diff --git "a/.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/cbseclass10index/collection.json" "b/.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/cbseclass10index/collection.json" --- "a/.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/cbseclass10index/collection.json" +++ "b/.ragatouille/colbert/indexes/cbseclass10index/collection.json" @@ -1,40 +1,162 @@ [ - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nChemical Reactions and Equations\nIntroduction to Chemical Reactions and Equations\nPhysical and chemical changes\nChemical change - one or more new substances with new physical and chemical properties\nare formed.\nExample: Fe(s)\u00a0 + \u00a0CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\nHere, when copper sulphate reacts with iron, two new substances, i.e., ferrous sulphate and\ncopper are formed.\nPhysical change - change in colour or state occurs but no new substance is formed.\nExample: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though\nsteam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react\nthe same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid\nto vapour).", - "Example: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though\nsteam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react\nthe same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid\nto vapour).\u00a0\nObservations that help determine a chemical reaction\nA chemical reaction can be determined with the help of any of the following observations:\na) Evolution of a gas\nb) Change in temperature\nc) Formation of a precipitate\nd) Change in colour\ne) Change of state\nChemical reaction\nChemical reactions are chemical changes in which reactants transform into products by\nmaking or breaking of bonds(or both) between different atoms.\nTypes of chemical reactionsTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.\nFew examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nChemical Reactions and Equations I\nWord equation\nA\u00a0 word equation is a\u00a0chemical reaction\u00a0expressed in words rather than\u00a0chemical\nformulas.", - "It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride\nThe above equation means: \"Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.\"\u00a0\nSymbols of elements and their valencies\nA symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nformulas.\u00a0It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride\nThe above equation means: \"Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.\"\u00a0\nSymbols of elements and their valencies\nA symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic\nsymbol, which is the abbreviated form of its name.\nValency is the combining capacity of an\u00a0element. It can be considered as the number of\nelectrons lost, gain or shared by an atom when it combines with another atom to form a\nmolecule.\nWriting chemical equations\nRepresentation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and chemical formulae of the\nreactants and products is known as a chemical equation.\nZn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".", - "Zn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".\n\u2022 For gases, it is \"(g)\".\u2022 For aqueous solutions, it is \"(aq)\".\n\u2022 For gas produced in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2191)\".\n\u2022 For precipitate formed in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2193)\".\nBalancing of a Chemical Reaction\nConservation of mass\nAccording to the law of conservation of mass, no atoms can be created or destroyed in a\nchemical reaction, so the number of atoms for each element in the reactants side has to\nbalance the number of atoms that are present in the products side.\nIn other words, the total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is equal to the\ntotal mass of the reactants participated in a chemical reaction.\nBalanced chemical equation\nThe chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element\u00a0in the reactants side\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.", - "Balanced chemical equation\nThe chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element\u00a0in the reactants side\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.\nSteps for balancing chemical equations\nHit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coef\ufb01cients (the numbers in\nfront of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same\non each side of the chemical equation.", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.\nSteps for balancing chemical equations\nHit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coef\ufb01cients (the numbers in\nfront of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same\non each side of the chemical equation.\u00a0\nShort-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation\nExample:\naCaCO 3+bH3PO 4\u2192cCa 3(PO 4)2+dH2CO 3\nSet up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.", - "Short-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation\nExample:\naCaCO 3+bH3PO 4\u2192cCa 3(PO 4)2+dH2CO 3\nSet up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.\nCa: a=3c\nC:\u00a0 \u00a0a=d\nO:\u00a0 \u00a03a+4b=8c+3d\nH:\u00a0 \u00a03b=2d\nP:\u00a0 \u00a0 b=2c\nLet's set c=1\nThen a=3 and\nd=a=3\nb=2c=2So a=3; b=2; c=1; d=3\nThe balanced equation is\n3CaCO 3+ 2H 3PO 4\u2192Ca3(PO 4)2+ 3H 2CO 3\nChemical Reactions and Equations II\nTypes of chemical reactions\nTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.", - "Few examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nCombination reaction\nIn a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one compound or two\ncompounds combine\u00a0to give one single product.\nH2+Cl2\u2192 2HCl\nelement + element \u2192 compound\n2CO +O2\u2192 2CO 2\ncompound + element \u2192 compound\nNH 3+HCl \u2192NH 4Cl\ncompound + compound \u2192 compound\nDecomposition reaction\nA single reactant decomposes on the application of heat or light or electricity to give two or\nmore products.\nTypes of decomposition reactions:\na. Decomposition reactions which require heat - thermolytic decomposition or thermolysis.\nThermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.", - "Thermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.\nElectrolytic decomposition of H 2O\nDisplacement reaction\nMore reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.i)Zn(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.\nElectrolytic decomposition of H 2O\nDisplacement reaction\nMore reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.i)Zn(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\nii)Cu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) \u2192Cu(NO 3)2(aq) + 2Ag (s)\nDouble displacement reaction\nAn exchange of ions between the reactants takes place to give new products.\nFor example,\u00a0Al 2(SO4)3(aq) + 3Ca( OH)2(aq) \u2192 2Al (OH)3(aq) + 3CaSO 4(s)\nPrecipitation reaction\nAn insoluble compound called precipitate forms when two solutions containing soluble salts\nare combined.", - "For example, Pb( NO 3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) \u2192 2KNO 3(aq) +PbI 2(\u2193)(s)(yellow )\nRedox reaction\nOxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.\nOxidation: Substance loses electrons or gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.\nReduction: Substance gains electrons or loses oxygen or gains hydrogen.\nOxidising agent - a substance that oxidises another substance and self-gets reduced.\nReducing agent - a substance that reduces another substance and self-gets oxidised.\nExamples:\n1.Fe(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0(Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\nFe\u2192Fe+2+ 2e \u2212 \u00a0(oxidation ) ; Fe - reducing agent.\nCu+2+ 2e \u2212 \u2192Cu(s)\u00a0(reduction ) ; Cu - oxidising agent.", - "Cu+2+ 2e \u2212 \u2192Cu(s)\u00a0(reduction ) ; Cu - oxidising agent.\n2.ZnO +C\u2192Zn+CO\nZnO reduces to Zn\u00a0\u2192 reduction\nC oxidises to CO \u2192 oxidation\nZnO - Oxidising agent\nC - Reducing agent\nEndothermic and exothermic reaction\nExothermic reaction - heat is evolved during a reaction. Most of the combination reactions\nare exothermic.\nAl+Fe2O3\u2192Al2O3+Fe+heat\nCH 4+ 2O 2\u2192CO 2+ 2H 2O+heat\nEndothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.\n6CO 2+ 6H 2O+Sunlight \u2192C6H12O6+ 6O 2\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Glucose\nMost of the\u00a0decomposition reactions are endothermic.\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.\nRusting:", - "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nare exothermic.\nAl+Fe2O3\u2192Al2O3+Fe+heat\nCH 4+ 2O 2\u2192CO 2+ 2H 2O+heat\nEndothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.\n6CO 2+ 6H 2O+Sunlight \u2192C6H12O6+ 6O 2\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Glucose\nMost of the\u00a0decomposition reactions are endothermic.\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.", - "Corrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.\nRusting:\n4Fe(s) + 3O 2(from \u00a0air) +xH 2O(moisture ) \u2192 2Fe 2O3.xH 2O(rust)\nCorrosion of copper:\nCu(s) +H2O(moisture ) +CO 2(from \u00a0air) \u2192CuCO 3.Cu(OH)2(green )\nCorrosion of silver:\nAg(s) +H2S(from \u00a0air) \u2192Ag2S(black) +H2(g)\nRancidity\nIt refers to oxidation of fats and oils in food that is kept for a long time. It gives foul smell\nand bad taste to food. Rancid food causes stomach infection on consumption.\nPrevention:\n(i) Use of air-tight containers(ii) Packaging with nitrogen\n(iii) Refrigeration\n(iv) Addition of antioxidants or preservatives", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nAcids, Bases and Salts\nIntroduction to Acids, Bases and Salts\nClassi\ufb01cation of matter\nOn the basis of\na) composition -\u00a0 elements, compounds and mixtures\nb) state - solids, liquids and gases\nc) solubility - suspensions, colloids and solutions\nTypes of mixtures - homogeneous and heterogeneous\nTypes of compounds -\u00a0covalent and ionic\nWhat Is an Acid and a Base?\nIonisable and non-ionisable compounds\nAn ionisable compound when dissolved in water or in its molten state, dissociates into ions\nalmost entirely. Example: NaCl, HCl, KOH, etc.\nA non-ionisable compound does not dissociate into ions\u00a0when dissolved in water or in its\nmolten state.\u00a0Example: glucose, acetone, etc.\nArrhenius theory of acids and bases\nArrhenius acid - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H+(aq) or H 3O+ ion.\nArrhenius base - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH\u2212 ion.", - "Example: glucose, acetone, etc.\nArrhenius theory of acids and bases\nArrhenius acid - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H+(aq) or H 3O+ ion.\nArrhenius base - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH\u2212 ion.\nExamples\u00a0Acids\u00a0\nHydrochloric acid (HCl )\nSulphuric acid\u00a0\u00a0(H 2SO 4)\nNitric acid\u00a0(HNO 3)\nBases\u00a0\nSodium hydroxide (NaOH)\nPotassium hydroxide (KOH)\nCalcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)\nBronsted Lowry theoryA Bronsted acid is a H+(aq) ion\u00a0donor. \nA Bronsted base is a H+(aq) ion\u00a0acceptor.\nExample \nIn the reaction:\u00a0 HCl(aq) +NH 3(aq) \u2192NH+\n4(aq) +Cl\u2212(aq)\nHCl - Bronsted acid and Cl\u2212 - its conjugate acid\nNH 3\u00a0 - Bronsted base and NH+\n4 - its conjugate acid\nPhysical test\nGiven\u00a0are two possible physical tests to identify an acid or a base.", - "a. Taste\nAn acid tastes sour whereas a base tastes bitter.\nThe method of taste is not advised as an acid or a base could be contaminated or corrosive.\nb. Effect on indicators by acids and bases\nAn indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties,\nmainly colour or odour when brought in contact with an acid or a base.\nBelow mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they exhibit:\u00a0\na) Litmus\nIn neutral solution - purple\nIn acidic solution - red\nIn basic solution - blue", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nb. Effect on indicators by acids and bases\nAn indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties,\nmainly colour or odour when brought in contact with an acid or a base.\nBelow mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they exhibit:\u00a0\na) Litmus\nIn neutral solution - purple\nIn acidic solution - red\nIn basic solution - blue\nLitmus is also available as strips of paper in two variants - red litmus and blue litmus.\nAn acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.\nA base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.", - "An acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.\nA base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.\nb) Methyl orange\nIn neutral solution - orange\nIn acidic solution - red\nIn basic solution - yellow\nc) Phenolphthalein\nIn neutral solution - colourless\nIn acidic solution - remains colourless\nIn basic solution - pink\nAcid Base ReactionsReactions of acids and bases\na) Reaction of acids and bases with metals\nAcid\u00a0+ active metal\u00a0\u2192\u00a0 salt + hydrogen + heat\n2HCl \u00a0 +Mg\u2192MgCl 2+H2(\u2191)\nBase\u00a0+ metal \u2192 salt + hydrogen + heat\n2NaOH \u00a0 +Zn\u2192Na 2ZnO 2+H2(\u2191)\nA more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.\n2Na +Mg(OH)2\u2192 2NaOH +Mg\nb) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates\nAcid\u00a0+ metal carbonate\u00a0or bicarbonate\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + carbon dioxide.", - "2Na +Mg(OH)2\u2192 2NaOH +Mg\nb) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates\nAcid\u00a0+ metal carbonate\u00a0or bicarbonate\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + carbon dioxide.\n2HCl \u00a0 + \u00a0CaCO 3\u2192CaCl 2\u00a0 + \u00a0H 2O\u00a0 + \u00a0CO 2\nH2SO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0Mg (HCO 3)2\u2192MgSO 4\u00a0 + \u00a02H 2O\u00a0 + \u00a02CO 2\nEffervescence indicates liberation of\u00a0 CO 2\u00a0gas.\nc) Neutralisation reaction\n1. Reaction of metal\u00a0oxides and hydroxides with acids\nMetal\u00a0oxides or metal hydroxides are basic in nature.\nAcid + base \u2192 salt + water + heat\nH2SO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0MgO \u2192MgSO 4\u00a0 + \u00a0H 2O\n2HCl +Mg(OH)2\u2192MgCl 2+ 2H 2O\n2.", - "Reaction of non-metal\u00a0oxides with bases\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are acidic in nature\nBase\u00a0+ Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + heat\n2NaOH +CO 2\u2192Na 2CO 3+H2O\nWater\nAcids and bases in water\nWhen added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in\nconducting electricity.\nDifference between a base and an alkali\nBase-Bases undergo neutralisation reaction with acids.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\n2. Reaction of non-metal\u00a0oxides with bases\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are acidic in nature\nBase\u00a0+ Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0 \u2192\u00a0 salt + water + heat\n2NaOH +CO 2\u2192Na 2CO 3+H2O\nWater\nAcids and bases in water\nWhen added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in\nconducting electricity.\nDifference between a base and an alkali\nBase-Bases undergo neutralisation reaction with acids.\nThey are comprised of metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and metal\nbicarbonates.\nMost of them are insoluble in water.\u00a0\nAlkali -\u00a0\nAn alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).\nIt dissolves in water and dissociates to give \u00a0 OH\u2212 ion.\nAll alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.", - "Most of them are insoluble in water.\u00a0\nAlkali -\u00a0\nAn alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).\nIt dissolves in water and dissociates to give \u00a0 OH\u2212 ion.\nAll alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.\nHydronium ion\nHydronium ion is formed when a hydrogen ion accepts a lone pair of electrons from the\noxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a coordinate covalent bond.\nFormation of a hydronium ion\nDilution\nDilution is the process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more solvent\n(usually water) to it.\nIt is a highly exothermic process.\nTo dilute an acid, the acid must be added to water and not the other way round.\nStrength of acids and basesStrong acid or base : When all molecules of given amount of an acid or a base dissociate\ncompletely in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq)\u00a0 for acid and OH\u2212(aq) for base).", - "Strength of acids and basesStrong acid or base : When all molecules of given amount of an acid or a base dissociate\ncompletely in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq)\u00a0 for acid and OH\u2212(aq) for base).\nWeak acid or base: When only a few\u00a0of the molecules of given amount of an acid or a base\ndissociate in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq) for acid and OH\u2212(aq) for base).\u00a0\nDilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.\nConcentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.Universal indicator\nA\u00a0universal indicator has pH range from\u00a00 to 14 that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a\nsolution.\nA neutral solution has pH=7\npH\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 pH= \u2212log 10[H+]\nIn pure water,\u00a0 [H+] = [OH\u2212] = 10\u22127 mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.\nThe pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nConcentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.Universal indicator\nA\u00a0universal indicator has pH range from\u00a00 to 14 that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a\nsolution.\nA neutral solution has pH=7\npH\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 pH= \u2212log 10[H+]\nIn pure water,\u00a0 [H+] = [OH\u2212] = 10\u22127 mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.\nThe pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.\nIf pH < 7 - acidic solution\nIf pH > 7-\u00a0 basic solution\npH scale\nImportance of pH in everyday life1. pH sensitivity of plants and animals\nPlants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,\nfunctions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.\n2. pH of a soil\nThe pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.", - "Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,\nfunctions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.\n2. pH of a soil\nThe pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.\n3. pH in the digestive system\nThe process of digestion happens at a speci\ufb01c pH in our stomach which is 1.5 - 4.\nThe pH of the interaction of enzymes, while food is being digested, is in\ufb02uenced by HCl in\nour stomach.\u00a0\n4. pH in tooth\u00a0decay\nTooth decay happens when the teeth are\u00a0exposed to an acidic environment of\u00a0pH\n5.5\u00a0and\u00a0below.\u00a0\u00a0\n5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants\nAcidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,\nbee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted\nacidic substances have a speci\ufb01c pH.", - "5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants\nAcidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,\nbee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted\nacidic substances have a speci\ufb01c pH.\nManufacture of Acids and Bases\nManufacture of acids and bases\na) Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0+ water \u2192 acid\nSO2(g) +H2O(l) \u2192H2SO3(aq)\nSO3(g) +H2O(l) \u2192H2SO4(aq)\n4NO 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) +O2(g) \u2192 4HNO 3(aq)\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.\nb) Hydrogen + halogen \u2192 acid\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc.", - "b) Hydrogen + halogen \u2192 acid\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid \u2192 salt + more volatile acid\n2NaCl (aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl (aq)\n2KNO 3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO 3(aq)d) Metal + oxygen \u2192 metallic oxide (base)\n4Na( s) +O2(g) \u2192 2Na 2O(s)\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s)\ne) Metal + water \u2192 base or alkali + hydrogen\nZn(s) + H2O(steam ) \u2192 ZnO(s)+ H 2(g)", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc.", - "sulphuric acid \u2192 salt + more volatile acid\n2NaCl (aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl (aq)\n2KNO 3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO 3(aq)d) Metal + oxygen \u2192 metallic oxide (base)\n4Na( s) +O2(g) \u2192 2Na 2O(s)\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s)\ne) Metal + water \u2192 base or alkali + hydrogen\nZn(s) + H2O(steam ) \u2192 ZnO(s)+ H 2(g)\nf) Few metallic oxides + water \u2192 alkali\nNa 2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2NaOH (aq)\ng) Ammonia + water \u2192 ammonium hydroxide\nNH 3(g) +H2O(l) \u2192NH 4OH(aq)\nSalts\nSalts\nA salt is a combination of an anion of an acid and a cation of a base.", - "Examples - KCl ,NaNO 3,CaSO 4,etc.\nSalts are usually prepared by neutralisation\u00a0reaction of an acid and a base.\nCommon salt\nSodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it\u2019s used all over the world for\ncooking.\nFamily of salts\nSalts having the same cation or anion belong to the same family. For example, NaCl, KCl,\nLiCl.\npH of salts\nA salt of a strong acid and a strong base will be neutral in nature. pH = 7 (approx.).\nA salt of a weak acid and a strong base will be basic in nature.\u00a0pH > 7.\nA salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.\nThe pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.", - "pH > 7.\nA salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.\nThe pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.\nPreparation of Sodium hydroxide\u00a0\nChemical formula - NaOH\nAlso known as - caustic sodaPreparation (Chlor-alkali process):\nElectrolysis of brine (solution of common salt, NaCl) is carried out.At anode: Cl 2\u00a0is released \nAt cathode: H2\u00a0is released\nSodium hydroxide remains in the solution.\nBleaching powder\nChemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2\nPreparation -\u00a0Ca( OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) \u2192CaOCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nOn interaction with water - bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for\nbleaching action.\nBaking soda\nChemical name - Sodium hydrogen carbonate\nChemical formula - NaHCO 3\nPreparation (Solvay process) -\u00a0\na. Limestone is heated:\u00a0 CaCO 3\u2192CaO +CO 2", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nBleaching powder\nChemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2\nPreparation -\u00a0Ca( OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) \u2192CaOCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nOn interaction with water - bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for\nbleaching action.\nBaking soda\nChemical name - Sodium hydrogen carbonate\nChemical formula - NaHCO 3\nPreparation (Solvay process) -\u00a0\na. Limestone is heated:\u00a0 CaCO 3\u2192CaO +CO 2\nb. CO_2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia :\nNaCl (aq) +NH 3(g) +CO 2(g) +H2O(l) \u2192NaHCO 3(aq) +NH 4Cl(aq)\nUses:\n1. Textile industry\n2. Paper industry\n3. Disinfectant\nWashing soda\nChemical name\u00a0 - Sodium carbonate decahydrate.", - "Textile industry\n2. Paper industry\n3. Disinfectant\nWashing soda\nChemical name\u00a0 - Sodium carbonate decahydrate.\nChemical formuala - \\(Na_2CO_3 \\)\nPreparation: By heating\u00a0NaHCO 3\n2NaHCO 3(s) \u2192Na 2CO 3(s) +CO 2(g) +H2O(g)\nNa 2CO 3(s)\u00a0 + \u00a010H 2O(l)\u00a0 \u2192 \u00a0Na 2CO 3.10H 2O(s)Uses\n1. In glass, soap and paper industries\n2. Softening of water\n3. Domestic cleaner\nCrystals of salts\nCertain salts form crystals by combining with a de\ufb01nite proportion of water. The water that\ncombines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.", - "In glass, soap and paper industries\n2. Softening of water\n3. Domestic cleaner\nCrystals of salts\nCertain salts form crystals by combining with a de\ufb01nite proportion of water. The water that\ncombines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.\nPlaster of parisGypsum , \u00a0CaSO 4.2H 2O\u00a0(s)\u00a0on \u00a0heating \u00a0at\u00a0100\u00b0C \u00a0(373K )\u00a0gives \u00a0CaSO 4.H2O\u00a0and \u00a0H2O\nCaSO 4.H2O\u00a0is plaster of paris.\nCaSO 4.H2O means\u00a0two formula units of CaSO 4 share\u00a0one molecule of water.\nUses - cast for healing fractures.1\n23\n2\n1\n21\n2", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n 1 \n \nRevision Notes \nClass 10 \u2013 Science \nChapter 8 \u2013 How do Organisms Reproduce? \n \n1. Do organisms create exact copies of themselves? \n \n\u25cf The organisms are similar in their looks due to having similar body \ndesigns, which in turn indicates that the source for these designs must \nbe similar. And hence reproduction is that process where these designs \nare created. \n\u25cf The nucleus of a cell contains t he chromosomes , which carry the \ninformation for the inheritance of features from parents to the next \ngeneration. It is present in the form of DNA molecules . \n\u25cf The DNA present in the nucleus of a cell is the source of information \nfor making proteins. If this information changes, then a different set of \nproteins will be synthesised which will eventually lead to altered body \ndesigns in the organisms. \n\u25cf Hence it can be noted that a basic event in reproduction involves the \ncreation of a DNA copy.", + "If this information changes, then a different set of \nproteins will be synthesised which will eventually lead to altered body \ndesigns in the organisms. \n\u25cf Hence it can be noted that a basic event in reproduction involves the \ncreation of a DNA copy. \n\u25cf This copying of D NA is accompanied by the creation of an additional \ncellular apparatus, after which the DNA copies separate with each of \nthem having its own cellular apparatus. Thus, a cell divides to give rise \nto two cells. \n\u25cf Since this process of copying DNA is a biochemi cal process, it may not \nbe reliable and it will lead to some variations each time. \n\u25cf If the created new DNA copy is not viable, then the cell will not \nsurvive. And the surviving cells will be similar but may not be identical \nto the original and will subtly differ from each other. \n \n1.1. The importance of variation \n\u25cf The consistent DNA copying that happens during reproduction is \nessential to maintain the features of body design of an organism so that \nit can occupy its well -defined space or niche in the ecosystem.", + "1.1. The importance of variation \n\u25cf The consistent DNA copying that happens during reproduction is \nessential to maintain the features of body design of an organism so that \nit can occupy its well -defined space or niche in the ecosystem. \n\u25cf Hence reproduction is very much linked with the stability of a \npopulation of a spec ies. \n\u25cf The variations become important here as an organism may be suited for", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf The consistent DNA copying that happens during reproduction is \nessential to maintain the features of body design of an organism so that \nit can occupy its well -defined space or niche in the ecosystem. \n\u25cf Hence reproduction is very much linked with the stability of a \npopulation of a spec ies. \n\u25cf The variations become important here as an organism may be suited for \na specific niche and a drastic change in that due to unforeseen \nenvironmental conditions makes their survival difficult. \n 2 \n \n\u25cf Hence in such situations when a few among the species have some \nvariations, they stand a chance of survival in the new niche. And thus, \nthese species adapt themselves to the new conditions and the species \nare maintained over a period of time. \n\u25cf It can be understood with an example. If a species of bacteria is livin g \nin the temperate waters and suddenly the temperatures rise due to \nglobal warming, then most of the bacteria in that water would not \nsurvive. But maybe a few variants among them who are able to resist \nthe heat may survive and grow.", + "If a species of bacteria is livin g \nin the temperate waters and suddenly the temperatures rise due to \nglobal warming, then most of the bacteria in that water would not \nsurvive. But maybe a few variants among them who are able to resist \nthe heat may survive and grow. In case the variations were not present, \nthat entire species of bacteria would have become extinct. \n\u25cf Thus, the importance of variation lies in the survival of a species \nover time. \n \n2. Modes of reproduction \n \nReproduction can be defined as a process that involves the production of an \noffspring by a particular individual or individuals with the aim of propagating \ntheir species. Generally, reproduction happens during the reproductive phase \nof an organism. The mode of reproduction may vary in organisms. They can \nbe broadly categorised as: \na) Asexu al mode of reproduction: \n\u25cf The mode of reproduction by means of which a single individual \ncreates a new generation of species is termed as asexual \nreproduction. \n\u25cf Generally unicellular organisms exhibit asexual mode of \nreproduction, though some of them exhibit sexual mode too. \nb) Sexual mode of reproduction:", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nbe broadly categorised as: \na) Asexu al mode of reproduction: \n\u25cf The mode of reproduction by means of which a single individual \ncreates a new generation of species is termed as asexual \nreproduction. \n\u25cf Generally unicellular organisms exhibit asexual mode of \nreproduction, though some of them exhibit sexual mode too. \nb) Sexual mode of reproduction: \n\u25cf The mode of reproduction by means of which two individuals take \nart in the creation of a new generation of species is termed as sexual \nreproduction. \n \nTypes of asexual mode of reproduction : \n2.1. Fission: \n\u25cf In unicellular organisms the new individuals are created by the process \nof cell division or fission. \n\u25cf The nucleus of the cell divides into new individual cells under \nfavourable conditions. \n\u25cf Fission can be of two types depending on the number of new \nindividuals created. \n \n 3 \n \na) Binary fission : This division leads to the formation of two new \nindividuals.", + "\u25cf The nucleus of the cell divides into new individual cells under \nfavourable conditions. \n\u25cf Fission can be of two types depending on the number of new \nindividuals created. \n \n 3 \n \na) Binary fission : This division leads to the formation of two new \nindividuals. These can be further divided based on their plane of \ndivision as: \ni. Irregular binary fission : In this type of fission the plane of \ndivision of a cell is irregular, it can be in any plane. Example - \nAmoeba. \nii. Transverse binary fission : In this type of fission the cells divide \nalong a transverse plane. Example - Paramecium. \niii. Longitudinal binary fission : In this type of fission the plane of \ncell division is lon gitudinal. Example - Euglena . \n \nb) Multiple fission : This is the division of a single cell into many new \ndaughter cells. Example - Plasmodium . \n \n2.2. Fragmentation: \n\u25cf This is a process where an organism simply breaks up into smaller \npieces when they are mature.", + "b) Multiple fission : This is the division of a single cell into many new \ndaughter cells. Example - Plasmodium . \n \n2.2. Fragmentation: \n\u25cf This is a process where an organism simply breaks up into smaller \npieces when they are mature. \n\u25cf Each of the fragments or broken pieces grow into a new individual. \nThere should be a cell that is capable of growing into a new individual \nin such organisms. \n\u25cf Example - Spirogyra. \n \n2.3. Regeneration: \n\u25cf This is a process where some fully differentiated organism s can be cut", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf This is a process where an organism simply breaks up into smaller \npieces when they are mature. \n\u25cf Each of the fragments or broken pieces grow into a new individual. \nThere should be a cell that is capable of growing into a new individual \nin such organisms. \n\u25cf Example - Spirogyra. \n \n2.3. Regeneration: \n\u25cf This is a process where some fully differentiated organism s can be cut \nor broken into pieces and each of their body parts have the ability to \ngrow into a new individual . \n\u25cf Different cells in this mass of cut cells undergo a lot of changes in an \norganised manner to become different cells and tissues. \n\u25cf Example - Planaria , Hydra . \n \n2.4. Budding: \n\u25cf This is a process where a protuberance like outgrowth which is called \nas bud grows by repeated cell division at a specific site and then they \ndetach from the parent body to develop into a separate individual \norganism. \n\u25cf Example - Hydra. \n \n2.5.", + "\u25cf Example - Hydra. \n \n2.5. Vegetative propagation \nThis is the mode of reproduction by which plants reproduce asexually. \nIn this mode, new plants are developed from a plant\u2019s vegetative parts \n 4 \n \nlike stem, leaf, root . There are different methods of vegetative \npropagation that are carried out in plants which are as follows: \na) Stem cutting : This involves cutting the stem into small pieces \nhaving internodes and axillary buds. These are then planted in the \nsoil to propagate into new plants. This method is used in sugarcane, \nhibiscus, drumstick etc. \nb) Layering: This is a method where the young stem of a plant is bent \nand buried in the soil to develop roots and thus a new plant. Once \nthe new plant develops, the stem is detached from the parent plant. \nThis is used in jasmine, bougainv illaea. \nc) Grafting : This is a method wherein the stems of two different \nplants are cut and joined together to unite and start developing into \na new plant. This is used in nutmeg, roses etc.", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nand buried in the soil to develop roots and thus a new plant. Once \nthe new plant develops, the stem is detached from the parent plant. \nThis is used in jasmine, bougainv illaea. \nc) Grafting : This is a method wherein the stems of two different \nplants are cut and joined together to unite and start developing into \na new plant. This is used in nutmeg, roses etc. \nd) Leaf buds : This is a method in which the buds in the notches of \nleaves develop into new plants. This can be seen in bryophyllum. \n \nAdvantages of the vegetative propagation : \na) The plants that are grown by vegetative propagation bear flowers and \nfruits earlier as compared to the plants produced from seeds. \nb) All plants that are produced this way are genetically similar to the \nparent plant a nd have all its character istics . \n \n2.6. Spore formation: \n\u25cf Many multicellular organisms have specific reproductive parts.", + "b) All plants that are produced this way are genetically similar to the \nparent plant a nd have all its character istics . \n \n2.6. Spore formation: \n\u25cf Many multicellular organisms have specific reproductive parts. \n\u25cf They have tiny thread -like structures with a blob called sporangia . \n\u25cf These contain cells or spores which eventually develop into new \nindividuals. The spores are very light and covered by a thick wall to \nprotect them and when they come in contact with a moist surface they \nstart to grow. \n\u25cf Example - Rhizopus. \n \n3. Sexual Repro duction: \n \n3.1. Why the sexual mode of Reproduction? \n\u25cf The sexual mode of reproduction involves two organisms, a male and a \nfemale to create a new organism or offspring. \n\u25cf The sexual reproduction allows greater variations in a species as the \ntwo individuals involved in producing the offspring would have \ndifferent patterns of variations. This process includes the combination \n \n 5 \n \nof DNA of two different individuals and the resultant combination and \nvariation would be unique.", + "\u25cf The sexual reproduction allows greater variations in a species as the \ntwo individuals involved in producing the offspring would have \ndifferent patterns of variations. This process includes the combination \n \n 5 \n \nof DNA of two different individuals and the resultant combination and \nvariation would be unique. \n\u25cf Hence this ensures a mixing of the gene pool of the species within a \npopulation and it also ensures the survival of the species as this process \ngenerates more variations due to the genetic recombination.", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n 5 \n \nof DNA of two different individuals and the resultant combination and \nvariation would be unique. \n\u25cf Hence this ensures a mixing of the gene pool of the species within a \npopulation and it