's height (h o). \nI\nohm1h\uf03d\uf03d\n \nAs a result,  when the magnification is set to one, the size of the image is the same \nas the size of the  object. \nCase II  \nWhen the image height \n1(h )  is greater than the objec t\u2019s height.  \nI\nohm1h\uf03d\uf03e\n \nThe image is magnified  \nCase III \nWhen the image \u2019s height is lesser than the object \u2019s height.  \nI\nohm1h\uf03d\uf03c\n \nThe image is diminished.  \nThe height of  the object is always positive for both types of lenses, whereas the \nheight of the image can be + or - depending on its nature.",
  "I\nohm1h\uf03d\uf03c\n \nThe image is diminished.  \nThe height of  the object is always positive for both types of lenses, whereas the \nheight of the image can be + or - depending on its nature. The height of an inverted \nand real image is negative according to lens sign convention, and thus the \nmagnification of a lens is negative when it produces an inverted and real image. \nThe image's height is positive for an erect and virtual image. When an erect and \nvirtual image is formed, the magnification is positive.   \n \nPower of a Lens    \n \n                                                                                             42 \nA ray of light bends whenever it passes throug h a lens (except when it passes \nthrough the optical center). Convergence is the bending of light rays towards the \nprincipal axis, and divergence is the bending of light rays away from the principal \naxis. The power of a lens expresses its degree of converge nce or divergence. A \nlens with a short focal length deviates the rays more than a lens with a long focal \nlength. As a result, a lens's power is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in \nmeters.",
  "The power of a lens expresses its degree of converge nce or divergence. A \nlens with a short focal length deviates the rays more than a lens with a long focal \nlength. As a result, a lens's power is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in \nmeters.  \n1 Power of a lens  Focal length in metres \uf03d\n \nThe unit of power is dioptre.  \nIf a convex lens has a power of one D, its focal length is one meter.  \n \nDispersion and Scattering of light   \nNewton's Experiment - Dispersion of Light",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nlength. As a result, a lens's power is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in \nmeters.  \n1 Power of a lens  Focal length in metres \uf03d\n \nThe unit of power is dioptre.  \nIf a convex lens has a power of one D, its focal length is one meter.  \n \nDispersion and Scattering of light   \nNewton's Experiment - Dispersion of Light   \nSir Isaac Newton discovered that the images of heavenly bodi es formed by a lens \nwere colored at the edges while studying them. In order to investigate this, he \nconducted an experiment with a prism in 1665. Newton's room at Trinity College, \nCambridge, was darkened, and a beam of sunlight passed through a small circu lar \nhole in the shutter, forming a white circular patch on the opposite wall.",
  "Newton's room at Trinity College, \nCambridge, was darkened, and a beam of sunlight passed through a small circu lar \nhole in the shutter, forming a white circular patch on the opposite wall. He then \nplaced a triangular prism in the path of the light beam and observed that the white \nlight was split into seven colors, which resembled the colors of a rainbow, namely \nviolet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red (VIBGYOR).   \n \n                                                                                             43 \n \nDispersion is the splitting of white light into its constituent colors when it passes \nthrough a transparent medium. A spectrum is a band of colors that results from the \ndispersion of white lig ht. \nNewton deduced from the preceding experiment that white light is a mixture of \nseven different colors.  \n \nTracing the Path of Light through a Prism   \nLet us now trace light's path through a prism. Trace the ABC boundary of a prism \non a white sheet of paper  with the triangular face on the sheet.  \nAttach two T and S pins to one side.  \nPlace the prism on the ABC boundary.",
  "Trace the ABC boundary of a prism \non a white sheet of paper  with the triangular face on the sheet.  \nAttach two T and S pins to one side.  \nPlace the prism on the ABC boundary.  \nFix two more pins Q and R through the other side so that all four pins appear to be \nin the same line.  \nRemove the pins and make a note of where  they are.  \nConnect TS and RQ and extend them to meet the prism faces at P and O, \nrespectively. Participate in PO.",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nAttach two T and S pins to one side.  \nPlace the prism on the ABC boundary.  \nFix two more pins Q and R through the other side so that all four pins appear to be \nin the same line.  \nRemove the pins and make a note of where  they are.  \nConnect TS and RQ and extend them to meet the prism faces at P and O, \nrespectively. Participate in PO.  \n \n \n                                                                                             44 \n \nThe incident ray is represented by TP.  \nThe refracted ray is represented by PO.  \nAnd OR denotes the emergent ray that is bent towards the bot tom. \nLet PN and ON represent the normals at P and O, respectively.  \nLet I be the incidence angle and r be the refraction angle.  \nIf the incident ray TP is extended forward and the emergent ray RO is extended \nbackwards, they will intersect at M, forming the a ngle OML.  \nOML is the angle measured. This angle is referred to as the angle of deviation.  \nThe angle of deviation of an incident ray is the angle through which it deviates.",
  "OML is the angle measured. This angle is referred to as the angle of deviation.  \nThe angle of deviation of an incident ray is the angle through which it deviates. \nThis should be repeated for different angles of incidence.  \n \nDispersion of White Ligh t by a Glass Prism   \n \n \n                                                                                             45 \nEven though all colors of the visible spectrum travel at the same speed in vacuum, \ntheir speed varies when they pass through a transparent medium such as glass or \nwater. That is, the refractive index of glass varies depending on the col or. \nWhen a polychromatic light (multicolored or light with more than one \nwavelength), such as white light, strikes the first surface of the prism, it is \nrefracted. However, each constituent of white light is refracted through a different \nangle, causing wh ite light to be dispersed. When these colors strike the prism's \nsecond surface, they undergo refraction (being refracted from a denser to a rarer",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nwavelength), such as white light, strikes the first surface of the prism, it is \nrefracted. However, each constituent of white light is refracted through a different \nangle, causing wh ite light to be dispersed. When these colors strike the prism's \nsecond surface, they undergo refraction (being refracted from a denser to a rarer \nmedium) and are further separated. A white light beam incident on a prism splits \ninto its constituent colors, forming a spectrum.   \nEach component of the white light is deviated towards the prism's base. Violet has \nthe greatest deviation, while red has the least. The obtained spectrum is impure \nbecause the colors in the spectrum lack sharp boundaries, i.e., each co lor merges \ngradually into the next.  \n \n \nRecomposition of White Light   \nThe prisms are arranged as shown in the diagram to produce white light from \ndispersed light. Recomposition of white light is the recombination of the seven \ncolors of dispersed white light  to produce white light.",
  "Recomposition of White Light   \nThe prisms are arranged as shown in the diagram to produce white light from \ndispersed light. Recomposition of white light is the recombination of the seven \ncolors of dispersed white light  to produce white light.  \n \n \n \n                                                                                             46 \nExperiment to Show the Recomposition of White Light   \nSet up a prism (P 1) on a table with a screen behind it. Allow a narrow beam of light \nto strike the prism (P 1). The white light is dispersed, resulting in a seven -color band \non the screen.  \n \nRemove the screen and replace it with another prism P2 of the same material \noriented in the opposite direction. Put a white screen in front of P2. A white light \nspot appears on the screen. As a result, the dispersed light has been recombined b y \nthe second prism.  \n \n \n                                                                                             47 \n \n \nFormation of a Rainbow   \nThe small raindrops that remain suspended in the air after the rain act as a prism. \nWhen sunlight passes through these raindrops, it disperses and we see the \nrainbow's seven colors.",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nthe second prism.  \n \n \n                                                                                             47 \n \n \nFormation of a Rainbow   \nThe small raindrops that remain suspended in the air after the rain act as a prism. \nWhen sunlight passes through these raindrops, it disperses and we see the \nrainbow's seven colors.   \nAtmospheric Refraction   \nAtmospheric refraction is the apparent direction shift of a celestial object caused \nby light ray refraction as they pass through Earth's atmosphere. Starlight refraction \ncauses the twinkling of stars and variations in the size of the Sun.   \nTwinkling of Sta rs  \n \n \n                                                                                             48 \n \nLight rays from the stars travel through layers of air of varying densities. These \nrays are continuously refracted and bend towards the normal as the refraction \noccurs from a rarer to a denser medium. The density of the layers of air changes as \na result of air movement and convection currents. As a result, the position of the \nstar's image changes after every short interval.",
  "The density of the layers of air changes as \na result of air movement and convection currents. As a result, the position of the \nstar's image changes after every short interval. The varying positions of the images \nformed at short intervals of time create the illusion that the star is twinkling.  \nVariation  in the Size of the Sun   \n \n \n                                                                                             49 \n \nThe Sun appears larger at dusk or dawn than it does at noon. This is due to the fact \nthat when the sun is near the horizon, the rays of light it emits must pass through \nlayers of air of increasing density. The sun appears to be larger due to the \ncontinuous bending of light. The sun appears smaller at noon than it does at dusk \nor dawn. This is due to the fact that light rays that normally fall on the earth's \nsurface are not refracted.  \n \nScattering of Light",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nthat when the sun is near the horizon, the rays of light it emits must pass through \nlayers of air of increasing density. The sun appears to be larger due to the \ncontinuous bending of light. The sun appears smaller at noon than it does at dusk \nor dawn. This is due to the fact that light rays that normally fall on the earth's \nsurface are not refracted.  \n \nScattering of Light   \nScattering is a general physical process in which certain types of radiation, such as \nlight or moving particles, are forced to deviate from a straight trajectory due to one \nor more localized non -uniformities in the medium through which they pass.  \n \n \n                                                                                             50 \n \nThe earth's atmosphere contain s a large number of molecules. These molecules \nscatter light in a variety of ways. The air contains numerous tiny particles, \nincluding dust and water vapour.",