also ensures the survival of the species as this process \ngenerates more variations due to the genetic recombination. \n\u25cf The process of combining DNA of two different indiv iduals during \nsexual reproduction will lead to an offspring with twice the amount of \nDNA than their previous generation. \n\u25cf The solution to this lies in the fact that there are certain specialised cells \nin such organisms called germ cells or gametes . These ha ve half the \nnumber of chromosomes and, therefore half the amount of DNA in \ncomparison to the other non -reproductive cells. The combination of \nthese germ cells from two different individuals during the process of \nsexual reproduction restores the original nu mber of chromosomes and \nDNA content in the new offspring. \n\u25cf The germ cells may be similar and not much different from each other \nin simple organisms. With the complexity of the organisms the germ \ncell also becomes specialised.", + "\u25cf The germ cells may be similar and not much different from each other \nin simple organisms. With the complexity of the organisms the germ \ncell also becomes specialised. One of the germ cells becomes large and \nstores food. This is known as the female gamete . The other germ cell \nwhich is small and motile is called the male gamete . These gametes \nlead to the differences in the bodies and reproductive systems of males \nand females. \n \n3.2. Sexual Reproduction in flowering plants \n\u25cf The process of sexual reproduction in plants involves the fusion of \ngametes to produce offspring . The reproductive parts in angiosperms \n[plants that flower and produce fruits and seeds] are located in the \nflower. The parts of a flower consist of sepals, petals, stamens and \npistils . \n\u25cf The reproductive parts of the flower are stamen which contains the \nmale gamete and the pistil containing the female gametes. \na) Stamen : This is the male reproductive part and is also known as the", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n[plants that flower and produce fruits and seeds] are located in the \nflower. The parts of a flower consist of sepals, petals, stamens and \npistils . \n\u25cf The reproductive parts of the flower are stamen which contains the \nmale gamete and the pistil containing the female gametes. \na) Stamen : This is the male reproductive part and is also known as the \nandroecium. It consists of a filament and an anther that encloses the \npollen grains. The pollen grains produce the male germ -cells or \ngametes. \nb) Pistil : This is the female reproductive part of the flower and is also \nknown as gynoecium. This is made of three parts, namely, stigma, \nstyle and ovary. The enlarged portion at the bottom of a pistil is the \novary that contains an ovule with an egg cell . The middle long part \nof the pistil is the style and the term inal sticky part is the stigma .", + "The enlarged portion at the bottom of a pistil is the \novary that contains an ovule with an egg cell . The middle long part \nof the pistil is the style and the term inal sticky part is the stigma . \n 6 \n \n\u25cf Based on the presence of the stamen or pistil, flowers can be classified \nas: \na) Unisexual : These are the flowers that contain either stamens or \npistils. These are also called incomplete flowers. Example - papaya, \nmulberry, watermelon etc. \nb) Bisexual : These are flowers that contains stamens as well as pistils. \nExample - Hibiscus, mustard, rose etc. \n\u25cf The process of sexual reproduction in plants starts with the fusion of \nthe male and the female gametes, followed by the formation of a zygote \nthat eventually develops into a new plant. The process is explained as \nfollows: \na) Pollination: \n\u25cf The process of sexua l reproduction in plants starts with the transfer \nof pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the \npistil.", + "The process is explained as \nfollows: \na) Pollination: \n\u25cf The process of sexua l reproduction in plants starts with the transfer \nof pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the \npistil. This process is termed as pollination. \n\u25cf This is facilitated by pollinating agents like wind, birds, animals, \nwater etc. which tran sfer the pollen grains. \n\u25cf There can be two types of pollination as follows: \ni. Self-pollination : This involves the transfer of pollen grains from", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nof pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the \npistil. This process is termed as pollination. \n\u25cf This is facilitated by pollinating agents like wind, birds, animals, \nwater etc. which tran sfer the pollen grains. \n\u25cf There can be two types of pollination as follows: \ni. Self-pollination : This involves the transfer of pollen grains from \nthe anther to the stigma of the same flower. Example - wheat, \npeanut, etc. \nii. Cross -pollination : This type of pollination involves the transfer \nof the pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of \nanother flower of the same species. Example - apples, pumpkin \netc. \nb) Fertilization: \n\u25cf Through the process of pollination, the pollen is deposi ted in the \nstyle of the pistil. For the next process in reproduction, it needs to \nreach the female germ -cells which are present in the ovary.", + "b) Fertilization: \n\u25cf Through the process of pollination, the pollen is deposi ted in the \nstyle of the pistil. For the next process in reproduction, it needs to \nreach the female germ -cells which are present in the ovary. \n\u25cf To facilitate this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and reaches the \novule in the ovary of the pistil. \n\u25cf Here in the ovule the male germ -cell fuses with a female germ -cell to \nform a zygote . This process of fusion of the gametes is termed as \nfertilisation. \n\u25cf After the process of fertilization, the zygote thus formed, divides \nrepeatedly to form an embryo inside the o vule. The ovule later \ndevelops into a seed. \n\u25cf And meanwhile the ovary grows and ripens into a fruit and the other \nparts of the flower, namely the petals, sepals, stamens, style and \nstigma may be shed off. \n 7 \n \n\u25cf The seed present inside the fruit encloses the future plant in its \nembryo .", + "7 \n \n\u25cf The seed present inside the fruit encloses the future plant in its \nembryo . \nc) Germination: \n\u25cf The seed that contains the new plant or embryo develops into a \nseedling when the conditions are suitable. This process is termed as \ngermination. Certain conditions like nutrients , water and proper \ntemperature are necessary for the process of germination. \n\u25cf The embryo gets its food from the reserve food material stored in the", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nembryo . \nc) Germination: \n\u25cf The seed that contains the new plant or embryo develops into a \nseedling when the conditions are suitable. This process is termed as \ngermination. Certain conditions like nutrients , water and proper \ntemperature are necessary for the process of germination. \n\u25cf The embryo gets its food from the reserve food material stored in the \ncotyledons . It also has a protective outer covering known as seed \ncoat. \n \n3.3. Reproduction in Human Beings. \n\u25cf The mode of reproduction in human beings is sexual mode. The \nreproductive phase of an individual is that phase of life when the \nindividual is ready to reproduce an offspring. Changes are noticed at \nevery phase of growth right from birth. \n\u25cf But there are some changes that begin in the teenage age that start to \nprepare us for the reprod uctive phase of life. This period of \nadolescence leads to sexual maturation. The body needs to create \nspecialised germ -cells to take part in the sexual reproduction.", + "This period of \nadolescence leads to sexual maturation. The body needs to create \nspecialised germ -cells to take part in the sexual reproduction. The \nperiod of maturation of the reproductive tissues in the body is termed as \npuberty. \n\u25cf Numerous changes are noticed in both boys and girls during this period. \nThe boys start to have hair growth on their face and body, voice \nchange, active functioning of sweat and sebaceous glands, enlargement \nof penis etc. The changes in the girls include grow th of pubic hair, \nenlargement of breasts, oily skin leading to pimples, onset of \nmenstruation etc. Both of them undergo changes in their body \nappearance and they become more conscious of these bodily changes. \n\u25cf The process of fusion of germ -cells in sexual reproduction, the actual \ntransfer of these germ -cells needs to be done. For the same special \norgans need to be present like penis in males and uterus in females for \ncarrying the baby. \n \n3.3.1. Male reproductive system \n\u25cf The male reproductive system consists of organs that produce \nand transport the male germ -cell or gamete, male hormone", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf The process of fusion of germ -cells in sexual reproduction, the actual \ntransfer of these germ -cells needs to be done. For the same special \norgans need to be present like penis in males and uterus in females for \ncarrying the baby. \n \n3.3.1. Male reproductive system \n\u25cf The male reproductive system consists of organs that produce \nand transport the male germ -cell or gamete, male hormone \ntestosterone and the organs which facilitate the discharge of male \ngerm -cells into the female reproductive system for fertilization. \n \n 8 \n \n\u25cf The male gamete is the sperm which is a tiny body containing \nthe genetic material and they have a long tail for motility to help \nthem reach the female germ -cell for fertilization. \n\u25cf The system consists of some external organs like penis, scrotum, \ntestes and int ernal organs like urethra, prostate and seminal \nvesicles.", + "\u25cf The system consists of some external organs like penis, scrotum, \ntestes and int ernal organs like urethra, prostate and seminal \nvesicles. \n \n \na) Testes: Testes is the part that is responsible for the production of \nthe male germ -cell or sperms and the male hormone \ntestosterone . Testes are present in a structure known as scrotum , \nlocated outside the abdominal cavity. This is thus located \nbecause the formation of sperm requires a temperature that is \nlower than the normal body temperature. The hormone \ntestosterone plays a role in regulating the formation of sperms \nand also the deve lopment of the secondary sexual characteristics \nthat are seen in boys during puberty. \nb) Vas deferens : The sperms that are produced in the testes are \nstored in the epididymis . Vas deferens is a tube that transports \nthese sperm to the urethra. \nc) Urethra : This is a common passage for the sperm as well as \nurine. The same passage connects the urinary bladder and the vas \ndeferens.", + "Vas deferens is a tube that transports \nthese sperm to the urethra. \nc) Urethra : This is a common passage for the sperm as well as \nurine. The same passage connects the urinary bladder and the vas \ndeferens. \nd) Prostate gland and seminal vesicles : These glands are located \nalong the vas deferens . They secrete a fluid, called semen that \nnourishes the sperm. This semen helps in the easier movement of \nsperms.", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nthese sperm to the urethra. \nc) Urethra : This is a common passage for the sperm as well as \nurine. The same passage connects the urinary bladder and the vas \ndeferens. \nd) Prostate gland and seminal vesicles : These glands are located \nalong the vas deferens . They secrete a fluid, called semen that \nnourishes the sperm. This semen helps in the easier movement of \nsperms. \n \n \n 9 \n \n3.3.2. Female Reproductive System. \n\u25cf The female reproductive system includes the organs that produce \nthe female germ -cells, provides site for fertilization of the \ngametes and development of the embryo into a new individual. \n\u25cf The female gametes are the eggs that are produced in the ovaries. \n\u25cf They also produce some hormones like estrogen and \nprogesterone that are responsible for the onset of secondary \nsexual characteristics in girls at puberty.", + "\u25cf The female gametes are the eggs that are produced in the ovaries. \n\u25cf They also produce some hormones like estrogen and \nprogesterone that are responsible for the onset of secondary \nsexual characteristics in girls at puberty. \n\u25cf This system includes a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, uterus \nand vagina that opens externally through the urethra . \n \n \n \na) Ovaries : The ovaries are a pair of glands that are located on \neither side of the uterus. The ovaries protect the female gametes \nor eggs and make them suitable for fertilization. At birth the \novary of a girl contains thousands of eggs that are immature. \nAfter puberty, when the eggs mature, the ovaries release one egg \nevery month. The ovaries also produce the hormones oestrogen \nand progesterone that are essential in bringing the secondary \nsexual changes in a girl at puberty. \nb) Fallopian tube : This is also known as oviduct . This is a thin \ntube that connects the ovaries to the uterus. The eggs that are \nreleased by the ovary are transported through this tube.", + "b) Fallopian tube : This is also known as oviduct . This is a thin \ntube that connects the ovaries to the uterus. The eggs that are \nreleased by the ovary are transported through this tube. \nc) Uterus : This is a bag-like muscular elastic structure into which \nthe two oviducts open. The uterus is the site where the fertilized \negg is implanted and it grows into a foetus. It is made of 3 \ntissues, outer perimetrium, middle layer of myometrium a nd the", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\ntube that connects the ovaries to the uterus. The eggs that are \nreleased by the ovary are transported through this tube. \nc) Uterus : This is a bag-like muscular elastic structure into which \nthe two oviducts open. The uterus is the site where the fertilized \negg is implanted and it grows into a foetus. It is made of 3 \ntissues, outer perimetrium, middle layer of myometrium a nd the \ninner endometrium. This is also responsible for supporting the \ndeveloping foetus during the entire gestation period. \n \n 10 \n \nd) Cervix : This is the site where the uterus opens into vagina. This \nfacilitates a passage for the entry of the sperm into the uterus. \n \nFertilization and development: \n\u25cf The process of fertilization of a male and female gamete or \nsperm and egg starts when the sperm enters the female \nreproductive system through the vaginal passage during a sexual \nintercourse.", + "Fertilization and development: \n\u25cf The process of fertilization of a male and female gamete or \nsperm and egg starts when the sperm enters the female \nreproductive system through the vaginal passage during a sexual \nintercourse. From the vaginal passage they move up through the \nuterus towards the fallopian tubes. \n\u25cf The eggs are present in the fallopian tube, meet the sperm and get \nfertilized. \n\u25cf The fertilized egg, which is known as the zygote, starts dividing \nrepeatedly and travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus. \n\u25cf The ball of cells or embry o gets implanted in the endometrial \nlining of the uterus and continues to grow into a foetus. The \nembryo gets its nourishment from the mother through a special \ntissue called the placenta which acts as a connection between the \nmother and the developing embr yo. It helps to transport glucose \nand oxygen to the embryo and remove the wastes generated by \nthe embryo. \n\u25cf It takes about nine months for the complete development of the \nchild inside the mother\u2019s body.", + "It helps to transport glucose \nand oxygen to the embryo and remove the wastes generated by \nthe embryo. \n\u25cf It takes about nine months for the complete development of the \nchild inside the mother\u2019s body. The child is born due to the \nrhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles. \n \n3.3.3. What happens when the egg is not fertilized? \n\u25cf An egg is released by the ovary every month in anticipation of it", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nand oxygen to the embryo and remove the wastes generated by \nthe embryo. \n\u25cf It takes about nine months for the complete development of the \nchild inside the mother\u2019s body. The child is born due to the \nrhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles. \n \n3.3.3. What happens when the egg is not fertilized? \n\u25cf An egg is released by the ovary every month in anticipation of it \ngetting fertilised. In case the egg does not get fertilized, it can \nsurvive for only a day. Similar to the ovary releasing an egg \nevery month, every month, the uterus too prepares itself to the \nfertilized egg by creating a thick and spongy lining in order to \nprovide nourishment to the embryo. \n\u25cf When the fertilization does not occur, this lining too is not \nrequired and this lining and the egg is shed as blood and mucous \nthrough the vagina. This is called menstruation . This cycle occurs \nevery month and lasts for about 2 - 8 days roughly.", + "\u25cf When the fertilization does not occur, this lining too is not \nrequired and this lining and the egg is shed as blood and mucous \nthrough the vagina. This is called menstruation . This cycle occurs \nevery month and lasts for about 2 - 8 days roughly. \n \n3.3.4. Reproductive Health. \n\u25cf The process of sexual maturation is a gradual one which happens \nwhile the general body growth is ongoing. Some amount of \n \n 11 \n \nsexual maturation does not prepare a young person to be sexually \nactive or get married and bear children and bring them up. \n\u25cf Reproductive health deals with all these aspects concerned with \nhealthy and safe sexual practices. It becomes difficult for the \nyoung people to make the correct choice given the various types \nof pressure they face from peers, family, society. \n\u25cf Lack of proper information and unhealthy sexual practices can \nlead them to contract some diseases from one partner to another \nand even to the offspring as a sexual act is an intimate physical \ncontact between them.", + "\u25cf Lack of proper information and unhealthy sexual practices can \nlead them to contract some diseases from one partner to another \nand even to the offspring as a sexual act is an intimate physical \ncontact between them. The diseases transmitted in this manner \nare termed as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), like \nbacterial infections such as gonorrhoea an d syphilis, viral \ninfections such as warts and HIV. These can lead to health", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nlead them to contract some diseases from one partner to another \nand even to the offspring as a sexual act is an intimate physical \ncontact between them. The diseases transmitted in this manner \nare termed as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), like \nbacterial infections such as gonorrhoea an d syphilis, viral \ninfections such as warts and HIV. These can lead to health \ncomplications and be fatal too if left untreated. \n\u25cf Reproductive health covers the area of safe sex to help young \npeople. Pregnancy is a risk in a sexual act. As pregnancy is very \ndemanding for the body and mind and has to be planned, \nunwanted pregnancies and abortions can be avoided by using \nsome contraceptive methods . \n\u25cf The contraceptive methods can be by using physical barriers that \nblock the entry of sperm into oviducts and not let ting fertilization \ntake place. Examples are condoms or coverings on the penis.", + "\u25cf The contraceptive methods can be by using physical barriers that \nblock the entry of sperm into oviducts and not let ting fertilization \ntake place. Examples are condoms or coverings on the penis. \n\u25cf Contraceptive devices like Copper -T or intrauterine \ncontraceptive device (IUCD) that are implanted in the uterus \nwhich does not allow the sperm to travel ahead. \n\u25cf The other contraceptive method changes the hormonal balance of \nthe body, preventing fertilization . These are mostly in the form of \ndrugs which can be taken orally in a scheduled manner. \nExamples are pills like Mala D, I -pill etc. \n\u25cf Another method is the surg ical one like vasectomy in males in \nwhich the vas deferens is blocked to prevent the transfer of \nsperm. In females, tubectomy is done which blocks the fallopian \ntube and thus prevents the egg from reaching the uterus. The \nsurgical methods are more reliable and safer as compared to the \nother methods.", + "In females, tubectomy is done which blocks the fallopian \ntube and thus prevents the egg from reaching the uterus. The \nsurgical methods are more reliable and safer as compared to the \nother methods. \n\u25cf Though surgery is used to abort unwanted pregnancies, it has \nbeen widely misused by the people, especially for illegally \naborting a female foetus. \n \n \n 12 \n \n\u25cf There is a law in place to prevent this female foeticide (killing of \na foetus), which states that prenatal sex determination is", + "How Do Organisms Reproduce CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 8 [PDF].txt\nother methods. \n\u25cf Though surgery is used to abort unwanted pregnancies, it has \nbeen widely misused by the people, especially for illegally \naborting a female foetus. \n \n \n 12 \n \n\u25cf There is a law in place to prevent this female foeticide (killing of \na foetus), which states that prenatal sex determination is \nprohibited. \n\u25cf A proper ratio of males to females is essential to maintain a \nbalance in the society and to have a healthy population too.", + "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\n 1 \nRevision Notes \nClass - 10 Science \nChapter 1 4 - Sources of Energy \n\uf0b7 Characteristics of a good fuel: \n1. High calorific value \n2. Less smoke \n3. Less residue after burning \n4. Easy availability \n5. Inexpensive \n6. Easy to store and transport \n \n\uf0b7 Fossil fuels: \no Plant and animal remains were buried under the earth and subjected to \nhigh temperature and pressure conditions millions of years ago, \nresulting in the formation of lava flows. \no For example, coal, petroleum , and so forth. \no These fossil fuels are non-renewable energy sources that contribute \nto pollution in the environment. \n \n\uf0b7 Thermal power plants: \n1. Thermal electricity is generated from coal, petroleum, and natural \ngas. \n2. The transmission of electricity is very efficient. \n3. The steam generated by the combustion of fossil fuels powers the \nturbine , which generates electricity .", + "Thermal electricity is generated from coal, petroleum, and natural \ngas. \n2. The transmission of electricity is very efficient. \n3. The steam generated by the combustion of fossil fuels powers the \nturbine , which generates electricity . \n \n\uf0b7 Hydro power plant: \n \n \n 2 \n \n \n1. It is the most common form of renewable energy , derived from water \nfalling from vast heights . \n2. It is a non-polluting and clean source of energy. \n3. Dams are built to catch water flowing via high -altitude Rivers. There \nis a lot of potential energy in the stored water. \n4. When water falls from a height, potential energy is converted to \nkinetic energy , which rotates the turbines to produce electricity . \nDisadvantages of Hydro power plant: \n1. Construction is extremely costly . \n2. Dams are not feasible on all riverbeds. \n3. Submergence of large areas of human settlement and agricultural \nlands. \n4. People are confronted with social and environmental issues.", + "Construction is extremely costly . \n2. Dams are not feasible on all riverbeds. \n3. Submergence of large areas of human settlement and agricultural \nlands. \n4. People are confronted with social and environmental issues. \n \n\uf0b7 Non-conventional sources: \n1) Bio Mass: \n \n \n 3 \n \no It is the source of our country's routinely used fuels. \no Cow dung cakes, firewood, coal, and charcoal , for example. \no Bio gas is a combination of gases created when biomass decomposes in", + "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\nlands. \n4. People are confronted with social and environmental issues. \n \n\uf0b7 Non-conventional sources: \n1) Bio Mass: \n \n \n 3 \n \no It is the source of our country's routinely used fuels. \no Cow dung cakes, firewood, coal, and charcoal , for example. \no Bio gas is a combination of gases created when biomass decomposes in \nthe absence of oxygen (Anaerobic Respiration). \no Biogas is primarily composed of methane . \no Animal dung, sewage, agricultural leftovers, vegetable wastes, chicken \ndroppings, and other wastes are utilised in Bio gas plants to make Bio \ngas. \n \n2) Wind Energy: \n \n \n 4 \n \no Mechanical and electrical energy can be converted from it. \no Wind turbines, which are used to lift water, use kinetic energy from \nthe wind. \no Benefits: \n1. Environment friendly \n2. Renewable \no Disadvantages: \n1. Wind speed is not always consistent. \n2.", + "o Wind turbines, which are used to lift water, use kinetic energy from \nthe wind. \no Benefits: \n1. Environment friendly \n2. Renewable \no Disadvantages: \n1. Wind speed is not always consistent. \n2. Requires a big space to construct a series of wind turbines. \n3. A significant quantity of capital is required. \n4. The output is lower than the investment. \n \n3) Solar Energy: \n \n \n 5 \n \no Solar cells can convert solar energy into electricity (photovoltaic \ncells). \no Photovoltaic cells use silicon solar cells to convert solar radi ation \ninto electricity. \no A solar panel is made up of solar cells arranged on big flat sheets. \no Solar cookers have a big glass plate and are painted black on the \noutside to capture solar energy through the greenhouse effect. \no Advantage of Solar cookers: \n1. Eco friendly \n2. Renewable \n3. Used in rural areas. \n4. Retains all the nutrients in food due to slow cooking. \no Disadvantages of solar cooker: \n1.", + "o Advantage of Solar cookers: \n1. Eco friendly \n2. Renewable \n3. Used in rural areas. \n4. Retains all the nutrients in food due to slow cooking. \no Disadvantages of solar cooker: \n1. Silicon cells are not cheap. \n2. Solar radiation is not uniformly distributed across the \nEarth's surface. \n3. Not suitable for usage at night or on foggy days. \n4. Cannot be used to make fried chapattis because they require", + "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\n1. Eco friendly \n2. Renewable \n3. Used in rural areas. \n4. Retains all the nutrients in food due to slow cooking. \no Disadvantages of solar cooker: \n1. Silicon cells are not cheap. \n2. Solar radiation is not uniformly distributed across the \nEarth's surface. \n3. Not suitable for usage at night or on foggy days. \n4. Cannot be used to make fried chapattis because they require \na temperature of at least \n140 C\uf0b0 . (Only a solar cooker can \nreach a maximum temperature of \n100 C\uf0b0 .) \no Solar water heater, Solar furna ce, etc. are the other solar \ndevices. \n4) Geo Thermal Energy: \no Geo thermal energy is a type of energy that is derived from the \nsun's heat . \n \n \n 6 \no When this heat melts the rocks, magma is created. \no Magma is the term for molten rocks and hot gases.", + "4) Geo Thermal Energy: \no Geo thermal energy is a type of energy that is derived from the \nsun's heat . \n \n \n 6 \no When this heat melts the rocks, magma is created. \no Magma is the term for molten rocks and hot gases. \no Magma collects at various depths under the earth's surface. These \nare known as \" Hot Spots \" because when underground water \ncomes into touch with them, it turns into steam , which may be \nused to generate power . \no Advantages of Geo thermal energy: \n1. Renewable \n2. Inexpensive \no Disadvanta ges of Geo thermal energy: \n1. Very few sites available for harnessing energy. \n2. Expensive \n \n5) Nuclear Energy: \no Nuclear energy is the energy released when the nucleus of an \natom of a substance undergoes changes. \no It is utilised as a source of heat and as a fuel for marine boats. \no Advantages or Nuclear Energy: \n1. Alternative source of energy due to depletion of fossil fuels. \n2. A significant amount of energy is released from a small \namount of fuel.", + "o It is utilised as a source of heat and as a fuel for marine boats. \no Advantages or Nuclear Energy: \n1. Alternative source of energy due to depletion of fossil fuels. \n2. A significant amount of energy is released from a small \namount of fuel. \no Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy: \n1. Risk of nuclear waste leakage \n2. Expensive nucl ear plant construction \n3. Pollution of the environment \n \n6) Energy from the sea: \no Tidal Energy in India: Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat, and West \nBengal \u2013 \n\uf0d8 Relies on tidal action to control the rise and fall of sea level. \n\uf0d8 Dams are built across a narrow stretch of sea , and a turbine", + "Sources of Energy CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 14 [PDF].txt\no Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy: \n1. Risk of nuclear waste leakage \n2. Expensive nucl ear plant construction \n3. Pollution of the environment \n \n6) Energy from the sea: \no Tidal Energy in India: Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat, and West \nBengal \u2013 \n\uf0d8 Relies on tidal action to control the rise and fall of sea level. \n\uf0d8 Dams are built across a narrow stretch of sea , and a turbine \nconverts tidal energy to electricity. \n\uf0d8 The main disadvantage for using this is that, there is no \nconsistent tidal action . \no Wave Energy: \n\uf0d8 Turbines are rotated by the kinetic energy of sea waves. \n\uf0d8 These turbines produce electricity.", + "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\n \n 1 \n \n \n \nRevision Notes \nClass 10 Science \nChapter 16 - Management of Natural Resources \n \n\u25cf Natural resources are naturally occurring assets that are used to sustain life \nand meet our daily needs. \n\u25cf It includes forests, water, coal, natural gases, and petroleum reserves. \n\u25cf Depletion i.e., reduction in number or quality of natural resources is \nincreasing at an alarmi ng rate. \n\u25cf We should use our resources wisely so as to sustain the resources and conserve \nour environment. \n\u25cf One such measure to protect our environment was the Ganga Action Plan \n(GAP) taken by the national body to conserve River Ganga because it \ncontained disease -causing microorganisms . \n\u25cf We must follow three R\u2019s to protect our environment and these are: \n1. Reduce: Means to use less or to reduce our daily consumption of resources. \nFor example: Use less water for bathing, walking or cycling to save petrol \n2. Recycle: This means processing wastes like plastic, paper, metals to new and \nusable products again. \n3.", + "Reduce: Means to use less or to reduce our daily consumption of resources. \nFor example: Use less water for bathing, walking or cycling to save petrol \n2. Recycle: This means processing wastes like plastic, paper, metals to new and \nusable products again. \n3. Reuse: The p rocess of using things again and again in order to protect the \nenvironment . \nFor example: Using same cloth bag for shopping rather than using many \npolythene bags \n\u25cf Reusing the substances again is best because it does not need any external \nenergy for the thin gs to be used again. \n \nWhy do we need to manage our resources? \n\u25cf Because the resources available to us are limited and take millions of years to \nform. \n\u25cf With the human population increasing at a tremendous rate the demand for \nresources is also increasing which increases the use of resources. \n\u25cf Exploiting or reckless use of natural resources causes damage to the \nenvironment. \n\u25cf The management of natural resource s should be in a sustainable manner so \nthat these will last for generations to come. \n \n 2 \n \n \n \n\u25cf And should be available to everyone i.e., should be equally distributed to \neveryone.", + "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\n\u25cf Exploiting or reckless use of natural resources causes damage to the \nenvironment. \n\u25cf The management of natural resource s should be in a sustainable manner so \nthat these will last for generations to come. \n \n 2 \n \n \n \n\u25cf And should be available to everyone i.e., should be equally distributed to \neveryone. \n \nForest and wildlife: \n\u25cf Forests are called the lungs of earth because it provides oxyge n which is our \nmost important demand for survival \n\u25cf We depend on forests directly or indirectly for our survival. It provides home \nand food to innumerable species. \n\u25cf Forests also offer watershed protection, prevent soil erosion and floods and \nreduce climate change. \n\u25cf Stakeholders: \nStakeholders are the people who depend upon forests for various perspectives \nof life.", + "It provides home \nand food to innumerable species. \n\u25cf Forests also offer watershed protection, prevent soil erosion and floods and \nreduce climate change. \n\u25cf Stakeholders: \nStakeholders are the people who depend upon forests for various perspectives \nof life. These include, \na. The forest department of the country \nb. The industrialists \nc. The wildlife and nature enthusiasts \n\u25cf Some examples of local people working for the conservation of forests include \nthe case of the Bishnoi community in Rajasthan who protected \u2018khejri\u2019 trees \nin Kheja rli village near Jodhpur in Rajasthan. \n\u25cf We have to conserve forests. The importance of forests cannot be \nunderestimated. \n\u25cf Forest resources should be used in a manner that is both environmentally and \ndevelopmentally beneficial. \n\u25cf Sustainable development: \n\u25cf Sustainable development is the idea of utilizing natural resources in present \nwithout compromising the need of future generations. \n\u25cf It can be achieved by using the resources judiciously and realizing the fact \nthat if these resources get exhausted it will create problems.", + "\u25cf Sustainable development: \n\u25cf Sustainable development is the idea of utilizing natural resources in present \nwithout compromising the need of future generations. \n\u25cf It can be achieved by using the resources judiciously and realizing the fact \nthat if these resources get exhausted it will create problems. \n \nWater for all: \n\u25cf Water is a basic necessity for all biotic life. All organisms need water to exist \nand survive. \n\u25cf Water is essential because our daily activities are dependent on water. \n\u25cf The lack of water and consumption of contaminated water can cause serious \nhealth issues . \n\u25cf Despite having", + "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\nthat if these resources get exhausted it will create problems. \n \nWater for all: \n\u25cf Water is a basic necessity for all biotic life. All organisms need water to exist \nand survive. \n\u25cf Water is essential because our daily activities are dependent on water. \n\u25cf The lack of water and consumption of contaminated water can cause serious \nhealth issues . \n\u25cf Despite having \n71% water available on earth in many areas water scarcity has \nbeen observed since the freshwater is only \n3% . \n 3 \n \n \n \n\u25cf Despite nature\u2019s monsoon bounty in India, we are unable to sustain \nunderground water and water pollution has resulted in the loss of vegetation \ncover. \n\u25cf Rainwater harvesting (for rec harging groundwater ), irrigation using dams, \ntanks, and canals help to sustain water resources. \n \n\u25cf Dams: \n\u2b9a It is the structure used to control the flow of water in rivers and canals. \n\u2b9a It is used to convert the kinetic energy of flowing water to electrical energy \nwith the help of motors.", + "\u25cf Dams: \n\u2b9a It is the structure used to control the flow of water in rivers and canals. \n\u2b9a It is used to convert the kinetic energy of flowing water to electrical energy \nwith the help of motors. \n\u2b9a The dam is a good alternative for non -renewable sources of energy and also \ncauses less harm to the environment. \n\u2b9a It also helps in water storage which cou ld be used at the time of water shortage \nin the area. \n\u2b9a The dam also assures the consistent flow of water in rivers and prevent floods \nand drought -like situations \n\u2b9a Although, the dam has adversely affected marine life as well as humans. \n \n\u25cf Water harvesting: \n\u2b9a Water harvesting is the process of collecting rainwater and reusing it rather \nthan making it run away. \n\u2b9a It is an age-old concept in India used in many states of India. \n\u2b9a Water harvesting techniques have many benefits such as help in irrigation, \nhelps to recha rge the natural well, etc.", + "\u2b9a It is an age-old concept in India used in many states of India. \n\u2b9a Water harvesting techniques have many benefits such as help in irrigation, \nhelps to recha rge the natural well, etc. \n\u2b9a Giving people control over their local water resources ensures that \nmismanagement and over -exploitation of these resources will be reduced. \n\u2b9a The advantages of groundwater are that it does not evaporate and does not", + "Management of Natural Resources CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 16 (PDF).txt\n\u2b9a Water harvesting techniques have many benefits such as help in irrigation, \nhelps to recha rge the natural well, etc. \n\u2b9a Giving people control over their local water resources ensures that \nmismanagement and over -exploitation of these resources will be reduced. \n\u2b9a The advantages of groundwater are that it does not evaporate and does not \nprovide breedi ng grounds. \n \n\u25cf Coal and petroleum: \n\u2b9a Coal and petroleum were formed from the degradation of fossils millions of \nyears ago. \n\u2b9a These are resources that will be exhausted in the future no matter how \ncarefully we use them still we should use them in a sustainable manner. \n\u2b9a Combustion of coal and petroleum gives out products like carbon dioxide, \nwater, oxides of nitrogen, and oxides of sul phur which are poisonous at high \nconcentrations . \n 4 \n \n \n \n\u2b9a Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which when increased leads to global \nwarming.", + "4 \n \n \n \n\u2b9a Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which when increased leads to global \nwarming. \n\u2b9a Therefore, we need to use these resources judiciously and look for alternative \nsources of energy like solar energy, wind energy, etc. \n \n\u25cf An overview of natural resource management: \n\u2b9a Natural resources are not available in abundance so we should realize that \nselfish goals will lead to the misery of lots of people. \n\u2b9a Sustainable management of natural resources is becoming important despite \nbeing a difficult task. We should try our best to conserve them . \n\u2b9a And use the natural resources very wisely so that our coming generation c an \nalso benefit.", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\n 1 \nRevision Notes \nClass 10 Science \nChapter 9 \u2013 Heredity and Evolution \n \n1. Accumulation of variation during Reproduction : \n\uf0b7 Reproduction is a process that gives rise to new offspring that are similar \nto the parents but with some variations between them due to the process \nof DNA copying . \n\uf0b7 It may be noted that these differences are slightly visible in asexual \nreproduction as in p lants, but they are greater variations and diversity in \nthe case of sexual reproduction which involves the fusion of two different \ngametes . \n\uf0b7 This leads to the variations that are seen in each generation. \n\uf0b7 These variations may be advantageous or disadvantag eous to the \nindividuals and may or may not enable them to cope with the changing \nenvironmental conditions. For example , the bacteria that can tolerate \nhigher temperature s would survive the heat waves.", + "\uf0b7 These variations may be advantageous or disadvantag eous to the \nindividuals and may or may not enable them to cope with the changing \nenvironmental conditions. For example , the bacteria that can tolerate \nhigher temperature s would survive the heat waves. \n\uf0b7 These variations accumulate over generations in the ev olutionary process \nowing to the environmental factors and lead to the formation of new \nspecies and are equally important for their survival. \n \n2. Heredity: \n\uf0b7 The biological process that maintains or passes on the characteristics and \ntraits of the parents to their offspring is termed heredity . Example, colour \nof skin or hair, eyes, height etc. \n\uf0b7 This is responsible for maintaining the variations in generations an d thus \nthe evolution of species over a period of time. \n \n2.1 Inherited traits : \n\uf0b7 The characteristics that are inherited fr om the parents are termed as traits , \nlike eye colour or skin colour in humans. If the parent has brown and black \neyes, then the offspring may inherit a brown or black or a combination of \nboth. \n\uf0b7 This depends on the set of genes responsible for that trait.", + "If the parent has brown and black \neyes, then the offspring may inherit a brown or black or a combination of \nboth. \n\uf0b7 This depends on the set of genes responsible for that trait. \n\uf0b7 The traits that are inherited in this manner are termed inherited traits and \nthese are the cause of the variations in the population, tho ugh everyone has \na similar basic feature.", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\neyes, then the offspring may inherit a brown or black or a combination of \nboth. \n\uf0b7 This depends on the set of genes responsible for that trait. \n\uf0b7 The traits that are inherited in this manner are termed inherited traits and \nthese are the cause of the variations in the population, tho ugh everyone has \na similar basic feature. \n \n2.2 Rules for the Inheritance of traits - Mendel\u2019s contributions: \n \n 2 \n\uf0b7 The rules of inheritance comes from the fact that both the parents \ncontribute equally to the development of the traits in the offspring. \n\uf0b7 Gregor Johann Mendel , often referred to as the \u2018 Father of genetics\u2019 was \na pioneer who used his science and mathematics knowledge to frame the se \nlaws of inheritance. He did so using pea plants for his experiment s as he \nfound them easy to grow and they had g reater number of visible \ncharacteristics like ta ll/short, white/violet flowers, round/wrinkled seeds.", + "He did so using pea plants for his experiment s as he \nfound them easy to grow and they had g reater number of visible \ncharacteristics like ta ll/short, white/violet flowers, round/wrinkled seeds. \n\uf0b7 Mendel found during his experiments that there were some factors \ncontrolling the traits, which are now known as genes . \n\uf0b7 The genes are present as a pair f or a specific trait and then they are termed \nas alleles . \n\uf0b7 Depending on the genes the expression of the traits could be either \ndominant or recessive . If we take the t allness in a plant as dominant trait, \nthen it can be denoted by \u2018T\u2019 and shortness in the plant would be a \nrecessive trait, denoted by \u2018t\u2019. Thus the plant will be tall if it\u2019s alleles are \n\u2018TT\u2019 or \u2018Tt\u2019. \n\uf0b7 The condition when the alleles of the genes have the same allele for \na trait, they are termed as homozygous . Example - TT or tt . \n\uf0b7 The condition when the alleles of the genes have the different alleles \nfor a trait, they are termed as heterozygous .", + "Example - TT or tt . \n\uf0b7 The condition when the alleles of the genes have the different alleles \nfor a trait, they are termed as heterozygous . Example - Tt. \n\uf0b7 The morphological expression of a single character is termed as \nphenotype . Example - tallness or shortness , round or wrinkle d seeds of the \nplant.", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\na trait, they are termed as homozygous . Example - TT or tt . \n\uf0b7 The condition when the alleles of the genes have the different alleles \nfor a trait, they are termed as heterozygous . Example - Tt. \n\uf0b7 The morphological expression of a single character is termed as \nphenotype . Example - tallness or shortness , round or wrinkle d seeds of the \nplant. \n\uf0b7 The genetic constitution or the allele pair for a specific trait is termed as \nthe genotype . Example - Tt or t tot TT. \n\uf0b7 Mendel was a mathematician so; he found the statistics of the traits in each \ngeneration by using a statistical met hod known as Punnett square for \npredicting t he possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring. \n\uf0b7 He conducted his experiments to find two types of inheritance namely: \n \n1) Monohybrid inheritance : \n\uf0b7 Mendel took a tall (TT) and short (tt) pea plant, crossed it to get the \noffspring.", + "\uf0b7 He conducted his experiments to find two types of inheritance namely: \n \n1) Monohybrid inheritance : \n\uf0b7 Mendel took a tall (TT) and short (tt) pea plant, crossed it to get the \noffspring. The first generation or F1 were all found to be tall , \nshowing only one of the traits of the parent. \n \n \n 3 \n \n \n\uf0b7 Then he self -pollinated the parent and the F1 plants. It was \ninteresting to see that the offspring of the parent plants were all tall, \nbut the offspring of the F1 plants, the F2 generation did not have all \ntall plants. A quarter of them were short , which indicated that both \ntraits of the parent was inherited by F1 generation. \n\uf0b7 The traits of tallness wa s dominant and so it was expressed even with \nthe genotype of TT, Tt but the shortness was a recessive trait that \ncould be expressed only with a genotype of tt.", + "\uf0b7 The traits of tallness wa s dominant and so it was expressed even with \nthe genotype of TT, Tt but the shortness was a recessive trait that \ncould be expressed only with a genotype of tt. \n \n \n \n\uf0b7 So, the genotype - 1:2:1 And the phenotype - 3:1 \n\uf0b7 The inheritance of a trait by a pair of single alleles of a gene is termed \nas monohybrid inheritance . \n \n \n2) Dihybrid inheritance : \n\uf0b7 When a pea plant with two different traits; a plant with round green \ncolour seed (RR yy) is crossed with wrinkled yellow seed ( rrYY) \nplant. \n\uf0b7 The F1 generation turned out to have round yellow seeds , RrYy,", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\n\uf0b7 The inheritance of a trait by a pair of single alleles of a gene is termed \nas monohybrid inheritance . \n \n \n2) Dihybrid inheritance : \n\uf0b7 When a pea plant with two different traits; a plant with round green \ncolour seed (RR yy) is crossed with wrinkled yellow seed ( rrYY) \nplant. \n\uf0b7 The F1 generation turned out to have round yellow seeds , RrYy, \nwhich showed the dominant traits to be round shape and yellow \ncolour . \n \n \n \n 4 \n \n \n\uf0b7 When the F1 generation were self -pollinated , the F2 generation had \ngreater variations than the parent and new combination also came \nup. \n \n \n \n\uf0b7 So, the genotype - 9 different combinations and the phenotype - \n9:3:3:1 . \n\uf0b7 The inheritance of different traits by t wo pairs of alleles for it is \ntermed as dihybrid inheritance . And here the two traits of \nround/wrinkled seeds and green/yellow colour were inherited \nindependently.", + "\uf0b7 The inheritance of different traits by t wo pairs of alleles for it is \ntermed as dihybrid inheritance . And here the two traits of \nround/wrinkled seeds and green/yellow colour were inherited \nindependently. \n \n \n 5 \n \n2.3 How do these traits get expressed? \n\uf0b7 The DNA present in the cell is responsible for making the proteins. A \nsection of this DNA that provides information for one protein is termed as \nthe gene for that specific protein. \n\uf0b7 The proteins that are thus synthesized are essential in many of the \nbiochemical reactions that are responsible for the expression of a trait and \nthey are controlled by specific enzymes. \n\uf0b7 Any alterations in them will lead to a v ariation in that trait, and hence genes \ncontrol the traits in a such a way. If the traits are to be inherited \nindependently from both the parents, then they need to be present \nseparately. \n\uf0b7 Therefore each gene set is present as a separate independent pieces that are \ncalled as chromosomes , with each cell having two sets , one each from \nboth the parents.", + "\uf0b7 Therefore each gene set is present as a separate independent pieces that are \ncalled as chromosomes , with each cell having two sets , one each from \nboth the parents. \n\uf0b7 When these two germ cells combine, they tend to restore the number of \nchromosomes and hence the DNA. Hence there are two genes for the \nexpression of every trait . \n \n2.4 Sex determination :", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nseparately. \n\uf0b7 Therefore each gene set is present as a separate independent pieces that are \ncalled as chromosomes , with each cell having two sets , one each from \nboth the parents. \n\uf0b7 When these two germ cells combine, they tend to restore the number of \nchromosomes and hence the DNA. Hence there are two genes for the \nexpression of every trait . \n \n2.4 Sex determination : \n\uf0b7 There are various mechanism that determine the sex of a new born \norganism. It may be based on the temperature where the fertilised eggs is \nkept as in few reptiles, or they may changes ex as in snails. Humans on \nthe other hand the sex of a new born child is determined predominantly by \nthe genes inherited from the parents. \n\uf0b7 All the chromosomes in humans are not paired. There are generally a pair \nof 22 chromosomes , with a one of the pair being from each of the p arent. \nThese generally determine all the traits.", + "\uf0b7 All the chromosomes in humans are not paired. There are generally a pair \nof 22 chromosomes , with a one of the pair being from each of the p arent. \nThese generally determine all the traits. \n\uf0b7 There is a pair of chromosomes known as the sex chromosomes that differ \nin males and females. The females have a correct pair and they are termed \nas X chromosomes, but men have an X chromosome and its pair as Y. So \nthe genotype of women is XX and men is XY . \n\uf0b7 If we look at the inheritance pattern of a male and female, we can see that \nX is inherited by the child from their mother by default and the sex of the \nchild depends on which pair of the sex chromosome is being inherited \nfrom the father . \n\uf0b7 If it X, then the pair becomes XX and the child is a girl and if Y is inherited, \nthen it becomes XY and thus the chid is a boy. \n \n 6 \n \n3. Evolution: \n\uf0b7 The process of a gradual development over millions of years in organisms \nthrough generations by inheriting the traits of their previous generations is \ntermed as evolution .", + "6 \n \n3. Evolution: \n\uf0b7 The process of a gradual development over millions of years in organisms \nthrough generations by inheriting the traits of their previous generations is \ntermed as evolution . \n\uf0b7 The evolution eventually leads to the evolvement of new species . \nAccording to J B S Haldane, life on earth may have started as a simple", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\n 6 \n \n3. Evolution: \n\uf0b7 The process of a gradual development over millions of years in organisms \nthrough generations by inheriting the traits of their previous generations is \ntermed as evolution . \n\uf0b7 The evolution eventually leads to the evolvement of new species . \nAccording to J B S Haldane, life on earth may have started as a simple \norganic molecule and has developed into complex organism with the \nchanging conditions on earth during various periods. \n\uf0b7 Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist who proposed the idea \nof \u201cevolution of species by natural selectio n\u2019 although he was not aware \nof the mechanisms responsible for the variations. \n\uf0b7 Natural selection refers to the selection of some traits of a population that \nfavour their survival making them adapt to the en vironment. \n\uf0b7 It was Mendel who proposed the mechanism behind the inheritance of \ntraits. Both these scientist worked on their theories independently. \n\uf0b7 These traits that are inherited may be acquired also.", + "\uf0b7 It was Mendel who proposed the mechanism behind the inheritance of \ntraits. Both these scientist worked on their theories independently. \n\uf0b7 These traits that are inherited may be acquired also. \n \n3.1 Acquired and inherited traits: \n\uf0b7 Any trait that is acquired by an organism during its lifetime due to any \nexternal conditions is not transmitted to its offspring. These traits are \ntermed as acquired trait . Example - the way a person speaks or the skills \nhe/she has. These changes do not af fect the germ cells and so they cannot \nbe passed on from one generation to the other. \n \n \n 7 \n\uf0b7 Any trait that is genetically inherited or passed down from one generation \nto the next generation is termed as inherited trait . Example - the colour of \neyes or skin. \n \n4. Speciation: \n\uf0b7 A group of organisms that are similar in their traits and are capable of \nbreeding within themselves are termed as species . \n\uf0b7 The mechanism or process by means of which a new or distant species is \nformed from the pre -existing species due to v arious factors is termed as \nspeciation .", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\neyes or skin. \n \n4. Speciation: \n\uf0b7 A group of organisms that are similar in their traits and are capable of \nbreeding within themselves are termed as species . \n\uf0b7 The mechanism or process by means of which a new or distant species is \nformed from the pre -existing species due to v arious factors is termed as \nspeciation . \n\uf0b7 This process leads to the formation of different species within a population \nthat is not capable of reproducing among themselves. \n\uf0b7 The various factors for the same may be seen as: \n1) Splitting of population: \n\uf0b7 The popul ations tends to grow rapidly when there is a favourable \nenvironment for their survival. As a result the population is very \nlarge and spread out. \n\uf0b7 This makes it difficult for all the members to interact among \nthemselves due to the geographical isolation , so they tend to \nreproduce with the local near by population. And if they are \nseparated by any barrier like a mountain or a river, then they are \nisolated further .", + "\uf0b7 This makes it difficult for all the members to interact among \nthemselves due to the geographical isolation , so they tend to \nreproduce with the local near by population. And if they are \nseparated by any barrier like a mountain or a river, then they are \nisolated further . \n\uf0b7 This will cause the gene flow or transfer of genes in a population \nto reduce and they may d evelop into a new or distant species. \n2) Genetic drift : \n\uf0b7 The populations undergoes a change in their genes for some \ntraits that are specific to that species due to unprecedented \nreasons. This leads to them being transferred to another existing \npopulation. \n\uf0b7 Example - If there are a population of red and green beetles and \nthe green are eliminated by being in a forest fire, then the \npopulation of only red beetles will remain. \n3) Natural selection : \n\uf0b7 The process by which certain populations are selected over othe rs \ndue to their variations and ability to adapt is termed as natural \nselection . They lead to the formation of new species over a period \nof time.", + "3) Natural selection : \n\uf0b7 The process by which certain populations are selected over othe rs \ndue to their variations and ability to adapt is termed as natural \nselection . They lead to the formation of new species over a period \nof time. \n\uf0b7 Example - In case of a storm, the birds with long or short wings \ndied as compared to the ones with average wings. So, they were \n \n 8", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\n\uf0b7 The process by which certain populations are selected over othe rs \ndue to their variations and ability to adapt is termed as natural \nselection . They lead to the formation of new species over a period \nof time. \n\uf0b7 Example - In case of a storm, the birds with long or short wings \ndied as compared to the ones with average wings. So, they were \n \n 8 \nnaturally selected to adapt to that environment changes and they \nsurvive to evolve their species. \n\uf0b7 The process of genetic drift and natural selection will eventually lead to two \nisolated sub species that are entirely different from eac h other and they form \na new species altogether and thus speciation occurs. \n \n5. Evolution and Classification: \n\uf0b7 Every species goes through a phase of evolution. The similarities among \norganisms that allow them to be grouped are based on the characteristics \nor the details of the appearance or behaviour that is seen for a particular \nform or a function.", + "5. Evolution and Classification: \n\uf0b7 Every species goes through a phase of evolution. The similarities among \norganisms that allow them to be grouped are based on the characteristics \nor the details of the appearance or behaviour that is seen for a particular \nform or a function. \n\uf0b7 There are some basic characteristics that are shared by most of the \norganisms like, the cell being the fundamental unit of life. But the next \nlevel of grouping or classification may not be common for all the \norganisms, like the cell may have a nucleus or not. This classification goes \nfurther as whether the nucleated cells are single celled or multicellular. \nThis allows a hierarchy to be created in the evolution process that helps \nus in the classification of groups . \n\uf0b7 Thus the more common characteristics are shared by two species, the more \nclosely related they are. The more closely they are related, indicates that \nthey have had common ancestors recently. Example - In a family, a brother \nand a sister are closely related with common ancestors as parents . Now the \ngirl and her cousin too are related as they common ancestors, grandparents.", + "The more closely they are related, indicates that \nthey have had common ancestors recently. Example - In a family, a brother \nand a sister are closely related with common ancestors as parents . Now the \ngirl and her cousin too are related as they common ancestors, grandparents. \nBut they are distant than her brother as they common ancestors in second \ngenerati on.", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nclosely related they are. The more closely they are related, indicates that \nthey have had common ancestors recently. Example - In a family, a brother \nand a sister are closely related with common ancestors as parents . Now the \ngirl and her cousin too are related as they common ancestors, grandparents. \nBut they are distant than her brother as they common ancestors in second \ngenerati on. \n\uf0b7 Thus small group of species with recent common ancestors are built, \nfollowed by distant common ancestors and this goes on backwards in the \nevolutionary process. \n \n5.1 Tracing Evolutionary relationships: \n\uf0b7 In the evolutionary relationships, the occurrence of common c haracteristics \nare the basis of classifying them into groups. These common characteristics \ncan be identified as being of 2 types, na mely : \n1) Homologous characteristics : These are those characteristics that \nare present in different organ ism but look similar and they have a \nhave a common ancestor . They may have the similar basic organ \nstructures but with a different function in various organisms.", + "They may have the similar basic organ \nstructures but with a different function in various organisms. \nExample - Mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians have four \nlimbs , but each serves a different purpose and are modified to \nperform that function. \n \n 9 \n2) Analogous characteristics : These are those characteristics that \nhave the similar function in different organisms and they have \nevolved independently for different ancestors . Example - the \nwings of bats and of birds look similar as they serve to perform the \nsame function of flying, but the wings of a bat are actually a fold of \nskin between the fingers. \n\uf0b7 Hence these different types of characteristics help in tracing the \nevolutio nary relationships between species to a great extent. \n \n5.2 Fossils: \n\uf0b7 To study the evolutionary relationships, the current species as well as the \nspecies that are no longer in existence also needs to be considered.", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nskin between the fingers. \n\uf0b7 Hence these different types of characteristics help in tracing the \nevolutio nary relationships between species to a great extent. \n \n5.2 Fossils: \n\uf0b7 To study the evolutionary relationships, the current species as well as the \nspecies that are no longer in existence also needs to be considered. \n\uf0b7 The body of an organism usually decomposes when it dies, but due to some \nenvironmental conditions like hot mud or lava, their bodies may be buried \nin them, harden and eventually leave an impression o f the body parts. This \npreserved traces of the living organisms that existed in a past ge ological \nperiod are termed as fossils. \n\uf0b7 The fossils help in determining the various evolutionary stages of the \nspecies. The process of conversion of an organism into a fossil is termed \nas fossilisation and its study is referred to as palaeontology. \n\uf0b7 There a re two ways to determine the age or dating of the fossils.", + "The process of conversion of an organism into a fossil is termed \nas fossilisation and its study is referred to as palaeontology. \n\uf0b7 There a re two ways to determine the age or dating of the fossils. \n1) Relative dating: This method involves the digging of the earth and \nexcavating the fossils from the rocks. The more recent ones are \nfound closer to the earth\u2019s surface. \n2) Radiometric dating: In this method, the fossils can be dated based \non the radioactive elements present in the rocks and detecting the \nratios of different isotopes of the same element in the material of the \nfossil . \n \n5.3 Evolution by Stages: \n\uf0b7 It is well established that e volution is a gradual process that takes place \nover thousands of years. The complex organs that have evolved in \norganisms is not due to a single DNA change but due to thousands of such \nchanges over a large period of time. If the eyes of an octopus and the \nvertebrates are considered then it is different in both of them suggesting \nthat they have evolved independently.", + "If the eyes of an octopus and the \nvertebrates are considered then it is different in both of them suggesting \nthat they have evolved independently. It is also to be noted that a change \nbrought on for a particular feature may have later evolved into a different \nfunction alto gether. For example, the purpose of feathers initially was", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nchanges over a large period of time. If the eyes of an octopus and the \nvertebrates are considered then it is different in both of them suggesting \nthat they have evolved independently. It is also to be noted that a change \nbrought on for a particular feature may have later evolved into a different \nfunction alto gether. For example, the purpose of feathers initially was \nconsidered to provide insulation in cold weather and this is seen in some \nof the reptiles like the dinosaur , who could not fly. In the evolutionary \n \n 10 \nprocess birds adapted these feathers for flight. This leads to the belief that \nbirds were closely related to reptiles. \n\uf0b7 Similarly some structures that are dissimilar have evolved from common \nancestors. The best example of it would be wild cabbage that humans have \nused as food for over two thousand years.", + "This leads to the belief that \nbirds were closely related to reptiles. \n\uf0b7 Similarly some structures that are dissimilar have evolved from common \nancestors. The best example of it would be wild cabbage that humans have \nused as food for over two thousand years. They generated different types \nof vegetables out of the would cabbage by artificial selection and \ndeveloped the cabbage with short leaves, broccoli which is arrested \nflowers, cauliflower, the swollen parts as kohlrabi, or leafy kale. If not for \nartificial selection in this, it would not be known that they originated from \na common ancestor . \n\uf0b7 The change in the DNA is yet another way to understand the ev olutionary \nrelationships . The comparison of the DNAs of different species would \ngive an insight into the changes that have happened in their evolutionary \nprocess. \n \n6. Evolution should not be equated with progress : \n\uf0b7 The evolution of a new species does not indicate that the old species has \nbeen eliminated or they are inefficient than the new one. It indicates that \nthe new species have evolved as a result of changing environmental \nconditions.", + "6. Evolution should not be equated with progress : \n\uf0b7 The evolution of a new species does not indicate that the old species has \nbeen eliminated or they are inefficient than the new one. It indicates that \nthe new species have evolved as a result of changing environmental \nconditions. \n\uf0b7 It can be said that evolution is a process of creating diversity of species \ndue t o natural selection and genetic drift . This creates a population that is", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\n\uf0b7 The evolution of a new species does not indicate that the old species has \nbeen eliminated or they are inefficient than the new one. It indicates that \nthe new species have evolved as a result of changing environmental \nconditions. \n\uf0b7 It can be said that evolution is a process of creating diversity of species \ndue t o natural selection and genetic drift . This creates a population that is \nnot capable of reproducing with the original species. For example, humans \nand chimpanzees may have had common ancestors and with time they have \nevolved in separate directions leading to the present species. \n\uf0b7 Hence there is no progress that can be mapped during evolution. Each and \nevery species diversifies in order to reproduce and survive and adapts itself \naccordingly. \n\uf0b7 The on ly factor is that more and more complex organs have developed in \nthe evolutionary process. That does not indicate the simplest older species \nlike the bacteria are extinct. They can survive in diverse conditions of hot \nsprings, Antarctica etc.", + "\uf0b7 The on ly factor is that more and more complex organs have developed in \nthe evolutionary process. That does not indicate the simplest older species \nlike the bacteria are extinct. They can survive in diverse conditions of hot \nsprings, Antarctica etc. Humans are th e most evolved, but they are just \nanother species in the evolutionary process. \n \n6.1 Human Evolution: \n\uf0b7 The evolutionary relationship in humans ha s also been traced by the \nvarious methods of excavation, time -dating, studying the fossils, and DNA \nsequences . A great diversity exists among the people of the world in their \nfeatures, colours, etc. Many times , groups of humans were grouped based \non their skin colour. But there is no biological reason for that as all the \n \n 11 \nhumans are part of a single same species. Eve ryone belongs to the species \n- Homo sapiens . \n\uf0b7 A large number of genes are present in this gene pool which is the source \nof the vast variations found in humans.", + "Eve ryone belongs to the species \n- Homo sapiens . \n\uf0b7 A large number of genes are present in this gene pool which is the source \nof the vast variations found in humans. This is the reason that no two \nindividuals are alike in looks, abilities, etc, that leads to the diversity in \nskin colour, height, hair colour, etc.", + "Heredity and Evolution CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 9 (PDF).txt\nhumans are part of a single same species. Eve ryone belongs to the species \n- Homo sapiens . \n\uf0b7 A large number of genes are present in this gene pool which is the source \nof the vast variations found in humans. This is the reason that no two \nindividuals are alike in looks, abilities, etc, that leads to the diversity in \nskin colour, height, hair colour, etc. \n\uf0b7 Though the humans inhabit different parts of the modern world, all of them \noriginated from Africa . The original inhabitants of Africa migrated to \nacross to West Asia, central Asia, Eurasia etc and all this while they were \ntravelling back to Africa too. This lead to a diverse gene pool in a staggered \nmanner as the population across the world increased.", + "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\n 1 \nRevision Notes \nClass \u2013 10 Science \nChapter 15 - Our Environment \n \n1. What happens to the environment when we add waste to it. \nThe environment of an organism refers to the physical and biological conditions in \nwhich the organism lives. The physical conditions consist of various factors like soil, \ntemperature, light, etc. Whereas the biological conditions include the plants, \nanima ls, and microorganisms around it. A slight change in any of these conditions \ncan affect the organism. \nWhen the waste generated is added to the environment it disturbs the ecological \nbalance. The wastes are broadly classified into two categories: - \nSubstanc es that can be broken down by biological processes are known as \nbiodegradable. On the other hand, substances that can not be broken down by \nbiological processes are known as non -biodegradable. These substances can be inert \nand remain in the environment for a very long time causing harm to the various \nmembers of the ecosystem. \n \n2. What are the components of the ecosystem?", + "These substances can be inert \nand remain in the environment for a very long time causing harm to the various \nmembers of the ecosystem. \n \n2. What are the components of the ecosystem? \nAll organisms including plants, animals, microorganisms, and human beings interact \nwith the physical surroundings as well as with each oth er to maintain balance in our \nenvironment. \nAn ecosystem is a community of organisms with their physical environment \ninteracting with each other as an ecological unit, leading to the flow of energy. An \necosystem is made up of biotic components which include living organisms and \nabiotic components which include physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind, \nsoil, and minerals. \nAn ecosystem can be of two types: \nNatural : - Ponds, forests, and lakes are natural ecosystems", + "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\ninteracting with each other as an ecological unit, leading to the flow of energy. An \necosystem is made up of biotic components which include living organisms and \nabiotic components which include physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind, \nsoil, and minerals. \nAn ecosystem can be of two types: \nNatural : - Ponds, forests, and lakes are natural ecosystems \n \n 2 \nArtificial: - garden and crop field s are man -made \nIn both of the above ecosystems, all living organisms interact with each other and \ntheir growth, reproduction, and some of the other activities are affected by the abiotic \ncomponents of the ecosystem. \nOrganisms present in the ecosystem can be further categorized into producers, \nconsumers, and decomposers in accordance with the manner in which they obtain \ntheir nutrition from the environment. \nProducers are organisms that are capable of producing their own food without the \nhelp of any other o rganism. They are also called autotrophs. They synthesize their \nfood from inorganic substances by a process called photosynthesis.", + "Producers are organisms that are capable of producing their own food without the \nhelp of any other o rganism. They are also called autotrophs. They synthesize their \nfood from inorganic substances by a process called photosynthesis. Autotrophs are \nthe green plants, phytoplankton, and blue -green algae. \nConsumers are the organisms that do not produce food bu t depend directly or \nindirectly on producers for their food needs. These are called heterotrophs. \nConsumers can be further classified into herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and \nparasites. For example Humans, snakes. Decomposers are the organisms that feed \non dead and decaying matter and break down the complex organic substances into \nthe simple inorganic substances. These simpler substances go into the soil and are \nused up again by the plants. Eg: Bacteria and fungi. \n \n2.1 Food chains and Webs: \nThe series of organisms that are taking part at various biotic levels constitute a food", + "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\non dead and decaying matter and break down the complex organic substances into \nthe simple inorganic substances. These simpler substances go into the soil and are \nused up again by the plants. Eg: Bacteria and fungi. \n \n2.1 Food chains and Webs: \nThe series of organisms that are taking part at various biotic levels constitute a food \nchain. Food chains signify the feeding relationship between the organisms in an \necosystem. In the food chain, the flow of energy from one species to another occurs. \nEvery food chain