  "50 \n \nThe earth's atmosphere contain s a large number of molecules. These molecules \nscatter light in a variety of ways. The air contains numerous tiny particles, \nincluding dust and water vapour. As sunlight passes through the air, the shorter \nblue light waves are reflected and refracted by th e particles, whereas the longer \nother colored light waves are unaffected and are not reflected by the water vapour \nor dust in the air. As a result, blue is the most scattered color, which explains the \nbluish color of the sky. At sunset or sunrise, the sunr ays must travel long distances \nthrough the atmosphere to reach us, and most of the blue light is scattered and does \nnot reach us. As a result, the sky and sun appear reddish at sunrise and sunset.  \n \nTyndall Effect   \nThe atmosphere of the Earth is a heterogen eous mixture of minute particles. \nSmoke, tiny water droplets, dust particles suspended in the air, and air molecules \nare examples of these particles. When a light beam collides with such air particles, \nthe path of the beam becomes visible.",
  "Smoke, tiny water droplets, dust particles suspended in the air, and air molecules \nare examples of these particles. When a light beam collides with such air particles, \nthe path of the beam becomes visible. Likewise, the pa th of a light beam passing \nthrough a true solution is not visible. However, its path becomes visible in a",
  "Light Reflection and Refraction CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 10 [PDF].txt\nSmoke, tiny water droplets, dust particles suspended in the air, and air molecules \nare examples of these particles. When a light beam collides with such air particles, \nthe path of the beam becomes visible. Likewise, the pa th of a light beam passing \nthrough a true solution is not visible. However, its path becomes visible in a \ncolloidal solution where the particle size is relatively large. The Tyndall effect is \ncaused by the scattering of light by colloidal particles.  \n \n \n                                                                                             51 \n \nThe Tyndall effect is the visible scattering of light on the path of a light beam \npassing through a colloid system.",
  "Human Eye and Colourful World CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 11 (PDF).txt\n                                                                                                       1 \nRevision Notes  \nClass \u2013 10 Science  \nChapter 11 - Human eye and colourful world  \n \nThe front part of the eye is covered with a transparent spherical membrane known \nas the cornea. Light enters the eye through the cornea. Space present just behind the \ncornea contains a fluid known as aqueous humour.  \nJust behind the cornea is a muscular dia phragm, which is dark coloured and is known \nas the iris which has a small circular opening in the middle called the pupil. The \nblack colour of the pupil is due to no light being reflected from it. The iris is \nresponsible for controlling the amount of light  entering the eye by adjusting the size \nof the pupil.  \nThe lens of our eyes is a convex lens made of a transparent jelly -like proteinaceous \nmaterial. The eye lens is hard in the middle and becomes soft towards the outer \nedges. The ciliary muscles hold the e ye lens in its position. The ciliary muscles are \nresponsible for changing the curvature and focal length of the eye lens.",
  "The eye lens is hard in the middle and becomes soft towards the outer \nedges. The ciliary muscles hold the e ye lens in its position. The ciliary muscles are \nresponsible for changing the curvature and focal length of the eye lens.  \nThe inner back surface of the eyeball is the retina. It is a semi -transparent membrane \nthat is light sensitive and behaves as the scre en of a camera. The light -sensitive \nreceptors present in the retina are rods and cone cells. When the light falls on these \nreceptors they are responsible for sending electrical signals to the brain via the optic \nnerve. The space between the retina and eye lens is filled with vitreous humour.  \nThe light coming from an object enters the eye through the cornea and pupil. The \neye lens is responsible for converging these light rays to form a real, inverted and \ndiminished image on the retina. The light -sensitive c ell present in the retina gets \nexcited as the light incidents and generates electrical signals. These electric signals \nare sent to the brain via the optic nerves and the brain interprets these electrical",
  "Human Eye and Colourful World CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 11 (PDF).txt\neye lens is responsible for converging these light rays to form a real, inverted and \ndiminished image on the retina. The light -sensitive c ell present in the retina gets \nexcited as the light incidents and generates electrical signals. These electric signals \nare sent to the brain via the optic nerves and the brain interprets these electrical \nsignals in such a manner that we are able to see an image that is erect and is of the \nsame size as that of the object. Accommodation of the eye is said to be the ability of \nthe eye to focus on objects lying at certain distances.  \nWhereas the range of vision is the distance between the near point and the far point.   \n \n                                                                                                       2 \nColour vision occurs through cone cells of the retina which are excited only in bright \nlight. You cannot differentiate between red, violet or purple flowers in a garden in \nmoonlight, because of the rod cells function and not of cone cells.  \n      \n \n(Source: - https:///biology/diagram -of-eye) \n \nDefects of Eye  \n1.",
  "You cannot differentiate between red, violet or purple flowers in a garden in \nmoonlight, because of the rod cells function and not of cone cells.  \n      \n \n(Source: - https:///biology/diagram -of-eye) \n \nDefects of Eye  \n1. Colour blindness or colour vision deficiency is a condition in which a person \nis unable to distinguish between certain colours. The most common cause \ncould be genetic. Cone cells, which are colour sensitive receptors containing \nsingle visual pigments which  are selective for red, green, and blue light, are \npresent in the normal human eye. Disturbances in colour vision occur when \nthe amount of pigment per cone is either reduced or are absent.  \n2. Nyctalopia is an inability of a person to see in relatively low lig ht. It is \nconsidered a symptom of several eye diseases.  Night blindness could be \ninborn or can occur due to any injury or malnutrition. Lack of Vitamin A could \nalso play an important role in this. The outer layer of the retina is composed \nof more rods tha n cones. The rod cells are responsible for the vision in low",
  "Human Eye and Colourful World CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 11 (PDF).txt\n2. Nyctalopia is an inability of a person to see in relatively low lig ht. It is \nconsidered a symptom of several eye diseases.  Night blindness could be \ninborn or can occur due to any injury or malnutrition. Lack of Vitamin A could \nalso play an important role in this. The outer layer of the retina is composed \nof more rods tha n cones. The rod cells are responsible for the vision in low \nlight and the reason why loss of side vision often results in night blindness.  \n3. 3. Cataract is an opacity in the crystalline lens of the eye. In the early stage of \nage-related cataract, the crystalline lens power can be increased, causing near -\n \n \n                                                                                                       3 \nsightedness ( or myopia) which leads to the gradual yellowing and full \nopaqueness in the len s which reduces the perception of blue colours.",
  "In the early stage of \nage-related cataract, the crystalline lens power can be increased, causing near -\n \n \n                                                                                                       3 \nsightedness ( or myopia) which leads to the gradual yellowing and full \nopaqueness in the len s which reduces the perception of blue colours. Cataracts \ndevelop due to a number of reasons which includes long -term exposure to \nultraviolet rays, exposure to radiation are usually due to a result of \ndenaturation of lens proteins.  \n4. Hypermetropia is an eye defect in which a person is incapable of seeing near \nobjects but his distant vision is clear. In a normal eye the light rays coming \nfrom the object fall on the retina but in the case of a hypermetropic eye, these \nlight rays gets focused behind the retina.  \n5. Myopia is an eye defect in which a person is not able to see distant objects \nclearly. Since a person can not see distant objects clearly this defect is also  \nknown as nearsightedness.  \n6. Astigmatism is the commonly occurring eye defect that results in distort ed \nimages, since light rays are unable to meet at common focus.",
  "Since a person can not see distant objects clearly this defect is also  \nknown as nearsightedness.  \n6. Astigmatism is the commonly occurring eye defect that results in distort ed \nimages, since light rays are unable to meet at common focus. Astigmatism \nmay lead to Hypermetropia or Myopia.  \n7. Presbyopia is the condition in which the centre of the eye lens becomes hard \nmaking it capable of accommodating near vision. This condition is quite",
  "Human Eye and Colourful World CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 11 (PDF).txt\nknown as nearsightedness.  \n6. Astigmatism is the commonly occurring eye defect that results in distort ed \nimages, since light rays are unable to meet at common focus. Astigmatism \nmay lead to Hypermetropia or Myopia.  \n7. Presbyopia is the condition in which the centre of the eye lens becomes hard \nmaking it capable of accommodating near vision. This condition is quite \ncommon with person over the age of 50 and even those with myopia.",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n     1 \n \nRevision Notes  \nClass 10  \u2013 Science  \nChapter 8 \u2013 How do Organisms Reproduce?  \n \n1. Do organisms create exact copies of themselves?  \n \n\u25cf The organisms are similar in their looks due to having similar body \ndesigns, which in turn indicates that the source for these designs must \nbe similar. And hence reproduction  is that process where these designs \nare created.  \n\u25cf The nucleus of a cell contains t he chromosomes , which carry the \ninformation for the inheritance of features from parents to the next \ngeneration. It is present in the form of DNA molecules .  \n\u25cf The DNA present in the nucleus of a cell is the source of information \nfor making proteins. If this  information changes, then a different set of \nproteins will be synthesised which will eventually lead to altered body \ndesigns in the organisms.  \n\u25cf Hence it can be noted that a basic event in reproduction involves the \ncreation of a DNA copy.",
  "If this  information changes, then a different set of \nproteins will be synthesised which will eventually lead to altered body \ndesigns in the organisms.  \n\u25cf Hence it can be noted that a basic event in reproduction involves the \ncreation of a DNA copy.  \n\u25cf This copying of D NA is accompanied by the creation of an additional \ncellular apparatus, after which the DNA copies separate with each of \nthem having its own cellular apparatus. Thus, a cell divides to give rise \nto two cells.  \n\u25cf Since this process of copying DNA  is a biochemi cal process, it may not \nbe reliable and it will lead to some variations  each time.  \n\u25cf If the created new DNA copy is not viable, then the cell will not \nsurvive. And the surviving cells will be similar but may not be identical \nto the original and will subtly differ from each other.  \n \n1.1.  The importance of variation  \n\u25cf The consistent DNA copying that happens during reproduction is \nessential to maintain the features of body design of an organism so that \nit can occupy its well -defined space or niche in the ecosystem.",
  "1.1.  The importance of variation  \n\u25cf The consistent DNA copying that happens during reproduction is \nessential to maintain the features of body design of an organism so that \nit can occupy its well -defined space or niche in the ecosystem.  \n\u25cf Hence reproduction is very much linked with the stability of a \npopulation of a spec ies.  \n\u25cf The variations become important here as an organism may be suited for",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf The consistent DNA copying that happens during reproduction is \nessential to maintain the features of body design of an organism so that \nit can occupy its well -defined space or niche in the ecosystem.  \n\u25cf Hence reproduction is very much linked with the stability of a \npopulation of a spec ies.  \n\u25cf The variations become important here as an organism may be suited for \na specific niche and a drastic change in that due to unforeseen \nenvironmental conditions makes their survival difficult.   \n     2 \n \n\u25cf Hence in such situations when a few among the species have  some \nvariations, they stand a chance of survival in the new niche. And thus, \nthese species adapt themselves to the new conditions and the species \nare maintained over a period of time.  \n\u25cf It can be understood with an example. If a species of bacteria is livin g \nin the temperate waters and suddenly the temperatures rise due to \nglobal warming, then most of the bacteria in that water would not \nsurvive. But maybe a few variants among them who are able to resist \nthe heat may survive and grow.",
  "If a species of bacteria is livin g \nin the temperate waters and suddenly the temperatures rise due to \nglobal warming, then most of the bacteria in that water would not \nsurvive. But maybe a few variants among them who are able to resist \nthe heat may survive and grow. In case the variations were not present, \nthat entire species of bacteria would have become extinct.  \n\u25cf Thus, the importance of variation  lies in the survival of a species  \nover time.  \n \n2. Modes of reproduction  \n \nReproduction can be defined as a process that involves the production of an \noffspring by a particular individual or individuals with the aim of propagating \ntheir species. Generally, reproduction happens during the reproductive phase \nof an organism. The mode of reproduction may vary in organisms. They can \nbe broadly categorised as: \na) Asexu al mode of reproduction:  \n\u25cf The mode of reproduction by means of which a single individual \ncreates a new generation of species is termed as asexual \nreproduction.  \n\u25cf Generally unicellular organisms exhibit asexual mode of \nreproduction, though some of them exhibit sexual mode too.  \nb) Sexual mode of reproduction:",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nbe broadly categorised as: \na) Asexu al mode of reproduction:  \n\u25cf The mode of reproduction by means of which a single individual \ncreates a new generation of species is termed as asexual \nreproduction.  \n\u25cf Generally unicellular organisms exhibit asexual mode of \nreproduction, though some of them exhibit sexual mode too.  \nb) Sexual mode of reproduction:  \n\u25cf The mode of reproduction by means of which two individuals take \nart in the creation of a new generation of species is termed as sexual \nreproduction.  \n \nTypes of asexual mode of reproduction :  \n2.1.  Fission:  \n\u25cf In unicellular organisms the new  individuals are created by the process \nof cell division or fission.  \n\u25cf The nucleus of the cell divides into new individual cells under \nfavourable conditions.  \n\u25cf Fission can be of two types depending on the number of new \nindividuals created.  \n  \n     3 \n \na) Binary fission : This division leads to the formation of two new \nindividuals.",
  "\u25cf The nucleus of the cell divides into new individual cells under \nfavourable conditions.  \n\u25cf Fission can be of two types depending on the number of new \nindividuals created.  \n  \n     3 \n \na) Binary fission : This division leads to the formation of two new \nindividuals. These can be further divided based on their plane of \ndivision as:  \ni. Irregular binary fission : In this type of fission the plane of \ndivision of a cell  is irregular, it can be in any plane. Example - \nAmoeba.  \nii. Transverse binary fission : In this type of fission the cells divide \nalong a transverse plane. Example - Paramecium.  \niii. Longitudinal binary fission : In this type of fission the plane of \ncell division is lon gitudinal. Example - Euglena .  \n \nb) Multiple fission : This is the division of a single cell into many new \ndaughter cells. Example - Plasmodium .  \n \n2.2.  Fragmentation:  \n\u25cf This is a process where an organism simply breaks up into smaller \npieces  when they are mature.",
  "b) Multiple fission : This is the division of a single cell into many new \ndaughter cells. Example - Plasmodium .  \n \n2.2.  Fragmentation:  \n\u25cf This is a process where an organism simply breaks up into smaller \npieces  when they are mature.  \n\u25cf Each of the fragments or broken pieces grow into a new individual. \nThere should be a cell that is capable of growing into a new individual \nin such organisms.  \n\u25cf Example - Spirogyra.  \n \n2.3.  Regeneration:  \n\u25cf This is a process where some fully differentiated organism s can be cut",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf This is a process where an organism simply breaks up into smaller \npieces  when they are mature.  \n\u25cf Each of the fragments or broken pieces grow into a new individual. \nThere should be a cell that is capable of growing into a new individual \nin such organisms.  \n\u25cf Example - Spirogyra.  \n \n2.3.  Regeneration:  \n\u25cf This is a process where some fully differentiated organism s can be cut \nor broken into pieces and each of their body parts  have the ability to \ngrow into a new individual .  \n\u25cf Different cells in this mass of cut cells undergo a lot  of changes in an \norganised manner to become different cells and tissues.  \n\u25cf Example - Planaria , Hydra .  \n \n2.4.  Budding:  \n\u25cf This is a process where a protuberance like outgrowth which is called \nas bud grows  by repeated cell division at a specific site  and then they \ndetach from the parent body to develop into a separate individual  \norganism.  \n\u25cf Example - Hydra.  \n \n2.5.",
  "\u25cf Example - Hydra.  \n \n2.5.  Vegetative propagation  \nThis is the mode of reproduction by which plants reproduce asexually. \nIn this mode, new plants are developed from a plant\u2019s vegetative parts   \n     4 \n \nlike stem, leaf, root . There are different methods of vegetative \npropagation that are carried out in plants which are as follows:  \na) Stem cutting : This involves cutting the stem into small pieces \nhaving internodes and axillary buds. These are then planted in the \nsoil to propagate into new plants. This method is used in sugarcane, \nhibiscus, drumstick etc.  \nb) Layering:  This is a method where the young stem of a plant is bent \nand buried in the soil to develop roots and thus a new plant. Once \nthe new plant develops, the stem is detached from the parent plant. \nThis is used in jasmine, bougainv illaea.  \nc) Grafting : This is a method wherein the stems of two different \nplants are cut and joined together to unite and start developing into \na new plant. This is used in nutmeg, roses etc.",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nand buried in the soil to develop roots and thus a new plant. Once \nthe new plant develops, the stem is detached from the parent plant. \nThis is used in jasmine, bougainv illaea.  \nc) Grafting : This is a method wherein the stems of two different \nplants are cut and joined together to unite and start developing into \na new plant. This is used in nutmeg, roses etc.  \nd) Leaf buds : This is a method in which the buds in the notches of \nleaves develop into new plants. This can be seen in bryophyllum.  \n \nAdvantages of the vegetative propagation : \na) The plants that are grown by vegetative propagation bear flowers and \nfruits earlier  as compared to the plants produced from seeds.  \nb) All plants  that are produced this way are genetically similar  to the \nparent plant a nd have all its character istics . \n \n2.6.  Spore formation:  \n\u25cf Many multicellular  organisms have specific reproductive parts.",
  "b) All plants  that are produced this way are genetically similar  to the \nparent plant a nd have all its character istics . \n \n2.6.  Spore formation:  \n\u25cf Many multicellular  organisms have specific reproductive parts.  \n\u25cf They have tiny thread -like structures with a blob called sporangia .  \n\u25cf These contain cells or spores  which eventually develop  into new \nindividuals. The spores are very light and covered by a thick wall to \nprotect them and when they come in contact with a moist surface they \nstart to grow.  \n\u25cf Example - Rhizopus.  \n \n3. Sexual Repro duction:  \n \n3.1.  Why the sexual mode of Reproduction?  \n\u25cf The sexual mode of reproduction involves two organisms, a male and a \nfemale to create a new organism or offspring.  \n\u25cf The sexual reproduction allows greater variations in a species  as the \ntwo individuals involved in producing the offspring would have \ndifferent patterns of variations. This process includes the combination  \n  \n     5 \n \nof DNA of  two different individuals and the resultant combination and \nvariation would be unique.",
  "\u25cf The sexual reproduction allows greater variations in a species  as the \ntwo individuals involved in producing the offspring would have \ndifferent patterns of variations. This process includes the combination  \n  \n     5 \n \nof DNA of  two different individuals and the resultant combination and \nvariation would be unique.  \n\u25cf Hence this ensures a mixing of the gene pool of the species within a \npopulation and it also ensures the survival of the species as this process \ngenerates more variations due to the genetic recombination.",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n     5 \n \nof DNA of  two different individuals and the resultant combination and \nvariation would be unique.  \n\u25cf Hence this ensures a mixing of the gene pool of the species within a \npopulation and it also ensures the survival of the species as this process \ngenerates more variations due to the genetic recombination.  \n\u25cf The process of combining DNA  of two different indiv iduals during \nsexual reproduction will lead to an offspring with twice the amount of \nDNA than their previous generation.  \n\u25cf The solution to this lies in the fact that there are certain specialised cells \nin such organisms called germ  cells or gametes . These ha ve half the \nnumber of chromosomes and, therefore half the amount of DNA in \ncomparison to the other non -reproductive cells. The combination of \nthese germ cells from two different individuals during the process of \nsexual reproduction restores the original nu mber of chromosomes  and \nDNA content in the new offspring.  \n\u25cf The germ cells may be similar and not much different from each other \nin simple organisms. With the complexity of the organisms the germ \ncell also becomes  specialised.",