always begins with producers. \n The successive levels present in the food chains of a community are known as \ntrophic levels. From autotrophs, the energy is passed to the heterotrophs and \ndecomposers. When this energy is transferred from one le vel to the other level, some \nof the energy is lost to the environment in forms that cannot be used again.", + "From autotrophs, the energy is passed to the heterotrophs and \ndecomposers. When this energy is transferred from one le vel to the other level, some \nof the energy is lost to the environment in forms that cannot be used again. A \ncommon example of food chains are: - \nPlants \u2192 Deer \u2192 Lion \n \n \n 3 \nThe food chain consists of up to three or four trophic levels. Since the loss of energy \nat every step is so huge that a very small amount of usable energy remains when it \nreaches the fourth trophic level. The number of individuals at the lower trophic levels \nof an ecosystem is generally more therefore the largest number is of the producers. \nThe length and complexity of food chains differ. Every organism is in general eaten \nby two or more other kinds of organisms which in turn are eaten by several other \norganisms belonging to a higher level. This relationship between organisms can be \nshown by a series of branching lines known as food web. Many cross -linked food \nchains constitute the food web. \nThe flow of energy between the trophic levels in any ecosystem is unidirectional.", + "This relationship between organisms can be \nshown by a series of branching lines known as food web. Many cross -linked food \nchains constitute the food web. \nThe flow of energy between the trophic levels in any ecosystem is unidirectional. \nThe energy that is captured by the autotrophs is passed to the higher tro phic levels", + "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\norganisms belonging to a higher level. This relationship between organisms can be \nshown by a series of branching lines known as food web. Many cross -linked food \nchains constitute the food web. \nThe flow of energy between the trophic levels in any ecosystem is unidirectional. \nThe energy that is captured by the autotrophs is passed to the higher tro phic levels \nand energy does not revert back to the lower level. Some of the harmful chemicals \nenter our bodies through the food chain. For example use of several pesticides and \nother chemicals to protect the crops from diseases and pests runoff with water in the \nfield which are taken up by the fishes entering in the food chain. \nBiological magnification is a phenomenon by which harmful substances or \nchemicals accumulate from the lower trophic level to a higher one. As human beings \nare at the top level in an y food chain, so the maximum concentration of these harmful \nchemicals gets accumulated in the body which can cause death of the person. \n \n3. How does the environment affect our activities?", + "As human beings \nare at the top level in an y food chain, so the maximum concentration of these harmful \nchemicals gets accumulated in the body which can cause death of the person. \n \n3. How does the environment affect our activities? \n3.1 Ozone layer and its depletion. \nOzone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms. The ozone layer is present in the \nupper layer of the atmosphere i.e. stratosphere. It is a very deadly poison. It is \nresponsible for causing skin cancer in human beings. Whereas, at the higher levels \nof the at mosphere, it protects us from harmful UV radiations of the sun which is \ndangerous to living organisms. Ozone depletion is the marked reduction of ozone \nmolecules in the stratosphere due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigerants \nand other coolants. Oxygen in the presence of ultraviolet rays gets broken down to \nnascent oxygen molecules. This nascent oxygen further reacts with the oxygen \npresent in the atmosphere and forms ozone molecule. \n \n \n 4", + "Our Environment CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 15 PDF.txt\nand other coolants. Oxygen in the presence of ultraviolet rays gets broken down to \nnascent oxygen molecules. This nascent oxygen further reacts with the oxygen \npresent in the atmosphere and forms ozone molecule. \n \n \n 4 \nIn order to limit the damage to the ozone layer the release o f CFC s into the \natmosphere needs to be reduced instead alternatives should be used. \n \n3.2 Managing the garbage produced: \nImprovements in the lifestyle have to lead to greater amounts of waste material \ngeneration. Changes in the packaging of items have resu lted in huge amount of waste \nbecoming non -biodegradable. Increased use of non -biodegradable items has left the \nenvironment polluted with them. In order to manage this waste we can do following: - \n1. Use of concept of 3R's (reduce, reuse and recycle). \n2. Sep eration of biodegradable and non -biodegradable waste.", + "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\n 1 \nRevision Notes \nClass 10 Science \nChapter 5 - Periodic Classification of Elements \n \nIntroduction: \n\u25cf In the beginning, scientists had classified elements into two broad \ncategories as metals and non -metals . Some elements exhibited properties \nbecause of which they could neither be classified as metals nor non -metals \nand hence were called metalloids . This classification was not sufficient \nfor scientific study. Over the years, many chemist s attempted to make a \nrational and systematic classification. It was based on the physical and \nchemical properties of each element. These results were then tabulated in \nthe form of a table. \n\u25cf Periodic table \u2013 The table giving the arrangement of the known el ements \naccording to their properties so that similar elements fall within the same \nvertical column and dissimilar elements are separated. \n \nDobereiner's Triads: \n\u25cf In 1817, a German chemist named Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner arranged \nthe elements with similar properties into groups. \n\u25cf He identified many such groups which had three elements in them.", + "Dobereiner's Triads: \n\u25cf In 1817, a German chemist named Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner arranged \nthe elements with similar properties into groups. \n\u25cf He identified many such groups which had three elements in them. \nHence, these groups were termed as triads . \n\u25cf In a triad, the elements were arranged in increasing order of their atomic \nmasses. When the arithmetic mean of the atomic mass of the first and the \nthird element was taken, it came out to be approximately the same as that \nof the second or the middle elemen t. This is a distinctive feature that can \nbe used to identify if elements form a triad. \n\u25cf This classification was also not sufficient as not many triads could be \nidentified. Only three were identified as: \n \n 2 \n \n \nNewlands' Law of Octaves: \n\u25cf In 1866, an English scie ntist, John Newlands arranged many of the then \nknown elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses. So, he \nstarted with the element having the lowest atomic mass (hydrogen) and \nended at Thorium which was the", + "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nidentified. Only three were identified as: \n \n 2 \n \n \nNewlands' Law of Octaves: \n\u25cf In 1866, an English scie ntist, John Newlands arranged many of the then \nknown elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses. So, he \nstarted with the element having the lowest atomic mass (hydrogen) and \nended at Thorium which was the \nth56 element. He noticed that the eighth \nelement was similar in properties to the first element . \n\u25cf It was concluded that there exists some systematic relationship between \nthe order of atomic masses and the repetition of properties of elements. \nThis relationship, when repres ented in a tabular form, presented a periodic \nrepetition of the properties of the elements. Hence, the term periodicity \nwas introduced. \n\u25cf This had a resemblance to the eight musical notes in both Western as well \nas Indian music. \n \n \n\u25cf It was found that the Law of Octaves was applicable only up to Calcium \nbecause after Calcium, every eighth element did not possess properties \nsimilar to that of the first.", + "\u25cf This had a resemblance to the eight musical notes in both Western as well \nas Indian music. \n \n \n\u25cf It was found that the Law of Octaves was applicable only up to Calcium \nbecause after Calcium, every eighth element did not possess properties \nsimilar to that of the first. John Newlands had assumed that only 56 \n \n \n 3 \nelements existed in nature and no more elemen ts would be discovered in \nthe future. But several new elements were discovered later on, whose \nproperties did not fit into the Law of Octaves. So, this was not sufficient \neither. \n \nMendeleev's Periodic Table: \n\u25cf In 1869, a Russian chemist, Dmitri Ivanovich Men deleev classified the \nthen known 63 elements based on their physical and chemical properties \nin the increasing order of the atomic masses in the form of a table. \n\u25cf He had observed that properties of the elements recur cyclically when they \nwere arranged in th e order of their increasing atomic masses. This \nobservation led to the conclusion that the physical and chemical properties \nof the elements are periodic functions of their atomic masses. This came \nto be known as the law of chemical periodicity .", + "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf He had observed that properties of the elements recur cyclically when they \nwere arranged in th e order of their increasing atomic masses. This \nobservation led to the conclusion that the physical and chemical properties \nof the elements are periodic functions of their atomic masses. This came \nto be known as the law of chemical periodicity . \n\u25cf Periodic Ta ble is the tabulation of all the known elements in a tablular \nformat based on this law. It contains eight vertical columns called \n'groups' and seven horizontal rows called 'periods' . Each of the eight \ngroups has two sub -groups A and B. The properties of el ements of a sub -\ngroup resemble each other more markedly than the properties of those \nbetween the elements of the two sub -groups. \n \nAchievements of Mendeleev's Periodic Table: \nSome of the important contributions of Mendeleev's periodic table are as \nfollows: \n1) Systematic Study of Elements \u2013 The table provided the arrangements of \nelements showing similar properties into groups.", + "Achievements of Mendeleev's Periodic Table: \nSome of the important contributions of Mendeleev's periodic table are as \nfollows: \n1) Systematic Study of Elements \u2013 The table provided the arrangements of \nelements showing similar properties into groups. This was very useful in \nstudying and remembering the properties of a large number of elements in \na systematic way. \n2) Prediction of New Elem ents \u2013 Mendeleev had predicted new elements \nand had left three blanks for these undiscovered elements. He was able to \npredict their properties more or less accurately. He named them eka -\nboron, eka -aluminium and eka -silicon. \n3) Correction of Atomic Masses - Based on the elements\u2019 positions in the \nperiodic table, Mendeleev was able to correct their atomic masses. The \natomic mass of beryllium was corrected from 13.5 to 9.0. \n \nLimitations of Mendeleev\u2019s classification: \nAlthough Mendeleev's periodic table has many advantages, it could not explain \ncertain things, which are considered as its limitations.", + "The \natomic mass of beryllium was corrected from 13.5 to 9.0. \n \nLimitations of Mendeleev\u2019s classification: \nAlthough Mendeleev's periodic table has many advantages, it could not explain \ncertain things, which are considered as its limitations. They are as follows: \n \n 4 \n1) Assigning a position to Hydrogen: Hydrogen has a electronic \nconfiguration as that of alkali metals a nd combines with halogens, oxygen,", + "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nLimitations of Mendeleev\u2019s classification: \nAlthough Mendeleev's periodic table has many advantages, it could not explain \ncertain things, which are considered as its limitations. They are as follows: \n \n 4 \n1) Assigning a position to Hydrogen: Hydrogen has a electronic \nconfiguration as that of alkali metals a nd combines with halogens, oxygen, \nsulphur to form compounds, like \n22 HCL,H O,H S and at the same time it \nexists as a diatomic molecule like halogens. So, Mendeleev was not able \nto assign a proper position for hydrogen. \n2) Assigning position to isotopes: The isotopes have similar properties but \ndiffer in their atomic masses. Mendeleev\u2019s classification would place \nthem in different groups due to their different atomic masses, but isotopes \nwere not placed so as their propertie s were similar. \n3) Anomalous pairing of some elements: Mendeleev did not follow the \nincreasing atomic masses but grouped some elements based on similar \nproperties.", + "3) Anomalous pairing of some elements: Mendeleev did not follow the \nincreasing atomic masses but grouped some elements based on similar \nproperties. Argon with an atomic mass of 39.9 was placed before \npotassium with atomic mass of 39.1. Also s ome elements with similar \nproperties like copper (Cu) and mercury (Hg) were placed separately, and \nsome very dissimilar elements were placed in one group. Copper was \nplaced in group I, the elements of which had no similarities with copper. \n \nThe Modern Periodic Table: \n\u25cf In the year 1913, an English physicist named Henry Mosely found that \nthe atomic number of an element, which was denoted by symbol \u2018Z\u2019 was \na more basic property to group them instead of their atomic masses. Thus \nMendeleev's period ic table was modified for the same. The elements were \nnow grouped based on the increasing atomic number. \n\u25cf This came to be known as the Modern Periodic Law and it states, \n\u2018properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic number\u2019.", + "The elements were \nnow grouped based on the increasing atomic number. \n\u25cf This came to be known as the Modern Periodic Law and it states, \n\u2018properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic number\u2019. \nHence the new classification of the elements based on this came into", + "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nMendeleev's period ic table was modified for the same. The elements were \nnow grouped based on the increasing atomic number. \n\u25cf This came to be known as the Modern Periodic Law and it states, \n\u2018properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic number\u2019. \nHence the new classification of the elements based on this came into \nexistence and was termed as \u2018 Modern Periodic Table\u2019 . \n\u25cf With this system of grouping it was easy to predict the properties of the \nelements when they were arranged in the order of increasing atomic \nnumbers. It is to be noted that the periodicity of the elements is based on \nthe electronic configuration or the num ber of protons in the nucleus. \n \n \n 5 \n \n \n \nSalient features of the Modern Periodic Table: \nThe table has 18 vertical columns that are known by the name of groups and 7 \nhorizontal rows that are named as periods . \n1) Periods: \n\u25cf There are 7 periods in this table.", + "5 \n \n \n \nSalient features of the Modern Periodic Table: \nThe table has 18 vertical columns that are known by the name of groups and 7 \nhorizontal rows that are named as periods . \n1) Periods: \n\u25cf There are 7 periods in this table. The periods have the same \nelements that have the same valence shell or the energy shell. \nExample - Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl are placed in the same shell as \nthey have the electronic shells as K, L and M. \n\u25cf In a period, the number of electrons present in the energy shells \nincrease by 1 on moving from left to right within a period. Example \n- Na - 1, Mg - 2, Al - 3, and so on. \n\u25cf The number of elements present in a period can be determined by \nthe formula \n22n , where n is the number of the shell from the \nnucleus. Example: \n \n \n \n 6 \n\u25cf The first period consists of two elements only namely, hydrogen \nand helium as they have only 1 valence shell.", + "Example: \n \n \n \n 6 \n\u25cf The first period consists of two elements only namely, hydrogen \nand helium as they have only 1 valence shell. Example - hydrogen \n(Z = 1 or shell as K = 1), helium (Z = 2 or shell as K = 2) \n\u25cf The second period has 8 elements with 2 shells and it starts with \nlithium (Z = 3 o r shells as K = 2, L = 1) and ends with neon (Z = 10 \nor shells as K = 2, L = 8).", + "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf The first period consists of two elements only namely, hydrogen \nand helium as they have only 1 valence shell. Example - hydrogen \n(Z = 1 or shell as K = 1), helium (Z = 2 or shell as K = 2) \n\u25cf The second period has 8 elements with 2 shells and it starts with \nlithium (Z = 3 o r shells as K = 2, L = 1) and ends with neon (Z = 10 \nor shells as K = 2, L = 8). \n\u25cf The third period has 8 elements with 3 shells and it starts with \nsodium (Z = 11 or shells as K = 2, L = 8, M = 1) and ends with \nargon (Z = 18 or shells as K = 2, L = 8, M = 8 ). \n\u25cf Similarly the fourth period has 18 elements with 4 shells and starts \nwith potassium (Z = 19) and ending with krypton (Z = 36).", + "\u25cf Similarly the fourth period has 18 elements with 4 shells and starts \nwith potassium (Z = 19) and ending with krypton (Z = 36). \n\u25cf The fifth period having 18 elements with 5 shell starts with \nrubidium (Z = 37) and ends with xenon (Z = 54). \n\u25cf The sixth period with 32 elements has 6 shells and it starts with \ncaesium (Z = 55) ending with radon (Z = 86). \n\u25cf The seventh and last period is incomplete with 19 elements starts \nfrancium (Z = 87) and goes on till oganesson (Z = 118). \n2) Groups: \n\u25cf There are 18 grou ps in the periodic table. The group consists of \nelements that have the same number of electrons in the valence shell \nor outermost shell of the atom. \n\u25cf The valence shell predominantly decides the physical or chemical \nproperties of the elements, so the elemen ts of the same group have \nthe same properties due to the same number of valence electrons.", + "\u25cf The valence shell predominantly decides the physical or chemical \nproperties of the elements, so the elemen ts of the same group have \nthe same properties due to the same number of valence electrons. \nExample - fluorine and chlorine have valence electrons as 7 and \nthey belong to group 17. \n \n 7 \n \n\u25cf The number of shells increases by one unit as the elements move \ndown in the periodic table in a group. \n3) Blocks: \n\u25cf The periodic table is also divided into 4 blocks that is based on the \nsubshell of the valence electrons. They are: \n\u25cf s-Block elements : All the elements of group 1 and 2 are included \nin this block and their general electronic configuration is \n12ns\uf02d", + "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf The number of shells increases by one unit as the elements move \ndown in the periodic table in a group. \n3) Blocks: \n\u25cf The periodic table is also divided into 4 blocks that is based on the \nsubshell of the valence electrons. They are: \n\u25cf s-Block elements : All the elements of group 1 and 2 are included \nin this block and their general electronic configuration is \n12ns\uf02d \nExample - Hydrogen (H), Sodium (Na), etc from group 1 and \nMagnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), etc from group 2. \n\u25cf p-Block elem ents: This includes the elements from group 13 to 18. \nThey have an electronic configuration as \n2 1 6ns np\uf02d . \n\u25cf d-block elements : This includes group 3 to 12 elements. They have \na general electronic configuration as \n\uf028\uf0291 10 1 2n 1 d ns\uf02d\uf02d\uf02d .", + "\u25cf d-block elements : This includes group 3 to 12 elements. They have \na general electronic configuration as \n\uf028\uf0291 10 1 2n 1 d ns\uf02d\uf02d\uf02d . \n\u25cf f-block elements : This block has sets of elements, lanthanides and \nthe actinides. They have the electronic configuration of \n\uf028\uf029\uf028\uf0291 14 0 1 2n 2 f n 1 d ns\uf02d\uf02d\uf02d\uf02d\n. The lanthanides starts from Lanthanum \n(La) - Lutetium (Lu) and the actinides starts from Actinium (Ac) - \nLawrencium (Lr). \n \nPosition of elements in the periodic table: \n\u25cf The position of the various elements are decided on the basis of their \nvalence shells and the number of electrons present in their valence \nshells.", + "Position of elements in the periodic table: \n\u25cf The position of the various elements are decided on the basis of their \nvalence shells and the number of electrons present in their valence \nshells. Example - Sodium (Z - 11, 2,8,1), so it has 3 shells, so it is placed \n \n \n 8 \nin period 3 and since it has 1 valence electron in outermost shell, it is \nplaced in group 1. \n\u25cf The position of an element in the periodic table determines its chemical \nnature . Based on the position of the elements in the periodic table, they \ncan be classified as follows: \n1) Noble gases: These are a group of elements placed in group 18, \nwhich are tasteless, odourless monoatomic gases that have very low \nchemical reactivity. There are 6 such gases, namely, Helium (He), \nNeon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), Radon (Rn). \nThey are also referred to as inert gases and due to their inertness ,", + "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\ncan be classified as follows: \n1) Noble gases: These are a group of elements placed in group 18, \nwhich are tasteless, odourless monoatomic gases that have very low \nchemical reactivity. There are 6 such gases, namely, Helium (He), \nNeon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), Radon (Rn). \nThey are also referred to as inert gases and due to their inertness , \nthey are suitable to be used where reactions are not required. \nExamp le - He is used by deep -sea divers in the breathing gas to \nprevent toxicity of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. \n2) Normal elements: All the elements that are placed in groups 1 to 7 \nare included in this. \n3) Alkali metals: The elements in group 1, namely Lith ium (Li) - \nFrancium (Fr), except Hydrogen (H) are termed as alkali metals as \nthey tend to form hydroxide with water which are strong alkalis.", + "3) Alkali metals: The elements in group 1, namely Lith ium (Li) - \nFrancium (Fr), except Hydrogen (H) are termed as alkali metals as \nthey tend to form hydroxide with water which are strong alkalis. \nThus alkali metals are very reactive and react quickly with water or \nair. Example - Sodium (Na) reacts violently w ith oxygen in the air, \nso it stored in mineral oil. \n4) Alkaline earth metals: These include the group 2 elements starting \nfrom Beryllium (Be) - Radium (Ra). They are less reactive than the \nalkali metals that are found as a compound . \n5) Transition elements: These include the elements from group 3 to \n11. These are so named as they exhibit a transition in their \nproperties from the left to the right, including increase in atomic \nsize, ionization energy, electronegativity. \n6) Inner transition elements: These are elements with similar \nproperties, placed at the end of group 3 in period 7 and 8.", + "6) Inner transition elements: These are elements with similar \nproperties, placed at the end of group 3 in period 7 and 8. These are \ncalled as the lanthanide series starting from Lanthanum (La) - \nLutetium (Lu) in period 6 with 14 elements. The period 7 contains \n14 elements starting from Actinium (Ac) - Lawrencium (Lr). \n7) Halogens: These include a group of elements in group 17 that are \ngenerally non -metals that can exist in solid, liquid and gas form. \n \n 9", + "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\ncalled as the lanthanide series starting from Lanthanum (La) - \nLutetium (Lu) in period 6 with 14 elements. The period 7 contains \n14 elements starting from Actinium (Ac) - Lawrencium (Lr). \n7) Halogens: These include a group of elements in group 17 that are \ngenerally non -metals that can exist in solid, liquid and gas form. \n \n 9 \nThey react with the metals to form salts. They are Fluorine (F), \nChlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I), Astatine (At) and \nTennessine (Ts). \n \nProperties of the periodic table: \n1) Valency: \n\u25cf The term valency denotes the number of electrons that are gained \nor lost by an atom in order to complete its outermost shell to have a \nstable electronic configuration. This valency is the number of \nelectrons present in the valence shell.", + "This valency is the number of \nelectrons present in the valence shell. \n\u25cf It can be noted t hat the valency increases from left to right in a \nperiod, and then decreases. \n\u25cf The valency in the group remains the same through the group, \ngoing downward. \n\u25cf Example - Period 2 elements have atomic number from 3 to 10, so \nthey have 2 shells with increasing number of valence till C and then \nit decreases. But all the group 2 elements have 2 electrons in their \noutermost shell, so their valency is 2. \n \n2) Atomic size: \n\u25cf The atomic size is determined by the atomic radius of the atom and \nit can be termed as the distance from the centre of the nucleus of the \natom to its outermost shell. \n \n \n 10 \n\u25cf It is seen that the elements are placed across a period from left to \nright, the atomic radius decreases . This is because an increased \nnuclear charge has the tendency to pull the electrons towards the \nnucleus, thereby decreasing the radius of the atom, and thus the \natomic size too decreases.", + "This is because an increased \nnuclear charge has the tendency to pull the electrons towards the \nnucleus, thereby decreasing the radius of the atom, and thus the \natomic size too decreases. \n\u25cf It is not the same in a group. As the elements move down a group, \nthere is an addition of an extra shell, hence their atomic radius and \nthus atomic size increases . Example -", + "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nnuclear charge has the tendency to pull the electrons towards the \nnucleus, thereby decreasing the radius of the atom, and thus the \natomic size too decreases. \n\u25cf It is not the same in a group. As the elements move down a group, \nthere is an addition of an extra shell, hence their atomic radius and \nthus atomic size increases . Example - \n \n3) Ionization energy: \n\u25cf It is termed as the amount of energy that is required to remove the \nelectrons that are present in the outermost shell of the atom. \n\u25cf Across the period, since the atomic radius decreases, these electrons \nin the outermost shell are much closer to the nucleus and therefore \nit requires more energy to remove them. So, ionisation energy \nincreases across a period. \n\u25cf In the groups, since a shell is being added down the group, so the \natomic radius increases which leads to the electrons in the \noutermost shell being far from the nucleus and therefore it is easy \nto remove them.", + "So, ionisation energy \nincreases across a period. \n\u25cf In the groups, since a shell is being added down the group, so the \natomic radius increases which leads to the electrons in the \noutermost shell being far from the nucleus and therefore it is easy \nto remove them. Hence in a group, the ionisation energy decreases \ngoing from top to bottom. \n \n \n \n 11 \n4) Electron affinity: \n\u25cf It is termed as the amount of energy change as a result of an addition \nof an electron to the atom or the ability of an electron to accept \nelectrons. \n\u25cf In a period, from left to right as the nuclear charge increases and \natomic size decreases, it is easy for the addition of electrons, which \nleads to generation of more energy. Hence electron affinity \nincreases across a period. \n\u25cf In the group, as atomic size increases, nuclear charge decreases, so \nlesser number of electrons can be added which leads to lesser \nenergy generation. Hence electron affinity decreases from top to \nbottom in a group .", + "Hence electron affinity \nincreases across a period. \n\u25cf In the group, as atomic size increases, nuclear charge decreases, so \nlesser number of electrons can be added which leads to lesser \nenergy generation. Hence electron affinity decreases from top to \nbottom in a group . \n \n5) Metallic and non -metallic properties: \n\u25cf The metals are those elements that have a tendency to lose electrons \nand attain a positive charge. So, the metallic nature of elements \nmeans that they are electropositive and have low ionization energy.", + "Periodic Classification of Elements CBSE class 10 Notes Science Chapter 5 [PDF].txt\nenergy generation. Hence electron affinity decreases from top to \nbottom in a group . \n \n5) Metallic and non -metallic properties: \n\u25cf The metals are those elements that have a tendency to lose electrons \nand attain a positive charge. So, the metallic nature of elements \nmeans that they are electropositive and have low ionization energy. \nThis metallic character decreases along a period. \n\u25cf Non-metallic nature of elements indicate that they have an ability \nto gain electrons and attain a negative charge. So, this non -metallic \nnature indicates that they are electronegative and have high \nionization energies. \n\u25cf Hence this non-metallic nature increas es along a period . Hence, \nmoving along a period from left to right, the metallic character \ndecreases and non -metallic character increases and there is a semi -\nmetallic nature in between them. \n \n \n 12 \n\u25cf The metallic nature increases down a group as the atomic size \nincreases and they have an increased tendency of losing electrons.", + "12 \n\u25cf The metallic nature increases down a group as the atomic size \nincreases and they have an increased tendency of losing electrons. \nExample - \n \n6) These trends can be summarised with the chart for easy reference:", + "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nChapter 6 - Life Processes \n \nWhat are life processes? \nBiology is the study of living things . All living things are called organisms, both plants and \nanimals are living organisms. But how we decide whether something is living or non -living \ndepends on 7 life processes . If something is living it will carry out the 7 life processes below. \n \n1. Movement \nBoth animals and plants have the ability to move. Plants are rooted and move slowly as they \ngrow. Their roots move down into the soil and their stems move up towards the light. Animals \non the other hand move quickly and can move their entire bodies. They can move in search of \nfood, shelter or to avoid danger. \n \n2. Respiration \nRespiration is the process of extracting energy out of the food we eat. All living things respire \nbecause the y need energy to grow, to replace worn out parts and to move. Respiration takes \nplace in the mitochondria of the cell. \n \n3.", + "2. Respiration \nRespiration is the process of extracting energy out of the food we eat. All living things respire \nbecause the y need energy to grow, to replace worn out parts and to move. Respiration takes \nplace in the mitochondria of the cell. \n \n3. Sensitivity \nAll living organisms are sensitive; this means that they have an awareness of changes in their \nenvironment. Animals respond quickly to stimuli such as heat, light, sound, touch and \nchemicals which have taste and smell. On the other hand, plants generally appear less sensitive \nand their response is slower. \n \n4. Growth \nAll living organisms grow. Plants continue growing throughout t heir lives. Animals stop \ngrowing once they reach adulthood. Even when growth stops, materials within an animal\u2019s \nbody are still being replaced from its food. \n \n5. Excretion \nAll living things make waste products these can be useless or harmful to it and therefore need \nto be got rid of. Excretion is the process of getting rid of metabolic waste.", + "5. Excretion \nAll living things make waste products these can be useless or harmful to it and therefore need \nto be got rid of. Excretion is the process of getting rid of metabolic waste. Plants store waste \nsubstances in their leaves, the waste is removed when their leav es fall off. Animals breathe \nout waste carbon dioxide, other waste substances leave the body in urine and sweat.", + "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\n5. Excretion \nAll living things make waste products these can be useless or harmful to it and therefore need \nto be got rid of. Excretion is the process of getting rid of metabolic waste. Plants store waste \nsubstances in their leaves, the waste is removed when their leav es fall off. Animals breathe \nout waste carbon dioxide, other waste substances leave the body in urine and sweat. \nNote: Getting rid of faeces or undigested food is not excretion but egestion. \n \n6. Reproduction \nAll living things must produce offspring like themselves in order for their species to survive. \nThis is the process known as reproduction. Plants produce seeds that give rise to new plants \nof the same species. Animals lay eggs or have babies. Reproduction can be of two types, \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nSexual which involves two parents and the union of two gametes and Asexual where one \nparent can reproduce itself. \n \n7. Nutrition \nNutrition is needed for energy and growth, both plants and animals need food.", + "7. Nutrition \nNutrition is needed for energy and growth, both plants and animals need food. Plants are able \nto make their own food by photosynthesis. They use sunlight to turn simple molecules like \ncarbon dioxide and water into more complex carbohydrate molecules. Animals are unable to \nmake their own food so rely on other plants and other animals for their nutrition. Animals take \nin complex substances and break them down i nto small, simple, soluble molecules which can \nbe used for energy and growth \n \nNutrition: \nEnergy required to carry out different life processes is obtained through the process of nutrition. \nDepending on the mode of obtaining nutrition, organisms are classif ied as autotrophs or \nheterotrophs. \ni. Autotrophs can prepare their own food from simple inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide \nand water. Examples: Green plants and some bacteria. \nii. Heterotrophs cannot synthesise their own food and are dependent on oth er organisms for \nobtaining complex organic substances for nutrition. Example: Animals and fungi", + "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nheterotrophs. \ni. Autotrophs can prepare their own food from simple inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide \nand water. Examples: Green plants and some bacteria. \nii. Heterotrophs cannot synthesise their own food and are dependent on oth er organisms for \nobtaining complex organic substances for nutrition. Example: Animals and fungi \n \nAutotrophic Nutrition: \nA type of nutrition in which organisms synthesize the organic materials they require from \ninorganic sources. Chief sources of carbon and nitrogen are carbon dioxide and nitrates, \nrespectively. All green plants are autotrophic and use light as a source of energy for the synthesis \nof food through photosynthesis. \n2 2 6 12 6 2 2\nGlucose6 12 6 6Sunlight\nChlorophyllCO H O C H O H O O\uf02b \uf0be\uf0be\uf0be\uf0be \uf0ae \uf02b \uf02b\n \nThe following events occur during this process.", + "(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll \n(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen \nand oxygen. \n(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. \n \nThese green plants absorbs water from the soil by roots. Co 2 enters from the atmosphere thr ough \nstomata, Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and other green parts of the plants. \nHeterotrophic Nutrition: \n \nAll heterotrophs depend on autotrophs for their nutrition. \nThe three main types of heterotrophic nutrition are: \n1. Holozoic nutrition : Complex food is taken into a specialist digestive system and broken down \ninto small pieces to be absorbed. Eg: Ameoba, Humans \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \n2. Saprophytic nutrition : Organisms feed on dead organic remains of other organisms. Eg: Fungi \nlike bread moulds yeast and mushroom s. \n3. Parasitic nutrition : Organisms obtain food from other living organisms (the host), with the \nhost receiving no benefit from the parasite.", + "Eg: Fungi \nlike bread moulds yeast and mushroom s. \n3. Parasitic nutrition : Organisms obtain