  "\u25cf The germ cells may be similar and not much different from each other \nin simple organisms. With the complexity of the organisms the germ \ncell also becomes  specialised. One of the germ cells becomes large and \nstores food. This is known as the female gamete . The other germ cell \nwhich is small and motile is called the  male gamete . These gametes \nlead to the differences in the bodies and reproductive systems of males \nand females.   \n \n3.2.  Sexual Reproduction in flowering plants  \n\u25cf The process of sexual reproduction in plants involves  the fusion of \ngametes to produce offspring . The reproductive parts in angiosperms \n[plants that flower and produce  fruits and seeds] are located in the \nflower. The parts of a flower consist  of sepals, petals, stamens and \npistils .  \n\u25cf The reproductive parts of the flower are stamen  which contains the \nmale gamete and the pistil  containing the female gametes.  \na) Stamen : This is the male reproductive part and is also known as the",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n[plants that flower and produce  fruits and seeds] are located in the \nflower. The parts of a flower consist  of sepals, petals, stamens and \npistils .  \n\u25cf The reproductive parts of the flower are stamen  which contains the \nmale gamete and the pistil  containing the female gametes.  \na) Stamen : This is the male reproductive part and is also known as the \nandroecium. It consists of a filament  and an anther  that encloses the \npollen grains. The pollen  grains produce the male germ -cells or \ngametes.  \nb) Pistil : This is the female reproductive part of the flower  and is also \nknown as gynoecium. This is made of three parts, namely, stigma, \nstyle and ovary. The enlarged portion at the bottom of a pistil is the \novary  that contains an ovule  with an egg cell . The middle long part \nof the pistil is the style  and the term inal sticky part is the stigma .",
  "The enlarged portion at the bottom of a pistil is the \novary  that contains an ovule  with an egg cell . The middle long part \nof the pistil is the style  and the term inal sticky part is the stigma .  \n     6 \n \n\u25cf Based on the presence of the stamen or pistil, flowers can be classified \nas:  \na) Unisexual : These are the flowers that contain either stamens or \npistils. These are also called incomplete  flowers. Example - papaya, \nmulberry, watermelon etc.  \nb) Bisexual : These are flowers that contains stamens as well as pistils. \nExample - Hibiscus, mustard, rose etc.  \n\u25cf The process of sexual reproduction in plants starts with the fusion of \nthe male and the female gametes, followed by the formation of a zygote \nthat eventually develops into a new plant. The process is explained as \nfollows:  \na) Pollination:  \n\u25cf The process of sexua l reproduction in plants starts with the transfer \nof pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the \npistil.",
  "The process is explained as \nfollows:  \na) Pollination:  \n\u25cf The process of sexua l reproduction in plants starts with the transfer \nof pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the \npistil. This process is termed as pollination.  \n\u25cf This is facilitated by pollinating agents like wind, birds, animals, \nwater etc. which tran sfer the pollen grains.  \n\u25cf There can be two types of pollination as follows:  \ni. Self-pollination : This involves the transfer of pollen grains from",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nof pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the \npistil. This process is termed as pollination.  \n\u25cf This is facilitated by pollinating agents like wind, birds, animals, \nwater etc. which tran sfer the pollen grains.  \n\u25cf There can be two types of pollination as follows:  \ni. Self-pollination : This involves the transfer of pollen grains from \nthe anther to the stigma of the same flower. Example - wheat, \npeanut, etc.  \nii. Cross -pollination : This type of pollination involves the transfer \nof the pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of \nanother flower of the same species. Example - apples, pumpkin \netc.  \nb) Fertilization:  \n\u25cf Through the process of pollination, the pollen is deposi ted in the  \nstyle of the pistil. For the next process in reproduction, it needs to \nreach the female germ -cells which are present in the ovary.",
  "b) Fertilization:  \n\u25cf Through the process of pollination, the pollen is deposi ted in the  \nstyle of the pistil. For the next process in reproduction, it needs to \nreach the female germ -cells which are present in the ovary.  \n\u25cf To facilitate this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and reaches the \novule in the ovary of the pistil.  \n\u25cf Here in the ovule the male germ -cell fuses with a female germ -cell to \nform a zygote . This process of fusion of the gametes is termed as \nfertilisation.  \n\u25cf After the process of fertilization, the zygote thus formed, divides \nrepeatedly to form an embryo inside the o vule. The ovule later \ndevelops into a seed.  \n\u25cf And meanwhile the ovary grows and ripens into a fruit and the other \nparts of the flower, namely the petals, sepals, stamens, style and \nstigma may be shed off.   \n     7 \n \n\u25cf The seed present inside the fruit encloses the future plant in its \nembryo .",
  "7 \n \n\u25cf The seed present inside the fruit encloses the future plant in its \nembryo .  \nc) Germination:  \n\u25cf The seed that contains the new plant or embryo develops into a \nseedling when the conditions are suitable. This process is termed as  \ngermination. Certain conditions like nutrients , water and proper \ntemperature are necessary for the process of germination.  \n\u25cf The embryo gets its food from  the reserve food material stored in the",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nembryo .  \nc) Germination:  \n\u25cf The seed that contains the new plant or embryo develops into a \nseedling when the conditions are suitable. This process is termed as  \ngermination. Certain conditions like nutrients , water and proper \ntemperature are necessary for the process of germination.  \n\u25cf The embryo gets its food from  the reserve food material stored in the \ncotyledons . It also has a protective outer covering known as seed \ncoat.  \n \n3.3.  Reproduction in Human Beings.  \n\u25cf The mode of reproduction in human beings is sexual mode. The \nreproductive phase  of an individual is that phase of life when the \nindividual is ready to reproduce an offspring. Changes are noticed at \nevery phase of growth right from birth.  \n\u25cf But there are some changes that begin in the teenage age that start to \nprepare us for the reprod uctive phase of life. This period of \nadolescence  leads to sexual maturation. The body needs to create \nspecialised germ -cells to take part in the sexual reproduction.",
  "This period of \nadolescence  leads to sexual maturation. The body needs to create \nspecialised germ -cells to take part in the sexual reproduction. The \nperiod of maturation of the reproductive tissues in the body is termed as \npuberty.   \n\u25cf Numerous changes are noticed in both boys and girls during this period. \nThe boys start to have hair growth on their face and body, voice \nchange, active functioning of sweat and sebaceous glands, enlargement \nof penis etc. The changes in the girls include grow th of pubic hair, \nenlargement of breasts, oily skin leading to pimples, onset of \nmenstruation etc. Both of them undergo changes in their body \nappearance and they become more conscious of these bodily changes.  \n\u25cf The process of fusion of germ -cells in sexual reproduction, the actual \ntransfer of these germ -cells needs to be done. For the same special \norgans need  to be present like penis in males and uterus in females for \ncarrying the baby.  \n \n3.3.1.  Male reproductive system  \n\u25cf The male reproductive system consists of organs that produce \nand transport the male germ -cell or gamete, male hormone",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf The process of fusion of germ -cells in sexual reproduction, the actual \ntransfer of these germ -cells needs to be done. For the same special \norgans need  to be present like penis in males and uterus in females for \ncarrying the baby.  \n \n3.3.1.  Male reproductive system  \n\u25cf The male reproductive system consists of organs that produce \nand transport the male germ -cell or gamete, male hormone \ntestosterone and the organs which facilitate the discharge of male \ngerm -cells into the female reproductive system for fertilization.  \n   \n     8 \n \n\u25cf The male gamete is the sperm  which is a tiny body containing \nthe genetic material and they have a long tail for motility to help \nthem reach the female germ -cell for fertilization.  \n\u25cf The system consists of some external organs like penis, scrotum, \ntestes and int ernal organs like urethra, prostate  and seminal \nvesicles.",
  "\u25cf The system consists of some external organs like penis, scrotum, \ntestes and int ernal organs like urethra, prostate  and seminal \nvesicles.  \n \n \na) Testes:  Testes is the part that is responsible for the production of \nthe male germ -cell or sperms and the male hormone \ntestosterone . Testes are present in a structure known as scrotum , \nlocated outside the abdominal cavity. This is thus located \nbecause the formation of sperm requires a temperature that is \nlower than the normal body temperature. The hormone \ntestosterone plays a  role in regulating the formation of sperms \nand also the deve lopment of the secondary sexual characteristics \nthat are seen in boys during puberty.  \nb) Vas deferens : The sperms that are produced in the testes are \nstored in the epididymis . Vas deferens is a tube that transports \nthese sperm to the urethra.  \nc) Urethra : This is a common passage for the sperm as well as \nurine. The same passage connects the urinary bladder and the vas \ndeferens.",
  "Vas deferens is a tube that transports \nthese sperm to the urethra.  \nc) Urethra : This is a common passage for the sperm as well as \nurine. The same passage connects the urinary bladder and the vas \ndeferens.  \nd) Prostate gland and seminal vesicles : These glands are located \nalong the vas deferens . They secrete a fluid, called semen  that \nnourishes the sperm. This semen helps in the easier movement of \nsperms.",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nthese sperm to the urethra.  \nc) Urethra : This is a common passage for the sperm as well as \nurine. The same passage connects the urinary bladder and the vas \ndeferens.  \nd) Prostate gland and seminal vesicles : These glands are located \nalong the vas deferens . They secrete a fluid, called semen  that \nnourishes the sperm. This semen helps in the easier movement of \nsperms.  \n \n \n     9 \n \n3.3.2.  Female Reproductive System.  \n\u25cf The female reproductive system includes the organs that produce \nthe female germ -cells, provides site for fertilization of the \ngametes and development of the embryo into a new individual.  \n\u25cf The female gametes are the eggs that are produced in the ovaries.  \n\u25cf They also produce some hormones like estrogen and \nprogesterone  that are responsible for the onset of secondary \nsexual characteristics in girls at puberty.",
  "\u25cf The female gametes are the eggs that are produced in the ovaries.  \n\u25cf They also produce some hormones like estrogen and \nprogesterone  that are responsible for the onset of secondary \nsexual characteristics in girls at puberty.  \n\u25cf This system includes a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, uterus \nand vagina that opens externally  through the urethra . \n \n \n \na) Ovaries : The ovaries are a pair of glands that are located on \neither side of the uterus. The ovaries protect the female gametes \nor eggs and make  them suitable for fertilization. At birth the \novary of a girl contains thousands of eggs that are immature. \nAfter puberty, when the eggs mature, the ovaries release one egg \nevery month. The ovaries also produce the hormones oestrogen \nand progesterone that  are essential in bringing the secondary \nsexual changes in a girl at puberty.  \nb) Fallopian tube : This is also known as oviduct . This is a thin \ntube that connects the ovaries to the uterus. The eggs that are \nreleased by the ovary are transported through this tube.",
  "b) Fallopian tube : This is also known as oviduct . This is a thin \ntube that connects the ovaries to the uterus. The eggs that are \nreleased by the ovary are transported through this tube.  \nc) Uterus : This is a bag-like muscular elastic structure into which  \nthe two oviducts open. The uterus is the site where the fertilized \negg is implanted and it grows into a foetus. It is made of 3 \ntissues, outer perimetrium, middle layer of myometrium a nd the",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\ntube that connects the ovaries to the uterus. The eggs that are \nreleased by the ovary are transported through this tube.  \nc) Uterus : This is a bag-like muscular elastic structure into which  \nthe two oviducts open. The uterus is the site where the fertilized \negg is implanted and it grows into a foetus. It is made of 3 \ntissues, outer perimetrium, middle layer of myometrium a nd the \ninner endometrium. This is also responsible for supporting the \ndeveloping foetus during the entire gestation period.  \n \n     10 \n \nd) Cervix : This is the site where the uterus opens into vagina. This \nfacilitates a passage for the entry of the sperm into the uterus.   \n \nFertilization and development:  \n\u25cf The process of fertilization of a male and female gamete or \nsperm and egg starts when the sperm enters the female \nreproductive system through the vaginal passage during a sexual \nintercourse.",
  "Fertilization and development:  \n\u25cf The process of fertilization of a male and female gamete or \nsperm and egg starts when the sperm enters the female \nreproductive system through the vaginal passage during a sexual \nintercourse. From the vaginal passage they move up through the \nuterus towards the fallopian tubes.  \n\u25cf The eggs are present in the fallopian tube, meet  the sperm and get \nfertilized.  \n\u25cf The fertilized egg, which is known as the zygote, starts  dividing \nrepeatedly and travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus.  \n\u25cf The ball of cells or embry o gets implanted in the endometrial \nlining of the uterus and continues  to grow into a foetus. The \nembryo gets its nourishment from the mother through a special \ntissue called the  placenta  which acts as a connection between the \nmother and the developing embr yo. It helps to transport glucose \nand oxygen to the embryo and remove the wastes generated by \nthe embryo.  \n\u25cf It takes about nine months for the complete development of the \nchild inside the mother\u2019s body.",
  "It helps to transport glucose \nand oxygen to the embryo and remove the wastes generated by \nthe embryo.  \n\u25cf It takes about nine months for the complete development of the \nchild inside the mother\u2019s body. The child is born due to the \nrhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.  \n \n3.3.3.  What happens when the egg is not fertilized?  \n\u25cf An egg is released by the ovary every month in anticipation of it",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nand oxygen to the embryo and remove the wastes generated by \nthe embryo.  \n\u25cf It takes about nine months for the complete development of the \nchild inside the mother\u2019s body. The child is born due to the \nrhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.  \n \n3.3.3.  What happens when the egg is not fertilized?  \n\u25cf An egg is released by the ovary every month in anticipation of it \ngetting fertilised. In case the egg does not get fertilized, it can \nsurvive for only a day. Similar to the ovary releasing an egg \nevery month, every month, the uterus too prepares itself to the \nfertilized egg by creating a thick and spongy lining in order to \nprovide nourishment to the embryo.  \n\u25cf When the fertilization does not occur, this lining  too is not \nrequired and this lining and the egg is shed as blood and mucous \nthrough the vagina. This  is called menstruation . This cycle occurs \nevery month and lasts for about 2 - 8 days roughly.",
  "\u25cf When the fertilization does not occur, this lining  too is not \nrequired and this lining and the egg is shed as blood and mucous \nthrough the vagina. This  is called menstruation . This cycle occurs \nevery month and lasts for about 2 - 8 days roughly.  \n \n3.3.4.  Reproductive Health.  \n\u25cf The process of sexual maturation is a gradual one which happens \nwhile the general body growth is ongoing. Some amount of  \n  \n     11 \n \nsexual maturation  does not prepare a young person to be sexually \nactive or get married and bear children and bring  them up.  \n\u25cf Reproductive health deals with all these aspects concerned with \nhealthy and safe sexual practices. It becomes difficult for the \nyoung people to make the correct choice given the various types \nof pressure they face from peers, family, society.  \n\u25cf Lack of proper information and unhealthy sexual practices can \nlead them to contract some diseases  from one partner to another \nand even to the offspring as a sexual act is an intimate physical \ncontact between them.",
  "\u25cf Lack of proper information and unhealthy sexual practices can \nlead them to contract some diseases  from one partner to another \nand even to the offspring as a sexual act is an intimate physical \ncontact between them. The diseases transmitted in this manner \nare termed as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), like \nbacterial infections such as gonorrhoea an d syphilis, viral \ninfections such as warts and HIV. These can lead to health",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nlead them to contract some diseases  from one partner to another \nand even to the offspring as a sexual act is an intimate physical \ncontact between them. The diseases transmitted in this manner \nare termed as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), like \nbacterial infections such as gonorrhoea an d syphilis, viral \ninfections such as warts and HIV. These can lead to health \ncomplications and be fatal too if left untreated.  \n\u25cf Reproductive health covers the area of safe sex to help young \npeople. Pregnancy is a risk in a sexual act. As pregnancy is very \ndemanding for the body and mind and has to be planned, \nunwanted pregnancies and abortions can be avoided by using \nsome contraceptive methods . \n\u25cf The contraceptive methods can be by using physical barriers that \nblock the entry  of sperm into oviducts and not let ting fertilization \ntake place. Examples are condoms or coverings on the penis.",
  "\u25cf The contraceptive methods can be by using physical barriers that \nblock the entry  of sperm into oviducts and not let ting fertilization \ntake place. Examples are condoms or coverings on the penis.  \n\u25cf Contraceptive devices like Copper -T or intrauterine  \ncontraceptive device  (IUCD) that are implanted in the uterus \nwhich does not allow the sperm to travel ahead.  \n\u25cf The other contraceptive method changes the hormonal balance of \nthe body, preventing fertilization . These are mostly in the form of \ndrugs  which can be taken orally in a scheduled manner. \nExamples are pills like Mala D, I -pill etc.  \n\u25cf Another method is the surg ical one like vasectomy  in males in \nwhich the vas deferens is blocked to prevent the transfer of \nsperm. In females, tubectomy  is done which blocks the fallopian \ntube and thus prevents the egg from reaching the uterus. The \nsurgical methods are more reliable  and safer as compared to the \nother methods.",
  "In females, tubectomy  is done which blocks the fallopian \ntube and thus prevents the egg from reaching the uterus. The \nsurgical methods are more reliable  and safer as compared to the \nother methods.  \n\u25cf Though surgery is used to abort unwanted pregnancies, it has \nbeen widely misused by the people, especially for illegally \naborting a female foetus.  \n \n  \n     12 \n \n\u25cf There is a law in place to prevent this female foeticide  (killing of \na foetus), which states that prenatal sex determination is",
  "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nother methods.  \n\u25cf Though surgery is used to abort unwanted pregnancies, it has \nbeen widely misused by the people, especially for illegally \naborting a female foetus.  \n \n  \n     12 \n \n\u25cf There is a law in place to prevent this female foeticide  (killing of \na foetus), which states that prenatal sex determination is \nprohibited.  \n\u25cf A proper ratio of males to females is essential to maintain a \nbalance in the society and to have a healthy population too.",
  "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\nClass  X Science     1 \nRevision Notes  \nClass - 10 Science  \nChapter 1 4 - Sources of Energy  \n\uf0b7 Characteristics of a good fuel:  \n1. High calorific value  \n2. Less smoke  \n3. Less residue after burning  \n4. Easy availability  \n5. Inexpensive  \n6. Easy to store and transport  \n \n\uf0b7 Fossil fuels:  \no Plant and animal remains were buried under the earth and subjected to \nhigh temperature and pressure conditions millions of years ago, \nresulting in the formation of lava flows.  \no For example, coal, petroleum , and so forth.  \no These fossil fuels  are non-renewable  energy sources  that contribute \nto pollution in the environment.  \n \n\uf0b7 Thermal power plants:  \n1. Thermal electricity  is generated from coal, petroleum, and natural \ngas. \n2. The transmission of electricity  is very efficient.  \n3. The steam  generated by the combustion of fossil fuels powers the \nturbine , which generates electricity .",
  "Thermal electricity  is generated from coal, petroleum, and natural \ngas. \n2. The transmission of electricity  is very efficient.  \n3. The steam  generated by the combustion of fossil fuels powers the \nturbine , which generates electricity . \n \n\uf0b7 Hydro power plant:  \n  \n \nClass  X Science     2 \n \n \n1. It is the most common form of renewable energy , derived from water \nfalling from vast heights . \n2. It is a non-polluting  and clean source  of energy.  \n3. Dams  are built to catch water flowing via high -altitude Rivers. There \nis a lot of potential energy in the stored water.  \n4. When water falls from a height, potential energy  is converted to  \nkinetic energy , which rotates the turbines to produce  electricity . \nDisadvantages of Hydro power plant:  \n1. Construction is extremely costly . \n2. Dams  are not feasible  on all riverbeds.  \n3. Submergence of large areas of human settlement and agricultural \nlands.  \n4. People are confronted with social and environmental issues.",
  "Construction is extremely costly . \n2. Dams  are not feasible  on all riverbeds.  \n3. Submergence of large areas of human settlement and agricultural \nlands.  \n4. People are confronted with social and environmental issues.  \n \n\uf0b7 Non-conventional sources:  \n1) Bio Mass:  \n \n \nClass  X Science     3 \n \no It is the source of our country's routinely used fuels.  \no Cow dung cakes, firewood, coal, and charcoal , for example.  \no Bio gas  is a combination of gases created when biomass  decomposes in",
  "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\nlands.  \n4. People are confronted with social and environmental issues.  \n \n\uf0b7 Non-conventional sources:  \n1) Bio Mass:  \n \n \nClass  X Science     3 \n \no It is the source of our country's routinely used fuels.  \no Cow dung cakes, firewood, coal, and charcoal , for example.  \no Bio gas  is a combination of gases created when biomass  decomposes in \nthe absence of oxygen  (Anaerobic Respiration).  \no Biogas is primarily composed of methane . \no Animal dung, sewage, agricultural leftovers, vegetable wastes, chicken \ndroppings, and other wastes are utilised in Bio gas plants to make Bio \ngas. \n \n2) Wind Energy:  \n \n \nClass  X Science     4 \n \no Mechanical and electrical energy  can be converted from it.  \no Wind turbines, which are used to lift water, use kinetic energy  from \nthe wind.  \no Benefits:  \n1. Environment friendly  \n2. Renewable  \no Disadvantages:  \n1. Wind speed is not always consistent.  \n2.",
  "o Wind turbines, which are used to lift water, use kinetic energy  from \nthe wind.  \no Benefits:  \n1. Environment friendly  \n2. Renewable  \no Disadvantages:  \n1. Wind speed is not always consistent.  \n2. Requires a big space to construct a series of wind  turbines.  \n3. A significant quantity of capital is required.  \n4. The output is lower than the investment.  \n \n3) Solar Energy:  \n \n \nClass  X Science     5 \n \no Solar cells  can convert solar energy into electricity  (photovoltaic \ncells).  \no Photovoltaic cells  use silicon solar cells to convert solar radi ation \ninto electricity.  \no A solar panel is made up of solar cells  arranged on big flat sheets.  \no Solar cookers  have a big glass plate and are painted black  on the \noutside to capture solar energy through the greenhouse effect.  \no Advantage of Solar cookers:  \n1. Eco friendly  \n2. Renewable  \n3. Used in rural areas.  \n4. Retains all the nutrients in food due to slow cooking.",