food from other living organisms (the host), with the \nhost receiving no benefit from the parasite. Eg: cascuta, ticks, lice, leeches and tape worms. \n \nHow do Organisms Obtain Their Utrition?", + "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\n2. Saprophytic nutrition : Organisms feed on dead organic remains of other organisms. Eg: Fungi \nlike bread moulds yeast and mushroom s. \n3. Parasitic nutrition : Organisms obtain food from other living organisms (the host), with the \nhost receiving no benefit from the parasite. Eg: cascuta, ticks, lice, leeches and tape worms. \n \nHow do Organisms Obtain Their Utrition? \n \n \n \nIn single celled organisms, the food may be taken in by the entire surface. \nEg: Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger -like extensions of the cell surface which fuse \nover the food particle forming a food -vacuole. Inside the food vacuole, complex subs tances are \nbroken down into simpler ones which then diffuse into the cytoplasm. The remaining undigested \nmaterial is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out.", + "Inside the food vacuole, complex subs tances are \nbroken down into simpler ones which then diffuse into the cytoplasm. The remaining undigested \nmaterial is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out. \n \nNutrition in Human Beings: \nIn humans, digestion of food takes place in the alimentary can al, made up of various organs and \nglands. \n \nIn the mouth, food is crushed into small particles through chewing and mixed with saliva, which \ncontains amylase for digesting starch. \n \nOn swallowing, food passes through the pharynx and oesophagus to reach the st omach. Gastric \njuice contains pepsin (for digesting proteins), HCl and mucus. \n \n \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nThe hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme pepsin. \nThe mucus protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of the acid under normal \nconditions. \n \nFrom the stomach, the food now enters the small intestine. The small intestine is the site of the \ncomplete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. \nThe liver secretes bile which emulsifies fat.", + "From the stomach, the food now enters the small intestine. The small intestine is the site of the \ncomplete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. \nThe liver secretes bile which emulsifies fat. \nThe pancreas secretes pancreat ic juice which contains the enzymes amylase, trypsin and lipase for \ndigesting starch, proteins and fats, respectively. \n \nIn the small intestine, carbohydrates, proteins and fats are completely digested into glucose, \naminoacids, fatty acids and glycerol.", + "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\ncomplete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. \nThe liver secretes bile which emulsifies fat. \nThe pancreas secretes pancreat ic juice which contains the enzymes amylase, trypsin and lipase for \ndigesting starch, proteins and fats, respectively. \n \nIn the small intestine, carbohydrates, proteins and fats are completely digested into glucose, \naminoacids, fatty acids and glycerol. \n \nThe villi of the small intestine absorb the digested food and supply it to every cell of the body. \n \nThe unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where more villi absorb water from this \nmaterial. The rest of the material is removed from the body via t he anus. \n \nRespiration: \n \nDuring respiration, the digested food materials are broken down to release energy in the form of \nATP. \nDepending on the requirement of oxygen, respiration may be of two types: \ni. Aerobic respiration: It occurs in the presence of air (oxygen). \nii.", + "Depending on the requirement of oxygen, respiration may be of two types: \ni. Aerobic respiration: It occurs in the presence of air (oxygen). \nii. Anaerobic respiration: It occurs in the absence of (air) oxygen. \n \nIn all cases the first step is the break -down of glucose, a six -carbon molecule, into a three -caron \nmolecule called pyruvate . This process taken place in the cytoplasm. Further, the pyruvate may be \nconverted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This process takes place in yeast during fermentation. \nSince this process takes place in the absence of air (oxygen), it is called anaerobi c respiration. \nBreak -down of pyruvate using oxygen takes place in the mitochondria. \nA large amount of energy is released in aerobic respiration as compared to anaerobic \nrespiration. \nSome times when there is a lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, the pyruva te is converted into lactic \nacid. This build up of lactic acid in our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps.", + "Some times when there is a lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, the pyruva te is converted into lactic \nacid. This build up of lactic acid in our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps. \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \n \n \nTerrestrial organisms use atmospheric oxygen for respiration, whereas aquatic organisms use \noxygen dissolved in water.", + "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nrespiration. \nSome times when there is a lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, the pyruva te is converted into lactic \nacid. This build up of lactic acid in our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps. \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \n \n \nTerrestrial organisms use atmospheric oxygen for respiration, whereas aquatic organisms use \noxygen dissolved in water. \nIn humans, inhalati on of air occurs through the following pathway: \nNostrils _ Nasal passage _ Pharynx _ Larynx _ Trachea _ Bronchus _ Bronchiole _ Alveolus \n(please put arrow marks ------\uf0e0) \n \nIn human beings are is taken into the body through the nostrils. The air passing thr ough the nostrils \nis filtered by fine hairs that line the passage. The passage is also lined with mucus which helps in \nthis process. From here, the air passes through the throat and into the lungs. Rings of cartilage are \npresent in the throat. These ensure that the air -passage does not collapse.", + "The passage is also lined with mucus which helps in \nthis process. From here, the air passes through the throat and into the lungs. Rings of cartilage are \npresent in the throat. These ensure that the air -passage does not collapse. \nWithin the lungs the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which finally terminate in \nballoon -line structures which are called alveoli. \nThe alveoli of lungs are richly supplied with blood and are the sit es where exchange of gases (O 2 \nand CO 2) occurs between blood and the atmosphere. \nThe blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the \noxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels t o be transported to all \n \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nthe cells in the body. During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always \ncontain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for \nthe carbon dioxide to be relea sed.", + "During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always \ncontain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for \nthe carbon dioxide to be relea sed. \nIn humans, the respiratory pigment haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the different \ntissues of the body. This pigment in present in the red blood cells. \n \nTransportation : \nTransportation in Human Beings :", + "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\ncontain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for \nthe carbon dioxide to be relea sed. \nIn humans, the respiratory pigment haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the different \ntissues of the body. This pigment in present in the red blood cells. \n \nTransportation : \nTransportation in Human Beings : \nThe circulatory system is composed of the heart, blood and blood vessels which transport various \nmaterials throughout the body. \n \nThe heart: \n \n \n \n \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nThe human heart has four chambers \u2014two atria (right and left) and two ventricles (right and left). \nThese chambers prevent the oxygen rich blood from m ixing with the blood containing carbon \ndioxide. The right half of the heart receives deoxygenated blood, whereas the left half receives \noxygenated blood. \nThe carbon dioxide \u2013rich blood has to reach the lungs for the carbon dioxide to be removed, and \nthe ox ygenated blood from the lungs has to be brought back to the heart.", + "The carbon dioxide \u2013rich blood has to reach the lungs for the carbon dioxide to be removed, and \nthe ox ygenated blood from the lungs has to be brought back to the heart. This oxygen -rich blood \nis then pumped to the rest of the body. \nVentricular walls are much thicker than atrial walls. \nHumans show double circulation i.e. blood goes through the heart twice a nd complete separation \nof oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. \nArteries carry blood from the heart to different parts of the body, whereas veins deliver the blood \nback to the heart. Arteries are connected to veins by thin capillaries, wherein materials are \nexchanged between the blood and cells. \nBlood has platelet cells which circulates around the body and prevent the blood loss at the site of \ninjury. \nLymph is also involved in transportation. It is similar to the plasma of blood but colourless and \ncontains les s protein. It drains into lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular spaces which join \nto from large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins. It carries digested and absorbed fat", + "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\ninjury. \nLymph is also involved in transportation. It is similar to the plasma of blood but colourless and \ncontains les s protein. It drains into lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular spaces which join \nto from large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins. It carries digested and absorbed fat \nfrom intestine and drains excess fluid from extra cellular space back into the blood. \n \nTransportation in plants : \nPlant transport systems will move energy stores from leaves and raw materials from roots. These \ntwo pathways are constructed as independently organized conducting tubes. One, the xylem moves \nwater and minerals obtained from the soil. The other, phloem tran sports products of photosynthesis \nfrom the leaves where they are synthesised to other parts of the plant. \n \nThe component of xylem tissue ( tracheids and vessesls) of roots, stems, leaves are interconnected \nto form a continuous system of water conducting ch annels that reaches all parts of the plant.", + "The component of xylem tissue ( tracheids and vessesls) of roots, stems, leaves are interconnected \nto form a continuous system of water conducting ch annels that reaches all parts of the plant. \nTranspiration creates a suction pressure, as a result of which water is forced into the xylem cells \nof the roots. Then there is a steady movement of water from the root xylem to all parts of the plant \nparts thro ugh the interconnected water conducting channels. \n \nThe loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration . \nThus it helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from \nroots t o the leaves. It also regulates temperature. \nThe transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation and it occurs in phloem. \nIt transports amino acids and other substances. The translocation of food and other substances \ntakes place in the sieve tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and down \nward directions. \n \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nThe translocation in phloem is achieved by utilising energy. Material like sucrose is transferred", + "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nIt transports amino acids and other substances. The translocation of food and other substances \ntakes place in the sieve tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and down \nward directions. \n \nCLASS - X SCIENCE \nThe translocation in phloem is achieved by utilising energy. Material like sucrose is transferred \ninto phloem tissue using energy from ATP. This increases t he osmotic pressure of the tissue \ncausing water to move into it. This pressure. This allows the phloem to move material according \nto the plant\u2019s needs. For example, in the spring, sugar stored in root or stem tissue would be \ntransported to the buds which n eed energy to grow. \n \nExcretion: \nDuring excretion, the harmful metabolic nitrogenous wastes generated are removed from the body \n \nExcretion in Human Beings: \nIn humans, a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, the urinary bladder and the urethra constitute the \nexcretory system. Kidneys are located in the addomen, one on either side of the backbone.", + "Kidneys are located in the addomen, one on either side of the backbone. Urine \nproduced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it is stored until \nit is released through the urethra. \n \nEach kidney has large numbers of basic filtration units called nephrons. Some substances in the \ninitial filtrate, such as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major amount of water , are selectively re -\nabsorbed as the urine flows along the tube. The amount of water re -absorbed depends on how \nmuch excess water there is in the body, and on how much of dissolved waste there is to be excreted. \nThe urine forming in each kidney eventually enters a long tube, the ureter, which connects the \nkidneys with the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to \npass it out through the urethra. The bladder is muscular so it is under nervous control. As a result \nwe can control the urge to urinate. \n \nExcretion in plants :", + "Life Processes CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 6 [PDF].txt\nThe urine forming in each kidney eventually enters a long tube, the ureter, which connects the \nkidneys with the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to \npass it out through the urethra. The bladder is muscular so it is under nervous control. As a result \nwe can control the urge to urinate. \n \nExcretion in plants : \nPlants do not have an excretory system and carry out excretion in various ways such as \ntranspiration, releasing wastes into the surrounding soil, losing their leaves and storing waste \nmaterials in cell vacuoles. Other waste products are stored as resins and gums in old xylem.", "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nCorrosion\nAlloys\nAlloys are homogeneous mixtures of\u00a0metal\u00a0with other metals or nonmetals.\u00a0Alloy formation\nenhances the desirable properties of the\u00a0material, such as hardness, tensile strength and\nresistance to corrosion.\nExamples of few alloys - \nBrass: copper and zinc\nBronze: copper and tin\nSolder: lead and tin\nAmalgam: mercury and other metal\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material usually a metal by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.", "Rusting:\n4Fe(s) + 3O 2(from \u00a0air) + xH 2O(moisture ) \u2192 2Fe 2O3.xH 2O(rust)\nCorrosion of copper:\nCu(s) +H2O(moisture ) +CO 2(from \u00a0air) \u2192 CuCO 3.Cu(OH)2(green )\nCorrosion of silver:\nAg(s) +H2S(from \u00a0air) \u2192 Ag2S(black) + H2(g)\nPrevention of CorrosionPrevention :\u00a0\n1. Coating with paints or oil or grease: Application of paint or\u00a0oil or grease on\u00a0metal surfaces\nkeep out air and moisture.\n2. Alloying: Alloyed metal is more resistant to corrosion. Example: stainless steel.\n3. Galvanization: This is a process of coating molten zinc on iron articles. Zinc forms a\nprotective layer and prevents corrosion.\n4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by use of electric current.\nThis method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.", "Zinc forms a\nprotective layer and prevents corrosion.\n4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by use of electric current.\nThis method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.\nExample: silver plating, nickel plating.\n5. Sacri\ufb01cial protection:\u00a0Magnesium is more reactive than iron. When it is coated on the\narticles made of iron or steel, it acts as the cathode, undergoes reaction (sacri\ufb01ce) instead\nof iron and protects the articles.Metals and Non-metalsPhysical Properties\nPhysical Properties of Metals\n\u25cfHard and have a high tensile strength\n\u25cfSolids at room temperature\n\u25cfSonorous\n\u25cfGood conductors of heat and electricity\n\u25cfMalleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets\n\u25cfDuctile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires\n\u25cfHigh melting and boiling points (except Caesium (Cs) and Gallium (Ga))\n\u25cfDense, (except alkali metals). Osmium - highest density and lithium - least density\n\u25cfLustrous", @@ -62,36 +184,42 @@ "Ionic CompoundsThe electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound\ntogether.\nExample: MgCl 2,CaO ,MgO ,NaCl ,etc .\nProperties of Ionic Compound\nIonic compounds\n1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions).\n2. Have high melting and boiling points.\n3. Conduct electricity when in aqueous solution\u00a0and when melted.\n4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents.\nPhysical Nature\nIonic solids usually exist in a regular, well-de\ufb01ned crystal structures.\nElectric Conduction of Ionic Compounds\nIonic compounds conduct electricity in the molten or aqueous state when ions become free\nand act as charge carriers.\nIn solid form, ions are strongly held by electrostatic forces of attractions and not free to\nmove; hence do not conduct electricity.\nFor example, ionic compounds such as NaCl does not conduct electricity\u00a0when\u00a0solidconduct electricity but when dissolved in water or in molten state, it\u00a0will\nconduct \u00a0electricity.", "For example, ionic compounds such as NaCl does not conduct electricity\u00a0when\u00a0solidconduct electricity but when dissolved in water or in molten state, it\u00a0will\nconduct \u00a0electricity.\nSalt solution conducts electricity\nMelting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds\nIn ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high amount of\nenergy to break. Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound are usually\nvery high.\nSolubility of Ionic Compounds", "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-3-metals-and-non-metals.txt\nconduct \u00a0electricity.\nSalt solution conducts electricity\nMelting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds\nIn ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high amount of\nenergy to break. Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound are usually\nvery high.\nSolubility of Ionic Compounds\nMost ionic compounds are soluble in water due to the separation of ions by water. This\noccurs due to the polar nature of water.\u00a0For example, NaCl is a 3-D salt crystal composed of Na+ and Cl\u2212 ions bound together\nthrough electrostatic forces of attractions.\u00a0When a crystal of NaCl comes into contact with\nwater, the partial positively charged ends of water\u00a0molecules interact with the Cl\u2212 ions,\nwhile\u00a0the negatively\u00a0charged end of the water molecules interacts\u00a0with the Na+ ions.\nThis\u00a0ion-dipole interaction between ions and water molecules assist in the breaking of the\nstrong\u00a0electrostatic forces of attractions within the crystal and ultimately in the solubility of\nthe crystal.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nCarbon and Its Compounds\nSoaps and Detergents:- \nCleansing Action of Soap\nWhen soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form\nspherical shape micelles.\nThe non-polar hydrophobic part or tail\u00a0of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of\nthe fabric, while the polar hydrophilic part or head, (\u2212COO\u2212Na+, remains attracted to water\nmolecules.\nThe agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles\nand detach them from the \ufb01bres of the fabric.Hard Water\nHard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates, chlorides,\nand sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard\nwater react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium\nsalts of fatty acids.", - "When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard\nwater react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium\nsalts of fatty acids.\n2C17H35COONa +MgCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Mg+ 2NaCl\n2C17H35COONa +CaCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Ca+ 2NaCl\nThese precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere\u00a0with the cleaning\nability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.\nCovalent Bonds\nDif\ufb01culty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion\nTo achieve the electronic con\ufb01guration of nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom loses\nfour of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C4+\u00a0ion hence formed will\nbe highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.\nIf the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic con\ufb01guration of\nthe noble gas, Ne, C4\u2212 ion will be formed.", - "C4+\u00a0ion hence formed will\nbe highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.\nIf the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic con\ufb01guration of\nthe noble gas, Ne, C4\u2212 ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required.\nMoreover, in C4+\u00a0ion it is dif\ufb01cult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its\ntetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.\nIonic BondIonic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a\nnonmetal.\u00a0The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the\ncompound together.\nIonic compounds:", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\ntetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.\nIonic BondIonic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a\nnonmetal.\u00a0The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the\ncompound together.\nIonic compounds:\n1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)\n2. Have high melting and boiling points\n3. Conduct electricity when melted\n4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents\nCovalent Bond\nA covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms.\u00a0It is\nprimarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic atoms with\nsimilar electronegativity.\nLewis Dot Structure\nLewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.\nThese are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it\nrepresent the valence electrons of the element.", - "Lewis Dot Structure\nLewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.\nThese are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it\nrepresent the valence electrons of the element.\u00a0\nLewis structures of elements with atomic number 5-8\nCovalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2\nFormation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:\nEach hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to\nacquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (He). \nTherefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.Formation of a\u00a0double bond in an oxygen molecule:\nEach oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to\nacquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.\nFormation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:\nEach nitrogen atom has \ufb01ve electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).", - "Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.\nFormation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:\nEach nitrogen atom has \ufb01ve electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.\nSingle, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths\nA single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one electron from each participating atom.", - "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.\nSingle, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths\nA single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one electron from each participating atom.\nIt is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.\nA double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines\nbetween the two atoms.\nA triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., two\u00a0pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines\nbetween the two atoms.Bond strength:\n- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a\nbond.", - "It is depicted by triple lines\nbetween the two atoms.Bond strength:\n- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a\nbond.\n- The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is:\u00a0Triple bond>double\nbond>single bond\n- This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for two\nbonds or a single bond.Bond length:\n- Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.\n- The order of bond length for multiple bonds is:\u00a0Triple bond 7-\u00a0 basic solution\npH scale\nImportance of pH in everyday life1. pH sensitivity of plants and animals\nPlants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,\nfunctions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.\n2. pH of a soil\nThe pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.", + "Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,\nfunctions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.\n2. pH of a soil\nThe pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.\n3. pH in the digestive system\nThe process of digestion happens at a speci\ufb01c pH in our stomach which is 1.5 - 4.\nThe pH of the interaction of enzymes, while food is being digested, is in\ufb02uenced by HCl in\nour stomach.\u00a0\n4. pH in tooth\u00a0decay\nTooth decay happens when the teeth are\u00a0exposed to an acidic environment of\u00a0pH\n5.5\u00a0and\u00a0below.\u00a0\u00a0\n5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants\nAcidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,\nbee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted\nacidic substances have a speci\ufb01c pH.", + "5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants\nAcidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,\nbee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted\nacidic substances have a speci\ufb01c pH.\nManufacture of Acids and Bases\nManufacture of acids and bases\na) Non-metal\u00a0oxide\u00a0+ water \u2192 acid\nSO2(g) +H2O(l) \u2192H2SO3(aq)\nSO3(g) +H2O(l) \u2192H2SO4(aq)\n4NO 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) +O2(g) \u2192 4HNO 3(aq)\nNon-metal\u00a0oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.\nb) Hydrogen + halogen \u2192 acid\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc.", + "b) Hydrogen + halogen \u2192 acid\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid \u2192 salt + more volatile acid\n2NaCl (aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl (aq)\n2KNO 3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO 3(aq)d) Metal + oxygen \u2192 metallic oxide (base)\n4Na( s) +O2(g) \u2192 2Na 2O(s)\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s)\ne) Metal + water \u2192 base or alkali + hydrogen\nZn(s) + H2O(steam ) \u2192 ZnO(s)+ H 2(g)", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nH2(g) +Cl2(g) \u2192 2HCl (g)\nHCl(g) +H2O(l) \u2192HCl(aq)\nc) Metallic salt + conc.", + "sulphuric acid \u2192 salt + more volatile acid\n2NaCl (aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl (aq)\n2KNO 3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) \u2192K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO 3(aq)d) Metal + oxygen \u2192 metallic oxide (base)\n4Na( s) +O2(g) \u2192 2Na 2O(s)\n2Mg (s) +O2(g) \u2192 2MgO (s)\ne) Metal + water \u2192 base or alkali + hydrogen\nZn(s) + H2O(steam ) \u2192 ZnO(s)+ H 2(g)\nf) Few metallic oxides + water \u2192 alkali\nNa 2O(s) +H2O(l) \u2192 2NaOH (aq)\ng) Ammonia + water \u2192 ammonium hydroxide\nNH 3(g) +H2O(l) \u2192NH 4OH(aq)\nSalts\nSalts\nA salt is a combination of an anion of an acid and a cation of a base.", + "Examples - KCl ,NaNO 3,CaSO 4,etc.\nSalts are usually prepared by neutralisation\u00a0reaction of an acid and a base.\nCommon salt\nSodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it\u2019s used all over the world for\ncooking.\nFamily of salts\nSalts having the same cation or anion belong to the same family. For example, NaCl, KCl,\nLiCl.\npH of salts\nA salt of a strong acid and a strong base will be neutral in nature. pH = 7 (approx.).\nA salt of a weak acid and a strong base will be basic in nature.\u00a0pH > 7.\nA salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.\nThe pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.", + "pH > 7.\nA salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.\nThe pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.\nPreparation of Sodium hydroxide\u00a0\nChemical formula - NaOH\nAlso known as - caustic sodaPreparation (Chlor-alkali process):\nElectrolysis of brine (solution of common salt, NaCl) is carried out.At anode: Cl 2\u00a0is released \nAt cathode: H2\u00a0is released\nSodium hydroxide remains in the solution.\nBleaching powder\nChemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2\nPreparation -\u00a0Ca( OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) \u2192CaOCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nOn interaction with water - bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for\nbleaching action.\nBaking soda\nChemical name - Sodium hydrogen carbonate\nChemical formula - NaHCO 3\nPreparation (Solvay process) -\u00a0\na. Limestone is heated:\u00a0 CaCO 3\u2192CaO +CO 2", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-2-acids-bases-and-salts.txt\nBleaching powder\nChemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2\nPreparation -\u00a0Ca( OH)2(aq) +Cl2(g) \u2192CaOCl 2(aq) +H2O(l)\nOn interaction with water - bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for\nbleaching action.\nBaking soda\nChemical name - Sodium hydrogen carbonate\nChemical formula - NaHCO 3\nPreparation (Solvay process) -\u00a0\na. Limestone is heated:\u00a0 CaCO 3\u2192CaO +CO 2\nb. CO_2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia :\nNaCl (aq) +NH 3(g) +CO 2(g) +H2O(l) \u2192NaHCO 3(aq) +NH 4Cl(aq)\nUses:\n1. Textile industry\n2. Paper industry\n3. Disinfectant\nWashing soda\nChemical name\u00a0 - Sodium carbonate decahydrate.", + "Textile industry\n2. Paper industry\n3. Disinfectant\nWashing soda\nChemical name\u00a0 - Sodium carbonate decahydrate.\nChemical formuala - \\(Na_2CO_3 \\)\nPreparation: By heating\u00a0NaHCO 3\n2NaHCO 3(s) \u2192Na 2CO 3(s) +CO 2(g) +H2O(g)\nNa 2CO 3(s)\u00a0 + \u00a010H 2O(l)\u00a0 \u2192 \u00a0Na 2CO 3.10H 2O(s)Uses\n1. In glass, soap and paper industries\n2. Softening of water\n3. Domestic cleaner\nCrystals of salts\nCertain salts form crystals by combining with a de\ufb01nite proportion of water. The water that\ncombines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.", + "In glass, soap and paper industries\n2. Softening of water\n3. Domestic cleaner\nCrystals of salts\nCertain salts form crystals by combining with a de\ufb01nite proportion of water. The water that\ncombines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.\nPlaster of parisGypsum , \u00a0CaSO 4.2H 2O\u00a0(s)\u00a0on \u00a0heating \u00a0at\u00a0100\u00b0C \u00a0(373K )\u00a0gives \u00a0CaSO 4.H2O\u00a0and \u00a0H2O\nCaSO 4.H2O\u00a0is plaster of paris.\nCaSO 4.H2O means\u00a0two formula units of CaSO 4 share\u00a0one molecule of water.\nUses - cast for healing fractures.1\n23\n2\n1\n21\n2", + "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nChemical Reactions and Equations\nIntroduction to Chemical Reactions and Equations\nPhysical and chemical changes\nChemical change - one or more new substances with new physical and chemical properties\nare formed.\nExample: Fe(s)\u00a0 + \u00a0CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0\n \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\nHere, when copper sulphate reacts with iron, two new substances, i.e., ferrous sulphate and\ncopper are formed.\nPhysical change - change in colour or state occurs but no new substance is formed.\nExample: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though\nsteam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react\nthe same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid\nto vapour).", + "Example: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though\nsteam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react\nthe same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid\nto vapour).\u00a0\nObservations that help determine a chemical reaction\nA chemical reaction can be determined with the help of any of the following observations:\na) Evolution of a gas\nb) Change in temperature\nc) Formation of a precipitate\nd) Change in colour\ne) Change of state\nChemical reaction\nChemical reactions are chemical changes in which reactants transform into products by\nmaking or breaking of bonds(or both) between different atoms.\nTypes of chemical reactionsTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.\nFew examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nChemical Reactions and Equations I\nWord equation\nA\u00a0 word equation is a\u00a0chemical reaction\u00a0expressed in words rather than\u00a0chemical\nformulas.", + "It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride\nThe above equation means: \"Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.\"\u00a0\nSymbols of elements and their valencies\nA symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic", + "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nformulas.\u00a0It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.\nFor example,\u00a0\nSodium + Chlorine \u2192 Sodium chloride\nThe above equation means: \"Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.\"\u00a0\nSymbols of elements and their valencies\nA symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic\nsymbol, which is the abbreviated form of its name.\nValency is the combining capacity of an\u00a0element. It can be considered as the number of\nelectrons lost, gain or shared by an atom when it combines with another atom to form a\nmolecule.\nWriting chemical equations\nRepresentation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and chemical formulae of the\nreactants and products is known as a chemical equation.\nZn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".", + "Zn(s) +dil.H2SO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +H2(\u2191)\n\u00a0(Reactants)\u00a0 \u00a0(Products)\n\u2022 For solids, the symbol is \"(s)\".\n\u2022 For liquids, it is \"(l)\".\n\u2022 For gases, it is \"(g)\".\u2022 For aqueous solutions, it is \"(aq)\".\n\u2022 For gas produced in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2191)\".\n\u2022 For precipitate formed in the reaction, it is represented by \"(\u2193)\".\nBalancing of a Chemical Reaction\nConservation of mass\nAccording to the law of conservation of mass, no atoms can be created or destroyed in a\nchemical reaction, so the number of atoms for each element in the reactants side has to\nbalance the number of atoms that are present in the products side.\nIn other words, the total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is equal to the\ntotal mass of the reactants participated in a chemical reaction.\nBalanced chemical equation\nThe chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element\u00a0in the reactants side\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.", + "Balanced chemical equation\nThe chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element\u00a0in the reactants side\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.\nSteps for balancing chemical equations\nHit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coef\ufb01cients (the numbers in\nfront of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same\non each side of the chemical equation.", + "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nis equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.\nSteps for balancing chemical equations\nHit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coef\ufb01cients (the numbers in\nfront of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same\non each side of the chemical equation.\u00a0\nShort-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation\nExample:\naCaCO 3+bH3PO 4\u2192cCa 3(PO 4)2+dH2CO 3\nSet up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.", + "Short-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation\nExample:\naCaCO 3+bH3PO 4\u2192cCa 3(PO 4)2+dH2CO 3\nSet up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.