  "o Advantage of Solar cookers:  \n1. Eco friendly  \n2. Renewable  \n3. Used in rural areas.  \n4. Retains all the nutrients in food due to slow cooking.  \no Disadvantages of solar cooker:  \n1. Silicon cells are not cheap.  \n2. Solar radiation is not uniformly distributed across the \nEarth's surface.  \n3. Not suitable for usage at night or on foggy days.  \n4. Cannot be used to make fried chapattis because they require",
  "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\n1. Eco friendly  \n2. Renewable  \n3. Used in rural areas.  \n4. Retains all the nutrients in food due to slow cooking.  \no Disadvantages of solar cooker:  \n1. Silicon cells are not cheap.  \n2. Solar radiation is not uniformly distributed across the \nEarth's surface.  \n3. Not suitable for usage at night or on foggy days.  \n4. Cannot be used to make fried chapattis because they require \na temperature of at least  \n140 C\uf0b0  . (Only a solar cooker can  \nreach a maximum temperature of \n100 C\uf0b0  .) \no Solar water heater, Solar furna ce, etc. are the other solar \ndevices.  \n4) Geo Thermal Energy:  \no Geo thermal energy  is a type of energy that is derived from the \nsun's heat . \n \n \nClass  X Science     6 \no When this heat melts the rocks, magma is created.  \no Magma  is the term for molten rocks and hot gases.",
  "Class  X Science     6 \no When this heat melts the rocks, magma is created.  \no Magma  is the term for molten rocks and hot gases.  \no Magma collects at various depths under the earth's surface. These \nare known as \" Hot Spots \" because when underground water \ncomes into touch with them, it turns into steam , which may be \nused to generate power . \no Advantages of Geo thermal energy:  \n1. Renewable  \n2. Inexpensive  \no Disadvanta ges of Geo thermal energy:  \n1. Very few sites available for harnessing energy.  \n2. Expensive  \n \n5) Nuclear Energy:  \no Nuclear energy  is the energy released when the nucleus of an \natom of a substance undergoes changes.  \no It is utilised as a source of heat and as a fuel for marine boats.  \no Advantages or Nuclear Energy:  \n1. Alternative source of energy due to depletion of fossil fuels.  \n2. A significant amount of energy is released from a small \namount of fuel.  \no Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy:  \n1. Risk of nuclear waste leakage  \n2.",
  "o Advantages or Nuclear Energy:  \n1. Alternative source of energy due to depletion of fossil fuels.  \n2. A significant amount of energy is released from a small \namount of fuel.  \no Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy:  \n1. Risk of nuclear waste leakage  \n2. Expensive nucl ear plant construction  \n3. Pollution of the environment  \n \n6) Energy from the sea:  \no Tidal Energy in India: Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat, and West \nBengal  \u2013  \n\uf0d8 Relies on tidal action  to control the rise and fall of sea level.  \n\uf0d8 Dams  are built across a narrow stretch of sea , and a turbine",
  "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\no Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy:  \n1. Risk of nuclear waste leakage  \n2. Expensive nucl ear plant construction  \n3. Pollution of the environment  \n \n6) Energy from the sea:  \no Tidal Energy in India: Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat, and West \nBengal  \u2013  \n\uf0d8 Relies on tidal action  to control the rise and fall of sea level.  \n\uf0d8 Dams  are built across a narrow stretch of sea , and a turbine \nconverts tidal energy to electricity.  \n\uf0d8 The main disadvantage  for using this is that, there is no \nconsistent tidal action . \no Wave Energy:  \n\uf0d8 Turbines are rotated by the kinetic energy of sea waves.  \n\uf0d8 These turbines produce electricity.",
  "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\nClass  X Science  \n   1 \n \n \n \nRevision Notes  \nClass 10 Science  \nChapter 16 - Management of Natural Resources  \n \n\u25cf Natural resources  are naturally occurring assets that are used to sustain life \nand meet our daily needs.   \n\u25cf It includes forests, water, coal, natural gases, and petroleum reserves.  \n\u25cf Depletion  i.e., reduction in number or quality of natural resources is \nincreasing at an alarmi ng rate.  \n\u25cf We should use our resources wisely so as to sustain the resources and conserve \nour environment.   \n\u25cf One such measure to protect our environment was the Ganga  Action Plan  \n(GAP) taken by the national body to conserve River Ganga because it \ncontained disease -causing microorganisms . \n\u25cf We must follow three R\u2019s to protect our environment and these are:  \n1. Reduce:  Means to use less or to reduce our daily consumption of resources.  \nFor example: Use less water for bathing, walking or cycling to save petrol  \n2. Recycle:  This means  processing  wastes like plastic, paper, metals to new and \nusable products again.",
  "Reduce:  Means to use less or to reduce our daily consumption of resources.  \nFor example: Use less water for bathing, walking or cycling to save petrol  \n2. Recycle:  This means  processing  wastes like plastic, paper, metals to new and \nusable products again.  \n3. Reuse:  The p rocess of using things again and again in order to protect the \nenvironment .  \nFor example: Using same cloth bag for shopping rather than using many \npolythene bags  \n\u25cf Reusing the substances again is best because it does not need any external \nenergy for the thin gs to be used again.  \n \nWhy do we need to manage our resources?  \n\u25cf Because the resources available to us are limited  and take millions of years to \nform.  \n\u25cf With the human population increasing at a tremendous rate the demand for \nresources is also increasing which increases the use of resources.  \n\u25cf Exploiting or reckless use of natural resources causes  damage to the \nenvironment.  \n\u25cf The management of natural resource s should be in a sustainable manner so \nthat these will last for generations to come.",
  "\u25cf Exploiting or reckless use of natural resources causes  damage to the \nenvironment.  \n\u25cf The management of natural resource s should be in a sustainable manner so \nthat these will last for generations to come.  \n Class  X Science  \n   2 \n \n \n \n\u25cf And should be available to everyone i.e., should be equally distributed to \neveryone.",
  "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\n\u25cf Exploiting or reckless use of natural resources causes  damage to the \nenvironment.  \n\u25cf The management of natural resource s should be in a sustainable manner so \nthat these will last for generations to come.  \n Class  X Science  \n   2 \n \n \n \n\u25cf And should be available to everyone i.e., should be equally distributed to \neveryone.  \n \nForest and wildlife:  \n\u25cf Forests  are called the lungs of earth  because it provides oxyge n which is our \nmost important demand for survival  \n\u25cf We depend on forests directly or indirectly for our survival. It provides  home \nand food to innumerable species.  \n\u25cf Forests  also offer  watershed protection, prevent soil erosion and floods and \nreduce climate change.  \n\u25cf Stakeholders:  \nStakeholders are the people who depend upon forests  for various perspectives  \nof life.",
  "It provides  home \nand food to innumerable species.  \n\u25cf Forests  also offer  watershed protection, prevent soil erosion and floods and \nreduce climate change.  \n\u25cf Stakeholders:  \nStakeholders are the people who depend upon forests  for various perspectives  \nof life. These include,  \na. The forest department of the country  \nb. The industrialists  \nc. The wildlife  and nature enthusiasts  \n\u25cf Some examples of local people working for the conservation of forests include  \nthe case of the Bishnoi community in Rajasthan who protected \u2018khejri\u2019 trees \nin Kheja rli village near Jodhpur in Rajasthan.  \n\u25cf We have to conserve forests. The  importance of forests  cannot be \nunderestimated.  \n\u25cf Forest resources should be used in a manner that is both environmentally and \ndevelopmentally beneficial.  \n\u25cf Sustainable development:  \n\u25cf Sustainable development  is the  idea of utilizing  natural resources in present \nwithout compromising the need of future generations.  \n\u25cf It can be achieved by using the resources judiciously  and realizing  the fact \nthat if these resources get exhausted it will create problems.",
  "\u25cf Sustainable development:  \n\u25cf Sustainable development  is the  idea of utilizing  natural resources in present \nwithout compromising the need of future generations.  \n\u25cf It can be achieved by using the resources judiciously  and realizing  the fact \nthat if these resources get exhausted it will create problems.  \n \nWater for all:  \n\u25cf Water is a basic necessity  for all biotic life. All  organisms  need water to exist \nand survive.  \n\u25cf Water is essential because our daily activities are dependent on water.  \n\u25cf The lack of water and consumption of contaminated water can cause serious \nhealth issues . \n\u25cf Despite having",
  "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\nthat if these resources get exhausted it will create problems.  \n \nWater for all:  \n\u25cf Water is a basic necessity  for all biotic life. All  organisms  need water to exist \nand survive.  \n\u25cf Water is essential because our daily activities are dependent on water.  \n\u25cf The lack of water and consumption of contaminated water can cause serious \nhealth issues . \n\u25cf Despite having \n71%  water available on earth in many areas water scarcity  has \nbeen observed since the freshwater  is only \n3% . Class  X Science  \n   3 \n \n \n \n\u25cf Despite nature\u2019s monsoon bounty in India, we are unable to sustain \nunderground water and water pollution has resulted in the loss of vegetation \ncover.  \n\u25cf Rainwater harvesting (for rec harging groundwater ), irrigation using dams, \ntanks, and canals help to sustain water resources.  \n \n\u25cf Dams:  \n\u2b9a It is the structure used to control the flow of water in rivers and canals.  \n\u2b9a It is used to convert the kinetic energy of flowing water to electrical energy \nwith the help of motors.",
  "\u25cf Dams:  \n\u2b9a It is the structure used to control the flow of water in rivers and canals.  \n\u2b9a It is used to convert the kinetic energy of flowing water to electrical energy \nwith the help of motors.  \n\u2b9a The dam  is a good alternative for non -renewable sources of energy and also \ncauses less harm to the environment.  \n\u2b9a It also helps in water storage which cou ld be used at the time of water shortage \nin the area.  \n\u2b9a The dam  also assures the consistent flow of water in rivers and prevent floods \nand drought -like situations  \n\u2b9a Although, the dam has adversely affected marine life as well as humans.  \n \n\u25cf Water harvesting:  \n\u2b9a Water harvesting  is the process of collecting rainwater and reusing it rather \nthan making it run away.  \n\u2b9a It is an age-old concept  in India used in many states of  India.  \n\u2b9a Water harvesting techniques have many benefits such as help in irrigation, \nhelps to recha rge the natural well, etc.",
  "\u2b9a It is an age-old concept  in India used in many states of  India.  \n\u2b9a Water harvesting techniques have many benefits such as help in irrigation, \nhelps to recha rge the natural well, etc.  \n\u2b9a Giving people control over their local water resources ensures that \nmismanagement and over -exploitation of these resources will be reduced.  \n\u2b9a The advantages of groundwater  are that it does not evaporate and does not",