\nCa: a=3c\nC:\u00a0 \u00a0a=d\nO:\u00a0 \u00a03a+4b=8c+3d\nH:\u00a0 \u00a03b=2d\nP:\u00a0 \u00a0 b=2c\nLet's set c=1\nThen a=3 and\nd=a=3\nb=2c=2So a=3; b=2; c=1; d=3\nThe balanced equation is\n3CaCO 3+ 2H 3PO 4\u2192Ca3(PO 4)2+ 3H 2CO 3\nChemical Reactions and Equations II\nTypes of chemical reactions\nTaking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple\ncategories.", + "Few examples are:\n\u25cfCombination\n\u25cfDecomposition\n\u25cfSingle Displacement\n\u25cfDouble displacement\n\u25cfRedox\n\u25cfEndothermic\n\u25cfExothermic\n\u25cfPrecipitation\n\u25cfNeutralisation\nCombination reaction\nIn a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one compound or two\ncompounds combine\u00a0to give one single product.\nH2+Cl2\u2192 2HCl\nelement + element \u2192 compound\n2CO +O2\u2192 2CO 2\ncompound + element \u2192 compound\nNH 3+HCl \u2192NH 4Cl\ncompound + compound \u2192 compound\nDecomposition reaction\nA single reactant decomposes on the application of heat or light or electricity to give two or\nmore products.\nTypes of decomposition reactions:\na. Decomposition reactions which require heat - thermolytic decomposition or thermolysis.\nThermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.", + "Thermal decomposition of HgO\nb. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition\u00a0or\u00a0photolysis.\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.\nElectrolytic decomposition of H 2O\nDisplacement reaction\nMore reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.i)Zn(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)", + "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nPhotolytic decomposition of H2O2\nc. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or\nelectrolysis.\nElectrolytic decomposition of H 2O\nDisplacement reaction\nMore reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.i)Zn(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192ZnSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\nii)Cu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) \u2192Cu(NO 3)2(aq) + 2Ag (s)\nDouble displacement reaction\nAn exchange of ions between the reactants takes place to give new products.\nFor example,\u00a0Al 2(SO4)3(aq) + 3Ca( OH)2(aq) \u2192 2Al (OH)3(aq) + 3CaSO 4(s)\nPrecipitation reaction\nAn insoluble compound called precipitate forms when two solutions containing soluble salts\nare combined.", + "For example, Pb( NO 3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) \u2192 2KNO 3(aq) +PbI 2(\u2193)(s)(yellow )\nRedox reaction\nOxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.\nOxidation: Substance loses electrons or gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.\nReduction: Substance gains electrons or loses oxygen or gains hydrogen.\nOxidising agent - a substance that oxidises another substance and self-gets reduced.\nReducing agent - a substance that reduces another substance and self-gets oxidised.\nExamples:\n1.Fe(s) +CuSO 4(aq) \u2192FeSO 4(aq) +Cu(s)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0(Blue)\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (Green)\nFe\u2192Fe+2+ 2e \u2212 \u00a0(oxidation ) ; Fe - reducing agent.\nCu+2+ 2e \u2212 \u2192Cu(s)\u00a0(reduction ) ; Cu - oxidising agent.", + "Cu+2+ 2e \u2212 \u2192Cu(s)\u00a0(reduction ) ; Cu - oxidising agent.\n2.ZnO +C\u2192Zn+CO\nZnO reduces to Zn\u00a0\u2192 reduction\nC oxidises to CO \u2192 oxidation\nZnO - Oxidising agent\nC - Reducing agent\nEndothermic and exothermic reaction\nExothermic reaction - heat is evolved during a reaction. Most of the combination reactions\nare exothermic.\nAl+Fe2O3\u2192Al2O3+Fe+heat\nCH 4+ 2O 2\u2192CO 2+ 2H 2O+heat\nEndothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.\n6CO 2+ 6H 2O+Sunlight \u2192C6H12O6+ 6O 2\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Glucose\nMost of the\u00a0decomposition reactions are endothermic.\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.\nRusting:", + "chemistry-notes-CBSE class-10-chapter-1.txt\nare exothermic.\nAl+Fe2O3\u2192Al2O3+Fe+heat\nCH 4+ 2O 2\u2192CO 2+ 2H 2O+heat\nEndothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.\n6CO 2+ 6H 2O+Sunlight \u2192C6H12O6+ 6O 2\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Glucose\nMost of the\u00a0decomposition reactions are endothermic.\nCorrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.", + "Corrosion\nGradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or\nchemicals in the surrounding environment.\nRusting:\n4Fe(s) + 3O 2(from \u00a0air) +xH 2O(moisture ) \u2192 2Fe 2O3.xH 2O(rust)\nCorrosion of copper:\nCu(s) +H2O(moisture ) +CO 2(from \u00a0air) \u2192CuCO 3.Cu(OH)2(green )\nCorrosion of silver:\nAg(s) +H2S(from \u00a0air) \u2192Ag2S(black) +H2(g)\nRancidity\nIt refers to oxidation of fats and oils in food that is kept for a long time. It gives foul smell\nand bad taste to food. Rancid food causes stomach infection on consumption.\nPrevention:\n(i) Use of air-tight containers(ii) Packaging with nitrogen\n(iii) Refrigeration\n(iv) Addition of antioxidants or preservatives", "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nIntroductionAll living organisms have certain common characteristics such as breathing, growing, requiring nutrition, producing offspring, responding to stimuli, etc. that distinguish them from non-living things. There are certain vital processes that maintain homeostasis and proper functioning of the body, they are called life processes. These processes continue to occur even when we are sleeping or not performing any action. These processes are essential for all living organisms including plants and animals. These life processes are nutrition, photosynthesis, transportation, metabolism, respiration, reproduction and excretion.In this chapter, we will learn about the details of these processes occurring in plants, animals and human beings in particular.LifeEarth happens to be the only known planet having a life. There are beings who live, die and become part of nature again. The living organism can be differentiated from the inanimate entities on various parameters of life processes.", "There are beings who live, die and become part of nature again. The living organism can be differentiated from the inanimate entities on various parameters of life processes.\nLife Process\n \n\u2022The maintenance of living organisms is essential even if they are moving, resting or even sleeping.\u2022The processes which together perform the function of maintenance of 'life' are called as life processes.\u2022Nutrition, respiration, circulation, and excretion are examples of essential life processes.\u2022In unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by a single cell.\u2022In multicellular organisms, well-developed systems are present to carry out the processes.\nTo know more about Life Process, visit here. Students can refer to the short notes and MCQ questions along with a separate solution pdf of this chapter for quick revision from the links below:\u2022Life Processes Short Notes\u2022Life Processes MCQ Practice Questions\u2022Life Processes MCQ Practice Solutions", "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nTo know more about Life Process, visit here. Students can refer to the short notes and MCQ questions along with a separate solution pdf of this chapter for quick revision from the links below:\u2022Life Processes Short Notes\u2022Life Processes MCQ Practice Questions\u2022Life Processes MCQ Practice Solutions\n \nNutritionNutritionThe process of acquiring food that is needed for nourishment and sustenance of the organism is called nutrition.\u2022There are two main modes of nutrition, autotrophic and heterotrophic.\u2022Autotrophic nutrition is present in plants, algae and some bacteria. Organisms produce their own food using light energy or chemical energy by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, respectively.\u2022Heterotrophic nutrition is present in bacteria, fungi and animals. They derive energy from organic compounds.", @@ -141,40 +269,125 @@ "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\n\u25e6Blood from the body is removed and \ufb02owed through a series of tubes made up of a semipermeable membrane.\u25e6A dialysate \ufb02ows on the other side of the membrane, which draws impurities through the membrane.\nExcretion in Plants\u2022The cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and other metabolic reactions produce a lot of excretory products in plants.\u2022Carbon dioxide, excess water produced during respiration and nitrogenous compounds produced during protein metabolism are the major excretory products in plants.\u2022Plants produce two gaseous waste products i.e. oxygen during photosynthesis and carbon dioxide during respiration.\n \n\u2022Excretion of gaseous waste in plants takes place through stomatal pores on leaves.\u2022Oxygen released during photosynthesis is used for respiration while carbon dioxide released during respiration is used for\u00a0photosynthesis.\u2022Excess water is excreted by transpiration.\u2022Organic by-products generated by the plant\u00a0are stored in different forms in different parts.\u2022The gums, oils, latex, resins, etc.", "are some waste products stored in plant parts like barks, stems, leaves, etc.\u2022Eventually, plants shed off these parts.\u2022Few examples of the excretory products of plants are\u00a0oil produced from orange, eucalyptus, jasmine, latex from the rubber tree, papaya tree, and gums from acacia.\u2022Sometimes plants even excrete into the soil.\u00a0\nTo know more about Excretion in Plants, visit here.Also Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Chapter 5 Periodic Classi\ufb01cation of Elements Notes\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 6 Life Processes\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 6 - Life Processes\u2022Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1\u2022CBSE Class 10 History Notes Chapter 1 - The Rise of Nationalism in EuropeFrequently Asked Questions on Life Processes", "DOC-20240418-WA0021..txt\nQ. The instrument used for measuring blood pressure is called?Ans. A sphygmomanometer is an instrument used for measuring blood pressure.Q. The phloem tissue in plants is responsible for doing which function?Ans. Phloem is the vascular tissues that is responsible for the transport of substances in plantsQ. Why aerobic respiration produces more usable chemical energy than fermentation?Ans. Aerobic respiration produces more usable chemical energy in the form of ATPs than fermentation because aerobic respiration involves the complete oxidation of glucose and the release of carbon dioxide and water as end products.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nIntroductionAll living organisms multiply or reproduce and produce offspring of a similar kind. Reproduction is an essential process for the existence of a species and the continuation of life.Here, in this chapter, we will learn about how different unicellular and multicellular organisms such as bacteria, algae, plants, animals and human beings reproduce. What are the different reproductive structures and modes of reproduction such as cell division, vegetative reproduction, asexual reproduction, and sexual reproduction.ReproductionReproduction is the process by which all organisms multiply in number and increase their population.To know more about Reproduction, visit here.Asexual reproductionAsexual reproduction is a method of reproduction that involves only one organism. A single organism reproduces two or multiple organisms on its own. This is seen in all unicellular organisms, some multicellular organisms and a few plants.To know more about Asexual reproduction, visit here.Sexual reproductionThe mode of reproduction that involves two individuals; one male and one female.", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n 1 \n \n \nRevision Not es \nClass 10 Science \nChapter 13 - Magnetic Effects of Electric Current \n \n\u25cf Introduction: \n- A magnet is a material that has the ability to attract metals such as iron, \nnickel, cobalt, and steel. There are two poles to a magnet: north and \nsouth. \n- When liberated, the two poles pursue the earth's north and south poles. \nEach component becomes a magnet when broken into parts. \n \n\u25cf Magnetic Field : \n- A magnetic field is the area around a magnet where its influence can be \nfelt by any other magnetic element. \n- The magnetic field is measured in Tesla or \n2Weber/m units. \n- Lines of Magnetic Fields \n- Externally, magnetic field lines exit the north pole of a magnet and enter \nthe South Pole, forming closed loops. \n- At the poles, where the magnetic field strength is greatest, magnetic \nfield lines are nearest. There are no magnetic f ield lines that cross one \nother.", + "- At the poles, where the magnetic field strength is greatest, magnetic \nfield lines are nearest. There are no magnetic f ield lines that cross one \nother. \n- The tangent at a place indicates the direction of the magnetic field at \nthat point. \n \n\u25cf Natural Magnet : \n- Magnetite or Lodestone (\n34Fe O ), a naturally occurring black iron ore, \nis a natural magnet. \n \n\u25cf Oersted\u2019s Experiment: \n \n \n 2 \n \n \n- The needle has been deflected, indicating that an electric current has \ncaused a magnetic effect across the copper wire. \n- As a result, we can say that electricity and magnetism are intertwined. \n \n\u25cf Magnet in a Magnetic Field: \n- When a magnet is placed in a magnetic field, it aligns itself along the \nfield lines with the North Pole facing the magnetic field's direction of \ntravel. \n- Due to the contents of the earth, a magnetic field exists on its surface, \ncausing it to behave like a m agnet. As a result, a magnetic needle is \nemployed to determine the direction on the earth's surface.", + "- Due to the contents of the earth, a magnetic field exists on its surface, \ncausing it to behave like a m agnet. As a result, a magnetic needle is \nemployed to determine the direction on the earth's surface. \n \n\u25cf Magnetic Field around a Current Carrying Straight Conductor: \n \n \n \nWhen the current in the copper wire is altered, the needle deflection varies", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\ntravel. \n- Due to the contents of the earth, a magnetic field exists on its surface, \ncausing it to behave like a m agnet. As a result, a magnetic needle is \nemployed to determine the direction on the earth's surface. \n \n\u25cf Magnetic Field around a Current Carrying Straight Conductor: \n \n \n \nWhen the current in the copper wire is altered, the needle deflection varies \nas well. In reality, as the current rises, the deflection rises with it. \nIt means that when the current through the wire increases, the magnitude \nof the magnetic field produced at a given spot grows. \n \n\u25cf Magnetic Field around a Current Carrying Circular Conductor: \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 3 \n \n \n \n \nA current -carrying wire's magnetic field at a particular place is directly \nproportional to the current flowing through it. \nThe field produced by a circular coil with n tu rns is n times larger than that \nproduced by a single turn.", + "The field produced by a circular coil with n tu rns is n times larger than that \nproduced by a single turn. \n \n\u25cf Magnetic Field Due To a Solenoid: \nA solenoid is a coil comprising several circular turns of insulated copper \nwire wrapped tightly in the shape of a cylinder. \n \n \n \nA solenoid's magnetic field lines ar e seen in the diagram below. The \nsolenoid's one end acts as a magnetic north pole, while the other acts as a \nmagnetic south pole. \nPole: \nInside the solenoid, the field lines are in the shape of parallel straight lines. \nThis means that the magnetic field ins ide the solenoid is the same at all \nplaces. That means, the field inside the solenoid is uniform. \n \n 4 \n \n \n\u25cf Rules for Determining Direction of Magnetic Field: \n- The direction of the curled fingers points in the direction of the magnetic \nfield if a straight conductor is clutched in the palm of the right hand with \nthe thumb pointing along the path of current flow. \n- For circular conductors, use the right hand thumb ru le.", + "- For circular conductors, use the right hand thumb ru le. \n- The thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field if the circular", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- The direction of the curled fingers points in the direction of the magnetic \nfield if a straight conductor is clutched in the palm of the right hand with \nthe thumb pointing along the path of current flow. \n- For circular conductors, use the right hand thumb ru le. \n- The thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field if the circular \ncurrent's direction matches with the curled fingers' direction. \n \n \n \n\u25cf The cork screw rule of Maxwell: \nIf the current through a conductor is represented by the direction of linear \nmotion of a cork screw, then the magnetic field is represented by the \ndirection of rotation of the cork screw. \n \n \n\u25cf Ampere\u2019s swimming rule: \nIf a guy swims along a current -carrying w ire with his face constantly facing \nthe magnetic needle, current entering his feet and exiting his head, the \nmagnetic needle's North Pole will always be deflected towards his left \nhand. \n \n \n 5 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf Magnetizing a Material: \nThe material can exhibit magnetic properties once it has been magnetised.", + "5 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf Magnetizing a Material: \nThe material can exhibit magnetic properties once it has been magnetised. \n \n\u25cf Permanent Magnets: \nA permanent magnet is one that retains its magnetic properties after it has \nbeen magnetised. This is a property of steel. \n \n\u25cf Electromagnets and Their Applications: \n- When a piece of magnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed inside \nthe coil, a strong magnetic field produced inside the solenoid can be \nused to magnetise it. \n- An electromagnet is a magnet that has been formed in this way. \n- Electric bells, loudspeakers , telephone diaphragms, and electric fans all \nuse electromagnets. \n- Cranes also employ massive electromagnets to transport large loads. \n \n\u25cf Force on Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field: \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 6 \n \n \n \nWhen a current -carrying conductor is put in a magnetic field, it is subjected \nto a force. When the current in the conductor is reversed, the direction of \nforce is reversed as well.", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- Cranes also employ massive electromagnets to transport large loads. \n \n\u25cf Force on Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field: \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 6 \n \n \n \nWhen a current -carrying conductor is put in a magnetic field, it is subjected \nto a force. When the current in the conductor is reversed, the direction of \nforce is reversed as well. \n \n\u25cf Fleming\u2019s Left Hand Rule: \n \n \nWhen the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the left hand are held \nperpendicular to each other, with the forefinger pointing in the direction of \nthe magnetic field and the middle finger pointing in the direction of the \ncurrent, the thumb points in the direction of the force exerted on the \nconduct or, according to Fleming's left hand rule. \n \n\u25cf Electric Motor : \nA device that converts electrical energy into magnetic energy is known as \nan electric motor. \n \n\u25cf DC Motor: \nPrinciple: Torque acts on a rectangular coil carrying electricity when it is \nput in a magnetic field, causing it to revolve continually.", + "\u25cf Electric Motor : \nA device that converts electrical energy into magnetic energy is known as \nan electric motor. \n \n\u25cf DC Motor: \nPrinciple: Torque acts on a rectangular coil carrying electricity when it is \nput in a magnetic field, causing it to revolve continually. \nWhen the coil spins, the shaft connecting to it rotates as well, allowing it \nto perform mechanical tasks. \n \n 7 \n \n \n\u25cf Construction and Workin g: \nParts of a DC Motor \n \n \n\u25cf Armature: \nA rectangular coil of insulated copper wire wound on a soft iron core makes \nup a D.C. motor. The armature is made up of this coil coiled on a soft iron \ncore. The coil is positioned between the cylindrical concave poles of a \nmagnet and is mounted on an axle. \n \n\u25cf Commutator: \nA commutator is a device that reverses the direction of current flow. A \ncommutator is a copper ring that is divided into two sections, C1 and C2. \nThe split rings are installed on the motor's axle and are shielded from one \nanother. These rings are attached to the coil's two ends.", + "A \ncommutator is a copper ring that is divided into two sections, C1 and C2. \nThe split rings are installed on the motor's axle and are shielded from one \nanother. These rings are attached to the coil's two ends. They spin in time \nwith the coil. A battery is linked to the commutator rings. The cables from", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n\u25cf Commutator: \nA commutator is a device that reverses the direction of current flow. A \ncommutator is a copper ring that is divided into two sections, C1 and C2. \nThe split rings are installed on the motor's axle and are shielded from one \nanother. These rings are attached to the coil's two ends. They spin in time \nwith the coil. A battery is linked to the commutator rings. The cables from \nthe batteries are attached to the brushes, which are in touch with the rings, \nrather than the rings themselves. \n \n\u25cf Brushes: \n- Brushes are two thin strips of carbon that press on the two split rings, \nand the split rings revolve between them. \n- A D.C. source is used to power the carbon brushes. \n \n\u25cf The Operation of a DC Motor: \nWhen the coil is turned on, it creates a magnetic field surrounding the \narmature.", + "- A D.C. source is used to power the carbon brushes. \n \n\u25cf The Operation of a DC Motor: \nWhen the coil is turned on, it creates a magnetic field surrounding the \narmature. Rotation is caused by the left side of the armature being pushed \naway from the left magnet and attracted towards the right. \n \n \n \n \n 8 \n \n \n \nThe brushes lose contact with the commutator as the coil turns through\n90\uf0b0\n, and the current stops flowing through the coil. \nThe coil, on the other hand, continues to turn due to its own momentum. \nWhen the coil passes past \n180\uf0b0 , the sides are switched. As a result, \ncommutator ring C1 now contacts brush B2, whereas commutator ring C2 \ncontacts brush B1. As a result, the current keeps flowing in the same \ndirection. \n \n\u25cf The efficiency of the DC Motor Increases by: \n- Increa sing the coil's number of turns. \n- Increasing the current's strength. \n- Increasing the coil's cross -sectional area. \n- Increasing the radial magnetic field's strength.", + "\u25cf The efficiency of the DC Motor Increases by: \n- Increa sing the coil's number of turns. \n- Increasing the current's strength. \n- Increasing the coil's cross -sectional area. \n- Increasing the radial magnetic field's strength. \n \n\u25cf Electromagnetic Induction (EMI): \nElectromagnetic induction is a phenomena in which an emf or current is \ninduced in a conductor as a result of a change in the magnetic field around \nthe conductor. \n \n \nThe English physicist Michael Faraday was the first to demonstrate that a \nmagnet may generat e a current.", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- Increasing the radial magnetic field's strength. \n \n\u25cf Electromagnetic Induction (EMI): \nElectromagnetic induction is a phenomena in which an emf or current is \ninduced in a conductor as a result of a change in the magnetic field around \nthe conductor. \n \n \nThe English physicist Michael Faraday was the first to demonstrate that a \nmagnet may generat e a current. \n \n 9 \n \n \nHe tested this by moving a magnet in front of a coil of wire linked to a \ngalvanometer. \nHe noticed a deflection in the galvanometer, indicating that it had been \ninduced by a current. \nInduced current is the current generated by the relative moti on of the coil \nand the magnet. \nElectromagnetic induction is a phenomena in which an emf or current is \ninduced in a conductor as a result of a change in the magnetic field around \nthe conductor. By moving a bar magnet in and out of a coil of wire, Faraday \ncame to a few conclusions.", + "Electromagnetic induction is a phenomena in which an emf or current is \ninduced in a conductor as a result of a change in the magnetic field around \nthe conductor. By moving a bar magnet in and out of a coil of wire, Faraday \ncame to a few conclusions. \n \n\u25cf Experiment: \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nThe current is induced in the coil due to the relative motion between the \nmagnet and the coil, as indicated by the deflection in the galvanometer. \n \n \n \n 10 \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nWhen the identical pole of the magnet is moved in the other direction, the \ndeflection in the galvanometer is reversed. \n \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nThe galvanometer pointer returns to zero, indicating that the deflection in \nthe galvanometer will remain as long as the magnet and coil are in relative \nmotion. \n \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nWhen the opposite pole is moved in the same direction, the deflection in \nthe galvanometer is reversed.", + "\u25cf Observation: \nWhen the opposite pole is moved in the same direction, the deflection in \nthe galvanometer is reversed. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 11 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nThe number of turns in the coil affects the deflection in the galvanometer; \nthe more turns in the coil, the higher the deflection. Because the magnetic \nfield travels around each loop of wire in the coil, the magnetic field changes", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nthe galvanometer is reversed. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 11 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf Observation: \nThe number of turns in the coil affects the deflection in the galvanometer; \nthe more turns in the coil, the higher the deflection. Because the magnetic \nfield travels around each loop of wire in the coil, the magnetic field changes \nmore as the number of coi ls increases. In and out of the coil, the magnet \nmoves quicker. If the magnet is moved faster, the deflection is greater. That \nis, when the magnet moves quicker, the rate at which the current is induced \nincreases. \n \n\u25cf Mutual Induction: \n- Mutual induction is the phenomenon of producing induced emf in one \ncoil as a result of a current shift in an adjacent coil. To further \ncomprehend this, let us conduct an experiment. \n- As indicated, place two coils P and S near to one other. \n- Connect the primary coil P to a battery and a key, and the secondary \ncoil S to a sensitive galvanometer G.", + "To further \ncomprehend this, let us conduct an experiment. \n- As indicated, place two coils P and S near to one other. \n- Connect the primary coil P to a battery and a key, and the secondary \ncoil S to a sensitive galvanometer G. \n- The galvanometer shows a deflection whenever the key is pressed or \nreleased. By pressing and releasing the key, you can now see the \ndeflection of the galvanometer needle. Because the curren t passing \nthrough the first coil causes a current in the secondary coil, the needle \ndeflects. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 12 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf What Causes Mutual Induction? \n- When you hit the key K, current begins to flow through the coil P, \nincreasing the magnetic flux associated with P. \n- Because S is so close to P, the magnetic flux associated with S increases \nas well. Induced emf and, as a result, induced current are produced in \nS. \n- According to Lenz's law, the arrow marked 1 indicates the direction of \ninduced current in S.", + "Induced emf and, as a result, induced current are produced in \nS. \n- According to Lenz's law, the arrow marked 1 indicates the direction of \ninduced current in S. \n \n \n \n- When the key is released, the magnetic flux associated with the coils \ndrops, causing induced current to flow in the direction indicated by the \n- \n 13", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nas well. Induced emf and, as a result, induced current are produced in \nS. \n- According to Lenz's law, the arrow marked 1 indicates the direction of \ninduced current in S. \n \n \n \n- When the key is released, the magnetic flux associated with the coils \ndrops, causing induced current to flow in the direction indicated by the \n- \n 13 \n \n \narrow marke d 2. The development of induced emf in the secondary coil \nduring the make or break of current in the primary coil is known as \nmutual induction. \n \n\u25cf Rules for Determining the Direction of Induced Current: \n- Fleming's Right Hand Rule can be used to determine the direction of \ninduced current. \n \n \n- Stretch the right hand's forefinger, middle finger, and thumb such that \nthey are all perpendicular to one another.", + "\u25cf Rules for Determining the Direction of Induced Current: \n- Fleming's Right Hand Rule can be used to determine the direction of \ninduced current. \n \n \n- Stretch the right hand's forefinger, middle finger, and thumb such that \nthey are all perpendicular to one another. The direction of the magnetic \nfield is shown by the forefinger, the direction of conductor motion is \nindicate d by the thumb, and the direction of induced current in the \nconductor is indicated by the middle finger. \n- The above -mentioned phenomenon is used to power the electric \ngenerator. \n \n\u25cf The Right Hand Rule of Fleming: \n- Fleming's Right Hand Rule - Stretch the right hand's forefinger, middle \nfinger, and thumb such that they are all perpendicular to one other. \n- The direction of the magnetic field is shown by the forefinger, the \ndirection of conductor motion is indicated by t he thumb, and the \ndirection of induced current in the conductor is indicated by the middle \nfinger. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 14 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf Electric Generator (AC): \n- Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by the electric \ngenerator.", + "14 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf Electric Generator (AC): \n- Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by the electric \ngenerator. \n- DC and AC generators are the two types of generators: \n- A cycle dynamo and a car dynamo are both examples of DC generators. \nThey generate DC. \n \n\u25cf Generators - Generators - Generato rs - Generators - Generators In power", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n 14 \n \n \n \n \n\u25cf Electric Generator (AC): \n- Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by the electric \ngenerator. \n- DC and AC generators are the two types of generators: \n- A cycle dynamo and a car dynamo are both examples of DC generators. \nThey generate DC. \n \n\u25cf Generators - Generators - Generato rs - Generators - Generators In power \nplants and industries, generators or alternators are utilised to generate AC. \n \n\u25cf The Basics of an AC Generator: \nWhen a straight conductor is rapidly moved in a magnetic field, it induces \na current in the conductor. It is based on the electromagnetic induction \nphenomena. \n \n\u25cf Construction: \nThe AC Generator's Main Components: \nA magnet with concave cylindrical poles, an armature, and a current \ncollecting system make up an AC generator. \nSlip rings and brushes make up the present collection system.", + "\u25cf Construction: \nThe AC Generator's Main Components: \nA magnet with concave cylindrical poles, an armature, and a current \ncollecting system make up an AC generator. \nSlip rings and brushes make up the present collection system. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 15 \n \n \n \n \n- Armature is a soft iron core around which a coil of insulated copper wire \nwith a large number of turns is coiled. Magnetic poles are cylindrical \nand concave. A radial magnetic field is create d by the concave poles. \n- The armature's ends are joined by two slip rings. They spin in time with \nthe coil. Metal slip rings that are isolated from one other are used. \n- There are two carbon brushes, B1 and B2. Each brush has one end that \nis connected to an e xternal circuit and the other end that is in touch with \nthe rotating slip rings. Brushes are linked to a galvanometer and do not \nrevolve with the coil in this case. \n- A diesel engine, flowing water, steam, or high -speed wind rotate the \naxle mechanically from the outside.", + "Brushes are linked to a galvanometer and do not \nrevolve with the coil in this case. \n- A diesel engine, flowing water, steam, or high -speed wind rotate the \naxle mechanically from the outside. \n \n\u25cf Working: \n- The armature changes its relative orientation with respect to the \nmagnetic field as it rotates along an axis perpendicular to the field. \n- As a result, the flux is constantly altering over time. \n- An emf is produced by a shift in magnetic flux.", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- A diesel engine, flowing water, steam, or high -speed wind rotate the \naxle mechanically from the outside. \n \n\u25cf Working: \n- The armature changes its relative orientation with respect to the \nmagnetic field as it rotates along an axis perpendicular to the field. \n- As a result, the flux is constantly altering over time. \n- An emf is produced by a shift in magnetic flux. \n- An electric current passes through the armature if the outer terminals \nare linked to an external circuit. \n- The galvanometer needle deflection indicates that an emf has been \ninduced. After every half rotation o f the coil, the direction of the \ninduced emf is reversed. \n- As a result, the current changes direction twice in one coil revolution. \n- Take a look at the diagram below to see how the direction of current \nchanges: \n \n 16 \n \n \n \n- Alternating current is a type of current that alternates its direction at \nregular intervals (AC).", + "- As a result, the current changes direction twice in one coil revolution. \n- Take a look at the diagram below to see how the direction of current \nchanges: \n \n 16 \n \n \n \n- Alternating current is a type of current that alternates its direction at \nregular intervals (AC). \n- A split -ring type commutator must be utilised to create a direct current \n(DC) generator. One brush is always in contact with the arm travelling \nup in the fiel d, while the other brush is always in contact with the arm \ntravelling down. In such a generator, a unidirectional current is \ngenerated. \n- The frequency of the AC current produced in India is 50 hertz (Hz). The \ncoil rotates at a rate of 50 revolutions per sec ond for one second. In one \nsecond, the current changes direction 100 times in 50 rotations. \n \n\u25cf DC Generator: \n- The output generated here is one -way. \n- To do this, the slip rings are replaced with split rings. \n- A split -ring type commutator must be utilised to create a direct current \n(DC) generator.", + "\u25cf DC Generator: \n- The output generated here is one -way. \n- To do this, the slip rings are replaced with split rings. \n- A split -ring type commutator must be utilised to create a direct current \n(DC) generator. One brush is always in contact with the arm travelling \nup in the field, while the other brush is always in co ntact with the arm \ntravelling down. In such a generator, a unidirectional current is \ngenerated. \n- alternating current \n \n\u25cf Direct current:", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\n- A split -ring type commutator must be utilised to create a direct current \n(DC) generator. One brush is always in contact with the arm travelling \nup in the field, while the other brush is always in co ntact with the arm \ntravelling down. In such a generator, a unidirectional current is \ngenerated. \n- alternating current \n \n\u25cf Direct current: \nDC, occurs when the current flows in the same direction. The current \ngenerated by a cell or battery is one -way. As a result, it's a DC source. In \nan electrical circuit, it is represented as: \n \n \n \n \n 17 \n \n \n \nThe voltage V/s time graph for a DC source is represented as fo llows: \n \n \n \nThe +ve and -ve terminals are fixed. \n \n\u25cf Alternating Current: \n- Alternating current is defined as a current that changes direction at \nregular intervals. \n- The majority of power plants produce AC current.", + "\u25cf Alternating Current: \n- Alternating current is defined as a current that changes direction at \nregular intervals. \n- The majority of power plants produce AC current. \n- In an electrical circuit, it is represented as: \n \n \n \nThe voltage V/s time graph for an AC source is represented as follows: \n \n 18 \n \n \n \n \nThe current changes direction every half cycle, hence there are no stable \nterminals. \n\u25cf Domestic Electric Circuits: \nElectric power is typically generated in locations that are remote from \nwhere it is consumed. Electricity is generated at 11,000 volts at the \ngenerating station. This voltage alternates at a 50 Hz frequency. \nTo reduce energy loss during transmission, power is transported over long \ndistances at high voltage. \n\u25cf Domestic Wiring: \nThe live wire, neutral wire, and earth wire are the three wires that br ing \nelectricity into our home. We use a colour code for insulating these wires \nto minimise confusion. The live wire is red, whereas the neutral wire is \nblack. The earth cable is insulated with green plastic. The live wire has a \n220 volt potential, while th e neutral wire has no potential.", + "We use a colour code for insulating these wires \nto minimise confusion. The live wire is red, whereas the neutral wire is \nblack. The earth cable is insulated with green plastic. The live wire has a \n220 volt potential, while th e neutral wire has no potential. As a result, the \npotential difference between the live and neutral wires is 220 volts.", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nelectricity into our home. We use a colour code for insulating these wires \nto minimise confusion. The live wire is red, whereas the neutral wire is \nblack. The earth cable is insulated with green plastic. The live wire has a \n220 volt potential, while th e neutral wire has no potential. As a result, the \npotential difference between the live and neutral wires is 220 volts. \n \n 19 \n \n \n- The earth wire is constructed of copper and is substantially thicker. It's \nconnected to a copper plate buried deep underground on one end. The \nearth is connected to the electric metre, which is subsequently \nconnected to the main switch. \n- Electricity is deli vered to our homes via a main supply, which is either \nsupported by above electric poles or underground wires. \n- The live and neutral wires from the electric pole enter a box with a \nprimary fuse F1 installed directly outside our house. The live wire is \nlinked in series with the fuse.", + "- The live and neutral wires from the electric pole enter a box with a \nprimary fuse F1 installed directly outside our house. The live wire is \nlinked in series with the fuse. This is because the live wire is the sole \none with a high potential of 220 volts, whereas the neutral wire has no \npotential. \n- F1 has a high amperage rating of roughly 50 amperes. As a result, it \nprevents any damage to the entire electrical wiring entering the house, \nsuch as fire, caused by a short -circuit or overload. \n- The two lines then enter the electricity metre, which keeps tr ack of how \nmuch electricity we use in kilowatt -hours (kWh). The electric supply \ndepartment of our city erected this metre. \n- The two wires that emerge from the metre are then connected to a main \nswitch in a distribution box. For customer safety, another fuse F2 is \nconnected in series with the live wire in this box. \n- In a house, there are two different circuits: lighting circuit and power \ncircuit.", + "For customer safety, another fuse F2 is \nconnected in series with the live wire in this box. \n- In a house, there are two different circuits: lighting circuit and power \ncircuit. The lighting circuit, which uses a 5 A fuse, is used to power \nelectric bulbs, fans, radios, TVs, and tube lights, w hile the power circuit,", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\nswitch in a distribution box. For customer safety, another fuse F2 is \nconnected in series with the live wire in this box. \n- In a house, there are two different circuits: lighting circuit and power \ncircuit. The lighting circuit, which uses a 5 A fuse, is used to power \nelectric bulbs, fans, radios, TVs, and tube lights, w hile the power circuit, \nwhich uses a 15 A fuse, is used to power electric heaters, electric irons, \ngeysers, and refrigerators, among other things. \n- The distribution circuits are always linked together in parallel. Even if \na defect or short -circuiting occurs in one line of a parallel circuit, the \ncorresponding fuse blows, keeping the other circuits and appliances \nintact and preventing damage to the entire house. The power -fuse will \nblow if a short -circuit happens in the power circuit, but our lights will \ncontinue to burn because the lighting circuit is untouched. \n- All other electrical equipment can use the main line's steady voltage.", + "The power -fuse will \nblow if a short -circuit happens in the power circuit, but our lights will \ncontinue to burn because the lighting circuit is untouched. \n- All other electrical equipment can use the main line's steady voltage. As \nillustrated in the diagram, in addition to the two wires, a third wire \nknown as the ground wire enters our home. \n- The earth is connected to the electric metre first, and then to the main \nswitch. This cable, together with the live and neutral wires, is then run \ninto the rooms. \n \n \n \n 20 \n \n \n\u25cf Electric Fuse: \n- The term \"electric fuse\" refers to a device that limits the current in an \nelectric circuit. The fuse protects the circuit as well as the electrical \nequipment from damage. \n- The fuse wire is usually made of a lead and tin alloy. It has a low melting \npoint and will break the circuit if the current is too high. The maximum \ncurrent allowed across the circuit determines the thickness and length \nof the fuse wire. \n- In the beginning of the electric circuits, it is connected in series.", + "It has a low melting \npoint and will break the circuit if the current is too high. The maximum \ncurrent allowed across the circuit determines the thickness and length \nof the fuse wire. \n- In the beginning of the electric circuits, it is connected in series. \n- The fuse wire becomes heated and melts when the circuit current \nexceeds a preset value owing to voltage variations or short -circuiting.", + "Magnetic Effects of Electric Current CBSE class 10 Notes CBSE Science Chapter 13 [PDF].txt\npoint and will break the circuit if the current is too high. The maximum \ncurrent allowed across the circuit determines the thickness and length \nof the fuse wire. \n- In the beginning of the electric circuits, it is connected in series. \n- The fuse wire becomes heated and melts when the circuit current \nexceeds a preset value owing to voltage variations or short -circuiting. \nAs a result, the connection is broken as illustrated in the diagram, and \nno current flows. The appliance will not be damaged as a result of this. \n \n\u25cf Causes of Damage to Electric Circuits: \nOverloading \n- When a significant number of high -power electrical appliances (such as \nan electric iron or a water heater) are turned on at the same time, the \ncircuit draws an enormous amount of current. This is known as \noverloading, and it can lead to overheating of the wire and a fire. It can \nalso occur as a result of an unintentional increase in supply voltage.", + "This is known as \noverloading, and it can lead to overheating of the wire and a fire. It can \nalso occur as a result of an unintentional increase in supply voltage. \n \n\u25cf Short -circuiting: \n- When the live and neutral wires of an electric circuit come into direct \ntouch, a short circuit develops. The wires may come into contact with \neach other due to a faulty connection or the insulation wearing away. \nThis condition causes the wires to overheat, resulting in a fire. \n \n\u25cf Earthing of Electrical Appliances: \n- The metal of an electrical equipment is 'earthed' to prevent electric \nshocks. The term \"earthed\" refers to a metal wire (copper) that connects \nthe appliance's metal case to the earth (at zero potential). The earth wire \nhas one end that is buried deep in th e ground and the other end that is \nattached to the three pin socket. \n- The metal casing of the electrical appliance will remain at zero potential \nwhen it is switched on because it is in contact with the earth wire in the \nthree pin socket.", + "- The metal casing of the electrical appliance will remain at zero potential \nwhen it is switched on because it is in contact with the earth wire in the \nthree pin socket. It thereby protects us from receiving an electric shock \neven if we unintentionally conta ct it.", + "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\nIntroductionAll living organisms multiply or reproduce and produce offspring of a similar kind. Reproduction is an essential process for the existence of a species and the continuation of life.Here, in this chapter, we will learn about how different unicellular and multicellular organisms such as bacteria, algae, plants, animals and human beings reproduce. What are the different reproductive structures and modes of reproduction such as cell division, vegetative reproduction, asexual reproduction, and sexual reproduction.ReproductionReproduction is the process by which all organisms multiply in number and increase their population.To know more about Reproduction, visit here.Asexual reproductionAsexual reproduction is a method of reproduction that involves only one organism. A single organism reproduces two or multiple organisms on its own. This is seen in all unicellular organisms, some multicellular organisms and a few plants.To know more about Asexual reproduction, visit here.Sexual reproductionThe mode of reproduction that involves two individuals; one male and one female.", "A single organism reproduces two or multiple organisms on its own. This is seen in all unicellular organisms, some multicellular organisms and a few plants.To know more about Asexual reproduction, visit here.Sexual reproductionThe mode of reproduction that involves two individuals; one male and one female. They produce sex cells or gametes which fuse to form a new organism.To know more about Sexual reproduction, visit here.Asexual ReproductionFission\u2022Fission is an asexual reproduction that is common in most of the unicellular organisms.\u2022When the \ufb01ssion results in two daughter cells, it is binary \ufb01ssion (e.g. paramecium).\u2022When \ufb01ssion results in many daughter cells, it is called multiple \ufb01ssion (e.g. Plasmodium).\u2022Planes of \ufb01ssion may be different for different organisms.\n \n\u00a0To know more about Binary Fission, visit here.Budding\u2022Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is formed on the parent\u2019s body, which gives rise to a new individual.\u2022Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new individual (hydra).", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nTo know more about Binary Fission, visit here.Budding\u2022Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is formed on the parent\u2019s body, which gives rise to a new individual.\u2022Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new individual (hydra).\n \nTo know more about Budding, visit here.Regeneration and fragmentation\u2022Regeneration is the process of growing back the lost organ or body part by the organism (e.g. lizard).\u2022Fragmentation is the process by which an organism gets fragmented into smaller pieces and each piece grows into a whole new organism.\u2022E.g. Planaria, Hydra\n \n\u2022Fragmentation and Regeneration in Hydra To know more about Regeneration and fragmentation, visit here.Spore formationOrganisms such as fungi make spores that can grow into complete new individuals when dispersed from their fruiting body. Spores are produced inside sporangia. They are covered by a thick outer layer that protects them in adverse conditions. When spores get suitable environmental conditions they germinate and begin to grow.", + "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\nTo know more about Binary Fission, visit here.Budding\u2022Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is formed on the parent\u2019s body, which gives rise to a new individual.\u2022Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new individual (hydra).\n \nTo know more about Budding, visit here.Regeneration and fragmentation\u2022Regeneration is the process of growing back the lost organ or body part by the organism (e.g. lizard).\u2022Fragmentation is the process by which an organism gets fragmented into smaller pieces and each piece grows into a whole new organism.\u2022E.g. Planaria, Hydra\n \n\u2022Fragmentation and Regeneration in Hydra To know more about Regeneration and fragmentation, visit here.Spore formationOrganisms such as fungi make spores that can grow into complete new individuals when dispersed from their fruiting body. Spores are produced inside sporangia. They are covered by a thick outer layer that protects them in adverse conditions. When spores get suitable environmental conditions they germinate and begin to grow.", "Spores are produced inside sporangia. They are covered by a thick outer layer that protects them in adverse conditions. When spores get suitable environmental conditions they germinate and begin to grow.\n \nRead more: Spore FormationVegetative propagation\n \n\u2022This is a\u00a0type of asexual reproduction seen in plants.\u2022The vegetative part of the plant,\u00a0like leaves, stem, roots, gives rise to a new plant.\u2022Vegetative propagation can be arti\ufb01cial or natural.\u2022Natural vegetative propagation happens through leaves (e.g. bryophyllum), stem (e.g. turmeric, ginger), runners/stolon (e.g.grass runners, strawberry), bulbs ( e.g.", "bryophyllum), stem (e.g. turmeric, ginger), runners/stolon (e.g.grass runners, strawberry), bulbs ( e.g. onion, lily), etc.\u2022Arti\ufb01cial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue culture.To know more about Vegetative propagation, visit here.Sexual ReproductionTypes of Cell division\n \nTwo types of cell division are seen in eukaryotic organisms:Mitosis\u2022Takes\u00a0place\u00a0in\u00a0somatic\u00a0cells\u2022Maintains\u00a0the\u00a0chromosome\u00a0number\u2022Produces\u00a0two,\u00a0diploid\u00a0daughter\u00a0cells\u2022Required\u00a0for\u00a0asexual\u00a0reproduction,\u00a0development\u00a0and\u00a0growth,\u00a0cell\u00a0replacement\u00a0and\u00a0 regenerationMeiosis", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nTwo types of cell division are seen in eukaryotic organisms:Mitosis\u2022Takes\u00a0place\u00a0in\u00a0somatic\u00a0cells\u2022Maintains\u00a0the\u00a0chromosome\u00a0number\u2022Produces\u00a0two,\u00a0diploid\u00a0daughter\u00a0cells\u2022Required\u00a0for\u00a0asexual\u00a0reproduction,\u00a0development\u00a0and\u00a0growth,\u00a0cell\u00a0replacement\u00a0and\u00a0 regenerationMeiosis\n \n\u2022Takes\u00a0place\u00a0in\u00a0sex\u00a0cells\u2022Reduces\u00a0the\u00a0number\u00a0of\u00a0chromosomes\u00a0by\u00a0half\u2022Produces\u00a0four\u00a0haploid\u00a0daughter\u00a0cells\u2022Required\u00a0for\u00a0sexual\u00a0reproduction, i.e\u00a0gamete formationTo know more about Cell division, visit here.The Reproductive SystemIn humans, there is a remarkable difference in the male and female reproductive systems. Testes are the main reproductive structure in males where sperms (male gametes) are produced and ovum (female gamete) is produced inside the ovary.", + "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\nTwo types of cell division are seen in eukaryotic organisms:Mitosis\u2022Takes\u00a0place\u00a0in\u00a0somatic\u00a0cells\u2022Maintains\u00a0the\u00a0chromosome\u00a0number\u2022Produces\u00a0two,\u00a0diploid\u00a0daughter\u00a0cells\u2022Required\u00a0for\u00a0asexual\u00a0reproduction,\u00a0development\u00a0and\u00a0growth,\u00a0cell\u00a0replacement\u00a0and\u00a0 regenerationMeiosis\n \n\u2022Takes\u00a0place\u00a0in\u00a0sex\u00a0cells\u2022Reduces\u00a0the\u00a0number\u00a0of\u00a0chromosomes\u00a0by\u00a0half\u2022Produces\u00a0four\u00a0haploid\u00a0daughter\u00a0cells\u2022Required\u00a0for\u00a0sexual\u00a0reproduction, i.e\u00a0gamete formationTo know more about Cell division, visit here.The Reproductive SystemIn humans, there is a remarkable difference in the male and female reproductive systems. Testes are the main reproductive structure in males where sperms (male gametes) are produced and ovum (female gamete) is produced inside the ovary.", "Testes are the main reproductive structure in males where sperms (male gametes) are produced and ovum (female gamete) is produced inside the ovary. Let us now learn in detail about male and female reproductive systems in humans.To know more about Human Reproductive System, visit here.Male reproductive system\u2022The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.\u2022They produce the male sex cells called sperms and also produce the male sex hormone testosterone.", "Let us now learn in detail about male and female reproductive systems in humans.To know more about Human Reproductive System, visit here.Male reproductive system\u2022The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.\u2022They produce the male sex cells called sperms and also produce the male sex hormone testosterone.\u00a0\n \nMale main reproductive organs\u2022The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.\u2022They are present in scrotal sacs outside the body and contain seminiferous tubules as the structural and functional unit.\u2022Male sex cells, sperms, are produced by seminiferous tubules and mature in the epididymis.\u2022Leydig cells or interstitial cells present in between the seminiferous tubules secrete hormone testosterone.Male accessory reproductive organs\u2022Several accessory reproductive organs aid in the reproductive process.\u2022The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles are glands of the reproductive system which make semen and nourish the sperm.\u2022Penis, having urethra passing through it, is called copulatory organ.Male Ducts\u2022In males, the vas deferens and the urethra are the main ducts.\u2022A single vas deferens carries sperms from respective testis up to the urethra.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\n\u2022The urethra acts as a common passage for semen and urine.To know more about Male Reproductive System, visit here.Female reproductive systemThe human female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tubes/oviducts and the accessory organs such as the uterus and the vagina.\u00a0\nFemale main reproductive organ\n \n\u2022The main reproductive organ in a\u00a0female is a\u00a0pair of ovaries.\u2022They produce the female sex cells called eggs or ova and also produce female sex hormones called estrogen and progesterone.Female accessory reproductive organ\u2022Uterus, oviducts, and vagina are the accessory reproductive organs in human females.\u2022The uterus is the site of fetal development and the vagina receives sperm from the male.", + "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\n\u2022The urethra acts as a common passage for semen and urine.To know more about Male Reproductive System, visit here.Female reproductive systemThe human female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tubes/oviducts and the accessory organs such as the uterus and the vagina.\u00a0\nFemale main reproductive organ\n \n\u2022The main reproductive organ in a\u00a0female is a\u00a0pair of ovaries.\u2022They produce the female sex cells called eggs or ova and also produce female sex hormones called estrogen and progesterone.Female accessory reproductive organ\u2022Uterus, oviducts, and vagina are the accessory reproductive organs in human females.\u2022The uterus is the site of fetal development and the vagina receives sperm from the male.", "Ovum is carried from ovaries to the uterus through a pair of oviducts.To know more about the Female reproductive system, visit here.Menstrual CycleMenstruation\u2022Menstruation is the cyclic event of the release of the ovum from the ovary and its removal from the body when fertilization does not happen.\u2022During menstruation, the blood-rich endometrium of the uterus also breaks down while the ovum is removed from the body.\u2022Two pituitary hormones, LH and FSH, and two ovarian hormones, estrogen and progesterone, all have their roles in menstruation.\u2022In humans, the cycle repeats every 28 days.To know more about Menstrual Cycle, visit here.FertilizationHuman reproductionHumans reproduce sexually. The male produces sperms and the female produces eggs. When the sperm fuses with the egg, it forms a zygote that gives rise to a new progeny.To know more about Fertilization, visit here.Contraceptive Methods\n \nReproductive healthReproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted pregnancy.", "When the sperm fuses with the egg, it forms a zygote that gives rise to a new progeny.To know more about Fertilization, visit here.Contraceptive Methods\n \nReproductive healthReproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted pregnancy. Understanding the reproductive system is also a part of reproductive health awareness.Contraceptives\u2022Contraceptives are devices that prevent unwanted pregnancy and help avoid STDs.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nReproductive healthReproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted pregnancy. Understanding the reproductive system is also a part of reproductive health awareness.Contraceptives\u2022Contraceptives are devices that prevent unwanted pregnancy and help avoid STDs.\n \n\u2022Contraceptives can be of various types such as mechanical barriers, hormonal/chemical methods, surgical methods, etc.Coitus Interruptus\u2022It is a very unreliable contraceptive method where the coitus is stopped before the male ejaculates inside the female reproductive tracts.Rhythm Method\u2022Another unreliable method of contraception is where coitus is avoided when the female is fertile and the chances of fertilization are very high.Condoms\u2022One of the most effective methods of contraception.\u2022A mechanical barrier that stops the semen from entering the female tract preventing pregnancy.\u2022It also avoids the possibility of contracting STDs.Diaphragms\u2022Diaphragms are barriers that can be added inside the female reproductive tracts.\u2022They stop the entry of semen inside the female tract and thus prevent pregnancy.Contraceptive Pills\u2022Contraceptive pills are chemical methods of contraception.", + "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\nReproductive healthReproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted pregnancy. Understanding the reproductive system is also a part of reproductive health awareness.Contraceptives\u2022Contraceptives are devices that prevent unwanted pregnancy and help avoid STDs.\n \n\u2022Contraceptives can be of various types such as mechanical barriers, hormonal/chemical methods, surgical methods, etc.Coitus Interruptus\u2022It is a very unreliable contraceptive method where the coitus is stopped before the male ejaculates inside the female reproductive tracts.Rhythm Method\u2022Another unreliable method of contraception is where coitus is avoided when the female is fertile and the chances of fertilization are very high.Condoms\u2022One of the most effective methods of contraception.\u2022A mechanical barrier that stops the semen from entering the female tract preventing pregnancy.\u2022It also avoids the possibility of contracting STDs.Diaphragms\u2022Diaphragms are barriers that can be added inside the female reproductive tracts.\u2022They stop the entry of semen inside the female tract and thus prevent pregnancy.Contraceptive Pills\u2022Contraceptive pills are chemical methods of contraception.", "\u2022It also avoids the possibility of contracting STDs.Diaphragms\u2022Diaphragms are barriers that can be added inside the female reproductive tracts.\u2022They stop the entry of semen inside the female tract and thus prevent pregnancy.Contraceptive Pills\u2022Contraceptive pills are chemical methods of contraception.\u2022They change the level of hormones in the body that prevents the release of the ovum from the ovaries.Emergency Pill\u2022Emergency pills are those pills which can be taken after coitus to avoid pregnancy.\u2022They quickly change the level of hormones in the body and prevent a successful implantation even if the egg gets fertilized.IUD\u2022IUD stands for Intrauterine Device.\u2022They can be used for a couple of years.\u2022It is a device that is inserted into the uterus, changing its shape and preventing successful implantation of the zygote.Sterilization\u2022Sterilization is a surgical method of going permanently sterile.\u2022This can be done in both males and females.\u2022In males, it is called vasectomy and in females, it is called tubal ligation.To know more about Contraceptive Methods, visit here.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nReproduction in PlantsPlants reproduce by both, asexual and sexual methods. Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in plants. Let\u2019s learn now about sexual reproduction in plants.To know more about Reproduction in Plants, visit here.Sexual reproduction in \ufb02owering plants\u2022Sexual reproduction in plants happens through \ufb02owers.\u2022Essential whorls of the \ufb02owers such as androecium and gynoecium help in the sexual reproduction of plants.Read more:\u00a0 Sexual Reproduction in PlantsNon-essential parts of \ufb02owers\u2022The typical structure of \ufb02owers contains essential whorls and non-essential whorls.\u2022Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not directly take part in reproduction.\u2022Sepals\u00a0protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis if they are green in colour.\u2022Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.", + "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\nReproduction in PlantsPlants reproduce by both, asexual and sexual methods. Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in plants. Let\u2019s learn now about sexual reproduction in plants.To know more about Reproduction in Plants, visit here.Sexual reproduction in \ufb02owering plants\u2022Sexual reproduction in plants happens through \ufb02owers.\u2022Essential whorls of the \ufb02owers such as androecium and gynoecium help in the sexual reproduction of plants.Read more:\u00a0 Sexual Reproduction in PlantsNon-essential parts of \ufb02owers\u2022The typical structure of \ufb02owers contains essential whorls and non-essential whorls.\u2022Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not directly take part in reproduction.\u2022Sepals\u00a0protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis if they are green in colour.\u2022Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.", "\u2022Sepals\u00a0protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis if they are green in colour.\u2022Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.Essential whorls of \ufb02owers\u2022Androecium and gynoecium are called as essential/reproductive whorls of a \ufb02ower.\u2022Androecium produces pollen grains containing male gametes and gynoecium produces ovules which are female gametes.\u2022Bisexual \ufb02owers contain both the whorls while unisexual \ufb02owers contain either of them.\u2022Each individual member of androecium is called a\u00a0stamen and consists of anther\u00a0and \ufb01lament.\u2022Anther produces haploid pollen grains.\n \n\u2022Each individual member of gynoecium is called\u00a0pistil and consists of stigma, style and ovary.", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\n\u2022Each individual member of gynoecium is called\u00a0pistil and consists of stigma, style and ovary. \nPollinationThe process of transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma of a \ufb02ower is known as pollination.\u2022It is required for fertilization.\u2022Pollination has two types, self-pollination\u00a0(autogamy) and cross-pollination (allogamy).\u2022In self-pollination, the transfer of pollen grains takes place from anthers to the stigma of the same \ufb02ower or another \ufb02ower of the same plant.\u2022In cross-pollination, pollens are transferred from anthers to the stigma of another \ufb02ower.\u2022Many pollinating agents play their roles in cross-pollination. Examples: water, wind, insects, birds, bats, etc.Know more: PollinationFertilizationFusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.\u2022In \ufb02owering plants after pollination, the pollens germinate on the stigma surface of pistil and generate two male nuclei.", + "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\n\u2022Each individual member of gynoecium is called\u00a0pistil and consists of stigma, style and ovary. \nPollinationThe process of transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma of a \ufb02ower is known as pollination.\u2022It is required for fertilization.\u2022Pollination has two types, self-pollination\u00a0(autogamy) and cross-pollination (allogamy).\u2022In self-pollination, the transfer of pollen grains takes place from anthers to the stigma of the same \ufb02ower or another \ufb02ower of the same plant.\u2022In cross-pollination, pollens are transferred from anthers to the stigma of another \ufb02ower.\u2022Many pollinating agents play their roles in cross-pollination. Examples: water, wind, insects, birds, bats, etc.Know more: PollinationFertilizationFusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.\u2022In \ufb02owering plants after pollination, the pollens germinate on the stigma surface of pistil and generate two male nuclei.", "\u2022Ovule has egg cell and two polar nuclei.\u2022One male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei and forms triploid endosperm.\u2022Another male nucleus fuses with the egg cell and forms the zygote that gives rise to the embryo and future plant.\u2022After fertilization, ovary becomes fruit and ovules turn into seeds. All other parts wither away.\nKnow more: Fertilisation in PlantsAlso Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination Notes\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 9 Heredity And Evolution Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 8: How do Organisms Reproduce?\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 8 - How Do Organisms Reproduce\u2022Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 8: How do Organisms ReproduceWhat is difference between \ufb01ssion and fusion?", - "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nFission is the process where an atom splits into two or more smaller parts. Whereas fusion involves the fusing of two or smaller atoms into a larger particular.What is fragmentation?Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where the parent organism breaks into fragments. Each of these fragments are capable of growing independently into a new organism.What is a gamete cell?Gamete cell are the reproductive cells of an organism. Female gametes are referred to a ova or egg cells and male gametes are known as sperms.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nIntroductionHeredity refers to the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next.\u00a0Evolution is de\ufb01ned as the gradual process by which a simple life form leads to the development of complex organisms over a period of time, spanning several generations.Here in this chapter, we will learn about the mechanism by which variations are created, the rules of heredity determining their pattern of inheritance, and how the accumulation of these variations leads to evolution.HeredityThe transfer of traits from one generation to the next is termed heredity. Genes are the functional units of heredity, that transfer characteristics from parents to offspring. Genes are short stretches of DNA that code for a speci\ufb01c protein or RNA.", + "How-do-Organisms-Reproduce-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 8.txt\nFission is the process where an atom splits into two or more smaller parts. Whereas fusion involves the fusing of two or smaller atoms into a larger particular.What is fragmentation?Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where the parent organism breaks into fragments. Each of these fragments are capable of growing independently into a new organism.What is a gamete cell?Gamete cell are the reproductive cells of an organism. Female gametes are referred to a ova or egg cells and male gametes are known as sperms.", + "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\nIntroductionHeredity refers to the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next.\u00a0Evolution is de\ufb01ned as the gradual process by which a simple life form leads to the development of complex organisms over a period of time, spanning several generations.Here in this chapter, we will learn about the mechanism by which variations are created, the rules of heredity determining their pattern of inheritance, and how the accumulation of these variations leads to evolution.HeredityThe transfer of traits from one generation to the next is termed heredity. Genes are the functional units of heredity, that transfer characteristics from parents to offspring. Genes are short stretches of DNA that code for a speci\ufb01c protein or RNA.", "Genes are the functional units of heredity, that transfer characteristics from parents to offspring. Genes are short stretches of DNA that code for a speci\ufb01c protein or RNA. Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with the study of genes, heredity and variations.Sexual reproduction\u2022The mode of reproduction involves two individuals; one male and one female.\u2022They produce sex cells or gametes which fuse to form a new organism.Genes\u2022Gene is the functional unit of heredity.\u2022Every gene controls one or several particular characteristic features in living organisms.Read more: GenesHeredityThe process by which the features of an organism are passed on from one generation to another is called heredity.\u2022The process is done by genes, which de\ufb01ne the characters in the organism.To know more about Heredity, visit here.Mendel's work\u2022Gregor Johann Mendel, known as 'Father of Genetics', was an Austrian Monk who worked on pea plants to understand the concept of heredity.\u2022His work laid the foundation of modern genetics.\n \n\u2022He made three basic laws of inheritance - The Law of Dominance, The Law of Segregation and The Law of Independent Assortment.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\n\u2022He made three basic laws of inheritance - The Law of Dominance, The Law of Segregation and The Law of Independent Assortment.\nDominant traitsThe traits that express themselves in an organism in every possible combination and can be seen are called Dominant traits.\u2022In Mendel\u2019s experiment, we see that the tall trait in pea plants tends to express more than the short trait.\u2022Therefore, the tall trait of the plant is said to be dominant over the short trait.Recessive traitsA trait which is not expressed in the presence of a dominant allele is known as recessive.\u2022So, recessive character/trait is present in an organism but cannot be seen if a dominant allele exists.To know the difference between Dominant traits and Recessive traits, visit here.Monohybrid cross\u2022When only one character is considered while crossing two organisms, then such a cross is known as a monohybrid cross.", + "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\n\u2022He made three basic laws of inheritance - The Law of Dominance, The Law of Segregation and The Law of Independent Assortment.\nDominant traitsThe traits that express themselves in an organism in every possible combination and can be seen are called Dominant traits.\u2022In Mendel\u2019s experiment, we see that the tall trait in pea plants tends to express more than the short trait.\u2022Therefore, the tall trait of the plant is said to be dominant over the short trait.Recessive traitsA trait which is not expressed in the presence of a dominant allele is known as recessive.\u2022So, recessive character/trait is present in an organism but cannot be seen if a dominant allele exists.To know the difference between Dominant traits and Recessive traits, visit here.Monohybrid cross\u2022When only one character is considered while crossing two organisms, then such a cross is known as a monohybrid cross.", "\u2022The ratio of characters, arising out of this cross, at F2 generation is called the monohybrid ratio.\u2022E.g., If a tall plant (TT) is crossed with a dwarf plant (tt), we get 3 tall:1 short plant at the end of the F2 generation.