  "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\n\u2b9a Water harvesting techniques have many benefits such as help in irrigation, \nhelps to recha rge the natural well, etc.  \n\u2b9a Giving people control over their local water resources ensures that \nmismanagement and over -exploitation of these resources will be reduced.  \n\u2b9a The advantages of groundwater  are that it does not evaporate and does not \nprovide breedi ng grounds.  \n \n\u25cf Coal and petroleum:  \n\u2b9a Coal and petroleum were formed from the degradation of fossils millions of \nyears ago.  \n\u2b9a These are resources that will be exhausted in the future no matter how \ncarefully we use them still we should use them in a sustainable manner.  \n\u2b9a Combustion of coal and petroleum  gives out products like carbon dioxide, \nwater, oxides of nitrogen, and oxides of sul phur which are poisonous at high \nconcentrations . Class  X Science  \n   4 \n \n \n \n\u2b9a Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse  gas which when increased  leads to global \nwarming.",
  "Class  X Science  \n   4 \n \n \n \n\u2b9a Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse  gas which when increased  leads to global \nwarming.  \n\u2b9a Therefore, we need to use these resources  judiciously and look for alternative \nsources of energy like solar energy, wind energy, etc.  \n \n\u25cf An overview of natural resource management:  \n\u2b9a Natural resources  are not available in abundance so we should realize  that \nselfish goals  will lead to the misery of lots of people.  \n\u2b9a Sustainable management of natural resources is becoming important despite \nbeing a difficult task. We should  try our best to conserve them . \n\u2b9a And use the natural resources very wisely  so that our coming generation c an \nalso benefit.",
  "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\n                                                                                                       1 \nRevision Notes  \nClass \u2013 10 Science  \nChapter 15 - Our Environment  \n                                                                                              \n1. What happens to the environment when we add waste to it.  \nThe environment of an organism refers to the physical and biological conditions in \nwhich the organism lives. The physical conditions consist of various factors like soil, \ntemperature, light,  etc. Whereas the biological conditions include the plants, \nanima ls, and microorganisms around it. A slight change in any of these conditions \ncan affect the organism.  \nWhen the waste generated is added to the environment it disturbs the ecological \nbalance.  The wastes are broadly classified into two categories: - \nSubstanc es that can be broken down by biological processes are known as \nbiodegradable. On the other hand, substances that can not be broken down by \nbiological processes are known as non -biodegradable. These substances can be inert \nand remain in the environment for  a very long time causing harm to the various \nmembers of the ecosystem.  \n \n2. What are the components of the ecosystem?",
  "These substances can be inert \nand remain in the environment for  a very long time causing harm to the various \nmembers of the ecosystem.  \n \n2. What are the components of the ecosystem?  \nAll organisms including plants, animals, microorganisms, and human beings interact \nwith the physical surroundings as well as with each oth er to maintain balance in our \nenvironment.  \nAn ecosystem is a community of organisms with their physical environment \ninteracting with each other as an ecological unit, leading to the flow of energy. An \necosystem is made up of biotic components which include  living organisms and \nabiotic components which include physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind, \nsoil, and minerals.  \nAn ecosystem can be of two types:  \nNatural : -  Ponds, forests, and lakes are natural ecosystems",
  "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\ninteracting with each other as an ecological unit, leading to the flow of energy. An \necosystem is made up of biotic components which include  living organisms and \nabiotic components which include physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind, \nsoil, and minerals.  \nAn ecosystem can be of two types:  \nNatural : -  Ponds, forests, and lakes are natural ecosystems   \n \n                                                                                                       2 \nArtificial: - garden and crop field s are man -made  \nIn both of the above ecosystems, all living organisms interact with each other and \ntheir growth, reproduction, and some of the other activities are affected by the abiotic \ncomponents of the ecosystem.  \nOrganisms present in the ecosystem can be further categorized into producers, \nconsumers, and decomposers in accordance with the manner in which they obtain \ntheir nutrition from the environment.  \nProducers are organisms that are capable of producing their own food without the \nhelp of any other o rganism. They are also called autotrophs. They synthesize their \nfood from inorganic substances by a process called photosynthesis.",
  "Producers are organisms that are capable of producing their own food without the \nhelp of any other o rganism. They are also called autotrophs. They synthesize their \nfood from inorganic substances by a process called photosynthesis. Autotrophs are \nthe green plants, phytoplankton, and blue -green algae.  \nConsumers are the organisms that do not produce food bu t depend directly or \nindirectly on producers for their food needs. These are called heterotrophs. \nConsumers can be further classified into herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and \nparasites. For example Humans, snakes. Decomposers are the organisms that feed  \non dead and decaying matter and break down the complex organic substances into \nthe simple inorganic substances. These simpler substances go into the soil and are \nused up again by the plants. Eg: Bacteria and fungi.  \n \n2.1 Food chains and Webs:  \nThe series of organisms that are taking part at various biotic levels constitute a food",
  "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\non dead and decaying matter and break down the complex organic substances into \nthe simple inorganic substances. These simpler substances go into the soil and are \nused up again by the plants. Eg: Bacteria and fungi.  \n \n2.1 Food chains and Webs:  \nThe series of organisms that are taking part at various biotic levels constitute a food \nchain. Food chains signify the feeding relationship between the organisms in an \necosystem. In the food chain, the flow of energy from one species to another occurs. \nEvery food chain always begins with producers.  \n The successive levels present in the food chains of a community are known as \ntrophic levels. From autotrophs, the energy is passed to the heterotrophs and \ndecomposers. When this energy is transferred from one le vel to the other level, some \nof the energy is lost to the environment in forms that cannot be used again.",
  "From autotrophs, the energy is passed to the heterotrophs and \ndecomposers. When this energy is transferred from one le vel to the other level, some \nof the energy is lost to the environment in forms that cannot be used again.  A \ncommon example of food chains are: - \nPlants \u2192 Deer \u2192  Lion  \n  \n \n                                                                                                       3 \nThe food chain consists of up to three or four trophic levels. Since the loss of energy \nat every step is so huge that a very small amount of usable energy remains when it \nreaches the fourth trophic level. The number of individuals at the lower trophic levels \nof an ecosystem is generally more therefore the largest number is of the producers.  \nThe length and complexity of food chains differ. Every organism is in general eaten \nby two or more other kinds of organisms which in turn are eaten by several other \norganisms belonging to a higher level. This relationship between organisms can be \nshown by a  series of branching lines known as food web. Many cross -linked food \nchains constitute the food web.  \nThe flow of energy between the trophic levels in any ecosystem is unidirectional.",
  "This relationship between organisms can be \nshown by a  series of branching lines known as food web. Many cross -linked food \nchains constitute the food web.  \nThe flow of energy between the trophic levels in any ecosystem is unidirectional. \nThe energy that is captured by the autotrophs is passed to the higher tro phic levels",
  "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\norganisms belonging to a higher level. This relationship between organisms can be \nshown by a  series of branching lines known as food web. Many cross -linked food \nchains constitute the food web.  \nThe flow of energy between the trophic levels in any ecosystem is unidirectional. \nThe energy that is captured by the autotrophs is passed to the higher tro phic levels \nand energy does not revert back to the lower level. Some of the harmful chemicals \nenter our bodies through the food chain. For example use of several pesticides and \nother chemicals to protect the crops from diseases and pests runoff with water in the \nfield which are taken up by the fishes entering in the food chain.  \nBiological magnification is a phenomenon by which harmful substances or \nchemicals accumulate from the lower trophic level to a higher one. As human beings \nare at the top level in an y food chain, so the maximum concentration of these harmful \nchemicals gets accumulated in the body which can cause death of the person.  \n \n3. How does the environment affect our activities?",
  "As human beings \nare at the top level in an y food chain, so the maximum concentration of these harmful \nchemicals gets accumulated in the body which can cause death of the person.  \n \n3. How does the environment affect our activities?  \n3.1 Ozone layer and its depletion.  \nOzone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms. The ozone layer is present in the \nupper layer of the atmosphere i.e. stratosphere. It is a very deadly poison. It is \nresponsible for causing skin cancer in human beings. Whereas, at the higher levels \nof the at mosphere, it protects us from harmful UV radiations of the sun which is \ndangerous to living organisms. Ozone depletion is the marked reduction of ozone \nmolecules in the stratosphere due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigerants \nand other coolants.  Oxygen in the presence of ultraviolet rays gets broken down to \nnascent oxygen molecules. This nascent oxygen further reacts with the oxygen \npresent in the atmosphere and forms ozone molecule.  \n  \n \n                                                                                                       4",
  "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\nand other coolants.  Oxygen in the presence of ultraviolet rays gets broken down to \nnascent oxygen molecules. This nascent oxygen further reacts with the oxygen \npresent in the atmosphere and forms ozone molecule.  \n  \n \n                                                                                                       4 \nIn order to limit the damage to the ozone layer the release o f CFC s into the \natmosphere needs to be reduced instead alternatives should be used.  \n \n3.2 Managing the garbage produced:  \nImprovements in the lifestyle have to lead to greater amounts of waste material \ngeneration. Changes in the packaging of items have resu lted in huge amount of waste \nbecoming non -biodegradable. Increased use of non -biodegradable items has left the \nenvironment polluted with them. In order to manage this waste we can do following: - \n1. Use of concept of 3R's (reduce, reuse and recycle).  \n2. Sep eration of biodegradable and non -biodegradable waste.",