\u2022So, 3:1 is a monohybrid ratio.\u2022Here, the height of the plant is considered at a time.Below is the example of a monohybrid cross between a true-breeding pea plant with green pods (GG) and yellow pods (gg). Here, the green colour of the pod is the dominant trait. Hence, in the F1 generation, all plants contain green pea pods.", "Here, the green colour of the pod is the dominant trait. Hence, in the F1 generation, all plants contain green pea pods.\nTo know more about Monohybrid cross, visit here.Dihybrid cross\u2022When two characters are considered while crossing two organisms, then such a cross is known as a dihybrid cross.\u2022The ratio of characters, arising out of this cross, at F2 generation is called the dihybrid ratio.\u2022E.g.,\u00a0If a plant with round and green pea is crossed with a plant with wrinkled and yellow pea,\u2022The \ufb01rst generation plants would\u00a0all have round and green peas.\u2022On crossing the same for an F2 generation, we would observe four combinations of characters in the ratio of 9:3:3:1.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\n\u2022Thus, 9:3:3:1 is the dihybrid ratio.\nTo know more about Dihybrid cross, visit here.InheritanceIn Biology, inheritance pertains to the transfer of traits from one generation to another.To know more about Mendel's laws of inheritance, visit here.Laws of Mendel\n \nLaw of Dominance says that a gene has two contrasting alleles and one always expresses itself in the organism.It is called the dominant gene and it expresses in any possible combination.Law of Segregation says that traits get segregated completely during the formation of gametes without any mixing of alleles.Law of Independent Assortment says that the traits can segregate independently of different characters during gamete formation.Sex determination\u2022The process of determining the sex of an individual, based on the composition of the genetic material is called sex determination.\u2022In different animals, sex of an embryo is determined by different factors.\u2022In humans, sex determination happens on the basis of the presence or absence of Y chromosome.\u2022XX is female and XY is male\u2022An ovum always contains X chromosome.\u2022An ovum, upon fusion with Y containing sperm,", + "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\n\u2022Thus, 9:3:3:1 is the dihybrid ratio.\nTo know more about Dihybrid cross, visit here.InheritanceIn Biology, inheritance pertains to the transfer of traits from one generation to another.To know more about Mendel's laws of inheritance, visit here.Laws of Mendel\n \nLaw of Dominance says that a gene has two contrasting alleles and one always expresses itself in the organism.It is called the dominant gene and it expresses in any possible combination.Law of Segregation says that traits get segregated completely during the formation of gametes without any mixing of alleles.Law of Independent Assortment says that the traits can segregate independently of different characters during gamete formation.Sex determination\u2022The process of determining the sex of an individual, based on the composition of the genetic material is called sex determination.\u2022In different animals, sex of an embryo is determined by different factors.\u2022In humans, sex determination happens on the basis of the presence or absence of Y chromosome.\u2022XX is female and XY is male\u2022An ovum always contains X chromosome.\u2022An ovum, upon fusion with Y containing sperm,", "\u2022In different animals, sex of an embryo is determined by different factors.\u2022In humans, sex determination happens on the basis of the presence or absence of Y chromosome.\u2022XX is female and XY is male\u2022An ovum always contains X chromosome.\u2022An ovum, upon fusion with Y containing sperm,\u00a0gives rise to a male child and upon fusion with X containing sperm gives rise to a girl child.To know more about Sex determination, visit here.TraitsTraits are characteristic features of an organism, manifested in a physical form that is visible or in a physiological aspect of the organism.Acquired characters\u2022The traits that are acquired by an organism over the period of its lifetime are termed acquired characteristics.\u2022These characters that are not passed on to the DNA of germ cells do not get transferred to the next generation. E.g. loss of muscles and less weight due to starvation, loss of limb or tails due to injury, etc.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nInherited characters\u2022The traits that are inherited from the parents are called inherited characters.\u2022These traits always get transferred to the next generation but depending on the dominance or recessiveness they may or may not be expressed.\u2022Examples are height, skin colour and eye colour.To know more about Acquired and Inherited Traits, visit here.VariationVariation is the measure of the difference between individuals of the same species. Offspring is not identical to parents, there exist some variations. Each individual in a population differs from the others. Recombination and mutation are the main causes of variations.Sexually reproducing organisms show great variation among individuals of a species and the long-term accumulation of variations plays a signi\ufb01cant role in evolution. The selection of variants by environmental factors is one of the driving factors of evolutionary processes.Genetic variationsThe differences in the DNA sequences among every organism leading to the diverse gene pool are called genetic variations.", + "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\nInherited characters\u2022The traits that are inherited from the parents are called inherited characters.\u2022These traits always get transferred to the next generation but depending on the dominance or recessiveness they may or may not be expressed.\u2022Examples are height, skin colour and eye colour.To know more about Acquired and Inherited Traits, visit here.VariationVariation is the measure of the difference between individuals of the same species. Offspring is not identical to parents, there exist some variations. Each individual in a population differs from the others. Recombination and mutation are the main causes of variations.Sexually reproducing organisms show great variation among individuals of a species and the long-term accumulation of variations plays a signi\ufb01cant role in evolution. The selection of variants by environmental factors is one of the driving factors of evolutionary processes.Genetic variationsThe differences in the DNA sequences among every organism leading to the diverse gene pool are called genetic variations.", "The selection of variants by environmental factors is one of the driving factors of evolutionary processes.Genetic variationsThe differences in the DNA sequences among every organism leading to the diverse gene pool are called genetic variations. These differences lead to different/varied physical characters or biochemical pathways.To know more about Genetics, visit here.Natural selection\u2022It is the phenomenon by which a favourable trait in a population of a species is selected.\u2022Changing natural conditions exert equal pressure on all the existing species.\u2022The species/organisms which are better adapted to the changing conditions survive and reproduce i.e. selected by nature and species/organisms which cannot adapt perish i.e. rejected by nature.SpeciationGenetic driftNatural selection can play an important role in deciding the traits that survive in a population. However, random \ufb02uctuations in gene variants are seen on many occasions. This phenomenon is known as genetic drift. Thus, genetic drift is a change in the frequency of an existing allele in a small population.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nGenetic drift may cause a gene variant to disappear from the population and thus reduce genetic variation.SpeciationIt is the process of formation of a new species from existing ones due to several evolutionary forces like genetic drift, isolation of populations, natural selection, etc.\u00a0 Speciation leads to diversity in the ecosystem and the diversity and diversity lead to evolution.To know more about Speciation and evolution, visit here.Gene \ufb02owGene \ufb02ow is the transfer of genes from one population to the next. This occurs due to migration or the introduction of organisms to a new population.", + "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\nGenetic drift may cause a gene variant to disappear from the population and thus reduce genetic variation.SpeciationIt is the process of formation of a new species from existing ones due to several evolutionary forces like genetic drift, isolation of populations, natural selection, etc.\u00a0 Speciation leads to diversity in the ecosystem and the diversity and diversity lead to evolution.To know more about Speciation and evolution, visit here.Gene \ufb02owGene \ufb02ow is the transfer of genes from one population to the next. This occurs due to migration or the introduction of organisms to a new population.", "This occurs due to migration or the introduction of organisms to a new population. This results in the change in gene frequencies of a population.PopulationA population is a community or a group of animals, plants or any living organism that can reproduce with each other and have fertile, viable offspring.Charles Darwin\u2022Charles Darwin also called the\u00a0\"Father of Evolution\" was an English Naturalist and Biologist.\u2022Five years of the expedition in a ship called HMS Beagle to Galapagos Island helped him write his theory of evolution.\u2022In 1859 he published a book called Origin of Species, in which he put his theory of evolution in detail.To know more about Charles Darwin's Contribution to the Theory of Evolution, visit here.Evolution and FossilsEvolutionEvolution is a tangible change in the heritable characteristics of a population over several generations. These changes can give rise to a new species or the species might change themselves to become better adapted to the surrounding environment.Read more: Evolution", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nOrigin of species\u2022After a successful expedition on HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin wrote a book on what he observed on the Galapagos Islands.\u2022In the book named 'The Origin of Species, he wrote a detailed theory of evolution which was mostly based on Natural Selection.Origin of life - Haldane's theory\u2022JBS Haldane was a British Scientist who theorized that life originated from organic and lifeless matter.\u2022His theory was proved to be correct by Urey and Miller\u2019s experiment.\u2022It was called the theory of abiogenesis.Evolutionary evidence - fossils\u2022There are plenty of pieces of evidence to support the theory of evolution.\u2022Fossils happen to be the biggest of them.\u2022Fossils are the preserved remains of ancient animals or plants that died millions of years ago.\u2022The fossils help us understand the anatomy and even physiology of these organisms and understand how evolution worked and led to the formation of organisms that we see today.Formation of FossilsFossils are important pieces of evolutionary evidence and are formed by the following steps:\u2022Organisms die and they get buried in mud and silt.", + "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\nOrigin of species\u2022After a successful expedition on HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin wrote a book on what he observed on the Galapagos Islands.\u2022In the book named 'The Origin of Species, he wrote a detailed theory of evolution which was mostly based on Natural Selection.Origin of life - Haldane's theory\u2022JBS Haldane was a British Scientist who theorized that life originated from organic and lifeless matter.\u2022His theory was proved to be correct by Urey and Miller\u2019s experiment.\u2022It was called the theory of abiogenesis.Evolutionary evidence - fossils\u2022There are plenty of pieces of evidence to support the theory of evolution.\u2022Fossils happen to be the biggest of them.\u2022Fossils are the preserved remains of ancient animals or plants that died millions of years ago.\u2022The fossils help us understand the anatomy and even physiology of these organisms and understand how evolution worked and led to the formation of organisms that we see today.Formation of FossilsFossils are important pieces of evolutionary evidence and are formed by the following steps:\u2022Organisms die and they get buried in mud and silt.", "Formation of FossilsFossils are important pieces of evolutionary evidence and are formed by the following steps:\u2022Organisms die and they get buried in mud and silt.\u2022The soft tissues of the body get quickly leaving behind the hard bones or shells\u2022Over time sediments build over it and harden into rock\u2022As the bones decay, mineral seep in to replace the contents cell by cell, process called as petri\ufb01cation\u2022If bones decay completely, it leaves behind the cast of the animal.To know more about Fossils, visit here.Evolutionary relationshipsEvolutionary relationships of animals can be deduced by studying the homologous organs and analogous organs.Homologous organs are those which have a similar\u00a0structure but different function.\u2022Wings of birds and forelimbs of mammals: they have similar structure but are modi\ufb01ed to suit different functions\u2022A tendril of pea plant and spine of barberry plant: both are modi\ufb01ed leaves, but perform different\u00a0functions.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nAnalogous organs are those which have a similar function but a different structure and origin too.\u2022Wings of bats, birds and wings of insects: both are used for \ufb02ying, but structurally are very different\u2022Leaves of opuntia and peepal: both perform photosynthesis, but leaves of Opuntia are modi\ufb01ed stem whereas peepal leaves are normal leaves.\nTo know more about Fossils Evolutionary Relationships, visit here.Evolution by stage\u2022Evolution is a slow process and does not happen overnight.\u2022There are several stages in the evolution of almost every animal that we see today.\u2022Complexities do not evolve suddenly, but evolve bit by bit and may have limited use at certain stages.\u2022This gradual evolutionary process is called evolution by stages.To know more about Evolution by Stages, visit here.Arti\ufb01cial selection\u2022Sometimes a single species can evolve into several different species due to arti\ufb01cial selection.\n \n\u2022E.g. the cabbage family.", + "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\nAnalogous organs are those which have a similar function but a different structure and origin too.\u2022Wings of bats, birds and wings of insects: both are used for \ufb02ying, but structurally are very different\u2022Leaves of opuntia and peepal: both perform photosynthesis, but leaves of Opuntia are modi\ufb01ed stem whereas peepal leaves are normal leaves.\nTo know more about Fossils Evolutionary Relationships, visit here.Evolution by stage\u2022Evolution is a slow process and does not happen overnight.\u2022There are several stages in the evolution of almost every animal that we see today.\u2022Complexities do not evolve suddenly, but evolve bit by bit and may have limited use at certain stages.\u2022This gradual evolutionary process is called evolution by stages.To know more about Evolution by Stages, visit here.Arti\ufb01cial selection\u2022Sometimes a single species can evolve into several different species due to arti\ufb01cial selection.\n \n\u2022E.g. the cabbage family.", "\u2022E.g. the cabbage family. A single ancestor in the cabbage family gave rise to several different species due to the selection of different traits.Molecular phylogeny\u2022The evolutionary relationship among different biological species is called phylogeny.\u2022It gives rise to an evolutionary tree.\u2022In molecular phylogeny these relationships are studied at the hereditary molecular level, mainly using DNA sequences.\u2022It involves the analysis of DNA composition and gene comparison between different species.Human Evolution\u2022Humans are known to belong to the primate family.\u2022Humans today have a very close genetic connection to chimps and other primates.\u2022While the complete evolutionary process of Humans from Primates is still a mystery, a larger picture of human evolution has been formed.\u2022Some of the ancestors of Humans include Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus, Australopithecus, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, Cro-magnon man, and \ufb01nally us, the Homo sapiens.\u2022Human evolution traces back to Africa. Then they migrated all over the world.", - "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes.txt\nMigration of Early HumansTo know more about Human Evolution, visit here.Also Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 8 How Do Organisms Reproduce Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 9 Heredity and Evolution\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 9 - Heredity And EvolutionFrequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 9: Heredity and EvolutionWhat is evolution?\n \nThe development of plants, animals, etc over many thousand years from simple forms to complex advanced forms.What does the Law of Segregation state?The law of segregation states that each individual that is a diploid has a pair of alleles (copies) for a particular trait.What is meant by natural selection?The process through which organisms adapt and change themselves in huge populations is known as natural selection.", + "Heredity-and-Evolution-CBSE class-10-Notes Chapter 9.txt\nMigration of Early HumansTo know more about Human Evolution, visit here.Also Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 8 How Do Organisms Reproduce Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 9 Heredity and Evolution\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 9 - Heredity And EvolutionFrequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 9: Heredity and EvolutionWhat is evolution?\n \nThe development of plants, animals, etc over many thousand years from simple forms to complex advanced forms.What does the Law of Segregation state?The law of segregation states that each individual that is a diploid has a pair of alleles (copies) for a particular trait.What is meant by natural selection?The process through which organisms adapt and change themselves in huge populations is known as natural selection.", + "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nIntroductionThe human body is a complex machine performing tons of functions and processes to maintain and sustain life. Explore how the body controls its movements and coordinates its actions with other parts of the body and the environment by exploring notes for Class 10 Chapter 7 Control and Coordination.The Nervous SystemMovement in organismsThe ability of organisms to move certain body parts is movement.When they move from one place to another, it is called locomotion.Organisms show movements in response to stimuli.Introduction to control & coordination\u2022Organisms move in response to various kinds of stimuli like light, heat, nutrients/food, etc.\u2022All the activities in animals are controlled and coordinated by the nervous and endocrine systems.\u2022Hormones are chemical messengers, which assist the nervous system in carrying out various functions.", + "They are secreted by endocrine glands.\u2022Hormones in plants\u00a0coordinate\u00a0the movements.To know more about The Nervous System, visit here.THE\u00a0NERVOUS\u00a0SYSTEM\n \nNeuronNeuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.\u2022Each neuron has three main parts:\u00a0dendrites, cyton/soma/cell body and axon.\u2022Dendrites\u00a0receive impulses from other neurons.\u2022Cyton/soma processes the impulse.\u2022Axon transmits the impulse, either to another neuron or to muscles/glands, etc.\u2022Axon may be myelinated or non-myelinated.\u2022The impulse transmission is faster in myelinated neurons.", + "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nCentral nervous systemThe central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. Functions of different parts of the brain are:\u2022The cerebrum is responsible for\u00a0reasoning, logic, emotions, speech, memory, visual processing, recognition of auditory and taste stimuli, etc.\u2022Cerebellum regulates and coordinates body\u00a0movements, posture and balance.\u2022Pons relays signals from the hindbrain to the forebrain.\u2022Medulla Oblongata controls all involuntary movements like vomiting, sneezing, yawning, heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, etc.\u2022Medulla oblongata continues as the spinal cord which runs through the vertebral column and it controls re\ufb02ex actions.", + "Read more: Central Nervous SystemPeripheral nervous system\u2022The nerves coming out from the brain and the spinal cord constitute the peripheral nervous system (PNS).\u2022There are 12 cranial nerves and 31 spinal nerves in humans.Read more: Peripheral Nervous SystemSomatic nervous system\u2022It forms a part of the PNS.\u2022The nerves of PNS that control the voluntary actions of the body form the somatic nervous system.Autonomic nervous system\u2022All the nerves of the PNS that control the involuntary actions in the body form the autonomic nervous system. E.g.\u00a0respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, etc. are regulated by the autonomic nervous system.", + "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\n\u2022Two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.\u2022The\u00a0sympathetic nervous system\u00a0prepares the body for intense physical activity and is often referred to as the \ufb01ght-or-\ufb02ight response, while the\u00a0parasympathetic nervous system\u00a0has almost the exact opposite effect and relaxes the body and inhibits or slows many high-energy functions.Re\ufb02ex actionRe\ufb02ex action\u00a0is a\u00a0sudden, involuntary reaction\u00a0of the body in response to stimuli.To know more about Re\ufb02ex Action, visit here.Re\ufb02ex arc\u2022It is the path\u00a0followed by an electrical impulse\u00a0during a re\ufb02ex action.\u2022The impulse travels from the receptor organ to the spinal cord/brain. It is processed there and the information is brought back to the concerned muscle to carry out the action.\u2022Thus, the receptor organ, sensory/afferent neuron, interneuron, motor/efferent neuron and effector organ are the components of a re\ufb02ex arc.", + "It is processed there and the information is brought back to the concerned muscle to carry out the action.\u2022Thus, the receptor organ, sensory/afferent neuron, interneuron, motor/efferent neuron and effector organ are the components of a re\ufb02ex arc.\n \nProtection of CNSThe brain is protected by 3 main layers -\u2022The bony skull (cranium)\u2022The cerebrospinal \ufb02uid\u2022The meninges (Dura mater, Arachnoid and Pia mater).Plant Hormones and MovementsPlant hormonesControl and coordination in plants are\u00a0carried out by hormones.\n \nTo know more about Plant hormones, visit here.Growth independent movementsThe movements which are not\u00a0growth related are called nastic movements.", + "To know more about Plant hormones, visit here.Growth independent movementsThe movements which are not\u00a0growth related are called nastic movements. These movements\u00a0occur in response to environmental stimuli but\u00a0the direction of response is not dependent on the direction of the stimulus.\u2022The movement in the touch-me-not plant\u00a0is thigmonastic movement (movement in response to touch).Plant HormoneFunctionAuxinHelps in Growth of Plant TissueCytokininPromotes Cell division, delays ageing of cellsGibberellinsHelps in the growth of stems, initiates seed germination, promotes flowering, cell division and seed growth after germinationAbscisic acidInhibits growth and causes wilting of leaves, promotes dormancy of buds and seedsEthyleneThis is a gaseous hormone which causes the ripening of fruits", + "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nGrowth-related movements in plantsThe movements which are\u00a0growth related are called tropic movements. These movements\u00a0occur in response to environmental stimuli and the direction of the response is dependent on the direction of the stimulus.To know more about Tropic Movements in Plants, visit here.Examples:\u2022Phototropic movement (light-dependent)\u2022Geotropic movement (gravity-dependent)\u2022Chemotropic movement (chemical-dependent)\u2022Hydrotropic movement (water-dependent)\u2022Thigmotropic movement (touch dependent)GeotropismMovement of plant parts in response to earth's gravitational force is known as geotropism/gravitropism.\u2022Towards gravity - positive geotropism\u2022Away from gravity - negative geotropism\u2022The root grows towards gravity and shoot grows away from gravity\n\u00a0\n \nPhototropismMovement of plant parts in response to light is known as phototropism.\u2022Towards light-positive phototropism\u2022Away from light - negative phototropism\u2022Stems move\u00a0towards light and roots move away from lightTo know more about Phototropism, visit here.", + "\u2022Towards light-positive phototropism\u2022Away from light - negative phototropism\u2022Stems move\u00a0towards light and roots move away from lightTo know more about Phototropism, visit here.HydrotropismMovement of plant parts in response to water or moisture.\u2022Towards water-positive hydrotropism\u2022Away from water - negative hydrotropism\u2022Again, root movement in search of water is positive hydrotropism\u2022E.g.\u00a0movement of roots towards high humidity level\nChemotropismMovement of plant parts in response to chemical stimuli is known as chemotropism.\u2022Towards chemical - positive chemotropism\u2022Away from chemical - negative chemotropism\u2022The growth of pollen tube towards the ovule is positive chemotropism\n \nThigmotropismMovement of plant parts\u00a0in response to touch is called as thigmotropism.\u2022Towards touch - Positive thigmotropism\u2022Away from touch - negative thigmotropism\u2022Movement of tendrils around the support is positive thigmotropism", + "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nThigmotropismMovement of plant parts\u00a0in response to touch is called as thigmotropism.\u2022Towards touch - Positive thigmotropism\u2022Away from touch - negative thigmotropism\u2022Movement of tendrils around the support is positive thigmotropism\nThe Endocrine SystemExocrine glandsExocrine glands\u00a0are glands that discharge secretions by means of \u00a0ducts, which open\u00a0onto an epithelial surface.\u00a0Endocrine glandsEndocrine glands are the ductless glands which secrete hormones into the bloodstream in humans.The endocrine glands present in the human body are the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pineal, pancreas, ovary (female), testis (male), etc. Let us now learn more about each of the glands below.\n \nTo know more about Exocrine glands, visit here.Pituitary gland\u2022It is a pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain.\u2022It is the master gland as it controls the secretions of all the other endocrine glands.\u2022It also secretes Growth Hormone (GH).", + "To know more about Exocrine glands, visit here.Pituitary gland\u2022It is a pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain.\u2022It is the master gland as it controls the secretions of all the other endocrine glands.\u2022It also secretes Growth Hormone (GH). Under-secretion of GH causes Dwar\ufb01sm and over-secretion causes Gigantism in children and \u2018Acromegaly\u2019 in adults.To know more about Pituitary gland, visit here.Thyroid gland\u2022It is a butter\ufb02y-shaped gland located in the throat.\u2022It secretes the hormone\u00a0\u2018Thyroxine\u2019 which regulates\u00a0the metabolism of\u00a0the body.\u2022Iodine is required to synthesize thyroxine in the body.\u2022In the case of iodine de\ufb01ciency, under-secretion of thyroxine leads to goitre.To know more about Thyroid gland, visit here.", + "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nPancreas\u2022It is a leaf-like gland present behind the stomach in the abdomen.\u2022It is an endocrine as well an exocrine gland.\u2022As an endocrine gland, it manufactures two hormones - Insulin and glucagon. Both these hormones act antagonistically and regulate the sugar level in the blood.\u2022As an\u00a0exocrine gland, it secretes\u00a0enzymes to break down the proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids in food.\u2022An insuf\ufb01cient amount of insulin from the pancreas leads to diabetes.To know more about Pancreas, visit here.Adrenal gland\u2022Occurs in pairs above each kidney.\u2022It decreases in size with age.\u2022Secrets the hormone adrenaline which helps in \ufb02ight and \ufb01ght response.\u2022Also secretes nor adrenalineTo know more about the Adrenal gland, visit here.Gonads\u2022Gonads are the gamete-producing organs - testes in males and ovaries in females.\u2022The testes produce the male hormone testosterone and the ovaries produce the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone.", + "visit here.Gonads\u2022Gonads are the gamete-producing organs - testes in males and ovaries in females.\u2022The testes produce the male hormone testosterone and the ovaries produce the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone.\u2022Testosterone and oestrogen help in producing gametes and are responsible for\u00a0the sexual characteristics of males and females respectively.\u2022Progesterone is the pregnancy hormone.To know more about Gonads, visit here.Other endocrine organs\u2022The other endocrine organs include the hypothalamus, parathyroid, pineal and thymus glands.To know more about The Endocrine System, visit here.Also Check:\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 6 Life Processes\u2022CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 8 How Do Organisms Reproduce Notes\u2022NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination\u2022NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 7 - Control And Coordination\u2022Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1\u2022CBSE Class 10 History Notes Chapter 1 - The Rise of Nationalism in Europe", + "CBSE-CBSE class-10-Science-Notes-for-Chapter-7-Control-and-Coordination.txt\nFrequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 7: Control and CoordinationWhat is the function of the Central nervous system?The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind. It consists of two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the centre of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the origin of control over body movement.What are some facts about the human brain?1. 60% of the human brain is composed of fat2. The brain contains about 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion connections3. The texture of the brain is similar to that of \ufb01rm jellyHow many parts does the human eye have?The human eye totally consists of 7 parts that work together.", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nCarbon and Its Compounds\nSoaps and Detergents:- \nCleansing Action of Soap\nWhen soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form\nspherical shape micelles.\nThe non-polar hydrophobic part or tail\u00a0of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of\nthe fabric, while the polar hydrophilic part or head, (\u2212COO\u2212Na+, remains attracted to water\nmolecules.\nThe agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles\nand detach them from the \ufb01bres of the fabric.Hard Water\nHard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates, chlorides,\nand sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard\nwater react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium\nsalts of fatty acids.", + "When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard\nwater react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium\nsalts of fatty acids.\n2C17H35COONa +MgCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Mg+ 2NaCl\n2C17H35COONa +CaCl 2\u2192 (C17H35COO )2Ca+ 2NaCl\nThese precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere\u00a0with the cleaning\nability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.\nCovalent Bonds\nDif\ufb01culty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion\nTo achieve the electronic con\ufb01guration of nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom loses\nfour of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C4+\u00a0ion hence formed will\nbe highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.\nIf the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic con\ufb01guration of\nthe noble gas, Ne, C4\u2212 ion will be formed.", + "C4+\u00a0ion hence formed will\nbe highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.\nIf the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic con\ufb01guration of\nthe noble gas, Ne, C4\u2212 ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required.\nMoreover, in C4+\u00a0ion it is dif\ufb01cult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its\ntetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.\nIonic BondIonic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a\nnonmetal.\u00a0The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the\ncompound together.\nIonic compounds:", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\ntetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.\nIonic BondIonic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a\nnonmetal.\u00a0The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the\ncompound together.\nIonic compounds:\n1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)\n2. Have high melting and boiling points\n3. Conduct electricity when melted\n4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents\nCovalent Bond\nA covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms.\u00a0It is\nprimarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic atoms with\nsimilar electronegativity.\nLewis Dot Structure\nLewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.\nThese are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it\nrepresent the valence electrons of the element.", + "Lewis Dot Structure\nLewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.\nThese are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it\nrepresent the valence electrons of the element.\u00a0\nLewis structures of elements with atomic number 5-8\nCovalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2\nFormation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:\nEach hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to\nacquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (He). \nTherefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.Formation of a\u00a0double bond in an oxygen molecule:\nEach oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to\nacquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.\nFormation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:\nEach nitrogen atom has \ufb01ve electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).", + "Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.\nFormation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:\nEach nitrogen atom has \ufb01ve electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.\nSingle, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths\nA single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one electron from each participating atom.", + "cbse-CBSE class-10-science-notes-chapter-4-carbon-and-its-compounds.txt\nto acquire nearest noble gas con\ufb01guration (Ne).\nTherefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.\nSingle, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths\nA single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one electron from each participating atom.\nIt is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.\nA double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., one pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines\nbetween the two atoms.\nA triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between them,\ni.e., two\u00a0pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines\nbetween the two atoms.Bond strength:\n- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a\nbond.", + "It is depicted by triple lines\nbetween the two atoms.Bond strength:\n- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a\nbond.\n- The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is:\u00a0Triple bond>double\nbond>single bond\n- This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for two\nbonds or a single bond.Bond length:\n- Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.\n- The order of bond length for multiple bonds is:\u00a0Triple bond