  "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nIntroductionThe human body is a complex machine performing tons of functions and processes to maintain and sustain life. Explore how the body controls its movements and coordinates its actions with other parts of the body and the environment by exploring notes for Class 10 Chapter 7 Control and Coordination.The Nervous SystemMovement in organismsThe ability of organisms to move certain body parts is movement.When they move from one place to another, it is called locomotion.Organisms show movements in response to stimuli.Introduction to control & coordination\u2022Organisms move in response to various kinds of stimuli like light, heat, nutrients/food, etc.\u2022All the activities in animals are controlled and coordinated by the nervous and endocrine systems.\u2022Hormones are chemical messengers, which assist the nervous system in carrying out various functions.",
  "They are secreted by endocrine glands.\u2022Hormones in plants\u00a0coordinate\u00a0the movements.To know more about The Nervous System, visit here.THE\u00a0NERVOUS\u00a0SYSTEM\n \nNeuronNeuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.\u2022Each neuron has three main parts:\u00a0dendrites, cyton/soma/cell body and axon.\u2022Dendrites\u00a0receive impulses from other neurons.\u2022Cyton/soma processes the impulse.\u2022Axon transmits the impulse, either to another neuron or to muscles/glands, etc.\u2022Axon may be myelinated or non-myelinated.\u2022The impulse transmission is faster in myelinated neurons.",
  "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nCentral nervous systemThe central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. Functions of different parts of the brain are:\u2022The cerebrum is responsible for\u00a0reasoning, logic, emotions, speech, memory, visual processing, recognition of auditory and taste stimuli, etc.\u2022Cerebellum regulates and coordinates body\u00a0movements, posture and balance.\u2022Pons relays signals from the hindbrain to the forebrain.\u2022Medulla Oblongata controls all involuntary movements like vomiting, sneezing, yawning, heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, etc.\u2022Medulla oblongata continues as the spinal cord which runs through the vertebral column and it controls re\ufb02ex actions.",
  "Read more: Central Nervous SystemPeripheral nervous system\u2022The nerves coming out from the brain and the spinal cord constitute the peripheral nervous system (PNS).\u2022There are 12 cranial nerves and 31 spinal nerves in humans.Read more: Peripheral Nervous SystemSomatic nervous system\u2022It forms a part of the PNS.\u2022The nerves of PNS that control the voluntary actions of the body form the somatic nervous system.Autonomic nervous system\u2022All the nerves of the PNS that control the involuntary actions in the body form the autonomic nervous system. E.g.\u00a0respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, etc. are regulated by the autonomic nervous system.",
  "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\n\u2022Two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.\u2022The\u00a0sympathetic nervous system\u00a0prepares the body for intense physical activity and is often referred to as the \ufb01ght-or-\ufb02ight response, while the\u00a0parasympathetic nervous system\u00a0has almost the exact opposite effect and relaxes the body and inhibits or slows many high-energy functions.Re\ufb02ex actionRe\ufb02ex action\u00a0is a\u00a0sudden, involuntary reaction\u00a0of the body in response to stimuli.To know more about Re\ufb02ex Action, visit here.Re\ufb02ex arc\u2022It is the path\u00a0followed by an electrical impulse\u00a0during a re\ufb02ex action.\u2022The impulse travels from the receptor organ to the spinal cord/brain. It is processed there and the information is brought back to the concerned muscle to carry out the action.\u2022Thus, the receptor organ, sensory/afferent neuron, interneuron, motor/efferent neuron and effector organ are the components of a re\ufb02ex arc.",
  "It is processed there and the information is brought back to the concerned muscle to carry out the action.\u2022Thus, the receptor organ, sensory/afferent neuron, interneuron, motor/efferent neuron and effector organ are the components of a re\ufb02ex arc.\n \nProtection of CNSThe brain is protected by 3 main layers -\u2022The bony skull (cranium)\u2022The cerebrospinal \ufb02uid\u2022The meninges (Dura mater, Arachnoid and Pia mater).Plant Hormones and MovementsPlant hormonesControl and coordination in plants are\u00a0carried out by hormones.\n \nTo know more about Plant hormones, visit here.Growth independent movementsThe movements which are not\u00a0growth related are called nastic movements.",
  "To know more about Plant hormones, visit here.Growth independent movementsThe movements which are not\u00a0growth related are called nastic movements. These movements\u00a0occur in response to environmental stimuli but\u00a0the direction of response is not dependent on the direction of the stimulus.\u2022The movement in the touch-me-not plant\u00a0is thigmonastic movement (movement in response to touch).Plant HormoneFunctionAuxinHelps in Growth of Plant TissueCytokininPromotes Cell division, delays ageing of cellsGibberellinsHelps in the growth of stems, initiates seed germination, promotes flowering, cell division and seed growth after germinationAbscisic acidInhibits growth and causes wilting of leaves, promotes dormancy of buds and seedsEthyleneThis is a gaseous hormone which causes the ripening of fruits",
  "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nGrowth-related movements in plantsThe movements which are\u00a0growth related are called tropic movements. These movements\u00a0occur in response to environmental stimuli and the direction of the response is dependent on the direction of the stimulus.To know more about Tropic Movements in Plants, visit here.Examples:\u2022Phototropic movement (light-dependent)\u2022Geotropic movement (gravity-dependent)\u2022Chemotropic movement (chemical-dependent)\u2022Hydrotropic movement (water-dependent)\u2022Thigmotropic movement (touch dependent)GeotropismMovement of plant parts in response to earth's gravitational force is known as geotropism/gravitropism.\u2022Towards gravity - positive geotropism\u2022Away from gravity - negative geotropism\u2022The root grows towards gravity and shoot grows away from gravity\n\u00a0\n \nPhototropismMovement of plant parts in response to light is known as phototropism.\u2022Towards light-positive phototropism\u2022Away from light - negative phototropism\u2022Stems move\u00a0towards light and roots move away from lightTo know more about Phototropism, visit here.",
  "\u2022Towards light-positive phototropism\u2022Away from light - negative phototropism\u2022Stems move\u00a0towards light and roots move away from lightTo know more about Phototropism, visit here.HydrotropismMovement of plant parts in response to water or moisture.\u2022Towards water-positive hydrotropism\u2022Away from water - negative hydrotropism\u2022Again, root movement in search of water is positive hydrotropism\u2022E.g.\u00a0movement of roots towards high humidity level\nChemotropismMovement of plant parts in response to chemical stimuli is known as chemotropism.\u2022Towards chemical - positive chemotropism\u2022Away from chemical - negative chemotropism\u2022The growth of pollen tube towards the ovule is positive chemotropism\n \nThigmotropismMovement of plant parts\u00a0in response to touch is called as thigmotropism.\u2022Towards touch - Positive thigmotropism\u2022Away from touch - negative thigmotropism\u2022Movement of tendrils around the support is positive thigmotropism",
  "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nThigmotropismMovement of plant parts\u00a0in response to touch is called as thigmotropism.\u2022Towards touch - Positive thigmotropism\u2022Away from touch - negative thigmotropism\u2022Movement of tendrils around the support is positive thigmotropism\nThe Endocrine SystemExocrine glandsExocrine glands\u00a0are glands that discharge secretions by means of \u00a0ducts, which open\u00a0onto an epithelial surface.\u00a0Endocrine glandsEndocrine glands are the ductless glands which secrete hormones into the bloodstream in humans.The endocrine glands present in the human body are the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pineal, pancreas, ovary (female), testis (male), etc. Let us now learn more about each of the glands below.\n \nTo know more about Exocrine glands, visit here.Pituitary gland\u2022It is a pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain.\u2022It is the master gland as it controls the secretions of all the other endocrine glands.\u2022It also secretes Growth Hormone (GH).",
  "To know more about Exocrine glands, visit here.Pituitary gland\u2022It is a pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain.\u2022It is the master gland as it controls the secretions of all the other endocrine glands.\u2022It also secretes Growth Hormone (GH). Under-secretion of GH causes Dwar\ufb01sm and over-secretion causes Gigantism in children and \u2018Acromegaly\u2019 in adults.To know more about Pituitary gland, visit here.Thyroid gland\u2022It is a butter\ufb02y-shaped gland located in the throat.\u2022It secretes the hormone\u00a0\u2018Thyroxine\u2019 which regulates\u00a0the metabolism of\u00a0the body.\u2022Iodine is required to synthesize thyroxine in the body.\u2022In the case of iodine de\ufb01ciency, under-secretion of thyroxine leads to goitre.To know more about Thyroid gland, visit here.",
  "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nPancreas\u2022It is a leaf-like gland present behind the stomach in the abdomen.\u2022It is an endocrine as well an exocrine gland.\u2022As an endocrine gland, it manufactures two hormones - Insulin and glucagon. Both these hormones act antagonistically and regulate the sugar level in the blood.\u2022As an\u00a0exocrine gland, it secretes\u00a0enzymes to break down the proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids in food.\u2022An insuf\ufb01cient amount of insulin from the pancreas leads to diabetes.To know more about Pancreas, visit here.Adrenal gland\u2022Occurs in pairs above each kidney.\u2022It decreases in size with age.\u2022Secrets the hormone adrenaline which helps in \ufb02ight and \ufb01ght response.\u2022Also secretes nor adrenalineTo know more about the Adrenal gland, visit here.Gonads\u2022Gonads are the gamete-producing organs - testes in males and ovaries in females.\u2022The testes produce the male hormone testosterone and the ovaries produce the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone.",
  "visit here.Gonads\u2022Gonads are the gamete-producing organs - testes in males and ovaries in females.\u2022The testes produce the male hormone testosterone and the ovaries produce the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone.\u2022Testosterone and oestrogen help in producing gametes and are responsible for\u00a0the sexual characteristics of males and females respectively.\u2022Progesterone is the pregnancy hormone.To know more about Gonads, visit here.Other endocrine organs\u2022The other endocrine organs include the hypothalamus, parathyroid, pineal and thymus glands.To know more about The Endocrine System, visit here.Also Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 6 Life Processes\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 8 How Do Organisms Reproduce Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 7 - Control And Coordination\u2022Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1\u2022CBSE Class 10 History Notes Chapter 1 - The Rise of Nationalism in Europe",
  "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nFrequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 7: Control and CoordinationWhat is the function of the Central nervous system?The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind. It consists of two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the centre of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the origin of control over body movement.What are some facts about the human brain?1. 60% of the human brain is composed of fat2. The brain contains about 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion connections3. The texture of the brain is similar to that of \ufb01rm jellyHow many parts does the human eye have?The human eye totally consists of 7 parts that work together."
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